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Social enterprise | {{short description|Type of organization}}
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A '''social enterprise''' is an organization that applies commercial strategies to maximize improvements in financial, social and environmental well-being. This may include maximizing social impact alongside profits for co-owners.
Social enterprises have [[business]], [[Natural environment|environmental]] and [[social]] goals. As a result, their social goals are embedded in their objective, which differentiates them from other [[Organization|organisations]] and [[Company|companies]].<ref>Mathew, P. M. (2008). "Social Enterprises in the Competitive Era". ''Economic and Political Weekly''. '''43''' (38): 22–24.</ref> A social enterprise's main purpose is to promote, encourage, and make [[social change]].<ref name=":0">J., Lane, Marc (2011). ''Social enterprise : empowering mission-driven entrepreneurs'' (1st ed.). Chicago, Ill.: American Bar Association. {{ISBN|9781614382003}}. [[OCLC]] 886114442.</ref> Social enterprises are businesses created to further a social purpose in a [[financially sustainable]] way. Social enterprises can provide income generation opportunities that meet the basic needs of people who live in poverty. They are sustainable, and earned income from sales is reinvested in their mission. They do not depend on [[philanthropy]] and can sustain themselves over the long term. Attempting a comprehensive definition, social enterprises are market-oriented entities that aim to create social value while making a profit to sustain their activities. They uniquely combine financial goals with a mission for social impact.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Cosa |first1=Marcello |last2=Urban |first2=Boris |date=2023-07-20 |title=A Systematic Review of Performance Measurement Systems and Their Relevance to Social Enterprises |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19420676.2023.2236628 |journal=Journal of Social Entrepreneurship |language=en |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1080/19420676.2023.2236628 |s2cid=260013116 |issn=1942-0676}}</ref> Their models can be expanded or replicated to other communities to generate more impact.
A social enterprise can be more sustainable than a [[Nonprofit organization|nonprofit organisation]] that may solely rely on grant money, donations or [[government policies]] alone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://centers.fuqua.duke.edu/case/knowledge_items/scaling-social-impact-strategies-for-spreading-social-innovations/|title=Scaling Social Impact: Strategies for Spreading Social Innovations|website=CASE|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-15}}</ref>
== Types ==
{{more citations needed|section|date=September 2023}}
A social enterprises can be structured as a business, a partnership for profit or [[Nonprofit organization|non-profit]], and may take the form (depending on in which country the entity exists and the legal forms available) of a [[co-operative]], [[mutual organization|mutual organisation]], a [[Entity classification election|disregarded entity]] (a form of business classification for [[Income tax in the United States|income tax]] purposes in the United States),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://biztaxlaw.about.com/od/glossaryd/g/disregardentity.htm |title=What is a Disregarded Entity – Disregarded Entity Definition |publisher=Biztaxlaw.about.com |date=13 July 2013 |access-date=21 October 2013 |archive-date=21 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021152017/http://biztaxlaw.about.com/od/glossaryd/g/disregardentity.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> a [[social business]], a [[benefit corporation]], a [[community interest company]], a company limited by guarantee or a [[charity organisation]]. They can also take more conventional structures. Social enterprises are dynamic, requiring adaptation to ensure they meet the needs of communities and individuals in an ever-changing world. Their shared common thread is that they all operate to achieve a balanced financial, social and environmental set of objectives.
=== Trading enterprises ===
Worker- and employee-owned trading enterprises, co-operatives, and collectives. These vary from very large enterprises such as [[John Lewis Partnership]] in the UK and the [[Mondragon Corporation]] in Spain to medium-sized enterprises owned by their staff with traditional management hierarchies and pay differentials to quite small worker cooperatives with only a few directors and employees who work in less hierarchical ways and practice wage parity. Within the trading enterprises, there are employee-owned enterprises and membership-owned enterprises.
=== Financial institutions ===
Savings and loan organisations such as [[credit union]]s, microcredit organisations, [[Cooperative banking|cooperative banks]], and revolving loan funds are membership-owned social enterprises. Credit unions were first established in the 1850s in Germany and spread internationally. Cooperative banks have likewise been around since the 1870s, owned as a subsidiary of a membership co-operative. In recent times, microcredit organisations have sprung up in many developing countries to great effect. Local currency exchanges and social value exchanges are also being established.
=== Community organisations ===
Many community organisations are registered social enterprises: community enterprises, housing co-operatives, community interest companies with asset locks, community centres, pubs and shops, associations, housing associations, and football clubs. These are membership organisations that usually exist for a specific purpose and trade commercially. All operate to reinvest profits in the community. They have large memberships that are customers or supporters of the organisation's key purpose. There are village cooperatives in India and Pakistan that were established as far back as 1904.
=== Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and charities ===
There are many NGOs and charities that operate commercial consulting and training enterprises or subsidiary trading enterprises, such as Oxfam International. The profits are used to provide salaries for people who provide free services to specific groups of people or to further the social or environmental aims of the organisation.
== History ==
{{anchor|Founding, History & Evolution}}
=== Origins ===
The idea of a social enterprise as a distinct concept first developed in the late 1970s in the UK as an alternative commercial organisational model to private [[business]]es, co-operatives and [[public enterprise]]. The concept, at that time, had five main principles <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf|title=Social Audit – A Management Tool for Co-operative Working|author=Freer Spreckley|year=1981|publisher=Beechwood College|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301021617/http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf|archive-date=1 March 2020}}</ref> divided into three values and two paradigm shifts. The two paradigm shifts were:
* A [[common ownership]] legal structure where members/owners have one voting share and different forms of investment
* Democratic governance, where each worker/community resident is a member with one vote
The three principles, now referred to as the [[triple bottom line]] were:
* Trading and financially viable independence
* Creating social wealth
* Operating in environmentally responsible ways
Furthermore, it was intended as part of the original concept that social enterprises should plan, measure and report on financial performance, social-wealth creation, and environmental responsibility by the use of a [[social accounting and audit]] system.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url= http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf|title= Social Audit – A Management Tool for Co-operative Working|author= Freer Spreckley|year= 1981|publisher= Beechwood College|access-date= 17 March 2017|archive-date= 1 March 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200301021617/http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
The organisational and legal principles embedded in social enterprises are believed{{by whom|date=May 2018}} to have come from non-profit organisations. Originally, non-profit organisations relied on governmental and public support, but more recently{{when|date=May 2018}} they have started to rely on profits from their own social change operations. The Social Enterprise Alliance (SEA) defines the following as reasons for this transition:<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|title= Social enterprise : empowering mission-driven entrepreneurs|last= J.|first= Lane, Marc|date= 2011|publisher= American Bar Association|isbn= 9781614382003|edition=1st |location= Chicago, Ill.|oclc= 886114442}}</ref>
* the increase in non-profit operating costs
* the decline in government and public philanthropic support
* increased competition due to growth in the charitable sector
* the expansion in the demand for non-profit provided services
Social enterprises are viewed{{by whom|date=May 2018}} to have been created{{by whom|date=May 2018}} as a result of the evolution of non-profits.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} This formation process resulted in a type of hybrid organisation that does not have concrete organisational boundaries. Various scholars (e.g. Eikenberry & Kluver, Liu & Ko, and Mullins et al.) have argued that this may have come about due to the marketization of the non-profit sector, which resulted in many non-profit firms placing more focus on generating income.<ref name=":142">{{Cite journal|last1= Smith|first1= Brett R.|last2= Cronley|first2= Maria L.|last3= Barr|first3= Terri F.|date= 2012|title= Funding Implications of Social Enterprise: The Role of Mission Consistency, Entrepreneurial Competence, and Attitude Toward Social Enterprise on Donor Behaviour|jstor= 41714262|journal= Journal of Public Policy & Marketing|volume= 31|issue= 1|pages= 142–157|doi= 10.1509/jppm.11.033|s2cid= 153418404}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=May 2018}}<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last1= Doherty|first1= Bob|last2= Haugh|first2= Helen|last3= Lyon|first3= Fergus|date= 2014-10-01|title= Social Enterprises as Hybrid Organisations: A Review and Research Agenda|journal= International Journal of Management Reviews|language= en|volume= 16|issue= 4|pages= 417–436|doi= 10.1111/ijmr.12028|s2cid= 54915433|issn= 1468-2370|url= https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/12955/3/Doherty_et_al-2014-International_Journal_of_Management_Reviews.pdf}}</ref> Other scholars have used [[institutional theory]] to conclude that non-profits have adopted social enterprise models, because such models have become legitimized{{by whom|date=May 2018}} and widely accepted.<ref name=":154">{{Cite journal|last= Teasdale|first= Simon|date= 25 May 2011|title= What's in a Name? Making Sense of Social Enterprise Discourses|journal= Public Policy and Administration|volume= 27 |issue= 2|pages= 99–119|doi= 10.1177/0952076711401466|s2cid= 54655735|url= http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f9fd/218073bf9d96903429995c624304fff2f0fa.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190307132439/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f9fd/218073bf9d96903429995c624304fff2f0fa.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-date= 7 March 2019}}</ref> Some organizations have evolved into social enterprises, while some were established as social enterprises.<ref name=":82"/>
Social enterprise has a long history around the world, though under different names and with different characteristics.<ref>Aiken, M. (2010) "Taking the Long View: Conceptualizing the challenges facing UK third sector organisations in the social and welfare field", in Evers, A. and Zimmer, A. (eds) Turbulent environments: The impact of commercialization on organisational legitimacy and the quality of services. Baden-Baden: Nomos Publishing.</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2018}}
The first description of a social enterprise as a democratically owned and run trading organisation that is financially independent, has social objectives and operates in an environmentally responsible way, was put forward by '''Freer Spreckley''' in the UK in 1978 and later written as a publication in 1981.<ref name="auto"/> One of the first examples of a social enterprise, in the form of a social cooperative, can be traced back to the Victorian era.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last1= Cornelius|first1=Nelarine |last2= Todres|first2= Mathew|last3= Janjuha-Jivraj|first3= Shaheena|last4= Woods|first4= Adrian|last5= Wallace|first5= James|date= 2008|title= Corporate Social Responsibility and the Social Enterprise|jstor= 25482219|journal= Journal of Business Ethics|volume= 81|issue= 2|pages= 355–370|doi= 10.1007/s10551-007-9500-7|s2cid= 154580752|author1-link= Nelarine Cornelius}}</ref> Like social cooperatives, social enterprises are believed{{by whom|date=May 2018}} to have emerged as a result of state and [[market failure]]. However, market failure is emphasized{{by whom|date=May 2018}} in the UK, while state failure is emphasized in the United States.<ref name=":154"/>
=== Muhammad Yunus ===
[[Muhammad Yunus]] ([[Grameen Bank]] founder and 2006 Nobel Peace Prize laureate) used the term "social enterprise" in his 2009 book ''[[Banker to the Poor]]'', and in other essays.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Yunus |first1=Muhammad |title=Building Social Business |url=https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Building-Social-Business-By-Muhammad-Yunus-FJXNJJYUKG |website=www.bartleby.com |access-date=30 March 2023 |quote=Building Social Business is a book about social enterprise written by Muhammad Yunus.}}</ref> Muhammad Yunus used the term referring to [[microfinance]]. His work in the area of extending micro-credit especially to women in societies where they are economically repressed, led him to receive the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2006/press.html|title= The Nobel Peace Prize for 2006|last= Oslo|date= 13 October 2006|website= Nobel Prize|access-date= 5 February 2018}}</ref>
=== Adoption of social enterprise across institutions ===
In the US, [[Harvard University|Harvard]], [[Stanford University|Stanford]] and [[Princeton University|Princeton]] universities built on the work of [[Ashoka (non-profit organization)|Ashoka]], and each made contributions to the development of the social entrepreneurship field through [[project]] initiatives and publications.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.hbs.edu/socialenterprise/ |title= Social Enterprise – Harvard Business School |publisher= Hbs.edu |access-date= 24 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssir.org/ |title=Stanford Social Innovation Review |publisher=ssir.org |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://mypace.princeton.edu/php/ProjectDetails.php?projid=209 |title= Princeton Social Entrepreneurship Initiative |publisher= Mypace.princeton.edu |access-date= 24 May 2013}}</ref>
{{As of | 2018}} the field of social enterprise studies has not yet developed firm philosophical foundations, but its advocates and its academic community are much more engaged with critical pedagogies (e.g. [[Paulo Freire]]) and critical traditions in research (e.g. [[critical theory]] / [[institutional theory]] / [[Marxism]]) in comparison to private-sector business education.<ref>
Nicholls, A. (2006) ''Social Entrepreneurship: New Models of Sustainable Social Change'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.
</ref>
Teaching related to the [[social economy]] draws explicitly from the works of [[Robert Owen]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], and [[Karl Marx]], with works by [[Pierre Bourdieu|Bourdieu]] and [[Robert D. Putnam|Putnam]] informing the debate over [[social capital]] and its relationship to the competitive advantage of [[Mutual organization|mutuals]]. This intellectual foundation, however, does not extend as strongly into the field of social entrepreneurship, where there is more influence from writings on [[liberalism]] and entrepreneurship by [[Joseph Schumpeter]] in conjunction with the emerging fields of [[social innovation]], [[Actor–network theory|actor-network theory]], and [[Complex systems|complexity theory]] to explain its processes.
Social enterprise (unlike private enterprise) is not taught exclusively in a business school context, as it is increasingly connected to the health sector and to public service delivery. However, Oxford University's [[Said Business School]] does host the [[Skoll World Forum]], a global event focused on [[social entrepreneurs]].
=== Publications ===
The first international social enterprise journal was established in 2005 by Social Enterprise London (with support from the London Development Association). The [[Social Enterprise London#Activities|''Social Enterprise Journal'']] has been followed by the ''Journal of Social Entrepreneurship'', and coverage of issues pertaining to the [[social economy]] and social enterprise is also covered by the ''[[Journal of Co-operative Studies]]'' and the ''Annals of Co-operative and Public Economics''. The European Social Enterprise Research Network (EMES) and the Co-operative Research Unit (CRU) at the [[Open University]] have also published research into social enterprise. The Skoll World Forum, organised jointly by [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[Duke University|Duke]] universities, brings together researchers and practitioners from across the globe.
== Terminology ==
The term 'social enterprise' has a mixed and contested heritage due to its [[Philanthropy|philanthropic]] roots in the United States and [[cooperative]] roots in the United Kingdom, European Union, and Asia. In the US, the term is associated with 'doing charity by doing trade', rather than 'doing charity ''while'' doing trade'. In other countries, there is a much stronger emphasis on [[Community organizing|community organising]], democratic control of capital, and mutual principles than on philanthropy.<ref>Kerlin, J. (2009) ''Social Enterprise: A Global Comparison'', University Press of New England.</ref>
In recent years, there has been a rise in the concept of social purpose businesses, which pursue [[social responsibility]] directly or [[Fundraising|raise funds]] for charitable purposes.
Muhammad Yunus, founder of the Grameen Bank, believes that a social enterprise should be modelled exclusively to achieve a social goal. Another view is that social enterprises should not be motivated by profit motives, but rather that profit motives should be secondary to the primary social goal. A second definition provided by The Social Enterprise Alliance (SEA) defines a social enterprise as an organisation that uses business methods to execute its social or environmental mission. According to this definition, the social enterprise's social mission is to help the disadvantaged, which is executed by directly providing goods or services (not money). Additionally, earned revenue must be the main source of income for the organisation or venture. A third definition is purely based on how the organisation is legally structured or formed as a legal entity. In this context, a social enterprise is a legal entity that, through its entity choice, chooses to forgo a profit motive. A fourth definition asserts that a social enterprise consists of a community of dedicated individuals that are continuously thinking about social impact and, as a result, employ business and management techniques to approach social causes.<ref name=":0" />
=== Social enterprise versus nonprofit ===
Social enterprises are not only a structural element of a non-profit. A large portion of social enterprises are non-profits; however, there are also for-profit social enterprises.<ref name=":0" /> Social enterprises are often regarded—erroneously—as nonprofit organisations, although many do take on a nonprofit legal form and are treated in academic literature on the subject as a branch or sub-set of nonprofit activity (especially when contrasted with Social Businesses).<ref name=":3" /> Social enterprises in the nonprofit form can earn income for their goods or services; they are typically regarded as non-profits that use business strategies to generate revenue to support their charitable missions.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Bielefeld|first=Wolfgang|date=Winter 2009|title=Issues in Social Enterprise and Social Entrepreneurship|journal=Journal of Public Affairs|volume=15|pages=69–86|doi=10.1080/15236803.2009.12001544|s2cid=157499271}}</ref>
In recent years, many non-profits have chosen to take on social enterprise models as it has become increasingly difficult to obtain financing from outside sources. The social enterprise model offers non-profit organisations an alternative to relying on charitable donations. This may allow them to increase their funding and sustainability and assist them in the pursuit of their social mission. However, two potential issues emerge: 1) distraction from the social goal in pursuit of contradictory business activities; and 2) inadequate skills, resources, and capabilities for the adoption of the social enterprise model.<ref name=":142"/>
=== Social enterprise versus corporate social responsibility ===
Many commercial enterprises would consider themselves to have social objectives, but commitment to these objectives is motivated by the perception that such commitment will ultimately make the enterprise more financially valuable. These are organisations that might be more properly said to be operating ''corporate responsibility policies''. Social enterprises differ in that their commitment to impact is central to the mission of the business. Some may not aim to offer any benefit to their investors, except where they believe that doing so will ultimately further their capacity to realise their social and environmental goals, although there is a huge amount of variation in forms and activities.
[[Corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) is a practise that businesses can use to be conscious of the social and environmental impacts of their activities. There are a variety of CSR markers, such as accountability and internal and external elements. Social enterprises place a lot of emphasis on external social responsibility as a result of their social objectives, so social impact is built into the organisation. However, there has been debate on whether or not social enterprises place enough emphasis on internal CSR. Internal CSR includes human resources and capital management, health and safety standards, adaptation to innovation and change, and the quality of management within the organisation.<ref>Cornelius, Nelarine; Todres, Mathew; Janjuha-Jivraj, Shaheena; Woods, Adrian; Wallace, James (2008). "Corporate Social Responsibility and the Social Enterprise". ''Journal of Business Ethics''. '''81''' (2): 355–370.</ref> Since a large majority of social enterprises do not have sufficient funding, they are unable to pay competitive wages to their employees, and as a result, they have to resort to other (non-financial) techniques to recruit employees. Many managers utilise the social component of the social enterprise's dual mission and purpose for this.<ref name=":82"/>
=== Social enterprise versus social entrepreneurship ===
Like social enterprise, [[social entrepreneurship]] has a variety of existing definitions. Currently, there is not a widely accepted standard definition for the term, and descriptions vary in level of detail. There is an emphasis on change agents for social entrepreneurship, in contrast to the organisational focus of social enterprises. Social entrepreneurship usually takes place in the non-profit sector, with a focus on creating and implementing new solutions.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Bielefeld|first=Wolfgang|date=2009|title=Issues in Social Enterprise and Social Entrepreneurship|jstor=40215838|journal=Journal of Public Affairs Education|volume=15|issue=1|pages=69–86|doi=10.1080/15236803.2009.12001544|s2cid=157499271}}</ref>
=== Social impact versus social enterprise ===
Social impact and social enterprise are not the same. [[Social impact assessment|Social impact]] may refer to the overall effects of a business, but a business that has social impact may or may not be a social enterprise. Social enterprises have socially bound mission statements and operate with the goal of solving a social problem as a part of their mission. Social enterprise has emerged as a businesslike contrast to traditional nonprofit organisations. Social enterprise is going to continue its evolution away from forms that focus on broad frame-breaking and innovation to a narrower focus on market-based solutions and businesslike solutions to measure the social impact of programmes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dart|first=Raymond|date=2004|title=The legitimacy of social enterprise|journal=Nonprofit Management and Leadership|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=411–424|doi=10.1002/nml.43|issn=1048-6682}}</ref>
=== Social enterprise funding ===
[[Socially responsible investing]] (SRI) seeks to maximize both financial gain and social impact.<ref name=":0" />
Social Enterprises often use for-profit business strategies to fund social change. The methods by which these Social enterprises create sustainable revenue streams differ from social business to social business, but all share the goal of abandoning the need for government or donor support. [[Gregory Dees]] and Beth Anderson discuss this difference in funding strategies as the innovation that differentiates the social enterprise from the traditional non-profit actor.<ref>Dees, J. G., & Anderson, B. B. (2006). Framing A Theory of Social Entrepreneurship: Building On Two Schools Of Practice And Thought. 40-66. ''Research on social entrepreneurship'', ARNOVA occasional paper series,'''1''' (3), 40–66.</ref>
=== Salesforce.com trademark dispute ===
In 2012, [[Social Enterprise UK]] ran the 'Not In Our Name' campaign against [[Salesforce.com]], a global software and CRM company that had begun using the term 'social enterprise' to describe its products and had applied for 'social enterprise' trademarks in the EU, US, Australia, and Jamaica. The campaign was supported by similar organisations in the US (the Social Enterprise Alliance), Canada, South Africa, and Australia. An open letter was sent to the CEO and Chairman of Salesforce.com asking Salesforce.com to stop using the term 'social enterprise'. It was signed by people and organisations around the world, including [[Muhammad Yunus]] ([[Grameen Bank]] founder and Nobel Peace Prize laureate), [[Richard G. Wilkinson]], and [[Kate Pickett]] (co-authors of ''[[The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better|The Spirit Level]]''). Salesforce said it would withdraw applications to trademark the term 'social enterprise', and remove any references to 'social enterprise' in its marketing materials in the future.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/policy-campaigns/campaigns/not-in-our-name | access-date = 16 March 2013 | publisher = Not In Our Name | title = Not in our Name | quote = Following five weeks of sustained campaigning by the global social enterprise movement in summer 2012, US company Salesforce publicly announced to withdraw its applications to trademark the term 'social enterprise', and remove any references to 'social enterprise' in its marketing materials in the future. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130203080328/http://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/policy-campaigns/campaigns/not-in-our-name | archive-date = 3 February 2013 | url-status = dead }}</ref>
=== Hybrid forms ===
Organizations that do not take the distinct form of either a private, public, or non-profit organization are classified as hybrid organizations.<ref name=":82"/> For legal and tax purposes, hybrid forms are classified as for-profit entities. The two main types of hybrid organisations are the L3C, or [[low-profit limited liability company]], and the [[benefit corporation]] (B-Corp). L3C's main objective is to achieve socially beneficial goals. They are able to go about achieving these goals by employing the financial and flexible advantages of a limited liability company. States that have authorised the use of the L3C model have established three requirements: to operate for charitable or educational purposes, not the production of income, and not the fulfilment of a political or legislative agenda. A ''benefit corporation'', or B-Corp, is a corporation that operates to achieve or create a "general public benefit".<ref name=":42"/>
== Influences ==
The first academic paper to propose worker co-operatives involved in health and rehabilitation work as a form social enterprise was published in 1993.<ref>Savio, M. and Rhigetti, A. (1993) "Co-operatives as a social enterprise", ''Acta Psychiatrica Scadanavica'', 88(4), p. 238-42.</ref> The scale and integration of co-operative development in the 'red belt' of [[Italy]] (some 7,000 worker, and 8,000 social co-operatives) inspired the formation of the EMES network of social economy researchers who subsequently spread the language to the UK and the rest of Europe through influential English language publications.<ref>Borzaga, C. and Defourny, J. (2001) The Emergence of Social Enterprise, Routelege.</ref>
== Current debates ==
When social enterprise first emerged, much of the scholarly literature focused on defining the key characteristics and definitions of social enterprise. Currently, there is more literature and research on the emergence of the social enterprise sector as well as the internal management of social enterprise organisations. Due to the dual-purpose missions of social enterprises, organisations cannot directly employ the typical management strategies of established business models. Recent academic literature has argued against prior positively held views of social enterprises success in striking a balance between the two tensions and instead argued that the social mission is being compromised in favour of financial stability. Prioritising social good over financial stability contradicts rational firm management, which typically prioritises financial and profit-seeking goals. As a result, different management issues arise that range from stakeholders (and management) agreeing on the firm's goals but disagreeing on an action plan to management and stakeholders disagreeing on the firm's goals. Some social enterprises have taken on same-sector and cross-sector partnerships, while others continue to operate independently.<ref name=":82"/>
=== Types of tensions in social enterprise management ===
Tensions are separated into four distinct categories: performing, organizing, belonging, and learning.<ref name=":13">Smith W, Gonin M, Besharov M. [http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=0&sid=7cbe545c-8692-45c2-a3fb-40911f55db3d%40sessionmgr4009 Managing Social-Business Tensions: A Review and Research Agenda for Social Enterprise]. ''Business Ethics Quarterly'' [serial online]. July 2013;23(3):407-442. Business Source Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed 4 April 2018.</ref>
* ''Performance tensions'' arise as organisations seek to fulfil various conflicting goals, such as varying stakeholder demands, social mission goals, and performance metrics. A major challenge is figuring out how to gauge success with conflicting goals.<ref name=":13" />
* ''Organizing tensions'' are caused by inconsistencies in organizational structure, culture, and human resource practices. Many social organisations grapple with whom to hire, as many want to help disadvantaged people but also need workers with business skills to ensure the success of the enterprise. Organisations face the challenge of deciding which organisational structure and legal form (e.g., Non-Profit, for-profit) to operate under.<ref name=":13" />
* ''Belonging tensions'' arise from identification or a sense of belonging to contrasting goals and values, which creates internal organisational conflict. These tensions are amplified by the maintenance of relationships with stakeholders who may have conflicting identities within the organisation.<ref name=":13" />
* ''Learning tensions'' are a result of conflicting time horizons (i.e., short-term vs. long-run). In the short term, organisations aim for stability, which can be evaluated based on metrics such as costs, profits, and revenues, but in the long run, they want growth, flexibility, and progress in achieving their social mission.<ref name=":13" />
== In Australia ==
While the terminology of 'social enterprise' is new in Australia, the contemporary values, principles, and practises of social enterprise are strongly aligned with the culture and lore of Australia's first peoples, which have been practised for over 60,000 years. Similarly, social enterprise practises were common in the establishment of Australia's immigrant populations. Australia's suburban landscape is marked by clubs and associations that operate hospitality, learning, or community-oriented enterprises together with inclusive and culturally strengthening employment practises.
The forms social enterprises can take and the industries they operate in are so many and varied that it has always been a challenge to define, find, and count social enterprises. In 2009, Social Traders partnered with the Australian Centre for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies (ACPNS) at [[Queensland University of Technology]] to define social enterprise and, for the first time in [[Australia]], to identify and map the social enterprise sector: its scope, its variety of forms, its reasons for trading, its financial dimensions, and the individuals and communities social enterprises aim to benefit. {{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}
This Finding Australia's Social Enterprise Sector (FASES) project produced its final report in June 2010. The project was led by Professor Jo Barraket, an Australian social enterprise academic. One of the key features of this Australian research is its intention to define social enterprise in a way that was informed by and made sense to those working in or with social enterprises. The research design therefore included workshops to explore and test what social enterprise managers, researchers, and relevant policymakers meant by the term 'social enterprise'. This was the resulting definition:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://djpr.vic.gov.au/about-us/overview/strategies-and-initiatives/social-enterprise?_ga=2.194290798.254661712.1554258662-548511812.1554258662|title=Social Enterprise Strategy|website=djpr.vic.gov.au|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
Social enterprises are organisations that are:
* Led by an economic, social, cultural, or environmental mission consistent with a public or community benefit
* Derive a substantial portion of their income from trade.
* Reinvest the majority of their profit or surplus in the fulfilment of their mission.
=== Map for Impact research ===
In 2017, the Centre for Social Impact at Swinburne University undertook a comprehensive mapping project of social enterprise in Victoria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mapforimpact.com.au/news/|title=News – Map for Impact|website=mapforimpact.com.au}}</ref> The 'Map for Impact' Report identified 3,500 social enterprises in Victoria alone, employing over 60,000 people or 1.8% of the state's workforce.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Infographic – Facts & Figures – Map for Impact|url=https://mapforimpact.com.au/key-findings/infographic-facts-figures/|access-date=2022-02-23|website=mapforimpact.com.au}}</ref>
Victoria's social enterprises contribute over $5.2 billion in gross output to Victoria's economy. Social enterprise is a significant contributor to the economy - from local manufacturing and agriculture, to hospitality and professional services - they are not only local enterprises serving local needs, nearly one-third trade internationally.<ref name="mapforimpact.com.au">{{Cite web|title=Download the Report – Map for Impact|url=https://mapforimpact.com.au/resources/download-the-report/|access-date=2022-02-23|website=mapforimpact.com.au}}</ref>
Unlike traditional commercial businesses, Victorian social enterprises are intentionally labour-intensive, with the proportion of their labour force equating to approximately twice the proportion of Gross State Product they produce.<ref name="mapforimpact.com.au"/>
20% of Victoria's social enterprise workforce is people with disability (i.e. 12,000 jobs) and 7% of jobs are held by people previously experiencing long-term unemployment.<ref name="mapforimpact.com.au"/>
Swinburne University estimates that there are over 20,000 social enterprises nationwide. Based on its Victorian analysis, it can be extrapolated that:
* Social enterprise contributes $29.7 billion to the national economy.
* Social enterprises employ 340,000 people nationally.
Following the 'Map for Impact, the Victorian Government has commissioned further research and digital platforms to support the collection and sharing of social enterprise research and knowledge. The Social Entrepreneur Evidence Space (SEES) is an open research platform for Australia's social enterprise community.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home {{!}} SEES|url=https://seespace.com.au/|access-date=2022-02-23|website=seespace.com.au|language=en-AU}}</ref>
=== Social enterprise practitioner networks ===
Social enterprise practitioners have formed professional networks in each State and Territory of Australia. In 2020, they joined to form a national voice for the sector, the [https://asena.org.au Alliance of Social Enterprise Networks Australia] (ASENA).<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 May 2020|title=Launch of the Alliance of Social Enterprise Networks Australia (ASENA)|url=https://www.asena.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/MEDIA-RELEASE-ASENA-Launch-and-SII-Taskforce.pdf|website=ASENA Alliance of Social Enterprise Networks Australia launched}}</ref> ASENA has provided a federal channel for advocacy, collaboration and resource sharing for the emergent community of networks.
ASENA brings together representatives from the social enterprise networks in Australia:
* Social Enterprise Network Victoria (SENVIC)
* Social Enterprise Council NSW and ACT (SECNA)
* Queensland Social Enterprise Council (QSEC)
* South Australian Social Enterprise Council (SASEC)
* West Australian Social Enterprise Council (WASEC)
* Social Enterprise Network Tasmania ([http://www.sentas.org.au SENTAS])
* Impact North (Northern Territory).
Social enterprise networks create a unique place to connect and grow the community of practitioners and enablers that are meeting at the nexus between business and charity. For example, SENVIC's Annual Review 2020-2021 notes that of its 700 members, there are 250 associate members from government, business and philanthropy.<ref>Social Enterprise Network Victoria 'Annual Review 2020-2021' (October 2021) at 7. https://senvic.org.au/wp-content/uploads/SENVIC_ANNUAL-REPORT_2021_web_d.pdf</ref> For government, the network creates opportunities to diversify social procurement spending or to explore social innovation and transform policy approaches to tackle intractable or wicked problems. For business, the networks provide inspiration, demonstrate business innovation through commercially viable social or environmentally sustainable operations, and creative ways for motivating or developing staff or diversifying CSR strategies. For philanthropy, social enterprise is not well understood or recognised. The networks provide opportunities to discover social innovation, and to generate lasting system-level impact by harnessing the collaborative ingenuity of social enterprise networks.
While the social enterprise networks are at differing stages of emergence, ASENA is providing a channel for cooperation, network-building practice, intelligence and resource sharing that is enabling all parts of the national community to benefit from others. Broadly, the networks have five functions:
* amplify and advocate to grow the social enterprise ecosystem into mainstream markets and across the public sector.
* engage and influence policy makers, institutions, communities and individuals to connect with and enable our social enterprise community.
* hold events and forums to build community among like-minded people, to create opportunities for collaboration and social innovation.
* mobilise resources for the benefit of the social enterprise sector, to fill service gaps and reduce individual operating costs, to create streamlined access to support and training.
* facilitate open communications and knowledge sharing within the community and with those seeking to engage and enable social enterprise to thrive.
The Victorian Government has taken a lead role nationally by releasing the first Social Enterprise Strategy in 2017 and supporting it's independent practitioners-led network (SENVIC) to establish and grow. SENVIC accelerated the maturity and growth of the sector in Victoria and nationally, and took a lead role in the development of the second strategy, the [https://djpr.vic.gov.au/about-us/overview/strategies-and-initiatives/social-enterprise Social Enterprise Strategy 2021-25]. In addition to hosting the launch of the strategy to a virtual audience of over 450 viewers, SENVIC has enabled national forums to promote and support engagement with the UN's Sustainable Development Goals in partnership with the United Nations Association.
The Victorian Social Enterprise Strategy 2021-25 received international praise and in June 2022 the Victorian Government received the [https://probonoaustralia.com.au/news/2022/06/victorian-social-strategy-wins-global-award/ Catalyst 2030 Government Award].
With government support for the central role of a vibrant and independent practitioner-led network, SENVIC launched its first multi-year strategy in 2022 with an action plan to build a system-shifting network of networks.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Social Enterprise Network Victoria |date=September 2022 |title=Strategic Plan 2022-25 |url=https://senvic.org.au/wp-content/uploads/SENVIC-Strategic-Plan-2022-25-web-ready.pdf |access-date=22 September 2022 |website=Social Enterprise Network Victoria - About Us}}</ref>
=== National Social Enterprise Strategy ===
ASENA's first act was to make a submission to the Prime Minister's Social Impact Investing Taskforce that recommended the Australian Government partner with the sector to develop a national social enterprise strategy, and leverage the achievements of governments in Victoria and Queensland. A collaborative project was then formed coordinated by the English Family Foundation, a philanthropic fund, to begin the sector-led journey to a national strategy. The Yunus Centre at Griffith University conducted research across the social enterprise sector, in Australia and overseas. The research is presented in two parts:
* Part one: a summary of themes, tensions & provocations, capturing the history and learning in the social enterprise sector in Australia and internationally.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hannant |display-authors=etal|title=Directions Part 1: Perspectives, provocations and sense-making for strategy. Social Enterprise National Strategy (SENS) Project.|url=https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0031/1360399/SENS-Directions-Report_Part-One.pdf|journal=|via=The Yunus Centre, Griffith University}}</ref>
* Part two: a possible pathway for building the connective tissue across the Australian social enterprise sector so that collectively we can amplify our impact. It asks us to consider – what would it look like if we were to better organise at a national level?<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hannant |display-authors=etal|title=Directions Report: Part 2|url=https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/1360400/SENS-Directions-Report_Part-Two.pdf|journal=|via=The Yunus Centre Griffith University}}</ref>
The Report highlighted the diversity of the sector but confirmed widespread support for a national strategy, shared goals and better coordination in the social enterprise sector. Consultation with the sector commenced in 2022.
In the absence of a national social enterprise census, intermediaries provide an important source of data. The Impact Investment Ready Growth Grant, launched in 2015, noted that the majority of social enterprises were concentrated in three Australian states: Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://impactinvestingaustralia.com/wp-content/uploads/Paving-Pathways_Final.pdf|title=Paving Pathways: A review of the Impact Investment Ready Growth Grant}}</ref> Recipients of these grants demonstrate that social enterprises work for more than profit alone; they foster social and environmental innovation and are accountable for their employees, consumers and the communities. They offer a business model where people can be given direct voice in running the organisation.
Some of the popular social enterprises in Australia include Thank You, Who Gives a Crap, STREAT, Taboo Period Products, Good Cycles,Vanguard Laundry and Goodwill Wine.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Joyce|first=Clare|date=2019-11-25|title=Australians support doing business while doing good -|url=https://www.fpmagazine.com.au/goodwill-wine-donating-profits-to-charities-371857/|access-date=2021-10-03|website=Fundraising & Philanthropy Australasia Magazine|language=en-AU}}</ref>
The FASES definition of social enterprise is adopted by ASENA and the state and territory networks, with many also welcoming emerging social enterprises that have the intention but are yet to meet the eligibility criteria. Social Traders provides the Social Enterprise certification in Australia.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Galer|first=Susan|title=SAP BrandVoice: Lessons In Procurement With A Purpose From Australia's Social Enterprise Pioneers|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/sap/2021/03/23/lessons-in-procurement-with-a-purpose-from-australias-social-enterprise-pioneers/|access-date=2021-10-03|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Enterprise Certification Launches in Australia|url=https://probonoaustralia.com.au/news/2018/04/social-enterprise-certification-launches-australia/|access-date=2021-10-03|website=Pro Bono Australia|language=en-US}}</ref>
== In North America ==
=== United States ===
The Social Enterprise Alliance defines a "social enterprise" as "Organizations that address a basic unmet need or solve a social or environmental problem through a market-driven approach''.''"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://socialenterprise.us/about/social-enterprise/|title=What Is a Social Enterprise?|website=Social Enterprise Alliance|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-08}}</ref>
In the U.S, two distinct characteristics differentiate social enterprises from other types of businesses, nonprofits, and government agencies:
* Social enterprises directly address social needs through their products and services or through the numbers of disadvantaged people they employ. This distinguishes them from "socially responsible businesses", which create positive [[social change]] indirectly through the practice of [[corporate social responsibility]] (e.g., creating and implementing a [[foundation (nonprofit)|philanthropic foundation]]; paying equitable wages to their employees; using environmentally friendly [[raw material]]s; providing [[Volunteering|volunteer]]s to help with community projects).
* Social enterprises use earned revenue strategies to pursue a double or triple [[bottom line]], either alone (as a social sector business, in either the [[Private sector|private]] or the nonprofit sector) or as a significant part of a nonprofit's mixed revenue stream that also includes charitable contributions and [[public sector]] subsidies. This distinguishes them from traditional nonprofits, which rely primarily on philanthropic and government support. The double bottom line consists of social goals and [[profit maximization]]. Here the two are not contradictory; however, proper financial management to achieve positive profits is necessary in order to undertake the organizations social goals. The triple bottom line is essentially the double bottom line, with the addition of environmental sustainability.<ref name=":23"/> It focuses on economic vitality, environmental sustainability, and social responsibility.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Mathew|first=P. M.|date=2008|title=Social Enterprises in the Competitive Era|jstor=40277968|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=43|issue=38|pages=22–24}}</ref>
In the United States, "social enterprise" is also distinct from "social entrepreneurship", which broadly encompasses such diverse players as [[B Corporation (certification)|B Corp]] companies, socially responsible investors, "for-benefit" ventures, Fourth Sector organizations, CSR efforts by major [[corporation]]s, "[[Social innovation|social innovators]]" and others. All these types of entities grapple with social needs in a variety of ways, but unless they directly address social needs through their products or services or the numbers of disadvantaged people they employ, they do not qualify as social enterprises.
According to a paper published by De Gruyter in 2019, some common challenges facing social enterprises in the US were - Legal form, governance challenges, difficulties in measuring impact, lack of clear identity, problems in accessing capital, management tensions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abramson|first1=Alan J.|last2=Billings|first2=Kara C.|date=2019-07-01|title=Challenges Facing Social Enterprises in the United States|journal=Nonprofit Policy Forum|language=en|volume=10|issue=2|doi=10.1515/npf-2018-0046|s2cid=188870791|issn=2154-3348|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In US, [https://www.societyprofitsus.com/ Society Profits] offers third-party accreditation to social enterprise businesses.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Impact Buyer|url=https://www.societyprofitsus.com/accreditation|access-date=2021-10-03|website=Society Profits|language=en}}</ref>
=== Canada ===
The Social Enterprise Council of Canada (SECC) of [[Canada]] defines a "social enterprise" as "businesses owned by nonprofit organizations, that is directly involved in the production and/or selling of goods and services for the blended purpose of generating income and achieving social, cultural, and/or environmental aims. Social enterprises are one more tool for non-profits to use to meet their mission to contribute to healthy communities."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.secouncil.ca/en |title=Social Enterprise Council of Canada |access-date=11 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527030119/http://secouncil.ca/en/ |archive-date=27 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Canadian social enterprise characteristics vary by region and province in the ways they differentiate social enterprises from other types of businesses, not-for-profits, co-operatives and government agencies:
* Social enterprises may directly address social needs through their products and services, the number of people they employ or the use of their financial surplus. This can distinguish them from "socially responsible for-profit businesses", which create positive [[social change]] indirectly through the practice of [[corporate social responsibility]] (e.g., creating and implementing a charitable foundation; paying fair wages to their employees; using environmentally friendly [[raw material]]s; providing volunteers to help with community projects).
* Social enterprises may use earned revenue strategies to pursue a [[double bottom line|double]] or [[triple bottom line]], either alone (as a social economy business, in either the [[Private sector|private]] or the not-for-profit sector) or as a significant part of a not-for-profit corporation's mixed income stream that may include charitable contributions and [[public sector]] assistance. This distinguishes them from some traditional not-for-profit corporations, which may rely in whole or part on charitable and government support.
Significant regional differences in legislation, financing, support agencies and corporate structures can be seen across Canada as a result of different historical development paths in the social economy. Common regional characteristics can be seen in [[British Columbia]], the [[Canadian Prairies|Prairies]], [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]] and [[Atlantic Canada]].
Habitat for Humanity ReStore, Eva's Print Shop and [[ME to WE]] are some well known social enterprises operating in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Reporter|first=IBTimes Staff|date=2019-02-08|title=3 Social Enterprises In Canada Making An Impact|url=https://www.ibtimes.com/3-social-enterprises-canada-making-impact-2761290|access-date=2021-10-03|website=International Business Times}}</ref>
== In Asia ==
=== Middle East ===
There is no separate legal entity for social enterprises in the [[Middle East]]. Most social enterprises register as companies or non-profit organizations. There isn't a proper definition of social enterprises by the governments of the Middle Eastern countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ssir.org/articles/entry/social_entrepreneurship_in_the_middle_east_old_practice_new_concept|title=Social Entrepreneurship in the Middle East: Old Practice, New Concept (SSIR)|website=ssir.org|language=en-us|access-date=2017-07-03}}</ref>
However, social enterprises in the Middle East are active and innovating in a variety of sectors and industries. A majority of the existing social enterprises are engaged in human capital development. Many are nurturing a cadre of leaders with the experiences and skills needed to enhance the region's global competitiveness while also achieving social goals. Trends in the region point to an increasingly important role and potential for such activities and for social entrepreneurship in general. These include the growing interest among youth in achieving social impact and growth in volunteerism among youth.<ref>The "Social Entrepreneurship in the Middle East" report: http://www.shababinclusion.org/files/1576_file_MEYI_Social_Entrepreneurship_final.pdf</ref>
According to the [[Schwab Foundation]] there are 35 top social entrepreneurs in the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.schwabfound.org/sf/SocialEntrepreneurs/Profiles/index.htm?sname=0&sorganization=0&sarea=152&ssector=0&stype=0|title=Schwab / Work Economic Forum list of the Middle Easts top social entrepreneurs}}</ref>
=== South Korea ===
==== Legal supports ====
In [[South Korea]], the Social Enterprise Promotion Act was approved in December 2006 and was put into effect in July 2007. It was amended in 2010.<ref>Lee Prof Kwang Taek, [https://www.socioeco.org/bdf_fiche-document-815_en.html Social Enterprise Promotion Act: The Case of South Korea], ''Socioeco.org'', accessed 5 November 2022</ref>
Article 2 defines a social enterprise as "an organization which is engaged in business activities of producing and selling goods and services while pursuing a social purpose of enhancing the quality of local residents' life by means of providing social services and creating jobs for the disadvantaged, as an enterprise certified according to the requirements prescribed in Article 7", "the disadvantaged" as "people who have difficulty in purchasing social services necessary to themselves for a market price, the detailed criteria thereof shall be determined by the Presidential Decree", and "social services" as "service in education, health, social welfare, environment and culture and other service proportionate to this, whose area is prescribed by the Presidential Decree".
The [[Ministry of Labor (South Korea)|Ministry of Labor]] is obliged to "establish the Basic Plan for Social Enterprises Support" every five years (Article 5), and not only enterprises but also cooperatives and non-profits can be recognised as social enterprises, which are eligible for tax reduction and/or financial supports from the Korean / provincial governments or city councils. 680 entities have been recognised as social enterprises as of October 2012. The majority of Korean social enterprises are primarily concerned with job creation.<ref>Park, C., and Wilding, M. (2013). "Social enterprise policy design: Constructing social enterprise in the UK and Korea". ''International Journal of Social Welfare'', 22(3): 236-247.</ref> The Korea Social Enterprise Promotion Agency was established to promote social enterprises, which include Happynarae and [[Beautiful Store]].
===China===
Researcher Meng Zhao states that the emergence of social enterprise as a concept could be seen around 2012, although it was not yet a well-known idea among the general public or within the media, and the [[Chinese government]] was still "trying to understand the new phenomenon".<ref name=zhao>Zhao, M., [https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=081001096020076067083113006070118086033075065035019070107070101030004095065000086118056100018023015058017100119101001002127014021054035061019009004089092080111114122070009015022122097094022101099065084003112030109101116066102103115087011123007002106098&EXT=pdf The Social Enterprise Emerges in China], ''Stanford Social Innovation Review'', Spring 2012, accessed 12 July 2021</ref>
Zhao identified three forms of social enterprise in China:
*the social enterprise
*the social startup
*the startup for social good.
The terms "startup" is used because it carries some of the spirit associated with "enterprise" in English, such as innovation, risk taking or "venture".<ref name=zhao />
=== Hong Kong ===
There is no separate legal entity for social enterprises in [[Hong Kong]]. They are normally registered as companies or non-profit organisations. The Hong Kong Government defines social enterprises as businesses that achieve specific social objectives, and its profits will be principally reinvested in the business for the social objectives that it pursues, rather than distribution to its shareholders.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sehk.gov.hk/|title=Social Enterprise|website=www.sehk.gov.hk|access-date=2019-09-16}}</ref> In recent years, [[venture philanthropy]] organizations, such as Social Ventures Hong Kong and Social Enterprise Business Centre of the HKCSS, have been set up to invest in viable social enterprises with a significant social impact.
=== India ===
In [[India]], a social enterprise may be a non-profit [[non-governmental organization]] (NGO), often registered as a Society under Indian Societies Registration Act, 1860, a Trust registered under various Indian State Trust Acts or a Section 25 Company registered under Indian Companies Act, 1956. India has around 3 million<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/india-has-31-lakh-ngos-twice-the-number-of-schools-almost-twice-number-of-policemen/ | title=India has 31 lakh NGOs, more than double the number of schools| date=August 2015}}</ref> NGOs, including a number of religious organizations and religious trusts, like Temples, Mosque and Gurudwara associations etc., who are not deemed as social enterprises.
NGOs in India raise funds through some services (often fund raising events and community activities) and occasionally products. Despite this, in India the term "social enterprise" is not widely used, instead terms like NGOs and NPOs (non-profit organizations) are used, where these kind of organizations are legally allowed to raise fund for non-business activities. [[Child Rights and You]] and [[Youth United]] are examples of social enterprise, who raise funds through their services, fund-raising activities (organizing events, donations, and grants) or sometimes products, to further their social and environmental goals.
However, there are social businesses with an aim for making profit, although the primary aim is to alleviate poverty through a sustainable [[business model]]. According to Bala Vikasa Social Service Society sister organization of SOPAR-Canada "Social Enterprise is a hybrid business with a goal of solving social problems, while also generating revenues and profits like any other enterprise. However, when it comes to choosing between profits or social cause, social cause is paramount for social enterprises, while profits are considered only for sustainability."
In the agriculture sector, [[International Development Enterprises]] has helped pull millions of small farmers out of poverty in India.
Another area of social enterprise in India and the developing world are [[bottom of the pyramid]] (BOP) businesses which were identified and analyzed by [[C. K. Prahalad]] in "Fortune at the Base of the Pyramid". This seminal work has been a springboard for a robust area of both innovation and academic research.
=== Malaysia ===
Social Enterprise Alliance Malaysia defines social enterprises as "organizations created to address social problems that use business models to sustain themselves financially. Social enterprises seek to create not only financial returns but also social returns to their beneficiaries." Social Enterprise Alliance Malaysia regards social enterprises as businesses with a social focus, distinct from non-profit organisations.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.socialenterprise.my | title= Social Enterprise Alliance Malaysia | publisher= Social Enterprise Alliance – Malaysia Chapter | date= 1 April 2014 | access-date= 2 May 2014 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140607002053/http://socialenterprise.my/ | archive-date= 7 June 2014 | url-status= dead }}</ref> In Malaysia, the government initiated several programs that helped Malaysia become a top location for social enterprises.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Report: Malaysia ranks high as pioneering country for social entrepreneurship |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/business/business-news/2016/09/16/malaysia-ranks-high-as-pioneering-country-for-social-entrepreneurship |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=The Star |language=en}}</ref> Government bodies like [https://www.mymagic.my/ MaGIC] have the mission of strengthening Malaysia's position as an emerging innovation nation. One of MaGIC's key missions is "nurturing and navigating local startup and social enterprise into successful and sustainable businesses". One initiative by MaGIC in 2017 is the Impact Driven Enterprise Accreditation (IDEA). MaGIC also launched [https://www.buyforimpact.co/ Buy For Impact] which encourages companies to purchase products or services from SEs.
Buy for Impact gathers like-minded people and organisations to promote conscious buying behaviour among the general public and the private sector. This initiative "promotes and supports the notion of utilising the general public's purchasing power to generate sustainable positive social or environmental impact through Impact-Driven Enterprises (IDEs)". On April 23, 2022, Prime Minister Datuk Seri Ismail Sabri Yaakob outlined a new direction for the country on social entrepreneurship development. "The newly launched Social Entrepreneurship Action Framework 2030 or SEMy2030 provides a new national direction for the development of social entrepreneurship in Malaysia", remarked the Prime Minister.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-23 |title=PM Ismail Sabri: Newly launched SEMy2030 outlines new direction for social entrepreneurship development in Malaysia |url=https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2022/04/23/pm-ismail-sabri-newly-launched-framework-outlines-new-direction-for-social/2055217 |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=Malay Mail |language=en}}</ref> SEMy2030 will provide a more structured training on the adaptation of technology and digitalisation, widen access to financing and financial support, and provide access to the domestic and international markets.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Impacting Communities as a Social Enterprise in Malaysia |url=https://batikboutique.com/blogs/news/impacting-communities-as-a-social-enterprise-in-malaysia |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=Batik Boutique |language=en-my}}</ref>
=== Philippines ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2013}}
In December 1999, a group was organized called Social Enterprise Network. Its members, based in Metro Manila, include entrepreneurs, executives, and academics who believe in social entrepreneurship (setting up businesses by creating opportunities for the poor). SEN served is a networking opportunity for like-minded individuals to share their interests and pass on their experience to others. One of its projects eventually was adopted by the Foundations for People Development. It is called the Cooperative Marketing Enterprise. CME is devoted solely to providing the need for cooperatives, micro, small, and medium enterprises for the marketing of their products.
From the academe, a course "Social Entrepreneurship and Management" was first offered at the [[University of Asia and the Pacific]] School of Management in 2000. This course was developed and taught by Dr. Jose Rene C. Gayo, then Dean of the School of Management. It was offered as an elective for the senior students of the Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurial Management. In March 2001, a seminar on "Social Enterprises: Creating Wealth for the Poor" was held at the University of Asia and the Pacific.
A social enterprise in the [[Philippines]] is GKonomics International, Inc., a non-stock, non-profit organization, incorporated in 2009. They are a [[Gawad Kalinga]] partner in social enterprise development. Their mission is building a new generation of producers.
=== Thailand ===
In [[Thailand]] social entrepreneurship is small but growing. [[Thammasat University]] in [[Bangkok]] is the [[Southeast Asia]] partner of the Global Social Venture Competition (GSVC-SEA).<ref>{{cite web|author=GSVC |url=http://www.gsvc-sea.org/ |title=Global Social Venture Competition – South East Asia Regional Round |publisher=Gsvc-sea.org |access-date=21 October 2013}}</ref> Every year new emerging social enterprises present their business model showcasing variety of business models ranging from agriculture, to technology, tourism and education. In 2013 the winners of GSVC-SEA were Wedu (female leadership development and education) and CSA Munching box (agriculture).
A major player in the social entrepreneurship space in Thailand is ChangeFusion, led by the [[Ashoka: Innovators for the Public|Ashoka]] Fellow Sunit Shrestha. A major figure in the space is [[Mechai Viravaidya]],<ref>{{cite web|author=TEDxChange |url=http://www.ted.com/talks/mechai_viravaidya_how_mr_condom_made_thailand_a_better_place.html |title=Mechai Viravaidya: How Mr. Condom made Thailand a better place | Video on |publisher=Ted.com |access-date=21 October 2013}}</ref> founder of the [[Population and Community Development Association]] (PDA).
Members of the Royal Family of Thailand have been involved in social entrepreneurship like with the creation of the brand Doi Tung by the [[Mae Fah Luang Foundation]].
Singha Park Chiangrai is also a social enterprise.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/singha-park-a-social-enterprise-to-help-farmers-in-thailands-north-300205083.html |title=Singha Park, A Social Enterprise to Help Farmers in Thailand's North |website=prnewswire.com |publisher=PR Newswire |date=18 January 2016 |access-date=7 October 2019}} Press release.</ref> With eco-agricultural tourism concept as main idea to attract tourists to the 8500-rai park, 1200 unemployed people became employee generating income for local people and their families. This not only helps prevent drugs problem because of constant salary people earns every month, but the park attracts tourist from around the country to visit and spend money in Chiangrai province as well.
The government of Thailand supports the creation of new social enterprises via the Thai Social Entrepreneurship office (TSEO).<ref>{{cite web |author=สำนักงานสร้างเสริมกิจการเพื่อสังคมแห่งชาติ |url=http://www.tseo.or.th/ |script-title=th:สำนักงานสร้างเสริมกิจการเพื่อสังคมแห่งชาติ |publisher=Tseo.or.th |language=th |access-date=21 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023000547/http://www.tseo.or.th/ |archive-date=23 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== In Europe ==
===EMES===
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2019}}
The best established European research network in the field, EMES, works with a more articulated definition — a [[Max Weber|Weber]]ian '[[ideal type]]' rather than a prescriptive definition — which relies on nine criteria:<ref>Jacques Defourny and Marthe Nyssens (2013) ''L'approche EMES de l'entreprise sociale dans une perspective comparative'', EMES working paper no. 13/02, http://www.emes.net/uploads/media/EMES-WP-13-02-FR.pdf</ref>
'''Economic criteria:'''
* Continuous activity of the ''production'' and/or sale of goods and services (rather than predominantly advisory or grant-giving functions).
* A high level of ''autonomy'': social enterprises are created voluntarily by groups of citizens and are managed by them, and not directly or indirectly by public authorities or private companies, even if they may benefit from grants and donations. Their members have the right to participate ('voice') and to leave the organisation ('exit').
* A significant economic ''risk'': the financial viability of social enterprises depends on the efforts of their members, who have the responsibility of ensuring adequate financial resources, unlike most public institutions.
* Social enterprises' activities require a minimum number of ''paid workers'', although, like traditional non-profit organisations, social enterprises may combine financial and non-financial resources, voluntary and paid work.
'''Social criteria:'''
* An explicit aim of ''community benefit'': one of the principal aims of social enterprises is to serve the community or a specific group of people. To the same end, they also promote a sense of social responsibility at local level.
* ''Citizen initiative'': social enterprises are the result of collective dynamics involving people belonging to a community or to a group that shares a certain need or aim. They must maintain this dimension in one form or another.
* Decision making ''not based on capital ownership'': this generally means the principle of 'one member, one vote', or at least a voting power not based on capital shares. Although capital owners in social enterprises play an important role, decision-making rights are shared with other [[stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]].
* ''Participatory'' character, involving those affected by the activity: the users of social enterprises' services are represented and participate in their structures. In many cases one of the objectives is to strengthen democracy at local level through economic activity.
* ''Limited distribution of profit'': social enterprises include organisations that totally prohibit profit distribution as well as organisations such as co-operatives, which may distribute their profit only to a limited degree, thus avoiding profit maximising behaviour.
Ongoing research work characterises social enterprises as often having multiple objectives, multiple stakeholders and multiple sources of funding. However, their objectives tend to fall into three categories:
* integration of disadvantaged people through work (''work integration social enterprises'' or ''WISE''s)
* provision of social, community and environmental services
* ethical trading such as [[fair trade]]
Despite, and sometimes in contradiction to, such academic work, the term ''social enterprise'' is being picked up and used in different ways in various European countries.
===European Commission===
As part of its Social Business Initiative,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/social_business/index_en.htm |title=Social entrepreneurship - European Commission |access-date=6 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223014159/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/social_business/index_en.htm |archive-date=23 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> which ran from 2011 until 2014, the [[European Commission]] developed the following definition based on three key criteria: social objective, limited profit distribution and participatory governance:<ref>''Communication from the Commission: Social Business Initiative: Creating a favourable climate for social enterprises, key stakeholders in the social economy and innovation'', 25 October 2011 COM(2011) 682 final, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0682:FIN:EN:PDF</ref>
{{Blockquote|A social enterprise is an operator in the social economy whose main objective is to have a social impact rather than make a profit for their owners or shareholders. It operates by providing goods and services for the market in an entrepreneurial and innovative fashion and uses its profits primarily to achieve social objectives. It is managed in an open and responsible manner and, in particular, involve employees, consumers and stakeholders affected by its commercial activities.
The Commission uses the term 'social enterprise' to cover the following types of business:
* those for which the social or societal objective of the common good is the reason for the commercial activity, often in the form of a high level of social innovation,
* those where profits are mainly reinvested with a view to achieving this social objective,
* and where the method of organisation or ownership system reflects their mission, using democratic or participatory principles or focusing on social justice.
Thus:
* businesses providing social services and/or goods and services to vulnerable persons (access to housing, health care, assistance for elderly or disabled persons, inclusion of vulnerable groups, child care, access to employment and training, dependency management, etc.); and/or
* businesses with a method of production of goods or services with a social objective (social and professional integration via access to employment for people disadvantaged in particular by insufficient qualifications or social or professional problems leading to exclusion and marginalisation) but whose activity may be outside the realm of the provision of social goods or services.}}
=== Czech Republic ===
In the Czech Republic a working party stemming from the development partnerships in the [[EQUAL Community Initiative|EQUAL]] programme agreed on the following distinctions (April 2008):
'''Social economy'''
:It is a complex of autonomous private activities realized by different types of organizations that have the aim to serve their members or local community first of all by doing business. The social economy is oriented on solving issues of unemployment, social coherence and local development. It is created and developed on the base of concept of triple bottom line—economic, social and environmental benefits. Social economy enables citizens to get involved actively in the regional development. Making profit/surplus is desirable, however is not a primary goal. Contingent profit is used in preference for development of activities of organization and for the needs of local community. Internal relations in the social enterprises are headed to the maximum involvement of members/employees in decision-making and self-management while external relations strengthen [[social capital]]. Legal form of social economy entities is not decisive—what is crucial is observing public benefit aims as listed in the articles. Subjects of the social economy are social enterprises and organizations supporting their work in the areas of education, consulting and financing.
'''Social entrepreneurship'''
:Social entrepreneurship develops independent business activities and is active on the market in order to solve issues of employment, social coherence and local development. Its activities support solidarity, social inclusion and growth of social capital mainly on local level with the maximum respect of sustainable development.
'''Social enterprise'''
:Social enterprise means "a subject of social entrepreneurship", i.e. legal entity or its part or a natural person which fulfils principles of the social enterprise; social enterprise must have appropriate trade license.
:The above mentioned definitions stem from the four basic principles that should be followed by social enterprises. Standards with a commentary were settled for each principle. These standards were settled as the minimum so that they should be observed by all legal entities and all types of social enterprises. Specific types of enterprises, that are undergoing pilot verification within CIP EQUAL projects and that are already functioning in the Czech Republic, are social firms employing seriously disadvantaged target groups, and municipal social cooperatives as a suitable form of entrepreneurship with the view of development of local communities and microregions.
:The legal form a social enterprise takes may not always be seen as important—however, they must be subject of private law. According to the existing legal system, they can function in a form of cooperatives, civic associations, public benefit associations, church legal entities, Ltd., stock companies and sole traders. Budgetary organizations and municipalities should not be social enterprises as they are not autonomous—they are parts of public administration.
:Social entrepreneurship is defined very broadly. Beside employment of the people disadvantaged at the labour market it also includes organizations providing public benefit services in the area of social inclusion and local development including environmental activities, individuals from the disadvantaged groups active in business and also complementary activities of NGOs destined to reinvest profit into the main public benefit activity of an organization. Social entrepreneurship defined in such a wide way should not be directly bound to legal benefits and financial support because the concept of social entrepreneurship might be then threatened by misuse and disintegration. Conditions of eventual legal and financial support should be discussed by experts.
=== Finland ===
In Finland a law was passed in 2004 that defines a ''social enterprise'' (sosiaalinen yritys) as being any sort of enterprise that is entered on the relevant register and at least 30% of whose employees are disabled or long-term unemployed. As of March 2007, 91 such enterprises had been registered, the largest with 50 employees. In the UK the more specific term "social firm" is used to distinguish such "integration enterprises". This legal definition of a social enterprise (sosiaalinen yritys) made it hard for actual social entrepreneurship to enter the Finnish consciousness and public debate so a new term Yhteiskunnallinen Yrittäjyys (societal entrepreneurship) was dubbed and promoted by the early players in the field. Nowadays the term is recognized, accepted and even promoted by entrepreneurial NGOs, entrepreneurs themselves, co-operatives and government organisations. Finnish Social Enterprise Research Network FinSERN collects and exchanges national and international research data, maintains connections with social enterprise researchers and research networks around the world, and finds financing opportunities for research. There is also a growing interest in impact investment in Finland.
=== Italy ===
Italy passed a law in 2005 on ''[[:it:impresa sociale|imprese sociali]]'', to which the government has given form and definition by Legislative Decree no. 155, dated 24 March 2006. Under Italian law a social enterprise is a private entity that provides social utility goods and services, acting for the common interest and not for profit.
In an effort to develop social enterprises and measure social impact, the Italian governmental work placement agency—Italia Lavoro—has developed a method to calculate the social efficiency of their project, from an economic point of view. For example, they measure the economic value to the society of providing a job to a disabled person. Since 1997, Italia Lavoro provides work placements to people with mental and physical disabilities, health problems or [[socially disadvantaged]]. To this aim, they help people who have fallen through the cracks of the general work system to reintegrate themselves into society through the creation of small and medium non-profit enterprises.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://impresasociale.info/?p=79 |title=IMPRESA SOCIALE: Protocollo d'intesa tra Agenzia per le Onlus e Italia Lavoro |publisher=impresasociale.info |date= 19 March 2008|access-date=16 October 2012}}</ref>
Also intended to generate more social enterprises is the non-profit cooperative ''Make a Change''. ''Make a Change'' provides financial, operational and management support to social start-ups. In 2010, they organized the first edition of a contest to elect the "Social entrepreneur of the year", as well as another contest entitled "The World's Most Beautiful Job". This year's winner of the former was the social cooperative "Cauto", which manages the entire trash life-cycle in the [[Province of Brescia]]. One-third of Cauto's workers are disabled or disadvantaged.
The winner of the "World's Most Beautiful Job" prize was the "Tavern of the Good and Bad" project by a group called 'Domus de luna' from [[Cagliari]]. The tavern employs mums and children recently graduated from rehabilitation programs. The prize consisted of a grant of €30,000 and 12 months of professional consulting and support. The awards ceremony was included in the program of the [[Global Entrepreneurship Week]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://italianvalley.wired.it/blog/startup_business/make-a-change-per-l-imprenditoria-sociale.html |title=Make a change per l'imprenditoria sociale |publisher=[[Wired Italia]] |author=Abirascid, Emil |date=19 November 2010 |access-date=16 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225003208/http://italianvalley.wired.it/blog/startup_business/make-a-change-per-l-imprenditoria-sociale.html |archive-date=25 December 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
=== Spain ===
{{expand section|date=August 2022}}
*[[Empresa de insercion]]
=== United Kingdom ===
==== Definition ====
In the UK the accepted Government-backed definition of social enterprise used by the UK social enterprise sector bodies such as [[Social Enterprise UK]] and [https://www.socialenterprisemark.org.uk/ Social Enterprise Mark] CIC comes from the 2002 [[Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom)|Department of Trade and Industry]] report 'Social Enterprise: a strategy for success' report as:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seeewiki.co.uk/~wiki/index.php?title=Social_Enterprise:_a_strategy_for_success |title=SEEE Wiki |access-date=18 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330225445/http://www.seeewiki.co.uk/~wiki/index.php?title=Social_Enterprise:_a_strategy_for_success |archive-date=30 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{blockquote|A business with primarily social objectives whose surpluses are principally reinvested for that purpose.}}
The original concept of ''social enterprise'' was first developed by Freer Spreckley in 1978, and later included in a publication called ''Social Audit: A Management Tool for Co-operative Working'' published in 1981 by Beechwood College. In the original publication the term social enterprise was developed to describe an organisation that uses Social Audit. Freer went on to describe a social enterprise as:<ref>{{cite web | author=Freer Spreckley | url=http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf | title=Social Audit – A Management Tool for Co-operative Working | publisher=Local Livelihoods | year=1981 | access-date=17 March 2017 | archive-date=1 March 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301021617/http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{blockquote|An enterprise that is owned by those who work in it and/or reside in a given locality, is governed by registered social as well as commercial aims and objectives and run cooperatively may be termed a social enterprise. Traditionally, 'capital hires labour' with the overriding emphasis on making a 'profit' over and above any benefit either to the business itself or the workforce. Contrasted to this is the social enterprise where 'labour hires capital' with the emphasis on social, environmental and financial benefit.}}
Later on, the three areas of social, environmental and financial benefits used for measuring social enterprise became known as the [[triple bottom line]]. Freer later revised the Social Audit in a more structured way.<ref>{{cite web | author=Freer Spreckley | url=http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20Toolkit%20-%204th%20Edition%202008.pdf | title=Social Audit Toolkit | publisher=Local Livelihoods | year=1981 | access-date=17 March 2017 | archive-date=5 April 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405014116/http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20Toolkit%20-%204th%20Edition%202008.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>
Twenty years later Spreckley and Cliff Southcombe established the first<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wck2.companieshouse.gov.uk/eaac71f56a94e9edebdd4706d92f857b/companysearch?disp=1&frfsh=1226152950#result |title=Information provided by companies house |publisher=Wck2.companieshouse.gov.uk |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref> specialist support organisation in the UK Social Enterprise Partnership Ltd. in March 1997.
In the British context, ''social enterprises'' include community enterprises, [[credit union]]s, trading arms of [[charities]], [[employee-owned business]]es, [[co-operatives]], [[development trust]]s, [[housing association]]s, [[social firm]]s, and leisure trusts.
Whereas conventional businesses distribute their profit among [[shareholder]]s, in social enterprises the surplus tends to go towards one or more social aims which the business has – for example education for the poor, vocational training for disabled people, environmental issues or for animal rights, although this may not always be the case.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Schwartz|first1=Rodney|title=Do name and form matter for social enterprise?|url=http://www.thirdsector.co.uk/rodney-schwartz-name-form-matter-society-better-off/social-enterprise/article/1317861|access-date=15 April 2015|publisher=Third Sector Magazine}}</ref>
Social enterprises are often seen as distinct from charities (although charities are also increasingly looking at ways of maximising income from trading)<ref>{{cite news|title=Charity vs social enterprise: What's best for your new business?|url=http://startups.co.uk/charity-vs-social-enterprise-whats-best-for-your-new-business/|website=Startups.co.uk|access-date=15 April 2015|date=2009-03-27}}</ref> and from private sector companies with policies on [[corporate social responsibility]]. An emerging view, however, is that social enterprise is a particular type of trading activity that sometimes gives rise to distinct organisation forms reflecting a commitment to social cause working with stakeholders from more than one sector of the economy.
Three common characteristics of social enterprises as defined by Social Enterprise London are:
*Enterprise orientation: They are directly involved in producing goods or providing services to a market. They seek to be viable trading organisations, with an operating surplus.
*Social aims: They have explicit social aims such as job creation, training or the provision of local services. They have ethical values including a commitment to local capacity building, and they are accountable to their members and the wider community for their social environmental and economic impact.
*Social ownership: They are autonomous organisations with governance and ownership structures based on participation by stakeholder groups (users or clients, local community groups etc.) or by trustees. Profits are distributed as profit sharing to stakeholders or used for the benefit of the community.
==== Some UK social enterprises ====
*[[Belu (company)|Belu Water]] <ref name=seguide>Social Enterprise UK, [https://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/app/uploads/2022/07/Start-your-social-enterprise-guide-1.pdf Start your Social Enterprise], page 5, accessed 2 September 2023</ref>
* [[The Big Issue]]<ref name=seguide />
* [[Cafédirect]]
* [[Camara (social enterprise)|Camara]]
* [[The Co-operative Group]]
* [[Divine Chocolate]] (Kuapa Kokoo) <ref name=seguide />
* [[Eden Project|The Eden Project]]
* [[Fairfield Materials Management Ltd]]
* [[HCT Group]]
* [[John Lewis Partnership]]
* [[London Symphony Orchestra]]
* [[Skoll Centre for Social Entrepreneurship]]
* [[Technology Trust]]
* [[Two Fingers Brewing Co.]]
* [[Welsh Water]]
==== Scale ====
A survey conducted for the Social Enterprise Unit in 2004 found that there were 15,000 social enterprises in the UK (counting only those that are incorporated as companies limited by guarantee or industrial and provident societies). This is 1.2% of all enterprises in the UK. They employ 450,000 people, of whom two-thirds are full-time, plus a further 300,000 volunteers. Their combined annual turnover is £18 billion, and the median turnover is £285,000. Of this, 84% is from trading. In 2006, the government revised this estimate upwards to 55,000, based on a survey of a sample of owners of businesses with employees, which found that 5% of them define themselves as social enterprises.<ref>Lincoln, A. (2006) Welcome address: DTI presentation to Third Annual UK Social Enterprise Research Conference, London South Bank University (22 June)</ref> The most up to date estimates suggest that there are approximately 68,000 social enterprises in the UK, contributing £24 billion to the UK economy.<ref>{{cite web| last=Gordon Allinson, Paul Braidford, Maxine Houston, Fred Robinson and Ian Stone| title=Business Support For Social Enterprises: Findings from a longitudinal study| url=http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/enterprise/docs/b/12-566-business-support-for-social-enterprises-longitudinal.pdf| publisher=Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS)| access-date=22 March 2013}}</ref>
Using the EU definition of social economy, the annual contribution of social enterprises to the UK economy is four times larger at £98 billion<ref>Mutuo (2009) ''Mutuals Yearbook 2009'', published by Kellogg College, Oxford University.</ref> because it includes the contribution of all co-operatives, mutuals and associations that produce goods or services to improve human well-being.
Every two years, Social Enterprise UK carries out and publishes the findings of the state of social enterprise survey, the largest piece of research looking at the UK's social enterprise sector. The most recent report, ''The People's Business'', details the findings of the 2013 survey.
==== Bodies ====
The first agency in the UK—[[Social Enterprise London]] (SEL)—was established in 1998 following collaboration between bodies supporting co-operative enterprise. SEL did more than provide support to emerging businesses: it created a community of interest by working with the [[London Development Agency]] (LDA) to establish both an undergraduate degree in social enterprise at the [[University of East London]] and a ''Social Enterprise Journal'' (now managed by [[Liverpool John Moores University]]). SEL built a network of over 2,000 social enterprises and social entrepreneurs, directly brokered over 500 social enterprise jobs under the DWP's [[Future Jobs Fund]] and delivers consultancy and business support across the world in countries including [[Vietnam]], [[Korea]] and [[Croatia]].
The national membership and campaigning body for the social enterprise movement in Britain is [[Social Enterprise UK]] (SEUK) (previously the Social Enterprise Coalition),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.socialenterprise.org.uk |title=Social Enterprise UK |publisher=Socialenterprise.org.uk |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref> and this liaises with similar groups in each region of [[England]], as well as in [[Northern Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. SEUK's chief executive, Peter Holbrook, joined in January 2010 from the award-winning social enterprise, Sunlight Development Trust, based in [[Gillingham, Kent]]. Claire Dove is the Chair of SEUK and runs the social enterprise [[Blackburne House]] in [[Liverpool]].
[https://www.socialenterprisemark.org.uk/ Social Enterprise Mark CIC] is the accreditation body responsible for the only internationally available social enterprise accreditation—the Social Enterprise Mark and Social Enterprise Gold Mark. It exists to recognize and promote the capabilities of social enterprises as competitive, sustainable businesses, dedicated to maximizing social impact above shareholder profit. It ensures the social enterprise business model remains ethical, credible and commercial through accreditation. There are over 200 organisations that currently hold Social Enterprise Mark/Gold Mark accreditation. The assessment and accreditation process is overseen by an independent Certification Panel, which ensures that the Social Enterprise Mark/Gold Mark criteria are rigorously applied.
In 2002, the National Council for Voluntary Organisations (NCVO) established the Sustainable Funding Project. Using funds from [[Futurebuilders England]], [[Centrica]] and Charity Bank, this project promoted the concept of sustainability through trading to voluntary groups and charities.<ref>Outcome Monitoring Proposal – Sustainable Funding Project, submitted to NCVO, 20 March 2005. The proposal include a short history of the Sustainable Funding Project.</ref> From 2005 onward, NCVO began using the term social enterprise to refer to voluntary sector trading activities.
In 2002, the British government launched a unified Social Enterprise Strategy,<ref>DTI (2002), ''Strategy for Social Enterprise''. London: HM Treasury.</ref> and established a Social Enterprise Unit (SEnU) to co-ordinate its implementation in England and Wales, primarily to consult on a new type of company to support social enterprise development. After a consultation (see CIC below), policy development was increasingly influenced by organisations in the conventional "non-profit" sector rather than those with their origins in employee-ownership and co-operative sectors. The 2003 DTI report on the consultation shows the disproportionate influence of charitable trusts and umbrella organisations in the voluntary sector, and evidence now exists that the voices of progressive employee-owned organisations were marginalised in the course of producing the report.<ref>DTI (2003), ''Enterprise for Communities: Report on the public consultation and the government's intentions'', HM Treasury. The appendices show quotations from contributors.</ref>
The Social Enterprise Unit was initially established within the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), and in 2006 became part of the newly created Office of the Third Sector, under the wing of the [[Cabinet Office]].
Following broad consultation, SEnU adopted a broader definition which is independent of any legal model. This latitudinarian definition could include not only [[company limited by guarantee|companies limited by guarantee]] and [[industrial and provident society|industrial and provident societies]] but also companies limited by shares, unincorporated associations, partnerships and sole traders.
In April 2012, Prime Minister [[David Cameron]] launched [[Big Society Capital]], the world's first social investment wholesaler. Capitalized with a total of £600 million, it will distribute funds to intermediaries that will lend money to social enterprises, charities and community groups.
===== Scotland =====
In [[Scotland]], social enterprise is a devolved function and is part of the remit of the [[Scottish Government]].<ref>[http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2007/03/30151647 "Social Enterprise in Scotland"], Retrieved 30 June 2007.</ref> Activities are coordinated by the Scottish Social Enterprise Coalition, and intellectual leadership is provided by the Social Enterprise Institute at [[Heriot-Watt University]] (Edinburgh), established under the directorship of Declan Jones. Senscot, based in [[Edinburgh]], supports social entrepreneurs through a variety of activities, including a weekly email bulletin by co-founder Lawrence Demarco.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.senscot.net/staff.php |title=Senscot |publisher=Senscot |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref> The Social Enterprise Academy "deliver leadership, enterprise, and social impact programmes" throughout Scotland,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theacademy-ssea.org/ |title=Social Enterprise Academy |publisher=Theacademy-ssea.org |access-date=24 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612033842/http://www.theacademy-ssea.org/ |archive-date=12 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and further support is provided by [[Development trust|Development Trusts Association Scotland]] and Co-operative Development Scotland.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.dtascot.org.uk/ |title=DTAS |publisher=Dtascot.org.uk |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.cdscotland.co.uk/ |title=CDS |publisher=Cdscotland.co.uk |access-date=24 May 2013}}</ref>
==== Community Interest Companies ====
{{main|Community Interest Company}}
The UK has also developed a new legal form called the [[community interest company]] (CIC). CICs are a new type of limited company designed specifically for those wishing to operate for the benefit of the community rather than for the benefit of the owners of the company. This means that a CIC cannot be formed or used solely for the personal gain of a particular person, or group of people. Legislation caps the level of dividends payable at 35% of profits and returns to individuals are capped at 4% above the bank base rate.
CICs can be limited by shares, or by guarantee, and will have a statutory "[[asset lock]]" to prevent the assets and profits being distributed, except as permitted by legislation. This ensures the assets and profits are retained within the CIC for community purposes, or transferred to another asset-locked organisation, such as another CIC or charity. A CIC cannot be formed to support political activities and a company that is a charity cannot be a CIC, unless it gives up its charitable status. However, a charity may apply to register a CIC as a subsidiary company.
==== Social firms ====
Another type of social enterprise category in the UK is a [[social firm]], a business set up specifically to create employment for people otherwise severely disadvantaged in the labour market.<ref>{{cite web|title=Social Firms UK|url=http://www.socialfirmsuk.co.uk/|website=Social Firms|access-date=15 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416234000/http://www.socialfirmsuk.co.uk/|archive-date=16 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
== In Africa ==
=== Kenya ===
In [[Kenya]], many NGOs use business models to improve the lives of people, mainly in rural Kenya. An example of this is [[KOMAZA]], a social enterprise that plants trees with [[smallholding|smallholder]] farmers and uses economies of scale to enable them to access high value markets for processed trees. Another example of this is RISE Kenya that runs projects to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]] in the semiarid [[Eastern Province (Kenya)|Eastern Province]] of Kenya. They also run [[weaving]] projects whereby women who would traditionally engage in weaving make products that are marketed in the capital city [[Nairobi]] and in overseas markets of Europe and America.
Other development-oriented social enterprises in Kenya include the One Acre Fund, Nuru International and [[Alive & Kicking (social enterprise)|Alive & Kicking]], which has produced over 200,000 sports balls from its stitching centre in Nairobi.<ref>{{cite web | title=Alive & Kicking Kenya | url=http://www.aliveandkicking.org.uk/what-we-do/where-we-work/kenya/ | access-date=9 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214111949/http://www.aliveandkicking.org.uk/what-we-do/where-we-work/kenya/ | archive-date=14 February 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Kenya's social enterprises include M-Pesa, which facilitated economic transactions via mobile phone.
Social enterprise in Kenya has grown to include spaces with IT infrastructure such as internet connectivity and computer hardware. Two of these, the iHub and NaiLab, are centers for technological enterprise, with ventures such as Tandaa in cooperation with the ICT Board of Kenya and Akirachix.<ref>{{cite news|title=Social Enterprise in Kenya|url=https://www.theguardian.com/social-enterprise-network/gallery/2014/jan/10/social-enterprises-innovation-urban-kenya|access-date=17 April 2015|work=The Guardian|date=10 January 2014}}</ref>
=== Zambia ===
As in much of Africa, social enterprises in [[Zambia]] are often focused on the creation of sustainable employment. [[Alive & Kicking (social enterprise)|Alive & Kicking]] established a stitching centre in [[Lusaka]] in 2007, which employs 50 stitchers and produces 2,000 sports balls a month.<ref>{{cite web| title=Alive & Kicking Zambia| url=http://www.aliveandkicking.org.uk/what-we-do/where-we-work/zambia/| access-date=9 February 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725202609/http://www.aliveandkicking.org.uk/what-we-do/where-we-work/zambia/| archive-date=25 July 2012| url-status=dead}}</ref> Zambikes produces a range of bicycles from their Lusaka factory, including 'Zambulances' and ones made from [[bamboo]], and provide three levels of mechanic training.<ref>{{cite web| title=Zambikes| url=http://www.new.zambikes.org/| access-date=9 February 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208085813/http://www.new.zambikes.org/| archive-date=8 February 2012| url-status=dead}}</ref>
== In Latin America ==
=== Chile ===
Chile is promoting social inclusion and further development of the private sector through Social Enterprises. Support to social enterprises has been included as part of the Productivity, Innovation and Growth Agenda, which has 47 measures, 10 bills and 37 administrative initiatives with an investment of US$1,500 million between 2014 and 2018.
Social enterprises in Chile adopt various forms like cooperatives, associations, private limited companies or corporations. The Ministry of Economy is developing a law project to create a new legal form through which they will establish the rights and duties for social enterprises.<ref>Ministerio de Economía, Fomento y Turismo. "42. Creación de marco jurídico de Empresa B." Accessed on 30 September 2016. http://www.agendaproductividad.cl/ejes/mejores-mercados/creacion-de-marco-juridico-de-empresas-b/</ref>
The Government has launched several initiatives to support social enterprises. For example, the Chilean Economic Development Agency [[CORFO]] has implemented programs like the Social Innovation Program and the Seed Subsidy for Flexible Asignation to Support Social Innovation Start-up Program. Through these programs they have provided access to seed capital to social entrepreneurs and financial support to incubators supporting social entrepreneurs. Additionally, the Ministry of Social Development also promoted matching grant funds like Mas por Chile<ref>Ministerio de Desarrollo Social (2013). Bases Administrativas y Técnicas del Concurso Fondo de Iniciativas para la Superación de la Pobreza. Accessed on 30 September 2016 http://sociedadcivil.ministeriodesarrollosocial.gob.cl/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/RESOL-317-BASES-SUP-DE-LA-POBREZA.pdf</ref> (More for Chile) and Incubia Fund in order to support the development of solutions aiming to reduce poverty and strengthen youth.
== See also ==
*[[Bottom of the pyramid]]
*[[Citizen enterprise]]
*[[Corporate social entrepreneurship]]
*[[Impact investing]]
*[[List of social enterprises]]
*[[Micro-enterprise]]
*[[MicroConsignment]]
*[[Mutualism (economic theory)]]
*[[Public/social/private partnership]]
*[[Social venture capital]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}<ref name=":2" />
==Sources==
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*Billis, D. (2010). ''Hybrid Organizations in the Third Sector''. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
*Borzaga, C. and Defourny, J. (2001). ''The Emergence of Social Enterprise''. London: Routledge.
*Dees, J. G., & Anderson, B. B. (2006). Framing A Theory of Social Entrepreneurship: Building On Two Schools Of Practice And Thought. 40–66.
*Gergen, Christopher, Gregg Vanourek (2008), ''Life Entrepreneurs: Ordinary People Creating Extraordinary Lives''
*Kevin Lynch, Julius Walls, (2009) ''Mission, Inc.: The Practitioner's Guide to Social Enterprise''
*Nyssens, M. ed. (2006). ''Social Enterprises in Europe: Between Market, Public Policies and Communities''. London: Routledge.
*Pearce, J. (1993). ''At the Heart of the Community Economy''. London: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation.
*Prahalad, CK (2009) ''Fortune at the Base of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty Through Profits''
*Spear, R. (2001). "United Kingdom: Labour Market Integration and Employment Creation", in ''Tackling Social Exclusion in Europe'', eds. Spear, R., Defourney, J., Favreau, L. & Laville, J-L. Aldershot: Ashgate.
*Spreckley, Freer (2011) ''Social Enterprise Planning Toolkit''<ref>https://locallivelihoods.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Social-Enterprise-Planning-Toolkit.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=October 2022}}</ref>
*Woodin, T., Crook, D., and Carpentier, V. (2010). ''Community and Mutual Ownership: A historical review''. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
*Wyler, S. (2009). ''A History of Community Asset Ownership''. London: Development Trusts Association.
{{Social accountability}}
{{Authority control}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Social Enterprise}}
[[Category:Social enterprises| ]]
[[Category:Business models]]
[[Category:Types of business entity]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Ashoka Fellows]]
[[Category:Social entrepreneurship]]
[[Category:Social economy]] |
Inclusive business model | {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{notability|date=September 2014}}
{{short description|Type of business model}}
An '''inclusive business model''' is a type of [[business model]] that seeks to create value for low-income communities by integrating them into a company's [[value chain]] on the [[demand (economics)|demand side]] as clients and consumers, and/or on the [[supply side]] as producers, entrepreneurs or employees in a sustainable way.<ref>{{cite book|last=UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)|title=Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor|year=2008|publisher=UNDP|location=New York|url=http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/library/poverty/creating-value-for-all---strategies-for-doing-business-with-the-.html/|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=11 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711014012/http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/library/poverty/creating-value-for-all---strategies-for-doing-business-with-the-.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The businesses that design and use these business models can range from multinational corporations to large domestic companies, [[co-operatives]], [[small and medium-sized enterprises]], or even not-for-profit organizations that use business principles—or [[social business]] approaches—to achieve their mission.<ref>{{cite book|last=UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)|title=The MDGs: Everyone's Business|year=2010|publisher=UNDP|location=New York|url=http://www.growinginclusivemarkets.org/mdgreport/}}</ref>
Since social value creation is integral to how inclusive business models intend to capture value, they differ from corporate philanthropy or [[corporate social responsibility]]. Businesses adopting inclusive business models can become inclusive businesses when they succeed in creating intended value and avoiding value destruction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schoneveld |first1=George C. |title=Sustainable business models for inclusive growth: Towards a conceptual foundation of inclusive business |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=December 2020 |volume=277 |pages=124062 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124062 |doi-access=free |url=https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/ASchoneveld2001.pdf }}</ref>
== Criteria ==
Inclusive business models can be developed and implemented by a wide range of entities, from private corporations (large and small), to state-owned companies, [[co-operatives]], or even not-for-profit organizations, as long as the following criteria are met:
* '''''[[Human development (humanity)|Human development]] impact''''': an inclusive business model contributes to human development by increasing poor people's incomes, improving their access to basic goods and services such as education, health, housing, water and sanitation, contributing to the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and reaching excluded and disadvantaged groups (e.g. women, youth, disabled, [[ethnic minorities]]).
* '''''[[Self-sustainability]]''''': an inclusive business model can receive start-up funding from different sources (including grants) but it must be designed to break-even and become self-sustainable over time (profits can be re-invested into the business or distributed to shareholders).
* '''''[[Environmental impact]]''''': at a minimum, an inclusive business model does not have major negative environmental impacts and, at best, contributes directly to [[environmental sustainability]] (e.g. by saving resources, reducing [[carbon emissions]], conserving [[biodiversity]], etc.).
== Benefits for business ==
* '''''Generating profits'''''. Business with the poor can sometimes yield higher rates of return than ventures in developed markets. Some microfinance institutions for instance have demonstrated their ability to reap significant profits.
* '''''Developing new markets'''''. The 4 billion people living on less than $8 a day worldwide have a combined income of about $5 trillion.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Development Indicators Database 2007|url=http://data.worldbank.org/products/data-books/WDI-2007|publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> They are willing and able to pay for essential goods and services (such as water, energy and healthcare), but too often they suffer from a ‘[[poverty penalty]]’ and end up paying more than rich consumers. Business models that offer better value for money—or entirely new products and services to improve the lives of the poor—can reap pioneer profits in return.
* '''''Driving innovation'''''. The challenge of developing inclusive business models can lead to [[innovations]] that contribute to a company's [[Competition (companies)|competitiveness]]. For example, to meet the poor's preferences and needs, firms must offer new combinations of price and performance. And the pervasive constraints that businesses encounter when doing business with the poor require creative responses. These forces drive the development of new products, services and [[business models]] that can catch on in other markets, giving innovative companies a [[competitive advantage]] in poor markets.
* '''''Expanding the labour pool'''''. The poor are a large source of labour. The advantages of hiring them as employees go beyond cost savings. With adequate training and well-targeted marketing, the poor can deliver high-quality products and services. Or their local knowledge and connections may place them well to serve other poor consumers in their communities.
* '''''Strengthening value chains'''''. For firms that procure locally, incorporating the poor in business value chains—as producers, suppliers, distributors, retailers and [[franchisees]]—can expand supply and lower risk. That allows them to reduce costs and increase flexibility, especially as the local businesses move into more specialized or higher-skill activities such as component production and business services.
== Benefits for the poor ==
Businesses can improve the lives of poor people, contributing broadly to what [[the United Nations]] terms ‘human development’—expanding people's opportunities to lead lives they value.
* '''''Creating jobs and Increasing incomes''''', by including poor people in value chains as customers, employees, [[Outline of industrial organization|producers]] and small-business owners.
* '''Meeting basic needs'''', such as food, clean water, sanitation, electricity and health-related services all meet people's basic needs.
* '''''Increasing productivity''''', through access to products and services—from electricity to [[mobile telephony]], from [[agricultural equipment]] to credit and insurance.
* '''''Empowering the poor'''''. All these contributions support the empowerment of poor people, individually and communally, to gain more control over their lives. By raising awareness, by providing information and training, by including [[marginalized groups]], by offering new opportunities and by conferring hope and pride, inclusive business models can give people confidence and new sources of strength to escape poverty using their own means.
As such, inclusive business models can make a significant contribution towards meeting the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs).<ref>{{cite book|year=2010|publisher=UNDP}}</ref>
== Constraints ==
Despite opportunities, many businesses are not taking advantage of them because market conditions surrounding the poor can make doing business difficult, risky and expensive. Where poverty prevails, the foundations for functional markets are often lacking, excluding the poor from meaningful participation and deterring companies from doing business with them.
The United Nations Development Programme, in a report titled "Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor” (2008), identifies five major market constraints and successful strategies to overcome them:
* '''''Limited market information'''''. Businesses know too little about the poor—what poor consumers prefer, what they can afford and what products and capabilities they have to offer as employees, producers and business owners.
* '''''Ineffective regulatory environments'''''. The markets of the poor lack regulatory frameworks that allow business to work. Rules and contracts are not enforced. People and enterprises lack access to the opportunities and protections afforded by a functioning legal system.
* '''''Inadequate [[physical infrastructure]]'''''. Transportation is constrained by the lack of roads and supporting infrastructure. Water, electricity, sanitation and telecommunications networks are lacking.
* '''''Missing knowledge and skills'''''. Poor consumers may not know the use and benefits of particular products, or may lack the skills to use them effectively. Poor suppliers, distributors and retailers may lack the knowledge and skills to deliver quality products and services consistently, on time and at a set cost.
* '''''Restricted access to [[financial products]] and [[financial services]]'''''. Lacking credit, poor producers and consumers cannot finance investments or large purchases. Lacking insurance, they cannot protect their meagre assets and income against shocks such as illness, drought or theft. And in the absence of transactional banking services, their financing is insecure and expensive.
== Success factors ==
Despite these challenges, a growing number of businesses are operating successfully in poor markets. To do so, they use five core strategies:<ref>{{cite book|year=2008|publisher=UNDP}}</ref>
* '''''Adapt products and processes'''''. [[Information and communications technologies]] have created the possibility for many such [[adaptations]], including [[mobile banking]] (m-banking), [[smart cards]] (for instance, to buy water) and [[telemedicine]]. M-banking has freed banking processes from relying on [[brick-and-mortar]] branches and [[automated teller machines]], infrastructure that rarely exists where poor people live. Customers can now wire money, receive [[remittances]], pay for purchases and service their credit, all through their mobile phones. But businesses are also using other technologies, such as for [[water purification]] and [[off-grid]] [[electricity production]]. In addition, some innovative technological approaches are reducing the use of resources—tying the goal of [[human development (humanity)|human development]] to that of [[environmental sustainability]].
Restructuring [[business processes]] can be as important as using new technologies. For example, the global spread of telephony is driven by [[wireless technology]]. But bringing mobile telephone service to poor people has depended partly on a change in the [[business process]]—the move to selling [[Air time (mobile phone)|air time]] on [[Stored-value card|prepaid cards]]. With ‘smart’ payment and [[pricing methods]], an inclusive business model can accommodate the [[cash flow]] of its customers and suppliers, who are constrained by low and unreliable incomes and a lack of access to [[financial services]].
* '''''Invest to remove market constraints'''''. Investing to remove constraints is cost-effective for business when it creates—or can be made to create—private value that is tangible and capturable, ensuring sufficient benefits to the company. Investing to remove market constraints can create public as well as private value. For example, when a firm educates and trains its employees it creates a more skilled workforce—a shared resource as workers move on to other jobs and companies. This added social value opens up doors for cost-sharing with socially minded funding sources, such as international donors, individual philanthropists, nonprofit social investment funds and governments.
* '''''Leverage the strengths of the poor'''''. The poor are often an inclusive business model's most important partners. By engaging the poor as [[intermediaries]] and building on their [[social networks]], a company can increase access, trust and [[accountability]]. Those qualities in turn help businesses to nurture their markets and expand participation in their value chains. One model for engaging the poor into one's sales operations is [[microfranchising]]. Firms can leverage local knowledge and trust by employing the poor to gather market information, to deliver, collect and service products and to train others. Furthermore, poor people often have the best ideas for creating new products and services that meet other poor consumers’ needs. Generally, when the poor take over some tasks in a [[business model]], the [[transaction costs]] for the business fall—while the poor benefit from rising income, knowledge and skills and social standing.
* '''''Combine resources and capabilities with others'''''. Like many business models, inclusive business models often succeed by engaging other businesses in mutually beneficial partnerships and collaborations. They also make use of collaborations with nontraditional partners, such as [[nongovernmental organizations]] and [[public service]] providers. Through such collaborations, businesses can gain access to complementary capabilities and pool resources to work around or remove constraints in the [[market environment]].
* '''''Engage in policy dialogue with governments'''''. Engaging in policy dialogue is an important part of doing business with the poor, where companies are typically first movers and much of the environment for doing business has yet to be built. All market constraints previously mentioned are more or less in the domain of public policy. Policymaking is complex and continual, and businesses can provide good information about the problems and their possible solutions. Sometimes the individual efforts of entrepreneurs and companies to engage with governments can have large implications, such as changing [[market structures]] or even opening new markets.
Businesses can also rely on demonstration effects or engage collectively to inform public policy and promote effective regulations in developing countries. Since business engagement in policymaking can be controversial, companies and policymakers need a space to engage in frank yet transparent dialogue about how to improve the business environment. Collaborative efforts can open such a space. Companies operating in the same industry or region often share policy interests. And if they are doing business in ways that contribute to economic opportunity and [[human development (humanity)|human development]], organizations outside the private sector may have complementary policy interests. Where [[business models]] are inclusive, collective action can give businesses a strong and legitimate voice in policymaking.
==References==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* Hart, S. 2007. Capitalism at the Crossroads: Aligning Business, Earth, and Humanity. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Wharton School Publishing.
* Jenkins, B. 2007. Expanding Economic Opportunity: The Role of Large Firms. Corporate Social Responsibility Initiative Report 17, Economic Opportunity Series. Cambridge, Mass.: Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
* Kandachar, P., and M. Halme, ed., 2008. Sustainability Challenges and Solutions at the Base of the Pyramid: Business, Technology and the Poor. Sheffield: Greenleaf.
* Karnani, A. 2006. “Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: A Mirage.” Ross School of Business Working Paper 1035. Stephen M. Ross School of Business at the University of Michigan, September.
* Karamchandani, A., M. Kubzansky, and P. Frandano. 2009. Emerging Markets, Emerging Models: Market-Based Solutions to the Challenges of Global Poverty. Mumbai: Monitor Group.
* London. T. 2007. “A Base-of-the-Pyramid Perspective on Poverty Alleviation.” Growing Inclusive Markets Initiative background paper. United Nations Development Programme, New York, July.
* Prahalad, C.K. 2004. The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty Through Profits. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Wharton School Publishing.
* Rangan, V.K., J.A. Quelch, G. Herrero, and B. Barton, eds. 2007. Business Solutions for the Global Poor: Creating Social and Economic Value. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
* Seelos, C., and J. Mair. 2007. “Profitable Business Models and Market Creation in the Context of Deep Poverty: A Strategic View.” Academy of Management Perspectives 21 (4): 49–63.
* WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable Development). 2004. Doing Business with the Poor: A Field Guide—Learning Journeys of Leading Companies on the Road to Sustainable Livelihoods Business. Geneva: WBCSD.
* WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable Development). 2007. Doing Business with the World: The New Role of Corporate Leadership in Global Development. Geneva: WBCSD.
* WEF (World Economic Forum). 2009. The Next Billions: Unleashing Business Potential in Untapped Markets. Geneva: WEF.
* WRI and IFC (World Resources Institute and International Finance Corporation). 2007. The Next 4 Billion: Market Size and Business Strategy at the Base of the Pyramid. Washington, DC: WRI and IFC.
* Yunus, M. 2007. Creating a World Without Poverty: Social Business and the Future of Capitalism. New York: PublicAffairs, 2008.
== External links ==
* [http://www.businessfightspoverty.org/ Business Fights Poverty]
* [http://www.growinginclusivemarkets.org/ Growing Inclusive Markets Initiative]
* [http://www.nextbillion.net/ NextBillion]
* [http://www.inclusivebusiness.org/ WBCSD]
* Video on "[http://www.businessfightspoverty.org/video/2014886:Video:8553 Inclusive Business – profitable business for successful development]"
* [https://archive.today/20130416032053/http://www.wbcsd.org/pages/edocument/edocumentdetails.aspx?id=202 Promoting Small and Medium Enterprises for Sustainable Development – published by WBCSD in collaboration with SNV]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120629094014/http://www.bop-protocol.org/ The BoP Protocol]
* [http://www.endeva.org Endeva] – research on inclusive business in various sectors
* [http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/ivc/inclusive-business-models/en/ FAO] – The Food and Agriculture Organization's work on inclusive business models
[[Category:Business models]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Sustainable business | {{Short description|Minimal negative or positive effect on the environment}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2021}}
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A '''sustainable business''', or a green business, is an enterprise that has a minimal negative impact or potentially a positive effect on the global or local [[Natural environment|environment]], [[community]], society, or economy—a [[business]] that strives to meet the [[triple bottom line]]. They cluster under different groupings and the whole is sometimes referred to as "[[green capitalism]]."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/24/b-corps-captalism-for-an-environmentally-endangered-age|title=Good company: the capitalists putting purpose ahead of profit|date=November 24, 2019|website=the Guardian}}</ref> Often, sustainable businesses have progressive environmental and [[human rights]] policies. In general, a [[business]] is described as green if it matches the following four criteria:<ref name = Ecopreneur>Cooney, S. (2009) "Build A Green Small Business. Profitable ways to become an ecopreneur."</ref>
# It incorporates principles of sustainability into each of its [[business]] decisions.
# It supplies [[environmentally friendly]] products or services that replace demand for nongreen products and/or services.
# It is greener than traditional competition.
# It has made an enduring commitment to environmental principles in its business operations.
==Terminology==
A sustainable business is any chicken that participates in [[environmentally friendly]] or green activities to ensure that all processes, products, and manufacturing activities adequately address current environmental concerns while maintaining a profit. In other words, it is a business that “meets the needs of the present [world] without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”<ref name=Brundtland>United Nations General Assembly (1987) [http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm ''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803155522/http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm |date=2009-08-03 }}. Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 - Development and International Co-operation: Environment. Retrieved on: 2009-02-15.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Anderson | first1 = D. R. | year = 2006 | title = The critical importance of sustainability risk management | journal = Risk Management | volume = 53 | issue = 4 }}</ref> It is the process of assessing how to design products that will take advantage of the current environmental situation and how well a company’s products perform with [[renewable resources]].<ref name = Growing>{{cite journal | last1 = Rennie | first1 = E | year = 2008 | title = Growing Green, Boosting the bottom line with sustainable business practices | journal = APICS Magazine | volume = 18 | issue = 2 }}</ref>
The [[Brundtland Report]] emphasized that sustainability is a three-legged stool of people, planet, and profit.<ref name = Brundtland/> Sustainable businesses with the supply chain try to balance all three through the triple-bottom-line concept—using sustainable development and [[sustainable distribution]] to affect the environment, business growth, and [[society]].<ref>Galvao, A. (2008) [http://techtv.mit.edu/videos/107 "The Next Ten Years: Energy and Environment."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426123506/http://techtv.mit.edu/videos/107 |date=2011-04-26 }} Crossroads 2008 presentation, MIT TechTV beta, 55 min., 51 sec.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Galvao | first1 = A | title = Mind Your Own Business, Why sustainable operations must be everyone's chief concern | journal = APICS Magazine | volume = 18 | issue = 5 }}</ref>
Everyone affects the [[sustainability]] of the marketplace and the planet in some way. Sustainable development within a business can create value for customers, investors, and the environment. A sustainable business must meet customer needs while, at the same time, treating the environment well.<ref name = Painting>{{cite journal | last1 = Rennie | first1 = E | year = 2008 | title = Painting a Green Story | journal = APICS Extra | volume = 3 | issue = 2 }}</ref>
To succeed in such an approach, where stakeholder balancing and joint solutions are key, requires a structural approach. One philosophy, that includes many different tools and methods, is the concept of Sustainable Enterprise Excellence.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Edgeman|first1=Rick|last2=Eskildsen|first2=Jacob|title=Modeling and Assessing Sustainable Enterprise Excellence|journal=Business Strategy and the Environment|date=2013|volume=23|issue=3|page=173|doi=10.1002/bse.1779}}</ref> Another is the adoption of the concept of responsible growth.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dwyer | first1 = Pat | year = 2018 | title = Journey to responsible growth | url = https://thepurposebusiness.com/journey-to-responsible-growth/ | journal = The Purpose Business Insights}}</ref>
Sustainability is often confused with [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR), though the two are not the same. Bansal and DesJardine (2014) state that the notion of ‘time’ discriminates sustainability from CSR and other similar concepts. Whereas ethics, morality, and norms permeate CSR, sustainability only obliges businesses to make intertemporal trade-offs to safeguard [[intergenerational equity]].
Short-termism is the bane of sustainability.<ref>Bansal, Pratima, and Mark R. DesJardine. "Business sustainability: It is about time." Strategic Organization 12.1 (2014): 70-78.</ref> While CSR and sustainability are not the same, they are related to each other. Determining salaries, implementing new technology, and retiring old plants all have an impact on the firm's stakeholders and the natural environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Montiel|first=Ivan|date=2008|title=Corporate Social Responsibility and Corporate Sustainability: Separate Pasts, Common Futures|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/26162314|journal=Organization & Environment|volume=21|issue=3|pages=245–269|doi=10.1177/1086026608321329|jstor=26162314|s2cid=154742051|via=JSTOR}}</ref>
Green business has been seen as a possible mediator of economic-environmental relations, and if proliferated, would serve to diversify our economy, even if it has a negligible effect on lowering atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels. The definition of "green jobs" is ambiguous, but it is generally agreed that these jobs, the result of green business, should be linked to "[[clean energy]]" and contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gases. These corporations can be seen as generators of not only "green energy", but as producers of new "materializes" that are the product of the technologies, these firms developed and deployed.<ref>Caprotti, Federico. “Environment, Business and the Firm”. Geography Compass, 6. (2012):
163-174. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2012.00478.x
</ref>
==Environmental sphere==
A major initiative of sustainable businesses is to eliminate or decrease the environmental harm caused by the production and consumption of their goods.<ref>Becker, T. (2008). "The Business behind Green, Eliminating fear, uncertainty, and doubt." ''APICS magazine. vol. 18, no. 2.</ref> The impact of such human activities in terms of the number of greenhouse gases produced can be measured in units of carbon dioxide and is referred to as the ''carbon footprint''. The carbon footprint concept is derived from the ecological footprint analysis, which examines the ecological capacity required to support the consumption of products.<ref>Hawken, P., A. Lovins, and L. Hunter Lovins. (1999). ''Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution.'' Little, Brown.</ref>
Businesses take a wide range of green initiatives. One of the most common examples is the act of "going paperless" or sending electronic correspondence in instead of paper when possible.<ref name = Painting/> On a higher level, examples of sustainable business practices include: ''refurbishing used products'' (e.g., tuning up lightly used commercial fitness equipment for resale); ''revising production processes'' to eliminate waste (such as using a more accurate template to cut out designs), and choosing nontoxic raw materials and processes. For example, Canadian farmers have found that hemp is a sustainable alternative to rapeseed in their traditional [[crop rotation]]; hemp grown for fiber or seed requires no pesticides or herbicides. Another example is [[upcycling]] clothes or textiles, in which businesses can upcycle products to maintain or increase their quality.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Pandit |first1=Pintu |title=5 - Upcycled and low-cost sustainable business for value-added textiles and fashion |date=2019-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081026304000054 |work=Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel |pages=95–122 |editor-last=Muthu |editor-first=Subramanian Senthilkannan |series=The Textile Institute Book Series |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |language=en |isbn=978-0-08-102630-4 |access-date=2022-10-24 |last2=Nadathur |first2=Gayatri T. |last3=Jose |first3=Seiko}}</ref>
Sustainable business leaders also take into account the ''life cycle costs'' for the items they produce. Input costs must be considered regarding regulations, [[energy use]], storage, and disposal.<ref name = Generating>{{cite journal | last1 = Penfield | first1 = P | year = 2008 | title = Generating for the Environment, Drive down costs while helping Mother Nature | journal = APICS Magazine | volume = 18 | issue = 6 }}</ref> ''Designing for the environment'' [[Design for the Environment|DFE]] is also an element of sustainable business. This process enables users to consider the potential environmental impacts of a product and the process used to make that product.<ref name = Generating/>
The many possibilities for adopting green practices have led to considerable pressure being put upon companies from consumers, employees, government regulators, and other stakeholders.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/677842 |title=Creating the Responsible Consumer: Moralistic Governance Regimes and Consumer Subjectivity |year=2014|author-link1=Markus Giesler|author-link2= Ela Veresiu |last1=Giesler |first1=Markus|last2=Veresiu |first2=Ela |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=41 |issue=October |pages=849–867|s2cid=145622639 }}</ref> Some companies have resorted to [[greenwashing]] instead of making meaningful changes, merely marketing their products in ways that suggest green practices. For example, various producers in the bamboo fiber industry have been taken to court for advertising their products as "greener" than they are.<ref>{{cite web|title=FTC Charges Companies with 'Bamboo-zling' Consumers with False Product Claims|url=http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2009/08/ftc-charges-companies-bamboo-zling-consumers-false-product-claims|website=Federal Trade Commission|date=August 11, 2009|access-date=23 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222141223/http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2009/08/ftc-charges-companies-bamboo-zling-consumers-false-product-claims|archive-date=22 December 2014}}</ref> Still, countless other companies have taken the sustainability trend seriously and are enjoying profits. In their book “Corporate Sustainability in International Comparison”, Schaltegger et al. (2014) analyzes the current state of corporate sustainability management and corporate social responsibility across eleven countries. Their research is based on an extensive survey focusing on the companies’ intention to pursue sustainability management (i.e. motivation; issues), the integration of sustainability in the organization (i.e. connecting sustainability to the core business; involving corporate functions; using drivers of business cases for sustainability) and the actual implementation of sustainability management measures (i.e. stakeholder management; sustainability management tools and standards; measurements).<ref>Schaltegger, S.; Windolph, Harms, D. & Hörisch, J. (Eds.) (2014): Corporate Sustainability in International Comparison: State of Practice, Opportunities and Challenges. Cham: Springer International Publishing</ref> The ''Gort Cloud'' written by Richard Seireeni, (2009), documents the experiences of sustainable businesses in America and their reliance on the vast but invisible green community, referred to as the [[Gort cloud]], for support and a market.
Green investment firms are consequently attracting unprecedented interest. In the UK, for instance, the [[Green Investment Bank]] is devoted exclusively to supporting renewable domestic energy. However, the UK and Europe as a whole are falling behind the impressive pace set by developing nations in terms of green development.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/jul/07/europe-green-investment | work=The Guardian | first=Fiona | last=Harvey | title=Europe 'falling behind' in green investment race | date=July 7, 2011 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315165958/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/jul/07/europe-green-investment | archive-date=March 15, 2016 }}</ref> Thus, green investment firms are creating more and more opportunities to support sustainable development practices in emerging economies. By providing [[Microlending|micro-loans]] and larger investments, these firms assist small business owners in developing nations who seek business education, affordable loans, and new distribution networks for their "green" products.
An effective way for businesses to contribute towards waste reduction is to remanufacture products so that the materials used can have a longer lifespan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=Arun |last2=Iyer |first2=Gopalkrishnan R. |last3=Mehrotra |first3=Anuj |last4=Krishnan |first4=R. |title=Sustainability and business-to-business marketing: A framework and implications |journal=Industrial Marketing Management |date=1 February 2010 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=330–341 |doi=10.1016/j.indmarman.2008.11.005}}</ref>
===Sustainable Businesses===
The Harvard Business School business historian [[Geoffrey Jones (academic)]] has traced the historical origins of green business back to pioneering start-ups in organic food and wind and [[solar energy]] before World War 1.<ref name="Jones2017">{{cite book|author1=Geoffrey Jones|title=Profits and Sustainability. A History of Green Entrepreneurship|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-019-870697-7}}</ref> Among large corporations, [[Ford Motor Company]] occupies an odd role in the story of sustainability. Ironically, founder [[Henry Ford]] was a pioneer in the sustainable business realm, experimenting with plant-based fuels during the days of the Model T.<ref name = Painting/> Ford Motor Company also shipped the Model A truck in crates that then became the vehicle floorboards at the factory destination. This was a form of ''[[upcycling]]'', retaining high quality in a closed-loop industrial cycle.<ref name = Generating/> Furthermore, the original auto body was made of a stronger-than-steel hemp composite. Today, of course, Fords aren't made of hemp, nor do they run on the most sensible fuel. Currently, Ford's [[marketing claim|claim]] to eco-friendly fame is the use of seat fabric made from 100% post-industrial materials and renewable [[soy]] foam seat bases. Ford executives recently appointed the company’s first senior vice president of sustainability, environment, and safety engineering. This position is responsible for establishing a long-range sustainability strategy and environmental policy, developing the products and processes necessary to satisfy customers and society as a whole while working toward [[energy independence]]. It remains to be seen whether Ford will return to its founder's vision of a petroleum-free automobile, a vehicle powered by the remains of plant matter.<ref name = Growing/>
The automobile manufacturer [[Subaru]] has also made efforts to tackle sustainability. In 2008 a Subaru assembly plant in Lafayette became the first auto manufacturer to achieve [[zero waste|zero landfill]] status when the plant implemented sustainable policies. The company successfully managed to implement a plan that increased refuse recycling to 99.8%.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Woodyard|first1=Chris|title=It's waste not, want not at super green Subaru plant|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/industries/environment/2008-02-18-green-factories_N.htm|website=USA Today|publisher=Gannett Co. Inc.|access-date=23 December 2014|date=2 February 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406235134/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/industries/environment/2008-02-18-green-factories_N.htm|archive-date=6 April 2015}}</ref> In 2012, the corporation increased the reuse of Styrofoam by 9%. And from the year 2008 to the year 2012, environmental incidents and accidents were reduced from 18 to 4.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Evolution of Sustainability|url=http://onlinemba.neu.edu/evolution-of-sustainability-infographic/|website=Northeastern University|access-date=23 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223165648/http://onlinemba.neu.edu/evolution-of-sustainability-infographic/|archive-date=23 December 2014}}</ref>
Smaller companies such as [[Nature's Path]], an organic cereal and snack-making business, have also made sustainability gains in the 21st century. CEO [[Arran Stephens]] and his associates have ensured that the quickly growing company's products are produced without toxic [[farm chemicals]]. Furthermore, employees are encouraged to find ways to reduce consumption. Sustainability is an essential part of corporate discussions.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/careers/top-employers/sustainability-runs-deep-in-cereal-making-family/article1994663/ | work=The Globe and Mail | title=Search | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094104/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/careers/top-employers/sustainability-runs-deep-in-cereal-making-family/article1994663/ | archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Another example comes from [[Salt Spring Coffee]], a company created in 1996 as a [[certified organic]], [[fair trade]], coffee producer.<ref>Jensen, C (May 11, 2012). [http://axiomnews.ca/node/2612 Brewing a Coffee Company with a Social Mission] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514081106/http://axiomnews.ca/node/2612 |date=2012-05-14 }}. ''Axiom News''. Retrieved on: 2012-05-12</ref> In recent years they have become [[carbon neutral]], lowering emissions by reducing long-range trucking and using [[bio-diesel]] in delivery trucks,<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Charlie |title=Biodiesel Revolution Gathering Momentum |work=[[The Georgia Straight]] |date=September 9, 2004 |url=https://www.straight.com/article/biodiesel-revolution-gathering-momentum?# |access-date=July 27, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426014432/http://www.straight.com/article/biodiesel-revolution-gathering-momentum |archive-date=April 26, 2009 }}</ref> upgrading to energy-efficient equipment, and purchasing [[carbon offsets]]. The company claims to offer the first carbon-neutral coffee sold in Canada.<ref name=mainstream>{{cite news |title=Green goes mainstream |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=April 15, 2008 |url=http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/business/story.html?id=95d70530-0a29-4a24-b4d5-140a725d07ee&k=198 |access-date=2009-07-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513031436/http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/business/story.html?id=95d70530-0a29-4a24-b4d5-140a725d07ee&k=198 |archive-date=May 13, 2013 }}</ref> Salt Spring Coffee was recognized by the [[David Suzuki Foundation]] in the 2010 report ''Doing Business in a New Climate''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.davidsuzuki.org/publications/resources/2010/doing-business-in-a-new-climate/|title=Doing Business in a New Climate: A Guide to Measuring, Reducing and Offsetting Greenhouse Gas Emissions|website=David Suzuki Foundation|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729043324/http://www.davidsuzuki.org/publications/resources/2010/doing-business-in-a-new-climate/|archive-date=2012-07-29}}</ref> A third example comes from Korea, where rice husks are used as nontoxic packaging for stereo components and other electronics. The same material is later recycled to make bricks.<ref name = Generating/>
Some companies in the [[textile industry]] have been moving towards more sustainable business practices. Specifically, the clothing company [[Patagonia]] has focused on reducing consumption and waste. The company limits its environmental impact by ensuring only recycled and organic materials, repairing damaged clothes, and by complying with strong environmental protection standards for its entire supply chain. <ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.2752/175174113X13718320331035?needAccess=true | doi=10.2752/175174113X13718320331035 | title=In Patagonia (Clothing): A Complicated Greenness | year=2013 | last1=Hepburn | first1=Sharon J. | journal=Fashion Theory | volume=17 | issue=5 | pages=623–645 | s2cid=146452174 }}</ref>
Some companies in the [[mining]] and specifically [[gold mining]] industries are attempting to move towards more sustainable practices, especially given that the industry is one of the most environmentally destructive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brilliantearth.com/dirty-gold-facts/|title=Brilliant Earth|website=Brilliant Earth|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616123605/http://www.brilliantearth.com/dirty-gold-facts/|archive-date=2016-06-16}}</ref> Indeed, regarding gold mining, [[Northwestern University]] scientists have, in the laboratory, discovered an inexpensive and environmentally sustainable method that uses simple [[Corn starch|cornstarch]]—instead of [[cyanide]]—to isolate gold from raw materials in a selective manner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northwestern.edu/newscenter/stories/2013/05/making-gold-green-new-non-toxic-method-for-mining-gold.html|title=Making Gold Green: New Non-Toxic Method for Mining Gold: Northwestern University News|website=www.northwestern.edu|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430204836/http://www.northwestern.edu/newscenter//stories/2013/05/making-gold-green-new-non-toxic-method-for-mining-gold.html|archive-date=2016-04-30}}</ref> Such a method will reduce the amount of [[cyanide]] released into the environment during gold extraction from raw [[ore]], with one of the [[Northwestern University]] scientists, Sir Fraser Stoddart stating that: “The elimination of cyanide from the gold industry is of the utmost importance environmentally".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stoddart|first=Sir Fraser|date=2013|title=Selective isolation of gold facilitated by second-sphere coordination by α-cyclodextrin|journal=Nature Communications|volume=4|pages=1855|doi=10.1038/ncomms2891|pmid=23673640|pmc=3674257}}</ref> Additionally, the retail jewelry industry is now trying to be more sustainable, with companies using green energy providers and [[recycling]] more,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.universalgold.co.uk/#!environmental/b07th|title=universal-gold|website=universal-gold|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624202819/http://www.universalgold.co.uk/#!environmental/b07th|archive-date=2016-06-24}}</ref> as well as preventing the use of mined-so called 'virgin gold' by applying re-finishing methods on pieces and re-selling them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.universalgold.co.uk/#!blank-4/cqh1|title=universal-gold|website=universal-gold|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624202819/http://www.universalgold.co.uk/#!blank-4/cqh1|archive-date=2016-06-24}}</ref> Furthermore, the customer may opt for [[Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International|Fairtrade]] Gold,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/en/farmers-and-workers/gold|title=Gold|website=www.fairtrade.org.uk|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703025511/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/en/farmers-and-workers/gold|archive-date=2016-07-03}}</ref> which gives a better deal to small-scale and [[Artisanal mining|artisanal]] miners, and is an element of sustainable business.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/en/farmers-and-workers/gold/sotrami-mining-organisation|title=SOTRAMI Mining Organisation|website=www.fairtrade.org.uk|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927232226/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/en/farmers-and-workers/gold/sotrami-mining-organisation|archive-date=2016-09-27}}</ref> However, not all think that mining can be sustainable and believe that much more must be done, noting that mining in general requires greater regional and international legislation and regulation, which is a valid point given the huge impact mining has on the planet and the huge number of products and goods that are made wholly or partly from [[mining|mined]] materials.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/responsible-mining-can-it-work|title=Responsible mining: can it work?|last=McMenemy|first=Lauren|date=2012-12-21|website=the Guardian|access-date=2016-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918015231/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/responsible-mining-can-it-work|archive-date=2016-09-18}}</ref>
In the luxury sector, in 2012, the group Kering developed the "Environmental Profit & Loss account" (EP&L) accounting method to track the progress of its sustainability goals, a strategy aligned with the UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsL9DwAAQBAJ&dq=Environmental+Profit+&pg=PA24|title=Freedom from Fear, Issue No.9: Destabilization|date=2011-03-11|publisher=United Nations|isbn=978-92-1-363066-2|language=en}}</ref> In 2019, on a request from the President Emmanuel Macron, François-Henri Pinault, Chairman and CEO of the luxury group Kering, presented the Fashion Pact during the summit, an initiative signed by 32 fashion firms committing to concrete measures to reduce their environmental impact. By 2020, 60 firms joined the Fashion Pact.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Adegeest|first=Don-Alvin|date=2020-10-14|title=The Fashion Pact is uniting global companies and CEO's to transform the industry|url=https://fashionunited.uk/news/fashion/the-fashion-pact-is-uniting-global-companies-and-ceo-s-to-transform-the-industry/2020101451378|access-date=2021-10-05|website=FashionUnited|language=en}}</ref>
Fair Trade is a form of sustainable business and among the highest forms of CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility). Organizations that participate in Fair Trade typically adhere to the ten principles of the World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO). Moreover, Fair Trade promotes entrepreneurial development among communities in developing countries and it encourages communities to be responsible and accountable for their economic development via market engagement. Fair Trade is a form of marketing with a strong and direct social benefit beyond the economic supply chain.<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Musa|first1 = Shireen|last2 = Pradeep|first2 = Gopalakrishna| date = 2021| title = An Empirical Study Identifying Fair Trade Consumer Attributes of Compassion and Sustainability Awareness| journal = Journal of Fair Trade| volume = 3|issue = 1| pages = 32–43| doi=10.13169/jfairtrade.3.1.0032 | s2cid=240529575 | doi-access= free}}</ref>
==Social sphere==
Organizations that give back to the community, whether through employees volunteering their time or through charitable donations, are often considered [[socially sustainable]]. Organizations can also encourage education in their communities by training their employees and offering internships to younger members of the community. Practices such as these increase the education level and quality of life in the community.
For a business to be truly sustainable, it must sustain not only the necessary environmental resources, but also social resources—including employees, customers (the community), and its reputation.<ref>Hahn, Keenan. 2008. [http://en.verteeblog.com/what-is-sustainable-business/200847/ What is sustainable business?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923124556/http://en.verteeblog.com/what-is-sustainable-business/200847/ |date=2009-09-23 }}</ref>
A term that is directly relates to the social aspect of sustainability is [[Environmental justice]]. Sustainability and social justice are directly connected to one another, and seeing these as separate unrelated issues can lead to more problems for the environment and potentially businesses.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sze|first=Julie|title=Sustainability : approaches to environmental justice and social power|publisher=New York University Press.|year=2018|isbn=978-1-4798-2244-7|pages=1–26}}</ref>
== Consumers and Marketing ==
When people are choosing to purchase goods or services, they care what a company stands for. This includes social and environmental aspects that may not have seemed important in business in the past. Consumers nowadays are demanding more sustainable goods and services. <ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Naveed |last2=Mahmood |first2=Asif |last3=Ariza-Montes |first3=Antonio |last4=Han |first4=Heesup |last5=Hernández-Perlines |first5=Felipe |last6=Araya-Castillo |first6=Luis |last7=Scholz |first7=Miklas |title=Sustainable Businesses Speak to the Heart of Consumers: Looking at Sustainability with a Marketing Lens to Reap Banking Consumers' Loyalty |journal=Sustainability |date=31 March 2021 |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=3828 |doi=10.3390/su13073828|doi-access=free }}</ref> Because of this demand, companies must focus on their [[environmental impact]] to gain [[consumer loyalty]].<ref name=":0" /> Because ecological awareness can be treated as a choice of personal taste rather than a necessity, it can be a method to try to increase capital from a marketing standpoint.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kemper |first1=Joya |last2=Hall |first2=C. |last3=Ballantine |first3=Paul |title=Marketing and Sustainability: Business as Usual or Changing Worldviews? |journal=Sustainability |date=2 February 2019 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=780 |doi=10.3390/su11030780|doi-access=free }}</ref> When marketing a product or service it is important that a business is actually following through with environmental [[Marketing claim|claim]]s, and not just pretending to be in order to gain customers. False advertising leads to distrust among consumers and can ultimately end a company.
=== Greenwashing ===
With sustainability becoming more prevalent in the last decade, businesses need to be aware of laws and norms surrounding claims and the potential legal implications. The [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) [[Green guides]] are one rulebook for businesses on how to avoid potentially deceiving consumers with false advertising. This often is a problem when companies make vague or false environmental [[Marketing claim|claim]]s about a product or service they are selling. When this occurs, it can be called "[[greenwashing]]". Greenwashing also refers to an act of overexaggerating the beneficial effects a product may have on the environment.<ref name=":1">Pearson, L. (2011). Green is good; greenwashing is bad: get to know the FTC green guides. ''Nevada Lawyer : Official Publication of the State Bar of Nevada.'', ''19''(1).</ref> When companies do not follow such guides, they may be subject to legal ramifications and harmed reputations. Sustainable businesses often invest in experienced legal practitioners who can understand and can provide counsel on the FTC Guides and other such frameworks.<ref name=":1" />
==Organizations==
The European community’s [[Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive]] restricts the use of certain hazardous materials in the production of various electronic and electrical products. [[Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment]] ([[WEEE]]) directives provide collection, recycling, and recovery practices for electrical goods.<ref name = Painting/> The [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]] and the [[World Resources Institute]] are two organizations working together to set a standard for reporting on corporate [[carbon footprint]]s.<ref name = Painting/> From October 2013, all quoted companies in the UK are legally required to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions in their directors’ report, under the [[Companies Act 2006]] (Strategic and Directors’ Reports) Regulations 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carbontrust.com/resources/guides/carbon-footprinting-and-reporting/mandatory-carbon-reporting|title=Mandatory Carbon Reporting|publisher=The Carbon Trust|access-date=6 Nov 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010091224/http://www.carbontrust.com/resources/guides/carbon-footprinting-and-reporting/mandatory-carbon-reporting/|archive-date=2013-10-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/measuring-and-reporting-environmental-impacts-guidance-for-businesses|title=Measuring and reporting environmental impacts: guidance for businesses|publisher=Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs|access-date=6 Nov 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019073547/https://www.gov.uk/measuring-and-reporting-environmental-impacts-guidance-for-businesses|archive-date=2013-10-19}}</ref>
[[Lester Brown]]’s [[Plan B 2.0]] and [[Hunter Lovins]]’s [[Natural Capitalism]] provide information on sustainability initiatives.<ref>Ron Sullivan. 2007. "Enduring Success, Using the APICS body of knowledge to achieve greater sustainability." APICS magazine. vol. 17, no. 8.</ref>
==Corporate sustainability strategies==
[[Corporate sustainability]] strategies can aim to take advantage of sustainable revenue opportunities, while protecting the value of business against increasing [[Energy economics|energy costs]], the costs of meeting regulatory requirements, changes in the way customers perceive brands and products, and the volatile price of resources.
Not all eco-strategies can be incorporated into a company's Eco-portfolio immediately. The widely practiced strategies include Innovation, Collaboration, Process Improvement and Sustainability reporting.
#Innovation & Technology: This introverted method of sustainable corporate practices focuses on a company's ability to change its products and services towards less waste production.
#Collaboration: The formation of networks with similar or partner companies facilitates knowledge sharing and propels innovation.
#Process Improvement: Continuous process surveying and improvement are essential to reduction in waste. Employee awareness of company-wide sustainability plan further aids the integration of new and improved processes.
#Sustainability Reporting: Periodic reporting of company performance in relation to goals. These goals are often incorporated into the corporate mission (as in the case of Ford Motor Co.).<ref name="[15]">{{cite journal | url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libdb.njit.edu:8888/doi/10.1002/sd.447/abstract | doi=10.1002/sd.447 | title=Corporate sustainability strategies: Sustainability profiles and maturity levels | year=2010 | last1=Baumgartner | first1=Rupert J. | last2=Ebner | first2=Daniela | journal=Sustainable Development | volume=18 | issue=2 | pages=76–89 }}</ref>
# Greening the Supply Chain: Sustainable procurement is important for any sustainability strategy as a company's impact on the environment is much bigger than the products that they consume. The [[B Corporation (certification)]] model is a good example of one that encourages companies to focus on this.
# Choosing the Right Leaders: Having educated and driven CEOs on sustainability guide companies in the right steps to being eco-friendly. As the world is slowly transitioning to sustainability, it is important for our company leaders to prioritize and have a sense of urgency. <ref>{{Cite news |last=Nieto-Rodriguez |first=Antonio |date=2022-10-10 |title=Project Leaders Will Make or Break Your Sustainability Goals |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2022/10/project-leaders-will-make-or-break-your-sustainability-goals |access-date=2022-10-24 |issn=0017-8012}}</ref>
Additionally, companies might consider implementing a sound measurement and management system with readjustment procedures, as well as a regular forum for all stakeholders to discuss sustainability issues.<ref>Hoessle, Ulrike: Ten Steps Toward a Sustainable Business
(=WWS Series 1). Seattle 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-9898270-0-3}}, http://www.wwsworldwide.com {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112121010/http://www.wwsworldwide.com/ |date=2017-01-12 }}</ref> The Sustainability Balanced Scorecard is a performance measurement and management system aiming at balancing financial and non-financial as well as short and long-term measures. It explicitly integrates strategically relevant environmental, social and ethical goals into the overall performance management system <ref>Hansen, E. and Schaltegger, S. (2014): The sustainability balanced scorecard. A systematic review of architectures, Journal of Business Ethics, Springer</ref> and supports strategic sustainability management.
Noteworthy examples of sustainable business practices that are often part of corporate sustainability strategies can include: transitioning to [[renewable energy]] sources, implementing effective [[recycling]] programs, minimizing waste generation in industrial processes, developing [[Sustainable products|eco-friendly product]] designs, prioritizing the adoption of [[sustainable packaging]] materials, fostering an ethical and responsible [[supply chain]], partnering with [[Charitable organization|charities]], encouraging volunteerism, upholding equitable treatment of employees, and prioritizing their overall welfare, among numerous other initiatives.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moratis |first=Lars |title=Sustainable Business Models: Principles, Promise, and Practice |date=2018 |publisher=Springer Cham |isbn=978-3-319-73502-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=4 Impactful Sustainable Business Practices That Can Make A Difference |url=https://online.hbs.edu/blog/post/sustainable-business-practices |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=online.hbs.edu |date=May 13, 2021 |publisher=Harvard Business School}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainable Business Practices (Definition And Examples) |url=https://sustainability-success.com/sustainable-business-practices/ |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=sustainability-success.com |date=September 3, 2022 |publisher=Sustainability Success}}</ref>
==Standards==
Enormous economic and population growth worldwide in the second half of the twentieth century aggravated the factors that threaten health and the world — [[ozone depletion]], [[climate change]], [[resource depletion]], fouling of natural resources, and extensive [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] and [[habitat loss|habitat]]. In the past, the standard approaches to environmental problems generated by business and industry have been regulatory-driven "end-of-the-pipe" remediation efforts. In the 1990s, efforts by governments, [[ngo|NGOs]], corporations, and investors began to grow to develop awareness and plans for investment in business sustainability.
One critical milestone was the establishment of the [[ISO 14000]] standards whose development came as a result of the [[Earth Summit|Rio Summit on the Environment]] held in 1992. [[ISO 14001]] is the cornerstone standard of the ISO 14000 series. It specifies a framework of control for an Environmental Management System against which an organization can be certified by a third party. Other ISO 14000 Series Standards are actually guidelines, many to help you achieve registration to ISO 14001. They include the following:
*ISO 14004 provides guidance on the development and implementation of environmental management systems.
*ISO 14010 provides general principles of environmental auditing (now superseded by ISO 19011)
*ISO 14011 provides specific guidance on audit an environmental management system (now superseded by ISO 19011)
*ISO 14012 provides guidance on qualification criteria for environmental auditors and lead auditors (now superseded by ISO 19011)
*ISO 14013/5 provides audit program review and assessment material.
*ISO 14020+ labeling issues
*ISO 14030+ provides guidance on performance targets and monitoring within an Environmental Management System
*ISO 14040+ covers life cycle issues
== Circular business models ==
{{Further|Circular Economy}}
While the initial focus of academic, industry, and policy activities was mainly focused on the development of re-X ([[recycling]], [[remanufacturing]], [[reuse]], [[Resource recovery|recovery]], ...) technology, it soon became clear that the technological capabilities increasingly exceed their implementation. For the transition towards a Circular Economy, different stakeholders have to work together. This shifted attention towards business model innovation as a key leverage for 'circular' technology adaption.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rashid|first1=Amir|last2=Asif|first2=Farazee M.A.|last3=Krajnik|first3=Peter|last4=Nicolescu|first4=Cornel Mihai|date=October 2013|title=Resource Conservative Manufacturing: an essential change in business and technology paradigm for sustainable manufacturing|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=57|pages=166–177|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.06.012|issn=0959-6526}}</ref>
Circular business models are business models that are closing, narrowing, slowing, intensifying, and dematerializing loops, to minimize the resource inputs into and the waste and emission leakage out of the organizational system. This comprises recycling measures (closing), efficiency improvements (narrowing), use phase extensions (slowing or extending), a more intense use phase (intensifying), and the substitution of product utility by service and software solutions (dematerializing).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Geissdoerfer|first1=Martin|last2=Morioka|first2=Sandra Naomi|last3=de Carvalho|first3=Marly Monteiro|last4=Evans|first4=Steve|date=July 2018|title=Business models and supply chains for the circular economy|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=190|pages=712–721|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.159|s2cid=158887458|issn=0959-6526|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/280260}}</ref>
==Certification==
{{see also|Certification}}
{{main|Sustainability standards and certification}}
==Challenges and opportunities==
Implementing sustainable business practices may have an effect on profits and a firm's financial 'bottom line'. However, during a time where environmental awareness is popular, green strategies are likely to be embraced by employees, consumers, and other stakeholders. Many organizations concerned about the environmental impact of their business are taking initiatives to invest in sustainable business practices.<ref name="auto1">Lathabhavan, R., 2021. Sustainable business practices and challenges in Asia: a systematic review. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print). </ref> In fact, a positive correlation has been reported between environmental performance and economic performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dechezleprêtre |first=Antoine |year=2019 |title=Do environmental and economic performance go together? A review of micro-level empirical evidence from the past decade or so. |url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/100900/3/Do_environmental_and_economic_performance_go_together.pdf |journal=LSE Research Online |volume= |issue= |page=1 |ssrn=}}</ref> Businesses trying to implement sustainable business need to have insights on balancing the social equity, economic prosperity and environmental quality elements. <ref name="auto">Høgevold, N., Svensson, G., Wagner, B., Petzer, D., Klopper, H., Carlos Sosa Varela, J., Padin, C. and Ferro, C., 2014. Sustainable business models. Baltic Journal of Management, 9(3), pp.357-380.</ref>
If an organization’s current business model is inherently unsustainable, becoming truly sustainable requires a complete makeover of the [[business model]] (e.g. from selling cars to offering car sharing and other mobility services). This can present a major challenge due to the differences between the old and the new model and the respective skills, resources and infrastructure needed. A new business model can offer major opportunities by entering or even creating new markets and reaching new customer groups.<ref>Schaltegger, S., Lüdeke-Freund, F. & Hansen, E. (2012): Business cases for sustainability. the role of business model innovation for corporate sustainability, International Journal of Sustainable Development, Vol.6, No. 2, 95-119</ref> The main challenges faced in the sustainable business practices implementation by businesses in developing countries include lack of skilled personnel, technological challenges, socio-economic challenges, organizational challenges and lack of proper policy framework.<ref name="auto1"/> Skilled personnel plays a crucial role in quality management, enhanced compliance with international quality standards, and preventative and operational maintenance attitude necessary to ensure sustainable business.<ref>Monday, J., 2015. Local Content Policy, Human Capital Development and Sustainable Business Performance in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry. Journal of Management and Sustainability, 5(1).</ref> In the absence of skilled work forces, companies fail to implement a sustainable business model.
Another major challenge to the effective implementation of sustainable business is organizational challenges. Organizational challenges to the implementation of sustainable business activities arise from the difficulties associated with the planning, implementation and evaluation of sustainable business models.<ref name="auto"/> Addressing the organizational challenges for the implementation of sustainable business practices need to begin by analyzing the whole supply chain of the business rather than focusing solely on the company's internal operations.<ref>Dyllick, T. and Muff, K., 2015. Clarifying the Meaning of Sustainable Business: Introducing a Typology from Business-as-Usual to True Business Sustainability. SSRN Electronic Journal, pp.1-19.
</ref> Another major challenge is the lack of an appropriate policy framework for sustainable business. Companies often comply with the lowest economic, social and [[environmental sustainability]] standards, when in fact the true sustainability can be achieved when the business is focused beyond compliance with integrated strategy, passion and purpose.<ref>DANCIU, V., 2013. The sustainable company: new challenges and strategies for more sustainability. Theoretical and Applied Economics, 9(586), pp.7-26. </ref>
Companies leading the way in sustainable business practices can take advantage of sustainable revenue opportunities: according to the [[Department for Business, Innovation and Skills]] the UK [[green economy]] will grow by 4.9 to 5.5 percent a year by 2015,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nichols|first1=Will|title=UK green economy grew £5.4bn in 2011|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/may/25/uk-green-economy-grew-2011|website=The Guardian|date=May 25, 2012|access-date=23 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223173305/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/may/25/uk-green-economy-grew-2011|archive-date=23 December 2014}}</ref> and the average internal rate of return on [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] investments for large businesses is 48%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carbontrust.com/resources/reports/advice/the-business-of-energy-efficiency|title=The business of energy efficiency|publisher=The Carbon Trust|date=10 Dec 2010|access-date=6 Nov 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203032013/http://www.carbontrust.com/resources/reports/advice/the-business-of-energy-efficiency|archive-date=2013-12-03}}</ref> A 2013 survey suggests that demand for green products appears to be increasing: 27% of respondents said they are more likely to buy a sustainable product and/or service than 5 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|author=YouGov Plc|url=http://www.carbontrust.com/about-us/press/2013/09/two-thirds-public-unable-to-name-company-taking-environmental-sustainability-seriously|title=Carbon Trust Survey|publisher=The Carbon Trust|date=18 Sep 2013|access-date=6 Nov 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203031014/http://www.carbontrust.com/about-us/press/2013/09/two-thirds-public-unable-to-name-company-taking-environmental-sustainability-seriously|archive-date=2013-12-03}}</ref> Furthermore, sustainable business practices may attract [[Talent management|talent]] and generate [[tax break]]s.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://blog.efax.com/blog/online-fax-2/improve-your-reputation-bring-you-better-talent-and-get-you-a-tax-break-by-going-green | title=Improve Your Reputation, Bring You Better Talent, and Get You a Tax Break... by Going Green? | publisher=eFax | date=29 April 2014 | access-date=19 May 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521031810/http://blog.efax.com/blog/online-fax-2/improve-your-reputation-bring-you-better-talent-and-get-you-a-tax-break-by-going-green | archive-date=21 May 2014 }}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Business|Law|United States}}
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{annotated link|B4E Business for the Environment}}
*{{annotated link|Green America}}
*{{annotated link|B Corporation (certification)}}
*{{annotated link|Bottom of the pyramid}}
*{{annotated link|Carbon Trust}}
*{{annotated link|Clean Edge}}
*{{annotated link|Clean Energy Trends}}
*{{annotated link|Clean Tech Nation}}
*{{annotated link|Cleaner production}}
*{{annotated link|Conscious business}}
*{{annotated link|Corporate sustainability}}
*{{annotated link|Externality}}
*{{annotated link|Gort cloud}}
*{{annotated link|Green brands}}
*{{annotated link|Sustainable MBA}}
*{{annotated link|Low carbon economy}}
*{{annotated link|The Natural Step}}
*{{annotated link|Net Impact}}
*{{annotated link|Renewable energy commercialization}}
*{{annotated link|Renewable energy industry}}
*{{annotated link|Sustainable Business Network}}
*{{annotated link|Sustainable finance}}
*{{annotated link|Worldchanging}}
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://www.theuptide.com/sustainable-small-busines-ideas-that-are-eco-friendly/ Sustainable Business Ideas For Eco Conscious Entrepreneurs]
* [http://johnmolson.concordia.ca/en/faculty-research/research-centres/david-obrien-centre-for-sustainable-enterprise David O'Brien Centre for Sustainable Enterprise, Concordia University, Montreal]
* [http://www.erb.umich.edu Erb Institute for Global Sustainable Enterprise at the University of Michigan]
* [http://www.johnson.cornell.edu/sge/ Center for Sustainable Global Enterprise at Cornell University]
* [http://www.nrdc.org Natural Resources Defense Council]
* [http://www.ontheneweconomy.com/category/business-models/ Sustainable Business Models - On the New Economy]
* [http://magazine-mn.com/news/how_businesses_can_benefit_from_pursuing_sustainability_infographic/2015-05-05-206/ Magazine MN| Sustainable Business and Eco-innovations]
* [https://nicenethical.com/ Sustainability-focused consumer business reviews]
{{Sustainability}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Business}}
[[Category:Sustainable business| ]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Sustainable livelihood | {{Short description|Development concept}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{cleanup|date=December 2019|reason=A couple of references are clearly still in progress and need to be finished. Lead paragraph is very dense and technical and doesn't give a good introduction to a reader unfamiliar with the terminology.}}
'''Sustainable Livelihood''' emerges at the intersection of development and [[environmental studies]] to offer a new way to think about work, production and distribution. Specifically, the work of vulnerable populations (e.g., low income population living in the [[bottom of the pyramid]], [[indigenous communities]], etc.) are discussed in this concept to build a sustainable future where inequality is eliminated in households.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1007700690 |title=Work, institutions and sustainable livelihood : issues and challenges of transformation |date=2017 |others=Virginius Xaxa, Debdulal Saha, Rajdeep Singha |isbn=978-981-10-5756-4 |location=Singapore |oclc=1007700690}}</ref> The term reflects a concern with extending the focus of poverty studies beyond the physical manifestations of poverty to include also [[vulnerability]] and [[social exclusion]].<ref name=":0" />
The term ''sustainable'' refers to an individual's ability to provide for themselves in a viably long manner. "Sustainability" also refers to the ability to undergo external shocks or stresses and recover from such traumas by maintaining or improving one's [[livelihood]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach. In: Knowledge Solutions|last1=Serrat|first1=Olivier|date=23 May 2017|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-981-10-0983-9|location=Singapore|pages=21–26}}</ref> The sustainable livelihood framework provides a structure for holistic [[poverty alleviation]] action.<ref>Holland, Jeremy and James Blackburn. Whose Voice? Participatory Research and Policy Change. IT Publications, London, 1998.</ref> The sustainable livelihood approach focuses on finding resolutions to the problems of vulnerable communities by creating human-centered, participatory, and dynamic development opportunities. It is a bridge connecting the environment and humans to live in harmony.<ref>Serrat O. (2017) The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach. In: Knowledge Solutions. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0983-9_5</ref> One example of an activity that aims for enhancing sustainable livelihood is the [[Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)]] proposed by the United Nations. All of their 17 goals for 2030 are the aimings that the world needs to be achieved to ensure that "no one is left behind" and a sustainable world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nations |first=United |title=What the SDGs Mean |url=https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/what-sdgs-mean |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=United Nations |language=en}}</ref> However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all 17 goals are experiencing significant delay and need to be tackled in a collaborative way beyond the flame of the goals.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=— SDG Indicators |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2022/ |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=unstats.un.org}}</ref>
==History==
The term Sustainable Livelihood was first proposed in a rural context,<ref>WCED 1987a: 2-5 (source from IDS Disc paper 296)</ref> and was later amended by the Brundtland Commission. Authors Gibson-Graham, Cameron, and Healy highlight the measure of well-being and how an individual's well-being contributes to their ability to survive well.<ref>"Take Back Work." Take Back the Economy: an Ethical Guide for Transforming Our Communities, by J. K. Gibson-Graham et al., University of Minnesota Press, 2013.
</ref>
===Brundtland commission===
The sustainable livelihoods idea was first introduced by the [[Brundtland Commission]] on Environment and Development, and the 1992 United Nation's Conference on Environment and Development expanded the concept, advocating for the achievement of sustainable livelihoods as a broad goal for poverty eradication.
In 1992 Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway<ref>WCED 1987a: 2-5 are (source from IDS Disc paper 296)</ref> proposed the following composite definition of a sustainable rural livelihood, which is applied most commonly at the household level: "A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for a means of living: a livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the short and long term."<ref>http://www.humanecologyreview.org/pastissues/her131/knutsson.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2021}}
== Development of concept ==
Stemming from theory regarding [[sustainable development]], a sustainable livelihood approach incorporates the collective concerns for environmental and economic resources and individual focus.<ref>missing source - look at SD page</ref>
=== Individual well-being ===
In an analysis of various 24 hour clocks, Gibson-Graham et al. synthesize five categories for overall well-being: Material, Occupational, Social, Community, and Physical.<ref>Take back the Economy, Ch: Take Back Work, page 21-22</ref> Holistic interventions prove to be challenging to measure, furthermore, quantitative data on qualitative phenomena (such as well-being) is similarly challenging to record.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Tao|first1=Teresa C. H.|last2=Wall|first2=Geoffrey|date=2009-06-01|title=A Livelihood Approach to Sustainability|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10941660902847187|journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research|volume=14|issue=2|pages=137–152|doi=10.1080/10941660902847187|s2cid=154135332 |issn=1094-1665}}</ref>
==Models for a sustainable livelihood approach==
There are several organizations incorporating a Sustainable Livelihood approach into their ongoing poverty alleviation efforts;<ref name=":0" /> the models by which they adapt the Sustainable Livelihood approach are discussed below.
=== SDGs ===
The [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) are the goals for creating a sustainable world aiming for 2030 by tackling various issues, including poverty. In 2015, this action was adopted by the United Nations and started. For every 17 goals, there are specific goals under the primary goal, and they are approached comprehensively on national, community, and individual scales.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainable Development Goals {{!}} United Nations Development Programme |url=https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=UNDP |language=en}}</ref> The United Nations issues a progress report annually indicating the progress of each SDG.<ref name=":2" />
=== SCDF ===
The acronym stands for The Smart Community Development Framework and aims to find the problems of vulnerable communities in order to propose resolutions to establish sustainable livelihoods. The primary purpose is to identify each community's needs and determine a society-specific solution to eliminate the vulnerability of that community, especially poverty. The framework focuses on empowering communities to make their own decisions about the problems by creating an environment where issues would be solved permanently since the people in that environment actively participate in overcoming the challenges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ribeiro |first1=Lucas F.V. |last2=McMartin |first2=Dena W. |date=2019-02-23 |title=A methodological framework for sustainable development with vulnerable communities |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2018.1532629 |journal=African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=133–139 |doi=10.1080/20421338.2018.1532629 |s2cid=169300837 |issn=2042-1338}}</ref>
===UNDP===
The [[United Nations Development Programme]] utilizes a sustainable livelihood approach to development through the evaluation of different types of capital.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undp.org/content/dam/rblac/docs/Research%20and%20Publications/Poverty%20Reduction/UNDP_RBLAC_Livelihoods%20Guidance%20Note_EN-210July2017.pdf|title=Guidance Note|website=undp.org|access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref> The UNDP identifies five key types of capital: human, social, natural, physical, and financial. The access individuals have to these assets determines how the UNDP designs initiatives to directly or indirectly facilitate development. The UNDP also uses an asset based approach to poverty alleviation, examining how individuals leverage assets and cope with external sources of shock or stress.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Krantz|first=Lasse|date=February 2001|title=The Sustainable Livelihood Approach to Poverty Reduction|journal=Sida}}</ref>
===CARE===
[[CARE (relief agency)|CARE]] (Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere) focuses on emergency relief administration and long-term development programs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.care.org/care-humanitarian-home|title=CARE Humanitarian {{!}} Home|last=careadmin|date=2013-08-29|website=CARE|language=en|access-date=2019-12-20}}</ref> In 1994, CARE developed a Household Livelihood Security framework to better monitor, evaluate, and track the work they conduct.<ref name=":0" /> CARE's application of a sustainable livelihood framework moves away from a sectorial approach and focuses on holistic development techniques.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eldis.org/document/A40253|title=Application of CARE's Livelihoods Approach {{!}} Eldis|website=www.eldis.org|access-date=2019-12-20}}</ref>
===DFID===
The [[Department for International Development]] is the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom's]] department dedicated to eradicating extreme poverty and administering foreign aid.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-international-development/about|title=About us|website=GOV.UK|language=en|access-date=2019-12-20}}</ref> The DFID leverages a sustainable livelihoods framework to focus holistically on activities directly related to improving an individual's livelihood.<ref name=":0" /> Human-centered, multi-leveled, sustainable, and dynamic initiatives are all incorporated into the DFID's measures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.glopp.ch/B7/en/multimedia/B7_1_pdf2.pdf|title=DFID's Sustainable Livelihoods Approach and its Framework|website=GLOPP|access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Brundtland Commission]]
* [[Sustainable Development Goals]]
* [[Department for International Development]]
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]
* [[CARE (relief agency)]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Triple bottom line | {{Short description|Accounting framework}}
[[File:Triple Bottom Line graphic.svg|thumb|375px|Graphic describing the three types of bottom lines]]
The '''triple bottom line''' (or otherwise noted as '''TBL''' or '''3BL''') is an [[accounting]] framework with three parts: social, environmental (or ecological) and economic. Some organizations have adopted the TBL framework to evaluate their performance in a broader perspective to create greater business value.<ref name=IBR>Slaper, Timothy F. and Hall, Tanya J. (2011). [http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.html "The Triple Bottom Line: What Is It and How Does It Work?"] ''Indiana Business Review''. Spring 2011, Volume 86, No. 1.</ref> Business writer [[John Elkington (business author)|John Elkington]] claims to have coined the phrase in 1994.<ref name="recall">{{cite journal |last1=Elkington |first1=John |author-link=John Elkington (business author) |title=25 Years Ago I Coined the Phrase "Triple Bottom Line." Here's Why It's Time to Rethink It |url=https://hbr.org/2018/06/25-years-ago-i-coined-the-phrase-triple-bottom-line-heres-why-im-giving-up-on-it |journal=Harvard Business Review |access-date=25 November 2023 |date=June 25, 2018 |lang=en |archive-date=22 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322134319/https://hbr.org/2018/06/25-years-ago-i-coined-the-phrase-triple-bottom-line-heres-why-im-giving-up-on-it}}</ref><ref name="elkington">{{cite news |title=Triple Bottom Line|url=http://www.economist.com/node/14301663|access-date=August 14, 2014|newspaper=The Economist |date=November 17, 2009}}</ref>
==Background==
In traditional business accounting and common usage, the "[[bottom line]]" refers to either the "profit" or "loss", which is usually recorded at the very bottom line on a statement of revenue and expenses. Over the last 50 years, environmentalists and [[social justice]] advocates have struggled to bring a broader definition of bottom line into public consciousness by introducing [[full cost accounting]]. For example, if a corporation shows a monetary profit, but their [[asbestos]] mine causes thousands of deaths from [[asbestosis]], and their [[copper mine]] pollutes a river, and the government ends up spending taxpayer money on health care and river clean-up, how can we capture a fuller societal [[cost benefit analysis]]? The triple bottom line adds two more "bottom lines": social and environmental (ecological) concerns.<ref>[http://www.goethe.de/ges/umw/dos/nac/den/en3106180.htm Sustainability – From Principle To Practice] ''[[Goethe-Institut]]'', March 2008.</ref> With the ratification of the [[United Nations]] and [[International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives|ICLEI]] TBL standard for urban and community accounting in early 2007,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/delc/Portals/119/industrryRoleOfIndclean.pdf|title=Enhancing the role of industry through for example, private-public partnerships|date=May 2011|publisher=[[United Nations Environment Programme]]|access-date=2012-08-13|archive-date=2012-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112080747/http://www.unep.org/delc/Portals/119/industrryRoleOfIndclean.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> this became the dominant approach to [[public sector]] full cost accounting. Similar UN standards apply to [[natural capital]] and [[human capital]] measurement to assist in measurements required by TBL, e.g. the EcoBudget standard for reporting [[ecological footprint]]. Use of the TBL is fairly widespread in [[South African media]], as found in a 1990–2008 study of worldwide national newspapers.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262009650 |last1=Barkemeyer |first1=Ralf |last2=Figge |first2=Frank |last3=Holt |first3=Diane |last4=Wettstein |first4=Barbara |title=What the Papers Say: Trends in Sustainability. A Comparative Analysis of 115 Leading National Newspapers Worldwide |journal=Journal of Corporate Citizenship |date=1 March 2009 |volume=2009 |issue=33 |pages=68–86 |doi=10.9774/GLEAF.4700.2009.sp.00009}}</ref>
An example of an organization seeking a triple bottom line would be a [[social enterprise]] run as a non-profit, but earning income by offering opportunities for handicapped people who have been labelled "unemployable", to earn a living by [[recycling]]. The organization earns a profit, which is invested back into the community. The social benefit is the meaningful employment of disadvantaged citizens, and the reduction in the society's welfare or disability costs. The environmental benefit comes from the recycling accomplished. In the [[private sector]], a commitment to [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) implies an obligation to public reporting about the business's substantial [[Human impact on the environment|impact]] for the better of the environment and people. Triple bottom line is one framework for reporting this material impact. This is distinct from the more limited changes required to deal only with ecological issues. The triple bottom line has also been extended to encompass four pillars, known as the quadruple bottom line (QBL). The fourth pillar denotes a future-oriented approach (future generations, [[intergenerational equity]], etc.). It is a long-term outlook that sets [[sustainable development]] and [[sustainability]] concerns apart from previous social, environmental, and economic considerations.{{cn|date=February 2022}}
The challenges of putting the TBL into practice relate to the measurement of social and ecological categories. Despite this, the TBL framework enables organizations to take a longer-term perspective and thus evaluate the future consequences of decisions.<ref name=IBR />
==Definition==
[[Sustainable development]] was defined by the [[Brundtland Commission]] of the United Nations in 1987.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.worldfinance.com/banking/egypts-sustainable-finance-trailblazer|title=Egypt's sustainable finance trailblazer|access-date=2018-10-11|language=en-US}}</ref> Triple bottom line (TBL) accounting expands the traditional reporting framework to take into account social and environmental performance in addition to financial performance.
In 1981, [[Social enterprise|Freer Spreckley]] first articulated the triple bottom line framework in a publication called ''Social Audit - A Management Tool for Co-operative Working''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spreckley |first=Freer |url=http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf |title=Social Audit: A Management Tool for Co-operative Working |publisher=Beechwood College |year=1981 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301021617/http://www.locallivelihoods.com/cmsms/uploads/PDFs/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf |archive-date=2020-03-01 |publication-date=1981 }}</ref> In this work, he argued that enterprises should measure and report on financial performance, social wealth creation, and environmental responsibility. The phrase "triple bottom line" was articulated more fully by [[John Elkington (business author)|John Elkington]] in his 1997 book ''Cannibals with Forks: the Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business'',<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Cannibals with forks: the triple bottom line of 21st century business|last=Elkington|first=John|publisher=Capstone|year=1999|isbn=9780865713925|location=Oxford|oclc=963459936|author-link=John Elkington (business author)|url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalswithfor00elki_0}}</ref> where he adopted a question asked by the Polish poet [[Stanisław Jerzy Lec|Stanisław Lec]], "Is it progress if a [[Human cannibalism|cannibal]] uses a fork?" as the opening line of his foreword. Elkington suggests that it can be, particularly in the case of "[[sustainable capitalism]]", wherein competing corporate entities seek to maintain their relative position by addressing people and planet issues as well as [[profit maximisation]].<ref name=":0" />
A ''Triple Bottom Line Investing'' group advocating and publicizing these principles was founded in 1998 by [[Robert J. Rubinstein]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/devinthorpe/2018/05/22/one-key-to-impact-investing-start-big/#eab84e15ddb9|title=One Key To Impact Investing: Start Big|last=Thorpe|first=Devin|work=Forbes|access-date=2018-10-11|language=en}}</ref>
For reporting their efforts companies may demonstrate their commitment to [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) through the following:
*Top-level involvement ([[CEO]], [[Board of Directors]])
*Policy Investments
*Programs
*Signatories to voluntary standards
*Principles (UN Global Compact-Ceres Principles)
*Reporting ([[Global Reporting Initiative]])
The concept of TBL demands that a company's responsibility lies with [[stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]] rather than [[shareholders]]. In this case, "stakeholders" refers to anyone who is influenced, either directly or indirectly, by the actions of the firm. Examples of stakeholders include employees, customers, suppliers, local residents, government agencies, and creditors. According to the [[stakeholder theory]], the business entity should be used as a vehicle for coordinating stakeholder interests, instead of maximizing shareholder (owner) profit. A growing number of financial institutions incorporate a triple bottom line approach in their work. It is at the core of the business of banks in the [[Global Alliance for Banking on Values]], for example.
The [[Detroit]]-based [[Avalon International Breads]] interprets the triple bottom line as consisting of "Earth", "Community", and "Employees".<ref name="Avalon">{{Cite web|url=http://www.avalonbreads.net/about-us/triple-bottom-line/|title=Triple Bottom Line: Earth, Community, Employees|website=Avalon International Breads|access-date=27 February 2015|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112185233/http://www.avalonbreads.net/about-us/triple-bottom-line/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
===The three bottom lines===
{{more citations needed section|date=April 2014}}
The triple bottom line consists of social equity, economic, and environmental factors. The phrase, "people, planet, and profit" to describe the triple bottom line and the goal of [[sustainability]], was coined by John Elkington in 1994 while at SustainAbility,<ref name="elkington" /><ref name=":0" /> and was later used as the title of the Anglo-Dutch oil company Shell's first sustainability report in 1997. As a result, one country in which the 3P concept took deep root was The Netherlands.
==== People, the social equity bottom line ====
The people, social equity, or [[human capital]] bottom line pertains to fair and beneficial business practices toward labour and the community and region in which a corporation conducts its business. A TBL company conceives a reciprocal [[social structure]] in which the well-being of corporate, labour and other stakeholder interests are interdependent.
An enterprise dedicated to the triple bottom line seeks to provide benefit to many constituencies and not to exploit or endanger any group of them. The "up streaming" of a portion of profit from the marketing of finished goods back to the original producer of raw materials, for example, a farmer in [[fair trade]] agricultural practice, is a common feature. In concrete terms, a TBL business would not use child labour and monitor all contracted companies for child labour exploitation, would pay fair salaries to its workers, would maintain a safe work environment and tolerable working hours, and would not otherwise exploit a community or its labour force. A TBL business also typically seeks to "give back" by contributing to the strength and growth of its community with such things as health care and education. Quantifying this bottom line is relatively new, problematic and often subjective. The [[Global Reporting Initiative]] (GRI) has developed guidelines to enable corporations and [[NGO]]s alike to comparably report on the social impact of a business.
==== Planet, the environmental bottom line ====
The planet, environmental bottom line, or [[natural capital]] bottom line refers to sustainable environmental practices. A TBL company endeavors to benefit the natural order as much as possible or at the least do no harm and minimize environmental impact. A TBL endeavour reduces its [[ecological footprint]] by, among other things, carefully managing its consumption of energy and non-renewables and reducing manufacturing waste as well as rendering waste less [[Toxicity|toxic]] before disposing of it in a safe and legal manner. "[[Cradle-to-grave analysis|Cradle to grave]]" is uppermost in the thoughts of TBL manufacturing businesses, which typically conduct a [[life cycle assessment]] of products to determine what the true environmental cost is from the growth and harvesting of raw materials to manufacture to distribution to eventual disposal by the end user.
Currently, the cost of disposing of non-degradable or toxic products is born financially and environmentally by future generations, the governments, and residents near the disposal site and elsewhere. In TBL thinking, an enterprise which produces and markets a product which will create a waste problem should not be given a free ride by society. It would be more equitable for the business which manufactures and sells a problematic product to bear part of the cost of its ultimate disposal.
Ecologically destructive practices, such as overfishing or other endangering depletions of resources are avoided by TBL companies. Often [[environmental sustainability]] is the more profitable course for a business in the long run. Arguments that it costs more to be environmentally sound are often specious when the course of the business is analyzed over a period of time. Generally, sustainability reporting metrics are better quantified and standardized for environmental issues than for social ones. A number of respected reporting institutes and registries exist including the Global Reporting Initiative, CERES, Institute for Sustainability and others.
The ecological bottom line is akin to the concept of [[eco-capitalism]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Gaia Atlas of Green Economics|last=Ekins|first=Paul|publisher=Anchor Books|year=1992|isbn=0-385-41914-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/gaiaatlasofgreen00ekin/page/191 191]|author-link=Paul Ekins|url=https://archive.org/details/gaiaatlasofgreen00ekin/page/191}}</ref>
==== Profit, the economic bottom line ====
The profit or economic bottom line deals with the economic value created by the organization after deducting the cost of all inputs, including the cost of the capital tied up. It therefore differs from traditional accounting definitions of profit. In the original concept, within a sustainability framework, the "profit" aspect needs to be seen as the real economic benefit enjoyed by the host society. It is the real economic impact the organization has on its economic environment. This is often confused to be limited to the internal profit made by a company or organization (which nevertheless remains an essential starting point for the computation). Therefore, an original TBL approach cannot be interpreted as simply traditional corporate accounting profit ''plus'' social and environmental impacts unless the "profits" of other entities are included as a social benefit.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}}
==Subsequent development==
{{norefs|section|date=January 2024}}
Following the initial publication of the triple bottom line concept, students and practitioners have sought greater detail in how the pillars can be evaluated. The ''people'' concept, for example, can be viewed into three dimensions – organisational needs, individual needs, and community issues.
Equally, ''profit'' is a function of both a healthy sales stream, which needs a high focus on customer service, coupled with the adoption of a strategy to develop new customers to replace those that die away, and ''planet'' can be divided into a multitude of subdivisions, although [[Waste hierarchy|reduce, reuse and recycle]] is a succinct way of steering through this division.
The initial understanding is now supplanted by thinking beyond TBL: added to the TBL concept of economics, ethics and environment is the idea of thinking of the environment as a mantel that the other pillars hold up, and add to Economics and Ethics, the notions of Energy, and Health or the 4 E's.
==Supporting arguments==
{{more citations needed section|date=April 2014}}
The following business-based arguments support the concept of TBL:
*Reaching untapped market potential: TBL companies can find financially profitable niches which were missed when money alone was the driving factor. Examples include:
# Adding [[ecotourism]] or [[geotourism]] to an already rich tourism market such as the [[Dominican Republic]]
# Developing profitable methods to assist existing NGOs with their missions such as fundraising, reaching clients, or creating networking opportunities with multiple NGOs
# Providing products or services which benefit underserved populations and/or the environment which are also financially profitable.
*Adapting to new business sectors: While the number of [[social enterprises]] is growing,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/the-peoples-business|title=The People's Business 2013|work=Social Enterprise UK|access-date=July 15, 2015|language=en}}</ref> and with the entry of the [[B Corporation|B Corp movement]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rogertrapp/2015/03/29/business-leaders-urged-to-find-a-purpose-in-life/|title=Business Leaders Urged To Find A Purpose In Life|date=2015|website=Forbes|last1=Trapp|first1=Roger|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> there is more demand from consumers and investors for an accounting for social and environmental impact.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/About-Deloitte/gx-wef-2015-millennial-survey-executivesummary.pdf|title=Mind the gaps. The 2015 Deloitte Millennial survey|date=2015|website=Deloitt|access-date=15 July 2015}}</ref> For example, [[Fair trade|Fair Trade]] and Ethical Trade companies require ethical and sustainable practices from all of their suppliers and service providers.
Government [[fiscal policies]] usually claim to be concerned with identifying social and natural deficits on a less formal basis. However, such choices may be guided more by [[ideology]] than by [[economics]]. The primary benefit of embedding one approach to measurement of these deficits would be first to direct [[monetary policy]] to reduce them, and eventually achieve a global [[monetary reform]] by which they could be systematically and globally reduced in some uniform way.
The argument is that the [[Earth]]'s [[carrying capacity]] is at risk, and that in order to avoid catastrophic breakdown of [[climate]] or [[ecosystem]]s, there is need for comprehensive reform of [[Global financial system|global financial institutions]] similar in scale to what was undertaken at [[Bretton Woods conference|Bretton Woods]] in 1944.
With the emergence of an externally consistent [[green economics]] and agreement on definitions of potentially contentious terms such as [[full-cost accounting]], [[natural capital]] and [[social capital]], the prospect of formal metrics for ecological and social loss or risk has grown less remote since the 1990s.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}}
In the [[United Kingdom]] in particular, the London Health Observatory has undertaken a formal programme to address social deficits via a fuller understanding of what "social capital" is, how it functions in a real [[community]] (that being the [[City of London]]), and how losses of it tend to require both [[financial capital]] and significant political and social attention from [[Volunteering|volunteer]]s and professionals to help resolve. The data they rely on is extensive, building on decades of statistics of the [[Greater London Council]] since [[World War II]]. Similar studies have been undertaken in [[North America]].
Studies of the [[value of Earth]] have tried to determine what might constitute an ecological or natural life deficit. The [[Kyoto Protocol]] relies on some measures of this sort, and actually relies on some [[value of life]] calculations that, among other things, are explicit about the ratio of the price of a human life between developed and developing nations (about 15 to 1). While the motive of this number was to simply assign responsibility for a cleanup, such stark honesty opens not just an economic but political door to some kind of negotiation — presumably to reduce that ratio in time to something seen as more equitable. As it is, people in developed nations can be said to benefit 15 times more from [[ecological devastation]] than in developing nations, in pure financial terms. According to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]], they are thus obliged to pay 15 times more per life to avoid a loss of each such life to [[climate change]] — the [[Kyoto Protocol]] seeks to implement exactly this formula, and is therefore sometimes cited as a first step towards getting nations to accept formal [[legal liability|liability]] for damage inflicted on ecosystems shared globally.
Advocacy for triple bottom line reforms is common in [[Green Parties]]. Some of the measures undertaken in the [[European Union]] towards the [[Euro]] currency integration standardize the reporting of ecological and social losses in such a way as to seem to endorse in principle the notion of unified accounts, or [[unit of account]], for these deficits.
To address financial bottom line profitability concerns, some argue that focusing on the TBL will indeed increase profit for the shareholders in the long run. In practice, [[John Mackey (businessman)|John Mackey]], CEO of [[Whole Foods]], uses Whole Foods' Community Giving Days as an example. On days when Whole Foods donates 5% of their sales to charity, this action benefits the community, creates goodwill with customers, and energizes employees, which may lead to increased, sustainable profitability in the long-run.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2015/08/20/whole-foods-john-mackey/|title=John Mackey: The conscious capitalist}}</ref>
Furthermore, planning a sustainability strategy with the triple bottom line in mind could save companies a lot of money if a disaster were to strike. For example, when [[BP]] spilled "two hundred million gallons of oil in the [[Gulf of Mexico]]", it cost the company "billions". This company focused mostly on the financial and economic costs of this disaster, instead of the company’s environmental bottom line, furthering damage to the company and its reputation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Szekely |first1=Francisco |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1pc5g1x |title=The Beyond the Triple Bottom Line: Eight Steps toward a Sustainable Business Model |last2=Dossa |first2=Zahir |last3=Hollender |first3=Jeffrey |date=2017 |publisher=[[MIT Press]]|jstor=j.ctt1pc5g1x |isbn=978-0-262-03599-6}}</ref>
==Adoption==
Timothy Slater and Tanya Hall identified [[General Electric]] (GE), [[Unilever]], [[Procter and Gamble]], [[3M]] and a private company, Cascade Engineering, as examples of businesses using TBL.<ref name=IBR /> GE referred to TBL benefits associated with their electron beam emitting technology investment in 2008.<ref>GE Energy Financial Services, [https://www.ge.com/news/press-releases/ge-invests-advanced-electron-beams-technology-cuts GE Invests In Advanced Electron Beams; Technology Cuts], published 16 September 2008, accessed 21 February 2024</ref> Danish company [[Novo Nordisk]]'s consolidated financial statements for 2019 were supplemented by a "consolidated social statement" and a "consolidated environmental statement".<ref>Novo Nordisk, [https://www.novonordisk.com/content/dam/nncorp/global/en/annual-report/pdfs/2019/Novo-Nordisk-Annual-Report-2019.pdf Annual Report 2019], accessed 21 February 2024</ref>
==Criticism==
While many people agree with the importance of good social conditions and preservation of the environment, there are also many who disagree with the triple bottom line as the way to enhance these conditions. The following are the reasons why:
* ''Reductive method'': Concurrently the environment comes to be treated as an externality or background feature, an externality that tends not to have the human dimension build into its definition. Thus, in many writings, even in those critical of the triple-bottom-line approach, the social becomes a congeries of miscellaneous considerations left over from the other two prime categories.<ref name="academia.edu">{{Cite journal | year=2010 | last1= Scerri | first1= Andy | last2= James | first2= Paul | author-link2= Paul James (academic) | title= Accounting for sustainability: Combining qualitative and quantitative research in developing 'indicators' of sustainability | url= https://www.academia.edu/3230887 | journal= International Journal of Social Research Methodology | volume= 13 | issue= 1 | pages= 41–53| doi= 10.1080/13645570902864145 | s2cid= 145391691 }}</ref> Alternative approaches, such as [[Circles of Sustainability]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=James |first1=Paul |author-link1= Paul James (academic) |last2=Scerri |first2=Andy |editor1-last=Amen |editor1-first=Mark |editor2-last=Toly |editor2-first=Noah J. |editor3-last=Carney |editor3-first=Patricia L. |editor4-last=Segbers |editor4-first=Klaus |title=Cities and Global Governance: New Sites for International Relations |date=2011 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Farnham, UK |isbn=978-1-4094-0893-2 |pages=110–146 |chapter=Auditing cities through circles of sustainability}}</ref> that treat the economic as a social domain, alongside and in relation to the ecological, the political and the cultural are now being considered as more appropriate for understanding institutions, cities and regions.<ref name="academia.edu"/><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Scerri | first1 = Andy | doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.02.027 | title = Ends in view: The capabilities approach in ecological/sustainability economics | journal = Ecological Economics | volume = 77 | pages = 7–10 | year = 2012 | bibcode = 2012EcoEc..77....7S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Magee |first1=Liam |last2=Scerri |first2=Andy |title=From issues to indicators: developing robust community sustainability measures |journal=Local Environment |date=1 September 2012 |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=915–933 |doi=10.1080/13549839.2012.714755 |bibcode=2012LoEnv..17..915M |s2cid=153340355 |issn=1354-9839}}</ref>
* ''[[Social inertia|Inertia]]'': The difficulty of achieving global agreement on [[simultaneous policy]] may render such measures at best advisory, and thus unenforceable. For example, people may be unwilling to undergo a [[Depression (economics)|depression]] or even sustained [[recession]] to replenish lost [[ecosystem]]s. {{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}
* ''Application'': According to Fred Robins' ''The Challenge of TBL: A Responsibility to Whom?'' one of the major weaknesses of the TBL framework is its ability to be applied in the practical world.
* ''Equating ecology with environment'': TBL is seen to be disregarding ecological sustainability with environmental effects, where in reality both economic and social viability is dependent on environmental well-being. While [[greenwashing]] is not new, its use has increased over recent years to meet consumer demand for environmentally friendly goods and services. The problem is compounded by lax enforcement by regulatory agencies such as the Federal Trade Commission in the United States, the Competition Bureau in Canada, and the [[Committee of Advertising Practice]] and the Broadcast Committee of Advertising Practice in the United Kingdom. Critics of the practice suggest that the rise of greenwashing, paired with ineffective regulation, contributes to consumer skepticism of all green claims, and diminishes the power of the consumer in driving companies toward greener solutions for manufacturing processes and business operation.
* ''Time dimension'': While the triple bottom line incorporates the social, economical and environmental (People, Planet, Profit) dimensions of sustainable development, it does not explicitly address the fourth dimension: time. The time dimension focuses on preserving current value in all three other dimensions for later. This means assessment of short term, longer term and long term consequences of any action.<ref>Lozano, R. (2012). "Towards better embedding sustainability into companies’ systems: an analysis of voluntary corporate initiatives," ''Journal of Cleaner Production'' 25 pp. 14-26</ref>
*"One problem with the triple bottom line is that the three separate accounts cannot easily be added up. It is difficult to measure the planet and people accounts in the same terms as profits—that is, in terms of cash."<ref name="elkington" /> This has led to TBL being augmented with [[Cost–benefit analysis|cost-benefit analysis]] in [[Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)|Triple Bottom Line Cost Benefit Analysis (TBL-CBA)]].
* ''Performance/eco-efficiency'': According to Rambaud, A. & Richard, J., "the TBL model [...] is based on the concept of ‘eco-efficiency’. In his seminal book, Elkington [...] gives a fundamental role to eco-efficiency in constructing the TBL model. According to him, the development of the concept of eco-efficiency allowed the development of the TBL model, a framework that he believes can save businesspeople from ecological communism".<ref name="rambaud">{{Cite journal | year=2015 | last1= Rambaud | first1= Alexandre | last2= Richard | first2= Jacques | title= The ''Triple Depreciation Line'' instead of the ''Triple Bottom Line'': Towards a genuine integrated reporting | url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1045235415000234 | journal= Critical Perspectives on Accounting | volume= 33 | pages= 92–116 | doi= 10.1016/j.cpa.2015.01.012 }}</ref> Eco-efficiency is equivalent to weak sustainability and corresponds to a relative measure of socio-environmental impacts compared to value creation. In this, eco-efficiency differs from eco-effectiveness, which is concerned with the absolute measurement of these impacts. A company can therefore increase its socio-environmental impacts and increase its eco-efficiency, if at the same time it increases its value creation even more. The TBL is thus the dedicated reporting system structuring this notion of performance at the expense of eco-effectiveness. Yet eco-efficiency is at the heart of rebound effects and cannot be a credible basis for ecosystem management in particular.
*Elkington himself has called for a rethink on TBL and a "product recall" on use of the concept. He argues that the original idea was to encourage businesses to manage the wider economic, social and environmental impacts of their operations, but its practical use as an accounting tool has now undermined its value. More precisely, he explains "It [Triple Bottom Line] was supposed to provoke deeper thinking about capitalism and its future, but many early adopters understood the concept as a balancing act, adopting a trade-off mentality. [...] Such experimentation [de la TBL] is clearly vital — and typically sparks a proliferation of potential solutions. But the bewildering range of options now on offer can provide business with an alibi for inaction. Worse, we have conspicuously failed to benchmark progress across these options, on the basis of their real-world impact and performance".<ref name=recall />
In short, the criticisms can be summarised as:
* attempting to divert the attention of regulators and deflating pressure for regulatory change;
* seeking to persuade critics, such as non-government organisations, that they are both well-intentioned and have changed their ways;
* seeking to expand market share at the expense of those rivals not involved in greenwashing; this is especially attractive if little or no additional expenditure is required to change ''performance''; alternatively, a company can engage in greenwashing in an attempt to narrow the perceived 'green' advantage of a rival;
* reducing staff turnover and making it easier to attract staff in the first place;
* making the company seem attractive for potential investors, especially those interested in ethical investment or socially responsive investment;
* inability to add up the three accounts unless tools such as [[Cost–benefit analysis|cost-benefit analysis]] or eco-efficiency (weak sustainability performance) are added to put social and environmental [[Externality|externalities]] in monetary terms.
In response to these limitations, the concept of the "Triple Depreciation Line" (also called "CARE - Comprehensive Accounting in Respect of Ecology - model") has been proposed <ref name="rambaud"></ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Improving Nature's Visibility in Financial Accounting" Natural Capital Coalition's report |url=https://www.chaire-comptabilite-ecologique.fr/Natural-capital-visibility-in-financial-accounting-Method-3-Extended-Version?lang=fr.|access-date=17 October 2022}}</ref>
==Legislation==
A focus on people, planet and profit has led to legislation changes around the world, often through [[social enterprise]] or [[Social investing|social investment]] or through the introduction of a new legal form, the [[Community Interest Company]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Community Interest Companies|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/office-of-the-regulator-of-community-interest-companies|publisher=UK Government|access-date=15 July 2015}}</ref> In the United States, the [[BCorp]] movement has been part of a call for legislation change to allow and encourage a focus on social and environmental impact, with BCorp a legal form for a company focused on "stakeholders, not just shareholders".<ref>{{cite web|title=Becoming a Legal BCorp|url=https://www.bcorporation.net/become-a-b-corp/how-to-become-a-b-corp/legal-roadmap|publisher=BCorp|access-date=15 July 2015}}</ref>
In [[Western Australia]], the triple bottom line was adopted as a part of the State Sustainability Strategy,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070830000447/http://www.sustainability.dpc.wa.gov.au/docs/Final%20Strategy/SSSFinal.pdf Government of Western Australia. (2003, September). "Hope for the Future: The Western Australia State Sustainability Strategy"], accessed August 30, 2013</ref> and accepted by the [[Western Australian Government|Government of Western Australia]] but its status was increasingly marginalised by subsequent [[Premier of Western Australia|premier]]s [[Alan Carpenter]] and [[Colin Barnett]].
==See also==
{{Portal|Business}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[B Corporation (certification)]]
*[[Bottom of the pyramid]]
*[[Circles of Sustainability]]
*[[Community interest company]]
*[[Conscious business]]
*[[Double bottom line]], a similar concept predating the UN standard
*[[EC3 Global]]
*[[Eco-capitalism]]
*[[Grassroots Business Fund]]
*[[Impact investing]]
*[[Low-profit limited liability company]]
*[[Permaculture#Three Foundational Ethics|Permaculture ethics]]
*[[Social entrepreneurship]]
*[[Triple top line]]
*[[Value network]]
*[[Value network analysis]]
{{div col end}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
* {{Citation|title=Part I. What You Do Now Depends on Where You Are Now|date=2010-12-31|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781400837618.11|work=Why We Vote|pages=11–92|place=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.1515/9781400837618.11|isbn=978-1-4008-3761-8|access-date=2020-10-16}}
== Further reading ==
* ''Social Audit - A Management Tool for Co-operative Working 1981'' by Freer Spreckley [http://www.evalpartners.org/sites/default/files/Social%20Audit%20-%20A%20Management%20Tool.pdf]
* ''The Gaia Atlas of Green Economics'' (Gaia Future Series) [Paperback], by Paul Ekins, Anchor Books
* ''Harvard Business Review on Corporate Responsibility'' by [[Harvard Business School Press]]
* ''The Soul of a Business: Managing for Profit and the Common Good'' by Tom Chappell
* ''Capitalism at the Crossroads: The Unlimited Business Opportunities in Solving the World's Most Difficult Problems'' by Professor Stuart L. Hart
* ''The Triple Bottom Line: How Today's Best-Run Companies Are Achieving Economic, Social and Environmental Success—and How You Can Too'' by Andrew W. Savitz and Karl Weber
* ''The Sustainability Advantage: Seven Business Case Benefits of a Triple Bottom Line (Conscientious Commerce)'' by Bob Willard, [[New Society Publishers]] {{ISBN|978-0-86571-451-9}}
==External links==
* [https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-the-triple-bottom-line-22798 Explainer: what is the triple bottom line? - The Conversation]
* [http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.html The Triple Bottom Line: What Is It and How Does It Work? - Indiana Business Review]
* [https://publications.csiro.au/rpr/pub?pid=procite:ef189bac-499a-46db-be4d-b391a3cb05dc Balancing Act - A Triple Bottom Line Analysis of the Australian Economy]
* [http://www.c4cr.org/ Citizens for Corporate Redesign] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331120908/http://www.c4cr.org/ |date=2022-03-31 }} ([[Minnesota]])
* [http://www.triplepundit.com/ Triple Pundit - Blog on Triple Bottom Line] ([[United States]])
* [http://www.corporate-responsibility.org/ Corporate Responsibility] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [https://isa.org.usyd.edu.au/research/tbl.shtml TBL Accounting without boundaries - Australian corporate and government experiences]
{{Social accountability|state=expanded}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Triple Bottom Line}}
[[Category:Welfare economics]]
[[Category:Sustainable business]]
[[Category:Corporate social responsibility]]
[[Category:Accounting terminology]]
[[Category:Accountability]]
[[Category:1994 introductions]]
[[Category:Sustainability advocates]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Blended finance | {{Cleanup bare URLs|date=August 2022}}
'''Blended finance'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.convergence.finance/blended-finance|title=Blended Finance {{!}} Convergence|website=www.convergence.finance|language=en|access-date=2018-09-04}}</ref> is defined as "the strategic use of development [[finance]] and [[Philanthropy|philanthropic]] funds to mobilize private capital flows to [[Emerging markets|emerging]] and [[frontier markets]]",<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www3.weforum.org/maintenance/public.htm|title=World Economic Forum - Home|website=www3.weforum.org}}</ref> resulting in positive results for both investors and communities. Blended finance offers the possibility to scale up commercial financing for [[Developing country|developing countries]] and to channel such financing toward investments with development impact. As such, blended finance is designed to support progress towards the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) set forth by the [[United Nations]]. Meeting the SDGs will require an additional $2.5 trillion in private and public financing per year as of 2017 estimates,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/rbec/en/home/blog/2017/7/12/What-kind-of-blender-do-we-need-to-finance-the-SDGs-.html|title=What kind of blender do we need to finance the SDGs?|website=UNDP in Europe and Central Asia|access-date=2021-11-03|archive-date=2021-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103185402/https://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/rbec/en/home/blog/2017/7/12/What-kind-of-blender-do-we-need-to-finance-the-SDGs-.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unctad.org/press-material/developing-countries-face-25-trillion-annual-investment-gap-key-sustainable|title=Developing countries face $2.5 trillion annual investment gap in key sustainable development sectors, UNCTAD report estimates | UNCTAD|website=unctad.org|date=24 June 2014 }}</ref> and an additional $13.5 trillion<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/media/news/WEO2015_COP21Briefing.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2016-04-29 |archive-date=2017-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510090909/https://www.iea.org/media/news/WEO2015_COP21Briefing.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> to implement the [[COP21]] Paris climate accord. The concept of blended finance can contribute to raising the private financing needed. It was first recognized as a solution to the funding gap in the outcome document of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development in July 2015.<ref>https://www.un.org/esa/ffd/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/AAAA_Outcome.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>
{{POV|date=January 2024}}
Building upon evidence from a previous survey<ref>http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Blended_Finance_Insights_Investments_Vehicles_Facilities_report_2016.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> done on behalf of the [[World Economic Forum]], the [[OECD]] released recent findings<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/blended-finance-funds-and-facilities_806991a2-en|doi=10.1787/806991a2-en|title=Blended Finance Funds and Facilities|series=OECD Development Co-operation Working Papers|year=2019|last1=Basile|first1=Irene|last2=Dutra|first2=Jarrett|s2cid=203332300|doi-access=free}}</ref> which identified 180 blended finance funds and facilities, with $60.2 billion in assets invested across 111 developing countries and impacting over 177 million lives, demonstrating the tremendous potential of blended finance to close the funding gap required to finance the ambitious [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) agenda and deliver development outcomes.
The concept has been gaining popularity lately within the world of international development finance. As a result, blended finance principles<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/blended-finance-principles/|title = Blended Finance - OECD}}</ref> have been adopted by the [[Development Assistance Committee]] to guide the design and implementation of the concept, which aims to use development finance, including philanthropic resources, to align additional finance towards meeting the SDGs.
==Terminology==
The term blended finance implies the mixing of both public and private funds through a common investment scheme or deal, with each party using their expertise in a complementary way. The concept and model was developed within the Redesigning Development Finance Initiative from the [[World Economic Forum]], who defined it as "the strategic use of development finance and philanthropic funds to mobilize private capital flows to [[Emerging market|emerging]] and [[frontier markets]]."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.weforum.org/global-challenges/projects/redesigning-development-finance/ |title=Redesigning Development Finance | World Economic Forum |access-date=2016-04-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601105718/https://www.weforum.org/global-challenges/projects/redesigning-development-finance/ |archive-date=2016-06-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==Rationale==
The resources needed to bridge the funding gap to meet SDG requirements cannot be met through public resources (such as [[Official Development Assistance]]) alone, and private investment will be key to increasing the scope and impact of development finance and philanthropic funders. Only a small percentage of the worldwide invested assets of banks, pension funds, insurers, foundations and endowments, and multinational corporations, are targeted at sectors and regions that advance sustainable development. This is due to the fact that large-scale investing usually flows into environmentally destructive activities that come with higher economic incentive.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Niewöhner |first1=Jörg |title=Land Use Competition: Ecological, Economic and Social Perspectives |date=2016 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-33628-2_1 |work=Land Use Competition |pages=1–17 |editor-last=Niewöhner |editor-first=Jörg |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-33628-2_1 |isbn=978-3-319-33626-8 |access-date=2022-10-22 |last2=Bruns |first2=Antje |last3=Haberl |first3=Helmut |last4=Hostert |first4=Patrick |last5=Krueger |first5=Tobias |last6=Lauk |first6=Christian |last7=Lutz |first7=Juliana |last8=Müller |first8=Daniel |last9=Nielsen |first9=Jonas Ø. |editor2-last=Bruns |editor2-first=Antje |editor3-last=Hostert |editor3-first=Patrick |editor4-last=Krueger |editor4-first=Tobias}}</ref> The current challenge for the SDG era is how to channel more of these private resources to the sectors and countries that are central for the SDGs and broader development efforts. This is particularly important in a context where public resources are increasingly under pressure, while private flows to developing countries are increasing significantly. Blended finance is designed to fuel vast inflows of private capital to support these development outcomes.
Investors and commercial institutions are increasingly attracted to emerging and frontier markets,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Issues/Business-environment/Business-redefined---Global-trend-1--the-rise-and-rise-of-emerging-markets |title=Business redefined - Global trend 1: The rise and rise of emerging markets - EY - Global |access-date=2016-04-29 |archive-date=2016-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514102431/http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Issues/Business-environment/Business-redefined---Global-trend-1--the-rise-and-rise-of-emerging-markets |url-status=dead }}</ref> and this trend overlaps with the challenges faced by development funders, who face significant financial constraints and a lack of capacity or expertise in structuring transactions or sourcing deals. Thus, there is a good opportunity for these two trends to converge and there is a political will for effective public-private collaboration, presenting a real opportunity for investors and financiers to develop more effective strategies for managing their participation in emerging markets.
Blended finance contributes to development objectives by:
#Increasing capital [[Leverage (finance)|leverage]]: Extends the reach of limited development finance and philanthropic funds as they are used strategically to facilitate larger volumes of private capital that are channelled to investments with high development impact
#Enhancing impact: The skillsets, knowledge and resources of public and private investors can increase the scope, range, and effectiveness of development-related investments.
#Deliver risk-adjusted returns: Risks can be managed to realise returns in line with market expectations, catalyzing private funds to development projects.
==Supporting mechanisms==
Supporting mechanisms have been traditionally used by development funders in a Blended Finance package to attract and support private sector investors by managing risks and reducing transaction costs. These mechanisms can generally be classified as providing:
*'''Technical Assistance''', or grant funds to supplement the capacity of investees and lower transaction costs.
*'''Risk Underwriting''', to fully or partially protect the investor against risk through appropriate risk mitigation
*'''Market Incentives''', guaranteed payments contingent on performance of future pricing and/or payment in exchange for upfront investment in new or distressed markets.
==Blended Finance platforms==
The [[Sustainable Development Investment Partnership]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sdiponline.org/|title=SDIP|website=SDIP|access-date=2021-12-10|archive-date=2021-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319144006/http://sdiponline.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Convergence,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.convergence.finance/|title=Convergence - The Global Network for Blended Finance|website=www.convergence.finance}}</ref> and THK<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thkblendedfinance.org/about-us/ |title=About us }}</ref> are three platforms that put blended finance into practice. Their goal is to bring relevant entities from the public and private sector together, connecting interests and resources to initiatives. Both of these platforms provide capital suppliers with access to a pipeline of individual blended finance project transactions, effectively scaling up the participation of both public and private investors in transactions. THK (Tri Hita Karana) began as a roadmap that was launched as a unified, international framework for mobilizing additional commercial capital towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and was recently converted into a Blended Finance platform in 2021.
'''Community of Practice on Private Finance on Sustainable Development'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/blended-finance-principles/|title=Community of Practice on Private Finance on Sustainable Development|website=Community of Practise on Private Finance on Sustainable Development}}</ref> brings together Development Assistance Committee members and private sector.
While blended finance is showing promising initial interest and results, these platforms will help assess the efficiency of the model over time.
== See also ==
* [[Social Impact Incentives]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Investment]]
[[Category:Development finance institutions]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Green building | {{Short description|Structures and processes of building structures that are more environmentally responsible}}
{{About|sustainable construction principles|the building on the MIT campus|Green Building (MIT)|the building in Louisville|The Green Building (Louisville, Kentucky)}}
{{use mdy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=October 2022}}
[[File:U.S. EPA Kansas City Science and Technology Center.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|US EPA Kansas City Science & Technology Center.
This facility features the following green attributes:
{{unordered list|[[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED 2.0 Gold certified]] | Green Power | Native Landscaping}}]]
'''Green building''' (also known as '''green construction''', '''sustainable building''', or '''eco-friendly building''') refers to both a structure and the application of processes that are [[environmentally responsible]] and [[resource-efficient]] throughout a building's life-cycle: from planning to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition.<ref name="epa.gov">{{Cite web |url=https://archive.epa.gov/greenbuilding/web/html/about.html |title=Basic Information |website=Green Building |publisher=US EPA |access-date=2021-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328121546/https://archive.epa.gov/greenbuilding/web/html/about.html |archive-date=2021-03-28 |url-status=live}}</ref> This requires close cooperation of the contractor, the architects, the engineers, and the client at all project stages.<ref name="plainiotis">Yan Ji and Stellios Plainiotis (2006): Design for Sustainability. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press. {{ISBN|7-112-08390-7}}</ref> The Green Building practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort.<ref name="epa.gov"/> Green building also refers to saving resources to the maximum extent, including energy saving, land saving, water saving, material saving, etc., during the whole life cycle of the building, protecting the environment and reducing pollution, providing people with healthy, comfortable and efficient use of space, and being in harmony with nature. Buildings that live in harmony; green building technology focuses on low consumption, high efficiency, economy, environmental protection, integration and optimization.’<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Hu M, Skibniewski MJ |date=22 April 2021 |title=A Review of Building Construction Cost Research: Current Status, Gaps and Green Buildings |journal=Green Building & Construction Economics |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.37256/gbce.212021 |issn=2737-5021}}</ref>
[[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] (LEED) is a set of [[Green building certification systems|rating systems]] for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of green buildings which was developed by the [[U.S. Green Building Council]]. Other certificate systems that confirm the sustainability of buildings are the British [[BREEAM]] (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) for buildings and large-scale developments or the DGNB System ([[:de:Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen|Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen e.V.]]) which benchmarks the sustainability performance of buildings, indoor environments and districts. Currently, the [[World Green Building Council]] is conducting research on the effects of green buildings on the health and productivity of their users and is working with the [[World Bank]] to promote Green Buildings in [[Emerging Markets]] through EDGE ([[International Finance Corporation#Green buildings in developing countries|Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies]]) Market Transformation Program and certification.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edgebuildings.com/|title=EDGE Buildings | Build and Brand Green|website=www.edgebuildings.com|access-date=2019-09-18|archive-date=2019-11-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120082847/https://www.edgebuildings.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> There are also other tools such as [[Green Star (Australia)|Green Star]] in Australia, [[Global Sustainability Assessment System]] (GSAS) used in the [[Middle East]] and the Green Building Index (GBI) predominantly used in Malaysia.
[[Building information modeling |Building information modeling (BIM)]] is a process involving the generation and management of digital representations of physical and functional characteristics of places. [[Building information modeling|Building information models]] (BIMs) are files (often but not always in proprietary formats and containing proprietary data) which can be extracted, exchanged, or networked to support decision-making regarding a building or other built asset. Current BIM software is used by individuals, businesses, and government agencies who plan, design, construct, operate and maintain diverse physical infrastructures, such as water, refuse, electricity, gas, communication utilities, roads, railways, bridges, ports, and tunnels.
Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current practices in creating greener structures, the common objective of green buildings is to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural environment by:
* Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
* Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity (see [[healthy building]])
* Reducing waste, pollution, and [[environmental degradation]]<ref name="epa.gov"/>
[[Natural building]] is a similar concept, usually on a smaller scale and focusing on the use of locally available [[natural material]]s.<ref>Hopkins, R. 2002. [http://transitionculture.org/articles/a-natural-way-of-building-2002/ ''A Natural Way of Building.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080203112628/http://transitionculture.org/articles/a-natural-way-of-building-2002/ |date=2008-02-03 }} Transition Culture. Retrieved: 2007-03-30.</ref> Other related topics include [[sustainable design]] and [[green architecture]]. Sustainability may be defined as meeting the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.<ref>Allen, E, & Iano, J. (2008). Fundamentals of building construction: materials and methods. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc.</ref> Although some green building programs don't address the issue of [[green retrofit|retrofitting existing homes]], others do, especially through [[public schemes for energy efficient refurbishment]]. Green construction principles can easily be applied to retrofit work as well as new construction.
A 2009 report by the U.S. [[General Services Administration]] found 12 sustainably-designed buildings that cost less to operate and have excellent energy performance. In addition, occupants were overall more satisfied with the building than those in typical commercial buildings. These are eco-friendly buildings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.capitalmarketspartnership.com/UserFiles/Admin%20GSA%20June%202008%20-%20Assessing%20Green%20Building%20Performance.pdf|title=GSA Public Buildings Service Assessing Green Building Performance|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722180030/http://www.capitalmarketspartnership.com/UserFiles/Admin%20GSA%20June%202008%20-%20Assessing%20Green%20Building%20Performance.pdf|archive-date=2013-07-22}}</ref>
==Reducing environmental impact==
Buildings represent a large part of energy, electricity, water and materials consumption. As of 2020, they account for 37% of global energy use and energy-related {{CO2}} emissions, which the United Nations estimate contributed to 33% of overall worldwide emissions.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/34572 | title=2020 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction: Towards a Zero-emissions, Efficient and Resilient Buildings and Construction Sector - Executive Summary | year=2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Nord |first=Natasa |title=Building Energy Efficiency in Cold Climates |date=2017 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780124095489101903 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies |pages=149–157 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.10190-3 |isbn=978-0-12-804792-7 |access-date=2022-04-04}}</ref> Including the manufacturing of building materials, the global {{CO2}} emissions were 39%.<ref name="globalstatusreport">{{cite web |author1=Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction |author2=International Energy Agency |author3=United Nations Environment Programme |title=2019 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction Towards a zero-emissions, efficient, and resilient buildings and construction sector |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30950/2019GSR.pdf |website=UN environment programme Document Repository |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |access-date=20 October 2020 |date=2019 |archive-date=21 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021215735/https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30950/2019GSR.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> If new technologies in construction are not adopted during this time of rapid growth, emissions could double by 2050, according to the [[United Nations Environment Programme|United Nations Environment Program]].
Glass buildings, especially all-glass skyscrapers, contribute significantly to climate change due to their energy inefficiency. While these structures are visually appealing and allow abundant natural light, they also trap heat, necessitating increased use of air conditioning systems, which contribute to higher carbon emissions. Experts advocate for design modifications and potential restrictions on all-glass edifices to mitigate their detrimental environmental impact.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jul/28/ban-all-glass-skscrapers-to-save-energy-in-climate-crisis |last=Tapper | first=James |title=Experts call for ban on glass skyscrapers to save energy in climate crisis | work=The Guardian |date=Jul 28, 2019 |access-date=Sep 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728085453/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jul/28/ban-all-glass-skscrapers-to-save-energy-in-climate-crisis |archive-date=July 28, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://phys.org/news/2021-10-steel-and-glass-fuel-global-climate-injustice.html |title=Wasteful steel-and-glass buildings fuel global climate injustice, says climate expert |work=phys.org |date=Oct 19, 2019 |access-date=Sep 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019134540/https://phys.org/news/2021-10-steel-and-glass-fuel-global-climate-injustice.html |archive-date=October 19, 2021}}</ref>
Buildings account for a large amount of land. According to the [[National Resources Inventory]], approximately {{convert|107|e6acre|km2}} of land in the United States are developed. The [[International Energy Agency]] released a publication that estimated that existing buildings are responsible for more than 40% of the world's total primary energy consumption and for 24% of global carbon dioxide emissions.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iea.org/reports/buildings | title=Buildings – Analysis }}</ref><ref>Goodhew S 2016 Sustainable Construction Processes A Resource Text. John Wiley & Son</ref>
According to Global status report from the year 2016, buildings consume more than 30% of all produced energy. The report states that "Under a below 2°C trajectory, effective action to improve building [[efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] could limit building final energy demand to just above current levels, meaning that the average energy intensity of the global building stock would decrease by more than 80% by 2050".<ref>{{cite book |title=Towards zero-emission efficient and resilient buildings GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2016 |date=2016 |publisher=Global Alliance for Buildings and construction |page=8 |url=https://www.worldgbc.org/sites/default/files/GABC_Global_Status_Report_V09_november_FINAL.pdf |access-date=1 April 2022}}</ref>[[File:Hanging gardens of One Central Park, Sydney.jpg|thumb|Hanging gardens of [[Central Park, Sydney|One Central Park]], [[Sydney]]]]Green building practices aim to reduce the [[Environmental degradation|environmental impact]] of building as the building sector has the greatest potential to deliver significant cuts in emissions at little or no cost. General guidelines can be summarized as follows: Every building should be as small as possible. Avoid contributing to [[urban sprawl|sprawl]], even if the most energy-efficient, environmentally sound methods are used in design and construction. Bioclimatic design principles are able to reduce energy expenditure and by extension, carbon emissions. Bioclimatic design is a method of building design that takes local climate into account to create comfortable conditions within the structure.<ref>{{Citation |last=Watson |first=Donald |title=Bioclimatic Designbioclimaticdesign |date=2013 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5828-9_225 |work=Sustainable Built Environments |pages=1–30 |editor-last=Loftness |editor-first=Vivian |access-date=2023-07-12 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-5828-9_225 |isbn=978-1-4614-5828-9 |editor2-last=Haase |editor2-first=Dagmar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bioclimatic architecture, buildings that respect the environment |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/innovation/bioclimatic-architecture-passivhaus |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Iberdrola |language=en-US}}</ref> This could be as simple as constructing a different shape for the [[building envelope]] or facing the building towards the south to maximize solar exposure for energy or lighting purposes. Given the limitations of city planned construction, bioclimatic principles may be employed on a lesser scale, however it is still an effective [[Passive solar building design|passive method]] to reduce environmental impact.
==Goals of green building==
[[File:Blu Homes mkSolaire front2.jpg|right|thumb|Blu Homes mkSolaire, a green building designed by [[Michelle Kaufmann]].]]
[[File:Shanghai - Shanghai Tower - 0003.jpg|thumb|[[Shanghai Tower]], the tallest and largest LEED Platinum certified building in the world since 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World's second largest building, Shanghai Tower, achieves LEED Platinum {{!}} U.S. Green Building Council |url=https://www.usgbc.org/articles/world-s-second-largest-building-shanghai-tower-achieves-leed-platinum |access-date=2021-12-10 |website=www.usgbc.org |language=en}}</ref>]]
The concept of [[sustainable development]] can be traced to the energy (especially [[Fossil fuel|fossil oil]]) crisis and environmental pollution concerns of the 1960s and 1970s.<ref name=Mao2009>{{cite book |doi=10.1109/ICMSS.2009.5303546 |chapter=A Comparison Study of Mainstream Sustainable/Green Building Rating Tools in the World |title=2009 International Conference on Management and Service Science |page=1 |year=2009 |last1=Mao |first1=Xiaoping |last2=Lu |first2=Huimin |last3=Li |first3=Qiming |isbn=978-1-4244-4638-4 |s2cid=22176705 }}</ref> The [[Rachel Carson]] book, "[[Silent Spring]]",<ref>Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. N.p.: Houghton Mifflin, 1962. Print.</ref> published in 1962, is considered to be one of the first initial efforts to describe sustainable development as related to green building.<ref name=Mao2009/> The green building movement in the U.S. originated from the need and desire for more [[Energy conservation|energy efficient]] and [[environmentally friendly]] construction practices. There are a number of motives for building green, including environmental, economic, and social benefits.<ref name="epa.gov"/> However, modern sustainability initiatives call for an integrated and synergistic design to both new construction and in the [[retrofitting]] of existing structures. Also known as [[sustainable design]], this approach integrates the building life-cycle with each green practice employed with a design-purpose to create a synergy among the practices used.
Green building brings together a vast array of practices, techniques, and skills to reduce and ultimately eliminate the impacts of buildings on the environment and human health. It often emphasizes taking advantage of [[renewable resource]]s, e.g., using sunlight through [[passive solar]], [[active solar]], and [[photovoltaic]] equipment, and using plants and trees through [[green roof]]s, [[rain gardens]], and reduction of rainwater run-off. Many other techniques are used, such as using low-impact building materials or using packed gravel or permeable concrete instead of conventional concrete or asphalt to enhance replenishment of groundwater.
While the practices or technologies employed in green building are constantly evolving and may differ from region to region, fundamental principles persist from which the method is derived: siting and structure design efficiency, energy efficiency, [[water efficiency]], materials efficiency, indoor environmental quality enhancement, operations and maintenance optimization and waste and toxics reduction.<ref name=components>{{cite web |title=Components of Green Building |website=Green Building |publisher=US EPA |url=http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm |access-date=2008-11-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031104858/http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm |archive-date=2008-10-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=WBDG Sustainable Committee |date=2018-03-08 |title=Sustainable: OVERVIEW |work=Whole Building Design Guide |url=https://www.wbdg.org/design-objectives/sustainable |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310214825/https://www.wbdg.org/design-objectives/sustainable |archive-date=2020-03-10}}</ref> The essence of green building is an optimization of one or more of these principles. Also, with the proper synergistic design, individual green building technologies may work together to produce a greater cumulative effect.
On the aesthetic side of [[green architecture]] or [[sustainable design]] is the philosophy of designing a building that is in harmony with the natural features and resources surrounding the site. There are several key steps in designing sustainable buildings: specify 'green' building materials from local sources, reduce loads, optimize systems, and generate on-site renewable energy.
===Life cycle assessment===
A [[life cycle assessment]] (LCA) can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental, social and economic concerns<ref><!--[[Life cycle assessment#cite note-1]]-->{{cite journal |last1=Ilgin |first1=Mehmet Ali |first2=Surendra M. |last2=Gupta |date=2010 |title=Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing and Product Recovery (ECMPRO): A Review of the State of the Art |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=563–591 |quote=Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a method used to evaluate the environmental impact of a product through its life cycle encompassing extraction and processing of the raw materials, manufacturing, distribution, use, recycling, and final disposal |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.09.037 |pmid=19853369}}{{verify source|date=October 2022|reason=This is the current reference #1 in "Life cycle assessment", may have been different when it was added to this article.}}</ref> by assessing a full range of impacts associated with all cradle-to-grave stages of a process: from extraction of raw materials through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling. Impacts taken into account include (among others) [[embodied energy]], [[global warming potential]], resource use, [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]], and waste.
In terms of green building, the last few years have seen a shift away from a ''prescriptive'' approach, which assumes that certain prescribed practices are better for the environment, toward the scientific evaluation of actual performance through LCA.
Although LCA is widely recognized as the best way to evaluate the environmental impacts of buildings (ISO 14040 provides a recognized LCA methodology),<ref name="ISO 14040">{{cite web |title=ISO 14040:2006(en) Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Principles and framework |url=https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:14040:ed-2:v1:en |website=www.iso.org |access-date=2021-02-24 |archive-date=2016-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617031837/https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:14040:ed-2:v1:en |url-status=live }}</ref> it is not yet a consistent requirement of green building rating systems and codes, despite the fact that embodied energy and other life cycle impacts are critical to the design of environmentally responsible buildings.
In North America, LCA is rewarded to some extent in the Green Globes rating system, and is part of the new American National Standard based on Green Globes, ''ANSI/GBI 01-2010: Green Building Protocol for Commercial Buildings''. LCA is also included as a pilot credit in the LEED system, though a decision has not been made as to whether it will be incorporated fully into the next major revision. The state of California also included LCA as a voluntary measure in its 2010 draft ''Green Building Standards Code''.
Although LCA is often perceived as overly complex and time-consuming for regular use by design professionals, research organizations such as BRE in the UK and the Athena Sustainable Materials Institute in North America are working to make it more accessible.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26849882 |doi=10.3390/su1030674|doi-access=free |title=Life-Cycle Assessment and the Environmental Impact of Buildings: A Review |year=2009 |last1=Khasreen |first1=Mohamad |last2=Banfill |first2=Phillip F. |last3=Menzies |first3=Gillian |journal=Sustainability |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=674–701 }}</ref>
In the UK, the BRE ''Green Guide to Specifications'' offers ratings for 1,500 building materials based on LCA.
===Siting and structure design efficiency===
{{See also|Sustainable design}}
The foundation of any construction project is rooted in the concept and design stages. The concept stage, in fact, is one of the major steps in a project life cycle, as it has the largest impact on cost and performance.<ref>Hegazy, T. (2002). Life-cycle stages of projects. Computer-Based Construction Project Management, 8.</ref> In designing environmentally optimal buildings, the objective is to minimize the total environmental impact associated with all life-cycle stages of the building project. [[File:Exterior Light Shelves - Green Office Building, Denver Colorado.jpg|thumb|Exterior Light Shelves - Green Office Building, Denver, Colorado]]However, building as a process is not as streamlined as an industrial process, and varies from one building to the other, never repeating itself identically. In addition, buildings are much more complex products, composed of a multitude of materials and components each constituting various design variables to be decided at the design stage. A variation of every design variable may affect the environment during all the building's relevant life-cycle stages.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2004.09.004 |title=A methodology for design of environmentally optimal buildings by variable grouping |journal=Building and Environment |volume=40 |issue=8 |page=1126 |year=2005 |last1=Pushkar |first1=S |last2=Becker |first2=R |last3=Katz |first3=A }}</ref>
===Energy efficiency===
{{Main|Low-energy house|Zero-energy building}}
[[File:PA120016.JPG|thumb|right|An eco-house at [[Findhorn Ecovillage]] with a turf roof and [[solar panel]]s]]
Green buildings often include measures to reduce energy consumption – both the embodied energy required to extract, process, transport and install building materials and operating energy to provide services such as heating and power for equipment.
As high-performance buildings use less operating energy, embodied energy has assumed much greater importance – and may make up as much as 30% of the overall life cycle energy consumption. Studies such as the U.S. LCI Database Project<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/lci/|title=NREL: U.S. Life Cycle Inventory Database Home Page|website=www.nrel.gov|access-date=2011-04-23|archive-date=2009-03-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318083756/http://www.nrel.gov/lci/|url-status=live}}</ref> show buildings built primarily with wood will have a lower embodied energy than those built primarily with brick, concrete, or steel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://naturallywood.com/uploadedFiles/General/Green_Building/Module-3_Energy_Conservation.pdf |title=Naturally:wood Building Green with Wood Module 3 Energy Conservation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722140227/http://www.naturallywood.com/sites/default/files/Module-3-Energy-Conservation.pdf|archive-date=2012-07-22}}</ref>
To reduce operating energy use, designers use details that reduce air leakage through the building envelope (the barrier between conditioned and unconditioned space). They also specify high-performance windows and extra [[Building insulation|insulation]] in walls, ceilings, and floors. Another strategy, [[passive solar building design]], is often implemented in low-energy homes. Designers orient windows and walls and place awnings, porches, and trees<ref>{{cite journal |last=Simpson |first=J.R. |journal=Energy and Buildings |volume=34 |issue=10 |pages=1067–1076 |title=Improved Estimates of tree-shade effects on residential energy use |date=November 2002 |doi=10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00028-2 }}</ref> to shade windows and roofs during the summer while maximizing solar gain in the winter. In addition, effective window placement ([[Daylighting (architecture)|daylighting]]) can provide more natural light and lessen the need for electric lighting during the day. [[Solar water heating]] further reduces energy costs.
Onsite generation of [[renewable energy]] through [[solar power]], [[wind power]], [[hydro power]], or [[biomass]] can significantly reduce the environmental impact of the building. Power generation is generally the most expensive feature to add to a building.
Energy efficiency for green buildings can be evaluated from either numerical or non-numerical methods. These include use of simulation modelling, analytical or statistical tools.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gan |first1=Vincent J. L.|last2=Lo|first2=Irene M. C.|last3=Ma|first3=Jun|last4=Tse|first4=K. T.|last5=Cheng |first5=Jack C. P.|last6=Chan|first6=C. M.|date=2020-05-01|title=Simulation optimisation towards energy efficient green buildings: Current status and future trends|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=254|pages=120012|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120012 |s2cid=214281706|issn=0959-6526}}</ref>
===Water efficiency===
{{See also|Water conservation}}
Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in sustainable building. One critical issue of water consumption is that in many areas, the demands on the supplying aquifer exceed its ability to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, facilities should increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site. The protection and conservation of water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing for dual plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing or by using water for washing of the cars. Waste-water may be minimized by utilizing water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow shower heads.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lockhart |first1=Olga |title=4 Main Health & Green Building Benefits For Homeowners |url=https://pathwaydc.com/4-main-health-green-building-benefits-for-homeowners/ |website=PATHWAY |date=February 2019 |access-date=18 September 2020}}</ref> Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and increasing possibilities of re-using water on-site. [[Point of use water treatment]] and heating improves both water quality and energy efficiency while reducing the amount of water in circulation. The use of non-sewage and [[greywater]] for on-site use such as site-irrigation will minimize demands on the local aquifer.<ref name="ciwmb.ca.gov">{{cite web |publisher=California Integrated Waste Management Board |date=January 23, 2008 |title=Green Building Basics |access-date=November 28, 2009 |url=http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/GREENBUILDING/basics.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210230712/http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/GreenBuilding/Basics.htm |archive-date=2009-12-10 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Large commercial buildings with water and energy efficiency can qualify for an LEED Certification. Philadelphia's [[Comcast Center]] is the tallest building in Philadelphia. It is also one of the tallest buildings in the USA that is LEED Certified. Their environmental engineering consists of a hybrid central chilled water system which cools floor-by-floor with steam instead of water. Burn's Mechanical set-up the entire renovation of the 58 story, 1.4 million square foot sky scraper.
===Materials efficiency===
{{See also|Sustainable architecture|Material efficiency}}
Building materials typically considered 'green' include lumber( that has been certified to a third-party standard), rapidly renewable plant materials (like bamboo and straw), [[dimension stone]], recycled stone, [[hempcrete]], recycled metal ''(see: [[Copper in architecture#Recyclability|copper sustainability and recyclability]])'', and other non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable products. Materials with lower [[embodied energy]] can be used in substitution to common building materials with high degrees of energy consumption and carbon/harmful emissions. For [[concrete]] a high performance [[Self-healing concrete|self-healing]] version is available,<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6250-6_9 |chapter=Self Healing Concrete: A Biological Approach |title=Self Healing Materials |volume=100 |page=195 |series=Springer Series in Materials Science |year=2007 |last1=Jonkers |first1=Henk M |isbn=978-1-4020-6249-0 |s2cid=133848154 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1864315,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205174908/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1864315,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 5, 2008|title=Building Materials: Cementing the Future|first=PETER |last=GUMBEL|date=4 December 2008|via=www.time.com}}</ref> however options with lower yields of pollutive waste entertain ideas of upcycling and congregate supplementing; replacing traditional concrete mixes with slag, production waste, and aggregates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Palankar |first1=Nitendra |last2=Ravi Shankar |first2=A. U. |last3=Mithun |first3=B. M. |date=2015-12-01 |title=Studies on eco-friendly concrete incorporating industrial waste as aggregates |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=378–390 |doi=10.1016/j.ijsbe.2015.05.002 |s2cid=135944819 |issn=2212-6090|doi-access=free }}</ref> Insulation also sees multiple angles for substitution. Commonly used fiberglass has competition from other eco-friendly, low energy embodying insulators with similar or higher [[R-value (insulation)|R-values]] (per inch of thickness) at a competitive price. Sheep wool, [[Cellulose insulation|cellulose]], and [[ThermaCork]] perform more efficiently, however, use may be limited by transportation or installation costs.
Furthermore, embodied energy comparisons can help deduce the selection of building material and its efficiency. Wood production emits less {{CO2}} than concrete and steel if produced in a sustainable way just as steel can be produced more sustainably through improvements in technology (e.g. EAF) and energy recycling/carbon capture(an underutilized potential for systematically [[Carbon sequestration|storing carbon]] in the built environment).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuittinen |first1=Matti |last2=Zernicke |first2=Caya |last3=Slabik |first3=Simon |last4=Hafner |first4=Annette |date=2021-03-11 |title=How can carbon be stored in the built environment? A review of potential options |journal=Architectural Science Review |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=91–107 |doi=10.1080/00038628.2021.1896471 |issn=0003-8628 |s2cid=233617364|url=https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/handle/123456789/103311 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Five actions to improve the sustainability of steel |website=www.ey.com |url=https://www.ey.com/en_id/mining-metals/five-actions-to-improve-the-sustainability-of-steel |access-date=2022-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Dennehymarch |first1=Kevin |title=Using more wood for construction can slash global reliance on fossil fuels |url=https://news.yale.edu/2014/03/31/using-more-wood-construction-can-slash-global-reliance-fossil-fuels |website=Yale News |date=31 March 2014 |publisher=Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies (F&ES), University of Washington's College of the Environment |access-date=15 August 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815070932/https://news.yale.edu/2014/03/31/using-more-wood-construction-can-slash-global-reliance-fossil-fuels |url-status=live }}</ref>
The EPA ([[Environmental Protection Agency]]) also suggests using recycled industrial goods, such as coal combustion products, foundry sand, and demolition debris in construction projects.<ref name=components/> Energy efficient building materials and appliances are promoted in the United States through [[energy rebate program]]s.
A 2022 report from the Boston Consulting Group found that, investments in developing greener forms of cement, iron, and steel lead to bigger greenhouse gas reductions compared with investments in electricity and aviation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=2022-07-07 |title=Plant-based meat by far the best climate investment, report finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/07/plant-based-meat-by-far-the-best-climate-investment-report-finds |access-date=2022-07-10 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> In addition, the process of making cement without producing {{CO2}} is unavoidable. However, using pozzolans clinkers can reduce {{CO2}} emission while in the process of making cement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Humphreys |first1=K. |last2=Mahasenan |first2=M. |date=2002-03-01 |title=Towards a sustainable cement industry. Substudy 8: climate change |url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/20269589 |language=English}}</ref>
===Indoor environmental quality enhancement===
{{See also| Indoor air quality}}
The Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) category in LEED standards, one of the five environmental categories, was created to provide comfort, well-being, and productivity of occupants. The LEED IEQ category addresses design and construction guidelines especially: indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal quality, and lighting quality.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sustainable Facilities Tool: Relevant Mandates and Rating Systems|url=https://sftool.gov/explore/green-building/section/34/ieq/relevant-mandates-and-rating-systems|website=sftool.gov|access-date=3 July 2014|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714120123/https://sftool.gov/explore/green-building/section/34/ieq/relevant-mandates-and-rating-systems|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2009.10.019 |title=Indoor environmental quality differences between office types in LEED-certified buildings in the US |journal=Building and Environment |volume=45 |issue=5 |page=1104 |year=2010 |last1=Lee |first1=Young S |last2=Guerin |first2=Denise A }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=KMC Controls|title=What's Your IQ on IAQ and IEQ?|date=24 September 2015|url=https://www.kmccontrols.com/blog/whats-your-iq-on-iaq-ieq/|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412190226/https://www.kmccontrols.com/blog/whats-your-iq-on-iaq-ieq/|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Indoor Air Quality]] seeks to reduce [[volatile organic compound]]s, or VOCs, and other air impurities such as microbial contaminants. Buildings rely on a properly designed ventilation system (passively/naturally or mechanically powered) to provide adequate ventilation of cleaner air from outdoors or recirculated, filtered air as well as isolated operations (kitchens, dry cleaners, etc.) from other occupancies. During the design and construction process choosing construction materials and interior finish products with zero or low VOC emissions will improve IAQ. Most building materials and cleaning/maintenance products emit gases, some of them toxic, such as many VOCs including formaldehyde. These gases can have a detrimental impact on occupants' health, comfort, and productivity. Avoiding these products will increase a building's IEQ. LEED,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/leed.aspx|title=LEED - Eurofins Scientific|website=www.eurofins.com|access-date=2011-08-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928104353/http://www.eurofins.com/leed.aspx|archive-date=2011-09-28|url-status=dead}}</ref> HQE<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/hqe.aspx|title=HQE - Eurofins Scientific|website=www.eurofins.com|access-date=2011-08-23|archive-date=2017-07-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703152425/http://www.eurofins.com/hqe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Green Star contain specifications on use of low-emitting interior. Draft LEED 2012<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/leed-2012.aspx|title=LEED - Eurofins Scientific|website=www.eurofins.com|access-date=2011-08-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928104453/http://www.eurofins.com/leed-2012.aspx|archive-date=2011-09-28|url-status=dead}}</ref> is about to expand the scope of the involved products. BREEAM<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/BREEAM.aspx|title=BREEAM - Eurofins Scientific|website=www.eurofins.com|access-date=2011-08-23|archive-date=2018-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001201447/https://www.eurofins.com/BREEAM.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> limits formaldehyde emissions, no other VOCs. MAS Certified Green is a registered trademark to delineate low VOC-emitting products in the marketplace.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mascertifiedgreen.com/page.asp?pg=understanding_emissions_testing|title=IAQ Green Certification|access-date=2013-12-05|archive-date=2013-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205072729/http://www.mascertifiedgreen.com/page.asp?pg=understanding_emissions_testing|url-status=live}}</ref> The MAS Certified Green Program ensures that any potentially hazardous chemicals released from manufactured products have been thoroughly tested and meet rigorous standards established by independent toxicologists to address recognized long-term health concerns. These IAQ standards have been adopted by and incorporated into the following programs:
* The United States Green Building Council (USGBC) in their LEED rating system<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usgbc.org/leed/rating-systems/commercial-interiors|title=LEED - U.S. Green Building Council|website=www.usgbc.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219035552/http://www.usgbc.org/leed/rating-systems/commercial-interiors|archive-date=2013-12-19}}</ref>
* The California Department of Public Health (CDPH) in their section 01350 standards<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/greenbuilding/specs/section01350/|title=Green Building HomeGreen Building: Section 01350|first=California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery|last=(CalRecycle)|website=www.calrecycle.ca.gov|access-date=2013-12-05|archive-date=2013-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212011737/http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/greenbuilding/specs/section01350/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The Collaborative for High Performance Schools (CHPS) in their Best Practices Manual<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chps.net/dev/Drupal/node/288|title=Best Practices Manual - CHPS.net|website=www.chps.net|access-date=2013-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211140133/http://www.chps.net/dev/Drupal/node/288|archive-date=2013-12-11|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The Business and Institutional Furniture Manufacturers Association (BIFMA) in their level® sustainability standard.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://levelcertified.org/about/|title=About « BIFMA level Standard|website=levelcertified.org|access-date=2013-12-05|archive-date=2013-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205031716/http://levelcertified.org/about/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Also important to indoor air quality is the control of moisture accumulation (dampness) leading to mold growth and the presence of bacteria and viruses as well as dust mites and other organisms and microbiological concerns. Water intrusion through a building's envelope or water condensing on cold surfaces on the building's interior can enhance and sustain microbial growth. A well-insulated and tightly sealed envelope will reduce moisture problems but adequate ventilation is also necessary to eliminate moisture from sources indoors including human metabolic processes, cooking, bathing, cleaning, and other activities.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Faith |first1=S. |title=Health Risks Associated With Poor Indoor Air Quality |url=https://qualityhomeaircare.com/health-risks-associated-with-poor-indoor-air-quality/ |access-date=18 September 2019 |work=Home Air Care |date=4 April 2018 |archive-date=9 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209232608/https://qualityhomeaircare.com/health-risks-associated-with-poor-indoor-air-quality/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Personal temperature and airflow control over the HVAC system coupled with a properly designed [[building envelope]] will also aid in increasing a building's thermal quality. Creating a high performance luminous environment through the careful integration of daylight and electrical light sources will improve on the lighting quality and energy performance of a structure.<ref name="ciwmb.ca.gov"/><ref>WBDG Sustainable Committee. (August 18, 2009). Sustainable. Retrieved October 28, 2009, from http://www.wbdg.org/design/ieq.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091223060759/http://www.wbdg.org/design/ieq.php |date=2009-12-23 }}</ref>
Solid wood products, particularly flooring, are often specified in environments where occupants are known to have allergies to dust or other particulates. Wood itself is considered to be hypo-allergenic and its smooth surfaces prevent the buildup of particles common in soft finishes like carpet. [[Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America|The Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America]] recommends hardwood, vinyl, linoleum tile or slate flooring instead of carpet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=18&cont=231|title=Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America Home Remodelling|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422173721/http://aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=18&cont=231|archive-date=2011-04-22}}</ref> The use of wood products can also improve air quality by absorbing or releasing moisture in the air to moderate humidity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://naturallywood.com/uploadedFiles/General/Green_Building/Module-6_Health_and_Wellbeing.pdf |title=Naturally:wood Building Green with Wood Module 6 Health and Wellbeing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402052948/http://www.naturallywood.com/sites/default/files/Module-6-Health-and-Wellbeing.pdf|archive-date=2013-04-02}}</ref>
Interactions among all the indoor components and the occupants together form the processes that determine the indoor air quality. Extensive investigation of such processes is the subject of indoor air scientific research and is well documented in the journal Indoor Air.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0905-6947|title=Indoor Air - Wiley Online Library|website=www.blackwellpublishing.com|access-date=2011-05-09 |archive-date=2012-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319010156/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0905-6947|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Operations and maintenance optimization===
No matter how sustainable a building may have been in its design and construction, it can only remain so if it is operated responsibly and maintained properly. Ensuring operations and maintenance(O&M) personnel are part of the project's planning and development process will help retain the green criteria designed at the onset of the project.<ref>WBDG Sustainable Committee. (August 18, 2009). Sustainable. Retrieved November 28, 2009, from http://www.wbdg.org/design/optimize_om.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217000635/http://www.wbdg.org/design/optimize_om.php |date=2010-02-17 }}</ref> Every aspect of green building is integrated into the O&M phase of a building's life. The addition of new green technologies also falls on the O&M staff. Although the goal of waste reduction may be applied during the design, construction and demolition phases of a building's life-cycle, it is in the O&M phase that green practices such as recycling and air quality enhancement take place. O&M staff should aim to establish best practices in energy efficiency, resource conservation, ecologically sensitive products and other sustainable practices. Education of building operators and occupants is key to effective implementation of sustainable strategies in O&M services.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sftool.gov/plan/268/building-operations-maintenance-services|title=Building Operations and Maintenance Services - GSA Sustainable Facilities Tool|website=sftool.gov|access-date=2015-07-01|archive-date=2015-07-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702075820/https://sftool.gov/plan/268/building-operations-maintenance-services|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Waste reduction===
Green architecture also seeks to reduce waste of energy, water and materials used during construction. For example, in California nearly 60% of the state's waste comes from commercial buildings<ref name=Katz>{{cite report |last1=Kats |first1=Greg |last2=Alevantis |first2=Leon |last3=Berman |first3=Adam |last4=Mills |first4=Evan |last5=Perlman |first5=Jeff |title=The Cost and Financial Benefits of Green Buildings |date=October 2003 |url=http://www.usgbc.org/Docs/News/News477.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081027061317/http://www.usgbc.org/Docs/News/News477.pdf|archive-date=2008-10-27 |access-date=November 3, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> During the construction phase, one goal should be to reduce the amount of material going to [[landfill]]s. Well-designed buildings also help reduce the amount of waste generated by the occupants as well, by providing on-site solutions such as [[composting|compost bins]] to reduce matter going to landfills.
To reduce the amount of wood that goes to landfill, Neutral Alliance (a coalition of government, NGOs and the forest industry) created the website [https://www.fpac.ca/ dontwastewood.com]. The site includes a variety of resources for regulators, municipalities, developers, contractors, owner/operators and individuals/homeowners looking for information on wood recycling.
When buildings reach the end of their useful life, they are typically demolished and hauled to landfills. Deconstruction is a method of harvesting what is commonly considered "waste" and reclaiming it into useful building material.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jgpress.com/inbusiness/archives/_free/000648.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121092246/http://www.jgpress.com/inbusiness/archives/_free/000648.html|url-status=dead|title=In Business magazine Green Builders Get Big Help from Deconstruction|archive-date=November 21, 2008}}</ref> Extending the useful life of a structure also reduces waste – building materials such as wood that are light and easy to work with make renovations easier.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://naturallywood.com/uploadedFiles/General/Green_Building/Module-5_Durability_and_Adaptability.pdf|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517113844/http://naturallywood.com/uploadedFiles/General/Green_Building/Module-5_Durability_and_Adaptability.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2016-05-17|title=Naturally:wood Building Green with Wood Module 5 Durability and Adaptability}}</ref>
To reduce the impact on [[water well|wells]] or [[sewage treatment|water treatment plants]], several options exist. "[[Greywater]]", wastewater from sources such as dishwashing or washing machines, can be used for subsurface irrigation, or if treated, for non-potable purposes, e.g., to flush toilets and wash cars. Rainwater collectors are used for similar purposes.
Centralized wastewater treatment systems can be costly and use a lot of energy. An alternative to this process is converting waste and wastewater into fertilizer, which avoids these costs and shows other benefits. By collecting human waste at the source and running it to a semi-centralized [[biogas]] plant with other biological waste, liquid fertilizer can be produced. This concept was demonstrated by a settlement in Lübeck Germany in the late 1990s. Practices like these provide soil with organic nutrients and create [[carbon sink]]s that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, offsetting [[greenhouse gas]] emission. Producing artificial [[fertilizer]] is also more costly in energy than this process.<ref>Lange, Jorg; Grottker, Mathias; Otterpohl, Ralf. Water Science and Technology, Sustainable Water and Waste Management In Urban Areas, June 1998. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080609221352/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBB-3SWJJHD-F&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a16968ef65ef0f292f3862293694c27crom] Retrieved:April 30, 2008.</ref>
===Reduce impact onto electricity network===
[[Electricity network]]s are built based on peak demand (another name is peak load). Peak demand is measured in the units of [[watt]]s (W). It shows how fast electrical energy is consumed. Residential electricity is often charged on electrical energy ([[kilowatt hour]], kWh). Green buildings or sustainable buildings are often capable of saving electrical energy but not necessarily reducing [[peak demand]].
When sustainable building features are designed, constructed and operated efficiently, peak demand can be reduced so that there is less desire for electricity network expansion and there is less impact onto [[carbon emission]] and [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite conference |doi=10.4225/50/58107ce163e0c |title=Community centre improvement to reduce air conditioning peak demand |first1=Lei |last1=Liu |first2=Gerard |last2=Ledwich |first3=Wendy |last3=Miller |date=November 22, 2016 |conference=7th International Conference on Energy and Environment of Residential Buildings, 20–24 November 2016, Brisbane, Australia}}</ref> These sustainable features can be good orientation, sufficient indoor thermal mass, good insulation, [[photovoltaic panel]]s, thermal or electrical [[energy storage system]]s, smart building (home) [[energy management system]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.solener.2017.10.008 |title=Involving occupants in net-zero-energy solar housing retrofits: An Australian sub-tropical case study |journal=Solar Energy |volume=159 |page=390 |year=2018 |last1=Miller |first1=Wendy |last2=Liu |first2=Lei Aaron |last3=Amin |first3=Zakaria |last4=Gray |first4=Matthew |bibcode=2018SoEn..159..390M }}</ref>
==Cost and payoff==
The most criticized issue about constructing environmentally friendly buildings is the price. [[Photovoltaics]], new appliances, and modern technologies tend to cost more money. Most green buildings cost a premium of <2%, but yield 10 times as much over the entire life of the building.<ref name=Katz/> In regards to the financial benefits of green building, "Over 20 years, the financial payback typically exceeds the additional cost of [[greening]] by a factor of 4-6 times. And broader benefits, such as reductions in greenhouse gases (GHGs) and other pollutants have large positive impacts on surrounding communities and on the planet."<ref>Kats, Gregory. (September 24, 2010). Costs and Benefits of Green Buildings [Web Log Post]. Retrieved from http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2010/09/24/205805/costs-and-benefits-of-green-buildings/# {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324081525/http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2010/09/24/205805/costs-and-benefits-of-green-buildings/ |date=2014-03-24}}</ref> The stigma is between the knowledge of up-front cost<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sustainca.org/programs/green_buildings_challenges |title=Green Buildings - Challenges |publisher=California Sustainability Alliance |access-date=2010-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101219124240/http://sustainca.org/programs/green_buildings_challenges |archive-date=2010-12-19 |url-status=dead}}</ref> vs. life-cycle cost. The savings in money come from more efficient use of utilities which result in decreased energy bills. It is projected that different sectors could save $130 billion on energy bills.<ref>Fedrizzi, Rick, "Intro – What LEED Measures." United States Green Building Council, October 11, 2009.</ref> Also, higher worker or student productivity can be factored into savings and cost deductions.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}
Numerous studies have shown the measurable benefit of green building initiatives on worker productivity. In general it has been found that, "there is a direct correlation between increased productivity and employees who love being in their work space."<ref>Green building impacts worker productivity. (2012). CAD/CAM Update, 24(5), 7-8.</ref> Specifically, worker productivity can be significantly impacted by certain aspects of green building design such as improved lighting, reduction of pollutants, advanced ventilation systems and the use of non-toxic building materials.<ref>{{cite web |last=Boué |first=George |title=Linking Green Buildings, Productivity and the Bottom Line |website=Greenbiz |date=2010-07-08 |url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/linking-green-buildings-productivity-and-bottom-line |access-date=2021-01-09 |archive-date=2021-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510045553/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/linking-green-buildings-productivity-and-bottom-line |url-status=live}}</ref> In "[http://www.usgbc.org/articles/business-case-green-building The Business Case for Green Building]", the U.S. Green Building Council gives another specific example of how commercial energy retrofits increase worker health and thus productivity, "People in the U.S. spend about 90% of their time indoors. EPA studies indicate indoor levels of pollutants may be up to ten times higher than outdoor levels. LEED-certified buildings are designed to have healthier, cleaner indoor environmental quality, which means health benefits for occupants."<ref>{{cite web |author=United States Green Building Council |date=July 27, 2012 |title=The Business Case for Green Building |access-date=March 9, 2014 |url=http://www.usgbc.org/articles/business-case-green-building |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324094447/http://www.usgbc.org/articles/business-case-green-building |archive-date=2014-03-24}}</ref>
Studies have shown over a 20-year life period, some green buildings have yielded $53 to $71 per square foot back on investment.<ref>Langdon, Davis. The Cost of Green Revisited. Publication. 2007.</ref> Confirming the rentability of green building investments, further studies of the commercial real estate market have found that LEED and Energy Star certified buildings achieve significantly higher rents, sale prices and occupancy rates as well as lower capitalization rates potentially reflecting lower investment risk.<ref>Fuerst, Franz; McAllister, Pat. Green Noise or Green Value? Measuring the Effects of Environmental Certification on Office Property Values. 2009. [https://ssrn.com/abstract=1140409] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123223556/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1140409|date=2021-11-23}} Retrieved: November 5, 2010</ref><ref>Pivo, Gary; Fisher, Jeffrey D. Investment Returns from Responsible Property Investments: Energy Efficient, Transit-oriented and Urban Regeneration Office Properties in the US from 1998-2008. 2009.[http://www.responsibleproperty.net/assets/files/pivo_fisher_investmentreturnsfromrpi3_3_09.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724032458/http://www.responsibleproperty.net/assets/files/pivo_fisher_investmentreturnsfromrpi3_3_09.pdf|date=2011-07-24}} Retrieved: November 5, 2010</ref><ref>Fuerst, Franz; McAllister, Pat. An Investigation of the Effect of Eco-Labeling on Office Occupancy Rates. 2009.[http://www.costar.com/josre/JournalPdfs/03-Effect-Eco-Labeling.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221111606/http://www.costar.com/JOSRE/JournalPdfs/03-Effect-Eco-Labeling.pdf|date=2011-02-21}} Retrieved: November 5, 2010</ref>
==Regulation and operation==
As a result of the increased interest in green building concepts and practices, a number of organizations have developed standards, codes and rating systems for use by government regulators, building professionals and consumers. In some cases, codes are written so local governments can adopt them as bylaws to reduce the local environmental impact of buildings.
Green building rating systems such as [[BREEAM]] (United Kingdom), [[LEED]] (United States and Canada), [[DGNB]] (Germany), [[CASBEE]] (Japan), and [[VERDE]]<sup>GBCe</sup> (Spain), [[GRIHA]] (India) help consumers determine a structure's level of environmental performance. They award credits for optional building features that support green design in categories such as location and maintenance of building site, [[conservation of water]], energy, and building materials, and occupant comfort and health. The number of credits generally determines the level of achievement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naturallywood.com/sites/default/files/Building-Green-and-Benefits-of-Wood.pdf|title=Naturally:wood Building Green and the Benefits of Wood|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529044646/http://www.naturallywood.com/sites/default/files/Building-Green-and-Benefits-of-Wood.pdf|archive-date=2012-05-29}}</ref>
Green building codes and standards, such as the International Code Council's draft International Green Construction Code,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iccsafe.org|title=ICC - International Code Council|website=www.iccsafe.org|access-date=2021-11-23|archive-date=2010-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914150537/http://www.iccsafe.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> are sets of rules created by standards development organizations that establish minimum requirements for elements of green building such as materials or heating and cooling.
Some of the major building environmental assessment tools currently in use include:
*United States: [[International Green Construction Code|International Green Construction Code (IGCC)]]
== Green neighborhoods and villages ==
{{Further|Ecovillage|Green cities}}
At the beginning of the 21st century, efforts were made to implement the principles of green building, not only for individual buildings, but also for neighborhoods and villages. The intent is to create zero energy neighborhoods and villages, which means they're going to create all the energy on their own. They will also reuse waste, implements sustainable transportation, and produce their own food.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Graaf |first1=Florijn |title=SmartHood: the self-sufficient neighborhood of the future |url=https://amsterdamsmartcity.com/updates/news/smart-hood-de-zelfvoorzienende-wijk-van-de-toekoms |website=Amsterdam smart city platform |date=May 23, 2018 |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126055541/https://amsterdamsmartcity.com/updates/news/smart-hood-de-zelfvoorzienende-wijk-van-de-toekoms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Salzano |first1=Miabelle |title=THE NETHERLANDS WILL SOON BE HOME TO A SELF-SUSTAINING ECO VILLAGE |url=https://www.builderonline.com/design/the-netherlands-will-soon-be-home-to-a-self-sustaining-eco-village_s |website=Builder |publisher=ARCHITECT. |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123223620/https://www.builderonline.com/design/the-netherlands-will-soon-be-home-to-a-self-sustaining-eco-village_s |url-status=live }}</ref> Green villages have been identified as a way to decentralize sustainable climate practices, which may prove key in areas with high rural or scattered village populations, such as India, where 74% of the population lives in over 600,000 different villages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kadave |first1=P. |last2=Pathak |first2=P. |last3=Pawar |first3=S. |date=2012 |title=Planning and Design of Green Village |s2cid=130536873 }}</ref>
==International frameworks and assessment tools==
'''IPCC Fourth Assessment Report'''
Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ([[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]]), is the fourth in a series of such reports. The IPCC was established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change, its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/|title=IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|website=www.ipcc.ch|access-date=2021-11-22|archive-date=2017-09-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915050210/http://www.ipcc.ch/|url-status=live}}</ref>
'''UNEP and Climate change'''
United Nations Environment Program [[UNEP]] works to facilitate the transition to low-carbon societies, support climate proofing efforts, improve understanding of climate change science, and raise public awareness about this global challenge.
'''GHG Indicator'''
The Greenhouse Gas Indicator: UNEP Guidelines for Calculating Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Businesses and Non-Commercial Organizations
'''Agenda 21'''
[[Agenda 21]] is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development. It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organizations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in which [[human impact on the environment|humans impact on the environment]]. The number 21 refers to the 21st century.
'''FIDIC's PSM'''
The International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC) Project Sustainability Management Guidelines were created in order to assist project engineers and other stakeholders in setting sustainable development goals for their projects that are recognized and accepted by as being in the interests of society as a whole. The process is also intended to allow the alignment of project goals with local conditions and priorities and to assist those involved in managing projects to measure and verify their progress.
The Project Sustainability Management Guidelines are structured with Themes and Sub-Themes under the three main sustainability headings of Social, Environmental and Economic. For each individual Sub-Theme a core project indicator is defined along with guidance as to the relevance of that issue in the context of an individual
project.
The Sustainability Reporting Framework provides guidance for organizations to use as the basis for disclosure about their sustainability performance, and also provides stakeholders a universally applicable, comparable framework in which to understand disclosed information.
The Reporting Framework contains the core product of the Sustainability Reporting Guidelines, as well as Protocols and Sector Supplements.
The Guidelines are used as the basis for all reporting. They are the foundation upon which all other reporting guidance is based, and outline core content for reporting that is broadly relevant to all organizations regardless of size, sector, or location. The Guidelines contain principles and guidance as well as standard disclosures – including indicators – to outline a disclosure framework that organizations can voluntarily, flexibly, and incrementally, adopt.
Protocols underpin each indicator in the Guidelines and include definitions for key terms in the indicator, compilation methodologies, intended scope of the indicator, and other technical references.
Sector Supplements respond to the limits of a one-size-fits-all approach. Sector Supplements complement the use of the core Guidelines by capturing the unique set of sustainability issues faced by different sectors such as mining, automotive, banking, public agencies and others.
'''IPD Environment Code'''
The IPD Environment Code was launched in February 2008. The Code is intended as a good practice global standard for measuring the environmental performance of corporate buildings. Its aim is to accurately measure and manage the environmental impacts of corporate buildings and enable property executives to generate high quality, comparable performance information about their
buildings anywhere in the world. The Code covers a wide range of building types (from offices to airports) and aims to inform and support
the following;
* Creating an environmental strategy
* Inputting to real estate strategy
* Communicating a commitment to environmental improvement
* Creating performance targets
* Environmental improvement plans
* Performance assessment and measurement
* Life cycle assessments
* Acquisition and disposal of buildings
* Supplier management
* Information systems and data population
* Compliance with regulations
* Team and personal objectives
IPD estimate that it will take approximately three years to gather significant data to develop a robust set of baseline data that could be used across a typical corporate estate.
'''ISO 21931 '''
ISO/TS 21931:2006, Sustainability in building construction—Framework for methods of assessment for environmental performance of construction works—Part 1: Buildings, is intended to provide a general framework for improving the quality and comparability of methods for assessing the environmental performance of buildings. It identifies and describes issues to be taken into account when using methods for the assessment of environmental performance for new or existing building properties in the design, construction, operation, refurbishment and deconstruction stages. It is not an assessment system in itself but is intended be used in conjunction with, and following the principles set out in, the ISO 14000 series of standards.
== Development history ==
* In the 1960s, American architect [[Paolo Soleri|Paul Soleri]] proposed a new concept of ecological architecture.
* In 1969, American architect [[Ian McHarg]] wrote the book "Design Integrates Nature", which marked the official birth of ecological architecture.
* In the 1970s, the [[energy crisis]] caused various building energy-saving technologies such as [[solar energy]], [[geothermal energy]], and [[Wind power|wind energy]] to emerge, and energy-saving buildings became the forerunner of building development.
* In 1980, the [[World Conservation Organization]] put forward the slogan "sustainable development" for the first time. At the same time, the energy-saving building system was gradually improved, and it was widely used in developed countries such as Germany, Britain, France and Canada.
* In 1987, the [[United Nations Environment Programme|United Nations Environment Program]] published the "Our Common Future" report, which established the idea of sustainable development.
* In 1990, the world's first green building standard was released in the UK.
* In 1992, because the "United Nations Conference on Environment and Development" promoted the idea of sustainable development, green buildings gradually became the direction of development.
* In 1993, the [[United States]] created the Green Building Association.
* In 1996, [[Hong Kong]] introduced green building standards.
* In 1999, [[Taiwan]] introduced green building standards.
* In 2000, [[Canada]] introduced green building standards.
* In 2005, [[Singapore]] initiated the "BCA Green Building Mark"
* In 2015, according to the Berkeley National Laboratory, [[China]] implemented the "Green Building Evaluation Standards"{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}
* In 2021, the first, both low-cost and sustainable [[3D printed house]] made out of a [[clay]]-mixture was completed<ref name="printedclayhouse">{{cite news |last1=Palumbo |first1=Jacqui |title=Is this 3D-printed home made of clay the future of housing? |url=https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/tecla-3d-printed-house-clay/index.html |access-date=9 May 2021 |work=CNN |language=en |archive-date=6 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606143653/https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/tecla-3d-printed-house-clay/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Green building by country==
*[[Green building in Australia]]
*[[Green building in Bangladesh]]
*[[Green building in Germany]]
*[[Green building in Israel]]
*[[Green building in South Africa]]
*[[Green building in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Green building in India]]
*[[Green building in the United States]]
*[[The Model home 2020 project]]: [[Denmark]], [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[France]], [[UK]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.activehouse.info/ |title=Active House |website=International Active House Alliance}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Energy|Environment|Housing}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Alternative natural materials]]
* [[Arcology]] — high density ecological structures
* [[Autonomous building]]
* [[Biophilic design]]
* [[Building]]
* [[Building insulation]]
* [[Centre for Interactive Research on Sustainability]]
* [[Deconstruction (building)]]
* [[Eco hotel]]
* [[Environmental planning]]
* [[Geo-exchange]]
* [[Green architecture]]
* [[Green building and wood]]
* [[Green Building Council]]
* [[Green home]]
* [[Green technology]]
* [[Glass in green buildings]]
* [[Healthy building]]
* [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]]
* [[List of low-energy building techniques]]
* [[Low-energy house]]
* [[National Green Building Standard]]
* [[Natural building]]
* [[Sustainable city]]
* [[Sustainable habitat]]
* [[Tropical green building]]
* [[World Green Building Council]]
* [[Yakhchāl]]
* [[Zero-energy building]]
* [[Zero heating building]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Library resources box
|onlinebooks=no
|by=no
}}
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Business/Construction_and_Maintenance/Building_Types/Sustainable_Architecture/ Sustainable Architecture at the Open Directory Project]
*[http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/13/1/111/htm/ Prochorskaite A, Couch C, Malys N, Maliene V (2016) Housing Stakeholder Preferences for the "Soft" Features of Sustainable and Healthy Housing Design in the UK.]
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.yourhome.gov.au/getting-started/welcome |title=Your home : Australia's guide to environmentally sustainable homes |publisher=Australia. Dept. of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-922125-78-1 |edition=6th |location=Canberra, ACT |language=English}}
* [https://www.hardiegrant.com/au/publishing/bookfinder/book/the-sustainable-house-handbook-by-josh-byrne/9781743795828 The Sustainable house handbook] : how to plan and build an affordable, energy-efficient and waterwise home for the future / Josh Byrne. - ISBN 9781743795828 . - Richmond, Vic. : Hardie Grant Books, 2020.
* [https://unsw.press/books/sustainable-house/ Sustainable house] / Michael Mobbs. - 2nd ed. - Sydney, NSW : UNSW Press, 2010. - ISBN 978-1-920705-52-7
* [https://www.nathers.gov.au/ Nationwide House Energy Rating Scheme] (NatHERS)
* [https://renew.org.au/ Renew : leading in sustainability]
* [https://hia.com.au/awards-and-events/awards/greensmart-awards Housing Industry Association. GreenSmart Awards].
* [https://www.nabers.gov.au/ National Australian Built Environment Rating System (NaBERS)]
{{Environmental technology}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Green Building}}
[[Category:Sustainable building]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Sustainable architecture]]
[[Category:Low-energy building]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures by type]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Building]] |
Sustainable tourism | {{short description|Form of travel and tourism without damage to nature or cultural area}}
[[File:The renowned Kakum National Reserve.jpg|thumb|A Canopy Walkway at [[Kakum National Park]] in Ghana, ensuring that tourists have least direct impact on the surrounding ecology. The visitor park received the Global Tourism for Tomorrow Award in 1998.|320x320px]]
{{Green economics sidebar}}{{Not to be confused with|Ecotourism}}
'''Sustainable tourism''' is a concept that covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for [[Impacts of tourism|economic, social and environmental issues]] as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences and addressing the needs of host communities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainable development {{!}} UNWTO|url=https://www.unwto.org/sustainable-development|access-date=2020-09-25|website=www.unwto.org}}</ref> Sustainable tourism should embrace concerns for [[environmental protection]], social equity, and the quality of life, cultural diversity, and a dynamic, viable economy delivering jobs and prosperity for all.<ref>Zeng, L. Economic Development and Mountain Tourism Research from 2010 to 2020: Bibliometric Analysis and Science Mapping Approach. Sustainability 2022, 14, 562. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010562.</ref> It has its roots in [[sustainable development]] and there can be some confusion as to what "sustainable tourism" means.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|23}} There is now broad consensus that tourism should be [[Sustainability|sustainable]].<ref>Peeters P., Gössling S., Ceron J.P., Dubois G., Patterson T., Richardson R.B., Studies E. (2004). [http://www.mif.uni-freiburg.de/isb/ws2/report/peetersetal.pdf The Eco-efficiency of Tourism.]</ref><ref>Bramwell, B., & Lane, B. (1993). Sustainable tourism: An evolving global approach. Journal of sustainable tourism, 1(1), 1-5.</ref> In fact, all forms of tourism have the potential to be sustainable if planned, developed and managed properly.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last1=Fennell|first1=David A.|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.21832/9781845417673/html|title=Sustainable Tourism: Principles, Contexts and Practices|last2=Cooper|first2=Chris|date=2020|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=978-1-84541-767-3|location=Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit|pages=198, 234|doi=10.21832/9781845417673|s2cid=228913882 }}</ref> Tourist development organizations are promoting sustainable tourism practices in order to mitigate negative effects caused by the growing [[Impacts of tourism|impact of tourism]], for example its environmental impacts.
The [[United Nations World Tourism Organization]] emphasized these practices by promoting sustainable tourism as part of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]], through programs like the [[International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development]] in 2017.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/book/10.18111/9789284419340|title=Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals – Journey to 2030, Highlights|date=2017-12-18|publisher=World Tourism Organization |isbn=978-92-844-1934-0|language=en|doi=10.18111/9789284419340}}</ref> There is a direct link between sustainable tourism and several of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).<ref name=":3" />{{rp|26}} Tourism for SDGs focuses on how [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]] ("decent work and economic growth"), [[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]] ("responsible consumption and production") and [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] ("life below water") implicate tourism in [[Sustainable development|creating a sustainable economy]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tourism & Sustainable Development Goals – Tourism for SDGs|url=http://tourism4sdgs.org/tourism-for-sdgs/tourism-and-sdgs/|access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref> According to the World Travel & Tourism Travel, tourism constituted "10.3 percent to the global gross domestic product, with international tourist arrivals hitting 1.5 billion marks (a growth of 3.5 percent) in 2019" and generated $1.7 trillion export earnings yet, improvements are expected to be gained from suitable management aspects and including sustainable tourism as part of a broader [[sustainable development]] strategy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Travel & Tourism Economic Impact {{!}} World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) |url=https://wttc.org/research/economic-impact/economic-impact%20accessed%20on%2001-06-20 |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=wttc.org |language=en-GB}}</ref> {{TOC limit|3}}
== Definition ==
Sustainable tourism is "an exceedingly complex concept with varied definitions due to different interpretations of the meaning and use of the concept".<ref name=":3" />{{rp|23}} It has its roots in [[sustainable development]], a term that is "open to wide interpretation". This can lead to some confusion as to what sustainable tourism means.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|23}}
A definition of sustainable tourism from 2020 is: "Tourism which is developed and maintained in an area in such a manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over an infinite period while safeguarding the Earth's life-support system on which the welfare of current and future generations depends."<ref name=":3" />{{rp|26}}
Sustainable tourism covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for [[Impacts of tourism|economic, social and environmental issues]] as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/980828139 |title=New directions in rural tourism |date=2016 |others=Derek Hall, Lesley Roberts, Morag Mitchell |isbn=978-1-351-91502-1 |location=London [England] |oclc=980828139}}</ref> The concept of sustainable tourism aims to reduce the negative effects of tourism activities. This has become almost universally accepted as a desirable and politically appropriate approach to tourism development.
== Background ==
=== Global goals ===
The [[World Tourism Organization|United Nations World Tourism Organization]] (UNWTO), is the custodian agency to monitor the targets of [[Sustainable Development Goal 8]] ("decent work and economic growth") that are related to tourism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=TOURISM 4 SDGs {{!}} UNWTO |url=https://www.unwto.org/tourism4sdgs |access-date=2021-08-30 |website=www.unwto.org}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite web |title=United Nations (2018) Economic and Social Council, Conference of European Statisticians, Geneva |url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/stats/documents/ece/ces/2018/CES_39.pdf |access-date=September 19, 2020 |website=United Nations, Geneva}}</ref> The [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a "blueprint to achieve a better and more [[Sustainability|sustainable]] future for all".<ref name=":172">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128194012/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313|date=28 November 2020}})</ref> Given the dramatic increase in tourism, the report strongly promotes responsible tourism.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/9789284419340 |title=Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals – Journey to 2030, Highlights |publisher=World Tourism Organization |year=2017 |isbn=9789284419340 |doi=10.18111/9789284419340 |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref> Even though some countries and sectors in the industry are creating initiatives for tourism in addressing the SDGs, knowledge sharing, finance and policy for sustainable tourism are not fully addressing the needs of stakeholders.<ref name=":2" />
The SDGs include targets on tourism and sustainable tourism in several goals:
* Target 8.9 of [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]] (Decent work and economic growth) states: "By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products".
* Target 12.a of [[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]] (responsible consumption and production) is formulated as "Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products." UNWTO is the custodian agency for this target.
* Target 14.7 of [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] (Life below Water) is to: "By 2030, increase the economic benefits to [[Small Island Developing States|small island developing States]] and [[least developed countries]] from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Goal 14 targets |url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-14-life-below-water/targets.html |access-date=2020-09-24 |website=UNDP |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":172" />
=== Comparison with conventional tourism and mass tourism ===
According to the [[World Tourism Organization|UNWTO]], "[[Tourism]] comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes."<ref>{{Cite web|last=UNWTO Tourism Definitions|date=August 28, 2021|title=UNWTO Tourism Definitions|url=https://www.unwto.org/global/publication/UNWTO-Tourism-definitions|website=UNWTO}}</ref> Global economists forecast continuing international [[tourism]] growth, the amount depending on the location. As one of the world's largest and fastest-growing industries, this continuous growth will place great stress on remaining biologically diverse [[habitat]]s and [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] cultures.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} [[Mass tourism]] is the organized movement of large numbers of tourists to popular destinations such as theme parks, national parks, beaches or cruise ships. Mass tourism uses standardized packaged leisure products and experiences packaged to accommodate large number of tourists at the same time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Poon|first=Auliana|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29467917|title=Tourism, technology, and competitive strategies|date=1993|publisher=CAB International|isbn=0-85198-751-6|location=Wallingford|oclc=29467917}}</ref>
== Related similar concepts ==
=== Responsible tourism ===
While "sustainable tourism" is a concept, the term "responsible tourism" refers to the behaviors and practices that can lead to sustainable tourism. For example, backpacker tourism is a trend that contributes to sustainability from the various environmental, economic, and cultural activities associated with it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Han |first=Heesup |date=2021 |title=Consumer behavior and environmental sustainability in tourism and hospitality: a review of theories, concepts, and latest research|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09669582.2021.1903019 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism |language=en |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=1021–1042 |doi=10.1080/09669582.2021.1903019|s2cid=233247168 |doi-access=free }}</ref> All stakeholders are responsible for the kind of tourism they develop or engage in. Both service providers and purchasers or consumers are held accountable.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/785808916|title=Responsible tourism : concepts, theories and practices|date=2012|publisher=CAB International|others=David Leslie|isbn=978-1-84593-987-8|location=Cambridge, MA|oclc=785808916}}</ref> Being responsible demands “thinking” by using planning and development frameworks that are properly grounded in ethical thinking around what is good and right for communities, the natural world and tourists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fennell |first=David A. |date=2008 |title=Responsible Tourism: A Kierkegaardian Interpretation |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02508281.2008.11081285 |journal=Tourism Recreation Research |language=en |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.1080/02508281.2008.11081285 |s2cid=154024781 |issn=0250-8281}}</ref>
According to the Center for Responsible Tourism, responsible tourism is "tourism that maximizes the benefits to local communities, minimizes negative social or environmental impacts, and helps local people conserve fragile cultures and habitats or species."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=CREST|date=2016|title=The Case for Responsible Travel: Trends & Statistics 2016|url=https://www.responsibletravel.org/whatWeDo/The_Case_for_Responsible_Travel_2016_Final.pdf}}</ref> Responsible tourism incorporates not only being responsible for interactions with the physical environment, but also of the economic and social interactions.<ref name=":0" /> While different groups will see responsibility in different ways, the shared understanding is that responsible tourism should entail improvements in tourism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Apollo|first=Michal|date=2018|title=Ethics in tourism as a key to development, prosperity and well-being of all stakeholders: 3rd International Congress on Ethics and Tourism, Krakow, 27–28 April 2017|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00207233.2017.1383076|journal=International Journal of Environmental Studies|language=en|volume=75|issue=2|pages=361–365|doi=10.1080/00207233.2017.1383076|s2cid=103853371 |issn=0020-7233}}</ref> This would include ethical thinking around what is "good" and "right" for local communities and the natural world, as well as for tourists. Responsible tourism is an aspiration that can be realized in different ways in different originating markets and in the diverse destinations of the world.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goodwin|first=Harold|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/962452286|title=Responsible Tourism : Using Tourism for Sustainable Development.|date=2016|publisher=Goodfellow Publishers Ltd|isbn=978-1-910158-86-9|edition=2nd|location=Oxford|oclc=962452286}}</ref>
Responsible tourism has also been critiqued. Studies have shown that the degree to which individuals engage in responsible tourism is contingent upon their engagement socially. Meaning, tourist behaviors will fluctuate depending on the range of social engagement that each tourist chooses to take part in.<ref name=":1">Diallo, Mbaye Fall; Diop-Sall, Fatou; Leroux, Erick; Valette-Florence, Pierre (2015). "Responsible tourist behaviour: The role of social engagement". ''Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition)''. '''3''': 85–104 – via SAGE.</ref> A study regarding responsible tourists behavior concludes that it is not only a personal behavior of tourists that shape outcomes, but also a reflection of mechanisms put in place by governments.<ref name=":1" /> Other research has put into question the promise that tourism, even responsible tourism, is inline with UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]] given the difficulties in measuring such impact.<ref>Ferguson, Lucy; Moreno Alarcón, Daniela (September 2014). "Gender and sustainable tourism: reflections on theory and practice". ''Journal of Sustainable Tourism''. '''23''': 401–416 – via Taylor & Francis.</ref> Some argue that it actually detracts attention from the wider issues surrounding tourism that are in need of regulation, such as the number of visitors and environmental impact.<ref>Anita, Pelumarom. "The Politics of Tourism and Poverty Reduction." Responsible Tourism. Ed. David Leslie. CABI, 2012. 90-106. </ref><ref>Wheeler, Brian (June 1991). "Tourism's troubled times: Responsible Tourism is not the answer". ''Tourism Management'': 91–16.</ref>
=== Ecotourism ===
{{excerpt|ecotourism|paragraphs=1|file=no}}
=== Nature Positive Tourism ===
Nature positive tourism recognises that tourism should do more than [[Leave No Trace|leave no trace]]. It should leave behind positive benefits for the natural world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nature Positive Travel {{!}} Responsible Travel |url=https://www.responsibletravel.com/copy/nature-positive |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=www.responsibletravel.com |language=en}}</ref> A form of regenerative tourism,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Glusac |first=Elaine |date=2020-08-27 |title=Move Over, Sustainable Travel. Regenerative Travel Has Arrived. |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/27/travel/travel-future-coronavirus-sustainable.html |access-date=2023-08-30 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> nature positive tourism is a way for the tourism industry to address the global [[Biodiversity loss|biodiversity crisis]] and contribute to the global [[biodiversity]] goals to arrest declines in nature by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is nature positive tourism? |url=https://www.responsibletravel.com/copy/what-is-nature-positive-tourism |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=www.responsibletravel.com |language=en}}</ref>
The premise of nature positive tourism rests on the principle that all types of tourism – mainstream or otherwise – rely on nature and impact on it too. The [[impacts of tourism]] on nature span all five of the key drivers of global biodiversity loss – [[Land use, land-use change, and forestry|land use change]], [[pollution]], [[climate change]], over-exploitation of [[Natural resource|natural resources]], and the invasion of [[Introduced species|non-native species]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Challenges faced by the tourism sector to protect nature |url=https://getnaturepositive.com/sectors/tourism/challenges/ |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=GNP |language=en}}</ref>
Nature positive tourism recognises and addresses these impacts and takes steps to ensure any tourism activities protect and restore natural biodiversity. This could be through supporting [[reforestation]] or regeneration initiatives,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Glusac |first=Elaine |date=2022-12-23 |title=How to Travel the World While Putting Nature First |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/23/travel/nature-positive-tourism-world-travel-and-tourism-council.html |access-date=2023-08-30 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> making space for nature in [[Urban area|urban]] hotels, or changing operating procedures to eradicate light and water pollution.
== Criticism ==
{{See also|Ecotourism#Criticism}}
Although we are seeking solutions for sustainable tourism, there is no desirable change in the tourism system. Sustainable models must be able to adapt to new challenges a face a wider form of societal transformations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Budeanu |first1=Miller |title=Sustainable tourism, progress, challenges and opportunities: an introduction |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=2016 |volume=111 |pages=285–294 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.027 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652615014110}}</ref> Many critics view the extractive nature of "sustainable tourism" as an [[oxymoron]], as it is fundamentally unable to continue indefinitely. True and perfect [[sustainability]] is likely impossible in all but the most favorable circumstances, as the interests of equity, economy, and ecology often conflict with one another and require tradeoffs. It is a reality that many things are done in the name of sustainability are actually masking the desire to allow extra profits.<ref name="Monbiot 1994" /> There is often alienation of local populations from the tourists.<ref name="Olerokonga 1992 6–7" /> Such cases highlight that sustainable tourism covers a wide spectrum from "very weak" to "very strong" when the degree of anthropocentricism and exploitation of human and natural resources is taken into account.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|5}}
==Stakeholders==
Stakeholders of sustainable tourism can include organizations as well as individuals. A stakeholder in the tourism industry is deemed to be anyone who is impacted by development positively or negatively. Stakeholder involvement reduces potential conflict between the tourists and host community by involving the latter in shaping the way in which tourism develops.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Aas | first1 = C. | last2 = Ladkin | first2 = A. | last3 = Fletcher | first3 = J. | year = 2005 | title = Stakeholder collaboration and heritage management | url = http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/105/1/Fletcher_Output_4.pdf| journal = Annals of Tourism Research | volume = 32 | issue = 1| pages = 28–48 | doi=10.1016/j.annals.2004.04.005}}</ref>
===Governments and good governance===
[[File:Stamp of Azerbaijan - 2017 - Colnect 759969 - International Year For Sustainable Tourism.jpeg|thumb|A 2017 stamp by the Government of [[Azerbaijan]] celebrating the [[International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development|International Year for Sustainable Tourism]] in 2017]]
The government plays an important role in encouraging sustainable tourism whether it be through marketing, information services, education, and advice through public-private collaborations. However, the values and ulterior motives of governments often need to be taken into account when assessing the motives for sustainable tourism. One important factor to consider in any ecologically sensitive or remote area or an area new to tourism is that of [[carrying capacity]]. This is the capacity of tourists of visitors an area can sustainably tolerate over time without damaging the environment or culture of the surrounding area.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fennell |first=David A. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1125278245 |title=Ecotourism |date=2020 |isbn=978-0-367-36459-5 |edition=5th |location=Abingdon, Oxon |oclc=1125278245}}</ref> This can be altered and revised in time and with changing perceptions and values.
Scholars have pointed out that partnerships "incrementally nudge governance towards greater inclusion of diverse stakeholders".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McAllister |first1=Ryan RJ |last2=Taylor |first2=Bruce M |date=2015 |title=Partnerships for sustainability governance: a synthesis of key themes |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877343515000020 |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |language=en |volume=12 |pages=86–90 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2015.01.001|bibcode=2015COES...12...86M }}</ref><ref name=":3" />{{rp|93}} Partnerships refer to cooperation between private, public and civil society actors. Its purpose is to implement sustainability policies. Governance is essential in developing partnership initiatives.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|93}}
[[Good governance]] principles for [[National park|National Parks]] and [[protected area]]s management include [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] and voice, direction, performance, [[accountability]] and fairness.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|295}}
===Non-governmental organizations===
[[Non-governmental organization]]s are one of the stakeholders in advocating sustainable tourism. Their roles can range from spearheading sustainable tourism practices to simply doing research. University research teams and scientists can be tapped to aid in the process of planning. Such solicitation of research can be observed in the planning of [[Cát Bà National Park]] in [[Vietnam]].<ref>{{Cite book|date=December 2009|title=Land management challenges and strategies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Bls24MgPuMC&q=solicitation+of+research+can+be+observed+in+the+planning+of+C%C3%A1t+B%C3%A0+National+Park+in+Vietnam&pg=PA55|isbn=9789380228488|last1=Iyyer|first1=Chaitanya|publisher=Global India Publications }}</ref>
Dive resort operators in [[Bunaken National Park]], [[Indonesia]], play a crucial role by developing exclusive zones for [[Underwater diving|diving]] and [[fishing]] respectively, such that both tourists and locals can benefit from the venture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=north sulawesi information pages|url=http://www.sulawesi-info.com/bunaken.php}}</ref>
Large [[Convention (meeting)|conventions]], [[meeting]]s and other major organized events drive the travel, tourism, and hospitality industry. Cities and [[convention center]]s compete to attract such commerce, commerce which has heavy impacts on resource use and the environment. Major sporting events, such as the [[Olympic Games]], present special problems regarding environmental burdens and degradation.<ref>Malhado A., de Araujo L., Rothfuss R. (2014). [https://books.google.com/books?id=JzgsAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22the+attitude-behaviour+gap+and+the+role+of+information%22&pg=PA104 The attitude-behavior gap and the role of information in influencing sustainable mobility in mega-events]. Ch. 7 in: Understanding and Governing Sustainable Tourism Mobility: Psychological and Behavioural Approaches.</ref> But burdens imposed by the regular convention industry can be vastly more significant.
[[Green conventions]] and events are a new but growing sector and marketing point within the convention and hospitality industry. More environmentally aware organizations, corporations, and government agencies are now seeking more sustainable event practices, greener hotels, restaurants and convention venues, and more energy-efficient or climate-neutral travel and ground transportation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ostrowska-Tryzno|first1=Anna|last2=Muszyńska|first2=Agnieszka|date=2018|title=Sustainable Tourism Services As An Exceptional Product For The Mice Destination . Case Study Reykjavik|url=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-7620486b-04c3-46a2-b7e4-6d28c000e810|journal=Kwartalnik Naukowy Uczelni Vistula|volume=1|language=PL|issue=55|pages=164–174|issn=2084-4689}}</ref> However, the convention trip not taken can be the most sustainable option: "With most international conferences having hundreds if not thousands of participants, and the bulk of these usually traveling by plane, conference travel is an area where significant reductions in air-travel-related GHG emissions could be made. ... This does not mean non-attendance" (Reay, 2004), since modern Internet communications are now ubiquitous and remote audio/visual participation.<ref name="reay">Reay DS (2004). ''[http://www.ghgonline.org/flyingaea.pdf New Directions: Flying in the face of the climate change convention].'' Atmospheric Environment (38:5, p.793-794).</ref> For example, by 2003 [[Access Grid|Access Grid technology]] had already successfully hosted several international conferences.<ref name="reay" /> A particular example is the large American Geophysical Union's annual meeting, which has used live streaming for several years. This provides live streams and recordings of keynotes, named lectures, and oral sessions, and provides opportunities to submit questions and interact with authors and peers.<ref>[http://fallmeeting.agu.org/2013/general-information/faqs/ AGU Fall Meeting FAQs]. See the Virtual Options section.</ref> Following the live-stream, the recording of each session is posted online within 24 hours.<ref>Anukrati Sharma & Haza A. 2021. Overtourism as Destination Risk: Impacts and Solutions, Bingley, Emerald Group</ref>
Some convention centers have begun to take direct action in reducing the impact of the conventions they host. One example is the [[Moscone Center]] in [[San Francisco]], which has a very aggressive [[recycling]] program, a large [[solar power]] system, and other programs aimed at reducing impact and increasing efficiency.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Sustainability {{!}} Moscone Center |url=https://www.moscone.com/guidelines/environmental-sustainability |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=www.moscone.com}}</ref>
===Local communities===
[[File:Sustainable Tourism - SDGs badge by UNWTO.jpg|thumb|A Sustainable Tourism badge featuring the logo of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] from the [[World Tourism Organization]]]][[Local communities]] benefit from sustainable tourism through economic development, job creation, and infrastructure development. Tourism revenues bring economic growth and prosperity to attractive tourist destinations, which can raise the standard of living in destination communities. Sustainable tourism operators commit themselves to creating jobs for local community members. An increase in tourism revenue to an area acts as a driver for the development of increased infrastructure. As tourist demands increase in a destination, a more robust infrastructure is needed to support the needs of both the tourism industry and the local community.<ref>McCool, S. F., Moisey, R. N. (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Qp71teNXFxEC Integrating environmental and social concerns over tourism development]. [In:] S. F. McCool & R. N. Moisey (eds.), Tourism, recreation, and sustainability: linking culture and the environment (pp. 17-20). CABI Publishing: Oxon</ref> A 2009 study of rural operators throughout the province of British Columbia, Canada found "an overall strong 'pro-sustainability' attitude among respondents. Dominant barriers identified were lack of available money to invest, lack of incentive programs, other business priorities, and limited access to suppliers of sustainable products, with the most common recommendation being the need for incentive programs to encourage businesses to become more sustainable."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thuot|first1=Lea|last2=Vaugeois|first2=Nicole|last3=Maher|first3=Patrick|date=2010|title=Fostering innovation in sustainable tourism|journal=Journal of Rural and Community Development|language=en|volume=5|pages=76–89|doi=10.25316/ir-138|issn=1712-8277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moscardo|first1=Gianna|last2=Konovalov|first2=Elena|last3=Murphy|first3=Laurie|last4=McGehee|first4=Nancy G.|last5=Schurmann|first5=Andrea|date=2017-12-01|title=Linking tourism to social capital in destination communities|journal=Journal of Destination Marketing & Management|volume=6|issue=4|pages=286–295|doi=10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.10.001|issn=2212-571X}}</ref>
=== International organizations ===
The Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) serves as the international body for fostering increased knowledge and understanding of sustainable tourism practices, promoting the adoption of universal sustainable tourism principles, and building demand for sustainable travel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bushell|first1=Robyn|last2=Bricker|first2=Kelly|date=2017-01-01|title=Tourism in protected areas: Developing meaningful standards|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1467358416636173|journal=Tourism and Hospitality Research|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=106–120|doi=10.1177/1467358416636173|issn=1467-3584|s2cid=155767802}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) - the international accreditation body for sustainable tourism certification|url=https://www.gstcouncil.org/|access-date=2021-06-03|website=Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC)|language=en-US}}</ref> GSTC launched the GSTC Criteria, a global standard for sustainable travel and tourism, which includes criteria and performance indicators for destinations, tour operators and hotels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=December 2017|title=Coping with Success: Managing Overcrowding in Tourism Destinations|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/travel-logistics-and-transport-infrastructure/our-insights/coping-with-success-managing-overcrowding-in-tourism-destinations#|journal=McKinsey & Company}}</ref> The GSTC Criteria serve as the international standard for [[certification]] agencies (the organizations that would inspect a tourism product, and certify them as a sustainable company).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=S|date=2019|title=Recognising Sustainability in Tourism|url=https://www.apec.org/Publications/2019/02/Recognising-Sustainability-in-Tourism|journal=Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation}}</ref> The GSTC Criteria has the potential to be applied to national parks to improve the standards of operation and increase sustainability efforts in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bricker |first1=Kelly S. |last2=Lackey |first2=N. Qwynne |last3=Joyner |first3=Leah |date=2022 |title=A Framework for Sustainable Tourism Development in and around National Parks |url=https://js.sagamorepub.com/jpra/article/view/11113 |journal=Journal of Park and Recreation Administration |language=en |volume=40 |issue=1 |doi=10.18666/JPRA-2021-11113 |s2cid=245920801 |issn=2160-6862}}</ref>
== Sustainable transport and mobility ==
{{Further|sustainable transport|environmental impact of aviation}}
[[File:The Secretary, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Smt. Rashmi Verma flagging off a “Cycle Rally” to create awareness about Tourism, Environment and Sustainability, at India Gate, in New Delhi on October 05, 2017.jpg|thumb|The Secretary, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Smt. Rashmi Verma flagging off a “Cycle Rally” to create awareness about Tourism, Environment and Sustainability, at India Gate, in New Delhi on October 05, 2017]]
Tourism can be related to [[travel]] for leisure, business and visiting friends and relatives and can also include means of [[transportation]] related to tourism.<ref name="PD">{{cite journal |last1=Peeters |first1=P. |last2=Dubois |first2=G. |year=2010 |title=Tourism travel under climate change mitigation constraints |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=447–457 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.09.003}}</ref> Without travel there is no [[tourism]], so the concept of [[sustainable]] tourism is tightly linked to a concept of [[sustainable transport]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Høyer|first1=K.G.|year=2000|title=Sustainable tourism or sustainable mobility? The Norwegian case|journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism|volume=8|issue=2|pages=147–160|doi=10.1080/09669580008667354|s2cid=153821161}}</ref> Two relevant considerations are tourism's reliance on [[fossil fuel]]s and tourism's effect on [[climate change]]. 72 percent of tourism's [[CO2 emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] come from transportation, 24 percent from accommodations, and 4 percent from local activities.<ref name="PD" /> [[Environmental impact of aviation|Aviation accounts for 55%]] of those transportation CO<sub>2</sub> emissions (or 40% of tourism's total). However, when considering the impact of all [[Greenhouse-gas emissions|greenhouse gas emissions]], of [[Contrail|condensation]] trails and induced [[cirrus cloud]]s, aviation alone could account for up to 75% of tourism's climate impact.<ref name="Future">{{cite journal|last1=Gossling|first1=S.|last2=Hall|first2=M.|last3=Peeters|first3=P.|last4=Scott|first4=D.|year=2010|title=The future of tourism: can tourism growth and climate policy be reconciled? A mitigation perspective|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236018351|journal=Tourism Recreation Research|volume=35|issue=2|pages=119–130|doi=10.1080/02508281.2010.11081628|s2cid=128883926}}</ref>
The [[International Air Transport Association]] (IATA) considers an annual increase in aviation [[fuel efficiency]] of 2 percent per year through 2050 to be realistic. However, both [[Airbus]] and [[Boeing]] expect the passenger-kilometers of air transport to increase by about 5 percent yearly through at least 2020, overwhelming any efficiency gains. By 2050, with other economic sectors having greatly reduced their CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, tourism is likely to be generating 40 percent of global carbon emissions.<ref name="Cohen">Cohen S., Higham J.E., Peeters P., Gossling S. (2014). Why tourism mobility behaviors must change. Ch. 1 in: [https://books.google.com/books?id=JzgsAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22why+tourism+mobility+behaviours+must+change%22&pg=PA1 Understanding and Governing Sustainable Tourism Mobility: Psychological and Behavioural Approaches].</ref> The main cause is an increase in the average distance traveled by tourists, which for many years has been increasing at a faster rate than the number of trips taken.<ref name="Cohen" /><ref>Cohen S., Higham J., Cavaliere C. (2011). [http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/18247/1/Cohen,_Higham_and_Cavaliere_2011.pdf Binge flying: Behavioural addiction and climate change.] Annals of Tourism Research.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Larsen|first1=G.R.|last2=Guiver|first2=J.W.|year=2013|title=Understanding tourists' perceptions of distance: a key to reducing the environmental impacts of tourism mobility|journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism|volume=21|issue=7|pages=968–981|doi=10.1080/09669582.2013.819878|s2cid=154395334|url=https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/6485/2/6485_Larson_Guiver.pdf }}</ref><ref>Gössling S., Ceron J.P., Dubois G., Hall C.M., Gössling I.S., Upham P., Earthscan L. (2009). [https://alicante.academia.edu/documents/0076/1866/chap06_copy.pdf Hypermobile travellers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619151427/http://alicante.academia.edu/documents/0076/1866/chap06_copy.pdf|date=2010-06-19}}. Chapter 6 in: Climate Change and Aviation: Issues, Challenges and Solutions.</ref> "Sustainable transportation is now established as the critical issue confronting a global tourism industry that is palpably unsustainable, and aviation lies at the heart of this issue."<ref name="Cohen" />
The European Tourism Manifesto has also called for an acceleration in the development of [[cycling infrastructure]] to boost local clean energy travel. Deployment of non-motorized infrastructures and the re-use of abandoned transport infrastructure (such as disused railways) for cycling and walking has been proposed. Connectivity between these non-motorized routes ([[Greenway (landscape)|greenway]]s, cycle routes) and main attractions nearby (i.e. [[Natura2000]] sites, UNESCO sites, etc.) has also been requested.<ref>[https://tourismmanifesto.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Manifesto-Paper_Investment-proposals-and-reforms_Travel-and-Tourism_final.pdf Call for Action: Accelerate Social and Economic Recovery by investing in sustainable tourism]</ref> It has also called for sufficient and predictable rail infrastructure funding, and a focus on digital multimodal practices, including end-to-end ticketing (such as [[Interrail]]), all of which are in-line with the [[European Green Deal#Sustainable mobility|EU's modal shift goal]].<ref>[https://tourismmanifesto.eu/policy-priorities/ Policy priorities]</ref>
Global tourism accounts for about eight percent of global [[greenhouse gas emissions]]. This percentage takes into account [[Environmental impact of aviation|airline transportation]] as well as other [[Impacts of tourism|significant environmental and social impacts that]] are not always beneficial to local communities and their economies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lenzen |first1=Manfred |last2=Sun |first2=Ya-Yen |last3=Faturay |first3=Futu |last4=Ting |first4=Yuan-Peng |last5=Geschke |first5=Arne |last6=Malik |first6=Arunima |date=7 May 2018 |title=The carbon footprint of global tourism |journal=Nature Climate Change |publisher=Springer Nature Limited |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=522–528 |bibcode=2018NatCC...8..522L |doi=10.1038/s41558-018-0141-x |issn=1758-6798 |quote=[...] between 2009 and 2013, tourism's global carbon footprint has increased from 3.9 to 4.5 GtCO2e, four times more than previously estimated, accounting for about 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Transport, shopping and food are significant contributors. The majority of this footprint is exerted by and in high-income countries. |s2cid=90810502}}</ref>
== Challenges ==
{{Further|Impacts of tourism}}
===Displacement and resettlement===
[[File:Engine boats.jpg|thumb|A [[Tourism in Zanzibar|beach in Zanzibar]] transformed into a transportation hub catering towards tourists, with vendors like the one in the foreground, selling goods mostly for tourists. Tourism frequently displaces local communities from access to natural resources in favor of tourist industry needs.]]
In places where there was no tourism prior to tourism companies' arrival, displacement and resettlement of local communities is a common issue.<ref name="Brohman 1996 48–70">{{cite journal|last=Brohman|first=J|year=1996|title=New Directions in Tourism for Third World Development|journal=Annals of Tourism Research|volume=23|pages=48–70|citeseerx=10.1.1.330.6563|doi=10.1016/0160-7383(95)00043-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Mowforth, M.|title=Tourism and Sustainability: New Tourism in the Third World|author2=Munt, I.|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|location=London|name-list-style=amp}}</ref> For example, the [[Maasai people|Maasai]] tribes in Tanzania have been a victim of this problem. After the [[World War II|second World War]], conservationists moved into the areas where the Maasai tribes lived, with the intent to make such areas accessible to tourists and to preserve the areas' natural beauty and ecology. This was often achieved through establishing national parks and conservation areas.<ref name="Monbiot 1994">{{cite book|last=Monbiot|first=G|title=No Man's Land|publisher=Macmillan|year=1994|location=London}}</ref><ref name="Olerokonga 1992 6–7">{{cite journal|last=Olerokonga|first=T|year=1992|title=What about the Maasai?|journal=In Focus|volume=4|pages=6–7}}</ref> It has been claimed that Maasai activities did not threaten the wildlife and the knowledge was blurred by "[[colonialism|colonial]] disdain" and misunderstandings of [[savanna]]h wildlife.<ref name="Monbiot 1994" /> As the Maasai have been displaced, the area within the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]] (NCA) has been adapted to allow easier access for tourists through the construction of campsites and tracks, as well as the removal of stone objects such as stones for souvenirs.<ref name="Olerokonga 1992 6–7" />
[[File:Tourist and local man in Zanzibar.jpg|left|thumb|Man dressed in traditional Maasai attire approaching a Tourist on the beach. Thousands of [[Maasai people|Maasai men]] have migrated to join the tourism industry on the island and using their ethnic dress to sell goods and services, including sexwork.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last1=Avieli|first1=Nir|last2=Sermoneta|first2=Tsahala|date=2020-10-07|title=Maasai on the phone: materiality, tourism, and the extraordinary in Zanzibar|journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–10|doi=10.1057/s41599-020-00607-7|issn=2662-9992|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the process they have displaced local communities.<ref name=":02" />]]
===Environmental impacts===
{{excerpt|Impacts of tourism#Environmental impacts|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}
[[File:2001 Royal Clipper Karibik 020.jpg|thumb|2001 Royal Clipper Karibik is a [[Sailboat|sail boat]] that uses the wind to propel itself forward, thereby causing fewer [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and less [[air pollution]] than ships using fossil energy sources.]]
==Improvements ==
[[File:Banda Kawayan at the International School of Sustainable Tourism.jpg|thumb|[[Banda Kawayan Pilipinas]], a [[bamboo]] orchestra, at the International School of Sustainable Tourism in the Philippines]]
[[File:The Minister of State for Tourism, Shri Sultan Ahmed addressing at the inauguration of the 2-day National Workshop on “Sustainable Tourism Criteria for India”, in New Delhi on July 27, 2010.jpg|thumb|The Minister of State for Tourism, Shri Sultan Ahmed addressing at the inauguration of the 2-day National Workshop on “Sustainable Tourism Criteria for India”, in New Delhi on July 27, 2010]]
[[File:GSTC Logo 2017 Horizontal (transperent).png|thumb|Logo of Global Sustainable Tourism Council]]
===Management aspects===
Promotion of sustainable tourism practices are often connected to the management of tourist locations by locals or the community. This form of tourism is based on the premise that the people living next to a resource are the ones best suited to protecting it. This means that the tourism activities and businesses are developed and operated by local community members, and certainly with their consent and support. Sustainable tourism typically involves the conservation of resources that are capitalized upon for tourism purposes. Locals run the businesses and are responsible for promoting the conservation messages to protect their environment.
Community-based sustainable tourism (CBST) associates the success of the sustainability of the ecotourism location to the management practices of the communities who are directly or indirectly dependent on the location for their livelihoods. A salient feature of CBST is that local knowledge is usually utilized alongside wide general frameworks of ecotourism business models. This allows the participation of locals at the management level and typically allows a more intimate understanding of the environment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter 3: EIA process |url=https://www.fao.org/3/v8350e/v8350e06.htm |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref>
The use of local knowledge also means an easier entry level into a tourism industry for locals whose jobs or livelihoods are affected by the use of their environment as tourism locations. Environmentally sustainable development crucially depends on the presence of local support for a project.<ref>{{cite book|last=Drake|first=S|title='Local Participation in ecotourism project' in Nature Tourism|publisher=Island Press|year=1991|location=Washington D.C.|pages=132}}</ref> It has also been noted that in order for success projects must provide direct benefits for the local community.<ref>{{cite book|last=Epler Wood|first=M|title='Global Solutions: on ecotourism society', in Nature Tourism|publisher=Island Press|year=1991|location=Washington D.C.|pages=204}}</ref>
However, recent research has found that economic linkages generated by CBST may only be sporadic, and that the linkages with agriculture are negatively affected by seasonality and by the small scale of the cultivated areas. This means that CBST may only have small-scale positive effects for these communities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Trejos|first1=B|last2=Chiang|first2=LHN|year=2009|title=Local economic linkages to community-based tourism in rural Costa Rica|journal=Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography|volume=30|issue=3|pages=373–387|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9493.2009.00375.x}}</ref>
Partnerships between governments and tourism agencies with smaller communities are not particularly effective because of the disparity in aims between the two groups, i.e. true sustainability versus mass tourism for maximum profit. In Honduras, such a divergence can be demonstrated where consultants from the World Bank and officials from the Institute of tourism wanted to set up a selection of 5-star hotels near various [[ecotourism]] destinations. But another operating approach in the region by USAID and APROECOH (an ecotourism association) promotes community-based efforts which have trained many local Hondurans. [[Grassroot organization]]s were more successful in Honduras.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mader|first=R|title=Honduras Notes, email communications, cited in Mowforth and Munt 1998, Tourism and Sustainability: New Tourism in the Third World|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|isbn=978-0203437292|location=London}}</ref>
===As part of a development strategy===
Developing countries are especially interested in international tourism,<ref>{{cite book|last=Harrison|first=D|title=International Tourism in the less developed countries|publisher=Wiley|year=1992|location=Chichester|pages=1–18}}</ref> and many believe it brings countries a large selection of economic benefits including employment opportunities, small business development, and increased in payments of foreign exchange. Many assume that more money is gained through developing luxury goods and services in spite of the fact that this increases a countries dependency on imported products, foreign investments and expatriate skills.<ref>{{cite book|last=Baskin|first=J|title=Local economic development: Tourism - Good or Bad? In Tourism workshop proceedings: small, medium, micro enterprises|publisher=Land and Agriculture Policy Center|year=1995|location=Johannesburg|pages=102–116}}</ref> This classic 'trickle down' financial strategy rarely makes its way down to brings its benefits down to small businesses.<ref name="Scheyvens 1999 245–249">{{cite journal|last=Scheyvens|first=R|author-link=Regina Scheyvens|year=1999|title=Ecotourism and the Empowerment of Local Communities.|journal=Tourism Management|volume=20|issue=2|pages=245–249|doi=10.1016/s0261-5177(98)00069-7}}</ref>
It has been said that the economic benefits of large-scale tourism are not doubted but that the backpacker or budget traveler sector is often neglected as a potential growth sector by developing countries governments.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Scheyvens|first=R|year=2002|title=Backpacker tourism and third world development|journal=Annals of Tourism Research|series=1|volume=29|pages=144–164|doi=10.1016/s0160-7383(01)00030-5}}</ref> This sector brings significant non-economic benefits which could help to empower and educate the communities involved in this sector. "Aiming 'low' builds upon the skills of the local population, promotes self-reliance, and develops the confidence of community members in dealing with outsiders, all signs of empowerment"<ref name="Scheyvens 1999 245–249" /> and all of which aid in the overall development of a nation.
In the 1990s, international tourism was seen as an import potential growth sector for many countries, particularly in developing countries as many of the world's most beautiful and 'untouched' places are located in developing countries.<ref name="Brohman 1996 48–70" /> Prior to the 1960s, studies tended to assume that the extension of the tourism industry to LEDCs was a good thing. In the 1970s, this changed as academics started to take a much more negative view on tourism's consequences, particularly criticizing the industry as an effective contributor towards development. International tourism is a volatile industry with visitors quick to abandon destinations that were formerly popular because of threats to health or security.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lea|first=J. P.|title=Tourism and Development in the Third World|publisher=Routledge|year=1988|isbn=978-0-203-04039-3|location=London}}</ref>
Tourism is seen as a resilient industry and bounces back quickly after severe setbacks, like [[natural disaster]]s, [[September 11 attacks|September 11th attacks]] and [[COVID-19]]. Many call for more attention to "lessons learned" from these setbacks to improve mitigation measures that could be taken in advance.<ref>{{Citation |last1=de Ville de Goyet |first1=Claude |title=Natural Disaster Mitigation and Relief |date=2006 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11792/ |work=Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries |editor-last=Jamison |editor-first=Dean T. |edition=2nd |place=Washington (DC) |publisher=World Bank |isbn=978-0-8213-6179-5 |pmid=21250364 |access-date=2022-06-18 |last2=Marti |first2=Ricardo Zapata |last3=Osorio |first3=Claudio |editor2-last=Breman |editor2-first=Joel G. |editor3-last=Measham |editor3-first=Anthony R. |editor4-last=Alleyne |editor4-first=George}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tourism Policy Responses to the coronavirus (COVID-19) |url=https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/tourism-policy-responses-to-the-coronavirus-covid-19-6466aa20/ |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=OECD |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Overtourism-beach.jpg|thumb|An overpopulated beach may lead to issues such as pollution, and taking land away from where indigenous people reside.]]
== Trends ==
=== Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic ===
{{Further|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism}}
Due to [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19]], an unprecedented decrease of 65% took place in [[International tourism|international tourist numbers]] in first half of 2020 as compared to 2019. Countries around the world closed their borders and introduced [[Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic|travel restrictions]] in response to the pandemic. The situation is expected to gradually improve in 2021 depending upon lifting of travel restrictions, availability of [[COVID-19 vaccine]] and return of traveler confidence.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=International Tourist Numbers Down 65% in the First Half of 2020, UNWTO Reports |url=https://www.unwto.org/news/international-tourist-numbers-down-65-in-first-half-of-2020-unwto-reports |access-date=2020-09-25 |website=www.unwto.org |language=en}}</ref>
Furthermore, the current COVID-19 pandemic has made many sustainability challenges of tourism clearer. Therefore sustainable tourism scholars call for a transformation of tourism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ateljevic |first=Irena |date=2020-05-26 |title=Transforming the (tourism) world for good and (re)generating the potential 'new normal' |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1759134 |journal=Tourism Geographies |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=467–475 |doi=10.1080/14616688.2020.1759134 |issn=1461-6688 |s2cid=219046224|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="doi.org">{{Cite journal |last1=Gössling |first1=Stefan |last2=Scott |first2=Daniel |last3=Hall |first3=C. Michael |date=2021-01-02 |title=Pandemics, tourism and global change: a rapid assessment of COVID-19 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1758708 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1080/09669582.2020.1758708 |issn=0966-9582 |s2cid=219068765|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Higgins-Desbiolles |first=Freya |date=2021-04-03 |title=The "war over tourism": challenges to sustainable tourism in the tourism academy after COVID-19 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1803334 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=551–569 |doi=10.1080/09669582.2020.1803334 |issn=0966-9582 |s2cid=225441193}}</ref> They state that the COVID-19 pandemic has created a window of opportunity, in which stakeholders can shift towards more sustainable practices and rethink systems. The system cannot be sustained in its current form. The constant aim for economic growth goes at the expense of Earth's ecosystems, wildlife, and well-being.<ref>Cláudia Seabra et al, 2020. Pandemics and Travel: COVID-19 Impacts in the Tourism Industry. Bingley, Emerald</ref> The gap between rich and poor is growing every year, and the pandemic has spurred this even further. Our current systems are often in place for the few, leaving the many behind.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The political economy of degrowth |url=https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-02499463/document }}</ref> This is no different for the global and local tourism systems. Therefore, tourism scholars argue we should learn from the pandemic. "COVID-19 provides striking lessons to the tourism industry, policy makers and tourism researchers about the effects of global change. The challenge is now to collectively learn from this global tragedy to accelerate the transformation of sustainable tourism".<ref name="doi.org" /><ref>Sharma A, & Hassan A. 2020. Overtourism as Destination Risk: Impacts and Solutions. Bingley, Emerald.</ref>
Technology is seen as a partial solution to the disruptive impacts of pandemics like COVID-19. Although it can be counterproductive for sustainable tourism if it is utilized for data collection that may be misused for mass tourism, technology and digital advancements have provided the tools necessary for e-tourism to evolve and become more valuable amidst the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Zhenhuan |last2=Wang |first2=Dake |last3=Abbas |first3=Jaffar |last4=Hassan |first4=Saad |last5=Mubeen |first5=Riaqa |date=2022-04-07 |title=Tourists' Health Risk Threats Amid COVID-19 Era: Role of Technology Innovation, Transformation, and Recovery Implications for Sustainable Tourism |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |pages=769175 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769175 |pmid=35465147 |pmc=9022775 |issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free }}</ref> Scholars argue that "surrogate tourism" will allow tourists to remain home while employing local guides at the destination to facilitate personalized, interactive, real-time tours (PIRTs). While these options will not take the place of conventional travel experience, there is a market for PIRTs especially for [[Disability|persons with disabilities]] and the elderly, and for the "sustainable citizen who wishes to minimize their impact on the planet".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fennell |first=David A. |date=2021 |title=Technology and the sustainable tourist in the new age of disruption |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09669582.2020.1769639 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism |language=en |volume=29 |issue=5 |pages=767–773 |doi=10.1080/09669582.2020.1769639 |issn=0966-9582 |s2cid=219751875|doi-access=free }}</ref>
== History ==
Historically, the movement toward sustainable tourism through responsible tourism emerged following the environmental awareness that rose out of the 1960s and 1970s amid a growing phenomenon of "mass tourism". In 1973, the [[European Travel Commission]] initiated a multilateral effort to advance environmentally sound tourism and development.<ref name=":0" /> Jost Krippendorf, a former professor at the University of Bern, is considered to be one of the first individuals to express ideas about sustainable tourism. In his book "The landscape eaters", Krippendorf argues for “sanfter turismus”, or "soft tourism".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bâc |first=Dorin Paul |date=2014 |title=THE EMERGENCE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM – A LITERATURE REVIEW |url=http://www.quaestus.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/bac4.pdf |journal=Quaestus Multidisciplinary Research Journal |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1 |via=University of Oradea}}</ref> The [[South Africa]]n national tourism policy (1996)<ref>http://www.haroldgoodwin.info/resources/Explanatory%20Note.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> used the term "responsible tourism" and mentioned the well-being of the local community as a main factor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brohman |first1=John |year=1996 |title=New directions in tourism for third world development |journal=Annals of Tourism Research |volume=23 |pages=48–70 |citeseerx=10.1.1.330.6563 |doi=10.1016/0160-7383(95)00043-7}}</ref> In 2014, the Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism focused on the role of business in promoting responsible tourism.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 October 2014 |title=Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism |url=https://responsibletourismpartnership.org/cape-town-declaration-on-responsible-tourism/ |access-date=9 September 2020 |website=Responsible Tourism Partnership}}</ref> While further research is needed to understand the impacts of responsible tourism, a study conducted in 2017 found that well-managed responsible tourism practices were beneficial to local communities.<ref>Mathew, Paul V.; Sreejesh, S. (July 2016). "Impact of responsible tourism on destination sustainability and quality of life of community in tourism destinations". ''Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management''. '''31''': 83–89 – via Elsevier Science Direct.</ref>
== Examples ==
=== Forest tourism ===
The [[Haliburton Forest|Haliburton Sustainable Forest]] in central Ontario, Canada is a sustainably managed and privately owned 100,000 forest that supports both tourism and the [[Logging|logging industry]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 24, 2021|title=The Haliburton Forest & Wildlife Reserve, Ltd.|url=https://www.haliburtonforest.com/}}</ref> Based on a 100-year plan for sustaining the forest, the Haliburton Sustainable Forest has sources of income with tourism and logging that contribute to the long-term stability of the local economy and to the health of the forest. In just over four decades the forest has been transformed from a run-down forestry holding to a flourishing, multi-use operation with benefits to owners, employees and the public at large as well as the environment.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|382}}
=== Sustainable touristic cities ===
In 2019, [[Machu Picchu]] in Peru was "recognized as Latin America's first 100% sustainable city through the management of its waste".<ref name=":3" />{{rp|383}}
=== Organizations ===
Biosphere Tourism is an organization that certifies industry players who are able to balance sociocultural, economic and ecological factors within a tourism destination.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|384}} The Tread Right Foundation ([[The Travel Corporation]]'s not-for-profit foundation) has been recognized in 2019 by the UNWTO's annual awards for its pioneering work in sustainability.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|384}}
=== Geosport ===
Geosport is one of the latest concepts in the field of tourism, mainly focusing on promoting spaces, sports heritage sites, and routes as means of attracting tourists through sustainability and sustainable management measures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mirari |first1=Saïd |last2=Aoulad Sidi Mhend |first2=Ali |title=From Sport Tourism to Geosport |journal=International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies |date=April 2023 |volume=39 |issue=2 |page=689 - 696 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370125343 |access-date=28 April 2023}}</ref> Geosport combines local [[cultural heritage]], natural resources, and destination branding with sport. It allows visitors to explore the local cultural and natural heritage more deeply. By enhancing the communication between people and the environment, the concepts of sustainable development and environmental protection are subtly promoted.
==See also==
* [[BEST Education Network]]
* [[Heritage tourism]]
* [[International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development]]
* [[Journal of Sustainable Tourism]]
* [[Mohonk Agreement]]
* [[World Tourism Day]]
* [[Overtourism]]
*[[IT.A.CÀ - Festival of Responsible Tourism]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Reflist|Sustainable Tourism: Tourism Paradigms Salih SARIKAMIS, Antalya [Turkey]. 2022. ISBN 9798371477026}}
==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Responsible travel}}
{{Commons category}}
*[https://responsibletourismpartnership.org/icrt/ International Centre for Responsible Tourism]
*[https://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/66/ Linking Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Tourism at World Heritage Sites]
*[https://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/tourism/tourism.htm UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable Development]
*[http://www.aftto.org African Fair Tourism & Trade Organisation]
*[http://www.icrtourism.org Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism]
*[https://www.gstcouncil.org/ Global Sustainable Tourism Council]
*[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652615014110]
{{Tourism}}
{{Sustainability|state=collapsed}}
{{Population}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Tourism}}
[[Category:Sustainable tourism| ]]
[[Category:Economy and the environment]]
[[Category:Types of tourism]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Sustainable fashion | {{Short description|Part of design philosophy and trend of sustainability in fashion}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2021}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Multiple issues|{{tone |date=May 2020}}{{Original research|date=November 2020}}{{cleanup rewrite|date=October 2023}}}}
[[File:WANNER 18.jpg|thumb|upright|Sustainable fashion displayed by Swedish models, 2020]]{{Clothing and the environment}}{{Green economics sidebar}}
'''Sustainable fashion''' (also known as '''eco-fashion''') is a term describing efforts within the [[fashion industry]] to reduce its [[Environmental impact of fashion|environmental impacts]], protect workers producing garments, and uphold [[animal welfare]]. [[Sustainability]] in fashion encompasses a wide range of factors, including "cutting [[Greenhouse gas emissions|{{CO2}} emissions]], addressing [[overproduction]], reducing [[pollution]] and waste, supporting [[biodiversity]], and ensuring that [[garment workers]] are paid a [[fair wage]] and have safe working conditions".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-19 |title=What Does 'Sustainable Fashion' Actually Mean? |url=https://www.vogue.co.uk/fashion/article/sustainable-fashion |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=[[British Vogue]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>
In 2020, it was found that voluntary self-directed reform of [[textile manufacturing]] supply chains by large companies to reduce the environmental impact was largely unsuccessful.<ref name="destin">{{cite web |title=Destination Zero: seven years of Detoxing the clothing industry |url=https://storage.googleapis.com/planet4-international-stateless/2018/07/destination_zero_report_july_2018.pdf |publisher=Greenpeace |access-date=30 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Greenpeace Calls Out Nike, Adidas and Puma for Toxic Clothing |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUS191991010320110809 |access-date=30 September 2020 |work=Reuters |date=9 August 2011 |language=en}}</ref> Measures to reform fashion production beyond [[greenwashing]] requires policies for the creation and enforcement of [[standardization|standardized]] certificates, along with related [[import]] controls, subsidies,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Niu |first1=Baozhuang |last2=Chen |first2=Lei |last3=Zhang |first3=Jie |title=Punishing or subsidizing? Regulation analysis of sustainable fashion procurement strategies |journal=Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review |date=November 2017 |volume=107 |pages=81–96 |doi=10.1016/j.tre.2017.09.010 }}</ref> and interventions such as [[eco-tariffs]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Increasing Green Credentials beyond Greenwash |url=https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/104378/Mikkonen_Mila.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dahl |first1=Richard |title=Green Washing: Do You Know What You're Buying? |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=June 2010 |volume=118 |issue=6 |pages=A246-52 |doi=10.1289/ehp.118-a246|pmid=20515714 |pmc=2898878 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neuman |first1=Salla |title=Sustainability in fashion production – How are the pioneers doing it? |website=www.theseus.fi |date=2019 |url=https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/170211}}</ref>
== Background and history ==
In the early [[1990s in fashion|1990s]], roughly coinciding with the 1992 [[United Nations]] Conference on Environment and Development, popularly known as the [[Earth Summit|Rio Earth Summit]], 'green issues' (as they were called at the time) made their way into fashion and textiles publications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anon|date=1991|title=Textiles and the Environment|journal=International Textiles |volume=726 |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anon|date=1993 |title=Rethinking Ecology|journal=Textile View |volume=24|pages=201–207}}</ref> These publications featured well-known companies such as [[Patagonia (clothing)|Patagonia]] and [[Esprit Holdings|ESPRIT]], whose founders [[Yvon Chouinard]] and [[Doug Tompkins]], were outdoorsmen who witnessed the environmental harm of overproduction and [[overconsumption]]. Doug Tompkins and Yvon Chouinard were early to note that exponential growth and consumption are not sustainable.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meadows, Donella H. |url=https://archive.org/details/limitstogrowthr00mead |title=The Limits to growth : a report for the Club of Rome's project on the predicament of mankind |date=1982 |publisher=Universe Books |isbn=0876631650 |oclc=977611718 |url-access=registration}}</ref> In the late 1980s, they brought environmental concerns into their business models, commissioning research into the impact of fibres used in their respective companies. For Patagonia, this resulted in a [[Life-cycle assessment|lifecycle assessment]] of four fibers: cotton, wool, nylon, and polyester. For ESPRIT, the focus was on [[cotton]]—representing 90% of their production at the time—and finding better alternatives to it. A primary focus on materials' provenance, impact and selection, fibre and fabric processing is still the norm in sustainable fashion 30 years on.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys |edition=2nd |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |publisher=Earthscan |year=2008 |isbn=9780415644556 |location=London; Washington, DC}}</ref>
In 1992, the [[Esprit Holdings|ESPRIT]] e-collection based on the Eco Audit guide by the Elmwood Institute, was developed by head designer [[Lynda Grose]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cenews.in/lynda-grose-pioneering-environmental-standards-for-the-clothing-industry/ |title=Lynda Grose – PIONEERING ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS FOR THE CLOTHING INDUSTRY – CE NEWS|work=CE NEWS|access-date=2017-03-11 |archive-date=2017-03-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312070350/http://www.cenews.in/lynda-grose-pioneering-environmental-standards-for-the-clothing-industry/|url-status=live}}</ref> and launched at retail. In 2011 the brand [[Patagonia, Inc.|Patagonia]] ran an ad and a PR campaign called "Don't Buy This Jacket" with a picture of Patagonia merchandise. This message was intended to encourage people to consider the effect that [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] has on the environment, to purchase only what they need.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.patagonia.com/stories/dont-buy-this-jacket-black-friday-and-the-new-york-times/story-18615.html |title=Don't Buy This Jacket, Black Friday and the New York Times - Patagonia |date=November 25, 2011}}</ref>
In parallel with industry, research around sustainable fashion has been in development since the early 1990s, with the field now having its own history, dynamics, politics, practices, sub-movements and evolution of analytical and critical language.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Fashion: Why Now?|editor1=Hethorn, Janet |editor2=Ulasewicz, Connie |publisher=Fairchild Books|year=2008}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book|title=Shaping Sustainable Fashion|author1=Gwilt, Alison |author2=Timo Rissanen |publisher=Earthscan |year=2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Handbook of Sustainable Design|editor1=S. Walker |editor2=J. Giard |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Routledge Handbook of Sustainability and Fashion |editor1=Fletcher, Kate |editor2=Mathilda Tham |publisher=Routledge|year=2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Fashion in a Circular Economy|last=Niinimaki|first=Kirsi|publisher=Aalto ARTIS Books|year=2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Zero Waste Fashion Design|last=Rissanen, Timo and Holly McQuillan|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2018}}</ref> The field is broad in scope, including technical projects that seek to improve the resource efficiency of existing operations,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sustainability in Fashion and Textiles|last=Gardetti, Migel Angel & Ana Laura Torres|publisher=Greenleaf|year=2013}}</ref> the consideration of brands and designers working within currently understood frameworks<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=The sustainable fashion handbook|editor=Black, Sandy|date=2013|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=9780500290569|oclc=800642264}}</ref> as well as those which look to fundamentally re-imagine the fashion industry, including the growth logic.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=Craft of Use: Post Growth Fashion|last=Fletcher|first=Kate|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|location=London}}</ref>
In the [[European Union]], the [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals]] (REACH) regulations required in 2007 that clothing manufacturers and importers identified and quantified the chemicals used in their products.<ref name="waste" /> In 2012, the world's largest summit on fashion sustainability was held in [[Copenhagen]], gathering more than 1,000 key stakeholders in the industry to discuss the importance of making the fashion industry sustainable.<ref>{{cite web |date=2012-05-03 |title=Copenhagen Fashion Summit |url=http://www.copenhagenfashionsummit.com/5steps |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524033610/http://www.copenhagenfashionsummit.com/5steps |archive-date=2012-05-24 |access-date=2012-05-19 |publisher=Copenhagen Fashion Summit}}</ref> The Sustainable Apparel Coalition also launched the [[Higg Index]], a self-assessment standard designed to measure and promote sustainable supply chains in the apparel and footwear industries.<ref>Clark, Evan. [http://www.wwd.com/business-news/forecasts-analysis/sustainability-index-unveiled-6114358 "Sustainability Index Unveiled"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529065103/http://wwd.com/business-news/forecasts-analysis/sustainability-index-unveiled-6114358/|date=2016-05-29}}, ''[[Women's Wear Daily]]'', 25 July 2012. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref><ref>Binkley, Christina. [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390443570904577547610634945308 "Which Outfit Is Greenest? A New Rating Tool"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524142252/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10000872396390443570904577547610634945308.html|date=2013-05-24}}, ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'', 25 July 2012. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref> Founded in 2011, the Sustainable Apparel Coalition is a nonprofit organisation whose members include brands producing apparel or footwear, retailers, industry affiliates and trade associations, the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]], academic institutions and environmental nonprofits.<ref>[http://www.textileworld.com/Articles/2012/December/November_December_issue/Departments/AAFA_SAC_Sign_MoU.html "AAFA, SAC Sign MoU"] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130203133459/http://www.textileworld.com/Articles/2012/December/November_December_issue/Departments/AAFA_SAC_Sign_MoU.html|date=2013-02-03}}, ''Textile World Magazine'', November/December 2012. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref><ref>Gunther, Marc. [http://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2012/07/26/behind-scenes-sustainable-apparel-coalition "Behind the Scenes at the Sustainable Apparel Coalition"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126233637/https://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2012/07/26/behind-scenes-sustainable-apparel-coalition|date=2018-01-26}}, ''GreenBiz'', 26 July 2012. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.apparelcoalition.org/current-members/ "Current Members"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321030130/http://www.apparelcoalition.org/current-members/|date=2015-03-21}}, Sustainable Apparel Coalition. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref> The Global Change Award, is an innovation challenge created by the H&M foundation.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Trend report: Future of Sustainable Fashion |url=https://www.accenture.com/t20170410T044051Z__w__/us-en/_acnmedia/Accenture/Conversion-Assets/DotCom/Documents/Global/PDF/Consulting/Accenture-HM-Global-Change-Award-Report.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321132817/https://www.accenture.com/t20170410T044051Z__w__/us-en/_acnmedia/Accenture/Conversion-Assets/DotCom/Documents/Global/PDF/Consulting/Accenture-HM-Global-Change-Award-Report.pdf |archive-date=2018-03-21}}</ref>
{{Quote box
| quote = Retailers must take responsibility for the social and environmental cost of clothes. They should use their market power to demand higher environmental and labour standards from suppliers. Offering rental schemes, lifetime repair and providing the consumer with more information about the sourcing and true cost of clothing are all measures that can be more widely adopted. Shifting business practice in this way can not only improve a business' environmental and social impact but also offer market advantage as they respond to the growing consumer demand for responsible, sustainable clothing.
| author = Environmental Audit Committee of the [[UK Parliament]]
| source = "Fixing fashion: clothing consumption and sustainability"<ref name=":7" />{{rp|54}}
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In 2019, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK Parliament's]] Environment Audit Committee published a report and recommendations on the future of fashion sustainability, suggesting wide-ranging systemic change, not least government regulation and tax-incentives for sustainable practices, such as lowered [[Value-added tax|VAT]] for repair services.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Fixing fashion: clothing consumption and sustainability – Report Summary – Environmental Audit Committee |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmenvaud/1952/report-summary.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312160931/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmenvaud/1952/report-summary.html |archive-date=12 March 2021 |access-date=26 February 2019 |website=publications.parliament.uk}}</ref> The report highlights the need for wide political and social changes to push the fashion industry towards more sustainable practices and levels of consumption, with the goal of "less harm" being too low to be of any helpful consequence.<ref name=":7" />{{rp|54}} In the same year, a group of researchers formed the Union for Concerned Researchers in Fashion (UCRF) to advocate for radical and coordinated research activity commensurate with the challenges of [[biodiversity loss]] and climate change.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 February 2019 |title=Researchers set out manifesto for fashion change |url=https://www.ecotextile.com/2019022724098/fashion-retail-news/researchers-set-out-manifesto-for-fashion-change.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301135839/https://www.ecotextile.com/2019022724098/fashion-retail-news/researchers-set-out-manifesto-for-fashion-change.html |archive-date=1 March 2019|access-date=28 February 2019 |website=ecotextile.com}}</ref> In the fall of 2019, the UCRF received the North Star Award at the Green Carpet Fashion Awards during [[Milan Fashion Week]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Glover |first=Simon |date=23 September 2019 |title=Award-winning researchers call for new sustainability approach |url=https://www.ecotextile.com/2019092325056/fashion-retail-news/award-winning-researchers-call-for-new-sustainability-approach.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724152319/https://www.ecotextile.com/2019092325056/fashion-retail-news/award-winning-researchers-call-for-new-sustainability-approach.html |archive-date=24 July 2020 |access-date=24 July 2020 |website=Ecotextile News |language=en-GB}}</ref>
== Purpose ==
[[File:Eco fashion week Vancouver Canada 2011.jpg|thumb|Designers highlighting their designs at Eco Fashion Week Vancouver Canada, 2011]]
Fashion industry followers believe the business sector can act more sustainably by pursuing profit and growth. This is done while adding increased value and wealth to society and the global economy. The goal of sustainable fashion is to create flourishing ecosystems and communities through its activity.<ref name=":8" /> The movement believes that clothing companies should incorporate environmental, social, and ethical improvements on management's agenda.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |title=Pulse of The Fashion Industry |url=http://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Global Fashion Agenda |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322150525/http://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf |archive-date=2019-03-22 |access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |url=https://earthlogic.info/ |title=Earth Logic Fashion Action Research Plan |last2=Tham |first2=Mathilda |publisher=JJ Charitable Trust |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-5272-5415-2 |location=London |access-date=2020-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226162546/https://earthlogic.info/ |archive-date=2020-02-26 |url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=April 2023}}</ref> This may include: increasing the value of local production and products; prolonging the lifecycle of materials; increasing the value of timeless garments; reducing the amount of waste; and reducing the harm to the environment as a result of production and consumption. Another goal is to educate people to practice environmentally friendly consumption by promoting the "green consumer", which can allow the company itself to gain more support and a larger following. Providing more sustainable option decrease the huge amounts of clothing that end up in landfills.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Eco fashion |last=Brown|first=Sass |publisher=Laurence King|year=2010}}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Gurova |first1=Olga |last2=Morozova |first2=Daria |title=A critical approach to sustainable fashion: Practices of clothing designers in the Kallio neighborhood of Helsinki |journal=Journal of Consumer Culture |date=August 2018 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=397–413 |doi=10.1177/1469540516668227 |s2cid=151351581 }}</ref>
Consumption geared towards saving money, lowering utility bills and greenhouse gas emissions, and meeting the country's energy needs is described as green consumerism. In recent years there has been an increase in research centered around consumer reactions to the advent of green products within fast fashion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Xiaoqian |last2=Sheng |first2=Tong |last3=Zhou |first3=Xiaolan |last4=Shen |first4=Chaohai |last5=Fang |first5=Bingquan |title=How Does Young Consumers' Greenwashing Perception Impact Their Green Purchase Intention in the Fast Fashion Industry? An Analysis from the Perspective of Perceived Risk Theory |journal=Sustainability |date=19 October 2022 |volume=14 |issue=20 |pages=13473 |doi=10.3390/su142013473 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Critics doubt the effectiveness that this has, but companies have already begun slowly transitioning their business models to fit a more eco-friendly and sustainable future. Thus the industry has to change its basic premise for profit, yet this is slow coming as it requires a large shift in business practices, models and tools for assessment.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ellen MacArthur Foundation |url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/A-New-Textiles-Economy_Full-Report.pdf |title=A new textiles economy: redesigning fashion's future |publisher=Ellen MacArthur Foundation|year=2017 |access-date=2020-02-26|archive-date=2020-06-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609120200/https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/A-New-Textiles-Economy_Full-Report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> This became apparent in the discussions following the Burberry report of the brand burning unsold goods worth around £28.6m (about $37.8 million) in 2018,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://fashionista.com/2018/07/burberry-burning-clothes-thredup-resale|title=Burberry Under Attack for Burning $37.8 Million Worth of Unsold Products|last=Prant |first=Dara|website=Fashionista|access-date=2019-03-12}}</ref> exposing not only overproduction and subsequent destruction of unsold stock as a normal business practice, but behavior amongst brands that actively undermine a sustainable fashion agenda.<ref name=":7" />
The challenge for making fashion more sustainable often requires systematic reinvention, and this call for action is not new. The UCRF has argued that the industry focus remains the same ideas originally mooted in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The Union observes, "so far, the mission of sustainable fashion has been an utter failure and all small and incremental changes have been drowned by an explosive economy of extraction, consumption, waste and continuous labor abuse."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.concernedresearchers.org/ucrf-on-2019-copenhagen-fashion-summit/|title=Statement on 2019 Copenhagen Fashion Summit |date=5 May 2019|website=Union of Concerned Researchers in Fashion|access-date=21 May 2019|archive-date=10 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510041542/http://www.concernedresearchers.org/ucrf-on-2019-copenhagen-fashion-summit/|url-status=live}}</ref>
A frequently concern of those working in the area of sustainable fashion is whether the field itself is an oxymoron.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Eco Chic The Fashion Paradox|last=Black|first=Sandy|publisher=Black Dog|year=2008}}</ref> This reflects the seemingly irreconcilable possibility of bringing together fashion (understood as constant change, and tied to business models based on continuous replacement of goods) and sustainability (understood as continuity and resourcefulness).<ref name=":3" /> The apparent paradox dissolves if fashion is seen more broadly, as a process not only aligned to expansionist business models<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fletcher|first=kate|date=2010|title=Slow Fashion: an invitation for systems change|journal=Journal of Fashion Practice|volume=2|issue=2|pages=259–266 |doi=10.2752/175693810X12774625387594|s2cid=110000414}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Doughnut economics : seven ways to think like a 21st-century economist|last=Raworth |first=Kate|isbn=9781847941398 |oclc=1038191528|date=2018-02-22|publisher=Penguin Random House }}</ref> and consumption, but instead as mechanism that leads to more engaged ways of living.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Gaian economics: living well within planetary limits |date=2013|editor1=Dawson, Jonathan |editor2=Ross, J. T. |editor3=Norberg-Hodge, Helena |publisher=Permanent Publications|isbn=9781856230568|oclc=920340237}}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref><ref name=":4" />
Challenges associated with implementing sustainability in fashion design are shaped by the perceptions, attitudes, and involvement of fashion design practitioners in sustainability. Both design and designer roles are key to inspiring sustainable design practices; their role can contribute to sustainability by shaping design production practices and influencing consumption processes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hur |first1=Eunsuk |last2=Cassidy |first2=Tom |date=4 May 2019 |title=Perceptions and attitudes towards sustainable fashion design: challenges and opportunities for implementing sustainability in fashion |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/141582/2/Accepted-%20Perceptions%20and%20attitudes%20towards%20sustainable%20fashion%20Challenges%20and%20opportunities%20for%20implementing%20sustainability%20in%20fashion.pdf |journal=International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/17543266.2019.1572789 |s2cid=117248781}}</ref>
== Temporal concerns related to fashion ==
[[File:Taller de textiles.jpg|thumb|Traditional textile manufacturing in [[Teotitlán del Valle]]. Clothes made with techniques like this are considered more sustainable than [[fast fashion]].]]
Fashion is, per definition, a phenomenon related to time: a popular expression in a certain time and context. This also affects the perception of what is and should be made more sustainable – if fashion should be "fast" or "slow"—or if it should be more exclusive or inclusive.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Clark|first=Hazel|date=2008-12-01|title=SLOW + FASHION—an Oxymoron—or a Promise for the Future …?|journal=Fashion Theory|volume=12|issue=4|pages=427–446|doi=10.2752/175174108X346922|s2cid=194180788|issn=1362-704X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Hazel |title=SLOW + FASHION—an Oxymoron—or a Promise for the Future …? |journal=Fashion Theory |date=December 2008 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=427–446 |doi=10.2752/175174108X346922 |s2cid=218771542 }}</ref> Like much other designs, the objects of fashion exist in the inter-zone between desire and discard along a temporal axis, between the shimmering urge towards life and the thermodynamic fate of death. As noted by cultural theorist Brian Thill, "waste is every object, plus time."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Waste|last=Thill, Brian.|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing, Incorporated |isbn=9789386606891|oclc=1066172530}}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref>
When it comes down to the garments themselves, their durability depends on their use and "metabolism"—certain garments are made to withstand long use (ex. outdoor and hiking wear, winter jackets) whereas other garments have a quicker turn-around (ex. a party top). This means some garments have properties and a use-life that could be made more durable, whereas others should be compostable or recyclable for quicker disintegration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |title=Durability, Fashion, Sustainability: The Processes and Practices of Use |journal=Fashion Practice |date=November 2012 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=221–238 |doi=10.2752/175693812X13403765252389 |s2cid=110677145 }}</ref> Clothing that are not sold in markets become solid waste clogging areas of water and ultimately creating "the potential for additional environmental health hazards in LMICs lacking robust municipal waste systems"<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bick |first1=Rachel |last2=Halsey |first2=Erika |last3=Ekenga |first3=Christine C. |date=2018-12-27 |title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion |journal=Environmental Health |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=92 |doi=10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7 |issn=1476-069X |pmc=6307129 |pmid=30591057 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018EnvHe..17...92B }}</ref>
=== Fast fashion ===
{{Main|Fast fashion}}
[[File:Fast Fashion killt das Klima.jpg|thumb|Protesters holding a placard linking fast fashion to [[climate change]]]]
One of the most apparent reasons for the current unsustainable condition of the fashion system is related to the temporal aspects of fashion; the continuous stream of new goods onto the market, or what is popularly called "[[fast fashion]]." The term fast fashion is used to refer to the fast-paced production of goods at an unethical level which often has a negative impact on the environment. As a way to conform to the latest fashion styles and keep consumers wanting new garments, current fast fashion trends pre-suppose selling clothing in large quantities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willett |first1=Joanie |last2=Saunders |first2=Clare |last3=Hackney |first3=Fiona |last4=Hill |first4=Katie |title=The affective economy and fast fashion: Materiality, embodied learning and developing a sensibility for sustainable clothing |journal=Journal of Material Culture |date=September 2022 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=219–237 |doi=10.1177/13591835221088524 |doi-access=free |s2cid=247823706 |url=https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/630120/8/13591835221088524.pdf}}</ref> Due to fast fashion being affordable and able to keep up with the trends, there has been an increase in apparel consumption. Consumption has risen to 62 million tonnes annually and is projected to reach 102 million tonnes by 2030.<ref name=FF_1>{{cite web| title=Fast Fashion Pollution and Climate Change| author=Shukla, N.| url=https://earth.org/fast-fashion-pollution-and-climate-change| publisher=Earth.Org| date=21 February 2022| access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref> This type of fashion is produced in vast quantities with low-quality materials and are sold through chains such as [[H&M]], [[Zara (retailer)|Zara]], [[Forever 21|Forever21]], [[Shein (company)|Shein]], etc. Fast-fashion retailer Shein is one of the most visited fast-fashion websites in the world and ships to 220 countries. However, there are questions about Shein's ethics and sustainability as it was responsible for about 706 billion kilograms of greenhouse gases in 2015 from the production of polyester textiles and uses up hundreds of gallons of water per garment.<ref name=SI_1>{{cite web| title=Shein Is the World's Most Popular Fashion Brand—at a Huge Cost to Us All| author=Astha Rajvanshi| url=https://time.com/6247732/shein-climate-change-labor-fashion| publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]| date=17 January 2023| access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref> Additionally, leaving an aftermath of 6.3 million tons of carbon dioxide while missing 45% of the UN's goal to reduce carbon emissions by 2030.<ref name=HOF_1>{{cite web| title=The History of Fast Fashion| author=McDonald, C.D.| url=https://www.forcmagazine.com/the-history-of-fast-fashion| publisher=FORÇ Magazine| date=26 January 2017| access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref> In January 2021, Shein offered over 121,000 garments made from polyester, making up 61% of their clothing total.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Millward-Pena |first1=Isabel |title=FROM FAST FASHION TO SUSTAINABLE SLOW FASHION |date=2022 |url=https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/1453/ }}</ref> The fashion industry has a value of three trillion dollars. It is two percent of the world's gross domestic product (GDP) - the total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=2016-07-20|title=Fashion Industry Waste Statistics|url=https://edgexpo.com/fashion-industry-waste-statistics/|access-date=2021-05-04|website=E D G E|language=en}}</ref> Out of the three trillion dollars, the majority is made of fast fashion.
However, the "fast" aspect of consumption is primarily a problem for the environment when done on a massive scale. As long as fast conspicuous consumption was reserved to the rich, the global impact was not reaching public attention or seen as a problem. That is, "fast" shopping sprees of [[haute couture]] is not seen as a problem, rather it is celebrated (for example in movies such as [[Pretty Woman]]), whereas when people with less means shop fast fashion, it is seen as unethical and a problem. Today, the speed of fast fashion is common across the whole industry as exclusive fashion replicates the fast fashion chains with continuous releases of collections and product drops: the quality of a garment does not necessarily translate to a slower pace of consumption and waste.<ref>{{cite web|title= COMMON OBJECTIVE- Fashion and Waste: An Uneasy Relationship|url= https://www.commonobjective.co/article/fashion-and-waste-an-uneasy-relationship |access-date=2018-06-08}}</ref> These releases are only exasperated by the acceleration of fashion trends. As micro-trends are only lasting an average of 3 years, the demand for clothes has also accelerated.<ref>Nelson, Mariel. "Micro-Trends: The acceleration of fashion cycles and the rise in waste". Worldwide Responsible Accredited Production, May 17, 2021</ref>
In addition to its negative environmental impact, fast fashion is unethical. Keeping up with fashion trends causes clothing to be produced in a harmful manner. "Fast" clothing is made with synthetic fibers as opposed to natural fibers. The synthetic fibers are made using the Earth's fossil fuels. Almost sixty percent of clothes are made this way.<ref name=":13">{{cite news |last1=Schlossberg |first1=Tatiana |title=How Fast Fashion Is Destroying the Planet |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/03/books/review/how-fast-fashion-is-destroying-the-planet.html |work=The New York Times |date=3 September 2019 }}</ref> Since people spend so much money on these types of clothes and purchase them so frequently, landfills are filling up quickly. Over sixty percent of clothes made every year end up in landfills as consumer waste, and almost twenty percent of the world's waste is constituted by fashion products.<ref name=":12" />
Therefore, because fast fashion frequently introduces new collections, consumer consumption increases. Consequently, leading consumers to view low-cost apparel as disposable since there are continuous releases of products.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal |last1=Centobelli |first1=Piera |last2=Abbate |first2=Stefano |last3=Nadeem |first3=Simon |last4=Reyes |first4=Jose |title=Slowing the fast fashion industry: An all-round perspective |journal=Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry |date=20 September 2022 |volume=38 |page=100684 |doi=10.1016/j.cogsc.2022.100684 |s2cid=251697285 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022COGSC..3800684C }}</ref> Production of these types of clothing is also commonly exploitative, with most factories that produce "fast" clothing employing workers on low wages in exploitative environments. Workers from Shein are reported to make as little as ~4 cents per garment produced, as well as operating on 18-hour workdays with 1 day off per month.<ref name=BIS_1>{{cite web| title=Shein factory employees are working 18-hour days for pennies per garment and washing their hair on lunch breaks because they have so little time off, new report finds| author=Sarah Jackson| url=https://www.businessinsider.com/shein-factory-workers-18-hour-shifts-paid-low-wages-report-2022-10?r=US&IR=T| publisher=Insider Inc.| date=16 October 2022| access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> Exploitative fast fashion production is prevalent in countries like China, Bangladesh and Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Story Map Journal|url=https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?appid=74b6302912a948ebb1a98eaecb02d5f3#:~:text=As%20mentioned%20previously,%20some%20of,strict%20environmental%20and%20labour%20regulations.|access-date=2021-05-04|website=www.arcgis.com}}</ref> Hard labor was always around in the fashion industry dating back to when slave labor helped factories gather their materials. People making these clothes today suffer from harsh working conditions, low wages, and risks to health and safety.
=== "Slow" fashion ===
"[[Slow fashion]]" is a proposed sustainable alternative to fast fashion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |title=Slow Fashion: An Invitation for Systems Change |journal=Fashion Practice |volume=2 |date=2010 |issue=2 |pages=259–265 |doi=10.2752/175693810X12774625387594 |s2cid=110000414 }}</ref> The term was coined by Kate Fletcher of the Centre for Sustainable Fashion and inspired by "[[Slow movement (culture)|slow food]]".<ref name="Archived copy">{{cite web |url=https://goodonyou.eco/what-is-slow-fashion/ |website=Goodonyou.eco |access-date=4 March 2021 |title=What is Slow Fashion? - Good on You |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202034555/https://goodonyou.eco/what-is-slow-fashion/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Slow fashion challenges growth fashion's obsession with mass-production and globalized style. It becomes a guardian of diversity and changes the power relations between fashion creators and consumers, therefore forging new relationships and trust that are only possible at smaller scales. It fosters a heightened state of awareness of the design process and its impacts on resource flows, workers, communities, and ecosystems.<ref>Fletcher, K., & Grose, L. (2012). Fashion and sustainability: design for change. Laurence King.</ref>
A slow-fashion garment often consists of durable materials, traditional production techniques, or design concepts that are seasonless or will last for more than a season. Several points of the production chain are affected by slowness. Textile workers in developing countries earn higher wages because of slow fashion. For end-users, slow fashion means that the goods are designed and manufactured with greater care and high-quality products. From an environmental point of view, it means that there are less clothing and industrial waste that is removed from use following transient trends.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |title=Sustainable Fashion and Textiles- Design Journeys |publisher=Earthscan }}</ref> Throughout the process, durability is considered; emotionally, materially, aesthetically, or by including services that extend the garment's life. Additionally, creative ideas and product innovations constantly redefine slow fashion, so using a static, single definition would ignore the evolving nature of the concept.
Examples of stability of expression over long times are abundant in the history of dress, not least in ethnic or folk dress, ritual or coronation robes, clerical dress, or the uniforms of the [[Pontifical Swiss Guard|Vatican Guard]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fashion as Communication|last=Barnard|first=Malcolm|publisher=Routledge|year=2002}}</ref> The emphasis on slowness in branding is thus an approach that is specific for a niche in the market (such as Western-educated middle-class) that has since the 1990s become dominated by "fast" models. One of the earliest brands that gained global fame with an explicit focus on slow fashion, the Anglo-Japanese brand [[People Tree Ltd.|People Tree]], embraces the concept of ethical trade, manufactures all products in accordance with ethical commerce standards, and supports local producers and craftsmen in developing countries. The People Tree brand is known as the first fashion company to receive the [[World Fair Trade Organization]] product label in 2013, demonstrating their dedication to fair trade and the environment.<ref>{{cite web |title=People Tree is first clothing brand to receive the new WFTO Fair Trade product mark! |url=http://blog.peopletree.co.uk/people-tree-is-first-clothing-brand-to-receive-the-new-wfto-product-label/ |website=The Thread |date=October 10, 2013 |ref=55}}</ref>
The concept of slow fashion is however not without its controversies, as the imperative of slowness is a mandate emerging from a position of privilege. To stop consuming "fast fashion" strikes against low-income consumers whose only means to access trends is through cheap and accessible goods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=von Busch |first=Otto |date=2022-12-09 |title="What is to be sustained?": Perpetuating systemic injustices through sustainable fashion |journal=Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=400–409 |doi=10.1080/15487733.2022.2069996 |issn=1548-7733|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022SSPP...18..400V }}</ref> Those who are already having a high position in society can afford to slow down and cement their status and position, while those on their way up resent being told to stay at the lower rungs of the status hierarchy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=von Busch|first=Otto|title="The chronopolitics of slow fashion" in S. Kipoz (ed) Slowness in Fashion|publisher=Dixi Books|year=2020|location=London|pages=169–177}}</ref> "The prestige of slowness allows a cultural signifier for those already have social positions to preserve, and have time and money to take it easy and enjoy the pleasures of reflection and meditate over their moral superiority."<ref>{{Cite book|last=von Busch|first=Otto|title=The Chronopolitics of Fashion, in S. Kipoz (ed) Slowness in Fashion|publisher=Dixi Books|year=2020|location=London|pages=175}}</ref>
=== Garment use and lifespan ===
{{Further|Textile performance}}
The environmental impact of fashion also depends on how much and how long a garment is used. With the [[fast fashion]] trend, garments tend to be used half as much as compared to 15 years ago. It has been estimated that each year around $172 million worth of garments is expected to be discarded, many of them after being worn only once.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Claudio José Galdino da Silva Jr |author2=Alexandre D’Lamare Maia de Medeiros |author3=Julia Didier Pedrosa de Amorim |author4=Helenise Almeida do Nascimento |author5=Attilio Converti |author6=Andrea Fernanda Santana Costa |author7=Leonie Asfora Sarubbo |title=Bacterial cellulose biotextiles for the future of Sustainable Fashion: A Review |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |date=August 2021 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=2967–2980 |doi=10.1007/s10311-021-01214-x|bibcode=2021EnvCL..19.2967D |s2cid=232215342 }}</ref> There has been a 7.1 kg increase in global per-capita textile production from 1975 to 2018. This means not only an increase in textiles but an increase in the amount of water pollution from dying and treating the textiles. The increase can be contributed to the need for consumers to keep up with the latest fashion trends and the quick disposal of clothing.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kirsi Niinimäki |author2=Greg Peters |author3=Helena Dahlbo |author4=Patsy Perry |author5=Timo Rissanen |author6=Alison Gwilt |title=The environmental price of fast fashion|journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment|date= April 2020|volume=1|issue=4 |pages=189–200|doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9|bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..189N |s2cid=215760302 |url=https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/handle/123456789/112926 }}</ref> This is not only due to the inferior quality of fabrics used but also a result of a significant increase in collections that are being released by the fashion industry. To combat this issue at hand, longer lasting materials and products are being promoted to increase sustainability.<ref name=KF_1>{{cite journal| title=Durability, Fashion, Sustainability: The Processes and Practices of Use| author=Fletcher, Kate| journal=Fashion Practice| publisher=Informa UK Limited| date=2012| pages=221–238| volume=4| issue=2| doi=10.2752/175693812X13403765252389| s2cid=110677145}}</ref>
Typically, a garment used daily over years has less impact than a garment used once to then be quickly discarded. Studies have shown that the washing and drying process for a pair of classic jeans is responsible for almost two-thirds of the energy consumed through the whole of the jeans' life, and for underwear about 80% of total energy use comes from laundry processes.<ref name=":3" /> The dyeing process also contributes close to 15%-20% of wastewater. For this reason, innovative techniques are being introduced to reduce energy and water consumption, such as utilizing {{CO2}}<ref name="sciencedirect.com"/> in the dyeing process where heat and pressure turns liquid {{CO2}} into dye used for various garments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Waterless Dyeing of Textiles Using {{CO2}} |website=Global Opportunity Explorer |date=6 May 2019 |url=https://goexplorer.org/waterless-dyeing-of-textiles-using-co2}}</ref> Thus, use and wear practices affect the lifecycles of garments and needs to be addressed for larger systemic impact.<ref>{{Cite report |last=Chapman |first=Adrian |date=July 2010 |title=Review of Life Cycle Assessments of Clothing |publisher=MISTRA Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research |s2cid=30971880|url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7398/93062680c631c755391f334901c7239f8c5c.pdf|access-date=2020-02-26|url-status=deviated|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226231304/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7398/93062680c631c755391f334901c7239f8c5c.pdf}}</ref>
However, there is a significant difference between making a product last from making a long-lasting product. The quality of the product must reflect the appropriate fit into its lifecycle. Certain garments of quality can be repaired and cultivated with emotional durability. Low-quality products that deteriorate rapidly are not as suitable to be "enchanted" with emotional bonds between user and product.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emotionally durable design objects, experiences and empathy|last=Chapman, Jonathan|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781315738802|oclc=1086535559}}</ref> It is important to notice that choosing and promoting "emotional bonds" with consumer objects is an endeavor more easily done under circumstances of excess, as the needy have no other option than to keep and care for their belongings.
As highlighted in the research of Irene Maldini, slowing down (in the sense of keeping garments longer) does not necessarily translate into lower volumes of purchased units.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maldini|first=Irene|date=2019|title=From speed to volume: reframing clothing production and consumption for an environmentally sound apparel sector|journal=PLATE. Product Lifetimes and the Environment Conference Proceedings|via=PLATE 2019 Berlin}}</ref> Maldini's studies expose how slow fashion, in the sense of long-lasting use phase of garments, tends to indicate that garments stay in the wardrobe longer, stored or hoarded, but does not mean fewer resources are used in producing garments. Thus, slowness comes to mean wardrobes with more lasting products, but the consumption volume and in-flow into the wardrobe/storage stay the same.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Maldini|first=Irene|title=Can design confront consumerism? A critical study of clothing volumes, personalization, and the wardrobe.|publisher=VU University Amsterdam|year=2019|isbn=9789083002415|location=Amsterdam}}</ref>
== Concerns ==
=== Environmental ===
{{Main|Environmental impact of fashion}}
The fashion industry has a disastrous impact on the environment. In fact, it is the second largest polluter in the world, just after the oil industry. And, the environmental damage is increasing as the industry grows.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Environmental Impacts of the Fashion Industry|url=https://www.sustainyourstyle.org/old-environmental-impacts|access-date=2021-08-04|website=SustainYourStyle|language=en-US}}</ref>
The textiles and fashion industries are amongst the leading industries that affect the environment negatively. One of the industries that greatly jeopardize environmental sustainability is the textiles and fashion industry, which thus also bears great responsibilities. [[Globalization]] has made it possible to produce clothing at increasingly lower prices, prices so low, and collections shifting so fast, that many consumers consider fashion to be disposable.<ref name=":9" /> However, fast, and thus disposable, fashion adds to pollution and generates environmental hazards, in production, use, and disposal. The globalization of the textile and fashion industry has also contributed to the uneven distribution of such environmental hazards and consequences. Developing countries who typically produce the textile and clothing bear the burden for developed countries who largely consume the products.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Niinimäki |first1=Kirsi |last2=Peters |first2=Greg |last3=Dahlbo |first3=Helena |last4=Perry |first4=Patsy |last5=Rissanen |first5=Timo |last6=Gwilt |first6=Alison |date=2020-04-07 |title=The environmental price of fast fashion |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9 |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |language=en |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=189–200 |doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9 |bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..189N |s2cid=215760302 |issn=2662-138X}}</ref>
Putting the environmental perspective at the center, rather than the logic of the industry, is thus an urgent concern if fashion is to become more sustainable. The Earth Logic fashion research action plan argues for "putting the health and survival of our planet earth and consequently the future security and health of all species including humans, before industry, business, and economic growth."<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fletcher|first1=Kate|title=Earth Logic Fashion Action Research Plan.|last2=Tham|first2=Mathilda |publisher=JJ Charitable Trust|year=2019|isbn=978-1-5272-5415-2|location=London|page=33}}</ref> In making this argument the Earth Logic plan explicitly connects the global fashion system with the 2018 [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) [[Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C]].
Furthermore, the Earth Logic fashion research action plan sets out a range of possible areas for work in a sustainable fashion that scientific and research evidence suggests are the most likely to deliver a change of the scale and pace needed to respond to challenges like climate change. Earth Logic's point of departure is that the planet, and its people, must be put first, before profit. It replaces the logic of economic growth, which is arguably the single largest factor limiting change towards sustainable fashion, with the logic that puts Earth at its center.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fletcher|first1=Kate |url=https://earthlogic.info |title=Earth Logic Fashion Action Research Plan|last2=Tham|first2=Mathilda |publisher=JJ Charitable Trust|year=2019|location=London |page=19|access-date=2020-02-26|archive-date=2020-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226162546/https://earthlogic.info/|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Environmental hazards ====
The clothing industry has one of the highest impacts on the planet. Cotton requires approximately 15,000 liters of water to grow for a pair of jeans.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sanghani|first=Radhika|date=2018-10-08|title=Stacey Dooley Investigates: Are your clothes wrecking the planet?|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/5a1a43b5-cbae-4a42-8271-48f53b63bd07|access-date=2021-06-30|website=BBC Three|language=en-GB}}</ref> High water usage, pollution from chemical treatments used in dyeing and preparation and the disposal of large amounts of unsold clothing through incineration or landfill deposits are hazardous to the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-20|title=What Research Says About Sustainable Fashion Is Our Future!|url=https://www.bitslowfashion.com/2021/06/20/what-research-says-about-sustainable-fashion-is-our-future/|access-date=2021-06-27|website=Bit Slow Fashion|language=en-US}}</ref> There is a growing [[water scarcity]], the current usage level of fashion materials (79 billion cubic meters annually) is very concerning because textile production mostly takes place in areas of fresh water stress.<ref name=pulse>{{Citation|title=Pulse of the Fashion Industry 2017|url=https://www.globalfashionagenda.com/publications-and-policy/pulse-of-the-industry/|year=2017|page=11|publisher=Global Fashion Agenda & The Boston Consulting Group}}</ref> Only around 20% of clothing is recycled or reused, huge amounts of fashion product end up as waste in landfills or are incinerated.<ref name=pulse /> It has been estimated that in the UK alone around 350,000 tons of clothing ends up as landfill every year. According to Earth Pledge, a [[non-profit organization]] committed to promoting and supporting [[sustainable development]], "At least 8,000 chemicals are used to turn raw materials into textiles and 25% of the world's [[pesticides]] are used to grow non-organic cotton. This causes irreversible damage to people and the [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]], and still two thirds of a garment's [[carbon footprint]] will occur after it is purchased."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/CGTPaperII.pdf|title=Classification and general properties of textile fibres|last=Haung|first=HC|date=1994|access-date=March 1, 2018|archive-date=March 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328160048/http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/CGTPaperII.pdf|url-status=live}} {{verify source |date=September 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted Special:Diff/863921376 by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite located at Special:Permalink/863921314 cite #10 – verify the cite is accurate and delete this template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref> The average American throws away nearly 70 pounds of clothing per year.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.southbendtribune.com/news/local/thrift-stores-sell-damaged-items-to-textile-recyclers/article_21a785fc-08df-11e4-ad94-001a4bcf6878.html|title=Thrift stores sell damaged items to textile recyclers|last=Culp|first=Alice|date=11 July 2014|newspaper=South Bend Tribune|access-date=2016-04-25|archive-date=2019-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107185018/https://www.southbendtribune.com/news/local/thrift-stores-sell-damaged-items-to-textile-recyclers/article_21a785fc-08df-11e4-ad94-001a4bcf6878.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Around 5% of the total waste worldwide stems from the textile industry, the clothing section of the textile industry has elevated the amount of waste contributing to global waste.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stanescu |first=Michaela Dina |date=2021-03-01 |title=State of the art of post-consumer textile waste upcycling to reach the zero waste milestone |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12416-9 |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=14253–14270 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-12416-9 |pmid=33515405 |bibcode=2021ESPR...2814253S |s2cid=231746977 |issn=1614-7499}}</ref>
==== Microfibers ====
There is increasing concern that microfibers from synthetic and cellulosic fabrics are polluting the earths waters through the process of laundering. Microfibers are tiny threads that are shed from fabric. These microfibers are too small to be captured in wastewater treatment plants filtration systems and they end up entering our natural water systems and as a result, contaminating our food chain.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.278 |title=Freshwater and airborne textile fibre populations are dominated by 'natural', not microplastic, fibres |date=20 May 2019 |last1=Stanton |first1=Thomas |last2=Johnson |first2=Matthew |last3=Nathanail |first3=Paul |last4=MacNaughtan |first4=William |last5=Gomes |first5=Rachel L. |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=666 |pages=377–389 |pmid=30798244 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.666..377S |s2cid=73511816|url=https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1609708 }}</ref> One study found that 34.8% of [[Microplastics]] found in oceans come from the textile and clothing industry and the majority of them were made of polyester, polyethylene, acrylic, and elastane;<ref>{{cite web |last1=Boucher |first1=D. |last2=Friot |first2=D. |title=Primary microplastics in the oceans: a global evaluation of sources |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-002.pdf |website=Primary micro plastics in the oceans: a global evaluation of sources |publisher=gland, Switzerland: IUCN. |access-date=2018-02-28 |ref=43 pp. |archive-date=2017-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301095550/https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-002.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> but a study off the coast of the UK and US by the [[Plymouth Marine Laboratory]] in May 2020 suggested there are at least double the number of particles as previously thought.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=Microplastic pollution in oceans vastly underestimated – study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/may/22/microplastic-pollution-in-oceans-vastly-underestimated-study |work=The Guardian |date=22 May 2020 }}</ref> Eliminating synthetic materials used in clothing products can prevent harmful synthetics and microfibers from ending up in the natural environment. While some clothing companies and NGOs support the use of washing bags to filter out microfibers in washing machines and thus reduce microfiber release, microfibers are also shed during wear and disposal.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harding-Rolls|first=George|title=Fossil fashion|url=https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/fossil-fashion/ |access-date=2021-04-16|website=Changing Markets|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329122148/https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/fossil-fashion/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Plastic debris covers the surface of the whole ocean. If no progress is made to reverse the damage, it is calculated that there will be an increase of 850 Mts of plastic debris in the ocean by 2050.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Rojalin |title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653520313928#bib7 |journal=Chemosphere |year=2020 |volume=257 |page=127199 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199 |pmid=32480092 |bibcode=2020Chmsp.25727199S |s2cid=219172281 |access-date=2023-04-28}}</ref>
==== "Fossil fashion" ====
In February 2021, Changing Markets Foundation released a report on the fashion industry's dependence on [[Extraction of petroleum|oil extraction]]. The report analyses the current production model across the fashion industry is dependent on massive fossil-fuel extraction to fuel the production of fibers.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Changing Markets Foundation|date=February 2021 |title=Fossil Fashion|url=https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/fossil-fashion/|url-status=live|website=Changing Markets|access-date=2021-02-26|archive-date=2021-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217122335/https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/fossil-fashion/}}</ref> The report spotlights how the production of the most popular fibers, primarily polyester, is reliant on oil extraction. Production of polyester has grown ninefold since the 1970s, and is the fastest growing component in fashion production. The popularity of polyester is due to its low price, but also the fiber's flexibility as a material. The report suggests, synthetic fibers in the textile industry currently accounts for 1.35% of global oil consumption, and this is projected to more than double in the coming years: "BP's energy scenario presumes plastic production will account for 95% of future growth in demand for oil demand, while the [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) predicts petrochemicals will represent up to 50% of growth in oil demand by 2050 and 4% in the projected growth of gas demand." (p. 8)
=== Social ===
One of the main social issues related to fashion concerns labor. Since the [[Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire]] in 1911, labor rights in the fashion industry has been at the center of this issue.<ref>Parker, Liz "Fashion brands and worker's rights" in Kate Fletcher & Mathilda Tham (2015) ''Routledge Handbook of Sustainability and Fashion,'' London: Routledge.</ref> The [[2013 Savar building collapse]] at Rana Plaza, where 1138 people died, put the spotlight once again on the lack of transparency, poor working conditions and hazards in fashion production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cleanclothes.org/welcome|title=Clean Clothes Campaign|last=admin|website=Clean Clothes Campaign|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060244/https://cleanclothes.org/welcome|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.maquilasolidarity.org/|title=Welcome {{!}} Maquila Solidarity Network|website=www.maquilasolidarity.org|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211031325/http://www.maquilasolidarity.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Attention is increasingly being placed on labour rights violations in other parts of the whole fashion product lifecycle from textile production and processing,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.antislavery.org/take-action/campaigns/end-uzbek-cotton-crimes/|title=End Uzbek Cotton Crimes|website=Anti-Slavery International|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226121827/https://www.antislavery.org/take-action/campaigns/end-uzbek-cotton-crimes/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/bangladesh-billion-dollar-leather-industry-has-problem-child-labor-and-toxic-chemicals|title=Bangladesh: Billion Dollar Leather Industry Has a Problem with Child Labor and Toxic Chemicals|date=2017-03-30|website=Pulitzer Center|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060144/https://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/bangladesh-billion-dollar-leather-industry-has-problem-child-labor-and-toxic-chemicals|url-status=live}}</ref> retail and distribution<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lawrence |first1=Felicity |title=How big brands including Sports Direct unwittingly used slave labour |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/aug/08/how-big-brands-including-sports-direct-unwittingly-used-slave-labour |work=The Guardian |date=8 August 2017 }}</ref> and modeling<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.modelstrust.com/|title=Responsible Trust for Models|website=Responsible Trust for Models|access-date=2019-02-26 |archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060203/https://www.modelstrust.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> to the recycling of textiles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lucynorris.co.uk/|title=Lucy Norris – Anthropologies of Reuse and Recycling|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060200/http://www.lucynorris.co.uk/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Whilst the majority of fashion and textiles are produced in Asia, Central America, Turkey, North Africa, the Caribbean and Mexico, there is still production across Europe where exploitative working conditions are also found such as in Leicester in the UK Midlands<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/press-releases/2015/february/new-report-published-on-working-conditions-in-leiceser-garment-sector|title=New report published on working conditions in Leicester garment sector — University of Leicester|website=www2.le.ac.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226234156/https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/press-releases/2015/february/new-report-published-on-working-conditions-in-leiceser-garment-sector|url-status=live}}</ref> and Central and Eastern Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cleanclothes.org/livingwage/europe/intro|title=Living Wage in Eastern Europe and Turkey|date=2017|website=Clean Clothes Campaign|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060212/https://cleanclothes.org/livingwage/europe/intro|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The fashion industry benefits from racial, class and gender inequalities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The fashioned body|last=Entwistle|first=J|publisher=Polity Press|year=2000|location=Cambridge}}</ref> These inequalities and pressure from brands and retailers in the form of low prices and short lead times contribute to exploitative working conditions and low wages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/*|title=Trading Away Our Rights: Women working in global supply chains {{!}} Oxfam Policy & Practice|website=Policy & Practice|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2011-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828124503/http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications|url-status=live}}</ref> Also "local" production, such as garments labeled as "Made in Italy" are engaged in global sourcing of labor and worker exploitation, bypassing unions and social welfare contracts.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-italy-sweatshop-insight-idUKBRE9BS04A20131230|title=Insight – Italy's Chinese garment workshops boom as workers suffer|date=2013-12-30|work=Reuters|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060355/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-italy-sweatshop-insight-idUKBRE9BS04A20131230|url-status=live}}</ref>
It is generally accepted that at least 25 million people, the majority women, work in garment manufacture and up to 300 million in cotton alone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Cotton|title=Cotton farmers {{!}} Fairtrade Foundation|website=www.fairtrade.org.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226150444/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Cotton|url-status=live}}</ref> The working conditions for employees working in garment industries are insufferable due to the intake and exposure of toxic substances.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geiger |first1=Sonja |title=Shopping for Clothes and Sensitivity to the Suffering of Others: The Role of Compassion and Values in Sustainable Fashion Consumption |journal=Environment and Behavior |year=2018 |volume=50 |issue=10 |pages=1119–1144 |doi=10.1177/0013916517732109 |bibcode=2018EnvBe..50.1119G |s2cid=148956057 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0013916517732109}}</ref>
The environmental impact of fashion also affects communities located close to production sites. There is little easily accessible information about these impacts, but it is known that water and land pollution from toxic chemicals used to produce and dye fabrics and have serious negative consequences for the people living near factories.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/dirty-fashion/|title=Dirty fashion|website=Changing Markets|access-date=2019-02-26 |archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060239/https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/dirty-fashion/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The social costs of fast fashion are left on the laborers working long hours to mass-produce the clothing. They bear the weight of the fast fashion industry as they work through environmental health hazards and cheap pay that does not compensate for the work, they put in.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bick |first1=Rachel |last2=Halsey |first2=Erika |last3=Ekenga |first3=Christine C. |title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion |journal=Environmental Health |date=December 2018 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=92 |doi=10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7 |pmid=30591057 |pmc=6307129 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018EnvHe..17...92B }}</ref> This is a big reason why slow fashion is becoming so desirable. Unlike fast fashion, it places a big importance on ethical conduct and caring for people working throughout the supply chain.<ref name="Henninger2016">{{cite journal |last1=Henninger |first1=Claudia E. |last2=Alevizou |first2=Panayiota J. |last3=Oates |first3=Caroline J. |title=What is sustainable fashion? |journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management |date=3 October 2016 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=400–416 |doi=10.1108/JFMM-07-2015-0052 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/99507/1/PDF_Proof%20of%20accepted%20JFMM%20article%209%20May%202016.PDF }}</ref>
==== Transparency ====
Supply chain transparency has been a recurring controversy for the fashion industry, especially since the Rana Plaza accident. The issue has been pushed by many labor organizations, not least [[Clean Clothes Campaign]] and [[Fashion Revolution]]. Over the last years, over 150 major brands including Everlane, Filippa K, and H&M have answered by publicizing information about their factories online. Every year, Fashion Revolution publishes a Fashion Transparency Index<ref>{{cite news |last1=Marriott |first1=Hannah |title=H&M tops 2020 fashion transparency index as 10 brands score zero |url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2020/apr/21/hm-tops-2020-fashion-transparency-index-as-10-brands-score-zero |work=The Guardian |date=20 April 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2019/apr/24/the-fashion-transparency-index-2019-report-ranks-worlds-biggest-brands |title=The Fashion Transparency Index: 2019 report ranks world's biggest brands {{!}} Fashion {{!}} The Guardian<!-- Bot generated title --> |website=[[TheGuardian.com]] |date=24 April 2019 |access-date=2019-09-20 |archive-date=2019-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920145519/https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2019/apr/24/the-fashion-transparency-index-2019-report-ranks-worlds-biggest-brands |url-status=live }}</ref> which rates the world's largest brands and retailers according to how much information they disclose about their suppliers, supply chain policies and practices, and social and environmental impact. The top scorers of the 2019 Fashion Transparency Index included [[Adidas]], [[Reebok]], [[Patagonia, Inc.|Patagonia]], and [[H&M]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fashion Transparency Index 2019|url=https://issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/fashion_transparency_index_2019 |access-date=2020-10-31|website=Issuu|date=April 24, 2019 |language=en|archive-date=2020-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030233242/https://issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/fashion_transparency_index_2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The high place of several fast fashion retailers caused controversy regarding the parameters used for such rankings.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Farmbrough|first=Heather|title=H&M Is Pushing Sustainability Hard, But Not Everyone Is Convinced |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/heatherfarmbrough/2018/04/14/hm-is-pushing-sustainability-hard-but-not-everyone-is-convinced/ |access-date=2021-02-14|website=Forbes|language=en|archive-date=2021-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128200127/https://www.forbes.com/sites/heatherfarmbrough/2018/04/14/hm-is-pushing-sustainability-hard-but-not-everyone-is-convinced/|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Diversity and inclusion ====
In addition, fashion companies are criticized for the lack of size, age, physical ability, gender and racial diversity of models used in photo shoots and catwalks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thefashionspot.com/runway-news/786015-runway-diversity-report-fall-2018/|title=Diversity Report: The Fall 2018 Runways Were the Most Race and Transgender-Inclusive Ever; Not So Much for Age and Size Diversity|date=2018-03-22|website=theFashionSpot|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226234130/https://www.thefashionspot.com/runway-news/786015-runway-diversity-report-fall-2018/|url-status=live}}</ref> A more radical and systemic critique of social inequality in fashion concerns the exclusion and aesthetic supremacy inherent and accentuated through fashion that still remains unquestioned under the current environmentally focused discourse on sustainable fashion.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A typology of fashion violence|last1=Von Busch|first1=Otto|last2=Bjereld|first2=Ylva|date=2016-06-01|journal=Critical Studies in Fashion & Beauty|volume=7|pages=89–107|doi=10.1386/csfb.7.1.89_1}}</ref><ref name="Busch 311–327">{{Cite journal|last=Busch|first=Otto von|date=2018-09-02|title=Inclusive Fashion—an Oxymoron—or a Possibility for Sustainable Fashion?|journal=Fashion Practice|volume=10|issue=3|pages=311–327|doi=10.1080/17569370.2018.1507145|s2cid=218771542 |issn=1756-9370}}</ref>
While social "inclusivity" has become almost a norm amongst brands marketing ethical and sustainable fashion, the norm for what is considered a "beautiful" and "healthy" body keeps narrowing down under what researchers have called the current "wellness syndrome."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wellness Syndrome|last=Cederström, Carl|date=2015|publisher=Wiley|isbn=9780745688718|oclc=956676547}}</ref> With the positive thinking of inclusivity, the assumption is that a consumer can be whatever he or she wants to be, and thus if the person is not living up to the ideals it is the person's own fault. This optimism hides the diktat of aesthetic wellness, which turns inclusion into an obligation to look good and be dressed in fashionable clothes, a "democratic" demand for aesthetic as well as ethical perfection, as argued by philosopher [[Heather Widdows]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Perfect Me|last=Widdows|first=Heather|date=2018-12-31|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400889624|location=Princeton|doi = 10.23943/9781400889624|s2cid=193961288}}</ref>
==== In Asia ====
{{Further|Impact of fast fashion in China}}
China has emerged as the largest exporter of fast fashion, accounting for 30% of world apparel exports.<ref name=waste>{{Citation|title=Waste Couture: Environmental Impact of the Clothing Industry|last=Luz|first=Claudio|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|publication-date=September 2007|year=2007|volume=115|issue=9|pages=A448-54|doi=10.1289/ehp.115-a449|pmid=17805407|pmc=1964887}}</ref> The country exports over approximately US$159 billion worth of clothing garments annually.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Niinimäki |first1=Kirsi |last2=Peters |first2=Greg |last3=Dahlbo |first3=Helena |last4=Perry |first4=Patsy |last5=Rissanen |first5=Timo |last6=Gwilt |first6=Alison |date=7 April 2020 |title=The environmental price of fast fashion |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9 |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |language=en |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=189–200 |doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9 |bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..189N |s2cid=215760302 |issn=2662-138X}}</ref> However, some Chinese workers make as little as 12–18 cents per hour working in poor conditions.<ref name=waste /> Each year Americans purchase approximately 1 billion garments made in China. Today's biggest factories and mass scale of apparel production emerged from two developments in history. The first involved the opening up of China and [[Vietnam]] in the 1980s to private and foreign capital and investments in the creation of export-oriented manufacturing of garments, footwear, and plastics, part of a national effort to boost living standards, embrace modernity, and capitalism.<ref name="Benjamin, 274">{{Cite book|title=Behemoth : a history of the factory and the making of the modern world |last=Freeman |first=Joshua Benjamin |year=2018|isbn=9780393246315|edition= First|location=New York, NY|publisher=WW Norton|pages=274|oclc=988280720}}</ref> Second, the retail revolution within the U.S. (example Wal-Mart, Target, Nike) and Western Europe, where companies no longer manufactured but rather contracted out their production and transformed instead into key players in design, marketing, and logistics, introducing many new different product lines manufactured in foreign-owned factories in China.<ref name="Benjamin, 274"/> It is the convergence of these two phenomena that has led to the largest factories in history from apparels to electronics. In contemporary global supply chains, it is the retailers and branders who have had the most power in establishing arrangements and terms of production, not factory owners.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Global production : the apparel industry in the Pacific Rim|last=Edna.|first=Bonacich|date=1994|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=978-1566391689|oclc=28964324|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/globalproduction0000unse}}</ref> Fierce global competition in the garment industry translates into poor working conditions for many laborers in developing nations. Developing countries aim to become a part of the world's apparel market despite poor working conditions and low pay. Countries such as [[Economy of Cambodia#Garment industry|Cambodia]] and [[Textile industry in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] export large amounts of clothing into the [[United States]] every year.<ref name=waste />
=== Economic ===
At the heart of the controversy concerning "fast fashion" lies the acknowledgment that the "problem" of unsustainable fashion is that cheap, accessible, and on-trend clothes have become available to people of poorer means. This means more people across the world have adopted the consumption habits that in the mid-20th century were still reserved for the rich. To put it differently, the economic concern of fashion is that [[poor]] people, or populations in developing economies, now have access to updating their wardrobes as often as the rich, or consumers in Western economies. That is, "fast" fashion is only a problem when poor people engage in it. In alignment with this, the blame for the proliferation of poor-quality, high-quantity and cheap fashion is often put on poorer consumers.
The distribution of value within the fashion industry is another economic concern, with garment workers and textile farmers and workers receiving low wages and prices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Cotton|title=Cotton farmers {{!}} Fairtrade Foundation|website=www.fairtrade.org.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|last3=mail@fairtrade.org.uk|first3=E|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226150444/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Cotton|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cleanclothes.org/livingwage/living-wage|title=Living Wage|website=Clean Clothes Campaign|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060724/https://cleanclothes.org/livingwage/living-wage|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Business models for sustainable fashion ==
In order to promote more sustainable forms of consumption, there is a multitude of emerging business models that challenge the prevalent ready-to-wear model. Here is an example of a study that provides insight into innovative business models in the fashion industry that are geared towards sustainability.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Todeschini |first1=Bruna |title=Innovative and sustainable business models in the fashion industry: Entrepreneurial drivers, opportunities, and challenges |journal=Business Horizons |date=2017 |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=759–770 |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2017.07.003 |hdl=11311/1060972 |s2cid=158529625 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681317301015|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
=== Circular fashion models ===
A number of emerging business models go under the name of "[[circular fashion]]," inspired by the [[circular economy]]. While there are many models under development, some are gaining more traction. Much of the work on circular fashion builds on ideas and initiatives explored in the 1990s and onwards, by scholars such as [[Lynda Grose]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cernansky |first=Rachel |date=18 March 2021 |title=Can an end-to-end sustainability standard change fashion? |work=Vogue Business |url=https://www.voguebusiness.com/sustainability/can-an-end-to-end-sustainability-standard-change-fashion}}</ref> Kate Fletcher,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Modefica |date=Feb 12, 2020 |title="Slow Fashion is not a movement; it's a market": An Interview With Kate Fletcher |work=Modefica |url=https://medium.com/modefica-global/slow-fashion-is-not-a-movement-its-a-market-an-interview-with-kate-fletcher-ace64db9e0c8}}</ref> Rebecca Earley,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Earley |first=Rebecca |date=Jan 4, 2021 |title=Circular Fashion 2070: Clothing and Textile Cycles, Systems, and Services |url=https://www.nae.edu/244942/Circular-Fashion-2070-Clothing-and-Textile-Cycles-Systems-and-Services |journal=National Academy of Engineering |volume=50}}</ref> Mathilda Tham, and Timo Rissanen,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rissanen |first=Timo |title="Zero Waste Fashion Design", in J. Hethorn & C. Ulasewicz (eds.) Sustainable Fashion: What's Next? |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2015 |location=London |pages=179–203}}</ref> especially the thinking around the "metabolism" of garments and wardrobes, "zero waste" production, and the focus on the whole life cycle of garments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Von Busch |first=Otto |title=Vistas of Vitality: Metabolisms, Circularity, Fashion-abilities |publisher=SelfPassage |year=2021 |location=New York}}</ref> The popular terminology around circular fashion, reached the mainstream through a report that has come to define the field, the 2017 "A New Textile Economy: Redesigning Fashion's Future" by the [[Ellen MacArthur Foundation]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ellen MacArthur Foundation|date=2017|title=A new textile economy |url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/our-work/activities/make-fashion-circular/report|url-status=live|access-date=2021-02-26|archive-date=2021-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426042506/https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/our-work/activities/make-fashion-circular/report}}</ref>
The "[[Cradle-to-cradle design|cradle-to-cradle]]" model, a circular system named after the influential 2002 [[Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things|book with the same name]] by German chemist [[Michael Braungart]] and US architect [[William McDonough]] has been a popular inspiration amongst proponents of circular fashion, it is not easy to achieve. Most textile fibers in consumer fashion are amalgamations of various materials to achieve flexible or aesthetic properties, and thus not optimal for circular reproduction. Industrially shredded fibers often need addition of new materials to achieve elasticity or durability. Up until now, most companies contributing to circular fashion are either mechanical or chemical textile recyclers such as [[Lenzing]], [[Recover Textile Systems]], Renewcell, Evrnu, Spinnova or Infinited Fiber Company.<ref>{{Cite web |title=14 Textile Recycling Companies Pushing for Circularity in Fashion |url=https://consciousfashion.co/guides/textile-recycling-companies |access-date=2022-08-30 |website=Conscious Fashion Collective |date=February 25, 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> Although all work with textile waste as their raw material, it is often from [[Pre-consumer recycling|pre-consumer]] origins as it is easier to sort and process. More recently, some industry initiatives to develop and scale pre-consumer and post-consumer textile recycling have been emerging around the globe, particularly as a response to new legislation. On March 30, The [[European Commission]] published the EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Textiles strategy |url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/textiles-strategy_en |access-date=2022-08-30 |website=environment.ec.europa.eu |date=March 30, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> a new strategy that lays out key principles to drive change in the textiles industry. The European Commission's vision of the future of the textiles industry in Europe lays on several pillars that include recycled textiles, ecodesigns, waste management, transparency, labelling, microplastics and extended producer responsibility (EPR).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The EU Textiles Strategy in Motion - What does it mean for the future of this sector? {{!}} European Circular Economy Stakeholder Platform |url=https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/en/news-and-events/all-events/eu-textiles-strategy-motion-what-does-it-mean-future-sector |access-date=2022-08-30 |website=circulareconomy.europa.eu|date=July 8, 2022 }}</ref>
=== Biomimicry, natural cycles, and processes ===
[[Biomimetics|Biomimicry]] suggests a perspective emphasizing the "Wisdom of Nature" where the industry looks into materials in tune with natural cycles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Biomimicry Institute |date=2020 |title=The Nature of Fashion |url=https://biomimicry.org/thenatureoffashion/}}</ref> Biomimicry replicates the [[Natural Cycles|cycles of nature]], seeking to infinitely reuse materials to make commerce compatible with nature. Fashion from the viewpoint of biomimicry tries to make fashion work as a sustainable ecosystem, aligning with natural systems in harmony with the [[biosphere]]. Materials should be bio-compatible, combining biodegradable fibers with processes of [[fermentation]] and [[gasification]], or materials that have been seen as waste could act as a more sustainable method to making new clothing.<ref name=":02" />
=== Biofabricate materials ===
Fashion companies are also innovating by incorporating biotechnology materials for the production of products such as sustainable fashion and sportswear, leading to a reduction in the impact of climate change.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |title=Designing with life: Biofabricate's Suzanne Lee envisions a "new material world" |url=https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine_digital/en/2023/article_0017.html |website=WIPO Magazine}}</ref> [[Biofabrication]] refers to the process of using microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeast, algae, and fungi, to produce materials and ingredients used by humans, ranging from fuel to food to fibers. With the aim of harnessing biology and microorganisms, biofabrication aims to produce high-value ingredients without relying on fossil or limited land resources. American fashion designer and CEO of Biofabricate, [[Suzanne Lee]], is developing biofabricate materials for the fashion world and gathering experts in the area to explore the possibilities of this new materials: "We've already seen various automotive concept cars with interiors made from biomaterials rather than animal or petrochemical materials. But it's probably going to be a while before it goes mainstream in the automotive sector because the volumes are so huge."<ref name=":15" />
Multi-national clothing retailers are making progress in sustainable clothing production utilizing biofabrication materials. In 2022, [[Zara (retailer)|Zara]] offered party dresses made of polyester produced from bio ethanol created from the carbon emissions of a steel mill.<ref>{{Cite web |title=These gorgeous Zara party dresses are made from carbon emissions |url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90705361/zaras-gorgeous-party-dresses-are-made-from-carbon-emissions |website=Fast Company}}</ref> Similarly, [[H&M]] Move has partnered with LanzaTech, a breakthrough material science company that diverts carbon emissions from the atmosphere, traps them, and transforms them into thread.<ref>{{Cite web |title=H&M Move Partners With Lanzatech to Launch Capsule Collection Using Captured Carbon Emissions |url=https://about.hm.com/news/general-news-2023/h-m-move-partners-with-lanzatech-to-launch-capsule-collection-us.html |website=H&M}}</ref> Although the technology is still in its early stages, it has the potential to be transformative in the coming decades.<ref name=":15" />
=== Rental and sharing models ===
Rental models are gaining popularity across the industry, a model that has traditionally been used in attire for masquerades or special events, such as weddings. The idea is that sharing garments ultimately lowers the volume of new purchases and disposal of clothing, which means less waste.<ref name=":02" /> [[Rent the Runway]] is a company building on the "Rent a Closet" approach to consumption, where a consumer leases a garment instead of purchasing it. Fashion rental is a model expected to grow over 10% annually until 2027 across the fashion industry, thus also increasing sales (and expected waste) of garments.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gonzalez-Rodriguez |first=Angela |date=Nov 18, 2021 |title=Online fashion rental market to grow over 10 percent annually |work=FashionUnited |url=https://fashionunited.com/news/business/online-fashion-rental-market-to-grow-over-10-percent-annually/2021111843830}}</ref> Renting and sharing clothing is also known as CFC (collaborative fashion consumption) but its environmental impact and mitigation of pollution are debated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iran |first1=Samira |last2=Schrader |first2=Ulf |title=Collaborative fashion consumption and its environmental effects |journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management |date=11 September 2017 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=468–482 |doi=10.1108/JFMM-09-2016-0086 }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Levänen |first1=Jarkko |last2=Uusitalo |first2=Ville |last3=Härri |first3=Anna |last4=Kareinen |first4=Elisa |last5=Linnanen |first5=Lassi |title=Innovative recycling or extended use? Comparing the global warming potential of different ownership and end-of-life scenarios for textiles |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=1 May 2021 |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=054069 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/abfac3 |bibcode=2021ERL....16e4069L |s2cid=235289414 |doi-access=free }}</ref> While convenient for the consumer, reducing the number of items housed in the wardrobe, the environmental impact of rental may however not be reduced as much as advertised. Transportation between users and storage, dry-cleaning, and re-packaging causes more environmental impact than reselling or hand-me-downs.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Elan |first=Priya |date=6 July 2021 |title=Renting clothes is 'less green than throwing them away' |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2021/jul/06/renting-clothes-is-less-green-than-throwing-them-away}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Courier |date=December 27, 2021 |title=Inside fashion's rental market |url=https://mailchimp.com/courier/article/fashion-rental-market/}}</ref> As noted by Levänen et al. (2021), the lowest global warming impacts are achieved be reducing consumption, followed by reusing and recycling, whereas rental services are likely to increase customers' consumption, logistics, and use, making sharing and rental scenarios having the highest Global Warming Potential.<ref name=":2" />
As noted by sustainability researcher Timo Rissanen, it is the total amount of clothing units in circulation that needs to be reduced, as well as their environmental impact during their life cycle, and rental services could, if improved, play a role in that.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rissanen |first=Timo |date=July 25, 2021 |title=brief thoughts on clothing rentals |url=https://timorissanen.wordpress.com/2021/07/25/brief-thoughts-on-clothing-rentals/}}</ref>
=== Vintage and resale models ===
{{Main|Environmental sustainability of vintage fashion|Global trade of secondhand clothing}}
The most sustainable fibers in fashion are the ones many people already have. Thus, to recirculate existing garments, new business models engage the resale, revival, and recirculation of used, second-hand or [[vintage clothing]].<ref name=":02" /> Purchasing second-hand, or vintage clothing is a way to lower the amount of new clothing that gets produced and disposed of and ends up in landfills.
Other resale models also contain elements of upcycling and repairs. Repairing and reselling used clothing has less environmental impact than creating, processing, dying, cutting, sewing, and shipping new clothing to the consumer. Through the upcycling process for clothing, the end-of-life management process of clothes is not applied because it extends the life of a clothing article instead of being disposed into a landfill.<ref name="Henninger2016"/>
=== Rethinking recycling ===
[[File:Recycling Shoes and Clothing.jpg|thumb|Community clothing and shoes donation bins]]
A more technologically minded trend is "innovative recycling", which seeks to view waste itself as a source of value. Within the fashion industry, some{{who|date=November 2021}} manufacturers have created incentives for consumers to participate in the recycling of their clothing. Innovative recycling is also aimed at clothing stores themselves, who do not always have sustainable methods to properly dispose of boxes and plastic bags; innovative recycling also looks at the packaging that clothes come in having been sent from manufacturers. A change in approaches towards recycling within the fashion industry could potentially greatly impact the amount of waste the industry creates.<ref name=":02" />
=== From collective to connective ===
Using digital technologies and [[blockchain]] can promote more "Connected Clothes" which allows for more opportunities in digitalizing clothing for [[personalization]], life-tracking, and traceability of its origin.<ref name=":02" />
=== Tailored resurgence ===
[[Haute couture|Tailored couture]] is another option for the future of a greener fashion industry, for those who can afford it, as it can potentially lead to less waste and more jobs improving the economy. Tailored couture is no longer desired because of the convenience of malls and stores provide but the consequence of the convenience is the pollution of the environment. The idea is that tailored clothing can reduce mass-production, while reusing and redesigning old clothes to fit could reduce the amount of old worn out unfitting clothes thrown out or given away.<ref name=DG_1>{{cite book| title=Dress and Globalization| last1=Maynard| first1=Margaret| url=https://biblio.co.uk/9780719063893| publisher=[[Manchester University Press]]| date=3 June 2004| access-date=26 January 2024| isbn=9780719063893}}</ref>
=== Open-source fashion ===
[[Open source|Open-source content]] has become a popular reference with designers sharing patterns and designs, connecting to the success of the [[Open-source-software movement|open-source software movement.]] By sharing designs freely, using digital technology, the aim is to make consumers more engaged in the design, production, and lifetime use of the garment.<ref name=":14">{{Cite news |last=Farra |first=Emily |date=Jan 15, 2021 |title="Open Source Fashion Cookbook Is Sharing "Recipes" for Upcycling at Home, With Patterns by Raeburn, Chromat, and More" |work=Vogue |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/adiff-open-source-fashion-cookbook-upcycling-diy-fashion-patterns}}</ref> While the terminology is new, the concept builds on the sharing of patterns across European courts in 16th century (such as Kleidungsbüchlein or Trachtenbuch (usually translated as "Book of Clothes") of [[Melchior Lorck]], and the wide range of sewing magazines, such as [[Burda Style]], in the early 20th century. By making garments more open and adaptable across their lifecycle, the hope is that "garments can be multi-functional, beyond simply clothing our bodies; that fashion should be both useful and inventive; and that what we wear should relate to the world around us."<ref name=":14" /> Examples of open-source fashion range from freely available patterns and production techniques, platforms for exchanging materials and patterns, and maker spaces.<ref>{{Cite web |author=((Danielepasi_38178)) |date=Dec 15, 2015 |title="5 Projects Leading the Open Source Revolution in Fashion" |url=https://www.shareable.net/5-projects-leading-the-open-source-revolution-in-fashion/ |website=Sharable}}</ref>
== Reuse and recycling ==
{{see also|Global trade of secondhand clothing|Environmental sustainability of vintage fashion|}}
A large amount of clothing purchased annually is discarded and eventually ends up in [[landfill]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Lee |first=Matilda |date=6 February 2009 |title=What's the Most Sustainable Fabric |url=http://www.theecologist.org/green_green_living/clothing/268798/whats_the_most_sustainable_fabric.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023045847/http://www.theecologist.org/green_green_living/clothing/268798/whats_the_most_sustainable_fabric.html |archive-date=23 October 2017 |access-date=30 April 2019 |work=[[The Ecologist]]}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite web |last=Beall |first=Abigail |title=Why clothes are so hard to recycle |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200710-why-clothes-are-so-hard-to-recycle |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=[[BBC Future]] |language=en}}</ref> Sustainability advocates highlight reselling and donating old clothes and buying [[secondhand]] fashion as an approach to sustainable fashion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Santi |first=Ana |title=How to make your wardrobe sustainable |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230502-how-to-make-your-wardrobe-sustainable |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=[[BBC Future]] |language=en}}</ref>
[[Charity shop]]s keep a small proportion of donated clothing received.<ref name="abc">{{cite web |last=Lee |first=Mike |date=21 December 2006 |title=The Truth About Where Your Donated Clothes End Up |url=https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=2743456&page=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116034802/http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=2743456&page=1 |archive-date=16 November 2010 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=[[ABC News]]}}</ref> These clothes tend to be good quality, fashionable, and high valued fabrics that can easily be sold in charities' thrift shops. Some charities then sell the majority to textile recycling firms.<ref name="abc" />
=== Recycling ===
{{Main|Textile recycling}}
Some efforts have been made to [[recycling]] textiles and clothing, as the technology to do this has existed for centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Santi |first=Ana |title=Can clothes ever be fully recycled? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230227-how-to-recycle-your-clothes |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=[[BBC Future]] |language=en}}</ref> However, only around 1% of recycled clothes are turned into new items, primarily due to the difficulty and high cost of separating mixed and blended textiles.<ref name=":16" /> Most discarded clothing is recycled for other uses, such as building insulation or carpet.<ref name=":16" />
Textile recycling firms process about 70% of the donated clothing into industrial items such as rags or cleaning cloths.<ref name="abc" /> However, 20–25% of the [[second-hand]] clothing is sold into an international market.<ref name="abc" /> Where possible, used jeans collected from America, for example, are sold to low-income customers in Africa for modest prices, yet most end up in landfill as the average US sized customer is several sizes bigger than the global average.<ref>{{cite web |last=Chapman |first=Dan |date=24 December 2006 |title=Your Cast-Offs, Their Profits: Items donated to Goodwill and Salvation Army often end up as part of a $1 billion-a-year used-clothing business |url=http://www.gciatl.com/media.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122153800/http://www.gciatl.com/media.html |archive-date=22 November 2010 |access-date=7 December 2010 |work=[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution]] |publisher=gciatl.com}}</ref>
=== Upcycling ===
[[Upcycling]] in fashion signifies the process of reusing the unwanted and discarded materials (such as fabric scraps or clothes) into new materials or products without compromising the value and the quality of the used material. The definition of textile waste can be production waste, pre-consumer waste, and post-consumer waste.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://issuu.com/runnel/docs/reet-aus|title=Trash to Trend|last1=Aus|first1=Reet|website=Issuu|date=November 30, 2011 |access-date=26 February 2019|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807205123/https://issuu.com/runnel/docs/reet-aus|url-status=live}}</ref>
Typically, upcycling creates something new and better from the old, used or disposed of items. Based on statistics taken globally, the majority of people wear their clothes for at least a few years and pass on unwanted clothes to others to use, but fewer say they avoid buying new clothes and repair their damaged clothes. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Revolution |first1=Fashion |title=Consumer Survey Key Findings |url=https://issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/fashrev_consumersurvey_2020_keyfindings/2?ff |website=issuu.com |publisher=Fashion Revolution |access-date=February 11, 2024}}</ref> Hence, upcycling is one of the lesser sought-after methods of sustainable fashion, even though there are plenty of benefits to it.The process of upcycling requires a blend of factors like environmental awareness, creativity, innovation, and hard work and results in a unique sustainable product. Upcycling aims at the development of products truly sustainable, affordable, innovative, and creative. For example, shirts can be upcycled into a value-added product like a unique handmade braided rug, whereas the opposite of upcycling is downcycling such as cleaning rags made from worn T-shirts.<ref>{{cite book|title=Textiles and clothing sustainability: recycled and upcycled textiles and fashion|last1=Muthu|first1=Subramanian Senthilkannan|date=2016-08-06|publisher=Springer |isbn=9789811021466}}</ref>
Upcycling can be seen as one of the waste management strategies. There are different types of strategies. From least to most resource-intensive, the strategies are the reuse of product, repairing and reconditioning to keep products as long as possible, recycling the raw materials.<ref name=autogenerated1>Fletcher, K. (2013). Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys. Routledge.{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref> The reuse of textile products 'as is' brings significant environmental savings. In the case of clothing, the energy used to collect, sort and resell second-hand garments in between 10 and 20 times less than that needed to make a new item.<ref>Laursen, S. E., Hansen, J., Bagh, J., Jensen, O. K., & Werther, I. (1997). Environmental assessment of textiles. Environmental project, (369).</ref>
It is meant to be innovative by making certain materials into something re-usable and improved, which gives companies and manufacturers higher values for their products. Recycling is a big factor in sustainability, so creating new materials to avoid mass pollution can help improve the economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zimring |first1=Carl A. |title=Upcycling in History: Is the Past a Prologue to a Zero-Waste Future? The Case of Aluminum |journal=RCC Perspectives |date=2016 |issue=3 |pages=45–52 |jstor=26241375 }}</ref>
The advantages of circular fashion include: reduced dependency on imported raw materials, creation of eco- friendly industries and jobs, eco-friendly brands benefit from a better public image, and reduction in environmental damage caused by resource extraction. On the other hand, disadvantages include dependency on the consumer's actions, creating a new business model on the basis of recycled is tough, and the entire cycle requires integrating product life cycle from raw material to disposal.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=29 April 2019|title=Moving Towards a Circular Fashion Economy|url=https://motif.org/news/circular-fashion-economy/|url-status=live|access-date=|website=MOTIF|language=en-GB|archive-date=2021-01-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113102326/https://motif.org/news/circular-fashion-economy/}}</ref>
=== Clothing swaps ===
{{Main|Clothing swap}}
[[File:Wymiana ubraniowa 1L.jpg|thumb|Clothes swap in [[Wrocław]], Wyspa Tamka. Event is manifesting slow fashion movement, focusing on Fashion Revolution actions.]]
[[Clothing swap]]ping can further promote the reduction, reuse, and recycling clothing. By reusing clothing that has already been made and recycling clothing from one owner to another, source reduction can be achieved. This moves away from usage of new raw materials to make more clothing available for consumption. Through the method of clothing swapping, an alternative resource for consumers to ultimately save in regards to money and time is provided. It reduces transportation emissions, costs, and the time it takes to drive and search through the chaos of most clothing stores. Swapping clothes further promotes the use of sustainable [[online shopping]] and the internet as well as an increase of social bonds through online communication or effective personal communication in "clothing swap parties." The EPA states, that by reusing items, at the source waste can be diverted from ending up in landfills because it delays or avoids that item's entry in the waste collection and disposal system.<ref>{{cite web |date=17 November 2009 |title=Reduce & Reuse |url=http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/reduce.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426042505/https://www.epa.gov/environmental-topics/land-waste-and-cleanup-topics |archive-date=26 April 2021 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref>
== Consumption ==
There are negative social and environmental impacts at all stages of the fashion product life: materials production and processing, manufacture of garments, retail and marketing, use and maintenance, and at the discard phase. For some products, the environmental impact can be greater at the use phase than material production,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/insights/sustainability/well-dressed/|title=Well dressed? The present and future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the United Kingdom|website=www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060315/https://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/insights/sustainability/well-dressed/|url-status=live}}</ref> leading for instance to the suggestion to wash clothes less.
===Consumer engagement===
[[File:Sustainability and Style (27881359281).jpg|thumb|''Sustainability and Style'' event held during Berlin Fashion Week 2016]]
Consumer engagement challenges the "passive" mode of ready-to-wear fashion where consumers have few interfaces and little incentive to be active with their garments; to repair, change, update, swap, and learn from their wardrobe.<ref name=":4" /> This type of consumer engagement, aiming to promote fashion as an ability rather than primarily as a commodity, has been referred to as "fashion-ability."<ref>{{Cite book|last=von Busch|first=Otto|title=Fashion-able: Hacktivism and Engaged Fashion Design|publisher=ArtMonitor|year=2008|location=Gothenburg}}</ref> The term "folk fashion" has been used in the emphasis on craft engagements with garments where the community heritage of skills are in focus.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Folk fashion. Understanding homemade clothes.|last=Twigger Holroyd, Amy.|date=2017|publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd|isbn=9781784536497|oclc=1019666656}}</ref> There are currently many designers trying to find ways that experiment with new models of action that deposes passivity and indifference while preserving the positive social dynamics and sensibilities fashion offers, often in relation to [[Alvin Toffler]]'s notion of the "[[prosumer]]" (portmanteau of producer and consumer). Notions of [[participatory design]], [[open source]] fashion, and fashion [[Hacker culture|hacktivism]] are parts of such endeavors, mixing techniques of dissemination with empowerment, reenchantment and [[Paulo Freire]]'s "[[Pedagogy of the Oppressed]]."<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Zero waste fashion design|last=Rissanen, Timo|isbn=978-1350094833|oclc=1040994499|date=2018-09-06|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Fashion-able : hacktivism and engaged fashion design|last=Busch |first=Otto von|date=2009|publisher=Camino|isbn=9789197841108|oclc=703595835}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Black|first=S. |display-authors=etal|date=2009|title=Considerate Design for Personalized Fashion: Towards Sustainable Fashion Design and Consumption|journal=Mass Matching - Customization, Configuration & Creativity: Proceedings of the MCPC 2009|via=Helsinki, Aalto University School of Art and Design}}</ref> An example of such consumer engagement can be Giana Gonzalez and her project "Hacking Couture", which has tested such methods across the world since 2006.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Busch|first=Otto von|date=2014|title=Fashion Hacking|journal=Design as Future-Making|pages=47–57 |doi=10.5040/9781474293907-0009|isbn=9781474293907}}</ref> As highlighted in the research of Jennifer Ballie, there is also an increasing interest across industry to produce unique experiences amongst users, connecting co-design with [[social media]] apps and tools to enhance the user experience of consumers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ballie|first=Jennifer|title=eCo-Textile Design: How can textile design and making, combined with social media tools, achieve a more sustainable fast fashion future?|publisher=University of the Arts London.|year=2014|location=London}}</ref> A recent example has been the ''Open Source Fashion Cookbook'', by the New York-based brand ADIFF, showing how consumers can recycle materials, share and modify patterns, and co-create more engaging forms of fashion consumption.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Angela Luna & Loulwa Al Saad|title=Open Source Fashion Cookbook|publisher=ADIFF PBC|year=2021|location=New York}}</ref>
Enhancing the lifespan of products have been yet another approach to sustainability, yet still only in its infancy. Upmarket brands have long supported the lifespan of their products through [[product-service system]]s, such as re-waxing of classic outdoor jackets, or repairs of expensive handbags, yet more accessible brands do still not offer even spare buttons in their garments. One such approach concerns [[emotionally durable design]], yet with fashion's dependency on continuous updates, and consumer's desire to follow trends, there is a significant challenge to make garments last long through emotional attachment. As with memories, not all are pleasant, and thus a focus on emotional attachment can result in favoring a normative approach to what is considered a good enough memory to manifest emotionally in a garment. Cultural theorist Peter Stallybrass approaches this challenge in his essay on poverty, textile memory, and the coat of Karl Marx.<ref>{{Cite book|title="Marx' Coat" essay, in Border fetishisms : material objects in unstable spaces|last1=Peter |first1=Stallybrass|editor=Spyer, Patricia |date=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0415918561|oclc=37024820}}</ref>
=== Technology ===
{{See also|Manufacture on demand|Clothing technology}}
Novel technologies for virtual try-ons of clothes sold via [[e-commerce]] may enable more sustainable fashion and reduce wasted clothes and related transportation and production expenses.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wills |first1=Jennifer |title=Saying farewell to a throwaway fashion industry |language=en |work=Horizon: The EU Research Innovation Magazine |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-farewell-throwaway-fashion-industry.html |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fadelli |first1=Ingrid |title=DeepDraper: A technique that predicts how clothes would look on different people |language=en |work=Tech Xplore |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-deepdraper-technique-people.html |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>
==Sustainable fashion organizations and companies==
There is a broad range of organizations purporting to support sustainable fashion, some representing particular stakeholders, some addressing particular issues, and some seeking to increase the visibility of the sustainable fashion movement. They also range from the local to global. It is important to examine the interests and priorities of the organizations.
=== Organizations ===
[[File:Wymiana ubraniowa 2.jpg|thumb|Clothes swap in Wrocław, Wyspa Tamka. Event is manifesting slow fashion movement, focusing on Fashion Revolution actions.]]
*[[Fashion Revolution]] is a not-for-profit global movement founded by [[Carry Somers]] and [[Orsola de Castro]] which highlights working conditions and the people behind the garments. With teams in over 100 countries around the world, Fashion Revolution campaigns for systemic reform of the fashion industry with a focus on the need for greater transparency in the fashion supply chain. Fashion Revolution has designated the anniversary of the Rana Plaza disaster in Bangladesh as Fashion Revolution Day. Fashion Revolution Week takes place annually during the week on which the anniversary falls. Over 1000 events take place around the world, with millions of people engaging online and offline.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pinnock |first=Olivia |date=4 May 2018 |title=The Best Answers To #WhoMadeMyClothes This Fashion Revolution Week |magazine=[[Forbes]] |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliviapinnock/2018/05/04/the-best-answers-to-whomademyclothes-this-fashion-revolution-week/#3835b59c77fe |access-date=10 March 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927232318/https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliviapinnock/2018/05/04/the-best-answers-to-whomademyclothes-this-fashion-revolution-week//#3835b59c77fe |url-status=live }}</ref> Fashion Revolution publishes the Fashion Transparency Index annually, ranking the largest fashion brands in the world on how much they disclose about their policies, practices, procedures and social and environmental impact.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dazed Digital |first=Morgane Nyfeler |date=24 April 2018 |title=Are fashion brands actually making progress at becoming ethical? |url=https://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/39855/1/are-fashion-brands-becoming-ethical-fashion-revolution-transparency-index-2018 |newspaper=[[Dazed Digital|Dazed]] |access-date=10 March 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927232232/https://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/39855/1/are-fashion-brands-becoming-ethical-fashion-revolution-transparency-index-2018/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Red Carpet Green Dress, founded by [[Suzy Amis Cameron]], is a global initiative showcasing sustainable fashion on the [[red carpet]] at the [[Academy Awards|Oscars]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Carlson |first=Jane |date=11 October 2013 |title=Annual red carpet green dress contest kicks off once again |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/annual-red-carpet-green-dress-647241 |access-date=9 December 2015 |archive-date=12 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212103314/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/annual-red-carpet-green-dress-647241 |url-status=live }}</ref> Talent supporting the project includes [[Naomie Harris]], [[Missi Pyle]], [[Kellan Lutz]] and [[Olga Kurylenko]].
* Undress Brisbane is an Australian fashion show that sheds light on sustainable designers in Australia.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Claire |date=8 April 2013 |title=Ethical fashion pops up for fashion week |url=http://www.smh.com.au/small-business/ethical-fashion-pops-up-for-fashion-week-20130405-2hawe.html |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=9 December 2015 |archive-date=25 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125015510/http://www.smh.com.au/small-business/ethical-fashion-pops-up-for-fashion-week-20130405-2hawe.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Global Action Through Fashion is an Oakland, California-based ethical fashion organization working to advocate for sustainable fashion.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sanders |first1=Lorraine |title=S.F. fashion cheerleader org chart |url=https://www.sfgate.com/style/article/S-F-fashion-cheerleader-org-chart-3550151.php |publisher=SF Gate |date=April 24, 2013 |access-date=September 30, 2019 |archive-date=September 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930083538/https://www.sfgate.com/style/article/S-F-fashion-cheerleader-org-chart-3550151.php |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Ecoluxe London, a not-for-profit platform, supports luxury with ethos through hosting a biannual exhibition during [[London Fashion Week]] and showcasing eco-sustainable and ethical designers.<ref name="vildamagazine.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.vildamagazine.com/2014/02/chic-with-a-conscience-ecoluxe-at-london-fashion-week/|title=Chic With A Conscience: Ecoluxe At London Fashion Week|last1=Camilli|first1=Sascha|date=2014-02-21|website=Vilda Magazine|access-date=30 September 2014 |archive-date=2014-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006101014/http://www.vildamagazine.com/2014/02/chic-with-a-conscience-ecoluxe-at-london-fashion-week/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Carter|first1=Amber|title=Event Review: Ecoluxe London A/W 2013|url=http://source.ethicalfashionforum.com/article/event-review-ecoluxe-london-aw-2013|website=Ethical Fashion Forum|access-date=30 September 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006084532/http://source.ethicalfashionforum.com/article/event-review-ecoluxe-london-aw-2013 |date=20 February 2013| archive-date= 6 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The Ethical Fashion Initiative, a flagship program of the [[International Trade Centre]], a joint agency of the [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] (UNCTAD) and [[World Trade Organization]], enables artisans living in urban and rural poverty to connect with the global fashion chain.<ref>{{cite web |title=The year fashion woke up |website=Businessoffashion.com |url=http://www.businessoffashion.com/2014/12/year-fashion-woke.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224182300/http://www.businessoffashion.com/2014/12/year-fashion-woke.html |date=19 December 2014 |archive-date=24 December 2014 |access-date=9 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Groom|first1=Avril|title=Sustainable and Ethical Fashion|url=http://howtospendit.ft.com/style/67541-sustainable-and-ethical-fashion|publisher=[[Financial Times]] [[How to Spend It]]|date=November 2014|access-date=2015-01-04|archive-date=2015-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108221217/http://howtospendit.ft.com/style/67541-sustainable-and-ethical-fashion|url-status=live}}</ref> The Initiative also works with the rising generation of fashion talent from Africa, encouraging the forging sustainable and fulfilling creative collaborations with artisans on the continent.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Menkes|first1=Suzy|title=The Beat of Africa Resounds on the Catwalk|url=http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2014/07/16/suzy-menkes-the-beat-of-africa-resounds-from-the-catwalk|publisher=Vogue – Conde Nast|access-date=2015-01-04|archive-date=2015-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110022750/http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2014/07/16/suzy-menkes-the-beat-of-africa-resounds-from-the-catwalk|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Maveau|first1=Roger|title=Afrique-Mode éthique : Simone Cipriani, le bon samaritain|date=18 December 2014|url=http://afrique.lepoint.fr/life-style/afrique-mode-ethique-simone-cipriani-le-bon-samaritain-18-12-2014-1890867_2259.php|publisher=Le Point Afrique|access-date=2015-01-04|archive-date=2014-12-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227092722/http://afrique.lepoint.fr/life-style/afrique-mode-ethique-simone-cipriani-le-bon-samaritain-18-12-2014-1890867_2259.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The Ethical Fashion Initiative is headed by [[Simone Cipriani]].
=== Companies ===
*Eco Age, a consultancy company specializing in enabling businesses to achieve growth and add value through sustainability, is an organization that promotes sustainable fashion. Its creative director, Livia Firth, is also the founder of the Green Carpet Challenge which aims to promote ethically made outfits from fashion designers.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/14/fashion/London-Fashion-Week-Begins-With-Green-Emphasis.html|title=Designing for the Green Carpet|last=Menkes|first=Suzy|date=13 September 2013|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=9 December 2015|archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107122522/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/14/fashion/London-Fashion-Week-Begins-With-Green-Emphasis.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Trans-America Trading Company is one of the biggest of about 3,000 textile recyclers in the United States.<ref name=waste /> Trans-America has processed more than 12 million pounds of post-consumer textiles per year since 1942. At its 80,000-square-foot sorting facility, workers separate used clothing into 300 different categories by type of item, size, and fiber content. About 30% of the textiles are turned into absorbent wiping rags for industrial uses, and another 25–30% are recycled into fiber for use as stuffing for upholstery, insulation, and the manufacture of paper products.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tranclo.com/|title=Trans-Americas Trading Company – World Leader in Recycled Clothing Solutions|website=tranclo.com|access-date=2018-10-13|archive-date=2018-10-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014091321/https://tranclo.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*ViaJoes – Sustainable clothing manufacturer producing eco-friendly fabrics from [[Cotton recycling|recycled cotton]] and other sustainable products confirmed to [[Global Organic Textile Standard|GOTS]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.global-standard.org/ |title=Global Organic Textile Standard International Working Group (IWG) – Global Standard gGmbH|last=Bhajekar|first=Rahul |website=www.global-standard.org|access-date=2018-12-03|archive-date=2018-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201180731/https://www.global-standard.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> – Global Organic Textile Standard International Working Group standard
== Materials ==
In fashion, the consideration of sustainability of materials is critical. The renewability and source of a [[fiber]], the process of how a raw fiber is turned into a [[textile]], the impact of preparation and dyeing of the fibers, energy use in production and preparation, the [[working conditions]] of the people producing the materials, and the material's total [[carbon footprint]], transportation between production plants, chemicals used to keep shipments fresh in containers, shipping to retail and consumer, how the material will be cared for and washed, the processes of repairs and updates, and what happens to it at the end of life. The indexing of the textile journeys is thus extremely complex. In sustainability, there is no such thing as a single-frame approach. Issues dealt with in single frames will almost by definition lead to unwanted and unforeseen effects elsewhere.<ref name=autogenerated1 />
Overall, diversity in the overall fiber mix is needed; in 2013 cotton and polyester accounted for almost 85% of all fibers, and thus their impacts were, and continue to be, disproportionately magnified.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys |last=Fletcher|first=Kate|year=2014|isbn=9780415644556 |edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Routledge|oclc=846847018}}</ref> Also, many fibers in the finished garments are mixed to acquire desired drape, flexibility or stretch, thus affecting both care and the possibility to recycle the material in the end.
===Cellulose fibers===
Natural fibers are fibers which are found in [[nature]] and are not petroleum-based. Natural fibers can be categorized into two main groups, [[cellulose]] or [[plant fiber]] and [[protein]] or [[animal fiber]]. Uses of these fibers can be anything from buttons to eyewear such as sunglasses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cefashion.net/go-wood-sunglasses-for-a-new-wave|title=Go wood: sunglasses for sustainable living|last=Capulet|first=Ian|date=12 February 2015|website=CEFashion.net|access-date=9 December 2015|archive-date=11 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211150451/http://www.cefashion.net/go-wood-sunglasses-for-a-new-wave|url-status=live}}</ref>
Other than cotton, the most common plant-based fiber, [[cellulose]] fibers include: [[jute]], [[flax]], [[hemp]], [[ramie]], [[abaca]], [[soy]], [[maize]], [[banana]], [[pineapple]]. [[Bacterial cellulose]] is currently being tested and better developed as a new fiber alternative.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Choi |first1=Soon Mo |last2=Kummara |first2=Madhusudana Rao |last3=Zo |first3=Sun Mi |last4=Shin |first4=Eun Joo |last5=Han |first5=Sung Soo |title=Bacteria Cellulose and Its Applications |year=2022 |journal=Polymers |volume=14 |issue=6 |page=1080 |doi=10.3390/polym14061080 |pmid=35335411 |pmc=8949969 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==== Cotton ====
{{Main|Cotton}}
[[File:Knitted-clothing-factory.jpg|thumb|Textile worker using a bare loom in a Vietnam factory, weaving natural cotton fabrics, 2022]]
[[File:The Minister of State for Commerce, Shri Jairam Ramesh releasing the Organic Cotton Products, in Chennai on January 24, 2008.jpg|thumb|The Minister of State for Commerce, Shri Jairam Ramesh, at an event in India focused on the organic cotton industry, 2008]]
Cotton is a major source of apparel fiber. Celebrated for its excellent absorbency, durability, and intrinsic softness, cotton accounts for over 50% of all clothing produced worldwide. This makes cotton the most widely used clothing fiber.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://knol.google.com/k/cotton-fabric#|title=Cotton Fabric|year=2009|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=24 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824032733/http://knol.google.com/k/cotton-fabric|url-status=live}}</ref> Up to 1 billion people worldwide depend on the cotton industry for their livelihoods, including 100 million smallholder farmers.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Voora, V. |author2=Larrea, C. |author3=Bermudez, S.|date=2020|title=Global Market Report: Cotton |url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/cotton-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212071020/https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/cotton-coverage/|archive-date=2021-02-12|access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref>
Cotton is one of the most chemical-intensive crops in the world, but growers in [[California]] have reduced their dependence on these chemicals.<ref name="SC_1">{{cite web| title=Sustainable Cotton Project - About| url=http://www.sustainablecotton.org/about.html| publisher=Sustainable Cotton Project| date=2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050214090311/http://www.sustainablecotton.org/html/who_we_are.html |archive-date=14 February 2005|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> Conventionally grown cotton uses approximately 25% of the world's [[insecticides]] and more than 10% of the world's [[pesticides]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.organicitsworthit.org/get/cotton-and-environment|title=Cotton and the environment|publisher=[[Organic Trade Association]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416011200/http://www.organicitsworthit.org/get/cotton-and-environment|archive-date=16 April 2015|access-date=9 December 2015}}</ref> However, growing and processing this particular fiber crop is largely unsustainable. For every pound of cotton harvested, a farmer uses up 1/3 lb of chemical, synthetic fertilizer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sayitgreen.com/organic/fairtrade.html|title=Your Grandkids Will Thank You|date=6 April 2009 |publisher=sayitgreen.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=31 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131080845/http://www.sayitgreen.com/organic/fairtrade.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As a whole, the US cotton production makes up 25% of all pesticides deployed in the United States. Worldwide, cotton takes up 2.4% of all arable lands yet requires 16% of the world's pesticides.<ref name="organic">{{cite web |url=http://www.ota.com/organic/environment/cotton_environment.html|title=Cotton and the Environment|year=2009|publisher=Organic Trade Association|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=23 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123231134/http://www.ota.com/organic/environment/cotton_environment.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The cotton hulls contain the most potent insecticide residues. They are often used as cattle feed, which means that consumers are purchasing meat containing a concentration of pesticides.<ref name="organic" /> The processing of cotton into usable fibers also adds to the burden on the environment. Manufacturers prefer cotton to be white so that cotton can easily be synthetically dyed to any shade of color.<ref name="peruna">{{cite web|url=http://www.perunaturtex.com/scientif.htm|title=The Revival of Colored Cotton|last=Vreeland|first=James M. Jr.|date=April 1999|work=[[Scientific American]] |publisher=perunaturtex.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=15 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715064850/http://www.perunaturtex.com/scientif.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Natural cotton is actually beige-brown, and so during processing, manufacturers would add bleach and various other chemicals and heavy metal dyes to make cotton pure white.<ref name="savvy">{{cite web|url=http://savvybrown.com/health/whats-the-problem-with-cotton-part-1/ |title=What's the Problem With Cotton? Part I|date=10 May 2010|publisher=savvybrown.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=10 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100710044257/http://savvybrown.com/health/whats-the-problem-with-cotton-part-1/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Formaldehyde]] resins would be added in as well to form "easy care" cotton fabric.<ref name="savvy" />
===== Bt cotton =====
{{Main|Bt cotton}}
To reduce the use of pesticides and other harmful chemicals, companies have produced [[genetically modified]] (GMO) cotton plants that are resistant to pest infestations. Among the GMO are cotton crops inserted with the Bt (''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'') gene.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/gmo.html|title=Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)|publisher=University of San Diego|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=5 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205060853/http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/gmo.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bt cotton]] crops do not require insecticide applications. Insects that consume cotton containing Bt will stop feeding after a few hours, and die, leaving the cotton plants unharmed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/how_bt_work.html|title=How Does Bt Work?|publisher=University of San Diego|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=9 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209003125/http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/how_bt_work.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
As a result of the use of Bt cotton, the cost of pesticide applications decreased between $25 and $65 per acre.<ref name="bt">{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/bt_cotton.html|title=Bt Cotton Data|publisher=University of San Diego|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=13 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213074115/http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/bt_cotton.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Bt cotton crops yield 5% more cotton on average compared to traditional cotton crops.<ref name="bt" /> Bt crops also lower the price of cotton by 0.8 cents per pound.<ref name="bt" />
However, there are concerns regarding Bt technology, mainly that insects will eventually develop resistance to the Bt strain. According to an article published in Science Daily, researchers have found that members from a cotton bollworm species, ''[[Helicoverpa zea]]'', were Bt-resistant in some crop areas of Mississippi and Arkansas during 2003 and 2006.<ref name="science">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080207140803.htm|title=First Documented Case Of Pest Resistance To Biotech Cotton|date=8 February 2008|publisher=Science Daily|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=12 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101212214258/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080207140803.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Fortunately, the vast majority of other agricultural pests remain susceptible to Bt.<ref name="science" />
[[Micha Peled|Micha Peled's]] documentary exposé [[Bitter seeds]] on BT farming in India claimed to reveal the true impact of genetically modified cotton on India's farmers, with a suicide rate of over a quarter-million Bt cotton farmers since 1995 due to financial stress resulting from massive crop failure and the exorbitantly high price of Monsanto's proprietary BT seed, although the evidence does not support this claim as the suicide rate of Indian famers has decreased since the introduction of Bt cotton.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Plewis|first=Ian|date=2014-05-13|title=Gm Cotton And Suicide Rates For Indian Farmers |url=http://www.ccsr.ac.uk/documents/Suicides_WP_d1.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513012820/http://www.ccsr.ac.uk/documents/Suicides_WP_d1.pdf|archive-date=2014-05-13|access-date=2021-11-30}}</ref> The film also refutes false claims purported by the biotech industry that Bt cotton requires less pesticide and empty promises of higher yields, as farmers discover the bitter truth that in reality, Bt cotton in fact requires a great deal more pesticide than organic cotton, and often suffer higher levels of infestation by [[Mealybug]] resulting in devastating crop losses, and extreme financial and psychological stress on cotton farmers. Due to the biotech seed monopoly in India, where Bt cotton seed has become the ubiquitous standard, and the organic seed has become absolutely unobtainable, thus coercing all cotton farmers into signing Bt cotton seed purchase agreements which enforce the intellectual property interests of the biotech [[multinational corporation]] [[Monsanto]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itvs.org/films/bitter-seeds|title=Bitter Seeds |website=iTVS| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506183551/https://itvs.org/films/bitter-seeds |archive-date=2019-05-06 |url-status=live}}</ref>
===== Organic cotton =====
{{Main|Organic cotton}}
[[File:Organiccotton.jpg|[[Organic cotton]] yarn|thumb]]
Organic cotton is grown without the use of any genetic modification to the crops, without the use of any fertilizers, pesticides, and other synthetic agro-chemicals harmful to the land.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vineyardteam.org/resources/sustainableag.php|title=Sustainable Ag Q & A|publisher=Central Coast Vineyard Team|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=23 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090623021024/http://www.vineyardteam.org/resources/sustainableag.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> All cotton marketed as organic in the United States is required to fulfill strict federal regulations regarding how the cotton is grown.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3003494&acct=noprulemaking|title=Production and Handling – Preamble|publisher=USDA|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=14 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614175508/http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3003494&acct=noprulemaking|url-status=live}}</ref> This is done with a combination of innovation, science, and tradition in order to encourage a good quality of life and environment for all involved.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aboutorganiccotton.org/|title=Find out all you need to know about organic cotton|website=aboutorganiccotton.org|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-19|archive-date=2019-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202180639/http://aboutorganiccotton.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Organic cotton uses 88% less water and 62% less energy than conventional cotton.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mankus |first1=Modestas |title=Sustainable Fashion: What is Organic Cotton? |url=https://ourculturemag.com/2020/05/13/sustainable-fashion-what-is-organic-cotton/ |website=Our Culture |access-date=13 May 2020 |date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=8 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808050404/https://ourculturemag.com/2020/05/13/sustainable-fashion-what-is-organic-cotton/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
===== Naturally colored cotton =====
{{Main|Naturally colored cotton}}
Cotton is naturally grown in a variety of colors. Typically, cotton color can come as mauve, red, yellow, and orange hues.<ref name="peruna" /> The use of naturally colored cotton has long been historically suppressed, mainly due to the industrial revolution.<ref name="peruna" /> Back then, it was much cheaper to have uniformly white cotton as a raw source for mass-producing cloth and fabric items.<ref name="peruna" /> Currently, modern markets have revived a trend in using naturally colored cotton for its noted relevance in reducing harmful environmental impacts. One such example of markets opening to these cotton types would be [[Sally Fox (inventor)|Sally Fox]] and her Foxfiber business—naturally colored cotton that Fox has bred and marketed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vreseis.com/|title=Vreisis Ltd.|publisher=Vreisis Ltd.|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=12 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110412113403/http://www.vreseis.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> On an additional note, naturally colored cotton is already colored, and thus do not require synthetic dyes during process. Furthermore, the color of fabrics made from naturally colored cotton does not become worn and fade away compared to synthetically dyed cotton fabrics.<ref>{{citation|last1=Dickerson|first1=Dianne K.|title=Naturally Colored Cotton: Resistance to changes in color and durability when refurbished with selected laundry aids|date=October 1999|url=http://cati.csufresno.edu/ip/rese/99/990901.pdf|page=5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719181721/http://cati.csufresno.edu/ip/rese/99/990901.pdf|url-status=dead|publisher=California Agricultural Technology Institute|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=19 July 2011|last2=Lane|first2=Eric|last3=Rodriguez|first3=Dolores}}</ref>
==== Soy ====
{{Main|Soy}}
[[File:Soybean.USDA.jpg|Soybean plant|thumb|upright]]
Soy fabrics are derived from the hulls of soybeans—a manufacturing byproduct. Soy fabrics can be blended (i.e. 30%) or made entirely out of soy fibers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.natural-living-for-women.com/soy-clothing.html|title=Soy Clothing: The Latest In Eco-Friendly Style|year=2010|publisher=Natural Living for Women|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=3 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103021114/http://www.natural-living-for-women.com/soy-clothing.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Soy clothing is largely [[biodegradable]], so it has a minimal impact on environment and [[landfills]]. Although not as durable as cotton or hemp fabrics, soy clothing has a soft, elastic feel.<ref name="soy">{{cite web|url=http://www.the-eco-market.com/soy-fabric.html|title=Soy Fabric|year=2009|publisher=the-eco-market.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=3 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203092355/http://www.the-eco-market.com/soy-fabric.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Soy clothing is known as the vegetable [[Cashmere wool|cashmere]] for its light and silky sensation.<ref name="soy" /> Soy fabrics are moisture absorbent, anti-bacterial, and UV resistant.<ref name="soy" /> However, soy fabrics fell out of public knowledge during World War II, when [[rayon]], [[nylon]], and cotton sales rose sharply.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cool-organic-clothing.com/soy-clothing.html|title=Soy Clothing: Superior Softness Feels Like Your Second Skin|year=2008|publisher=Cool Organic Clothing|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=21 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121093911/http://www.cool-organic-clothing.com/soy-clothing.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Hemp ====
{{Main|Hemp}}
[[File:Hanfstengel.jpg|Fibers from a Hemp plant|thumb]]
Hemp, like bamboo, is considered a sustainable crop. It requires little water to grow, and it is resistant to most pests and diseases.<ref name="earth">{{cite web|url=http://eartheasy.com/wear_hemp_clothing.htm|title=Hemp Clothing|year=2010 |publisher=eartheasy.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=10 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710164024/http://eartheasy.com/wear_hemp_clothing.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The hemp plant's broad leaves shade out weeds and other plant competitors, and its deep taproot system allows it to draw moisture deep in the soil.<ref name="bin">{{cite web|url=http://www.binhaitimes.com/hemp.html|title=Hemp Fibres|publisher=Natural Fibers|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=27 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127051011/http://www.binhaitimes.com/hemp.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Unlike cotton, many parts of the hemp plant have a use. Hemp seeds, for example, are processed into oil or food.<ref name="earth" /> Hemp fiber comes in two types: primary and secondary [[bast fiber]]s. Hemp fibers are durable and are considered strong enough for construction uses.<ref name="bin" /> Compared to cotton fiber, hemp fiber is approximately 8 times the tensile strength and 4 times the durability.<ref name="bin" />
Hemp fibers are traditionally coarse and have been historically used for ropes rather than for clothing. However, modern technology and breeding practices have made hemp fiber more pliable, softer, and finer.
==== Bamboo ====
{{Main|Bamboo textile}}
[[File:Bamboo AngelMist Mounts Asit.jpg|[[Bamboo]]|thumb]]
Bamboo fabrics are made from heavily pulped bamboo grass. Making clothing and textile from bamboo is considered sustainable due to the lack of need for pesticides and agrochemicals.<ref name="versus">{{cite web|url=http://www.d6clothing.com/d6/green-info-bamboo-vs-cotton/|title=Bamboo vs. Cotton|year=2010|publisher=D6 Clothing|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=11 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411220028/http://www.d6clothing.com/d6/green-info-bamboo-vs-cotton/|url-status=live}}</ref> Naturally disease and pest resistant, bamboo is also fast growing. Compared to trees, certain varieties of bamboo can grow 1–4 inches long per day, and can even branch and expand outward because of its underground rhizomes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.natural-living-for-women.com/bamboo-clothing.html|title=Bamboo Clothing: A new choice in eco-fashion|year=2010 |publisher=Natural Living for Women|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=2 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102230005/http://www.natural-living-for-women.com/bamboo-clothing.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Like cotton fibers, bamboo fibers are naturally yellowish in color and are bleached white with chemicals during processing. Prior to a regulatory change in 2010, the majority of fiber and textile marketed as bamboo on the market was actually viscose rayon derived from bamboo. Now manufacturers need to label such products as rayon from bamboo.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 1, 2010 |title=Bamboo textiles no more 'natural' than rayon |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/bamboo-textiles-no-more-natural-than-rayon-1.938759 |access-date=October 30, 2023 |website=CBC}}</ref>
==== Kombucha (SCOBY) ====
{{main|SCOBY}}
Furnished by a grant from the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|US. Environmental Protection Agency]], associate professor Young-A Lee and her team are growing vats of gel-like film composed of [[Cellulose fiber|cellulose]] fiber, a byproduct of the same symbiotic colonies of bacteria and yeast (abbreviated [[SCOBY]]) found in another of the world's popular "live culture" foods: [[kombucha]]. Once harvested and dried, the resulting material has a look and feel much like leather.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web|url=http://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2016/04/26/sustainableclothing|title=Clothing made from tea byproduct could improve health of fashion industry|date=April 2016|website=Iowa State University|access-date=2019-04-30|archive-date=2019-04-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421094133/https://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2016/04/26/sustainableclothing|url-status=live}}</ref> The fibers are 100 percent [[Biodegradation|biodegradable]], they also foster a [[Cradle-to-cradle design|cradle-to-cradle]] cycle of reuse and regeneration that leaves behind virtually zero waste. However, this material takes a long time to grow about three to four weeks under lab-controlled conditions. Hence [[mass production]] is an issue. In addition, tests revealed that moisture absorption from the air softens this material makes it less durable. Researchers also discovered that cold conditions make it brittle.<ref name=":03" />
==== Other cellulose fibers ====
Other alternative biodegradable fibers being developed by small companies include:
* leather alternative using pineapple leaves;<ref name="ecowatch">{{cite web|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/look-out-cotton-these-3-fruits-are-shaking-up-the-textile-industry-1882021787.html|title=Look Out Cotton, These 3 Fruits Are Shaking Up the Textile Industry|date=12 March 2015|access-date=18 January 2019|archive-date=19 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119122633/https://www.ecowatch.com/look-out-cotton-these-3-fruits-are-shaking-up-the-textile-industry-1882021787.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* bio-composites, fabrics,<ref name="ecowatch" /> and leather alternative<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vegnews.com/2018/5/designers-create-vegan-leather-from-coconut-water|title=Designers Create Vegan Leather from Coconut Water|website=VegNews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-23|archive-date=2019-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119174319/https://vegnews.com/2018/5/designers-create-vegan-leather-from-coconut-water|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.plantbasednews.org/post/vegan-leather-made-from-coconut-water-launches-to-reduce-animal-cruelty|title=Vegan Leather Made From Coconut Water Launches To Reduce Animal Cruelty|website=www.plantbasednews.org |date=May 20, 2018|language=en|access-date=2019-04-23|archive-date=2019-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119120909/https://www.plantbasednews.org/post/vegan-leather-made-from-coconut-water-launches-to-reduce-animal-cruelty|url-status=live}}</ref> using various parts of coconut;
* fabric and paper made from banana plant stalks and stems.<ref name="ecowatch" />
* garments made from tencel fibers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carpenter |first=Susan |date= June 19, 2011|title=Beyond cotton: Which alternative fabrics are eco-friendly? |url=https://www.latimes.com/fashion/alltherage/la-ig-alternative-natural-textiles-20110619-story.html |access-date= |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref>
===Protein fibers===
Protein fibers originate from animal sources and are made up of protein molecules. The basic elements in these protein molecules being carbon, hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/CGTPaperII.pdf|title=Classification and general properties of textile fibres|last=Haung|first=HC|date=1994|access-date=March 1, 2018|archive-date=March 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328160048/http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/CGTPaperII.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Wool ====
Just as in cotton production, pesticides are conventionally used in the cultivation of [[wool]], although quantities are considerably smaller, and it is thought that good practices can significantly limit negative environmental impacts. Sheep are treated either with injectable insecticides, a pour-on preparation or dipped in a pesticide bath to control parasite infections, which if left untreated can have serious health implications for the flock. When managed badly, these pesticides can cause harm to human health and aquatic ecosystems both on the farm and in subsequent downstream processing.<ref name="autogenerated1" />
==== Silk ====
Most commercially produced [[silk]] is of the cultivated variety and involves feeding the worms a carefully controlled diet of mulberry leaves grown under special conditions. Selected mulberry trees are grown to act as homes for the silkworms. The fibers are extracted by steaming to kill the silk moth chrysalis and then washed in hot water to degum the silk. The silk fiber is known for its strength and is considered a prestigious fiber. Its use in textiles is limited due to its high cost.<ref>{{Cite web |last=truents|date=2010-10-27|title=Natural Protein Fibres|url=https://www.textileschool.com/419/natural-protein-fibers/|access-date=2020-10-31|website=Textile School|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108210540/https://www.textileschool.com/419/natural-protein-fibers/|url-status=live}}</ref> The silk industry also employs millions of people in rural China.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-10-03|title=Material Guide: Is Silk Sustainable?|url=https://goodonyou.eco/is-silk-sustainable/|access-date=2020-10-31|website=Good On You|language=en|archive-date=2020-11-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104001011/https://goodonyou.eco/is-silk-sustainable/|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Cashmere ====
[[Cashmere wool|Cashmere]] is obtained from the fine, soft hairs of a cashmere goat's underbelly coat. This specific breed of goat is found throughout Asia. Due to the rarity of the breed, four goats are needed to produce enough cashmere for one sweater. Initially, cashmere was relatively expensive, but due to increased demand, the industry is beginning to take a toll on animals and the land. More and more goats are needed which results in more mouths to feed. Overpopulation of the goats degrades the land due to increased grazing. The cashmere industry is becoming more and more controversial with the questioning of the working conditions of goat herders and the underpaying of farmers.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-11|title=Material Guide: How Ethical Is Cashmere?|url=https://goodonyou.eco/material-guide-how-ethical-is-cashmere/|access-date=2020-10-31|website=Good On You|language=en|archive-date=2020-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106060026/https://goodonyou.eco/material-guide-how-ethical-is-cashmere/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Oxfam]] reported in Spring 2021 on a project in [[Afghanistan]] being undertaken jointly with the [[Burberry|Burberry Foundation]] and PUR Projet, working with goat farmers to improve their business operations and make the Afghan cashmere industry more sustainable.<ref>''Oxfam News'', Spring 2021</ref>
===Manufactured fibers===
Manufactured fibers sit within three categories:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fashion fibers: designing for sustainability |last=Annie |first=Gullingsrud|date=2017-02-09|isbn=9781501306648|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|oclc=915250289}}</ref> Manufactured cellulosic fibers, manufactured synthetic fibers and manufactured protein fiber (azlon). Manufactured cellulosic fibers include modal, [[Lyocell]] (also known under the brand name Tencel), rayon/viscose made from bamboo, rayon/viscose made from wood and [[polylactic acid]] (PLA). Manufactured synthetic fibers include [[polyester]], [[nylon]], [[spandex]], [[acrylic fiber]], [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]] (PP). [[Azlon]] is a manufactured protein fiber. Rayon/ viscose is a fiber out of pulp highly used in fast fashion as it is cheaply manufactured. To extract rayon/viscose, plantations cut down 30% of endangered and ancient forests threatening the life of ecosystems.<ref name=MG_1>{{cite web| title=Material Guide: What Is Viscose and Is It Sustainable?| author=Robertson, L.| url=https://goodonyou.eco/material-guide-viscose-sustainability/#:~:text=It%20is%20estimated%20that%20around,land%20grabbing%20from%20Indigenous%20communities| publisher=Good On You| date=12 January 2023| access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref>
==== PET plastic ====
{{Main|PET plastic}}
PET plastics are also known as [[Polyethylene terephthalate]](PETE). PET's [[Recycling codes|recycling code]], the number within the three chasing arrows, is one. These plastics are usually beverage bottles (i.e. water, soda, and fruit juice bottles). According to the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]], plastic accounts for 12% of the total amount of waste we produce.<ref name="EPA">{{cite web |date=November 2009 |title=Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the United States: Facts and Figures for 2008 |url=http://www.epa.gov/osw//nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008rpt.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128132124/http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008rpt.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2011 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref> [[Plastic recycling|Recycling plastic]] reduces air, water, and ground pollution. Recycling is only the first step; investing and purchasing products manufactured from recycled materials is the next of many steps to living sustainably.
[[File:Transfer Station Recyclables, Gainesville, FL 7054.JPG|Recyclables at transfer station, [[Gainesville, Florida]]|thumb]]Clothing can be made from plastics. Seventy percent of plastic-derived fabrics come from polyester, and the type of polyester most used in fabrics is [[polyethylene terephthalate]] (PET).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/why-is-recycled-polyester-considered-a-sustainable-textile/|title=Why is Recycled Polyester Considered a Sustainable Textile?|date=14 July 2009|publisher=O Ecotextiles|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=24 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824203859/http://oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/why-is-recycled-polyester-considered-a-sustainable-textile/|url-status=live}}</ref> PET plastic clothing come from reused plastics, often recycled plastic bottles.<ref name="env">{{cite web|url=http://www.natural-environment.com/blog/2008/01/27/what-is-recycled-polyester/|title=What is Recycled Polyester?|publisher=Natural Environment|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=30 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230015304/http://www.natural-environment.com/blog/2008/01/27/what-is-recycled-polyester/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[The Coca-Cola Company]], for example, created a "Drink2Wear" line of T-shirts made from recycled bottles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coca-colacompany.com/stories/creating-value-through-sustainable-fashion|title=Creating Value Through Sustainable Fashion|year=2010|publisher=The Coca-Cola Company|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=25 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121125062837/http://www.coca-colacompany.com/stories/creating-value-through-sustainable-fashion|url-status=live}}</ref> Generally, PET plastic clothing are made from recycled bottles as follows: plastic bottles are collected, compressed, baled, and shipped into processing facilities where they will be chopped into flakes, and melted into small white pellets. Then, the pellets are processed again, and spun into yarn-like fiber where it can be made into clothing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yesboleh.blogspot.com/2008/05/clothing-made-of-recycled-plastic.html|title=Clothing Made of Recycled Plastic|date=8 May 2008|publisher=yesboleh.blogspot.com|access-date=7 December 2010 |archive-date=8 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708072720/http://yesboleh.blogspot.com/2008/05/clothing-made-of-recycled-plastic.html|url-status=live}}</ref> One main benefit of making clothes from recycled bottles is that it keep the bottles and other plastics from occupying landfill space. Another benefit is that it takes 30% less energy to make clothes from recycled plastics than from virgin polyesters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.currentprotocols.com/2010/06/23/recycling-plastic-into-fabric-re-wear-your-bottles/|title=Recycling Plastic into Fabric: Re-Wear Your Bottles|date=23 June 2010 |publisher=currentprotocols.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=12 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100912173049/http://blogs.currentprotocols.com/2010/06/23/recycling-plastic-into-fabric-re-wear-your-bottles/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{See also|Synthetic fiber|Plastic clothing}}
===Fungal species===
Alexander Bismarck and Mitchell Jones from the [[University of Vienna]] have conducted research on the possibility of using fungal species to create sustainable leather alternatives. Leather alternatives can be produced by using byproducts of agricultural products such as sawdust. The sawdust acts as a feedstock for the growth of fungal mycelium. After a few weeks, the fungal mycelium can be processed and chemically treated into a leather-like material. The researchers state that these fungal biomasses exhibit similar material and tactile properties as authentic leather. Using fungal biomass to create a leather alternative is sustainable as the entire process is carbon neutral and all the materials are completely biodegradable when they are done being used.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Mitchell |last2=Gandia |first2=Antoni |last3=John |first3=Sabu |last4=Bismarck |first4=Alexander |title=Leather-like material biofabrication using fungi |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=January 2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=9–16 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00606-1 |s2cid=221522085 }}</ref>
== Production ==
===Producers===
The global political economy and legal system supports a fashion system that enables fashion that has devastating environmental, social, cultural and economic impacts to be priced at a lower price than fashion which involves efforts to minimize harm in the growth, manufacturing, and shipping of the products. This results in higher prices for fashion made from reduced impact materials than clothing produced in a socially and environmentally damaging way (sometimes referred to as conventional methods).<ref name="e2f">{{cite journal|last1=Singer|first1=Sally|last2=Sullivan|first2=Robert|date=May 2007|title=Earth to fashion|journal=[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]|volume=197|issue=5|pages=128–132}}</ref>
Innovative fashion is being developed and made available to consumers at different levels of the fashion spectrum, from casual clothing to [[haute couture]] which has a reduced social and environmental impact at the materials and manufacture stages of production<ref name="waste" /> and celebrities, models, and designers have recently drawn attention to socially conscious and environmentally friendly fashion.
=== 3D seamless knitting ===
[[Complete garment knitting|3D seamless knitting]] is a technology that allows an entire garment to be knit with no seams. This production method is considered a sustainable practice due to its reduction in waste and labor. By only using the necessary materials, the producers will be more efficient in their manufacturing process. This production method is similar to seamless knitting, although traditional seamless knitting requires stitching to complete the garment. In contrast 3D seamless knitting creates the entire garment, eliminating additional work. The garments are designed using 3D software unlike traditional flat patterns. Shima Seiki and Stoll are currently the two primary manufacturers of the technology. The technology is produced through the use of solar energy, and they are selling to brands like [[Max Mara]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=SUSTAINABILITY IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY|last=Mutha|first=Subramaniam|publisher=Singer|year=2017}}</ref>
=== Zero waste ===
[[Zero waste]] design in fashion is a concept that aims to reduce material waste throughout the textile and fashion production process. Although the concept has existed for a number of years on the grounds of reducing costs through reducing waste, zero waste design is increasingly being integrated into fashion production for environmental reasons.<ref name=":6" /> [[Zero-waste fashion|Zero-waste pattern making]] designs patterns for a garment so that when the pattern pieces are cut, no fabric is wasted.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rosenbloom |first1=Stephanie |title=Fashion Tries on Zero Waste Design |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/15/fashion/15waste.html |work=The New York Times |date=13 August 2010 }}</ref>
=== Dyeing ===
[[File:AirDye®_Design_Capabilities.jpg|thumb|Examples of textiles that have used the AirDye process]]
Traditional methods of dyeing textiles are incredibly harmful towards the Earth's water supply, creating toxic chemicals that affect entire communities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elmaaty|first=Tarek|date=March 26, 2017|title=Supercritical Carbon Dioxide as a Green Media in Textile Dyeing: A Review|journal=Textile Research Journal}}</ref> An alternative to traditional water dyeing is sc{{CO2}} dyeing (super critical carbon dioxide). This process creates no waste by using 100% of the dyes, reducing energy by 60% with no auxiliary chemicals, and leaving a quarter of the physical footprint of traditional dyeing. Different names for this process are Drydye and Colordry.<ref>Fortunake, J., & Blackburn, R. (2017). ''Sustainablity Challenges of Textiles, Dyeing and Finishing Industries: Opportunities for Innovation.'' Lecture presented at ACS Webinars.</ref> Another company called Colorep has patented Airdye, a similar process that they claim uses 95% less water and up to 86% less energy than traditional dyeing methods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://textilecore.com/air-dyeing/|title=air dyeing|website=textilecore.com|language=en|access-date=2017-11-05|archive-date=2017-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171106222152/http://textilecore.com/air-dyeing/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Comparison websites and ecolabels ===
No brand is considered by environmental experts to be fully sustainable, and controversy exists over exactly how the concept of sustainability can be applied in relation to fashion, if it can be used at all, or if labels such as "slow" and "sustainable" fashion are inherently an oxymoron.<ref name=":5" /> Brands that sell themselves as sustainable often lack systems to deal with oversupply, take back used clothes, fully recycle fibers, offer repair services, or even support the life of the garment during use (such as instructions on washing, care and repair). Almost no brands offer replacement parts, such as buttons, straps or pockets, for their garments.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}
Some [[Comparison shopping website|comparison websites]] exist which compare fashion brands on their sustainability record, which give some indication to consumers about the sustainability of their products.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?269811/Top-brands-failing-on-cotton-sustainability|title=Top brands failing on cotton sustainability {{!}} WWF|website=wwf.panda.org|access-date=2019-07-16|archive-date=2020-02-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213174623/https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?269811%2FTop-brands-failing-on-cotton-sustainability|url-status=live}}</ref>
There are many ecolabels in existence which focus on textile goods.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ecolabelindex.com/ecolabels/?st=category,textiles |title=All ecolabels on textiles |access-date=2019-08-02 |archive-date=2019-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801160657/http://www.ecolabelindex.com/ecolabels/?st=category,textiles |url-status=live }}</ref>
Some notable<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eco-business.com/news/eco-fashion-know-your-labels/ |title=Know your labels |date=February 11, 2016 |access-date=2019-08-02 |archive-date=2019-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802134307/https://www.eco-business.com/news/eco-fashion-know-your-labels/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ecolabels include:
* [[EU Ecolabel]]
* [[Fair trade certification|Fair Trade Certified]]
* Global Organic Textile Standard
* [[Oeko-Tex|Oeko-Tex Standard 1000]]
===Sustainable textile brands===
Some brands that sell themselves as sustainable are listed below;
* Eastern European prisoners are designing sustainable prison fashion in Latvia and Estonia under the [[Heavy Eco]] label,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.err.ee/Culture/6927f9ec-b20e-448b-b78d-fefe0d8f009d|title=Prison Couture mainlines eco-ethics|date=9 January 2011|publisher=[[Estonian Public Broadcasting]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324150738/http://news.err.ee/Culture/6927f9ec-b20e-448b-b78d-fefe0d8f009d|archive-date=24 March 2012|access-date=19 May 2012}}</ref> part of a trend called "prison couture".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/christine-de-leon/ethical-fashion-malcom-x-t-shirt-revisited_b_960850.html|title=The Malcolm X T-shirt Revisited|last=de Leon|first=Christine|date=15 September 2011|publisher=Huffingtonpost.co.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002071634/http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/christine-de-leon/ethical-fashion-malcom-x-t-shirt-revisited_b_960850.html|archive-date=2 October 2015|access-date=19 May 2012}}</ref>
* Other sustainable fashion brands include Elena Garcia, Nancy Dee, By Stamo, Outsider Fashion, Beyond Skin, Oliberté, Hetty Rose, DaRousso, KSkye the Label,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://view.publitas.com/ethicalstylejournal/issue-2-march-2017/page/26-27|title=Ethical Style Journal, Issue 2, March 2017 – Page 26-27|website=view.publitas.com|access-date=2018-01-22|archive-date=2018-01-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180118181347/https://view.publitas.com/ethicalstylejournal/issue-2-march-2017/page/26-27|url-status=live}}</ref> and Eva Cassis.<ref name="vildamagazine.com" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecoluxelondon.org/portfolio_detail_stamo.html|title=By Stamo|website=Ecoluxe London|access-date=30 September 2014 |archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006125707/http://www.ecoluxelondon.org/portfolio_detail_stamo.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ecocult.com/2014/9-curated-brands-i-found-this-month-that-i-know-youll-love/|title=9 Ethical And Sustainable Brands I Found This Month That I Know You'll Love|last1=Wicker|first1=Alden|date=2014-06-23|website=Ecocult.com|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=2014-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006121531/http://ecocult.com/2014/9-curated-brands-i-found-this-month-that-i-know-youll-love/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peta.org.uk/features/beyond-skin-competition/|title=Competition: Design Beyond Skin's Next Vegan Shoe!|website=PETA|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006081141/http://www.peta.org.uk/features/beyond-skin-competition/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecouterre.com/hetty-rose-launches-ready-to-wear-versions-of-its-vintage-kimono-shoes/|title=Hetty Rose Launches Ready-to-Wear Versions of Its Vintage-Kimono Shoes|last1=Klein|first1=Victoria|website=Ecouterre|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=26 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140926215313/http://www.ecouterre.com/hetty-rose-launches-ready-to-wear-versions-of-its-vintage-kimono-shoes/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ecowarriorprincess.net/2015/04/simple-stylish-sustainable-eva-cassis/|title=Simple, Stylish & Sustainable: Eva Cassis|last1=Nini|first1=Jennifer|website=ecowarriorprincess.net|date=April 16, 2015|access-date=16 Apr 2015|archive-date=27 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527043607/http://ecowarriorprincess.net/2015/04/simple-stylish-sustainable-eva-cassis/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecowatch.com/oliberte-becomes-worlds-first-fair-trade-usa-certified-shoemaker-1881813338.html|title=Oliberté Becomes World's First Fair Trade USA Certified Shoemaker|last1=Baker|first1=Brandon|date=2013-11-07|website=Eco Watch|access-date=12 September 2016|archive-date=2016-09-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915131706/http://www.ecowatch.com/oliberte-becomes-worlds-first-fair-trade-usa-certified-shoemaker-1881813338.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The brand [[Boll & Branch]] make all of their [[bedding]] products from [[organic cotton]] and have been certified by [[Fair Trade USA]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gelles |first1=David |title=With Organic Cotton and Online Ads, Boll & Branch Helps Indian Farmers |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/19/business/with-organic-cotton-and-online-ads-boll-branch-helps-indian-farmers.html |work=The New York Times |date=16 June 2016 }}</ref>
*[[The Hemp Trading Company]] is an ethically driven underground clothing label, specializing in environmentally friendly, politically conscious street wear made of hemp, bamboo, organic cotton and other sustainable fabrics.<ref name="roberts">{{cite web|url=http://www.bboynews.co.uk/style/fashion/thtc-%E2%80%93-inspiring-change-one-hip-hop-head-at-a-time/|title=THTC – Inspiring change; one Hip-Hop head at a time|last1=Roberts|first1=Zoe|website=B-Boy News|access-date=17 September 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074428/http://www.bboynews.co.uk/style/fashion/thtc-%E2%80%93-inspiring-change-one-hip-hop-head-at-a-time/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Patagonia, Inc.|Patagonia]], a major retailer in casual wear, has been selling fleece clothing made from post-consumer plastic soda bottles since 1993.<ref name="waste" />
=== Designers ===
[[File:The Golden Book Gown by Ryan Jude Novelline.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A mannequin wears a multicolored gown with a golden bodice, full skirt, and flowing train.|[[Ryan Jude Novelline#The Golden Book Gown|''The Golden Book Gown'']] made of recycled and discarded paper book pages]]
There is no certain stable model among the designers for how to be sustainable in practice, and the understanding of sustainability is always a process or a work-in-progress, and varies by who defines what is "sustainable;" farmers or animals, producers or consumers, managers or workers, local businesses or neighborhoods.<ref name=":1" />
Thus critical scholars would label much of the business-driven discourse on sustainability as "greenwashing" as under the current economic paradigm, "sustainability" is primarily defined as keeping the wheels of perpetual production and consumption turning; to keep the "perpetuum mobile" of fashion running and in [[perpetual motion]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bauman|first=Zygmunt|date=2010-10-01|title=Perpetuum mobile|journal=Critical Studies in Fashion and Beauty|volume=1|pages=55–63|doi=10.1386/csfb.1.1.55_1}}</ref>
There are some designers that experiment in making fashion more sustainable, with various degrees of impact;
*[[Ryan Jude Novelline]] created a ballroom gown constructed entirely from the pages of recycled and discarded children's books known as ''The Golden Book Gown'' that "prove[d] that green fashion can provide as rich a fantasia as can be imagined."<ref>{{citation|last=Pham|first=Diane|title=High Fashion as Eco-Friendly Child's Play|date=October 1, 2012|url=http://www.chevrolet.com/culture/article/eco-friendly-fashion.html|journal=[[Chevrolet]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003072510/http://www.chevrolet.com/culture/article/eco-friendly-fashion.html|url-status=dead|access-date=January 23, 2014|archive-date=October 3, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Bluemle|first=Elizabeth|title=A Talk with the Creator of the Gown Made of Golden Books|date=October 11, 2013|url=http://blogs.publishersweekly.com/blogs/shelftalker/?p=11848|journal=[[Publishers Weekly]]|access-date=June 11, 2014|archive-date=October 11, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011025407/http://blogs.publishersweekly.com/blogs/shelftalker/?p=11848|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Eco-couture designer [[Lucy Tammam]] uses [[eri silk]] ([[Ahimsa silk|ahimsa/peace silk]]) and [[organic cotton]] to create her eco friendly couture evening and bridal wear collections.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecouterre.com/house-of-tammam-debuts-u-k-s-first-ethical-ready-to-wear-wedding-gowns/|title=House of Tammam Debuts U.K.'s Only Ethical Ready-to-Wear Bridal Gowns|last1=Malik Chua|first1=Jasmin|website=Ecouterre|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006070827/http://www.ecouterre.com/house-of-tammam-debuts-u-k-s-first-ethical-ready-to-wear-wedding-gowns/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Amal Kiran Jana is a designer from India and the founder of Afterlife Project which is a sustainability development project supporting global and unique designers in 360 degrees.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afterlifeprojects.com/|title=Home|website=afterlife project|language=en|access-date=2020-01-11|archive-date=2020-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111215503/https://www.afterlifeprojects.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Stella McCartney]] pushes the agenda for sustainable fashion that is animal and eco-friendly. She also uses her name and her brand as a platform to push for a greener fashion industry. The brand uses the EP&L tool which was created to help companies understand their environmental impact by measuring greenhouse gas emissions, land use, water use, water pollution, air pollution and waste across the entire global supply chain.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.refinery29.com/stella-mccartney-sustainability-fashion-brand-innovation|title=Is Stella McCartney the Queen of Sustainable Fashion|last1=Landon|first1=Peoples|website=Refinery 29|access-date=2018-10-23|archive-date=2018-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023195840/https://www.refinery29.com/stella-mccartney-sustainability-fashion-brand-innovation|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Gabriela Hearst]] during her tenure at [[Chloé]] and under her own name has made sustainability a key focus of her work. The runway presentation for her Spring/Summer 2020 eponymous collection was certified carbon neutral.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shihadeh |first=Jackie |date=September 20, 2019 |title=Gabriela Hearst & The Carbon-Neutral Show |url=https://cfda.com/news/gabriela-hearst-the-carbon-neutral-show |access-date=October 30, 2023 |website=Council of Fashion Designers of America}}</ref> Gabriela Hearst also avoids single use plastic in retail and supply chain networks, using compostable polymers and recycled cardboard.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Assoune |first=Alex |date=2020-12-22 |title=Gabriela Hearst |url=https://www.panaprium.com/blogs/i/gabriela-hearst |access-date=2023-10-30 |website=Panaprium |language=en}}</ref> While she was at Chloé, the label became the first major luxury brand to receive a [[B Corporation (certification)|B Corp]] certification.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Marshall |first=Alexandra |date=2022-10-20 |title=Gabriela Hearst's B-Corp values |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e9032473-801c-4e04-81ba-e3941499bbf2 |access-date=2023-10-30}}</ref>
==Controversies==
{{Criticism section|date=October 2023}}
=== Marketing controversies ===
The increase in western consumers' environmental interest is motivating companies to use sustainable and environmental arguments solely to increase sales. Because environmental and sustainability issues are complex, it is also easy to mislead consumers. Companies can use sustainability as a “marketing ploy” something that can be seen as [[greenwashing]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Niinimäki |first1=Kirsi |title=Ethical foundations in sustainable fashion |journal=Textiles and Clothing Sustainability |date=December 2015 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3 |doi=10.1186/s40689-015-0002-1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Greenwashing is the deceptive use of an eco-agenda in marketing strategies.<ref name=":1" /> It refers mostly to corporations that make efforts to clean up their reputation because of social pressure or for the purpose of financial gain. Companies continuing to be using greenwashing in turn hurts companies that are true to their environmental goals, losing their competitive edge to bigger corporations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Furlow |first1=Nancy E. |title=Greenwashing in the New Millennium |journal=The Journal of Applied Business and Economics |volume=10 |issue=6 |date=March 2010 |pages=22–25 |id={{ProQuest|506504964}} |url=http://m.www.na-businesspress.com/JABE/jabe106/FurlowWeb.pdf }}</ref>
==== Greenwashing ====
{{Main|Greenwashing}}
A major controversy on sustainable fashion concerns how the "green" imperative is used as a cover-up for systemic labor exploitation, social exclusion and [[environmental degradation]], what is generally labelled as greenwashing. Market-driven sustainability can only address sustainability to a certain degree as brands still need to sell more products in order to be profitable. Thus, almost any initiative towards addressing ecological and social issues still contributes to the damage. In a 2017 report, the industry projects that the overall apparel consumption will rise by 63%, from 62 million tons today to 102 million tons in 2030, thus effectively erasing any environmental gains made by current initiatives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf|title=Pulse Fashion Report 2017|date=2017|website=Global Fashion Agenda, Pulse Report|access-date=2019-05-14|archive-date=2019-10-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004220838/http://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Materials controversies ===
Though some designers have marketed [[bamboo fiber]], as an alternative to conventional cotton, citing that it absorbs greenhouse gases during its life cycle and grows quickly and plentifully without pesticides, the conversion of bamboo fiber to fabric is the same as rayon and is highly toxic. The FTC ruled that labeling of bamboo fiber should read "rayon from bamboo". Bamboo fabric can cause environmental harm in production due to the chemicals used to create a soft viscose from hard bamboo.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Ray A. |date=24 May 2008 |title=Shades of green: decoding eco fashion's claims |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121158336716218711 |access-date=2016-04-25 |archive-date=2016-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428161022/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121158336716218711 |url-status=live }}</ref> Impacts regarding production of new materials make recycled, reclaimed, surplus, and vintage fabric arguably the most sustainable choice, as the raw material requires no agriculture and no manufacturing to produce.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-fashion-blog/2015/feb/26/waste-recycling-textiles-fashion-industry|title=Waste is so last season: recycling clothes in the fashion industry|last=Gould|first=Hannah|date=2015-02-26|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=2018-03-01|archive-date=2018-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180302103909/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-fashion-blog/2015/feb/26/waste-recycling-textiles-fashion-industry|url-status=live}}</ref> However, these are indicative of a system of production and consumption that creates excessive volumes of waste.
=== Second-hand controversies ===
Used clothing is sold in more than 100 countries. In Tanzania, used clothing is sold at [[Mitumba (clothing)|''Mitumba'']] markets ([[Swahili language|Swahili]] for "bundles"). Most of the clothing is imported from the United States.<ref name="waste" /> However, there are concerns that trade in secondhand clothing in African countries decreases development of local industries even as it creates employment in these countries.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Well dressed? : the present and future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the United Kingdom|last=Allwood|first=Julian M.|author1-link=Julian Allwood|date=2006|publisher=Univ. of Cambridge Inst. for Manufacturing|isbn=978-1902546520|oclc=441247814}}</ref> While the reuse of materials brings resource savings, there are some concerns that the influx of cheap, second-hand clothing, particularly in Africa, has undermined indigenous textile industries, with the result that clothing collected in the West under the guise of 'charitable donations' could actually create more poverty.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> The authors of ''Recycling of Low Grade Clothing Waste'' warn that in the long run, as prices and quality of new clothing continue to decline, the demand for used clothing will also diminish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=WR0201_6352_FRP.pdf |title=Science Search |access-date=2018-10-13 |archive-date=2012-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011101547/http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=WR0201_6352_FRP.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Biodegradable athletic footwear]]
*[[Ecodesign]]
*[[Ethical consumerism]]
*[[Pollution in the fashion industry]]
*[[Reusable shopping bag]]
*[[Trashion]]
*[[Product tracing]] systems, which allow consumers to see the source factory of a product
*[[Fashion activism]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{Commons category}}
* Black, Sandy (2008). Eco-chic : the fashion paradox, London: Black Dog. {{ISBN|1-906155-09-7}}. {{OCLC|966078563}}.
* Black, Sandy (2013). The sustainable fashion handbook, New York: Thames & Hudson. {{ISBN|9780500290569}}. {{OCLC|939743661}}.
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Choi |editor1-first=Tsan-Ming |editor2-last=Cheng |editor2-first=T. C. Edwin |date=2015 |title=Sustainable fashion supply chain management: from sourcing to retailing |series=Springer series in supply chain management |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=9783319127026 |oclc=907012044 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-12703-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Farley |first1=Jennifer |last2=Hill |first2=Colleen |date=2015 |title=Sustainable fashion: past, present, and future |location=New York |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=9780857851857 |oclc=860754344 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |date=2014 |orig-year=2008 |title=Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys |edition= 2nd |location=London; Washington, DC |publisher=[[Earthscan]] |isbn=9780415644556 |oclc=846847018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |last2=Grose |first2=Lynda |date=2012 |title=Fashion & sustainability: design for change |location=London |publisher=[[Laurence King Publishing]] |isbn=9781856697545 |oclc=778610112 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Fletcher |editor1-first=Kate |editor2-last=Tham |editor2-first=Mathilda |date=2015 |title=Routledge handbook of sustainability and fashion |series=Routledge international handbooks |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415828598 |oclc=820119510 }}
* {{Cite news |last=Friedman |first=Vanessa |date=2022-05-07 |title=Redefining 'Sustainable Fashion' |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/07/style/redefining-sustainable-fashion.html |access-date=2023-10-03 |issn=0362-4331}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Gardetti |editor1-first=Miguel Ángel |editor2-last=Torres |editor2-first=Ana Laura |date=2013 |title=Sustainability in fashion and textiles: values, design, production and consumption |location=Sheffield, UK |publisher=Greenleaf Publishing |isbn=9781906093785 |oclc=827952084 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gwilt |first1=Alison |last2=Rissanen |first2=Timo |date=2010 |title=Shaping sustainable fashion: changing the way we make and use clothes |location=London; Washington, DC |publisher=[[Earthscan]] |isbn=9781849712415 |oclc=656849440 }}
* Shell, Hanna Rose (2020). ''Shoddy : From Devil's Dust to the Renaissance of Rags''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|9-780226-698-22-9}}.
== External links ==
* [https://unfashionalliance.org/ UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion]
* [https://www.sustainable-fashion.com/ Centre for Sustainable Fashion] at [[London College of Fashion]]
* [https://www.sustainablefashionweek.uk/ UK Sustainable Fashion Week]
* [https://goodonyou.eco/ Good on You]
{{Fashion}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Environmental humanities}}
[[Category:Fashion]]
[[Category:Clothing and the environment]]
[[Category:Sustainability by subject|Fashion]]
[[Category:Slow movement]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental economics]]
[[Category:Sustainable business]] |
BREEAM | {{Short description|Assessment of building sustainability}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Refimprove|date=May 2016}}
{{Advert|date=March 2015}}
}}
[[File:BREEAM logo.png|thumb|BREEAM logo]]
'''BREEAM''' ('''Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method'''), first published by the [[Building Research Establishment]] (BRE) in 1990,<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=BREEAM: What is BREEAM?|url=http://www.breeam.org/about.jsp?id=66|publisher=Building Research Establishment|access-date=8 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194348/http://www.breeam.org/about.jsp?id=66|archive-date=2015-09-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> is the world's longest established method of assessing, rating, and certifying the [[Sustainable development|sustainability]] of buildings. More than 550,000 buildings have been 'BREEAM-certified' and over two million are registered for certification in more than 50 countries worldwide. BREEAM also has a tool which focuses on neighbourhood development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is BREEAM?|url=https://www.thenbs.com/knowledge/what-is-breeam|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824011722/https://www.thenbs.com/knowledge/what-is-breeam |archive-date=2018-08-24 }}</ref>
==Purpose==
BREEAM is an assessment undertaken by independent licensed assessors using scientifically-based [[sustainability metrics and indices]] which cover a range of environmental issues. Its categories evaluate energy and [[water use]], health and wellbeing, [[pollution]], transport, materials, waste, [[ecology]] and management processes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Evironmental Assessments – Ferguson Brown |url=https://ferguson-brown.com/evironmental-assessments-2/ |access-date=2022-11-21 |language=en-GB}}</ref> Buildings are rated and certified on a scale of 'Pass', 'Good', 'Very Good', 'Excellent' and 'Outstanding'.<ref name=":0" />
It works to raise awareness amongst owners, occupiers and designers of the benefits of taking a sustainable approach, providing a framework to help them to successfully adopt sustainable solutions in a cost-effective manner, and provides market recognition of their achievements. It aims to reduce the negative effects of construction and development on the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lowe, Watts|first=Jack, Norman|year=2011|title=An Evaluation of A BREEAM Case Study Project|url=http://shura.shu.ac.uk/7585/1/2011_3(1)_watts.pdf|journal=Sheffield Hallam University Built Environment Research Transaction|pages=42–53}}</ref>
==History==
Work on creating BREEAM began at the [[Building Research Establishment]] (based in [[Watford]], [[England]]) in 1988. The first version for assessing new office buildings was launched in 1990. This was followed by versions for other buildings including superstores, industrial units and existing offices.
In 1998, there was a major revamp of the '''BREEAM Offices standard''', and the scheme's layout, with features such as weighting for different sustainability issues, was established. The development of BREEAM then accelerated with annual updates and variations for other building types such as retail premises being introduced.
A version of BREEAM for new homes called [[EcoHomes]] was launched in 2000. This scheme was later used as the basis of the [[Code for Sustainable Homes]], which was developed by BRE for the [[UK]] Government in 2006/7 and replaced Eco Homes in England and [[Wales]]. In 2014, the Government in England signalled the winding down the Code for Sustainable Homes. Since then BRE has developed the Home Quality Mark, which is part of the BREEAM family of schemes.
An extensive update of all BREEAM schemes in 2008 resulted in the introduction of mandatory post-construction reviews, minimum standards and innovation credits. International versions of BREEAM were also launched that year.
Another major update in 2011 resulted in the launch of BREEAM New Construction, which is now used to assess and certify all new UK buildings. This revision included the reclassification and consolidation of issues and criteria to further streamline the BREEAM process. In 2012, a scheme for domestic refurbishment was introduced in the UK, followed by a non-domestic version in 2014 that was expanded to an international scope the following year.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Group|first=B. R. E.|title=BREEAM|url=https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/BREEAM|access-date=2021-05-11|website=www.designingbuildings.co.uk|language=en-gb}}</ref>
In 2015, the Building Research Establishment announced the acquisition of [[CEEQUAL]] following a recommendation from their board, with the aim of creating a single sustainability rating scheme for [[civil engineering]] and [[infrastructure]] projects.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Group|first=B. R. E.|title=BREEAM|url=https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/BREEAM|access-date=2021-05-11|website=www.designingbuildings.co.uk|language=en-gb}}</ref>
The 2018 update of BREEAM UK New Construction was launched in March 2018 at [[Ecobuild]].
The BREEAM UK New Construction V6 was released on 24 August 2022 following the updates to [[Building regulations in the United Kingdom|building regulations in England]] that came into force on 15 June 2022 and V6.1 (to incorporate changes to the building regulations for energy performance in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) on 14 June 2023.
==Scope==
BREEAM has expanded from its original focus on individual new buildings at the construction stage to encompass the whole life cycle of buildings from planning to in-use and refurbishment. Its regular revisions and updates are driven by the ongoing need to improve sustainability, respond to feedback from industry and support the UK's sustainability strategies and commitments.
Highly flexible, the BREEAM standard can be applied to virtually any building and location, with versions for new buildings, existing buildings, refurbishment projects and large developments:
'''BREEAM New Construction''' is the BREEAM standard against which the sustainability of new, non-residential buildings in the UK is assessed. Developers and their project teams use the scheme at key stages in the design and procurement process to measure, evaluate, improve and reflect the performance of their buildings.
'''BREEAM International New Construction''' is the BREEAM standard for assessing the sustainability of new residential and non-residential buildings in countries around the world, except for the UK and other countries with a national BREEAM scheme (see below). This scheme makes use of assessment criteria that take account of the circumstances, priorities, codes and standards of the country or region in which the development is located.
'''BREEAM In-Use''' is a scheme to help building managers reduce the running costs and improve the environmental performance of existing buildings. It has two parts: building asset and building management. Both parts are relevant to all non-domestic, commercial, industrial, retail and institutional buildings.<ref>BREEAM, [https://www.breeam.com/discover/technical-standards/breeam-in-use/ BREEAM In-Use], accessed 7 October 2019</ref> BREEAM In-Use is widely used by members of the [[International Sustainability Alliance (ISA)|International Sustainability Alliance]] (ISA), which provides a platform for certification against the scheme. The newest version v6, available from 2020 includes also Residential programs.
'''BREEAM Refurbishment''' provides a design and assessment method for sustainable housing refurbishment projects, helping to cost-effectively improve the sustainability and environmental performance of existing dwellings in a robust way. A scheme for non-housing refurbishment projects is being developed and is targeted for launch in early 2014. The launch date will be announced once the piloting and independent peer review processes has been completed.
'''BREEAM Communities''' focuses on the [[Urban planning|masterplanning]] of whole communities.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Ayyoob|author2=Akito Murayama|title=Neighborhood Sustainability Assessment in Action: Cross-Evaluation of Three Assessment Systems and Their Cases from the US, the UK, and Japan|journal=Building and Environment|volume=72|pages=243–258|doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.11.006|year=2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Ayyoob|author2=Murayama, Akito|title=Viability of using global standards for neighbourhood sustainability assessment: insights from a comparative case study|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|volume=58|date=28 January 2014|pages=1–23|doi=10.1080/09640568.2013.866077|s2cid=110606915}}</ref> It is aimed at helping construction industry professionals to design places that people want to live and work in, are good for the environment and are economically successful.
BREEAM includes several general sustainability categories for the assessment:
* Management
* Energy
* Health and wellbeing
* Transport
* Water
* Materials
* Waste
* Land use and ecology
* Pollution
Home Quality Mark was launched in 2015 as part of the BREEAM family of schemes. It rates new homes on their overall quality and sustainability, then provides further indicators on the homes impact upon the occupants 'Running costs', 'Health and wellbeing' and 'Environmental footprint'.
==National operators==
BREEAM is used in more than 70 countries, with several in Europe having gone a stage further to develop country-specific BREEAM schemes operated by National Scheme Operators (NSOs). There are currently NSOs affiliated to BREEAM in:
* '''[[Netherlands]]''': the Dutch Green Building Council operates BREEAM NL
* '''[[Spain]]''': the Instituto Tecnológico de Galicia operates BREEAM ES<ref>http://www.breeam.es www.breeam.es</ref>
* '''[[Norway]]''': the Norwegian Green Building Council operates BREEAM NOR
* '''[[Sweden]]''': the Swedish Green Building Council operates BREEAM SE
* '''[[Germany]]''': the German Institute for Sustainable Real Estate (DIFNI) operates BREEAM DE.
Schemes developed by NSOs can take any format as long as they comply with a set of overarching requirements laid down in the Code for a Sustainable Built Environment. They can be produced from scratch by adapting current BREEAM schemes to the local context, or by developing existing local schemes.
==The cost and value of sustainability==
A growing body of research evidence is challenging the perception that sustainable buildings are significantly more costly to design and build than those that simply adhere to regulatory requirements. Research by the [[Sweett Group]]<ref>Sweett Group, BRE. Putting a price on sustainability – an update. IHS BRE Press, 2013.</ref> into projects using BREEAM, for example, demonstrates that sustainable options often add little or no capital cost to a development project. Where such measures do incur additional costs, these can frequently be paid back through lower running expenses, ultimately leading to saving over the life of the building.
Research studies have also highlighted the enhanced value and quality of sustainable buildings. Achieving the standards required by BREEAM requires careful planning, design, specification and detailing, and a good working relationship between the client and project team—the very qualities that can produce better buildings and better conditions for building users.<ref>Yates A. Sustainable Buildings : benefits for occupiers/designers/investors and developers/constructors. BRE IP 13/03 Parts 1-4. BRE Bookshop, 2003.</ref> A survey commissioned by [[Schneider Electric]] and undertaken by [[BSRIA]]<ref>BSRIA in association with Schneider Electric. The Value of BREEAM. 2012.</ref> examined the experiences of a wide range of companies that had used BREEAM. The findings included, for example, that 88% think it is a good thing, 96% would use the scheme again and 88% would recommend BREEAM to others.
The greater efficiency and quality associated with sustainability are also helping to make such building more commercially successful. There is growing evidence, for example, that BREEAM-rated buildings provide increased rates of return for investors, and increased rental rates and sales premiums for developers and owners. A [[Maastricht University]] document, published by [[RICS]] Research,<ref>Chegut A, Eicholtz P, Kok N. Supply, Demand and the Value of Green Buildings. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, March 2012.</ref> reported on a study of the effect of BREEAM certification on office buildings in London from 2000–2009. It found, for example, that these buildings achieved a 21% premium on transaction prices and an 18% premium on rents.
==See also==
*[[LEED]] (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
*[[Sustainable refurbishment]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://www.breeam.com/ BREEAM website]
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128191417/http://www.breeam.org/|date=November 28, 2011|title=BREEAM website}}
* [https://www.bregroup.com/ Website of the Building Research Establishment]
{{Construction industry in the United Kingdom}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Breeam}}
[[Category:Building energy rating]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Construction]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Environmental engineering]]
[[Category:Low-energy building in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Hertfordshire]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable building in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Sustainable building rating systems]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Category:Sustainable Development Goals | [[Category:Global policy organizations]]
[[Category:International sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:United Nations development policy]]
[[Category:United Nations General Assembly subsidiary organs]]
[[Category:United Nations documents]] |
Sustainable architecture | {{Short description|Architecture designed to minimize environmental impact}}{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
[[File:Freiburg 071ss.jpg|thumb|[[Energy-plus-house]]s at [[Vauban, Freiburg|Freiburg-Vauban]] in Germany]]
'''Sustainable architecture''' is [[architecture]] that seeks to minimize the negative [[environmental impact of buildings]] through improved efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, development space and the ecosystem at large. Sustainable architecture uses a conscious approach to energy and ecological conservation in the design of the built environment.<ref>"Sustainable Architecture and Simulation Modelling", Dublin Institute of Technology, [http://www.cebe.heacademy.ac.uk/learning/habitat/HABITAT4/beattie.html#_Toc397853444] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506035740/http://www.cebe.heacademy.ac.uk/learning/habitat/HABITAT4/beattie.html|date=2013-05-06}}</ref>
The idea of [[sustainability]], or [[ecological design]], is to ensure that use of currently available resources does not end up having detrimental effects to a future society's well-being or making it impossible to obtain resources for other applications in the long run.<ref>Doerr Architecture, Definition of Sustainability and the Impacts of Buildings [http://www.doerr.org/services/sustainability.html]</ref>
==Background ==
{{Sustainable energy}}
===Shift from narrow to broader approach ===
The term "sustainability" in relation to architecture has so far been mostly considered through the lens of building technology and its transformations. Going beyond the technical sphere of "[[green design]]", invention and expertise, some scholars are starting to position architecture within a much broader cultural framework of the [[Nature#Human interrelationship|human interrelationship with nature]]. Adopting this framework allows tracing a rich history of cultural debates about humanity's relationship to nature and the environment, from the point of view of different historical and geographical contexts.<ref>{{cite book|last=McGrath|first=Brian|title=Urban Design Ecologies: AD Reader|date=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|isbn=978-0-470-97405-6|pages=220–237|url=http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470974052.html}}</ref>
===Operational carbon vs Embodied carbon===
Global construction accounts for 38% of total global emissions. <ref>https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/construction-industry-doesn-t-know-where-it-stands-when-it-comes-to-carbon-emissions/</ref> While sustainable architecture and construction standards have traditionally focused on reducing operational carbon emissions, there are to date few standards or systems in place to track and reduce embodied carbon. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/operations/our-insights/global-infrastructure-initiative/voices/reducing-embodied-carbon-in-new-construction | title=Reducing embodied carbon in new construction | McKinsey }}</ref> While steel and other materials are responsible for large-scale emissions, cement alone is responsible for 8% of all emissions. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dezeen.com/2019/09/20/concrete-climate-change-architecture-emergency/ | title=Concrete must be abandoned by architects in fight against climate change | date=20 September 2019 }}</ref>
===Changing pedagogues===
Critics of the reductionism of modernism often noted the abandonment of the teaching of architectural history as a causal factor. The fact that a number of the major players in the deviation from modernism were trained at Princeton University's School of Architecture, where recourse to history continued to be a part of design training in the 1940s and 1950s, was significant. The increasing rise of interest in history had a profound impact on architectural education. History courses became more typical and regularized. With the demand for professors knowledgeable in the history of architecture, several PhD programs in schools of architecture arose in order to differentiate themselves from art history PhD programs, where architectural historians had previously trained. In the US, [[MIT]] and [[Cornell]] were the first, created in the mid-1970s, followed by [[Columbia University|Columbia]], [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]], and [[Princeton University|Princeton]]. Among the founders of new architectural history programs were [[Bruno Zevi]] at the Institute for the History of Architecture in Venice, Stanford Anderson and Henry Millon at MIT, Alexander Tzonis at the [[Architectural Association]], Anthony Vidler at Princeton, [[Manfredo Tafuri]] at the University of Venice, [[Kenneth Frampton]] at [[Columbia University]], and Werner Oechslin and Kurt Forster at [[ETH Zürich]].<ref>[[Mark Jarzombek]], “The Disciplinary Dislocations of Architectural History,” ''Journal of the [[Society of Architectural Historians]]'' 58/3 (September 1999), p. 489. See also other articles in that issue by Eve Blau, Stanford Anderson, Alina Payne, Daniel Bluestone, Jeon-Louis Cohen and others.</ref>
==Sustainable energy use==
{{Main|Low-energy house|Zero-energy building}}
[[File:K2 apartments windsor.jpg|thumb|K2 sustainable apartments in [[Windsor, Victoria]], Australia by DesignInc (2006) features [[passive solar building design|passive solar design]], recycled and sustainable materials, [[photovoltaic cells]], [[wastewater]] treatment, [[Rainwater harvesting|rainwater collection]] and [[solar hot water]].]]
[[File:Passivhaus section en.jpg|thumb|The [[passivhaus]] standard combines a variety of techniques and technologies to achieve ultra-low energy use.]]
[[File:Arts Center Greensburg, Kansas, Photo by Eric Ascalon.jpg|thumb|Following its destruction by a tornado in 2007, the town of [[Greensburg, Kansas]] (United States) elected to rebuild to highly stringent LEED Platinum environmental standards. Shown is the town's new art center, which integrates its own solar panels and wind generators for energy self-sufficiency.]]
[[Efficient energy use|Energy efficiency]] over the entire life cycle of a building is the most important goal of sustainable architecture. [[Architect]]s use many different passive and active techniques to reduce the energy needs of buildings and increase their ability to capture or generate their own energy.<ref name ="DeKayBrown">M. DeKay & G.Z. Brown, Sun Wind & Light, architectural design strategies, 3rd ed. ''Wiley'', 2014</ref> To minimize cost and complexity, sustainable architecture prioritizes passive systems to take advantage of building location with incorporated architectural elements, supplementing with renewable energy sources and then fossil fuel resources only as needed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bielek|first=Boris|date=2016|title=Green Building – Towards Sustainable Architecture|url=https://www.scientific.net/AMM.824.751|access-date=2020-07-05|journal=Applied Mechanics and Materials|volume=824|pages=751–760|doi=10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.824.751|s2cid=112027139|language=en}}</ref> [[Site analysis]] can be employed to optimize use of local environmental resources such as daylight and ambient wind for heating and ventilation.
Energy use very often depends on whether the building gets its energy on-grid, or off-grid.<ref>{{cite journal| url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.12.022| doi=10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.12.022| title=Zero Energy Building – A review of definitions and calculation methodologies| year=2011| last1=Marszal| first1=A.J.| last2=Heiselberg| first2=P.| last3=Bourrelle| first3=J.S.| last4=Musall| first4=E.| last5=Voss| first5=K.| last6=Sartori| first6=I.| last7=Napolitano| first7=A.| journal=Energy and Buildings| volume=43| issue=4| pages=971–979}}</ref> Off-grid buildings do not use energy provided by utility services and instead have their own independent energy production. They use on-site electricity storage while on-grid sites feed in excessive electricity back to the grid.
===Heating, ventilation and cooling system efficiency===
Numerous passive architectural strategies have been developed over time. Examples of such strategies include the arrangement of rooms or the sizing and orientation of windows in a building,<ref name ="DeKayBrown" /> and the orientation of facades and streets or the ratio between building heights and street widths for urban planning.<ref name ="Montavon">M. Montavon, Optimization of Urban Form by the Evaluation of the Solar Potential, ''EPFL'', 2010</ref>
An important and [[Cost-effectiveness|cost-effective]] element of an efficient [[heating, ventilation, and air conditioning]] (HVAC) system is a [[Building insulation|well-insulated building]]. A more efficient building requires less heat generating or dissipating power, but may require more ventilation capacity to expel [[indoor air quality|polluted indoor air]].
Significant amounts of energy are flushed out of buildings in the water, air and [[compost]] streams. [[Commercial off-the-shelf|Off the shelf]], on-site energy recycling technologies can effectively recapture [[Waste-to-energy|energy from waste]] hot water and stale air and transfer that energy into incoming fresh cold water or fresh air. Recapture of energy for uses other than gardening from compost leaving buildings requires centralized [[anaerobic digestion|anaerobic digesters]].
HVAC systems are powered by motors. [[Copper]], versus other metal conductors, helps to improve the electrical energy efficiencies of motors, thereby enhancing the sustainability of electrical building components.
Site and building orientation have some major effects on a building's HVAC efficiency.
[[Passive solar building design]] allows buildings to harness the energy of the sun efficiently without the use of any [[active solar]] mechanisms such as [[photovoltaic cell]]s or [[solar hot water|solar hot water panels]]. Typically passive solar building designs incorporate materials with high [[thermal mass]] that retain heat effectively and strong [[Thermal insulation|insulation]] that works to prevent heat escape. Low energy designs also requires the use of solar shading, by means of awnings, blinds or shutters, to relieve the solar heat gain in summer and to reduce the need for artificial cooling. In addition, [[low energy building]]s typically have a very low surface area to volume ratio to minimize heat loss. This means that sprawling multi-winged building designs (often thought to look more "organic") are often avoided in favor of more centralized structures. Traditional cold climate buildings such as [[United States|American]] [[American colonial architecture|colonial]] [[saltbox]] designs provide a good historical model for centralized heat efficiency in a small-scale building.
Windows are placed to maximize the input of heat-creating light while minimizing the loss of heat through glass, a poor insulator. In the [[Northern Hemisphere|northern hemisphere]] this usually involves installing a large number of south-facing windows to collect direct sun and severely restricting the number of north-facing windows. Certain window types, such as double or triple glazed [[insulated glazing|insulated windows]] with gas filled spaces and [[Low-emissivity|low emissivity (low-E)]] coatings, provide much better insulation than single-pane glass windows. Preventing excess solar gain by means of solar shading devices in the summer months is important to reduce cooling needs. [[Deciduous trees]] are often planted in front of windows to block excessive sun in summer with their leaves but allow light through in winter when their leaves fall off. Louvers or light shelves are installed to allow the sunlight in during the winter (when the sun is lower in the sky) and keep it out in the summer (when the sun is high in the sky). They are slatted like shutters and reflect light and radiation to reduce glare on the interior space. Advanced louver systems are automated to maximize daylight and monitor the interior temperature by adjusting their tilt.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Yuxiang Chen |display-authors=et. al. |title=Effects of Fixed and Motorized Window Louvers on the Daylighting and Thermal Performance of Open-Plan Office Buildings |journal=International High Performance Buildings Conference |url=https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ihpbc/125/ |publisher=Purdue University |access-date=22 May 2023 |year=2014|format=Conference Paper}}</ref> [[Coniferous]] or [[Evergreen|evergreen plants]] are often planted to the north of buildings to shield against cold north winds.
In colder climates, heating systems are a primary focus for sustainable architecture because they are typically one of the largest single energy drains in buildings.
In warmer climates where cooling is a primary concern, passive solar designs can also be very effective. Masonry [[building material]]s with [[high thermal mass]] are very valuable for retaining the cool temperatures of night throughout the day. In addition builders often opt for sprawling single story structures in order to maximize surface area and heat loss.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} Buildings are often designed to capture and channel existing winds, particularly the especially cool winds coming from nearby [[Body of water|bodies of water]]. Many of these valuable strategies are employed in some way by the [[Vernacular architecture|traditional architecture]] of warm regions, such as south-western mission buildings.
In climates with four seasons, an integrated energy system will increase in efficiency: when the building is well insulated, when it is sited to work with the forces of nature, when heat is recaptured (to be used immediately or stored), when the heat plant relying on [[fossil fuel]]s or electricity is greater than 100% efficient, and when [[renewable energy]] is used.
===Renewable energy generation===
[[File:BedZED roofs 2007.jpg|thumb|right|[[BedZED]] (Beddington Zero Energy Development), the UK's largest and first carbon-neutral eco-community: the distinctive roofscape with solar panels and passive ventilation chimneys]]
====Solar panels====
{{Main|Solar PV}}
[[Active solar]] devices such as [[photovoltaic]] [[Photovoltaic module|solar panel]]s help to provide sustainable electricity for any use. Electrical output of a solar panel is dependent on orientation, efficiency, latitude, and climate—solar gain varies even at the same latitude. Typical efficiencies for commercially available PV panels range from 4% to 28%. The low efficiency of certain photovoltaic panels can significantly affect the payback period of their installation.<ref>{{cite web|author=shamilton |url=http://www.solarbuzz.com/Moduleprices.htm |title=Module Pricing |publisher=Solarbuzz |access-date=2012-11-07}}</ref> This low efficiency does not mean that solar panels are not a viable energy alternative. In Germany for example, Solar Panels are commonly installed in residential home construction.
Roofs are often angled toward the sun to allow photovoltaic panels to collect at maximum efficiency. In the northern hemisphere, a true-south facing orientation maximizes yield for solar panels. If true-south is not possible, solar panels can produce adequate energy if aligned within 30° of south. However, at higher latitudes, winter energy yield will be significantly reduced for non-south orientation.
To maximize efficiency in winter, the collector can be angled above horizontal Latitude +15°. To maximize efficiency in summer, the angle should be Latitude -15°. However, for an annual maximum production, the angle of the panel above horizontal should be equal to its latitude.<ref>G.Z. Brown, Mark DeKay. Sun, Wind & Light. 2001</ref>
====Wind turbines====
{{Main|Wind power}}
The use of undersized wind turbines in energy production in sustainable structures requires the consideration of many factors. In considering costs, small wind systems are generally more expensive than larger wind turbines relative to the amount of energy they produce. For [[small wind turbine]]s, maintenance costs can be a deciding factor at sites with marginal wind-harnessing capabilities. At low-wind sites, maintenance can consume much of a small wind turbine's revenue.<ref name="ReferenceA">Brower, Michael; ''Cool Energy, The Renewable Solution to Global Warming''; Union of Concerned Scientists, 1990</ref> Wind turbines begin operating when winds reach 8 mph, achieve energy production capacity at speeds of 32-37 mph, and shut off to avoid damage at speeds exceeding 55 mph.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The energy potential of a wind turbine is proportional to the square of the length of its blades and to the cube of the speed at which its blades spin. Though wind turbines are available that can supplement power for a single building, because of these factors, the efficiency of the wind turbine depends much upon the wind conditions at the building site. For these reasons, for wind turbines to be at all efficient, they must be installed at locations that are known to receive a constant amount of wind (with average wind speeds of more than 15 mph), rather than locations that receive wind sporadically.<ref>Gipe, Paul; ''Wind Power: Renewable Energy for Farm and Business''; Chelsea Green Publishing, 2004</ref> A small wind turbine can be installed on a roof. Installation issues then include the strength of the roof, vibration, and the turbulence caused by the roof ledge. Small-scale rooftop wind turbines have been known to be able to generate power from 10% to up to 25% of the electricity required of a regular domestic household dwelling.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article706123.ece The Sunday Times, "Home wind turbines dealt killer blow"], April 16, 2006</ref> Turbines for residential scale use are usually between 7 feet (2 m) to 25 feet (8 m) in diameter and produce electricity at a rate of 900 watts to 10,000 watts at their tested wind speed.<ref>[http://www.rapidcityjournal.com "Wind turbine, a powerful investment", Rapid City Journal], February 20, 2008</ref>
The reliability of wind turbine systems is important to the success of a wind energy project. Unanticipated breakdowns can have a significant impact on a project's profitability due to the logistical and practical difficulties of replacing critical components in a wind turbine. Uncertainty with the long-term component reliability has a direct impact on the amount of confidence associated with cost of energy (COE) estimates. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walford |first=Christopher A. |date=2006-03-01 |title=Wind turbine reliability :understanding and minimizing wind turbine operation and maintenance costs. |language=English |doi=10.2172/882048|osti=882048 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
====Solar water heating====
{{Main|Solar thermal power}}
[[Solar water heater]]s, also called solar domestic hot water systems, can be a cost-effective way to generate hot water for a home. They can be used in any climate, and the fuel they use—sunshine—is free.<ref>U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Solar Water Heaters, March 24, 2009 [http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/water_heating/index.cfm/mytopic=12850]</ref>
There are two types of solar water systems: active and passive. An active solar collector system can produce about 80 to 100 gallons of hot water per day. A passive system will have a lower capacity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.toolbase.org/Technology-Inventory/Plumbing/solar-water-heaters |title=Solar Water Heaters |publisher=Toolbase.org |access-date=2012-11-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415230351/http://www.toolbase.org/Technology-Inventory/Plumbing/solar-water-heaters |archive-date=2013-04-15 }}</ref> Active solar water system's efficiency is 35-80% while a passive system is 30-50%, making active solar systems more powerful.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Faisal Ahmed |first1=Sumair |last2=Khalid |first2=Mohammad |last3=Vaka |first3=Mahesh |last4=Walvekar |first4=Rashmi |last5=Numan |first5=Arshid |last6=Khaliq Rasheed |first6=Abdul |last7=Mujawar Mubarak |first7=Nabisab |date=2021-10-01 |title=Recent progress in solar water heaters and solar collectors: A comprehensive review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2451904921001438 |journal=Thermal Science and Engineering Progress |language=en |volume=25 |pages=100981 |doi=10.1016/j.tsep.2021.100981 |issn=2451-9049}}</ref>
There are also two types of circulation, direct circulation systems and indirect circulation systems. Direct circulation systems loop the domestic water through the panels. They should not be used in climates with temperatures below freezing. Indirect circulation loops glycol or some other fluid through the solar panels and uses a heat exchanger to heat up the domestic water.
The two most common types of collector panels are flat-plate and evacuated-tube. The two work similarly except that evacuated tubes do not convectively lose heat, which greatly improves their efficiency (5%–25% more efficient). With these higher efficiencies, Evacuated-tube solar collectors can also produce higher-temperature space heating, and even higher temperatures for absorption cooling systems.<ref name="Gilbert M. Masters 2008">John Randolph and Gilbert M. Masters, 2008. "Energy for Sustainability: Technology, Planning, Policy," Island Press, Washington, DC.</ref>
Electric-resistance water heaters that are common in homes today have an electrical demand around 4500 kW·h/year. With the use of solar collectors, the energy use is cut in half. The up-front cost of installing solar collectors is high, but with the annual energy savings, payback periods are relatively short.<ref name="Gilbert M. Masters 2008"/>
====Heat pumps====
[[Air source heat pump]]s (ASHP) can be thought of as reversible air conditioners. Like an air conditioner, an ASHP can take heat from a relatively cool space (e.g. a house at 70 °F) and dump it into a hot place (e.g. outside at 85 °F). However, unlike an air conditioner, the condenser and evaporator of an ASHP can switch roles and absorb heat from the cool outside air and dump it into a warm house.
Air-source heat pumps are inexpensive relative to other heat pump systems. As the efficiency of air-source heat pumps decline when the outdoor temperature is very cold or very hot; therefore, they are most efficiently used in temperate climates.<ref name="Gilbert M. Masters 2008"/> However, contrary to earlier expectations, they have proven to be also well suited for regions with cold outdoor temperatures, such as Scandinavia or Alaska.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Even in Frigid Temperatures, Air-Source Heat Pumps Keep Homes Warm From Alaska Coast to U.S. Mass Market|url=https://www.nrel.gov/news/features/2021/even-in-frigid-temperatures-air-source-heat-pumps-keep-homes-warm-from-alaska-coast-to-us-mass-market.html|access-date=2021-11-16|website=www.nrel.gov|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2020-09-16|title=Heat pumps are on the rise in Europe|url=https://www.energymonitor.ai/sectors/heating-cooling/heat-pumps-are-on-the-rise-in-europe|access-date=2021-11-16|website=Energy Monitor|language=en-US}}</ref> In Norway, Finland and Sweden, the use of heat pumps has grown strongly over the last two decades: in 2019, there were 15–25 heat pumps per 100 inhabitants in these countries, with ASHP the dominant heat pump technology.<ref name=":0" /> Similarly, earlier assumptions that ASHP would only work well in fully insulated buildings have proven wrong—even old, partially insulated buildings can be retrofitted with ASHPs and thereby strongly reduce their energy demand.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Miara|first=Marek|date=10 February 2021|title=Heat pumps in existing buildings, a blog post series in 12 parts|url=https://blog.innovation4e.de/en/2021/02/10/heat-pumps-in-existing-buildings-a-blog-post-series-in-12-parts/|access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref>
Effects of EAHPs ([[exhaust air heat pump]]s) have also been studied within the aforementioned regions displaying promising results. An exhaust air heat pump uses electricity to extract heat from exhaust air leaving a building, redirecting it towards DHW ([[domestic hot water]]), [[space heating]], and warming supply air. In colder countries, an EAHP may be able to recover around 2 - 3 times more energy than an air-to-air exchange system.<ref>{{Citation |last=Nord |first=Natasa |title=Building Energy Efficiency in Cold Climates |date=2017 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780124095489101903 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies |pages=149–157 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.10190-3 |isbn=978-0-12-804792-7 |access-date=2022-04-03}}</ref> A 2022 study surrounding projected emission decreases within Sweden’s [[Kymenlaakso]] region explored the aspect of retrofitting existing apartment buildings (of varying ages) with EAHP systems. Select buildings were chosen in the cities of Kotka and Kouvola, their projected carbon emissions decreasing by about 590 tCO2 and 944 tCO2 respectively with a 7 - 13 year payoff period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Korpela |first1=Tuija |last2=Kuosa |first2=Maunu |last3=Sarvelainen |first3=Hannu |last4=Tuliniemi |first4=Erja |last5=Kiviranta |first5=Paulus |last6=Tallinen |first6=Kirsi |last7=Koponen |first7=Hanna-Kaisa |date=February 2022 |title=Waste heat recovery potential in residential apartment buildings in Finland's Kymenlaakso region by using mechanical exhaust air ventilation and heat pumps |journal=International Journal of Thermofluids |language=en |volume=13 |pages=100127 |doi=10.1016/j.ijft.2021.100127|s2cid=244739642 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is, however, important to note that EAHP systems may not produce favourable results if installed in a building exhibiting incompatible exhaust output rates or electricity consumption. In this case, EAHP systems may increase energy bills without providing reasonable cuts to carbon emissions (see [[Exhaust air heat pump|EAHP]]).
Ground-source (or geothermal) heat pumps provide an efficient alternative. The difference between the two heat pumps is that the ground-source has one of its heat exchangers placed underground—usually in a horizontal or vertical arrangement. Ground-source takes advantage of the relatively constant, mild temperatures underground, which means their efficiencies can be much greater than that of an air-source heat pump. The in-ground heat exchanger generally needs a considerable amount of area. Designers have placed them in an open area next to the building or underneath a parking lot.
Energy Star ground-source heat pumps can be 40% to 60% more efficient than their air-source counterparts. They are also quieter and can also be applied to other functions like domestic hot water heating.<ref name="Gilbert M. Masters 2008"/>
In terms of initial cost, the ground-source heat pump system costs about twice as much as a standard air-source heat pump to be installed. However, the up-front costs can be more than offset by the decrease in energy costs. The reduction in energy costs is especially apparent in areas with typically hot summers and cold winters.<ref name="Gilbert M. Masters 2008"/>
Other types of heat pumps are water-source and air-earth. If the building is located near a body of water, the pond or lake could be used as a heat source or sink. Air-earth heat pumps circulate the building's air through underground ducts. With higher fan power requirements and inefficient heat transfer, Air-earth heat pumps are generally not practical for major construction.
==== Passive daytime radiative cooling ====
[[Passive daytime radiative cooling]] harvests the extreme coldness of [[outer space]] as a renewable energy source to achieve daytime cooling.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Xinxian |last2=Yao |first2=Fengju |last3=Huang |first3=Wenjie |last4=Xu |first4=Dongyan |last5=Chen |first5=Chun |date=July 2022 |title=Renewable Energy |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148122007418 |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=194 |quote=Radiative cooling is a renewable technology that is promising to meet this goal. It is a passive cooling strategy that dissipates heat through the atmosphere to the universe. Radiative cooling does not consume external energy but rather harvests coldness from outer space as a new renewable energy source. |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> Being high in solar reflectance to reduce solar heat gain and strong in [[Long-wave infrared|longwave infrared]] (LWIR) [[thermal radiation]] [[heat transfer]], daytime radiative cooling surfaces can achieve sub-ambient cooling for indoor and outdoor spaces when applied to roofs, which can significantly lower energy demand and costs devoted to cooling.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Tong |last2=Wu |first2=Yi |last3=Shi |first3=Lan |last4=Hu |first4=Xinhua |last5=Chen |first5=Min |last6=Wu |first6=Limin |date=2021 |title=A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=365 |page=365 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7 |pmid=33446648 |pmc=7809060 |quote=Accordingly, designing and fabricating efficient PDRC with sufficiently high solar reflectance (𝜌¯solar) (λ ~ 0.3–2.5 μm) to minimize solar heat gain and simultaneously strong LWIR thermal emittance (ε¯LWIR) to maximize radiative heat loss is highly desirable. When the incoming radiative heat from the Sun is balanced by the outgoing radiative heat emission, the temperature of the Earth can reach its steady state. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vall |first1=Sergi |last2=Johannes |first2=Kévyn |last3=David |first3=Damien |last4=Castell |first4=Albert |date=July 2022 |title=A new flat-plate radiative cooling and solar collector numerical model: Evaluation and metamodeling |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544220308574 |journal=Energy |volume=202 |quote=Radiative cooling is a renewable technology that can complement or partially replace current cooling technologies. |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> These cooling surfaces can be applied as sky-facing panels, similar to other renewable energy sources like [[solar energy]] panels, making them for simple integration into architectural design.<ref name=":34">{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Salman |last2=Li |first2=Zhenpeng |last3=Javed |first3=Muhammad Shahzad |last4=Ma |first4=Tao |date=September 2021 |title=A review on the integration of radiative cooling and solar energy harvesting |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2468606921001416 |journal=Materials Today: Energy |volume=21 |page=100776 |doi=10.1016/j.mtener.2021.100776 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>
A passive daytime radiative cooling roof application can double the energy savings of a white roof,<ref name=":352">{{Cite journal |last1=Heo |first1=Se-Yeon |last2=Ju Lee |first2=Gil |last3=Song |first3=Young Min |date=June 2022 |title=Heat-shedding with photonic structures: radiative cooling and its potential |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2022/tc/d2tc00318j |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry C |volume=10 |issue=27 |pages=9915–9937 |doi=10.1039/D2TC00318J |via=Royal Society of Chemistry |s2cid=249695930}}</ref> and when applied as a multilayer surface to 10% of a building's roof, it can replace 35% of air conditioning used during the hottest hours of daytime.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Bijarniya |first1=Jay Prakash |last2=Sarkar |first2=Jahar |last3=Maiti |first3=Pralay |date=November 2020 |title=Review on passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, recent researches, challenges and opportunities |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032120305529 |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |volume=133 |page=110263 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2020.110263 |via=Elsevier Science Direct |s2cid=224874019}}</ref> Daytime radiative cooling applications for indoor space cooling is growing with an estimated "market size of ~$27 billion in 2025."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yuan |last2=Zhang |first2=Yifan |date=2020 |title=Passive daytime radiative cooling: Principle, application, and economic analysis |url=https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10282838 |url-status=live |journal=MRS Energy & Sustainability |volume=7 |issue=18 |doi=10.1557/mre.2020.18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927212513/https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10282838 |archive-date=2022-09-27 |access-date=2022-09-27 |s2cid=220008145|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Sustainable building materials==
{{See also|Green building|Natural building}}
Some examples of sustainable building materials include recycled [[denim]] or blown-in fiber glass insulation, sustainably harvested wood, [[Trass]], [[Linoleum]],<ref>Duurzaam en Gezond Bouwen en Wonen by Hugo Vanderstadt,</ref> sheep wool, [[hempcrete]], [[roman concrete]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Self Healing Materials|volume = 100|first=Henk M.|last=Jonkers|date=23 March 2018|publisher=Springer, Dordrecht|pages=195–204|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6250-6_9|chapter = Self Healing Concrete: A Biological Approach|series = Springer Series in Materials Science|isbn = 978-1-4020-6249-0| s2cid=133848154 }}</ref> panels made from paper flakes, baked earth, rammed earth, clay, vermiculite, flax linen, sisal, seagrass, expanded clay grains, coconut, wood fiber plates, calcium sandstone, locally obtained stone and rock, and [[bamboo]], which is one of the strongest and fastest growing [[woody plant]]s, and non-toxic low-[[Volatile Organic Compound|VOC]] glues and paints. Bamboo flooring can be useful in ecological spaces since they help reduce pollution particles in the air.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal| url=https://doi.org/10.3167/nc.2018.130201| doi=10.3167/nc.2018.130201| title=New Horizons for Sustainable Architecture| year=2018| last1=Muller| first1=Brook| journal=Nature and Culture| volume=13| issue=2| pages=189–207| s2cid=149793746}}</ref> Vegetative cover or shield over building envelopes also helps in the same. Paper which is fabricated or manufactured out of forest wood is supposedly hundred percent recyclable, thus it regenerates and saves almost all the forest wood that it takes during its manufacturing process. There is an underutilized potential for systematically [[Carbon sequestration|storing carbon]] in the built environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kuittinen|first1=Matti|last2=Zernicke|first2=Caya|last3=Slabik|first3=Simon|last4=Hafner|first4=Annette|date=2021-03-11|title=How can carbon be stored in the built environment? A review of potential options|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2021.1896471|journal=Architectural Science Review|volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=91–107|doi=10.1080/00038628.2021.1896471|s2cid=233617364|issn=0003-8628}}</ref>
===Natural products===
Laminated timber products, straw, and stone are low carbon construction materials with major potential for scalability. [[engineered wood | Timber]] products can sequester carbon, while [[massive precut stone | stone]] has a low extraction energy. Straw, including [[straw-bale construction]], sequesters carbon while providing a high level of insulation. The uses of timber, straw, and stone in sustainable architecture were the subject of a major exhibit at the UK's Design Museum. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://designmuseum.org/exhibitions/how-to-build-a-low-carbon-home | title=How to Build a Low-Carbon Home }}</ref>
===Recycled materials===
[[File:Discarded dreams 2 of 3.jpg|thumb| Discarded Dreams Competition entry from 2008 by [[Ralph Spencer Steenblik]] and Aaron Legendre highlighting recycling items for building]]
Sustainable architecture often incorporates the use of recycled or second hand materials, such as [[reclaimed lumber]] and [[Copper in architecture|recycled copper]]. The reduction in use of new materials creates a corresponding reduction in [[embodied energy]] (energy used in the production of materials). Often sustainable architects attempt to retrofit old structures to serve new needs in order to avoid unnecessary development. Architectural salvage and reclaimed materials are used when appropriate. When older buildings are demolished, frequently any good wood is reclaimed, renewed, and sold as flooring. Any good [[dimension stone]] is similarly reclaimed. Many other parts are reused as well, such as doors, windows, mantels, and hardware, thus reducing the consumption of new goods. When new materials are employed, green designers look for materials that are rapidly replenished, such as [[bamboo]], which can be harvested for commercial use after only six years of growth, [[sorghum]] or wheat straw, both of which are waste material that can be pressed into panels, or [[cork oak]], in which only the outer bark is removed for use, thus preserving the tree. When possible, building materials may be gleaned from the site itself; for example, if a new structure is being constructed in a wooded area, wood from the trees which were cut to make room for the building would be re-used as part of the building itself. For insulation in building envelopes, more experimental materials such as “waste sheep’s wool” alongside other waste fibers originating from textile and agri-industrial operations are being researched for use as well, with recent studies suggesting the recycled insulation effective for architectural purposes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Savio |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Pennacchio |first2=Roberto |last3=Patrucco |first3=Alessia |last4=Manni |first4=Valentino |last5=Bosia |first5=Daniela |title=Natural Fibre Insulation Materials: Use of Textile and Agri-food Waste in a Circular Economy Perspective |journal=Materials Circular Economy |date=8 January 2022 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=6 |doi=10.1007/s42824-021-00043-1 |s2cid=245803736 |language=en |issn=2524-8154|doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Lower volatile organic compounds===
Low-impact building materials are used wherever feasible: for example, insulation may be made from low VOC ([[volatile organic compound]])-emitting materials such as [[Building insulation materials#Cotton batts (Blue Jean)|recycled denim]] or [[cellulose insulation]], rather than the [[building insulation materials]] that may contain carcinogenic or toxic materials such as formaldehyde. To discourage insect damage, these alternate insulation materials may be treated with [[boric acid]]. Organic or milk-based paints may be used.<ref>Information on low-emitting materials may be found at www.buildingecology.com/iaq_links.php [http://www.buildingecology.com/iaq_links.php IAQ links] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611163251/http://www.buildingecology.com/iaq_links.php |date=2008-06-11 }}</ref> However, a common fallacy is that "green" materials are always better for the health of occupants or the environment. Many harmful substances (including formaldehyde, arsenic, and asbestos) are naturally occurring and are not without their histories of use with the best of intentions. A study of emissions from materials by the State of California has shown that there are some green materials that have substantial emissions whereas some more "traditional" materials actually were lower emitters. Thus, the subject of emissions must be carefully investigated before concluding that natural materials are always the healthiest alternatives for occupants and for the Earth.<ref>Building Emissions Study accessed at [http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/GreenBuilding/Specs/Section01350/METStudy.htm California Integrated Waste Management web site]</ref>
[[Volatile organic compounds]] (VOC) can be found in any indoor environment coming from a variety of different sources. VOCs have a high vapor pressure and low water solubility, and are suspected of causing [[sick building syndrome]] type symptoms. This is because many VOCs have been known to cause sensory irritation and central nervous system symptoms characteristic to sick building syndrome, indoor concentrations of VOCs are higher than in the outdoor atmosphere, and when there are many VOCs present, they can cause additive and multiplicative effects.
Green products are usually considered to contain fewer VOCs and be better for human and environmental health. A case study conducted by the Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering at the University of Miami that compared three green products and their non-green counterparts found that even though both the green products and the non-green counterparts both emitted levels of VOCs, the amount and intensity of the VOCs emitted from the green products were much safer and comfortable for human exposure.<ref>James, J.P., Yang, X. Indoor and Built Environment, Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Several Green and Non-Green Building Materials: A Comparison, January 2004.[http://ibe.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/14/1/69] Retrieved: 2008-04-30.</ref>
===Lab-grown organic materials===
Commonly used building materials such as wood require deforestation that is, without proper care, unsustainable. As of October 2022, researchers at MIT have made developments on lab-grown ''[[Zinnia elegans]]'' cells growing into specific characteristics under conditions within their control. These characteristics include the “shape, thickness, [and] stiffness,” as well as mechanical properties that can mimic wood.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beckwith |first1=Ashley L. |last2=Borenstein |first2=Jeffrey T. |last3=Velásquez-García |first3=Luis F. |title=Physical, mechanical, and microstructural characterization of novel, 3D-printed, tunable, lab-grown plant materials generated from Zinnia elegans cell cultures |journal=Materials Today |date=April 2022 |volume=54 |pages=27–41 |doi=10.1016/j.mattod.2022.02.012 |s2cid=247300299 |doi-access=free }}</ref> David N. Bengston from the USDA suggests that this alternative would be more efficient than traditional wood harvesting, with future developments potentially saving on transportation energy and conserve forests. However, Bengston notes that this breakthrough would change paradigms and raises new economic and environmental questions, such as timber-dependent communities′ jobs or how conservation would impact wildfires.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bengston |first1=David N. |title=Lab-grown wood: a potential game changer for forestry and forest products |journal=The Forestry Source |date=2021 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=10–17 |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/62554 |language=en}}</ref>
===Materials sustainability standards===
Despite the importance of materials to overall building sustainability, quantifying and evaluating the sustainability of building materials has proven difficult. There is little coherence in the measurement and assessment of materials sustainability attributes, resulting in a landscape today that is littered with hundreds of competing, inconsistent and often imprecise eco-labels, [[Technical standard|standards]] and [[certifications]]. This discord has led both to confusion among consumers and commercial purchasers and to the incorporation of inconsistent sustainability criteria in larger building certification programs such as [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]]. Various proposals have been made regarding rationalization of the standardization landscape for sustainable building materials.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Toward a Rational Framework for Sustainable Building Materials Standards|first1=Jorge L.|last1=Contreras|first2=Hannah|last2=Roth|first3=Meghan|last3=Lewis|date=1 September 2011|ssrn = 1944523}}</ref>
==Sustainable design and plan ==
===Building===
====Building information modelling====
[[Building information modeling in green building|Building information modelling]] (BIM) is used to help enable sustainable design by allowing architects and engineers to integrate and analyze building performance.[5]. BIM services, including conceptual and topographic modelling, offer a new channel to green building with successive and immediate availability of internally coherent, and trustworthy project information. BIM enables designers to quantify the environmental impacts of systems and materials to support the decisions needed to design sustainable buildings.
====Consulting====
A sustainable building consultant may be engaged early in the design process, to forecast the sustainability implications of [[building materials]], orientation, glazing and other physical factors, so as to identify a sustainable approach that meets the specific requirements of a project.
Norms and standards have been formalized by performance-based rating systems e.g. [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usgbc.org/?CategoryID=19|title=U.S. Green Building Council|website=[[U.S. Green Building Council]]}}</ref> and [[Energy Star]] for homes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.energystar.gov/|title=ENERGY STAR - The Simple Choice for Energy Efficiency|website=www.energystar.gov}}</ref> They define [[Benchmarking|benchmarks]] to be met and provide [[Performance metric|metrics]] and testing to meet those benchmarks. It is up to the parties involved in the project to determine the best approach to meet those standards.
As sustainable building consulting is often associated with cost premium, organisations such as [[Architects Assist]] aim for equity of access to sustainable and resident design.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-07|title=Australian architects offer free design services to bushfire victims|url=https://www.dezeen.com/2020/01/07/australian-architects-assist-bushfire-crisis-news/|access-date=2021-03-06|website=Dezeen|language=en}}</ref>
====Building placement ====
One central and often ignored aspect of sustainable architecture is building placement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Rajiv |last2=Jay |first2=Kesan |title=Journal of Architectural and Planning Research |journal=How Architecture Regulates |date=Winter 2007 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=350–359 |jstor=43030813 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43030813 |access-date=20 April 2021}}</ref> Although the ideal environmental home or office structure is often envisioned as an isolated place, this kind of placement is usually detrimental to the environment. First, such structures often serve as the unknowing frontlines of [[Urban sprawl|suburban sprawl]]. Second, they usually increase the [[energy consumption]] required for transportation and lead to unnecessary auto emissions. Ideally, most building should avoid suburban sprawl in favor of the kind of light [[Urban planning|urban development]] articulated by the [[New Urbanist]] movement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herbert |first1=Michael |title=Built Environment |journal=New Urbanism - the Movement in Context |date=2003 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=193–209 |jstor=23287649 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23287649 |access-date=20 April 2021}}</ref> Careful mixed use zoning can make commercial, residential, and light industrial areas more accessible for those traveling by foot, bicycle, or public transit, as proposed in the [[Principles of Intelligent Urbanism]]. The study of [[permaculture]], in its holistic application, can also greatly help in proper building placement that minimizes energy consumption and works with the surroundings rather than against them, especially in rural and forested zones.
====Water Usage====
Sustainable buildings look for ways to [[Water conservation|conserve water]]. One strategic water saving design [[green building]]s incorporate are [[green roof]]s. Green roofs have rooftop vegetation which captures storm drainage water. This function not only collects the water for further uses but also serves as a good insulator that can aid in the [[urban heat island]] effect.<ref name="auto"/> Another strategic water efficient design is treating wastewater so it can be reused again.<ref>{{cite journal| url=https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.2010.tb10038.x| doi=10.1002/j.1551-8833.2010.tb10038.x| title=Port of Portland Opts for Decentralized, Sustainable Water Architecture with the Living Machine® Ecological Wastewater System| year=2010| last1=Kirksey| first1=Will| journal=Journal - American Water Works Association| volume=102| issue=2| pages=19–22| bibcode=2010JAWWA.102b..19K| s2cid=116521703}}</ref>
===Urban design ===
[[Sustainable urbanism]] takes actions beyond sustainable architecture, and makes a broader view for sustainability. Typical solutions includes [[eco-industrial park]] (EIP), [[urban agriculture]], etc. International program that are being supported includes Sustainable Urban Development Network,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://mirror.unhabitat.org/content.asp?typeid=19&catid=570&cid=5990 |title= UN-HABITAT: Sustainable Urban Development Network}}</ref> supported by UN-HABITAT, and Eco2 Cities,<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2011/11/08/eco2-cities-guide-for-developing-ecologically-sustainable-and-economically-viable-cities | title = Eco2 Cities – a Guide for Developing Ecologically Sustainable and Economically Viable Cities}}</ref> supported by the World Bank.
Concurrently, the recent movements of [[New Urbanism]], [[New Classical architecture]] and [[complementary architecture]] promote a sustainable approach towards construction, that appreciates and develops [[smart growth]], [[Vernacular architecture|architectural tradition]] and [[Classical architecture|classical design]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnu.org/charter|title=The Charter of the New Urbanism|last=taotiadmin|date=20 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future|url=http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html|publisher=Traditional Architecture Group|access-date=23 March 2014|archive-date=5 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305215635/http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> This in contrast to [[Modern architecture|modernist]] and [[International Style (architecture)|globally uniform]] architecture, as well as leaning against solitary [[housing estate]]s and [[Urban sprawl|suburban sprawl]].<ref>[http://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities]. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23.</ref> Both trends started in the 1980s. The [[Driehaus Architecture Prize]] is an award that recognizes efforts in New Urbanism and New Classical architecture, and is endowed with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernist [[Pritzker Architecture Prize|Pritzker Prize]].<ref name="Driehaus Prize">{{cite web|title=Driehaus Prize|url=http://architecture.nd.edu/about/driehaus-prize/|work=Together, the $200,000 Driehaus Prize and the $50,000 Reed Award represent the most significant recognition for classicism in the contemporary built environment.|publisher=Notre Dame School of Architecture|access-date=23 March 2014}}</ref>
===Waste management===
Waste takes the form of spent or useless materials generated from households and businesses, construction and demolition processes, and manufacturing and agricultural industries. These materials are loosely categorized as municipal solid waste, construction and demolition (C&D) debris, and industrial or agricultural by-products.<ref>John Ringel., University of Michigan, Sustainable Architecture, Waste Prevention [http://www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/resources/compendia/ARCHpdfs/ARCHr&rA.pdf]</ref> Sustainable architecture focuses on the on-site use of [[waste management]], incorporating things such as [[grey water]] systems for use on garden beds, and [[composting toilet]]s to reduce sewage. These methods, when combined with on-site [[food waste]] composting and off-site recycling, can reduce a house's waste to a small amount of [[packaging waste]].
==See also==
{{Portal|Architecture|Energy}}
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
*[[Alternative natural materials]]
*[[BREEAM]]
*[[BrightBuilt Barn]]
*[[Complementary architecture]]
*[[Cross-laminated timber]] (CLT)
*[[Deconstruction (building)]]
*[[Earth embassy]]
*[[Earthship]]
*[[Ecological design]]
*[[Ecological footprint]]
*[[Energy-plus-house]]
*[[Fab Tree Hab]]: 100% Ecological Home
*[[Haute qualité environnementale]] French standard for green building - HQE
*[[Land recycling]]
*[[Low-energy house]]
*[[Organic architecture]]
*[[Passive house]]
*[[Renewable heat]]
*[[Solar architecture]]
*[[Solar chimney]]
*[[Straw-bale construction]]
*[[Superinsulation]]
*[[Sustainable city]]
*[[Sustainable design]]
*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Sustainable flooring]]
*[[Sustainable landscape architecture]]
*[[Sustainable preservation]]
*[[Sustainable refurbishment]]
*[[Windcatcher]]
*[[World Green Building Council]]
*[[Yakhchāl]]
*[[Zero-energy building]]
}}
==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}
==External links==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [http://www.worldgbc.org World Green Building Council]
* [http://www.passiv.de Passivhaus Institut] German institute for passive buildings
{{div col end}}
{{Modern architecture}}
{{Environmental technology}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Environmental humanities}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Architecture}}
[[Category:Sustainable architecture| ]]
[[Category:Low-energy building]]
[[Category:Sustainable building]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Paul-Marie Boulanger | {{short description|Belgian sociologist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Paul-Marie Boulanger
| image = Paul Marie Boulanger, August 2020.tif
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1950|03|19| }}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = Belgian
| education = [[University of Strasbourg]], [[KU Leuven|Leuven]]
| alma_mater =
| movement =
| organization =
}}
'''Paul-Marie Boulanger''' is a Belgian [[sociologist]] active in the study of sustainable development and consumption.
==Works==
Paul-Marie Boulanger received his degrees in sociology from the [[University of Strasbourg]] and that of [[KU Leuven|Leuven]].
His work at the Demography Department of the Catholic University of Leuven focused on demographic, social security and labour market,<ref>P.-M. Boulanger, “Consumer Society,” in Green Consumerism: An A-to-Z Guide, J. Mansvelt and P. Robbins, Eds. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2010.</ref><ref>P. M. Boulanger, “Basic income and sustainable consumption strategies,” Basic Income Stud., vol. 4, no. 2, Sep. 2009.</ref> while when working at the European Agency for Development and Health he was concerned – also as responsible of the Agency’s information system – with food security and famine prevention in [[Africa]].<ref>C. De Jaegher, D. Michiels, and P.-M. Boulanger, SYSTÈMES D’INFORMATION POUR LA SÉCURITÉ ALIMENTAIRE - L’expérience AEDES en Afrique, AEDES. 2004.</ref>
Paul-Marie Boulanger is one of the founders of the [[Federal Institute for Sustainable Development|Institute for Sustainable Development (Belgium)]] where he worked since 1996 on sustainable development and transitions. Between 1999 and 2016 he was president of the Institute.
Several of his papers are in the theory of sustainable development and
consumption.<ref>P.-M. Boulanger, “Indicateurs de développement durable
et participation citoyenne : une entreprise paradoxale,” Participations,
vol. 18, no. 2, p. 147, 2017.</ref><ref>P. M. Boulanger, “Political
uses of social indicators: overview and application to sustainable
development indicators,” Int. J. Sustain. Dev., vol. 10, no. 1/2, p. 14,
2007.</ref> His work on models for sustainable development <ref>P. M.
Boulanger and T. Bréchet, “Models for policy-making in sustainable
development: The state of the art and perspectives for research,” Ecol.
Econ., vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 337–350, Nov. 2005.</ref> has been used by
several authors.<ref>S. Sala, F. Farioli, and A. Zamagni, “Progress in
sustainability science: Lessons learnt from current methodologies for
sustainability assessment: Part 1,” Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., vol. 18,
no. 9, pp. 1653–1672, Nov. 2013.</ref><ref>B. Ness, S. Anderberg, and L.
Olsson, “Structuring problems in sustainability science: The multi-level
DPSIR framework,” Geoforum, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 479–488, May 2010.</ref>
Boulanger also worked on social indicators of human well-being,<ref
name="composite">P. M. Boulanger,
“[https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC92162/lbna26921enn.pdf Elements for a comprehensive assessment of public indicators],” Ispra -
Italy, 2014.</ref> models and methods for decision support,<ref name="development">P. M. Boulanger, “A systems-theoretical perspective on sustainable development and indicators,” in Routledge Handbook of Sustainability Indicators and Indices, S. Bell and S. Morse, Eds. Taylor & Francis., 2018.</ref> and climate change.<ref>Judith Curry, 2021, [https://judithcurry.com/2021/02/12/a-climate-of-dialogue/ Excerpts from A CLIMATE OF DIALOGUE], Climate Etc., February 12.</ref><ref>Andrea Saltelli and Paul-Marie Boulanger, 2020, A CLIMATE OF DIALOGUE, in DIMENSIONS OF INTRA- AND INTERGENERATIONAL JUSTICE IN THE DEBATES ABOUT SUSTAINABILITY, Silvija Serafimova Editor, published by Avangard Prima, Sofia. {{ISBN|978-619-239-433-2}}.</ref> As discussed in,<ref>M. Kuc-Czarnecka et al., “Quantitative storytelling in the making of a composite indicator,” Soc. Indic. Res., vol. 149(3), 77, no. 3, pp. 775–802, 2020.</ref> Boulanger gave a contribution to the theory of [[composite indicators]],<ref name="composite"/><ref name="development"/> including an analysis of the scarce traction of indicators of development meant to unseat GDP as a measures of progress.
He also studies the application of the theories on [[Niklas Luhmann]], such as to science’s reproducibility crisis <ref>A. Saltelli and P.-M. Boulanger, “Technoscience, policy and the new media. Nexus or vortex?,” Futures, vol. 115, p. 102491, Nov. 2019.</ref> and to interpreting the present pandemic.<ref>P.-M. Boulanger and A. Saltelli, “[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3586526 Pandemic Luhmann],” SSRN Electron. J., May 2020.</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Boulanger, Paul-Marie}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:Belgian sociologists]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Social security]]
[[Category:Index numbers]]
[[Category:Quantitative research]]
{{sociologist-stub}} |
Sustainable procurement | {{Use mdy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{Globalize|date=January 2010}}
'''Sustainable procurement''' or '''green procurement''' is a process whereby organizations meet their needs for goods, services, works and utilities in a way that achieves value for money on a life-cycle basis while addressing equity principles for sustainable development, therefore benefiting societies and the environment across time and geographies.<ref name="chathamhouse.org">{{Cite web|date=2020-11-19|title=Public Procurement for Sustainable Development|url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/11/public-procurement-sustainable-development|access-date=2021-03-15|website=Chatham House – International Affairs Think Tank|language=en}}</ref> '''[[Procurement]]''' is often conducted via a [[tendering]] or competitive [[bidding]] process. The process is used to ensure the buyer receives goods, services or works for the best possible price, when aspects such as quality, quantity, time, and location are compared.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nigp.org|title=NIGP - The Institute for Public Procurement|website=www.nigp.org|access-date=2016-11-16}}</ref> Procurement is considered sustainable when organizations broadens this framework by meeting their needs for goods, services, works, and utilities in a way that achieves value for money and promotes positive outcomes not only for the organization itself but for the economy, environment, and society.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2pfDAAAQBAJ&q=sustainable%20procurement&pg=PP1|title=Sustainable procurement: The power of public and private consumption for an inclusive green economy|last1=Betiol|first1=Luciana Stocco|last2=Uehara|first2=Thiago Hector Kanashiro|last3=Laloe|first3=Florence Karine|last4=Appugliese|first4=Gabriela Alem|last5=Adeodato|first5=Sergio|last6=Ramos|first6=Ligia|last7=Neto|first7=Mario Prestes Monzoni|date=2015-12-15|publisher=Public Administration and Citizenship Program|isbn=9788587426314|language=en}}</ref> This framework is also known as the [[triple bottom line]], which is a business accounting framework. The concept of TBL is narrowly prescribed, and even [[John Elkington (business author)|John Elkington]], who coined the term in the 1990s, now advocates its recall.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2018-06-25|title=25 Years Ago I Coined the Phrase "Triple Bottom Line." Here's Why It's Time to Rethink It.|work=Harvard Business Review|url=https://hbr.org/2018/06/25-years-ago-i-coined-the-phrase-triple-bottom-line-heres-why-im-giving-up-on-it|access-date=2021-03-15|issn=0017-8012}}</ref> Indeed, procurement practitioners have drawn attention to the fact that buying from smaller firms, locally, is an important aspect of sustainable procurement in the public sector.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brammer|first1=Stephen|last2=Walker|first2=Helen|date=2011-03-22|title=Sustainable procurement in the public sector: an international comparative study|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/01443571111119551/full/html|journal=International Journal of Operations & Production Management|language=en|volume=31|issue=4|pages=452–476|doi=10.1108/01443571111119551|issn=0144-3577}}</ref> Ethics, culture, safety, diversity, inclusion, justice, human rights and the environment are additionally listed as important aspects of SPP.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kleine|first1=Dorothea|last2=Brightwell|first2=Maria das Graças|date=December 2015|title=Repoliticising and scaling-up ethical consumption: Lessons from public procurement for school meals in Brazil|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016718515002286|journal=Geoforum|language=en|volume=67|pages=135–147|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.08.016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020|editor-last=Leal Filho|editor-first=Walter|editor2-last=Azul|editor2-first=Anabela Marisa|editor3-last=Brandli|editor3-first=Luciana|editor4-last=Özuyar|editor4-first=Pinar Gökcin|editor5-last=Wall|editor5-first=Tony|title=Responsible Consumption and Production|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71062-4|journal=Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-71062-4|isbn=978-3-319-71062-4|s2cid=241952832 |issn=2523-7403}}</ref>
Sustainable procurement is a spending and investment process typically associated with [[public policy]], although it is equally applicable to the [[private sector]]. Organizations practicing sustainable procurement meet their needs for goods, services, utilities and works not only on a private [[cost–benefit analysis]], but also with the intention to maximizing net benefits for themselves and the wider world. In doing so they must incorporate extrinsic cost considerations into decisions alongside the conventional [[procurement]] criteria of price and quality, although in practice the sustainable impacts of a potential supplier's approach are often assessed as a form of quality consideration. These considerations are typically divided thus: environmental, economic and social, but it should go beyond and encompass a series of equity principles for sustainable development, such as ''intragenerational equity, intergenerational equity, interspecies equity, procedural equity, and geographical equity''.<ref name="chathamhouse.org"/> These can be seen as the 'sustainability pillars' of procurement, which can be underpinned by one or several instruments for development, such as those proposed by [[Amartya Sen]]: ''(1) economic facilities, (2) social opportunities, (3) protective security, (4) political freedoms and (5) transparency guarantees''.<ref name="chathamhouse.org"/> And to procure in a sustainable way involves looking beyond short-term needs and considering the longer-term impacts of each purchase. Sustainable procurement is used to ensure that purchasing reflects broader goals linked to [[resource efficiency]], [[climate change]], [[social responsibility]] and [[economic resilience]], for example.<ref name="Procura+ Manual 3rd Edition">{{Cite book|title=Procura+ Manual 3rd Edition|publisher=ICLEI Europe - Local Governments for Sustainability|year=2016}}</ref>
Sustainable procurement involves a higher degree of collaboration and engagement between all parties in a supply chain. Many businesses have adopted a broad interpretation of sustainable procurement and have developed tools and techniques to support this engagement and collaboration.
== Triple bottom line considerations ==
[[Procurement]] – the letting of contracts for goods, works and services on the best possible terms – has historically been based on two criteria, price and quality, with a view to maximizing benefits for the procuring organization. Sustainable procurement broadens this framework to take account of third-party consequences of procurement decisions, forming a "[[Triple bottom line|triple baseline]]" of external concerns which the procuring organization must fulfill.<ref name="resource-efficiency">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/resourceefficiency/Society/CommunicationandEducation/tabid/55550/Default.aspx|title=UNEP - Resource Efficiency - Society - Procurement|last=resource-efficiency|website=www.unep.org|access-date=2016-11-16}}</ref>
===Environmental===
Environmental concerns are the dominant macro-level justification for sustainable procurement, born out of the growing 21st century consensus that humanity is placing excessive demands on available resources through unsustainable but well-established consumption patterns. Sustainable procurement aims to promote conservation and responsible management of resources by using renewable or recycled materials wherever possible and reducing waste.<ref name="Procura+ Manual 3rd Edition"/> Sustainable procurement also involves looking at production practices and making sure there are not any negative impacts to the environment such as pollution, [[biodiversity loss]] or [[habitat destruction|habitat disruption]].
This is a sufficiently influential issue that environment-centric procurement (green procurement) is sometimes seen to stand alone from sustainable procurement. The most straightforward justification for green procurement is as a tool with which to address [[climate change]], but it offers the broader capacity to mitigate [[over-exploitation]] of any and all scarce resources. Green procurement introduces into the procurement process a comparison between alternatives based on the criterion of their environmental impact. This comparison is extended to all stages of the procurement process, from the design stage, to the tender evaluation and realization stages.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Decarolis |first1=Francesco |last2=Frey |first2=Marco |editor3-first=Francesco |editor3-last=Decarolis |editor2-first=Gustavo |editor2-last=Piga |editor1-first=Marco |editor1-last=Frey |title=Introduction to "Public Procurement's Place in the World: The Charge Towards Sustainability and Innovation" |year=2014 |doi=10.1057/9781137430649 |isbn=9781137430649 |url=https://pure.eur.nl/en/publications/36fd2ee1-7651-4015-b9bc-944778790557 }}</ref>
Examples of green procurement range from the purchase of energy-saving light-bulbs to the commissioning of a new building from renewable sourced timber or [[organic food]] being served in a workplace canteen. Sometimes, the ultimate green procurement is the avoidance of the purchase altogether. For example, [[Seafood Watch]] lists which commonly consumed fish species are at risk of extinction or population decline, steering conscious consumers towards species with stable populations which can be consumed without threatening their existence or disrupting the ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021|title=Our Projects|url=https://www.seafoodwatch.org/our-projects|access-date=2021-01-21|website=Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch}}</ref> Transparency around production can help companies and individuals make more sustainable purchasing choices. In the fashion industry, more consumers and companies are aware of the damage textile dye pollution does to waterways and the communities that rely on them, and as a result, companies and individuals can seek out producers who use natural or nonhazardous dyes.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-12|title=The true cost of colour: The impact of textile dyes on water systems|url=https://www.fashionrevolution.org/the-true-cost-of-colour-the-impact-of-textile-dyes-on-water-systems/|access-date=2021-01-21|website=Fashion Revolution|language=en-GB}}</ref>
In support of [[sustainable development]] the organization should develop and publish 'Sustainable Development Procurement Guidelines and Procedures'. When it comes to purchasing products or services, referral to these guidelines would help make the organization become a leader in environmentally responsible purchasing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greeninggovernment.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=256986C5-1|title=Government of Canada – Procurement|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061019011258/http://www.greeninggovernment.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=256986C5-1|archive-date=October 19, 2006|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/en/commcentre/pressreleases/2006/Ref1020.html|title=ISO standard for purchasers}}</ref>
Although various corporate giants have publicly acknowledged adopting sustainable procurement and reducing their carbon footprint, they have miserably failed to match their promises. The most widely discussed examples include Disney's initiative to introduce sustainable paper sourcing policy in 2012 and 3M promising to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/2014/jul/21/sustainability-goals-promise-broken-failure-target-walmart-disney|title=Missed targets: when companies fail to keep their key sustainability promises|date=July 21, 2014|work=The Guardian}}</ref>
===Social===
Sustainable procurement is also used to address issues of [[social policy]], such as inclusiveness, [[social equality|equality]], [[international labor standards]] and diversity targets, regeneration and integration.
Examples include addressing the needs – whether employment, care, welfare or other – of groups including [[ethnic minorities]], children, the elderly, those with disabilities, adults lacking basic skills, and immigrant populations. Criteria for Socially Responsible Procurement can be applied to every stage of a supply-chain e.g. from mining to assembly and distribution.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Landmark Project - Success Stories in Socially Responsible Procurement|publisher=The LANDMARK consortium|year=2014}}</ref>
===Economic===
Often differences in the purchase price between a non-sustainable and sustainable alternative are negligible. Yet even where the sustainable option costs more upfront, savings of energy, water and waste over the lifetime of the product or service can provide significant financial savings.<ref name="Procura+ Manual 3rd Edition"/> On a [[macroeconomic]] level, it can be argued that there are economic benefits in the form of [[Economic efficiency|efficiency]] gains from incorporating whole-life costing into decision-making. (Note: in contrast to most arguments from sustainable procurement proponents, these can be purely private benefits accrued by the procuring organization.)
In addition, the creation of sustainable markets is essential for long-term growth while sustainable development requirements foster [[innovation]]. There are also potential global applications: sustainable procurement can favor fair trade or ethical practice, and allow extra investment to channeled towards [[developing countries]].
On a [[microeconomic]] level, sustainable procurement offers the chance for economic redistribution. Targets might include creation of jobs and wealth in regeneration areas, or assistance for small and/or ethnic minority-owned businesses.
==Sustainable procurement policy and development ==
===State government===
For central governments, sustainable procurement is typically viewed as the application of sustainable development criteria to spending and investment decisions. Given high-profile socioeconomic and environmental concerns such as [[globalization]] and [[climate change]], governments are increasingly concerned that our actions meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of the future.
Public spending, which accounts for an average of 12% of GDP in OECD countries, and up to 30% in developing countries, wields enormous purchasing power.<ref name="resource-efficiency"/> Shifting that spending towards more sustainable goods and services can help drive markets in the direction of innovation and [[sustainability]], thereby enabling the transition to a [[green economy]]. Through Sustainable procurement practices, governments can lead by example and deliver key policy objectives. Sustainable procurement allows governments to mitigate key issues such as [[Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas emissions]], improve resource efficiency, recycling, among others. The key international organizations already increasingly recognize public procurement as a means of changing the unsustainable patterns of consumption and production.
The United Nations, including its many affiliated agencies, recognize their own responsibilities in contributing to more sustainable patterns of development, maintaining a market behavior which is credible, inspirational and exemplary, and proving that UN agencies stand behind the principles they promote.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ungm.org/Public/KnowledgeCentre/SustainableProcurement|title=Sustainable Procurement|website=www.ungm.org|access-date=2016-11-16}}</ref> Through the development of procurement criteria that support sustainability principles, requisitioners and procurers can send strong signals to the market in favor of goods and services that promote sustainability. The United Nations agency destined to develop and promote resource efficiency and more sustainable consumption and production processes, including the promotion of sustainable resource management in a life cycle perspective for goods and services in both developed and developing countries, The United Nations Environmental Programme, [[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]], drafted sustainable public procurement implementation guideline to aid in the consideration of society, economy, and the environment in procurement processes.<ref name="resource-efficiency"/>
# ''Project set up and governance structure establishment''
#* In the project organization and set up in pilot country of Mauritius, the NFO (Mauritius public procurement office) set up monthly and biweekly newsletters on the purpose of public procurement which was then used as a communication device for later projects, activities, and events, along with other relevant information <ref name=":0">Sustainable Public Procurement Implementation Guidelines, Introducing UNEP’S Approach (2012). ''United Nations Environment Programme''</ref>
# ''Assessment, review, and prioritization''
#* Recommended method of assessing the effectiveness of public procurement plans is conducting interviews with procurers as to assess the degree of training and knowledge. Recognize and understand the obstacles in the implementation of SPP in their respective administration as well as identifying products and services which are considered a priority for the well-functioning of such projects and policies.<ref name=":0" /> Some of the main obstacles in implementing SPP are informational, financial and managerial.<ref name="auto"/>
# ''Sustainable public procurement policy and action plan''
#* Drafting an SPP plan is necessary for the successful implementation of policies. It creates a clear path and provides a direction on sound basis on which to build coherent and efficient strategies. The SPP Action Plan should contribute to the country's sustainable development in terms of environmental protection, economic development, health, welfare, etc. In the UNEP pilot country of Chile, working to enhance previous e-learning platform for contracting managers from across the country, the UNEP agreement with the sovereign nation was modified replacing two different workshops for roughly 50 people each with the generic term "training" and the new materials for the electronic platform are currently being developed as to provide the entire Chilean public administration easier access.<ref name=":0" />
# ''Implementation''
#*Nations interested in applying the SPP approach in the development of domestic policies and would like to receive funding for the implementation of the various programs must directly apply to the UNEP and follow a particular procedure.<ref name=":0" />
==== Case studies ====
The Marrakech Task Force on Sustainable Public Procurement (MTF or SPP) which was managed by Switzerland from 2006 to May 2011 established an approach for the effective implementation of sustainable procurement. This approach was named the MTF Approach to SPP. Since then, the United Nations Environmental Programme have worked together with the Swiss government to develop a project to implement sustainable procurement worldwide. The project named Capacity Building for Sustainable Public Procurement in Developing Countries was piloted in seven countries: Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Lebanon, Mauritius, Tunisia, and Uruguay. Since then, the list of countries adopting this newly designed approach to developing has increased, adding more advanced and industrialized nations to be used as case studies to measure the efficiency and benefits of the implementation of sustainable public procurement. In Brazil, the project involved recycled paper; in Costa Rica, the management services was redesigned; toner cartridges for laser printers were the main objective in France; in Hong Kong and China the nations aimed to improve traffic with LED traffic light retrofitting; organic food for school children was the focus in Italy; sustainable construction was the focus in England; consultancy and temporary staff services were renovated in Scotland; and in the United States, there was a push for the sustainable transportation of waste.<ref name=":1">The Impacts of Sustainable Public Procurement, Eight Case Studies (2012). ''United Nations Environment Programme.''</ref>
The eight case studies reveal a diversity of environmental impacts at various stages of the products' life cycle. The purchase of remanufactured ink cartridges by the French Ministry of Education has led to a decrease in the amount of waste generated at the manufacturing stage. The construction or services case studies (Yorkshire and Humber Region, UK, and Oregon, USA) demonstrate significant impacts related to the reduction of {{CO2}} emissions, of waste production, and of water consumption. The Ferrara study (Italy) and the recycled paper case (São Paulo, Brazil) show positive environmental effects.<ref name=":1" />
Although the social component of sustainable development has often been considered as the most neglected one, the eight case studies show a strong commitment from public purchasers to tackle social issues. Employment and social inclusiveness issues are considered essential by the public entities who promote these priorities through their procurement processes. Some of the social impacts are directly targeted by tenders, such as the participation of companies employing disabled persons in the French case or the fight against illiteracy in Scotland. Other impacts are the results of the specific purchase, as in the State of São Paulo case (notebooks using recycled paper) which demonstrates a clear positive impact for waste pickers. The analysis of the case studies illustrates the diversity and strength of the recorded sustainable development impacts. Public purchasers can be clearly seen as key potential actors of society, able to impact a wide range of sustainable development fields.<ref name=":1" />
The UK in 2005 pledged to be a performance-leader in sustainable procurement by 2009 and commissioned the business-led Sustainable Procurement Task Force to formulate appropriate strategy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/government/task-forces/procurement/index.htm |title=Procurement Task Force |access-date=2006-12-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061230071519/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/government/task-forces/procurement/index.htm |archive-date=December 30, 2006 |df=mdy-all }} The Sustainable Procurement Task Force</ref> Broad-based procurement strategies are prominent across the EU <ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/ European Union Green Public Procurement] . European Commission. Viewed 2020-04-12.</ref> while it is an increasingly influential concern elsewhere, most notably Canada.<ref>[http://www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca/ecologisation-greening/index-eng.html Green Procurement]. Public Works and Government Services Canada – Office of Greening Government Operations. Viewed 2101-04-12.</ref> The US federal government requires certain green procurement practices in its buildings and supports the wide and inclusive use of them. The [[General Services Administration]], an independent establishment and government corporation, is responsible for promoting green procurement and provides federal agencies with selling and purchasing guidelines and suggestions. Green procurement is primarily done by federal contracting personnel and program managers – but it is not restricted to such professionals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sftool.gov/greenprocurement/about|title=Green Procurement Compilation - About - GSA Sustainable Facilities Tool|website=sftool.gov}}</ref>
Clearly, sustainable procurement is not a practice of high-income countries only. For instance, Papua New Guinea, Ecuador and Brazil have all developed strategies to provide ''economic facilities'' to selected industries, while also addressing some of the sustainability pillars in their procurement practices: for example, adopting environmental standards and giving preference to smaller and local suppliers, women-owned businesses and peasant family farmers. Papua New Guinea's Vision 2050 and Ecuador's Buen Vivir plan have also addressed ''social opportunities'' and ''intergenerational equity'', and Brazil's [[Fome Zero]] Food Acquisition Programme has addressed ''protective security'' and ''geographical equity''.<ref name="chathamhouse.org"/>
===Local government===
At market-level, sustainable procurement is typically instrumental: authorities seek to address policy ''through procurement''.<ref>http://www.ogc.gov.uk/documents/Efficiency_Sustainable_Procurement_Statement.pdf OGC Statement on Efficiency and Sustainable Procurement</ref>
Government departments and local bodies can use procurement to address certain chosen agendas in buying solutions that will contribute to the community or environmental goals, or to diversity or equality targets.<ref>Gillett, A.G., 2015. REMARKOR: RELATIONSHIP MARKETING ORIENTATION ON LOCAL GOVERNMENT PERFORMANCE. Journal of Services Research, 15(1), p.97.</ref><ref>Gillett, A.G. (2016). MULTIPLE RELATIONSHIPS WITH MULTIPLE STAKEHOLDERS: THE SCOPE OF RELATIONSHIP MARKETING FOR PUBLIC SERVICES. Journal of Services Research, 16(2), pp. 1-28</ref>
To help local governments improve sustainability and reduce environmental impacts the [[California Sustainability Alliance]], has developed a Green Procurement Toolkit.<ref>[http://sustainca.org/tools/green_procurement_toolkit California Sustainability Alliance, Green Procurement Toolkit], Received October 28, 2010</ref> Green procurement can help local governments save money, create local green jobs and improve their [[environmental sustainability]].
Under sustainable procurement criteria any procuring organization must therefore take a broad approach to sustainability, reflecting localized economic, environmental and social needs as well as cross-cutting sustainable development strategies such as [[Life Cycle Assessment]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sftool.gov/plan/400/life-cycle-assessment-lca-overview|title=Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Overview - GSA Sustainable Facilities Tool|website=sftool.gov}}</ref>
[[ICLEI]] is a membership organization of local governments who recognizes the power of Sustainable Public Procurement to achieve environmental, social and economic benefits.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sustainable-procurement.org/|title=SP Platform{{!}} SUSTAINABLE PROCUREMENT PLATFORM|website=sustainable-procurement.org|access-date=2018-12-18}}</ref> It encourages Public Procurement of Innovation as a means for achieving sustainability. Among its various activities, it offers a Sustainable Procurement Resource Center <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sustainable-procurement.org/resource-centre/|title=SP Platform{{!}} RESOURCE CENTRE|website=www.sustainable-procurement.org|access-date=2018-12-18}}</ref> and a Procurement Forum,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://procurement-forum.eu/|title=Procurement Forum|website=procurement-forum.eu|access-date=2018-12-18}}</ref> which can be used by procurers or by anyone interested in these topics.
Procura+ is a network of European public authorities and regions that connect, exchange and act on sustainable and innovation procurement.
On December 8, 2006, the Greater London Authority became the first public-sector body to publish a sustainable procurement policy,<ref>http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/tenders/docs/sustainable-procurement.pdf The GLA Group Sustainable Procurement Policy</ref> promising to award a "distinct competitive advantage" to those companies which demonstrated a commitment to sustainable procurement concerns.<ref>http://www.ft.com/cms/s/b2a1cdec-8660-11db-86d5-0000779e2340.html ''Financial Times'', December 8, 2006, 'Diversity linked to London contracts'</ref> The policy reflected Mayor [[Ken Livingstone]]'s enthusiasm for public procurement as a tool for fostering social inclusion, equality and environmental objectives.
The GLA also stated that their policy was "very much as a model for broader government procurement" but this expectation was not fulfilled in the UK Government's Sustainable Procurement Action Plan, published on March 5, 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/publications/pdf/SustainableProcurementActionPlan.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2008-05-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512121225/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/publications/pdf/SustainableProcurementActionPlan.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2008 |df=mdy-all }} UK Government Sustainable Procurement Action Plan</ref> The Action Plan, which incorporated answers to the Sustainable Procurement Task Force, was explicitly environment-oriented in approach (Ch 4.3) with wider social issues scarcely addressed.
This was perhaps surprising, as was press disinterest in the publication. Despite its acknowledged importance among senior politicians and business leaders, publication of the Action Plan received only one national newspaper report, and that was markedly flippant in tone.<ref>http://www.ft.com/cms/s/75cb4c24-cb87-11db-b436-000b5df10621.html ''Financial Times'', March 6, 2007, 'Government seeks green toilet paper'</ref>
===Private sector===
Sustainable procurement outside of the United Nations is happening everywhere, in the international community, in states and local authorities, in the private sector and in the civil society. Sustainable procurement is as applicable to the [[private sector]] as the [[public sector]], and certainly its proponents aspire to see its application across all areas of the economy due to a vast amount of material available on the internet for organizations and companies wishing to improve their sustainability performance.
Acquisition of goods and services may account for over 50% of the company's expenses, and may exceed 80% in sectors such as in retailing, electronic and automotive industries - with all this purchasing power, the private sector has a great ability to influence markets.<ref name="auto"/> Influencing procurement practice within a private-sector firm is not straightforward for governments, meaning that the companies themselves often have to be self-motivated to embrace sustainability. It becomes a social responsibility for both businesses and workers to promote sustainable procurement in the workplace.
The UK's Sustainable Procurement National Action Plan argues that it is "something the best of the private sector is already doing – whether through enlightened leadership or shareholder pressure".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/publications/procurement-action-plan/documents/full-document.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-12-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061215132243/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/publications/procurement-action-plan/documents/full-document.pdf |archive-date=December 15, 2006 |df=mdy-all }} 'Procuring the Future: Sustainable Procurement National Action Plan' by Sustainable Procurement Task Force</ref> It also argues that government purchasing power (circa £150bn in the UK alone) can apply sustainable procurement principles to present a persuasive case to those in the private sector resisting sustainable procurement practice.
==== Fair trade ====
[[Fair trade]] and sustainable procurement demands the implementation of responsible practices in relation to workers, environment and society to be followed by suppliers as to promote a chain of sustainability between production and consumption.
==== B Corporation ====
[[B Corporation (certification)]] (B Corp) demands support for the [[triple bottom line]]. B Corps are incentivized to [[buy local]], [[Organic product|organic]], and from other B Corps. This promotes a chain of sustainable businesses that amplifies its effectiveness.
==== Voluntary Sustainability Standards ====
The private sector also implements various Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS), such as certifications and accreditations, in order to ensure sustainable procurement, as well as to protect company brands. Reputational risks and concerns have proven to be a powerful impetus for implementing Voluntary Sustainability standards. For example, in 2012 Wal-Mart introduced the Wal-Mart Sustainability Index in response to claims that the company was notorious for unsustainably produced and sourced products.<ref name="meeting">{{cite web |title=MEETING SUSTAINABILITY GOALS VOLUNTARY SUSTAINABILITY STANDARDS AND THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT |url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/unfss_2nd_2016_en.pdf |publisher=United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards |access-date=15 October 2020}}</ref>
These Voluntary Sustainability Standards have important implications, not only for supply chain security, but also for rural development and climate change. An initiative by the Aid by Trade Foundation, for example, trains [[smallholding|smallholder]] farmers to produce sustainable cotton in exchange for exclusive contracts with international brands and retailers. The initiative creates a shared value opportunity wherein the companies benefit by securing their supply chains and meeting the growing consumer demand for sustainably sourced products, while the smallholder farmers are able to grow their businesses.<ref name="meeting"/> Likewise, the Marine Stewardship Council leverages its certification program to encourage consumers to buy sustainably sourced fish and fisheries to fish more sustainably. The purpose of the program is not only to address growing concerns around the long-term viability of global fish populations, but also to prevent the collapse of the Northern cod fishery.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marine Stewardship Council |url=https://www.msc.org/en-us/?gclid=CjwKCAjw5p_8BRBUEiwAPpJO6z2qk7UtH8UnoxK2WFAsmMu2d5e6uXYSB7Ash5JHpJhFDxcAeTfVTRoCi_EQAvD_BwE |website=Marine Stewardship Council |access-date=15 October 2020}}</ref>
== Sustainable procurement in Europe ==
=== European Union ===
In 2008, the [[European Commission]] developed a catalog for Green Public Procurement (GPP), which contains the criteria for organic food as well as for animal products produced in compliance with animal welfare standards.<ref>[https://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/index_en.htm ''Green Public Procurement''] retrieved on am 25. August 2020 in Ec.europa.eu</ref>
=== Austria ===
An Austria-wide instrument is the Austrian Action Plan for Sustainable Public Procurement (naBe Action Plan).<ref>[http://www.nachhaltigebeschaffung.at/nabe-aktionsplan ''Österreichischen Aktionsplan zur nachhaltigen öffentlichen Beschaffung''] retrieved on 25. August 2020 in Nachhaltigebeschaffung.at</ref> There is also the program ''ÖkoKauf'' in [[Vienna]], which specifies criteria for the procurement of food by the public hand in Vienna.<ref>[https://www.wien.gv.at/umweltschutz/oekokauf/ ''ÖkoKauf Wien - Programm für die ökologische Beschaffung der Stadt Wien''] retrieved on am 25. August 2020 in Wien.gv.at</ref>
=== Germany ===
Sustainable procurement can be found in various institutions, e.g. Competence Center for Sustainable Procurement (KNB),<ref>[http://www.nachhaltige-beschaffung.info/DE/Home/home_node.html ''Das zentrale Portal für nachhaltige Beschaffung öffentlicher Auftraggeber''] retrieved on 25. August 2020 in Nachhaltige-beschaffung.info</ref> Competence Center for Innovative Procurement (KOINNO),<ref>[https://www.koinno-bmwi.de/ ''Das Kompetenzzentrum innovative Beschaffung''] retrieved on 25. August 2020 in Koinno-bmwi.de</ref> and National Quality Center for Nutrition in Kita and School (NQZ).<ref>[https://www.nqz.de/ ''Nationales Qualitätszentrum für Ernährung in Kita und Schule''] retrieved on 25. August 2020 in Nqz.de</ref> In addition, there is the Organic Cities Network, which aims to use more food from organic farming in their public institutions.<ref>[https://www.bzfe.de/inhalt/die-bio-staedte-31106.html ''Bio-Städte''] retrieved on 25. August 2020 in Bzfe.de</ref> Since 2018, the public debate in Germany has centered on the German [[Supply Chain Act]], a mandatory due diligence law for companies. A legislative proposal for the Supply Chain Act has entered the parliamentary process in March 2021.<ref>[https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/german-due-diligence-law/ "Germany: Cabinet passes mandatory due diligence proposal; Parliament now to consider & strengthen"] retrieved on 27 March 2021 in business-humanrights.org</ref>
=== Great Britain ===
In 2014, the Department for Environment & Rural Affairs has defined the framework for sustainable food procurement in the Plan for Public Procurement.<ref>''A Plan for Public Procurement'', Dr Peter Bonfield, retrieved on 25. August 2020 ([https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/332756/food-plan-july-2014.pdf PDF; 2,65 MB])</ref> In addition, the Animal Cruelty Free Food Procurement Policy was issued in 2009 to promote animal welfare in the procurement of animal products.<ref>''Newcastle’s Social Value Commitment'', GPP Case studies, retrieved on 25. August 2020 ([https://www.yhn.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Social-Value-commitment.pdf PDF; 142 kB])</ref>
=== Netherlands ===
The Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH) is a collaboration between private companies, NGO's and the Dutch government to advance sustainable procurement with the goal of addressing [[United Nations]] Development Goals of reducing poverty and supporting environmental sustainability and Fair Trade. This joint effort increased voluntary sustainability certification among producers in developing countries as well as the rate of purchasing certified goods from the private sector. Public funding from the IDH was found to have catalyzed the industry trends of sustainable production certification and procurement in sectors such as cotton, cocoa, tea and others. Additional changes have taken place as a result of the partnership, such as the "Beyond Chocolate" movement that has emerged to include social benefits such as farmer field schools focusing on increasing productivity, as well as forming new partnerships between private and public sector stakeholders to assess living income and prevent issues like sexual harassment. The initiative also looked closely at the indicators and limitations of positive effects of sustainable certifications, drawing on diverse studies including those of the Committee on Sustainability Assessment and others examining Fair Trade and [[Rainforest Alliance]] as effective vehicles for improving the livelihoods of farmers. The committee on Sustainability Assessment found modest evidence of improved net income, crop yield and sustainability practices among certified coffee & cocoa farmers across 12 countries, as opposed to non-certified coffee & cocoa farmers in the same countries. There were also indirect positive impacts from sustainability standards such as improved transparency in global value chains and marketability of certified goods. However, the findings from these studies show that while there may be small economic benefits to certified farmers, it is often not enough to significantly improve their quality of life, and since the cost burden of certification itself is the responsibility of the producer, the economic benefit is minimal. Even modest economic gains are not always distributed fairly, and there were noted cases of those in positions of authority benefiting more that farm laborers, female farmers, or farmers who are too poor to pay the upfront cost of certification.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Riding the wave of sustainable commodity sourcing: Review of the Sustainable Trade Initiative IDH 2008-2013|url=https://thecosa.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/riding-the-wave-of-sustainable-commodity-sourcing-review-of-the-sustainable-trade-initiative-idh-2008-2013.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-21|website=The COSA}}</ref><ref>Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands (2014). ''Riding the wave of sustainable commodity sourcing: Review of the Sustainable Trade Initiative IDH 2008-2013''. The Netherlands: Policy and Operations Evaluation Department (IOB).</ref>
=== Sweden ===
In [[Gothenburg]], the Meal Program, which sets a 50% organic quota (100% for meat) for all municipal facilities, was introduced. In 2010, [[Malmö]] set the goal of switching all its food procurement to organic products by 2020.<ref>''Sustainable Food for Thought in Malmö'', GPP Case studies, retrieved on 25. August 2020 ([https://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/pdf/casestudy4.pdf PDF; 119 kB])</ref>
===Switzerland===
The procurement platform Sustainability Compass is financed by Switzerland's [[Federal Department of Economic Affairs, Education and Research]] (SECO). Its guidelines recommend reducing the proportion of animal products and giving preference to plant products and organically and fairly produced goods.<ref>[https://www.kompass-nachhaltigkeit.de/en/ Sustainability Compass], ''Kompass Nachhaltigkeit'', retrieved on 25 August 2020</ref>
==Approaches==
While there is no strict definition on how organizations implement sustainable procurement, there are two approaches that can be combined:
===Product-based===
This is where an organization examines a products movement along the [[supply chain]] and assesses the [[Natural environment|environmental]] [[credentials]] of themselves and of their [[suppliers]]. This path is commonly used when an organization wishes to understand the impact of a product or product range for strategic and marketing purposes. This approach can also provide a vivid picture of supplier processes.
===Supplier-based===
An organization may analyze the CSR management systems of a supplier and whether its practices conform with law and with the CSR standards of "buying" organization. Thus, the organization measures the environmental and social risk a supplier may impose upon them. Implemented effectively, this method will show whether a supplier meets the environmental standards of the organization, along with whether suppliers are meeting the requirements of law. Some assessments improve the whole supply chain by providing incentives for other businesses to be more sustainable.
In order to assess the CSR Management systems, companies can use a variety of tools:
* self-assessment questionnaires
* B Corporation's free B Impact Assessment<ref>[https://bimpactassessment.net/ B Impact Assessment]</ref>
* Science Based Targets assessments
* on-site audits programs managed internally or through third parties<ref>[https://simfoni.com/supplier-diversity/ What is Supplier Diversity and Why is it Important?]</ref>
==See also==
*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Triple bottom line]]
*[[United Nations Environment Programme]]
*[[Government procurement]]
*[[Government procurement in the United States]]
*[[Top 100 Contractors of the U.S. federal government]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== External links ==
* [https://www.sustainablepurchasing.org Sustainable Purchasing Leadership Council]
* [http://www.iclei-europe.org/topics/sustainable-procurement/ ICLEI Europe Sustainable Procurement Department]
* [http://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/index_en.htm European Union Green public procurement (GPP)]
* [https://www.oecd.org/gov/public-procurement/green/ OECD's Green Public Procurement]
{{Sustainability}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Government procurement]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Complementary architecture | {{Short description|Movement in contemporary architecture}}{{Neutrality|date=March 2023}}
{{Context|date=July 2023}}
'''Complementary architecture''' is a movement in [[contemporary architecture]] promoting [[Architecture|architectural]] {{Clarify|text=practice rooted in comprehensive understanding of context, aiming to contribute to the environment in such a way as to continue and improve or emphasise its preexisting qualities |date=July 2023}}{{Vague|date=July 2023}}. Indispensable features of complementary architecture include [[sustainability]], [[altruism]], [[contextualism]], [[endemism]] and [[Complementary architecture#Continuity in architecture|continuity]] of specific regional design language.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lev|first=Jiri|date=June 10, 2019|title=Manifesto Of Complementary Architecture|url=https://complementaryarchitecture.org/2019/06/10/manifesto-of-complementary-architecture/|access-date=2020-10-19|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022221620/https://complementaryarchitecture.org/2019/06/10/manifesto-of-complementary-architecture/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Complementary architecture occurs at the intersection of local pattern and design languages. A [[pattern language]] represents a set of more or less formalised rules of human interaction with built forms, resulting from practical solutions developed over time according to local culture and natural conditions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alexander|first=Christopher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mW7RCwAAQBAJ&q=a+pattern+language&pg=PR5|title=A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction|date=1977-08-25|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972653-0|language=en}}</ref> A [[design language]] in architecture is a set of geometrical (formal) and material standards used in buildings and other man-made structures, traditionally arising from local materials and their physical properties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krier|first=Leon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MchfvovmHeUC&q=architecture+of+community|title=The Architecture of Community|date=2009-05-08|publisher=Island Press|isbn=978-1-61091-124-5|language=en}}</ref>
Complementary architecture interprets the [[Vitruvius#De architectura|Vitruvian triad]] for contemporary use, mapping durability (''firmitas'') against aspects of broader sustainability, utility (''utilitas'') against altruism and service to society, and individual beauty (''venustas'') against harmony with broader context, regional identity and spirit of place.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Lev|first=Jiri|date=2015|title=Manifesto of Complementary Architecture (MOCA)|edition=1st|location=Newcastle, Australia}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Alexandru|first=Diana|title=Debate on the Presence/Absence of the Vitruvian Triad in the Current Architecture and Urban Design|url=https://www.academia.edu/10891976|language=en}}</ref>
== Continuity in architecture ==
Historically, building environments were produced in a continuous, evolutionary fashion rather than as singular revolutionary events.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Continuity in Architecture|url=https://larryspeck.com/writing/on-continuity-in-architecture/|access-date=2020-10-17|website=Larry Speck|language=en-US}}</ref> Complementary architecture involves systematic analysis of traditional techniques in the context of vibrant urban environments, aiming to rediscover sustainable, layered, nuanced, contextual and environmentally appropriate solutions for the present time.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Continuity in Architecture – Manchester School of Architecture|url=https://www.msa.ac.uk/study/march/cia/|access-date=2020-10-17|website=www.msa.ac.uk}}</ref>
== Applications ==
Practically all traditional [[vernacular architecture|vernacular]] and formal architecture produced prior to the 20th century is complementary architecture due to inherent material and cultural constraints, as are many works inspired by some contemporary movements such as [[contextual architecture]], [[indigenous architecture]], [[organic architecture]] or [[New Urbanism|new urbanism]].
Complementary architecture methodology is especially useful where contemporary development penetrates compact historical urban fabric.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wojciuk|first1=Natalia|last2=Milwicz|first2=Roman|last3=Nowotarski|first3=Piotr|date=2016-01-01|title=Analysis of The Urban Space Perception, Transformed Under the Influence of Complementary Architecture|journal=Procedia Engineering|series=World Multidisciplinary Civil Engineering-Architecture-Urban Planning Symposium 2016, WMCAUS 2016|language=en|volume=161|pages=1338–1342|doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.653|issn=1877-7058|doi-access=free}}</ref> Complementary design pays respect to its architectural context while carefully introducing contemporary design elements.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-26|title=A Complementary Architectural Dialogue of Past and Present in the Refurbishment of Hotel Fouquet Barrière|url=https://www.archdaily.com/915677/a-complementary-architectural-dialogue-of-past-and-present-in-the-refurbishment-of-hotel-fouquet-barriere|access-date=2020-10-17|website=ArchDaily|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Critical views ==
The movement specifically rejects the tendency of contemporary architects to construct buildings rather than cities, neglecting the fact that the value of a building stays in the architectural whole,<ref name=":1" /> as well as [[Modern architecture|modernism's]] contrasting with nature or context for the sake of innovation as expedient and inevitably destructive.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Salingaros|first=Nikos A.|title=Unified Architectural Theory: Form, Language, Complexity|year=2013|publisher=Vajra Books |isbn=978-9937623056}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Glendinning|first=Miles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sToXiE68g10C|title=Architecture's Evil Empire?: The Triumph and Tragedy of Global Modernism|date=2010-10-15|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-981-1|language=en}}</ref> Adherents posit that in the 20th century the abdication of decorative elements and traditional forms was thought to be a sign of newly found simplicity, solidarity and sacrifice by the socialist and conveniently cost-efficient by the capitalist side of the political scene. By extension, that "nearly every building completed prior to the 20th century was beautiful" and that the matter of beauty in contemporary and future architecture as simply a matter of "recovering old habits".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Affairs|first=Current|title=Why You Hate Contemporary Architecture ❧ Current Affairs|url=https://www.currentaffairs.org/2017/10/why-you-hate-contemporary-architecture|access-date=2020-10-17|website=Current Affairs|language=en}}</ref>
== Contemporary examples ==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Komplementäre Architektur Russia.png
File:City Gate, Valletta 002.jpg
File:Seaside Chaple BW.jpg
File:Basshall.JPG
File:Moscow (8351273413).jpg
File:Nice horses in front of a modern farmhouse, a typical Dutch scene - panoramio.jpg
File:Hus kring Grubbensparken 2014, 1.JPG
File:Saifivillage.JPG
File:Σαγράδα Φαμίλια 2941.jpg
File:Selwyn2.jpg
File:Tegelpråmen 1.JPG
</gallery>
== See also ==
{{portal|Architecture}}
* [[European Urban Renaissance]]
* [[Architectural design values]]
* [[Critical regionalism]]
* [[Sustainable architecture]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Architectural theory]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable architecture]] |
Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture | {{Short description|Iowa State University center}}
The '''Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture''' (LCSA) is a center at [[Iowa State University]] devoted to the study and promotion of new techniques in [[sustainable agriculture]]. The goals of the Center are: “to identify and develop new ways to farm profitably while conserving natural resources as well as reducing negative environmental and social impacts.”<ref name="iastate">{{cite web|url=https://www.leopold.iastate.edu/leopold-center-sustainable-agriculture|title=Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture|website=leopold.iastate.edu|accessdate=2020-11-16}}</ref>
It is considered “one of the top institutions supporting research on agricultural techniques that prioritize sustainability and conservation in the context of profitable farming.”<ref>{{cite news |last=Mayer|first=Amy |date=2017-05-18 |title=ISU's Leopold Center Stays "Alive For Another Day" |url=https://www.iowapublicradio.org/agriculture/2017-05-18/isus-leopold-center-stays-alive-for-another-day |work=Iowa Public Radio |access-date=2020-11-19}}</ref>
==History==
The center is named for [[Aldo Leopold]], a native of [[Burlington, Iowa]].
It was created in 1987 as part of the Iowa Groundwater Protection Act, for which Representative [[Paul Wesley Johnson|Paul Johnson]] was the Iowa House floor manager.
Between 1987 and 2017, the Center awarded more than 500 research grants to study agriculture issues like conservation buffers, [[rotational grazing]], and building local food economies. While Leopold's focus is on Iowa's specific food and farm landscape, many of its findings have had a national and international impact.<ref name="iastate"/>
About 75 to 85 percent of the Iowa's nutrient reduction strategies have come through the Leopold Center. It research on [[cover crops]], [[buffer strip]]s, saturated buffers, bioreactors and wetlands and other practices has been widely used to offset nutrient and soil losses.
Mark Rasmussen is the current Leopold Center director. A 17-member Advisory Board advises the director on policies, budget, and program review.
The center funded a robotic mechanical weeder project that aims to build a lightweight, energy-efficient, ATV-size robot that could destroy weeds without chemicals in row crops. The energy cost could be less than one fifth of the energy required in conventional weeding.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dietz|first=John |date=2015-05-11 |title=ROBOTIC WEEDERS |url=https://www.agriculture.com/technology/robotics/robotic-weeders_581-ar48733 |work=Successful Farming |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref>
==Budget cuts==
In 2017, the Leopold Center was defunded in budget cuts made by Iowa's state government.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cox|first1=Kate |last2=Brown|first2=Claire |date=2019-01-31 |title=US academics feel the invisible hand of politicians and big agriculture |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jan/31/us-academics-feel-the-invisible-hand-of-politicians-and-big-agriculture|work=The Guardian |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref> Without state funds, the center will no longer offer grants to academic researchers, working farmers, or field-to-table advocacy programs. Students at ISU will no longer be able to receive financial support for advanced degrees in sustainable agriculture.<ref>{{cite news |last=Charis-Carlson|first=Jeff |date=2017-08-02 |title=With state funding cut, what's next for ISU's Leopold Center? |url=https://www.press-citizen.com/story/news/2017/08/02/leopold-center-iowa-budget-cuts-leave-questions-over-whats-next/484403001/|work=Iowa City Press-Citizen |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref> Due to the cuts, five of the center's staff members were let go, leaving just director Rasmussen and distinguished fellow [[Fred Kirschenmann]]. The Center moved into a smaller office and downsized 30 years of records. They received a commitment from ISU, to keep the center's website up with all past research searchable in the university database.
Many believe the influence of [[agribusiness]] on legislators leads to a lack of willingness to support the center. A grassroots coalition of current students of the ISU Graduate Program in Sustainable Agriculture, emeritus faculty and alumni of ISU, farmers, and members of [[Iowa Farmers Union]], [[Iowa Environmental Council]], [[Center for Rural Affairs]], [[Women, Food and Agriculture Network]], ISU Sustainable Agriculture Student Association, and [[Practical Farmers of Iowa]] was formed to revive the center and to educate the public of Center's mission and activities.<ref name="iowasustainableag">{{cite web|url=https://iowasustainableag.com/about-us/|title=About Us | Iowa Sustainable Agriculture|website=iowasustainableag.com|accessdate=2020-11-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Eller|first=Donnelle |date=2017-10-13 |title=Leopold Center's battle for new life begins with Iowa farmers, commodity groups |url=https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/money/agriculture/2017/10/13/leopold-centers-battle-new-life-begins-iowa-farmers-commodity-groups/755624001/ |work=The Des Moines Register |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Collins|first=John |date=2017-06-23 |title=Rethink This Iowa: Do Not Gut the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture |url=https://inthesetimes.com/article/iowa-leopold-center-for-sustainable-agriculture-water-soil-cafos-nitrates|work=In These Times |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref>
The legislation was introduced by state representatives [[Charles Isenhart]] and [[Beth Wessel-Kroeschell]] to fund the center. The bill would make $1 million in annual public funding available to the center if ISU's president first raised the same amount in private funds. Together, the $2 million would equal the Leopold Center's pre-cutback budget.<ref>{{cite news |last=Held|first=Lisa |date=2018-02-14 |title=Can the Leopold Center be Saved? |url=https://civileats.com/2018/02/14/can-the-leopold-center-be-saved/ |work=Civil Eats |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Held|first=Lisa |date=2017-05-05 |title=Leopold Center Avoids Shut-Down, but its Future Remains Uncertain |url=https://civileats.com/2017/05/05/the-leopold-center-for-sustainable-agriculture-faces-a-shut-down/|work=Civil Eats |access-date=2020-11-14}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*{{cite web|url=https://www.leopold.iastate.edu/leopold-center-sustainable-agriculture|title=Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture|website=leopold.iastate.edu|accessdate=2020-11-16}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in Iowa]]
[[Category:Agricultural education]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Iowa]]
[[Category:Iowa State University]]
[[Category:Organic farming organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Agroecology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:1987 establishments in Iowa]] |
Vermont Dairy Festival | {{short description|American annual event}}
{{use mdy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox recurring event
|name = Vermont Dairy Festival
|native_name =
|native_name_lang =
|nickname =
|logo =
|logo_alt =
|logo_caption =
|logo_size =
|image =
|image_size =
|alt =
|caption =
|status = <!-- e.g. defunct, active, inactive ... -->
|genre = <!-- e.g. natural phenomena, fairs, festivals, conferences, exhibitions ... -->
|date = <!-- {{start date|YYYY|mm|dd}} "dates=" also works, but do not use both -->
|begins = <!-- {{start date|YYYY|mm|dd}} -->
|ends = <!-- {{end date|YYYY|mm|dd}} -->
|frequency = <!-- Weekly, Monthly, Quarterly, Semi-annually, Annually, Bi-annually, 2nd Tuesday of November, etc. -->
|venue =
|location = Vermont
|coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LON|type:event|display=inline,title}} -->
|country = United States
|years_active = <!-- {{age|YYYY|mm|dd}} Date of the first occurrence -->
|first = <!-- {{start date|YYYY|mm|dd}} "founded=" and "established=" also work -->
|founder_name = <!-- or | founders = -->
|last = <!-- Date of most recent event; if the event will not be held again, use {{End date|YYYY|MM|DD|df=y}} -->
|prev =
|next =
|participants =
|attendance =
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|area =
|budget =
|activity =
|leader_name =
|patron =
|organised = <!-- "organized=" also works -->
|filing =
|people =
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|sponsor = <!-- | or sponsors = -->
|website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
|current =
|footnotes =
}}
The '''Vermont Dairy Festival''' is an annual festival dedicated to the [[Vermont dairy industry]], typically held on the first weekend of June in [[Enosburg Falls, Vermont]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/story/news/2018/09/25/history-space-tales-enosburgh/37938121/|title=History Space: Tales of Enosburgh|first=Janice Fleury|last=Geraw|website=The Burlington Free Press}}</ref>
==History==
The Vermont Dairy Festival was first held in 1956. Initially known as Dairy Days with a focus on celebrating the dairy industry for farmers,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hardie |first=Laura |title=History Space: Celebration of VT family farms |url=https://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/story/news/2017/06/04/history-space-celebration-vt-family-farms/102462420/ |website=The Burlington Free Press}}</ref> it eventually became the Franklin County Dairy Festival and then the Vermont Dairy Festival.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lancasterfarming.com/news/northern_edition/in-a-tough-year-dairy-festival-provides-needed-break/article_8adc0042-1a75-57a7-bb1c-5bf8a12ba07c.html|title=In a Tough Year, Dairy Festival Provides Needed Break|first=Leon|last=Thompson|website=Lancaster Farming}}</ref>
It is run by the Enosburg Falls [[Lions Club]] and proceeds from the festival are disbursed to local community causes and organizations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vtdigger.org/2016/05/30/60th-annual-vermont-dairy-festival-to-be-held-june-2-5/|title=60th Annual Vermont Dairy Festival to Be Held June 2–5|date=May 30, 2016|website=VTDigger}}</ref> About 20,000 people attended the event in past years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/story/news/local/vermont/2014/06/07/dairy-festival-draws-thousands-enosburg-falls/10171433/|title=Dairy Festival draws thousands to Enosburg Falls|first=Lynn|last=Monty|website=The Burlington Free Press}}</ref>
In 2020 and again in 2021, it was cancelled due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.samessenger.com/news/vermont-dairy-festival-cancelled-amid-covid-19-outbreak/article_8aaf7076-736b-11ea-91b2-6fe754e1c998.html|title=Vermont Dairy Festival cancelled amid COVID-19 outbreak|website=Saint Albans Messenger}}</ref> The festival resumed in 2022, with farmers recognizing consumer concerns with the [[Environmental impacts of animal agriculture|environmental impacts of dairy farming]], stating that the festival would be an educational opportunity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Borden |first=Elissa |date=2022-06-03 |title=Vermont Dairy Festival underway in Enosburg Falls |url=https://www.wcax.com/2022/06/03/vermont-dairy-festival-underway-enosburg-falls/ |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=WCAX |language=en}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* {{official|http://www.vermontdairyfestival.com}}
{{authority control}}
[[Category:Enosburg, Vermont|e]]
[[Category:Parades in the United States]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Vermont]]
{{US-festival-stub}} |
Sterling College (Vermont) | {{Short description|Work college in Craftsbury, Vermont, US}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Sterling College
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| motto = Ecological Thinking and Action
| established = {{start date and age|1958}} (as a boys' preparatory school)
| type = [[Private college|Private]] [[work college]]
| accreditation = [[New England Commission of Higher Education|NECHE]]
| endowment = $1.1 million
| total_staff = 34
| faculty = 11<ref name="petersons">{{cite web|url=http://www.petersons.com/ugchannel/code/instvc.asp?inunid=8863|title=College Overview - Sterling College|accessdate=2007-01-26|date=2006-10-23|work =Peterson's}}</ref>
| president = Scott Thomas
| students = 100
| city = [[Craftsbury, Vermont|Craftsbury Common]]
| state = [[Vermont]]
| country = United States
| coor = {{coord|44.6523|-72.3823|type:edu_region:US-VT|display=inline,title}}
| campus = Rural
| colors =
| mascot =
| nickname =
| footnotes =
| website = {{URL|https://www.sterlingcollege.edu/}}
| logo = Sterling-College-Logo.png
}}
'''Sterling College''' is a [[Private college|private]] [[work college]] in [[Craftsbury, Vermont]]. Its curriculum is focused on ecological thinking and action through a major in Environmental Studies with concentrations in Ecology, Environmental Humanities, Outdoor Education, and Sustainable Agriculture & Food Systems. The college is accredited by the [[New England Commission of Higher Education]].
==History==
'''Sterling School''' was founded as a boys' college preparatory school in 1958. The school's educational philosophy was later influenced by that of [[Outward Bound]] founder [[Kurt Hahn]]. The school's transition to higher education in the 1970s began with the Academic Short Course in Outdoor Leadership, a 21-day program. In 1974, Sterling School was faced with closure and a small group of faculty launched the educational model that became Sterling College.
In 1974, a small group of faculty established an academic year-long program similar to [[Outward Bound]] programs known as Grassroots Project in Vermont at Sterling Institute. By 1983, Sterling had developed into an accredited college offering an Associate of Arts degree in resource management with full accreditation by the [[New England Association of Schools and Colleges]] granted in 1987.
Since 1997, Sterling College has been accredited as a four-year college. It awards Bachelor of Arts degrees in Ecology, Environmental Humanities, Outdoor Education, and Sustainable Agriculture & Food Systems. Sterling College joined the Work Colleges Consortium in 1999.
In 2013, Sterling College announced that it would be the first college in Vermont, and the third college in the nation, to divest its endowment from fossil fuel extractors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gofossilfree.org/commitments/ |title=Fossil Free – Commitments |publisher=Gofossilfree.org |date= |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref>
On April 11th, 2023, Scott L. Thomas was announced as Sterling's 12th president; he began on July 1.<ref>{{Cite web |last=D'Auria |first=Peter |date=2023-04-13 |title=Sterling College names University of Wyoming administrator as new president |url=https://vtdigger.org/2023/04/13/sterling-college-names-university-of-wyoming-administrator-as-new-president/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=VTDigger |language=en-US}}</ref>
==Academics==
[[File:Sunflowers Sterling College (Vermont).jpg|thumbnail|a solar panel at Sterling College]]
Sterling College offers associate and bachelor's degrees. It was the first college in the nation to offer a minor in [[Draft horse|Draft Horse Management]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://farmprogress.com/story-minor-draft-horsing-well-yes-sterling-college-9-101784 |title=Minor In Draft Horsing? Well Yes, At Sterling College |publisher=Farmprogress.com |date=2013-08-30 |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref>
In 2013, Sterling College created the Rian Fried Center for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems. Named for the late trustee, it is the center point for the college's focus on sustainable agriculture and sustainable food systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wamc.org/post/sterling-college-launches-sustainable-ag-and-food-systems-center |title=Sterling College Launches Sustainable Ag and Food Systems Center |publisher=WAMC |date=2013-08-27 |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref>
Sterling College also launched a continuing education program in 2013, with a series of 2- and 4-week short courses. The first course offered was a two-week cheese-making intensive in partnership with the Cellars at Jasper Hill.<ref>{{cite web|last=Palmer |first=Hannah |url=http://www.sevendaysvt.com/vermont/sterling-college-introduces-artisan-cheesemaking-intensive/Content?oid=2295816 |title=Sterling College Introduces Artisan Cheesemaking Intensive | Food News | Seven Days | Vermont's Independent Voice |publisher=Sevendaysvt.com |date= |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref> Other courses feature guest faculty such as [[Sandor Katz]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Levitt |first=Alice |url=http://www.sevendaysvt.com/BiteClub/archives/2014/01/29/sandor-katz-to-teach-fermentation-at-sterling-college |title=Sandor Katz to Teach Fermentation at Sterling College | Bite Club |publisher=Sevendaysvt.com |date=2014-01-29 |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref> [[John Elder (nature writer)|John Elder]], [[Rowan Jacobsen]], [[Ginger Strand]], and [[Clare Walker Leslie]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vtdigger.org/2014/02/24/new-writing-workshop-announced-sterling-college/ |title=New writing workshop announced at Sterling College |publisher=Vtdigger.org |date=2014-02-24 |accessdate=2016-10-12}}</ref>
==Campus==
The primary campus is {{convert|130|acres}}. It has 14 buildings, including a woodworking shop and a library. Outdoor teaching facilities include a managed woodlot, a challenge course, a {{convert|30|ft}} climbing tower, managed gardens, and a working livestock farm with two solar-powered barns. Much of what is grown and raised on campus is consumed in the dining hall. Sterling produces approximately 35% of its own food, with an overall 53% coming from within a 150-mile radius of the college.<ref>{{cite web|title=FOR THE THIRD CONSECUTIVE YEAR, STERLING COLLEGE IS #1 FOR REAL FOOD|url=https://sterlingcollege.edu/news-room/real-food-for-third-year/|publisher=Sterling College|accessdate=23 April 2018}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.sterlingcollege.edu/ Official website]
{{Colleges and universities in Vermont}}
{{Work Colleges Consortium}}
{{authority control}}
[[Category:Craftsbury, Vermont]]
[[Category:Private universities and colleges in Vermont]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 1958]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Craftsbury, Vermont]]
[[Category:Education in Orleans County, Vermont]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Orleans County, Vermont]]
[[Category:1958 establishments in Vermont]]
[[Category:Work colleges]]
[[Category: Agricultural education]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Agroecology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Practical Farmers of Iowa | {{Multiple issues|
{{notability|Organizations|date=April 2016}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2021}}
}}
{{Infobox Non-profit
| name = Practical Farmers of Iowa
| formation = 1985
| type = Nonprofit
| founded_date = 1985
| founder = Dick & Sharon Thompson, Larry Kallem
| first president =
| location_city = Ames, IA
| location_country = USA
| location = [[Ames, Iowa]]
| area_served = Iowa
| origins =
| key_people =
| focus = [[Sustainable Agriculture]]
| method = Research, Develop, Promote
| revenue =
| expenses =
| num_volunteers =
| owner =
| homepage =
| dissolved =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Practical Farmers of Iowa''' (also known as PFI or Practical Farmers) is a [[Nonprofit organization|non-profit]] farmer-led organization with over 6,000 members from Iowa and beyond. Farmers in their network raise corn and soybeans, hay, livestock large and small, horticultural crops from fruits and vegetables to cut flowers and herbs, and more. Members have conventional and organic systems; employ diverse management practices; run operations of all sizes; and come from a range of backgrounds.
== History ==
Practical Farmers of Iowa was founded in 1985, a time when farmers were under great economic pressure. During that time, Iowa agriculture was in a threefold crisis: Evidence of the negative ecological consequences of current farming practices was mounting; the collapse of commodity prices called into question the economic sustainability of agriculture; and the demise of thousands of farms was draining the vitality of rural communities. Amid the turmoil of that time period, farmers sought ways to bring greater diversity to their farms as a means of reducing the need for costly inputs. A group of like-minded farmers came together looking for answers to how to make crop and livestock diversity work for them.
It was during this time that Larry Kallem, a staff member with the Iowa Institute for Cooperatives in Ames, attended a field day at the Boone-area farm of Dick and Sharon Thompson. Impressed by the scientific methods the Thompson used to conduct research trials on their farm – and their sustainable, low-input, practical approach to farming – Larry invited Dick, Sharon and two other speakers to present at an Iowa Institute workshop on low-input farming in the autumn of 1984.
Early work focused on field crops and livestock. Today, PFI's membership comprises over 6,000 farmers and friends of farmers located across Iowa and beyond.
== Board of Directors ==
Practical Farmers of Iowa is governed by a 12-person board of directors. To ensure a focus on members’ priorities, 10 of the 12 board members must be farmers. One farmer director is elected from each of our five Iowa districts. Additionally, five farmers and two non-farmers are elected from the membership at-large. Board members serve in many capacities, from ensuring fiscal soundness and effective programs to providing leadership, advice and direction to staff and volunteers.
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Agricultural organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Agricultural education]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Iowa]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:1985 establishments in Iowa]] |
Sancroft International | '''Sancroft International''' is a London-based international [[sustainability]] consultancy company founded in 1997 <ref>Sancroft International, [https://sancroft.com/who-we-are Who we are], accessed 23 August 2021</ref> and chaired by former UK [[Conservative Party (UK)|conservative]] MP [[John Gummer]], now a member of the [[House of Lords]] (Lord Deben). Several other members of the Gummer family are involved in running the business.<ref>[[Sunday Times]], [https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/prufrock-a-great-job-for-the-tory-boy-as-all-is-forgiven-pg3dw2nflfx Prufrock: A great job for the Tory boy as all is forgiven], published 25 February 2007, accessed 3 January 2021</ref>
Recently published reports have investigated topics including [[Plastic|sustainable plastics]], [[energy infrastructure]],<ref>Sancroft International, [https://sancroft.com/reports-insights/ Reports & Insights], accessed 3 January 2021</ref> and [[modern slavery]] in [[public procurement]].<ref>Sancroft and Tussell, [https://sancroft.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/The-Sancroft-Tussell-Report-1.pdf The Sancroft-Tussell Report: Eliminating modern slavery in public procurement], second edition, accessed 24 August 2021</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Organisations based in London]]
{{Sustainability-stub}} |
Operation Sustainable Human | {{Short description|2019 non-fiction book by Chris Macdonald}}
{{Orphan|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Operation Sustainable Human
| author = Dr Chris Macdonald
| image = Operation_Sustainable_Human_book_cover.jpg
| genre = non-fiction
| language = English
| isbn = 978-1-7752528-3-2
}}
'''Operation Sustainable Human''' is a 2019 book by Dr Chris Macdonald<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr Chris Macdonald {{!}} Lucy Cavendish |url=https://www.lucy.cam.ac.uk/fellows/dr-chris-macdonald |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=www.lucy.cam.ac.uk}}</ref> about optimised climate action.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Episode 96: Operation Sustainable Human|url=https://www.sciencescholarspodcast.com/eps/2020/1/17/episode-96-operation-sustainable-human|access-date=2021-01-07|website=The Science Scholars Podcast|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2019-10-03|title=Operation Sustainable Human Review by Readers' Favorite|url=https://readersfavorite.com/book-review/operation-sustainable-human|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-07|website=Readers' Favorite|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=7 December 2019|title=Operation Sustainable Human radio discussion|url=https://www.healthylivinghealthyplanetradio.com/guests/chris-macdonald|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-07|website=Healthy Living, Healthy Planet Radio|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Operation Sustainable Human Review by Andy Carr for IndieReader|url=https://indiereader.com/book_review/operation-sustainable-human/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-07|website=IndieReader|language=en-US}}</ref> The book briefly outlines the main [[Effects of climate change|challenges of climate change]] and largely focuses on the most impactful [[Climate change mitigation|climate solutions]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2019-11-08|title=Operation Sustainable Human Review by Megan Thomas for Have You Read This?|url=https://haveyoureadthis.co.uk/2019/11/08/operation-sustainable-human/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-07|website=Have You Read This|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-22|title=Earth Day 2020 – Non-Fiction Books You Should be Reading|url=https://thereadingmillennial.com/2020/04/22/earth-day-2020-non-fiction-books-you-should-be-reading/|access-date=2021-01-07|website=The Reading Millennial|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Takeaways from the climate summit|url=https://theecologist.org/2019/sep/25/takeaways-climate-summit|access-date=2021-01-07|website=theecologist.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2019-12-14|title=Operation Sustainable Human a discussion|url=https://thereadingmillennial.com/2019/12/14/operation-sustainable-human-by-chris-macdonald/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-07|website=The Reading Millennial|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y3zCyQEACAAJ|title=Operation Sustainable Human: A Four-step Scientific Guide to Combat Climate Change (high Impact Made Simple)|date=2019-09-09|publisher=Illuminate Press|isbn=978-1-7752528-3-2|location=|pages=|language=en}}</ref>
== Overview ==
The book argues that the current global economic system, which is based on the principles of perpetual growth and consumption, is not sustainable in the long term and is contributing to [[environmental degradation]], climate change, and other crises. The book proposes a new ethical framework for sustainable development, which is based on principles of intergenerational equity, environmental stewardship, and social justice.
"Operation Sustainable Human" argues that in order to address the environmental challenges facing humanity, we need to fundamentally rethink our relationship with the natural world and adopt a more holistic and integrated approach to sustainable development. The book calls for a global shift towards a sustainable, circular, and regenerative economy, and outlines a roadmap for how we can achieve this vision.
The book draws on insights from philosophy, economics, and environmental science, as well as case studies from around the world, to explore how we can build a more sustainable and just future for ourselves and for future generations. It is a thought-provoking and inspiring work that challenges readers to think deeply about their own values and responsibilities in the face of the environmental challenges we all face.
== Tagline ==
A four-step scientific guide to combat climate change (high impact made simple)
== Publications ==
* Macdonald, Chris. ''Operation Sustainable Human''. Illuminate Press. {{ISBN|978-1-7752528-3-2}}. Paperback edition
* Macdonald, Chris. ''Operation Sustainable Human''. Illuminate Press. {{ISBN|978-1-7752528-4-9}}. Kindle edition
* Macdonald, Chris. ''Operation Sustainable Human''. Illuminate Press. {{ISBN|978-1-7752528-5-6}}. Audiobook edition
* Macdonald, Chris. ''Operation Sustainable Human''. Illuminate Press. {{ISBN|978-1-7752528-6-3}}. Hardback edition
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Environment and society]]
[[Category:Climate action plans]]
[[Category:2019 non-fiction books]]
{{climate-change-book-stub}} |
Infrastructure Transitions Research Consortium | The UK [[Infrastructure]] Transitions Research Consortium (ITRC)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mullally|first=Paul|date=2013-10-14|title=ITRCbrochure1|url=https://www.landecon.cam.ac.uk/pdf-files/cv/pete-tyler/itrcbrochure1.pdf|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.landecon.cam.ac.uk|language=en}}</ref> was established in January 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Environment|title=UK Infrastructure Transitions Research Consortium (ITRC): PROGRAMME GRANT: Long term dynamics of interdependent infrastructure systems|url=https://environment.leeds.ac.uk/geography-research/dir-record/research-projects/660/uk-infrastructure-transitions-research-consortium-itrc-programme-grant-long-term-dynamics-of-interdependent-infrastructure-systems|access-date=2021-01-28|website=environment.leeds.ac.uk|language=en}}</ref> The ITRC provides data and modelling to help governments, policymakers and other stakeholders in infrastructure make more sustainable and resilient infrastructure decisions. It is a collaboration between seven universities and more than 55 partners from infrastructure policy and practice.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Partners {{!}} ITRC|url=https://www.itrc.org.uk/about-us/partners/|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.itrc.org.uk}}</ref>
During its first research programme, running from 2011 to 2016,<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2016-01-01|title=UK Infrastructure Transitions Research Consortium (ITRC): PROGRAMME GRANT: Long term dynamics of interdependent infrastructure systems|url=https://gtr.ukri.org/project/E0703D44-D1E6-4A8B-96E0-E665E6330DB6|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-28|website=UK Research and Innovation}}</ref> ITRC developed the world's first national infrastructure system-of-systems model, known as NISMOD (National Infrastructure Systems Model)<ref>{{Cite web|title=GeoConnexion article – NISMOD-DB – Geospatial Engineering @ Newcastle University|url=https://blogs.ncl.ac.uk/geospatialengineering/2016/07/06/geoconnexion-article-nismod-db/|access-date=2021-01-28|language=en-US}}</ref> which has been used to analyse long-term investment strategies for energy, transport, digital communications, water, waste water and solid waste. This work is described in the book 'The Future of National Infrastructure',<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/future-of-national-infrastructure/7D4DF0295A9D8A7304E6C87204BAA0EA|title=The Future of National Infrastructure: A System-of-Systems Approach|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-06602-1|editor-last=Hall|editor-first=Jim W.|location=Cambridge|doi=10.1017/CBO9781107588745 |editor-last2=Tran|editor-first2=Martino|editor-last3=Hickford|editor-first3=Adrian J.|editor-last4=Nicholls|editor-first4=Robert J.}}</ref> an introduction to the NISMOD models and tools describing their application to inform infrastructure planning in Britain.
The second phase of this programme (2016-2021) is called ITRC-MISTRAL where MISTRAL stands for Multi-Scale Infrastructure Systems Analytics.<ref>{{Cite web|last=author|first=EPSRC|title=Grants on the web|url=https://gow.epsrc.ukri.org/NGBOViewGrant.aspx?GrantRef=EP/N017064/1|access-date=2021-01-28|website=gow.epsrc.ukri.org|language=en}}</ref> MISTRAL allowed ITRC to develop the national-scale modelling in ITRC to simulate infrastructure at city, regional and global scales.
Based in the [[University of Oxford|University of Oxford 's]] Environmental Change Institute,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Environmental Change Institute - University of Oxford|url=https://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.eci.ox.ac.uk}}</ref> ITRC is led by Director [[Jim Hall (civil engineer)|Jim Hall]] who is also Professor of Environmental Risks at the University of Oxford.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jim Hall {{!}} University of Oxford - Academia.edu|url=https://oxford.academia.edu/JimHall|access-date=2021-01-28|website=oxford.academia.edu}}</ref>
'''Funding:''' The ITRC is funded by two programme grants from the UK Engineering and Physical Science and Research Council (EPSRC). The 2011-2016 ITRC programme grant was £4.7m<ref>{{Cite web|last=author|first=EPSRC|title=Grants on the web|url=https://gow.epsrc.ukri.org/NGBOViewGrant.aspx?GrantRef=EP/I01344X/1|access-date=2021-01-28|website=gow.epsrc.ukri.org|language=en}}</ref> and the 2016-2021 grant, for ITRC-MISTRAL, is £5.4m.<ref>{{Cite web|last=author|first=EPSRC|title=Grants on the web|url=https://gow.epsrc.ukri.org/NGBOViewGrant.aspx?GrantRef=EP/N017064/1|access-date=2021-01-28|website=gow.epsrc.ukri.org|language=en}}</ref>
'''Consortium:''' The seven universities making up the ITRC consortium are: [[University of Southampton]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Infrastructure Transitions Research Consortium {{!}} Engineering {{!}} University of Southampton|url=https://www.southampton.ac.uk/engineering/research/projects/infrastructure_transitions_research_consortium.page|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.southampton.ac.uk}}</ref> University of Oxford, [[Newcastle University]], [[Cardiff University DofE Award Society|Cardiff University]], [[University of Cambridge]], [[University of Leeds]] and [[University of Sussex]].
'''Partners:''' ITRC's partners are from across the infrastructure sector.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Partners {{!}} ITRC|url=https://www.itrc.org.uk/about-us/partners/|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.itrc.org.uk}}</ref> They include infrastructure investors such as the [[World Bank]], consultancies including [[Ordnance Survey]] and [[KPMG]], providers such as [[Siemens]], [[HS2|High Speed 2 (HS2)]], [[Network Rail]] and [[National Grid (Great Britain)|National Grid]], policy-makers (i.e. [[Environment Agency]]) and regulatory bodies ([[Ofcom|OFCOM]]).
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Climate action plans]]
[[Category:Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council]]
[[Category:Infrastructure]]
[[Category:Infrastructure by country]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Technology consortia]] |
North Campus Open Space | {{Use mdy dates|date=December 2023}}
'''North Campus Open Space''' ('''NCOS''') is a {{convert|136|acre||adj=mid| wetland and upland restoration project}} in [[Goleta, California]]. Located on a former golf course, NCOS is managed by the [[Cheadle Center for Biodiversity and Ecological Restoration]] (CCBER), a research center under the Office of Research at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] (UCSB). The primary objectives of this project are: the restoration of the historic upper half of Devereux Slough and adjacent upland and wetland habitats that support important local native plant and animal species (including rare and threatened species), reducing flood risk, providing a buffer against predicted [[sea level rise]], and contributing to [[carbon sequestration]] while also supporting public access and outreach, and facilitating research and educational opportunities for all members of the community.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Noozhawk|title=Community Celebrates Launch of Estuary Restoration Project at UCSB North Campus|url=https://www.noozhawk.com/article/community_celebrates_launch_of_estuariy_restoration_project_at_north_campu|access-date=2021-02-22|website=www.noozhawk.com|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:NCOScelebration.jpg|thumb|279x279px|Members of the collaborative effort to establish the NCOS restoration project, including Chancellor Yang, celebrate the project launch at a groundbreaking ceremony in April, 2017.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=CCBER News {{!}} CCBER|url=https://www.ccber.ucsb.edu/news-events/ccber-blog|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.ccber.ucsb.edu|language=en}}</ref>]]
== Overview ==
The NCOS project aims to restore the ecological conditions that existed in this location before the Ocean Meadows golf course was built in the 1960s. During construction of the golf course, the wetland habitat was filled with topsoil from the surrounding area. Since the [[Industrial Revolution]], more than 90% of California's coastal wetland habitats have been lost due to development, construction of dams, and destruction of connectivity between ecosystems.<ref name=":1" /> Wetlands provide important [[ecosystem service]]s such as erosion control, water quality maintenance, and fish and wildlife habitat. Wetlands also act as major buffers to sea level rise and increased storm surge, both associated with ongoing climate change.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=California's Disappearing Wetlands Face New Perils|url=https://defenders.org/blog/2017/08/californias-disappearing-wetlands-face-new-perils|access-date=2021-02-22|website=Defenders of Wildlife|language=en}}</ref> Ecological restoration at NCOS plans to restore these ecosystem services for the benefit of the surrounding community and interconnecting ecosystems.
== History and funding ==
[[File:Lisa-Stratton-Award-USFWS.jpg|thumb|Lisa Stratton, the Director of Ecosystem Management at CCBER, holds an award gifted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife service for her efforts and involvement in the NCOS restoration project. Photo by Robyn Gerstenslager.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=McConnell|first=Ashley|date=June 4, 2019|title=From "birdies" to bird habitat|url=https://www.fws.gov/cno/newsroom/featured/2019/birdies_to_bird_habitat/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=US Fish and Wildlife Service - Pacific Southwest Region|language=en}}</ref> |256x256px]]
In 2013, [[The Trust for Public Land]] purchased 63 acres of the former golf course with $7 million of grant funding from several federal, state, and local agencies, and gifted the property to The Regents of the University of California.<ref name=":0" /> Integration of surrounding uplands has created the 136-acre expanse of protected land that makes up NCOS today.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bringing Back Mother Nature|url=https://www.news.ucsb.edu/2016/016506/bringing-back-mother-nature|access-date=2021-02-22|website=The UCSB Current|language=en}}</ref> The Regents of the University of California, with the help of local environmental agencies and research centers like CCBER, is now in charge of long-term ecological restoration and stewardship of this open space. Restoration efforts at NCOS, directed by CCBER, began in 2017 and continue today.
The primary funders for this project are the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]], the [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife]], [[California Department of Transportation|Caltrans]], the [[California Natural Resources Agency]], the Department of Water Resources Urban Streams program, the [[California Coastal Conservancy|State Coastal Conservancy]], the Ocean Protection Council, and the Wildlife Conservation Board, along with other environmental agencies.<ref name=":0" />
== Ecological Restoration ==
Restoration at NCOS began with the excavation and relocation of approximately 350,000 cubic yards of topsoil that was used to fill the wetland in the mid-1960s for creating the Ocean Meadows golf course.<ref name=":0" /> Before the restoration project began, the golf course would often flood during winter storms, and this posed a growing flood risk associated with climate change for immediately adjacent neighborhoods.<ref name=":4" /> Restoration efforts have lowered the floodplain by nearly two feet, removing local residents from the flood plain entirely.<ref name=":2" /> All of the soil excavated to restore the upper half of Devereux Slough was carefully placed on the southwestern portion of the site to form a mesa where a native perennial grassland and other habitats are being restored. Other restoration efforts include the removal of non-native species, and restoration and reintroduction of native species. In 2018, 60 percent of the 80 acres to be vegetated had been planted; 37 acres of wetlands were being restored and regaining function, and wildlife species were increasingly using the habitat features placed by [[Cheadle_Center_for_Biodiversity_and_Ecological_Restoration|CCBER]].<ref name=":2" />
=== Rare Species Conservation ===
[[File:960-Mike-Michael-L-Baird 1.jpg|thumb|The western snowy plover is a shorebird that remains in decline due to habitat loss, human disturbance, and other factors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Western Snowy Plover - Channel Islands National Park (U.S. National Park Service)|url=https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/nature/snowy-plover.htm|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.nps.gov|language=en}}</ref>]]The restoration of NCOS is supporting the recovery of rare, threatened and/or endangered species including but not limited to the [[Western_snowy_plover|Western Snowy Plover]], [[California_least_tern|California Least Tern]], [[Burrowing_owl|Burrowing Owl]], [[Bombus_crotchii|Crotch's Bumblebee]], [[Western_pond_turtle|Western Pond Turtle]], Belding's [[Savannah_sparrow|Savannah Sparrow]] and the [https://wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Plants/Endangered/Astragalus-pycnostachyus-var-lanosissimus Ventura marsh milk-vetch].<ref name=":4" />
==== Western Snowy Plover ====
[[Coal_Oil_Point_seep_field|Coal Oil Point Reserve]], a protected area adjacent to NCOS, boasts one of the most productive populations of the Western Snowy Plover, a rare and threatened shorebird species. Western Snowy Plovers have begun using the sand flat habitat at NCOS that is specifically designed for them.<ref name=":4" />
==== Ventura marsh milk-vetch ====
[[File:Ventura marsh milk-vetch (14717834291).jpg|thumb|221x221px|Ventura marsh milk-vetch, a once extinct plant species is one of the rare plants being restored at NCOS.<ref name=":4" />]]This species was extinct in the area for 30 years before it was discovered in Oxnard when [[United_States_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife]] staff were surveying a proposed development site near [[Mandalay_State_Beach|Mandalay Beach]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Noozhawk|title=UCSB Botanists Help Once-extinct Native Plant Find New Life|url=https://www.noozhawk.com/article/ucsb_botanists_help_once_extinct_native_plant_find_new_life|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.noozhawk.com|language=en}}</ref> The plant was propagated by CCBER and reintroduced to NCOS in 2019, and is reportedly establishing well.<ref name=":4" />
== Community access and Engagement ==
=== Education ===
[[File:Slough .jpg|thumb|278x278px|Restored from a former golf course, the Slough at NCOS is filled with water after rains in 2019, protecting nearby neighborhoods from flood-risk.<ref name=":5" />]]The NCOS restoration project is geared towards community engagement through public access, education, and research programs.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Noozhawk|title=UCSB Opens First Public Trail at North Campus Open Space|url=https://www.noozhawk.com/article/ucsb_opens_first_public_trail_at_north_campus_open_space|access-date=2021-02-22|website=www.noozhawk.com}}</ref> CCBER directs educational programs like Kids in Nature, a K-12 resource that utilizes CCBER's natural spaces, such as NCOS, for a means of teaching students about the local natural world and ecology.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=North Campus Open Space|url=https://www.ccber.ucsb.edu/ecosystem/management-areas/north-campus-open-space|access-date=2021-02-22|publisher=CCBER}}</ref> UCSB professors and students use NCOS for research such as tracking and estimating wildlife populations or measuring greenhouse gas fluxes from wetlands. Faculty and students are able to utilize field studies at NCOS to improve understanding of ecosystem functions and the consequences of climate change.<ref name=":0" />
=== Recreation ===
As of March 2021, there are 2.5 miles of trails, a visitor plaza with interpretive signs, and overlooks with benches that promote exploration and wildlife viewing opportunities throughout the natural space.<ref name=":2" /> The Marsh Trail connects with a bus stop on Storke Road, adjacent homes, neighborhoods, bike paths, roads, and other open space such as Ellwood Mesa and Coal Oil Point Reserve. This ADA accessible trail provides an alternative, and a safer route to school for around 200 children.<ref name=":2" />
== References ==
<references />
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[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Parks in Santa Barbara County, California]]
[[Category:Goleta, California]]
[[Category:Wetlands of California]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Santa Barbara County, California]] |
Sustainable population | {{short description|Proposed sustainable human population of Earth}}
[[File:Population curve.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|alt=Graph showing human population growth from 10,000 BC – 2000 AD|Graph showing human population growth from 10,000 BC – 2000 AD]]
'''Sustainable population''' refers to a proposed [[sustainable]] human [[World population|population of Earth]] or a particular region of Earth, such as a nation or continent. Estimates vary widely, with estimates based on different figures ranging from 0.65 billion people to 9.8 billion, with 8 billion people being a typical estimate. [[Projections of population growth]], evaluations of [[overconsumption]] and associated [[Human impact on the environment|human pressures on the environment]] have led to some to advocate for what they consider a sustainable population. Proposed policy solutions vary, including [[sustainable development]], [[female education]], [[family planning]] and broad [[human population planning]].
Emerging economies like those of China and India aspire to the living standards of the Western world, as does the non-industrialized world in general.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4604556.stm Booming nations 'threaten Earth']." BBC News. 12 January 2006.</ref> As of 2022, China and India account for most of the population in Asia, with more than 1.4 billion each.<ref>"[https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf World Population Prospects 2022]." UN. 19 Oct 2022.</ref> It is the combination of population increase in the developing world and unsustainable consumption levels in the developed world that poses a stark challenge to sustainability.<ref name="Cohen2006">Cohen, J.E. (2006). "Human Population: The Next Half Century." In Kennedy D. (Ed.) ''Science Magazine's State of the Planet 2006-7''. London: Island Press, pp. 13–21. {{ISBN|9781597266246}}.</ref>
According to the [[United Nations Population Fund|UN Population Fund]], high [[Total fertility rate|fertility]] and [[poverty]] have been strongly correlated, and the world's poorest countries also have the highest fertility and [[population growth]] rates.<ref>{{cite web|title=Are fewer children a route to prosperity?|url=http://www.unfpa.org/public/home/factsheets/pid/3856|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221140406/http://www.unfpa.org/public/home/factsheets/pid/3856|archive-date=21 February 2011|access-date=2011-04-02|website=FACT SHEET: Population Growth and Poverty|publisher=United Nations Population Fund}}</ref>
==Estimates==
[[File:WorldPopGrowth.png|thumb|right|upright=1.25|World population growth rate, 1950–2050, as estimated in 2011 by the U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base. Although the rate of growth decreases, population continues to rise. In 2050 still growing by over 45 million per year]]
[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Map of countries and territories by [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] {{as of|2020|lc=y}}]]
=== Sustainable population ===
Many studies have tried to estimate the world's sustainable population for humans, that is, the maximum population the world can host.<ref>Cohen, J.E. (1995). ''How many people can the earth support?'' W.W. Norton & Company, New York, NY, USA.</ref> A 2004 meta-analysis of 69 such studies from 1694 until 2001 found the average predicted maximum number of people the Earth would ever have was 7.7 billion people, with lower and upper meta-bounds at 0.65 and 9.8 billion people, respectively. They conclude: "recent predictions of stabilized world population levels for 2050 exceed several of our meta-estimates of a world population limit".<ref name="Van Den BerghRietveld2004">{{cite journal|last1=Van Den Bergh|first1=Jeroen C. J. M.|last2=Rietveld|first2=Piet|title=Reconsidering the Limits to World Population: Meta-analysis and Meta-prediction |journal=BioScience|volume=54|issue=3|year=2004|pages=195|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0195:RTLTWP]2.0.CO;2|doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2012 United Nations report summarized 65 different estimates of maximum sustainable population size and the most common estimate was 8 billion.<ref>[https://na.unep.net/geas/archive/pdfs/geas_jun_12_carrying_capacity.pdf One Planet, How Many People? A Review of Earth’s Carrying Capacity] United Nations, June 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160311-how-many-people-can-our-planet-really-support How Many People Can Our Planet Really Support?] BBC, Vivien Cumming, 14 March 2016</ref>
Climate change, excess nutrient loading (particularly nitrogen and phosphorus), increased ocean acidity, rapid [[biodiversity loss]], and other global trends suggest humanity is causing global ecological degradation and threatening [[ecosystem service]]s that human societies depend on.<ref>{{Cite book |last=(Program) |first=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/796075047 |title=Ecosystems and human well-being : synthesis : a report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |date=2005 |publisher=Island |isbn=1-59726-040-1 |oclc=796075047}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |url= |title=Global warming of 1.5°C : an IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty |oclc=1065823181}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=IPCC |url= |title=Climate change 2022 : Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Working Group II Contribution to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report. |publisher=IPCC |year=2022 |oclc=1303663344}}</ref> Because these environmental impacts are all directly related to human numbers, recent estimates of a sustainable human population tend to put forward much lower numbers, between 2 and 4 billion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lianos |first1=Theodore P. |last2=Pseiridis |first2=Anastasia |date=2015 |title=Sustainable welfare and optimum population size |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-015-9711-5 |journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=1679–1699 |doi=10.1007/s10668-015-9711-5 |s2cid=154771905 |issn=1387-585X}}</ref><ref>Tucker, C. (2019). ''A Planet of 3 Billion''. Washington, DC: Atlas Observatory Press.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dasgupta |first=Partha |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7312/dasg16012/html |title=Time and the Generations: Population Ethics for a Diminishing Planet |date=2019 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55003-1 |doi=10.7312/dasg16012}}</ref> [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] stated in 2018 that the optimum population is between 1.5 and 2 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last= Carrington|first=Damian|date=March 22, 2018 |title=Paul Ehrlich: 'Collapse of civilisation is a near certainty within decades'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/mar/22/collapse-civilisation-near-certain-decades-population-bomb-paul-ehrlich|work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=August 8, 2020}}</ref> Geographer Chris Tucker estimates that 3 billion is a sustainable number, provided human societies rapidly deploy less harmful technologies and best management practices.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/christopher-tucker/planet-of-3-billion/|title=A PLANET OF 3 BILLION {{!}} Kirkus Reviews|language=en}}</ref> Other estimates of a sustainable global population also come in at considerably less than the current population of 8 billion.<ref>[https://www.worldpopulationbalance.org/3_times_sustainable Current Population is Three Times the Sustainable Level] worldpopulationbalance.org</ref><ref>[https://overpopulation-project.com/what-is-the-optimal-sustainable-population-size-of-humans/ What is the optimal, sustainable population size of Humans?] overpopulation-project.com, Patrícia Dérer, April 25, 2018</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rees |first=William E. |date=2020 |title=Ecological economics for humanity's plague phase |url= |journal=Ecological Economics |volume=169 |pages=106519 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106519 |s2cid=209502532 |issn=0921-8009}}</ref>
A 2014 study published in the ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]'' posits that, given the "inexorable demographic momentum of the global human population," efforts to slow population growth in the short term will have little impact on [[sustainability]], which can be more rapidly achieved with a focus on technological and social innovations, along with reducing consumption rates, while treating population planning as a long term goal. The study says that with a fertility-reduction model of one-child per female by 2100, it would take at least 140 years to reduce the population to 2 billion people by 2153.<ref>{{cite news |first=Matt |last=McGrath |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29788754 |title=Population controls 'will not solve environment issues' |publisher=BBC |date=October 27, 2014 |access-date=September 19, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Human population reduction is not a quick fix for environmental problems |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Corey J. A. |last2=Brook |first2=Barry W. |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=111 |issue=46 |pages=16610–16615 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1410465111 |pmid=25349398 |year=2014 |pmc=4246304 |bibcode=2014PNAS..11116610B |doi-access=free}}</ref> The 2022 "Scientists' warning on population," published by ''[[Science of the Total Environment]]'', states that "environmental analysts regard a sustainable human population as one enjoying a modest, equitable middle-class standard of living on a planet retaining its biodiversity and with climate-related adversities minimized," which is estimated at between 2 and 4 billion people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crist|first1=Eileen|last2=Ripple|first2=William J.|author-link2=William J. Ripple|last3= Ehrlich|first3=Paul R.|author-link3=Paul R. Ehrlich|last4=Rees|first4=William E. |last5=Wolf|first5=Christopher |date=2022 |title=Scientists' warning on population|url=https://scientistswarning.forestry.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/Crist2022.pdf|journal=[[Science of the Total Environment]]|volume=845 |issue=|page=157166 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157166|pmid= 35803428|bibcode=2022ScTEn.845o7166C |s2cid=250387801 }}</ref>
Skeptics criticize the basic assumptions associated with these overpopulation estimates. For example, Jade Sasser believes that calculating a maximum of number of humanity which may be allowed to live while only some, mostly privileged European former colonial powers, are mostly responsible for unsustainably using up the Earth, is wrong.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sasser, Jade|title=On infertile ground : population control and women's rights in the era of climate change|date=13 November 2018|isbn=978-1-4798-7343-2|location=New York|oclc=1029075188}}</ref>
But if current human numbers are not ecologically sustainable, the costs are likely to fall on the world’s poorest citizens, regardless of whether they helped cause the problem.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarah |first=Conly |url= |title=One child : do we have a right to more? |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-020343-6 |oclc=969537327}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Coole |first=Diana H. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1018036920 |title=Should we control world population? |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-5095-2340-5 |location=Cambridge, UK |oclc=1018036920}}</ref> In fact, countries that contribute the most to unsustainable production and consumption practices often have higher income per capita and slower population growth, unlike countries that have a low income per capita and rapidly growing populations.<ref name="Wilmoth">{{cite web |last1=Wilmoth |first1=John |last2=Menozzi |first2=Clare |last3=Bassarsky |first3=Lina |title=UN DESA Policy Brief No. 130: Why population growth matters for sustainable development |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/un-desa-policy-brief-no-130-why-population-growth-matters-for-sustainable-development/#:~:text=Rapid%20population%20growth%20makes%20it,education%20and%20other%20essential%20services. |website=United Nations |access-date=30 April 2023}}</ref>
According to a 2022 study published in ''Sustainable Development'', a sustainable population is required for both preserving [[biodiversity]] and [[food security]]. The study says that falling fertility rates are linked to access to contraception and family planning services, and has little to no relation to [[economic growth]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Götmark|first1=Frank |last2=Andersson|first2=Malte |date=2022 |title=Achieving sustainable population: Fertility decline in many developing countries follows modern contraception, not economic growth|url= |journal=Sustainable Development|volume= 31|issue= 3|pages=1606–1617 |doi=10.1002/sd.2470|access-date=|doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== World population ===
According to data from 2015, the [[world population]] is projected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, up from the current 8 billion, to exceed 9 billion people by 2050, and to reach 11.2 billion by the year 2100.<ref>{{cite web|date=2015-01-01|title=The World Population Prospects: 2015 Revision|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/publications/world-population-prospects-2015-revision.html|access-date=2017-05-06|website=www.un.org}}</ref> Most of the increase will be in [[Developing country|developing countries]] whose population is projected to rise from 5.6 billion in 2009 to 7.9 billion in 2050. This increase will be distributed among the population aged 15–59 (1.2 billion) and 60 or over (1.1 billion) because the number of children under age 15 in developing countries is predicted to decrease. In contrast, the population of the more [[Developed country|developed regions]] is expected to undergo only slight increase from 1.23 billion to 1.28 billion, and this would have declined to 1.15 billion but for a projected net migration from developing to developed countries, which is expected to average 2.4 million persons annually from 2009 to 2050.<ref>United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2009). [https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/trends/population-prospects.asp "] Highlights. Retrieved on: 6 April 2009.</ref> Long-term estimates in 2004 of global population suggest a peak at around 2070 of nine to ten billion people, and then a slow decrease to 8.4 billion by 2100.<ref>Lutz W., Sanderson W.C., & Scherbov S. (2004). ''The End of World Population Growth in the 21st Century'' London: Earthscan. {{ISBN|1-84407-089-1}}.{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref>
However, these projections assume substantial improvements in contraceptive availability throughout the developing world and large decreases in desired family size (particularly in sub-Saharan Africa), which may or may not happen.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations |url=https://population.un.org/wpp/ |access-date= |website=population.un.org}}</ref> In the end, all population projections must be taken with a large pinch of salt.<ref>{{Cite web |last=O’Sullivan |first=Jane |date=2022 |title=World population is growing faster than we thought |url=https://overpopulation-project.com/world-population-is-growing-faster-than-we-thought/ |access-date= |website=The Overpopulation Project |language=en-US}}</ref> Particular care is needed to remember that future population size will depend on policy decisions and individual choices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cafaro |first1=Philip |last2=Dérer |first2=Patrícia |date=2019 |title=Policy-based Population Projections for the European Union: A Complementary Approach |journal=Comparative Population Studies |volume=44 |pages=171–200 |doi=10.12765/cpos-2019-14 |issn=1869-8999|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Carrying capacity==
[[File:Seattle from Beacon Hill.jpg|thumb|[[Urbanization]] in [[Seattle]], Washington, United States]]
Talk of economic and [[population growth]] overshooting the limits of Earth's [[carrying capacity]] for humans is popular in [[environmentalism]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Seidl|first1=Irmi|last2=Tisdell|first2=Clem A|date=1999-12-01|title=Carrying capacity reconsidered: from Malthus' population theory to cultural carrying capacity|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800999000634|journal=Ecological Economics|language=en|volume=31|issue=3|pages=395–408|doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00063-4|issn=0921-8009}}</ref> The potential limiting factor for the [[human population]] might include water availability, energy availability, [[renewable resource]]s, [[non-renewable resource]]s, heat removal, [[photosynthetic capacity]], or land availability for [[agricultural productivity|food production]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=VAN DEN BERGH|first1=JEROEN C. J. M.|last2=RIETVELD|first2=PIET|date=2004|title=Reconsidering the Limits to World Population: Meta-analysis and Meta-prediction|journal=BioScience|volume=54|issue=3|pages=195|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0195:rtltwp]2.0.co;2|issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free}}</ref> Or, as current trends suggest, the limiting factors might involve ecosystems’ ability to absorb human pollution, as with climate change, ocean acidification, or the toxification of rivers and streams.<ref>Reid, W. V., et al. (2005). ''The millennium ecosystem assessment: Ecosystems and human well-being''. Washington, DC: Island Press.</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Barnard P, Moomaw WR. 2020. World scientists’ warning of a climate emergency. ''BioScience'' 70: 8–12 (8).</ref> The applicability of carrying capacity as a measurement of the Earth's limits in terms of the human population has been questioned, since it has proved difficult to calculate or predict the upper limits of population growth.<ref name=":12" /> Carrying capacity has been used as a tool in [[Malthusianism|Neo-Malthusian]] arguments to limit population growth since the 1950s.<ref name="informaworld.com">{{cite journal |last1=Sayre |first1=N. F. |year=2008 |title=The Genesis, History, and Limits of Carrying Capacity |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=120–134 |doi=10.1080/00045600701734356|s2cid=16994905 |jstor=25515102}}</ref> The concept of carrying capacity has been applied to determining the population limits in [[Shanghai]], a city faced with rapid [[urbanization]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Yingying|last2=Wei|first2=Yigang|last3=Zhang|first3=Jian|date=2021|title=Overpopulation and urban sustainable development—population carrying capacity in Shanghai based on probability-satisfaction evaluation method|journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=3318–3337|doi=10.1007/s10668-020-00720-2|s2cid=215775946 |issn=1387-585X}}</ref>
The application of the concept of carrying capacity for the [[human population]], which exists in a [[non-equilibrium]], has been criticized for not successfully being able to model the processes between humans and the environment.<ref name=":12" /><ref name="Cliggett">{{Cite journal|last1=Cliggett|first1=Lisa|year=2001|title=Carrying Capacity's New Guise: Folk Models for Public Debate and Longitudinal Study of Environmental Change|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-80493292/carrying-capacity-new-guise.html|journal=Africa Today|volume=48|pages=3–19|doi=10.1353/at.2001.0003|s2cid=143983509}}</ref> In popular discourse the concept is often used vaguely in the sense of a "balance between nature and human populations".<ref name="Cliggett" />
In [[human ecology]] a popular definition from 1949 states "the maximum number of people that a given land area will maintain in perpetuity under a given system of usage without [[land degradation]] setting in". [[Sociologist]]s have criticized this for numerous reasons. Aside from the fact that humans are able to adopt new customs and technology, some common critiques are 1.) an assumption an equilibrium population exists, 2.) difficulties in measuring resources, 3.) inability to account for human tastes and how much labour they will expend, 4.) assumption of full usage of resources, 5.) assumption of [[landscape]] homogeneity, 6.) assumption that regions are isolated from each other, 7.) contradicted by history, and 8.) the standard of living is ignored.<ref name="Cliggett"/>
[[Romanian American]] economist [[Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen]], a [[List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field|progenitor]] in [[economics]] and a [[Paradigm shift#Kuhnian paradigm shifts|paradigm founder]] of [[ecological economics]], has argued in 1971 that the carrying capacity of Earth — that is, Earth's capacity to sustain human populations and consumption levels — is bound to decrease sometime in the future as Earth's finite stock of mineral resources is presently being extracted and put to use.<ref>{{cite book|last=Georgescu-Roegen|first=Nicholas|url=https://archive.org/details/entropylawe00nich|title=The Entropy Law and the Economic Process|date=1971|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674257801|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|format=Full book accessible at Scribd}}</ref>{{rp|303}} Leading ecological economist and [[Steady-state economy#Herman Daly's concept of a steady-state economy|steady-state theorist]] [[Herman Daly]], a student of [[Georgescu-Roegen]], has [[Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen#Daly's concession|propounded the same argument]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.uvm.edu/~jdericks/EE/Daly_Ends_n_Means.pdf|title=Economics, Ecology, Ethics. Essays Towards a Steady-State Economy|date=1980|publisher=W.H. Freeman and Company|isbn=978-0716711780|editor-last=Daly|editor-first=Herman E.|editor-link=Herman Daly|edition=2nd|location=San Francisco|format=PDF contains only the introductory chapter of the book}}</ref>{{rp|369–371}} In a series of writings, Daly has explored the connection between limiting population and achieving ecologically sustainable societies, arguing that a sustainable economy must involve limits to human numbers, since per capita human resource use can never be driven down to zero.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daly |first=Herman E. |title=Steady-state economics |date=1991 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=978-1-55963-071-9 |edition=2. ed., with new essays |location=Washington, DC}}</ref><ref>Daly, H., & Farley, J. (2011). ''Ecological economics, second edition: Principles and applications''. Washington, DC: Island Press.</ref>
==See also==
*[[Population growth]]
*[[Human overpopulation]]
*[[Overshoot (population)]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*{{cite web|url=https://www.earthovershoot.org/news-events/blog.html/article/2023/01/19/reframing-china-s-population-decline|title=Reframing China's Population Decline|work=Terry Spahr|publisher=Earth Overshoot}}
{{population}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable population}}
[[Category:World population]]
[[Category:Human overpopulation]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Green human resource management | '''Green human resource management''' ('''Green HRM''' or '''GHRM''') emerged as an academic concept from the debate of [[sustainable development]] and corporate [[sustainability]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Matthews|first1=Brian|title=Competing Paradigms: Status-quo and Alternative Approaches in HRM|last2=Obereder|first2=Lisa|last3=Aust|first3=Ina|last4=Müller-Camen|first4=Michael|work=Contemporary Developments in Green Human Resource Management Research|publisher=Routledge|year=2018|isbn=9780367376871|editor-last=Renwick|editor-first=Douglas W. S.|location=Abingdon, Oxon; New York|pages=116–134}}</ref> Wehrmeyer (1996) is often stated as laying the foundation with his idea that "if a company is to adopt an environmentally-aware approach to its activities, the employees are the key to its success or failure".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wehrmeyer|first=Walter|title=Introduction|work=Greening People: Human Resources and Environmental Management|publisher=Greenleaf Publishing|year=1996|isbn=9781874719151|editor-last=Wehrmeyer|editor-first=Walter|location=Sheffield|pages=11–32}}</ref>
One of the most common definitions refers to GHRM as "the HRM aspects of Environmental Management".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Renwick|first1=Douglas W. S.|last2=Redman|first2=Tom|last3=Maguire|first3=Stuart|date=2013|title=Green Human Resource Management: A Review and Research Agenda*|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2011.00328.x|journal=International Journal of Management Reviews|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2370.2011.00328.x|s2cid=145075051|issn=1468-2370}}</ref> A broader definition considers GHRM as "phenomena relevant to understanding relationships between organizational activities that impact the natural environment and the design, evolution, implementation and influence of HRM systems."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ren|first1=Shuang|last2=Tang|first2=Guiyao|last3=E. Jackson|first3=Susan|date=2018-09-01|title=Green human resource management research in emergence: A review and future directions|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-017-9532-1|journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Management|language=en|volume=35|issue=3|pages=769–803|doi=10.1007/s10490-017-9532-1|s2cid=158085553|issn=1572-9958}}</ref>
Some goals of GHRM include alerting employees to global environmental issues through initiating proposal schemes, training employees on greener practices, and encouraging employees to join and find sustainable initiatives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dimitrov |first=K. |title=Green Human Resources Management: Linking and Using Green Practices for Sustainable Business Organizations |date=2021 |journal=Trakia Journal of Sciences |volume=19 |issue=Suppl.1 |pages=276–281 |doi=10.15547/tjs.2021.s.01.040 |s2cid=252732434 |issn=1313-3551|doi-access=free }}</ref>
In May 2011, the German Journal of Human Resource Management published a special issue on GHRM, which comprises five contributions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jackson|first1=Susan E.|last2=Renwick|first2=Douglas W. S.|last3=Jabbour|first3=Charbel J. C.|last4=Muller-Camen|first4=Michael|date=2011-05-01|title=State-of-the-Art and Future Directions for Green Human Resource Management: Introduction to the Special Issue|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/239700221102500203|journal=German Journal of Human Resource Management: Zeitschrift für Personalforschung|volume=25|issue=2|pages=99–116|doi=10.1177/239700221102500203|s2cid=219931279|issn=2397-0022|hdl=10419/71002|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
== GHRM practices ==
Research in GHRM often deals with concrete GHRM practices that are associated with basic functions in [[Human Resource Management|human resource management]]. In their literature review, Renwick et al. (2016) summarize recruitment and selection, training and development, management development and leadership as practices for developing abilities in environmental management. To motivate employees to behave environmentally friendly, they propose performance management and appraisal, pay, rewards, and organizational culture. Renwick et al. (2016) further mention employment relations and employee engagement as ways to facilitate opportunities for environmental management.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Renwick|first1=Douglas W. S.|last2=Jabbour|first2=Charbel J. C.|last3=Muller-Camen|first3=Michael|last4=Redman|first4=Tom|last5=Wilkinson|first5=Adrian|date=2016-01-19|title=Contemporary developments in Green (environmental) HRM scholarship|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1105844|journal=The International Journal of Human Resource Management|volume=27|issue=2|pages=114–128|doi=10.1080/09585192.2015.1105844|hdl=11449/168131|s2cid=155611809|issn=0958-5192|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
Studies show that GHRM practices are linked to enhanced pro-environmental behavior of individuals<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Yong Joong|last2=Kim|first2=Woo Gon|last3=Choi|first3=Hyung-Min|last4=Phetvaroon|first4=Kullada|date=2019-01-01|title=The effect of green human resource management on hotel employees' eco-friendly behavior and environmental performance|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278431917306588|journal=International Journal of Hospitality Management|language=en|volume=76|pages=83–93|doi=10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.04.007|s2cid=158854634 |issn=0278-4319}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhat Tan|last2=Tučková|first2=Zuzana|last3=Chiappetta Jabbour|first3=Charbel José|date=2019-06-01|title=Greening the hospitality industry: How do green human resource management practices influence organizational citizenship behavior in hotels? A mixed-methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261517718303121|journal=Tourism Management|language=en|volume=72|pages=386–399|doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2018.12.008|s2cid=159330059 |issn=0261-5177}}</ref> and improved environmental performance of organizations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daily|first1=Bonnie F.|last2=Bishop|first2=John W.|last3=Massoud|first3=Jacob A.|date=2012-04-20|title=The role of training and empowerment in environmental performance: A study of the Mexican maquiladora industry|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/01443571211226524/full/html|journal=International Journal of Operations & Production Management|language=en|volume=32|issue=5|pages=631–647|doi=10.1108/01443571211226524|issn=0144-3577}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roscoe|first1=Samuel|last2=Subramanian|first2=Nachiappan|last3=Jabbour|first3=Charbel J. C.|last4=Chong|first4=Tao|date=2019|title=Green human resource management and the enablers of green organisational culture: Enhancing a firm's environmental performance for sustainable development|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bse.2277|journal=Business Strategy and the Environment|language=en|volume=28|issue=5|pages=737–749|doi=10.1002/bse.2277|s2cid=159091283 |issn=1099-0836}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Environmental management system]]
* [[Corporate social responsibility]]
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Human resource management]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]] |
Ecological overshoot | {{Short description|Demands on ecosystem exceeding regeneration}}
[[File:Global Overshoot in Earths from GFN data.png |thumb |350px |right |Ecological overshoot expressed in terms of how many Earths equivalent of natural resources are consumed by humanity each year.]]
'''Ecological overshoot''' is the phenomenon which occurs when the demands made on a natural [[ecosystem]] exceed its regenerative capacity. Global ecological overshoot occurs when the demands made by humanity exceed what the biosphere of Earth can provide through its capacity for renewal.<ref name="overshootday.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.overshootday.org/newsroom/media-backgrounder/ |title=Media Backgrounder: Earth Overshoot Day |publisher= Earth Overshoot Day. Global Footprint Network |access-date=28 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825193612/https://www.overshootday.org/newsroom/media-backgrounder/ |archive-date=25 August 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McBain |first1=Bonnie |last2=Lenzen |first2=Manfred |last3=Wackernagel |first3=Mathis |last4=Albrecht |first4=Glenn |title=How long can global ecological overshoot last? |journal=[[Global and Planetary Change]] |date=2017 |volume=155 |pages=13–19 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.06.002|hdl=1959.13/1351443 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
== Record of global ecological overshoot==
To determine whether ecological overshoot is happening requires the collection of global and nation-specific data regarding the availability of natural resources, the capability of the ecosystems to renew any natural resources that were consumed, and the rate at which the resources are being consumed, usually assessed for each calendar year.
This data collection, and analysis is typically done by scientific and conservation organisations, such as the [[Global Footprint Network]], which collects data to assess the [[ecological footprint]] of each country and the global community.
Ecological data collected so far reveals that the global community has been exceeding the regenerative capacity of the Earth since 1970, which was the year when the consumption capacity of humanity first exceeded the biocapacity the Earth. Each year since 1970 humanity has witnessed global ecological overshoot.<ref name="data.footprintnetwork.org">{{cite web |url=https://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=5001&type=earth|title=Country Trends |publisher=Global Footprint Network |access-date=28 August 2021 }}</ref>
===Earth Overshoot Day===
This problem is highlighted each year on [[Earth Overshoot Day]], an illustrative calendar date obtained through calculation, on which day humanity's resource consumption for the year is considered to have exceeded the Earth’s capacity to regenerate those resources for that year.<ref name="IndHE2021">{{cite journal |last1=Venugopal|first1=Pingali |last2=Kour |first2=Harwinder |year=2021 |title=Integrating the circular economy into engineering programs in India: A study of students' familiarity with the concept |journal=Industry and Higher Education |publisher=Sage |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=264–269 |doi=10.1177/0950422220967542|s2cid=226342170 }}</ref>
==Global ecological debt==
This ecological debt is often referred to as our global 'ecological overshoot'. The data from the [[Global Footprint Network]] has been used to create the graph below, it shows that since the 1970s the global population is increasingly compromising the Earth's [[ecosystem]]. The red section of the graph indicates that the global population have been accruing a global ecological overshoot since 1970. This means that the rate at which we are using natural resources exceeds the time required by the ecosystems to regenerate the resources and absorb the waste products that are involved.
The continued over-exploitation of natural resources results in ever more severe damage to global ecosystems over time, this has destabilised many micro ecosystems causing increasing extinction rates and the macro ecosystems are coming under increasing pressure. In this way humans are currently exceeding the [[carrying capacity]] of Earth as we increase the ecological overshoot each year. The [[I = PAT|IPAT equation]] attempts to quantify the environmental impact ("I") of the human population ("P"), their affluence ("A") and technology ("T"). Furthermore the [[Jevons paradox]] warns us that increasing our efficiency using technology will usually result in increased ecological damage.
==Causes==
The majority of the world currently follow an economic paradigm that seeks to grow all three of the [[I = PAT|IPAT]] parameters: population size, affluence and use of technology. These behaviour patterns are causing escalating environmental damage and there is evidence for growing risk of [[ecological collapse]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bradshaw|first1=Corey J. A.|last2=Ehrlich|first2=Paul R.|last3=Beattie|first3=Andrew|last4=Ceballos|first4=Gerardo|last5=Crist|first5=Eileen|last6=Diamond|first6=Joan|last7=Dirzo|first7=Rodolfo|last8=Ehrlich|first8=Anne H.|last9=Harte|first9=John|last10=Harte|first10=Mary Ellen|last11=Pyke|first11=Graham|date=2021|title=Underestimating the Challenges of Avoiding a Ghastly Future|journal=Frontiers in Conservation Science|volume=1|language=English|doi=10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419|issn=2673-611X|doi-access=free}}</ref>
The outcomes from various possible human behaviour scenarios have been explored in a demographic model developed by Prof Chris Bystroff.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bystroff|first=Christopher|date=2021-05-20|title=Footprints to singularity: A global population model explains late 20th century slow-down and predicts peak within ten years|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=16|issue=5|pages=e0247214|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0247214|issn=1932-6203|pmc=8136733|pmid=34014929|bibcode=2021PLoSO..1647214B|doi-access=free}}</ref> According to the Bystroff predictions, continuing with the growth economic paradigm will result in a rapid decrease in population numbers halving global population by 2040. The Bystroff predictions are echoed in further research by Dr [[William E. Rees]], who originally developed the concept of [[Ecological footprint|Ecological Footprint]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seibert|first1=Megan K.|last2=Rees|first2=William E.|date=January 2021|title=Through the Eye of a Needle: An Eco-Heterodox Perspective on the Renewable Energy Transition|journal=Energies|language=en|volume=14|issue=15|pages=4508|doi=10.3390/en14154508|doi-access=free}}</ref> This research states that to reduce ecological overshoot it is necessary to reduce economic consumption drastically to stop growing the economy and to repay the accrued ecological debt by restoration and rewilding back to the one planet level or less. A recent review of the [[World3|World 3]] demographic model by [[KPMG]] also concludes that humans need to rethink their pursuit of economic growth or anticipate collapse by 2040.<ref name="Herrington2021">{{cite journal |last1=Herrington |first1=G. |year=2021 |title=Update to limits to growth: Comparing the world3 model with empirical data |journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology |volume=25 |publisher=Wiley |issue=3 |pages=614–626 |doi=10.1111/jiec.13084|s2cid=226019712 }} https://advisory.kpmg.us/articles/2021/limits-to-growth.html download link].</ref> For countries that have already achieved social affluence, although their social performance and resource utilization levels are high, the ecological overshoot brought about by these developments is still maintaining a continuously increasing trend. On the other hand, many low-income countries tried increasing their per capita wealth through economic activities to improve their social shortfalls. However, their social development is slower than the resulting increase in ecological overshoot. In this case, the ecological environment will be more overwhelmed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fanning |first1=Andrew L. |last2=O’Neill |first2= Daniel W. |last3=Hickel |first3=Jason |last4=Roux |first4=Nicolas |year=2022 |title=The social shortfall and ecological overshoot of nations |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=26–36 |language=English |doi=10.1038/s41893-021-00799-z|s2cid=244349360 |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/180834/8/Fanning%20et%20al_2021-SI%20text_Social%20shortfall%20and%20ecological%20overshoot_authorAccepted.pdf }}</ref>
It is important to bear in mind that the data collected by the [[Global Footprint Network]] (GFN) makes the assumption that the whole biocapacity of the Earth is entirely at the disposal of humanity.<ref name="FootprintData">{{cite web |url=https://www.footprintnetwork.org/resources/data/ |title=Data and Methodology |date=2021 |publisher=Global Footprint Network |access-date=4 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830133427/https://www.footprintnetwork.org/resources/data/ |archive-date=30 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> However it is evident that we need biodiversity in order to survive, therefore unless we reserve some of the global biocapacity for other species we cannot survive. Several organisations argue that to reinstate biodiversity to levels comparable to those preceding the high extinction rates associated with the ongoing [[Holocene extinction]] event, at least 50% of the Earths biocapacity would need to be protected as nature reserve areas which are kept free from human intervention. This suggestion was presented in the book titled [[Half-Earth|Half Earth]]. Global Footprint Network data shows that for over 50 years humanity has been stressing the ecosystems on the planet beyond their ability to recover.<ref name="FootprintData"/>
A crisis of human behaviour (the Human Behavioural Crisis) has been highlighted as the driver of anthropogenic ecological overshoot in a peer-reviewed World Scientists' Warning paper led by Joseph J. Merz and co-authored by [[William E. Rees]], [[Phoebe Barnard]] et al.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Merz |first=Joseph J |last2=Barnard |first2=Phoebe |last3=Rees |first3=William E |last4=Smith |first4=Dane |last5=Maroni |first5=Mat |last6=Rhodes |first6=Christopher J |last7=Dederer |first7=Julia H |last8=Bajaj |first8=Nandita |last9=Joy |first9=Michael K |last10=Wiedmann |first10=Thomas |last11=Sutherland |first11=Rory |date=July 2023 |title=World scientists’ warning: The behavioural crisis driving ecological overshoot |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00368504231201372 |journal=Science Progress |language=en |volume=106 |issue=3 |doi=10.1177/00368504231201372 |issn=0036-8504 |pmc=10515534 |pmid=37728669}}</ref>
== Effects ==
The most well known symptom of ecological overshoot is the [[Holocene extinction|rising extinction rate]]. Pandemics of zoonotic diseases, like COVID-19 also become increasingly likely with overpopulation and global travel because we encroach on wildlife habitats and accelerate the spread.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Greguš|first=Jan|date=2021-03-04|title=Pandemics and populations|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13625187.2020.1870952|journal=The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care|volume=26|issue=2|pages=89–90|doi=10.1080/13625187.2020.1870952|issn=1362-5187|pmid=33559508|s2cid=231870390}}</ref> [[Biocapacity]] is measured by calculating the amount of biologically productive land and sea area available to provide the resources a population consumes and to absorb its wastes, given the prevailing technology and management practices.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wackernagel|first1=Mathis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qCQ8wQEACAAJ|title=Ecological Footprint: Managing Our Biocapacity Budget|last2=Beyers|first2=Bert|date=2019|publisher=New Society Publishers|isbn=978-0-86571-911-8|language=en}}</ref> Countries differ in the productivity of their ecosystems, and this is reflected in the National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts kept by [[York University]], FoDaFo and [[Global Footprint Network]]. A country has an ecological reserve if its [[Ecological footprint]] is smaller than its biocapacity; otherwise it is operating with an ecological overshoot. The former are often referred to as '''ecological creditors''', and the latter as '''ecological debtors'''. Today, most countries, and the world as a whole, are in ecological overshoot. Over 85% of the world population lives in countries operating with an ecological overshoot.
== Solving the problem of Ecological Overshoot ==
{{Further|Human population planning}}
The pursuit of growth economics relies on continual increase in our numbers and our consumption. Several economists have been challenging the wisdom of this prevailing discipline for many years. Those suggesting a new economic paradigm can be considered collectively as advocates for [[degrowth]].{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}
==See also==
* {{Annotated link|Anthropocene}}
* {{Annotated link|Earth Overshoot Day}}
* {{Annotated link|Ecological footprint}}
* {{Annotated link|Biocapacity}}
* {{Annotated link|Haber Bosch process}}
* {{Annotated link|Overshoot (population)}}
* {{Annotated link|Planetary boundaries}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
*''[[The Population Bomb]]'', by [[Paul R. Ehrlich]]
*{{cite web|url=https://readersupportednews.org/component/content/article/277/48161-too-much-food-too-many-people-on-a-finite-planet|title=Too Much Food, Too Many People on a Finite Planet|work=Steven Earl Salmony|publisher=readersupportednews.org (Original: The Herald Sun)}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.mediamonitors.net/the-root-cause-of-human-population-growth/?fbclid=IwAR1PznZTpHhHPAn-WxXemoOeLUllA8y6Dba9hIT2ypO1bHx1pJXBTRaLpms|title=The Root Cause of Human Population Growth|work=Steven Earl Salmony|date=28 July 2019|publisher=Media Monitor's Network}}
== External links ==
{{externalvideo|video1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7l8imwtMkY How Earth's Population Exploded -Bloomberg Quicktake]}}
*[http://EarthOvershoot.org EarthOvershoot.org]
[[Category:Ecosystems]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Nemo's Garden (Noli) | {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Short description|Biology research institution}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Cleanup rewrite|date=December 2021}}
{{Cleanup reorganize|date=December 2021}}
{{Essay-like|date=December 2021}}
}}
{{Infobox park
|name = Nemo's Garden
|image = Noli's Bay.png
|image_caption = Bay of Noli
|type = Botanical
|location = Noli, Italy
|coordinates = {{coord|44.20122660471327|8.418236941683848|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
|plants = 150/200
|species = 40
|collections = Basil, Zucchini, Aromatic plants, Peas, Beans
|opened = 2012
|owner = Ocean Reef
|operator = Scuba Divers and Engineers
|budget = $2.3 million
|visitation_num = 100,000
|website = {{url|www.nemosgarden.com}}
}}
'''Nemo's Garden''' is an underwater cultivation designed by Sergio Gamberini along with a team from Ocean Reef Group in 2012, and currently coordinated by Gianni Fontanesi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nemo's Garden|url=https://techprincess.it/orto-subacqueo-liguria-nemos-garden/|access-date=17 November 2021|website=Tech Princess|date=16 August 2021 }}</ref> The project was born to face main global issues, such as: [[climate change]], [[pollution]], [[malnourishment]] and hunger. It actively operates, and is open to visitors, from late June until late September.
The garden is located in [[Noli]], Italy, and it consists in an underwater installation of several [[Polyvinyl chloride|vinyl-plastic]] [[Biosphere 2|biospheres]] containing various kinds of herbs, vegetables and flowers that are being tested and observed for this alternative and sustainable way of gardening.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Pistelli |first1=Laura |last2=Pistelli |first2=Luisa |last3=Flamini |first3=G. |last4=Ascrizzi |first4=R. |last5=Giuliani |first5=C. |last6=Cervelli |first6=C. |last7=Ruffoni |first7=B. |last8=Princi |first8=Elisabetta |last9=Gamberini |first9=Sergio |last10=Gamberini |first10=Luca |last11=Fontanesi |first11=Giovanni |year=2016 |title=Preliminary results on basil grown in the Nemo's Garden |url=https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/html/10.1055/s-0036-1596796 |journal=[[Planta Medica]] |volume=81 |pages=S1–S381 |language=English |location=New York |publisher=Thieme E-Journals |doi=10.1055/s-0036-1596796|s2cid=40131024 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
This concept of underwater agriculture exploits the sea, and the possibilities it offers, as its primary resource. It aims to be adaptable to the most hostile places on earth, where the lack of agricultural means causes poverty and hunger, and repopulate the reef in areas where pollution has destroyed it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kriti |first=Malik |date=13 July 2017 |title=An Underwater Farm that Grows Basil, Strawberries & More |url=https://food.ndtv.com/opinions/an-underwater-farm-that-grows-basil-strawberries-more-1234354 |archive-date= |access-date=2 December 2021 |website=food.ndtv.com |publisher=[[NDTV]]}}</ref>
Nemo's Garden has the main goal of not harming the planet, consequently it was designed to be: ''[[self-sustainable]]'', using mainly [[renewable energy]] from natural resources such as the sun and having the ability of reutilizing the freshwater it produces, ''[[eco-friendly]]'', not harming the surrounding environment and its natural marine ecosystem that is heterogeneous, has an [[oligotrophic]] nature, a high diversity in marine species, and a high rate of [[endemism]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Piroddi|first1=Chiara|last2=Colloca|first2=Francesco|last3=Athanassios|first3=Tsikliras C.|date=22 May 2020|title=The living marine resources in the Mediterranean Sea Large Marine Ecosystem|journal=Environmental Development|volume=36 |page=100555 |doi=10.1016/j.envdev.2020.100555 |pmid=33425671 |pmc=7456280 |publication-date=29 August 2020}}</ref> and ''ecological'', not producing any pollution.<ref name=":2" />
The project is divided into two phases: the one going from 2012 until 2016, called "the 2016 phase", and the one being observed now. During the 2016 phase the objectives were: collecting data from the plants and analyzing their characteristics, designing and making the [[Hydroponics|hydroponic]] system work, and taking into consideration the possibility of using the garden in [[Cosmetics|cosmetic]], [[Pharmaceutical industry|pharmaceutical]], and [[nutraceutical]] applications.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Princi |first1=Elisabetta |title=Nemo's Garden: Growing plants underwater |last2=Dini |first2=Giorgio |last3=Gamberini |first3=Sergio |last4=Gamberini |first4=Luca |date=19-23 September 2016 |publisher=[[IEEE]] |isbn=978-1-5090-1537-5 |location=San Marcos, CA, USA |pages=4 |language=English}}</ref>
== Location ==
[[File:Noli vista dalla spiaggia di Capo Noli - Noli.jpg|left|thumb|Town of Noli, view from Capo Noli]]
Nemo's Garden is located in a small inlet in the bay of [[Noli]] (in the [[Italian Riviera|Riviera di Ponente]], [[Savona]], {{lang|it|Liguria}}). The length of the bay is almost 1 kilometre long.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIGURE, MARE in "Enciclopedia Italiana"|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/mare-ligure_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)|access-date=23 November 2021|website=treccani.it|language=it-IT}}</ref> The underwater farm is placed about {{Convert|40|m|ft|abbr=on|sp=us}} away from Letizia Beach, found between the cliff of Capo Noli and Punta Vescovato, [http://www.bagniletizia.com/index2.html] and between {{Convert|32 and 40|ft|m|abbr=on|sp=us}} under the sea level.
In Liguria the general depth of the sea varies from {{Convert|6500|ft|m}} and {{Convert|10,000|ft|m}}, but in the area of Noli the depth reaches a maximum of {{Convert|3200|ft|m}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Platania |first=Giovanni |title=Ligure, Mare |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/mare-ligure_%28Enciclopedia-Italiana%29/#:~:text=La%20piattaforma%20continentale%20del%20Mare,ampiezza%20%C3%A8%20di%2034%20cm. |access-date=17 November 2021 |website=[[Treccani]] |publisher= |year=1934}}</ref>
The small village of Noli (''{{Lang|el-latn|Neapolis}}'' in Greek, means ''"new city"''), is an Italian municipality placed on the west coast of {{lang|it|[[Liguria]]}}. Historically speaking, from 1192 up until 1797, the time of the Napoleonic invasion, it was one of the [[maritime republics]], called "Republic of Noli".<ref>{{cite web|last=Fossati|first=Alessandro|date=23 September 2011|title=Noli|url=https://www.ligurianautica.com/localita/noli/|access-date=10 November 2021|website=Liguria nautica|publisher=Carmolab SAS|language=Italian}}</ref> The territory of this municipality is part of the Pollupice Mountain Community.
== History ==
In 2012, Sergio Gamberini, decided to combine his passions of gardening and scuba diving to create an underwater cultivation. With rising concerns about our planet's future he found this project could be a viable and safe alternative for modern agriculture, known to be one of the causes for the earth's conditions.
The plant he and the team decided to cultivate first was green [[basil]], one of Liguria's regional symbols.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Redazione 4Surf|date=10 May 2018|title=Nemo's Garden, la serra subacquea in baia a Noli|url=https://www.4actionsport.it/nemos-garden-una-serra-subacquea-in-baia-a-noli/|access-date=2 November 2021|website=4ActionSport|language=it-IT}}</ref> In 2013 the basil plants were analyzed and it was discovered they had the same taste as the ones grown on land, but they contained 20% more of essential oils. The following year it was decided to build an additional biosphere where salad was the selected species of plant to cultivate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pistelli |first1=Laura |last2=Ascrizzi |first2=Roberta |last3=Giuliani |first3=Claudia |last4=Cervelli |first4=Claudio |last5=Ruffoni |first5=Barbara |last6=Princi |first6=Elisabetta |last7=Fontanesi |first7=Gianni |last8=Flamini |first8=Guido |last9=Pistelli |first9=Luisa |title=Growing basil in the underwater biospheres of Nemo's Garden: Phytochemical, physiological and micromorphological analyses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030442381930737X |access-date=5 December 2021 |journal= Scientia Horticulturae|year=2020 |volume=259 |page=108851 |doi=10.1016/j.scienta.2019.108851 |hdl=2434/746177 |s2cid=203894074 |publication-date=19 September 2019|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
In 2015 the project's team participated in the event [[Expo 2015]], which helped publicize the garden and acquire new funds.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Borghino|first=Dario|date=3 July 2015|title="Nemo's Garden" grows terrestrial crops underwater|url=https://newatlas.com/nemos-garden-terrestrial-crops-underwater/38283/|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Newatlas}}</ref>
In 2016 the Tree of Life, the main exhibit from Expo 2015, was built in the garden as an homage to the event. The original structure of the Tree was designed by Creative Director Marco Balich and reaches an overall height of 37 metres. This piece of architecture represents the connection between past and future, united in one object, and becomes a metaphor for prosperity and hope. The creator claims his art piece is inspired by Michelangelo's flooring in Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vitali|first=Chiara|date=12 October 2015|title=Cosa significa l'Albero della Vita di Expo 2015|url=https://www.lenius.it/cosa-significa-lalbero-della-vita/|access-date=2 December 2021|website=LeNius.it|publisher=Le Nius|language=Italian}}</ref>
In 2018 some of the plants in the Garden were destroyed by [[Cyclone Zorbas]], a storm that struck in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The structure of the biospheres was not damaged, but the high level of water in them resulted in the death of majority of the plants. Following this event, the team worked on restoring the habitat and rebuilding the biospheres to be more resistant.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Floyd|first=Charlie|date=13 March 2018|title=A father and son are growing fruit and vegetables 8 metres below the surface of the Mediterranean Sea — here's why|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/nemos-garden-is-an-underwater-greenhouse-heres-how-it-works-italy-father-son-2018-3?r=US&IR=T|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Insider}}</ref>
Italy was one of the first countries to be affected by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. Divers were unable to collect new research data, and subsequently the team from Ocean Reef Group at Nemo's Garden was forced to take a break.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Katanich|first1=Dolores|last2=Orlandi|first2=Giorgia|date=6 July 2021|title=World's first underwater farm reopens growing lettuce and strawberries|url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2021/07/06/world-s-first-underwater-farm-reopens-growing-lettuce-and-strawberries|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Euronews}}</ref>
In the final months of 2020, Nemo's Garden made it through thunderstorms and the Winter season, which was registered as the most successful period in terms of plant growth.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nemo's Garden |url=http://www.nemosgarden.com/underwater-vs-standard-agriculture/ |website=Nemo's Garden |access-date=10 November 2021}}</ref>
== Design and working principles ==
[[File:Nemo's Garden 1.jpg|right|thumb|Tree of Life and Biospheres]]Nemo's Garden is made up of a total of six biospheres. They are composed by a vinyl-plastic dome, that allows the sunlight to reach the plants inside, and an internal metallic scaffold that anchors the structure to the seabed through 24 chains and special screws. Each semi-sphere is filled with {{convert|2000|litre}} of air volume that is periodically refreshed, for a diameter of {{convert|2|m|spell=in}}, and a step grid at the bottom where divers can stand to operate.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Dini|first1=Giorgio|last2=Princi|first2=Elisabetta|last3=Gamberini|first3=Sergio|last4=Gamberini|first4=Luca|title=OCEANS 2016 MTS/IEEE Monterey |chapter=Nemo's Garden: Growing plants underwater |date=19-23 September 2016|publisher=IEEE|isbn=978-1-5090-1537-5|location=an Marcos, CA, USA|publication-date=1 December 2016|pages=3|language=English|doi=10.1109/OCEANS.2016.7761335|s2cid=39624632 }}</ref>
The Garden was originally structured in the shape of a pentagon with five biospheres, but a sixth one was added in 2021. The Tree of Life is a {{convert|3.5|m}} high and {{cvt|3|m}} large structure positioned in the middle. It hides cables going into the biospheres, provides illumination for the habitat, and has webcams monitoring the Garden from the top.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bonazza|first=Valentina|date=5 August 2021|title=Nemo's Garden: quando il basilico cresce sott'acqua (in mongolfiere marine)|url=https://www.fruitbookmagazine.it/nemos-garden-quando-il-basilico-cresce-sottacqua-in-mongolfiere-marine/|access-date=5 November 2021|website=Fruitbook Magazine|language=it-IT}}</ref> Cameras are positioned in every biosphere and they work thanks to a wireless underwater communication network with a range of operation of 100 metres from the Tree of Life.
A Control Tower on the shoreline monitors and supervises all the activities in Nemo's Garden and it is used by the "agrinauts" (divers working in the biospheres) to communicate with their colleagues working on land.
This underwater farm uses a cultivation system called "[[Hydroponics]]", a method of growing plants using mineral solutions in water without soil. The solutions contain nutrients based on K+ ions and NO3- (Nitrate). Inside the plastic domes is installed a spiral tube {{cvt|10|m}} long that has holes positioned every {{cvt|15|cm}} functioning as seedbeds, for a total of 60 holes in each biosphere and a total of 150 to 200 plants.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Razzetti|first=Michele|date=15 November 2020|title=Nel "Giardino di Nemo", dove l'agricoltore diventa subacqueo|url=https://www.vanityfair.it/mybusiness/news-mybusiness/2020/11/15/giardino-di-nemo-agricoltore-subacqueo-sergio-gamberini|access-date=5 November 2021|website=Vanity Fair Italia|language=it-IT}}</ref>
Every semi-sphere has monitoring sensors that detect and record physical and chemical data such as: air temperature, [[Humidity]] rate (controlled through fans powered by solar energy), [[luminosity]], levels of [[oxygen]] and [[carbon dioxide]].
The Garden is provided with an [[irrigation]] system situated in a tank in the lowest part of the spiral tube. The irrigation water is obtained thanks to the phenomenon of [[condensation]] caused by the difference between the air temperature inside of the biospheres and the surrounding water temperature. The water obtained is stored in the tanks and mixed with fertilizers and redistributed to the plants through a pump powered by solar energy that pushes the water from the bottom to the top of the spiral tube. The water then descends by gravity reaching the plants.
The main renewable energy source is [[solar energy]] and fresh water is obtained through the process of [[desalination]] of water. In absence of solar energy, [[LED lamp|LED]] lights are employed to provide light.
[[File:Tree of life Nemo's Garden 3.jpg|thumb|380x380px|Tree of Life]]
The species of herbs, vegetables and flowers selected for the project are:[[Stevia rebaudiana]], [[Salvia elegans]], [[Eschscholzia californica]], [[Vinca]], [[Calendula]], [[Pansy]], Small Tomatoes, [[Lemon balm]], [[Basil]], [[Thyme]], [[Orchidaceae|Orchids]], [[Sophora]], [[Goji]], [[Oregano]], [[Mentha]] and [[Bean]]s. The aim is to observe how different plants can survive and grow in this kind of environment.<ref name=":1" />
==Sustainability==
One of the most significant systems for modern farming is [[industrial agriculture]] based on large-scale monoculture. This method takes into account the increasing importance of [[sustainability]], but the many improvements in this branch, like [[plant breeding]] and the use of [[agrochemical]]s, have caused significant ecological damage and are known to have negative health effects on humans.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gliessman|first=Stephen R.|title=Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture|publisher=Ann Arbor Press|year=1998|location=Chelsea|language=English}}</ref>
Water is the main resource for agriculture and its management is particularly important, especially in countries where rainfalls are insufficient or variable. In the last years, the availability of freshwater has started to decrease rising the public's concearn and opening the way to new possible more sustainable agricultural methods like the one used in Nemo's Garden.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Smedley|first=Tim|date=12 April 2017|title=Is the world running out of fresh water?|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170412-is-the-world-running-out-of-fresh-water|access-date=5 December 2021|publisher=BBC}}</ref>
Gamberini's new underwater system hopes to help overcome problems related to the use of harmful pesticides, known to damage both the fauna and the flora of the reef, but also human's health as these pesticides end up being in the food we eat.<ref>{{Cite web|date=19 February 2018|title=Pesticide residues in food|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/pesticide-residues-in-food|access-date=5 December 2021|website=World Health Organization}}</ref> The closed ecosystem of the biospheres would disable the parasites to attack the plants to begin with. Moreover, the underwater farm does not pose a threat to marine ecosystems because of low interaction with the surrounding environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ningombam |first1=Sushma Devi |title=Nemo's Garden- the world's first-and onlysubterranean greenhouse (A review article) |journal=Ecology, Environment and Conservation |date=June 20, 2022 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=2038–2041 |doi=10.53550/EEC.2022.v28i04.058 |url=http://www.envirobiotechjournals.com/EEC/vol28issue422/EEC-58.pdf}}</ref> It will be possible to produce natural fertilizers from algae growing in the areas surrounding the farms, and make the project completely sustainable.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Baweja|first1=Pooja|last2=Kumar|first2=Savindra|last3=Kumar|first3=Gaurav|title=Biofertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture and Environment |chapter=Organic Fertilizer from Algae: A Novel Approach Towards Sustainable Agriculture |date=10 August 2019|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-18933-4_16|access-date=5 December 2021|publisher=SpringerLink|series=Soil Biology |volume=55 |pages=353–370 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-18933-4_16|isbn=978-3-030-18932-7 |s2cid=202195355 }}</ref>
The biospheres are made from non-toxic polymeric materials and have minimum interactions with the surroundings, so they could and are becoming the right habitat for small-sized marine animals. This is a phenomenon known as repopulation of the reef and it will eventually increase.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Formisani|first=Lisa|date=4 February 2020|title=How to save the coral reefs|url=https://www.eni.com/en-IT/technologies/coral-reef-recovery.html|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Eni.com}}</ref> As a result, the population of Noli's coastline has already increased by 150%.
In contrast to ordinary greenhouses, Nemo's Garden can maintain mild stable temperatures within its biospheres without extra thermoregulation, which leads to carbon dioxide emissions and greenhouse effect, two of the main issues regarding modern agriculture.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rosati|first=Antonio|date=17 December 2018|title=An underwater garden|url=https://www.alimentarium.org/en/magazine/trends/underwater-garden|access-date=2 December 2021|website=alimentarium.org|publisher=The Guardian [online]}}</ref>
==Future projects==
Nemo's Garden is a scientific project that tests how the underwater systems can remain diverse and productive infinitely. The research is focusing on the relationship between the time needed for the plants to grow underwater rather than on land, the depth at which the project could be installed for the plants' survival and the pros and cons of the different locations and materials.
The commercialization of fresh produce grown underwater is a possible application of the project. Public and private entities could use the farms for the production of food on a larger scale and sell it to the public, especially in [[Third World|third world countries]] to enlarge their economy.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hansman|first=Heather|date=23 July 2015|title=Off the Coast of Italy, Two Divers Are Building Underwater Greenhouses|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/off-coast-italy-two-divers-are-building-underwater-greenhouses-180955883/|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Smithsonianmag}}</ref>
The team at Nemo's Garden is expanding their research to adjust their general structure of the Garden in function of the environment it would be placed in. For example, exploiting of [[solar panel]]s in desert areas.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Smart|first=Joanna|year=2019|title=Nemo's Garden|url=http://www.ogsociety.org/journal/featured-articles/335-nemos-garden.html|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Ocean Geographic}}</ref>
Another future application of the project would be that of [[Ecotourism]]. This implies opening the installations up for the public, or even placing them in resorts, to help with the growth of tourism in certain areas and to spread awareness on climate change, pollution related to the current methods of agriculture, and other main issues tied to the time we are living in.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dini|first1=Giorgio|title=Nemo's Garden: Growing plants underwater|last2=Princi|first2=Elisabetta|last3=Gamberini|first3=Sergio|last4=Gamberini|first4=Luca|date=19-23 September 2016|publisher=IEEE|isbn=978-1-5090-1537-5|location=San Marcos, California, US|pages=5–6|language=English}}</ref>
A phenomenon that is being observed in the Garden is the behaviour of sea animals around the biospheres, as many of them have started to inhabit the areas surrounding the domes. This led to the idea of using these cultivations also for [[fish farming]], or for the growth of seaweed and corals to repopulate the reef that is lately been particularly affected by damaging activities such as chemical fishing or use of harmful pesticides and disastrous events, such as leaks of petroleum in the sea.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Everts|first=James|year=2021|title=Threats to Coral Reefs: the Effects of Chemical Pollution.|url=http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Threats_to_Coral_Reefs:_the_Effects_of_Chemical_Pollution|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Costalwiki}}</ref>
The team at Nemo's Garden is partnering up with scientists like Professor Giovanni Tanda and Professor Marco Fossa from the Engineering Group of [[University of Genova|the University of Genoa]], for researches on thermal and hydrometrical issues caused by water evaporation in the biospheres, and Prof. Luisa Pistelli and Dr. Laura Pistelli from the [[University of Pisa]] for botanical studies, specifically the [[phytochemical]] composition of the plants, their aroma profile, their [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] structure, the [[Histology|histochemical]] features and their [[Physiology|physiological]] behaviour compared to those grown on land.
==Scuba diving==
[[File:Nemo's Garden 2.jpg|left|thumb|Diver working on Nemo's Garden]]
[[Scuba diving]] is an adventurous sport and before the COVID-19 pandemic struck, it was practiced in Italy by more than 100.000 people per year. After the pandemic only 20% of diving centres have registered no loss in profit, 60% has estimated a loss between 25 and 50% and the rest have had a loss of 50% or more. This emergency situation is expected to help the Italian scuba diving centres in the long run, especially for summer 2021–2022, as many Italian divers (50%) have decided to stay local, and explore the Italian coasts to save money and still be able to practice this sport.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Daturi|first=Marco|date=25 June 2021|title=Andamento della subacquea: analisi risultati sondaggio|url=https://www.zeropixel.it/andamento-della-subacquea/|access-date=17 November 2021|website=Zeropixel|language=Italian}}</ref>
Liguria is one of the main locations for scuba diving in Italy and between the main spots we can find: the area of the [[Cinque Terre]], [[Portofino]], the island of [[Bergeggi (island)|Bergeggi]] and [[Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary|Pelagos Sanctuary]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Expedia Team|date=12 July 2017|title=Immersioni In Liguria: I Migliori Posti Per Fare Diving|url=https://www.expedia.it/stories/immersioni-in-liguria-i-migliori-posti-per-fare-diving/|access-date=17 November 2021|website=expedia.it|publisher=expedia|language=Italian}}</ref>
The team from Ocean's Reef Group at Nemo's Garden, along with Gamberini and Fontanesi, aim to make Liguria and its treasures more known to divers and tourists in general. They want to transform their farm in one of the top attractions and spots for scuba diving and tourism. The Garden is open to the public and it can be visited along with a guide.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fitzpatrick|first=Colette|date=2 October 2019|title=An underwater farm not far from Genoa|url=https://www.italy-villas.com/to-italy/2019/tourist-attractions/parks/nemos-garden|access-date=17 November 2017|website=Italy-villas}}</ref>
== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:Tree of life Nemo's Garden.jpg|Divers entering a biosphere
File:Tree of life Nemo's Garden 2.jpg|Diver in the forefront of the Tree of Life
File:Nemo's Garden's biosphere.jpg|Close-up with a biosphere
File:Nemo's Garden's biosphere 2.jpg|Biosphere analysis
File:Nemo's Garden's biosphere 3.jpg|Inside a biosphere
File:Biospheres in Nemo's Garden, Noli, Italy.jpg|Down angle: Biospheres
File:Biospheres in Nemo's Garden, Noli, Italy 2.jpg|Frontal perspective: Biospheres
File:Biosphere with divers in Nemo's Garden, Noli, Italy.jpg|Structure maintenance
File:Nemo's Garden seen from above, Noli, Italy.jpg|Up angle: Nemo's Garden
</gallery>
==External links ==
* [http://www.expo2015.org/ Expo 2015 ]
* [https://oceanreefgroup.com/Ocean Reef Group site]
* [https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/oceans/ Oceans: Sustainable Development Goals UNO]
* [https://www.regione.liguria.it/homepage/ambiente/acqua/mare-e-costa/competenze-regione/piano-di-tutela-dell-ambiente-marino-costiero.html Ligury Plan for Sea Protection]
* [https://www.comunenoli.gov.it/it Noli Municipality Site]
* [https://www.msp-platform.eu/countries/italy Italian Sea Territory: EU Policy]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Gardens in Italy]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Tourism in Liguria]] |
Convergence research | {{Short description|Approach to solving problems}}
'''Convergence research''' aims to solve [[complex problem]]s employing [[transdisciplinarity]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Kaiser |first=Jocelyn |date=2011-01-11 |title=MIT Calls for More 'Convergence' in Research |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/mit-calls-more-convergence-research |magazine=Science |location=Washington, DC, USA |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref> While [[academic discipline|academic disciplines]] are useful for identifying and conveying coherent [[body of knowledge|bodies of knowledge]], some problems require collaboration among disciplines, including both enhanced understanding of scientific [[phenomenon|phenomena]] as well as resolving [[social issue|social issues]]. The two defining characteristics of convergence research include: 1) the [[nature (philosophy)|nature]] of the problem, and 2) the [[collaboration]] among disciplines.
== Definition ==
In 2002, it was published the foundational report "Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance: Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology, and Cognitive Science" (Roco et al. 2002 and 2003)<ref> {{Cite journal |date=2003 |editor-last=Roco |editor-first=Mihail C. |editor2-last=Bainbridge |editor2-first=William Sims |title=Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-017-0359-8 |journal=SpringerLink |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-0359-8}} </ref> and article "Coherence and Divergence of Megatrends in Science and Engineering" (Roco MC, 2002),<ref> Roco MC, ''Coherence and Divergence of Megatrends in Science and Engineering'', Journal of Nanoparticle Research 4, no. 1 (2002): 9-19 </ref> followed by the international report "Convergence of Knowledge, Technology and Society: Beyond Convergence of Nano-Bio- Info-Cognitive Technologies" (Roco et al. 2013)<ref> {{Cite journal |date=2013 |editor-last=Roco |editor-first=Mihail C. |editor2-last=Bainbridge |editor2-first=William S. |editor3-last=Tonn |editor3-first=Bruce |editor4-last=Whitesides |editor4-first=George |title=Convergence of Knowledge, Technology and Society |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-02204-8 |journal=Science Policy Reports |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-02204-8 |issn=2213-1965}} </ref> and "Principles and Methods that Facilitate Convergence" (Roco 2016).<ref> {{Cite book |url=https://link.springer.com/referencework/10.1007/978-3-319-07052-0 |title=Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence |date=2016 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-07051-3 |editor-last=Bainbridge |editor-first=William Sims |location=Cham |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-07052-0 |editor-last2=Roco |editor-first2=Mihail C.}}</ref>
In 2016, convergence research was identified by the [[National Science Foundation]] as one of 10 Big Idea's for future investments.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Schwarber |first=Adria |date=2020-10-07 |title=FY21 Budget Outlook: National Science Foundation |url=https://www.aip.org/fyi/2020/fy21-house-appropriations-bill-national-science-foundation |magazine=FYI Science Policy News from API |location=Washington, DC, USA |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref> As defined by NSF, convergence research has two primary characteristics, namely:
* "''Research driven by a specific and compelling problem.'' Convergence research is generally inspired by the need to address a specific challenge or opportunity, whether it arises from deep scientific questions or pressing societal needs.
* ''Deep integration across disciplines.'' As experts from different disciplines pursue common research challenges, their knowledge, theories, methods, data, research communities and languages become increasingly intermingled or integrated. New frameworks, paradigms or even disciplines can form sustained interactions across multiple communities."<ref>{{cite web | title = Convergence Research at NSF| publisher = National Science Foundation| date = 2016| url = https://www.nsf.gov/od/oia/convergence/index.jsp}}</ref>
National Research Council published a report on "Convergence: Facilitating Transdisciplinary Integration of Life Sciences, Physical Sciences, Engineering, and Beyond" in 2014.<ref> ''Convergence: Facilitating Transdisciplinary Integration of Life Sciences, Physical Sciences, Engineering, and Beyond'', National Research Council 2014. </ref>
An illustration of implementing convergence principles to the National Nanotechnology Initiative<ref> National Nanotechnology Initiative portal, www.nano.gov. </ref> is described in<ref> Roco MC and Bainbridge WS, ''The New World of Discovery, Invention, and Innovation: Convergence of Knowledge, Technology, and Society''. Journal of Nanoparticle Research 15, no. 9 (2013): 1-17 </ref> in 2013.
An illustration of application of convergence to health, science and engineering research is described in<ref> {{Cite web |title=2016 Report |url=http://www.convergencerevolution.net/2016-report |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=The Convergence Revolution |language=en-US}} </ref> in 2016.
== Examples of convergence research ==
=== Biomedicine ===
Advancing [[healthcare]] and promoting [[Wellness (alternative medicine)|wellness]] to the point of providing [[personalized medicine]] will increase [[health]] and reduce costs for everyone.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Regalado |first=Antonio |date=2020-04-27 |title=Hyper-personalized medicine |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/technology/hyper-personalized-medicine/ |magazine=MIT Technology Review |location=Boston, MA, USA |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref> While recognizing the potential benefits of personalized medicine, critics cite the importance of maintaining investments in [[public health]] as highlighted by the approaches to combat the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Marcus |first=Amy Dockser |date=2020-05-08 |title=Covid-19 Raises Questions About the Value of Personalized Medicine |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/covid-19-raises-questions-about-the-value-of-personalized-medicine-11588949927?mod=searchresults_pos6&page=2 |work=Wall Street Journal |location=New York, NY, USA |access-date=2017-09-02}}</ref>
=== Cyber-physical systems ===
The [[internet of things]] allows all [[people]], [[machine|machines]], and [[infrastructure]] to be monitored, maintained, and operated in real-time, everywhere. Because the [[Federal government of the United States|United States Government]] is one of the largest user of "things", [[computer security|cybersecurity]] is critical to any effective system.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/congress-passes-the-internet-of-things-17526/ |title=Congress Passes The Internet Of Things (IoT) Cybersecurity Improvement Act |publisher=JD Supra |date=2020-12-15 |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref>
=== STEMpathy ===
Jobs that utilize skills in [[science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]] to provide care for human welfare through the use of [[empathy]] have been described as creating value with "hired hearts".<ref>{{cite book |last=Seidman |first=Dov |author-link= |date=2011 |title=How: Why How We Do Anything Means Everything |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=Wiley |page=384 |isbn=978-1118106372}}</ref> [[Thomas Friedman]] coined the term "STEMpathy" to describe these jobs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/04/opinion/from-hands-to-heads-to-hearts.html |title=From Hands to Heads to Hearts |work=The New York Times |date=2017-01-04 |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref>
=== Sustainability ===
Beyond [[recycling]], the goal of achieving [[zero waste]] means designing a closed loop of the [[material]] and [[energy]] necessary to operate the [[built environment]]. Individuals and organizations, including [[corporation|corporations]] and governments, increasingly are committing to achieving [[zero waste]].<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Neill | first=Clarie |date=2020-12-29 |title=New Year's Resolutions for the Planet |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/29/climate/new-years-resolutions-climate.html |work=New York Times |location=New York, NY, USA |access-date=2021-01-10}}</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Convergence Research}}
[[Category:Biomedicine]]
[[Category:Computer_systems]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
North–south research partnerships | {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
'''North–south research partnerships''' consist of collaborations between [[research]]ers from countries in the [[Global North and Global South|global north and the global south]]. By establishing equal partnerships in north–south research, economic, social and cultural boundaries can be overcome. Such partnerships can address and enable research of issues in dynamic and complex contexts, as well as deal with [[Uncertainty|uncertainties]]. Moreover, such research cooperation allows different perspectives to be taken into account to explore issues that are strongly [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|value]] driven or linked to conflicting interests and power claims. So north–south research partnerships provide new insights in the transition towards [[sustainable development]] and facilitate the development of solutions to local and global challenges.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Hofmänner|first=Alexandra|year=2021|title=A Short History of the KFPE 1994 – 2019|url=https://portal-cdn.scnat.ch/asset/3823984a-3ab8-588a-b21e-0d0dbcc27eac/A%20Short%20History%20of%20the%20KFPE%201994-2019.pdf?b=9b4b555e-9aa1-5ad0-9b5a-854fd25f821f&v=a8656557-b133-506a-8aed-8ddb9d490f9a_0&s=iUoxIWGJGGpZAQyo0XHe9krd5WOAXnB83SpxLR-QCjKsDQFENZCzL8Ge-I4LExKgip9mn25KA3gtzi8RtrKH1qPXHdCG1xSM_25B_KJ-dhpWA-yjyd_HQrBa9N-ECagZ20nyHmWyb7LXQmRorWsgT4Kpurd62rnpuLJWVmtrgVM}}</ref>
== History ==
For centuries, people have embarked on voyages of discovery and exploration. In the beginning, such voyages were motivated by the ambition to establish new colonies and extend trade relations. [[Decolonization]] gave rise, in the mid-20th century, to the idea of [[Development aid|development in cooperation]]. Research centres were established in developing countries to support and promote knowledge and technology transfer.
Debate around sustainable development in the 1990s led to the expansion of initiatives with an initial focus on economic development to include socio-ecological considerations. Warnings from the research community contributed significantly to this paradigm shift (cf. [[Brundtland Report]]). However, this change in direction also called for new approaches in research, including [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] and [[Transdisciplinarity|transdisciplinary]] methods and initiatives that sought to understand the complexity of global problems and develop appropriate and relevant solutions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=für Entwicklungsfragen |first=Kommission |url=https://hw.oeaw.ac.at/3767-2 |title=Gemeinsam forschen, gemeinsam lernen |date=2006 |publisher=Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |isbn=978-3-7001-3767-2 |language=de |doi=10.1553/0x0012788c}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Global Sustainable Development Report {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs|url=https://sdgs.un.org/gsdr|access-date=2022-02-24|website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> To comprehensively attempt to understand global challenges, these must also be studied and understood from the perspective of [[Developing country|developing countries]]. Doing so effectively requires the strengthening of research networks in countries of the global south and equality in partnerships with researchers from these countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gaillard |first=Jacques, ... |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/467945279 |title=La coopération scientifique et technique avec les pays du Sud : peut-on partager la science? |date=1999 |publisher=Éd. Karthala |others=Impr. Laballery) |isbn=2-86537-941-8 |location=Paris |oclc=467945279}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Maselli|first=Daniel|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/727909983|title=Improving impacts of research partnerships|date=2004|publisher=Geographica Bernensia|others=Jon-Andri Lys, Jacqueline Schmid, Conférence des académies scientifiques suisses. Commission suisse pour le partenariat scientifique avec les pays en dévéloppement|isbn=3-906151-83-2|location=Bern|oclc=727909983}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kok|first1=Maarten Olivier|last2=Gyapong|first2=John Owusu|last3=Wolffers|first3=Ivan|last4=Ofori-Adjei|first4=David|last5=Ruitenberg|first5=Elis Joost|year=2017|title=Towards fair and effective North–South collaboration: realising a programme for demand-driven and locally led research|journal=Health Research Policy and Systems|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=96|doi=10.1186/s12961-017-0251-3|issn=1478-4505|pmc=5683379|pmid=29132436 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Partenariats Nord-Sud/Forschungspartnerschaften |publisher=Yvan Droz, Anne Mayor, Lilo Roost Vischer |year=2001 |isbn= |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51561000 |title=North-South research cooperation : international conference, December 3, 2001. |date=2002 |publisher=Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschapen |others=Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschapen |isbn=90-6984-348-X |location=Amsterdam |oclc=51561000}}</ref> Such cooperation, on equal terms, is currently also one of the demands laid out in [[Anti-colonisation|anti-]] and decolonization debates.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trisos|first1=Christopher H.|last2=Auerbach|first2=Jess|last3=Katti|first3=Madhusudan|date=24 May 2021|title=Decoloniality and anti-oppressive practices for a more ethical ecology|journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution|language=en|volume=5|issue=9|pages=1205–1212|doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01460-w|pmid=34031567|s2cid=235199711|issn=2397-334X|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Research colonialism still plagues Africa|url=https://www.scidev.net/sub-saharan-africa/scidev-net-investigates/research-colonialism-still-plagues-africa/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=Sub-Saharan Africa|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2022 |title=Decolonising academic collaboration {{!}} DIIS |url=https://www.diis.dk/en/research/decolonising-academic-collaboration |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=www.diis.dk |language=en}}</ref> North–south research partnerships also have an important role to play in connecting research and development cooperation.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/785764545 |title=Research for sustainable development : foundations, experiences, and perspectives |date=2011 |publisher=NCCR North-South |others=Urs Wiesmann, National Centre of Competence in Research North-South |isbn=978-3-905835-31-1 |location=Bern |oclc=785764545}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|year=2021|title=Combining Research and Services at Swiss Research Institutions to Accelerate Sustainable Development|url=https://www.swisstph.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/SwissTPH/Documents/Institute/Research_Governance/RS4D_Policy_Brief_Final_29.01.2021.pdf|publisher=Swiss TPH}}</ref>
== Equality in global research cooperation ==
Understanding global sustainable development challenges and designing solutions to address these challenges, requires genuine equitable collaboration among researchers from different countries, disciplines and sectors, including business, civil society, management, and politics. Such collaboration is also predicated on strong research networks across the global south.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Wiesmann|first1=Urs|last2=Hurni|first2=Hans|year=2011|title=Research for Sustainable Development: Foundations, Experiences, and Perspectives|url=http://www.nccr-north-south.unibe.ch/Upload/LOW_fullversion_Perspectives_Vol6_Research_Sustainable_Development(2).pdf|publisher=Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research North-South, University of Bern}}</ref>
Efficient and resilient research depends on long-term, trusting research partnerships of equals. Such partnerships enable ongoing research to be better sustained during periods of crisis (e.g., the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]) and new research can build on existing collaborations.
From an [[Ethics|ethical]] point of view, equality in partnerships is also 'the right thing to do' and necessary to prevent the exploitation and abuse of researchers in more vulnerable positions and resource-poor settings (so-called [[ethics dumping]]).<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-64731-9|title=Ethics Dumping: Case Studies from North-South Research Collaborations|date=2018|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-64730-2|editor-last=Schroeder|editor-first=Doris|series=SpringerBriefs in Research and Innovation Governance|location=Cham|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-64731-9|editor-last2=Cook|editor-first2=Julie|editor-last3=Hirsch|editor-first3=François|editor-last4=Fenet|editor-first4=Solveig|editor-last5=Muthuswamy|editor-first5=Vasantha}}</ref> Equitable partnerships are grounded in the fair and equal distribution of participation, exposure to risk, and personal benefit (e.g., [[authorship]] of publications, career advancement, wages, etc.) as well as social benefits derived from research activities.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=KFPE Guide – 11 Principles & 7 Questions|url=https://kfpe.scnat.ch/en/id/JaMhL|access-date=2022-02-24|website=kfpe.scnat.ch|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Schroeder|first=Doris|title='Ethics dumping' – the dark side of international research|url=http://theconversation.com/ethics-dumping-the-dark-side-of-international-research-88675|access-date=2022-02-24|website=The Conversation|language=en}}</ref> "[[Access and Benefit Sharing Agreement|Access and benefit sharing]]" is a critical consideration of such cooperation: all researchers, research institutions and countries involved in a given initiative should have equal access to the data generated, as well as the social benefits and financial gains derived from these data.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=Unit|first=Biosafety|date=22 February 2022|title=The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing|url=https://www.cbd.int/abs/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.cbd.int|language=en}}</ref>
Equality in cooperation between all parties in research partnerships is challenging and often difficult to achieve in practice. To support researchers and research funding institutions in addressing these challenges, the Swiss Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries (KFPE) has outlined 11 principles. These principles serve as a guideline and an international model for equal partnerships in research cooperation.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Stöckli|first1=Bruno|last2=Wiesmann|first2=Urs|last3=Lys|first3=Jon-Andri|year=2012|title=A Guide for Transboundary Research Partnerships|url=https://portal-cdn.scnat.ch/asset/4d8372ee-27d7-558a-b9db-77bf409ceef4/KFPE-11P-7Q-3d2018.pdf?b=370a2788-58f3-581e-85d7-2418b87c662e&v=8ef687bc-7b14-5a4f-ad9e-bf494cddc1d7_0&s=gLwVbtPON190F6auadVe-DPd_IOknFA_pssGzeBGB68h8nfbZIcnUaztPkFbUOKFef8V2w2-5NzkK61J2WEdN4JXXheHl2gX1f6cLTTro8WFmDkhlKvHQjqRQDZdPmPo3whl0-P3PWWEWWinhvJ5hWLGC5hYwVTAPC0kLEC-F7g|publisher=Swiss Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries, KFPE}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=KFPE: A Guide for Transboundary Research Partnerships|url=https://www.ukcdr.org.uk/resource/a-guide-for-transboundary-research-partnerships-by-kfpe/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.ukcdr.org.uk|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Portrait – NFP [Nr.]|url=http://www.r4d.ch/r4d-programme/portrait|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.r4d.ch|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=SPIRIT|url=https://www.snf.ch/de/nlghrhyzbD90TM9D/foerderung/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=Schweizerischer Nationalfonds (SNF)|language=de}}</ref>
== Relationship between sustainable research and basic research ==
Achieving the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda requires international [[Sustainability science|research collaboration on sustainable development]].<ref name=":1" /> This includes, in particular, north–south research collaborations. Such cooperation enables challenges to sustainable development to be considered comprehensively and from different perspectives, and fosters the development of solutions that take into account different needs and priorities.
North–south research cooperation is mostly [[Applied science|applied research]] that makes a specific contribution to sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web|last=mdass|date=30 September 2020|title=GDN programs|url=http://www.gdn.int/currentprograms|access-date=2022-02-24|website=Global Development Network}}</ref> However, [[basic research]] can also be conducted through north–south research cooperation. But to date, the majority of basic research is conducted in the Global North. Due to a lack of integration, research networks in the Global South are sometimes excluded from basic research.
== Funding ==
Funding mechanisms for north–south research collaborations include government [[Research Grants]], private and philanthropic foundations as well as individuals. Private-sector companies also support various research projects and collaborations.
One challenge for north–south research is that it straddles research and [[Development aid|development cooperation]]. The requirements for projects in these two areas sometimes differ greatly. Consequently, it is difficult for north–south research to do justice to both areas in each case. This makes finding funding for north–south research more challenging. This challenge is exacerbated in the case of ''[[Transdisciplinarity|transdisciplinary]]'' North-South research, because, as the name implies, such research does not fit into any single discipline. Moreover, in some cases, applied research in the global south is considered to be 'inferior' compared to basic research undertaken at renowned research institutions in the global north, and receives correspondingly less funding support.
North–south research is mostly funded in the form of research projects. Short project cycles and the pressure to generate findings quickly and cheaply make it difficult not only to build long-term research partnerships on an equal footing, but also to establish sustainable structures and strengthen relevant skills and capacities on the ground. In addition to project funding, north–south research would therefore benefit from more funding instruments targeted at strengthening the long-term cooperation between organisations as well as supporting the development of sustainable structures and relevant expertise on site.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sieber |first1=Priska |title=Choosing the Right Projects. Designing Selection Processes for North-South Research Partnership Programmes |last2=Braunschweig |first2=Thomas |publisher=Swiss Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries, KFPE |year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Upreti |first=Bishnu Raj |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/823742842 |title=Partnerships in development-oriented research : lessons learnt and challenges ahead |date=2012 |others=NCCR North-South. South Asia Regional Coordination Office |isbn=978-9937-8174-4-8 |location=Kathmandu |oclc=823742842}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|year=2020|title=Confronting our Common Challenges: a new Approach to Strengthening Africa's Research, Innovation and Higher Education Capacity|url=https://www.the-guild.eu/publications/arua-guild-concept-note-common-challenges.pdf|publisher=The Guild of European Research-Intensive Universities and Bern Open Publishing}}</ref>
== Critique and possible solutions ==
North–south research cooperation has been much criticised. In addition to the [[Development aid#Debated effectiveness and impacts|general criticism levied at development cooperation]] generally, there are several specific aspects of north–south research that are frequently mentioned by critics. The most important points are listed below:
* The quality and efficiency of north–south research is not on par with the demonstrated research excellence at renowned research institutions in the global north. North–south research is not undertaken with the same scientific rigour and independence as basic or fundamental disciplinary research. North–south research is too practice-oriented and produces too few publications in [[Scientific journal|high-impact scientific journals]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scientific and technical journal articles {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IP.JRN.ARTC.SC?most_recent_value_desc=true&year_low_desc=true |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> This is countered by the argument that North-South researchers are more likely to step out of the [[ivory tower]] of academia, tackle real world problems and offer viable solutions. Moreover, scientific performance should not only be evaluated based on the [[impact factor]] of scientific publications, but also according to the tangible benefits generated for society.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Read the Declaration |url=https://sfdora.org/read/ |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=DORA |language=en-US}}</ref>
* North–south research is too [[Theory|theoretical]] and removed from [[Praxis (process)|practice]]. From the perspective of practitioners, research findings are too theoretical and lack tangible application(s). This highlights the dilemma facing applied north–south research. From the 'scientific' perspective, it does not qualify as excellent research, while from the 'applied' perspective, it is too theoretical. Applied north–south research in fact benefits both science and practice. In well-implemented projects, scientific knowledge critically informs on the ground practice and current development problems inspire key research questions.<ref name=":2" />
* [[Traditional knowledge]] and [[Culture|local cultural ideas]] often hold little value in [[Western world|Western-influenced]] research.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kothari |first=Uma |title=Power, Knowledge and Social Control in Participatory Development |work=Participation. The New Tyranny? |publisher=Zed Books |year=2001 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=Bill |location=London |pages=139–152 |editor-last2=Kothari |editor-first2=Uma}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mosse |first=David |title=Authority, Gender and Knowledge. Theoretical Reflections on the Practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal |work=Development and Change |year=1994 |volume=25 |pages=497–526}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fairhead |first1=James |title=Culturing Trees. Socialized Knowledge in the Political Ecology of Kissia and Kuranko Forest Islands of Guinea |last2=Leach |first2=Melissa |work=Nature is culture: indigenous knowledge and socio-cultural aspects of trees and forests in non-European cultures |publisher=Intermediate Technology Publications |year=1997 |editor-last=Seeland |editor-first=Klaus |location=London |pages=7–18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Haller |first1=Tobias |title=Challenges for Participatory Conservation in Times of Global Change: Lessons from a Comparative Analysis and New Developments |last2=Galvin |first2=Marc |work=Research for Sustainable Development. Foundations, Experiences, and Perspectives. Perspectives of the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research NCCR North-South University of Bern |publisher=Geographica Bernensia |year=2011 |editor-last=Wiesmann |editor-first=Urs Martin |location=Bern |pages=467–503 |editor-last2=Hurni |editor-first2=Hans}}</ref> Critics warn that important knowledge is therefore ignored and equal partnerships not possible. There are, however, an increasing number of efforts to integrate across multiple forms of knowledge (western-based scientific, indigenous, local and traditional), different systems of thought, as well as [[Cultural practice|cultural practises]] and beliefs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2020 |title=Towards Food Sustainability |url=https://www.cde.unibe.ch/research/projects/towards_food_sustainability/index_eng.html |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=Centre for Development and Environment (CDE)}}</ref> In general, however, research and science follow Western-style patterns of thought.
* By using the term north–south research collaboration, the perception of a [[Global North and Global South|north–south divide]] is further sharpened. This simplified dichotomy is not helpful. From a [[deconstruction]]ist perspective, the image of a rich north and poor south is too inaccurate. Differences between countries manifest themselves along a spectrum of varying financial strength, technological standards, and different research capacities. Accordingly, from a research perspective, there is no such thing as north vs south opposing research groups. Although the distinction between north and south as general characterization has its weaknesses, certain differences in research cannot be dismissed and should be acknowledged and addressed.
* North–south research partnerships often contain [[Paternalism|paternalistic]] features. There is a perception that the north is superior to the south and that researchers from the North are better than researchers from the south. Also, most [[Funding of science|research funding]] is provided by institutions in the North. Both of these dimensions undermine equality in north–south partnerships. Consistent implementation of the guidelines for cross-border research partnerships is one approach to minimise these challenges and transform one-way paternalistic knowledge transfer into a partnership grounded in collaboration, mutual learning, and [[Knowledge sharing|knowledge-sharing]].<ref name=":4" />
* Cumbersome and risk-prone research tasks are often unequally distributed. For instance, labour-intensive and sometimes dangerous fieldwork is assigned to local or young researchers. However, they are seldom invited to attend prestigious [[Academic conference|conferences]] or as co-authors on research publications. Agreements on "access and benefit sharing" as well as measures against so-called "[[ethics dumping]]" can help redress these manifestations of inequality.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />
* North–south research offers limited opportunities to establish academic careers, as researchers need a lot of time to build partnerships and fully understand the local context. This is time that is not spent publishing career-relevant scientific manuscripts in high-impact journals. However, careers that bridge academia and practice offer many professional opportunities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Saric |first1=Jasmina |last2=Käser |first2=Fabian |last3=Lys |first3=Jon-Andri |last4=Utzinger |first4=Jürg |last5=Breu |first5=Thomas |date=26 August 2021 |title=Synergising Research and Service Activities at Swiss Research Institutions to Accelerate Sustainable Development |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=13 |issue=17 |pages=9626 |doi=10.3390/su13179626 |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free }}</ref> As a reminder, the quality of research endeavours should not solely be evaluated through publications in high-impact journals (or publications in high-impact journals should not be the sole indicator of research quality).<ref name=":7" />
== Important institutions for global research cooperation ==
The following institutions are actively involved in north–south research cooperation – this is not an exhaustive list :
* [[The World Academy of Sciences|The Word Academy of Sciences]] (TWAS)<ref>{{Cite web|title=TWAS|url=https://twas.org/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=TWAS|language=en}}</ref>
* The African Academy of Sciences (AAS)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home {{!}} The AAS|url=https://www.aasciences.africa/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.aasciences.africa}}</ref>
* [[Institute of Development Studies]] (IDS)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home|url=https://www.ids.ac.uk/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=Institute of Development Studies|language=en-GB}}</ref>
* Council on Health Research for Development (COHRED)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Council on Health Research for Development – COHRED {{!}} Making health research work for everyone.|url=https://www.cohred.org/|access-date=2022-02-24|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Global Development Network]] (GDN)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Development Network|url=https://www.gdn.int/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=Global Development Network}}</ref>
* [[INASP|International Network for Advancing Science and Policy]] (INASP)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home {{!}} INASP|url=https://www.inasp.info/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.inasp.info}}</ref>
* [[Institut de recherche pour le développement]] (IRD)<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Research Network South (IRN/GDRI-Sud) {{!}} Site Web IRD|url=https://www.ird.fr/international-research-network-south-irngdri-sud|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.ird.fr|language=fr}}</ref>
* [[International Development Research Centre]] (IDRC)<ref>{{Cite web|title=IDRC – International Development Research Centre|url=https://www.idrc.ca/en|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.idrc.ca|language=en}}</ref>
* [[International Science Council]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Homepage|url=https://council.science/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=International Science Council|language=en-US}}</ref>
* UK Collaborative on Development Research (UKCDR)<ref>{{Cite web|title=UKCDR|url=https://www.ukcdr.org.uk/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=www.ukcdr.org.uk|language=en-GB}}</ref>
* [[Science and Development Network|SciDevNet]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home|url=https://www.scidev.net/global/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=SciDev.Net|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes]] (EADI)<ref>{{Cite web|title=EADI|url=https://www.eadi.org/|access-date=2022-02-24|website=EADI: European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes|language=en-GB}}</ref>
* Science Granting Councils Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa (SGCI)<ref>{{Cite web|title=SGCI – Science Granting Councils Initiative (SGCI) in Sub-Saharan Africa|url=http://sgciafrica.co.za/|access-date=2022-02-24|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Scholars at Risk]] (SAR)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scholars at Risk {{!}} Protecting scholars and the freedom to think, question, and share ideas |url=https://www.scholarsatrisk.org/ |access-date=2022-02-24 |website=Scholars at Risk |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Swiss Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries (KFPE)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries (KFPE) |url=https://kfpe.scnat.ch/en |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=kfpe.scnat.ch |language=en}}</ref>
== References ==
<!-- See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners on how to create references. -->
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* [https://www.ukcdr.org.uk/guidance/equitable-partnerships-hub/ UKCDR Equitable Partnerships Hub]
* [https://www.globaldev.blog/ GlobalDev-Blog]
* [http://www.developmentresearch.eu/ EADI Blog]
* [https://blog.inasp.info/ inasp Blog]
* [https://www.scidev.net/global/ SciDevNet]
* [https://kfpe.scnat.ch/en Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries]<!-- Categories -->
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Transdisciplinarity]]
[[Category:International relations]] |
Mobility transition | {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}{{use British English|date=February 2020}}
[[File:Gehzeug.jpg|thumb|[[Hermann Knoflacher]] has been criticising [[automotive city|auto cities]] and [[car dependency]] for decades. With his ''walking gear'', he caricatures the enormous spatial demands of motorised private transport (2007).]]
'''Mobility transition'''{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|page=4}}<ref name="Shiftan">{{Cite book |last=Shiftan |first=Yoram |date=2016 |title=Transition towards Sustainable Mobility: The Role of Instruments, Individuals and Institutions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPmXCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 |location=Abingdon |publisher=Routledge |pages=65–68 |isbn=9781317007302 |access-date=26 February 2022}}</ref> is a set of social, technological and political processes of converting [[traffic]] (including [[freight transport]]) and [[mobilities|mobility]] to [[sustainable transport]] with [[renewable energy]] resources, and an integration of several different modes of [[private transport]] and local [[public transport]]. It also includes [[social change]], a redistribution of [[public space]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Gianna Niewel |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/muenchen/muenchen-verkehr-fraunhoferstrasse-fahrrad-auto-1.4828233?reduced=true |title=Verkehrswende in München – Das Drama einer Umverteilung |work=[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]] |date=2020-03-02 |access-date=2020-03-05}}</ref> and different ways of financing and spending money in [[urban planning]]. The main motivation for mobility transition is the reduction of the harm and damage that traffic causes to people (mostly but not solely due to [[traffic collision|collisions]]) and the [[Environmental effects of transport|environment]] (which also often directly or indirectly affects people) in order to make (urban) society more livable, as well as solving various interconnected logistical, social, economic and energy issues and inefficiencies.
== Motivation ==
{{See also|Effects of the car on societies}}
=== Environmental damage ===
An important goal is the reduction of [[greenhouse gas emissions]] such as CO<sub>2</sub>. To achieve the goal set in the [[Paris Agreement]], that is, to restrict [[global warming]] to clearly below 2 °C, the burning of fossil fuels is to be discontinued around 2040.<ref name="Rockström">{{citation|surname1=[[Johan Rockström]]|periodical=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|title=A roadmap for rapid decarbonization|volume=355|issue=6331|at=pp. 1269–1271|date=2017|language=German|doi=10.1126/science.aah3443
|pmid=28336628|bibcode=2017Sci...355.1269R|s2cid=36453591|url=http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/14498/1/Rockstr%C3%B6mEtAl_2017_Science_A%20roadmap%20for%20rapid%20decarbonization.pdf}}</ref> Because the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions of traffic practically need to be reduced to zero,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Henrik Mortsiefer |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/7-emobility-summit-des-tagesspiegel-es-wird-ernst/19778848.html |title="Es wird ernst" |work=[[Der Tagesspiegel]] |date=2017-05-09 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> the measures taken so far in the transport sector are not sufficient in order to achieve the [[climate change mitigation]] goals that have been set.<ref name="Canzler Impact" />
=== Air pollution ===
A mobility transition also serves health purposes in the metropolitan regions and large cities and is intended in particular to counteract the massive [[air pollution]].<ref name="MondeKriener">{{Cite web |author=Manfred Kriener |url=https://www.monde-diplomatique.de/!5373698 |title=China elektrisiert. Ein Blick in die Zukunft der Autoindustrie |work=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=2017-02-09 |access-date=2017-04-13 |language=de}}</ref> For example, in [[Germany]] in 2015, traffic caused about 38% of human-related [[nitrogen oxide]] emissions.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Claudia Hornberg et al.|editor-surname1=Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen [SRU]|title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor: Sondergutachten November 2017|publication-place=Berlin|isbn=978-3-947370-11-5|date=2017|language=German|url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=26 |access-date=2020-09-20
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2326 accessible at {{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.html |title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor |date=2017-11-23 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> According to [[Johannes Lelieveld|Lelieveld]] et al. (2015), air pollution from land traffic alone killed around 164,000 people in 2010; in Germany alone, it was over 6,900 people.<ref>{{citation|surname1=[[Johannes Lelieveld]] |periodical=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|title=The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale|volume=525|at=pp. 367–371|date=2015|issue=7569|language=German|doi=10.1038/nature15371
|pmid=26381985|bibcode=2015Natur.525..367L|s2cid=4460927}}</ref> A 2017 study by the same lead author concluded that air pollution from [[road traffic]] in Germany causes 11,000 deaths every year that could potentially be avoided. This figure is 3.5 times the number of fatalities from accidents.<ref>{{citation|surname1=[[Johannes Lelieveld]]|periodical=Faraday Discussions|title=Clean air in the Anthropocene|volume=200|at=pp. 693–703|date=2017|language=German|doi=10.1039/c7fd90032e|pmid=28702627|bibcode=2017FaDi..200..693L|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[File:Karlsgraben Aachen Dezember 2014 (5).jpg|thumb|Classic urban mobility using the example of [[Aachen]]: privately owned automobiles characterise the streetscape.]] To demonstrate how much road traffic contributes to air pollution in Germany, for every 100 inhabitants, 58 of them owned passenger cars, according to Federal Statistical Office of Germany.<ref name="Statistisches">{{cite web |last1=Bundesamt |first1=Statistisches |title=Road Transport: Car Dominance Unbroken |url=https://www.destatis.de/Europa/EN/Topic/Transport/Car.html |website=destatis.de |publisher=Federal Statistical Office of Germany |access-date=October 21, 2022 |language=English |date=2022}}</ref>
=== Accident fatalities, quality of life, aggressive behaviour ===
Further motives for the mobility transition are the desire for less noise, streets with quality of life and lower accident risks (see also [[Vision Zero]]). According to estimates by the [[European Environment Agency]], 113 million people in Europe are affected by road noise at unhealthy levels.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Fiona Harvey |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/mar/05/one-in-five-europeans-exposed-to-harmful-noise-pollution-study |title=One in five Europeans exposed to harmful noise pollution – study |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=2020-03-05 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=en}}</ref> With increasing traffic and commuter numbers, many citizens also wished for more attractive places to spend time in public spaces.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.staedtetag.de/presse/mitteilungen/085685/index.html |title="Nachhaltigen Verkehr fördern – Verkehrssysteme der Zukunft entwickeln – Investitionsoffensive von Bund und Ländern notwendig" |publisher=[[Deutscher Städtetag]] |date=2018-06-22 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} (press release)</ref> A mobility transition therefore also serves to increase the quality of life.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://difu.de/veranstaltungen/2017-06-01/verkehrswende-in-stadt-und-umland.html |title=Verkehrswende in Stadt und Umland |publisher=[[Deutsches Institut für Urbanistik]] (Difu) |date=June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007020948/https://difu.de/veranstaltungen/2017-06-01/verkehrswende-in-stadt-und-umland.html |archive-date=2017-10-07 |access-date=2017-05-09 |language=de}}</ref>
The mobility transition is also seen by some as a means of reducing aggressive behaviour in traffic ([[road rage]]) and in society.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2020-06/verkehrswende-pop-up-radwege-stau-regine-guenther-adac/komplettansicht |title=Verkehrswende: "Es geht nicht um Autofahrer gegen Radfahrer" |language=de |first1=Regine |last1=Günther |first2=Volker |last2=Krane |interviewer-first=Sören |interviewer-last=Götz |newspaper=Die Zeit |date=10 July 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}}</ref> Studies indicate that people in large and expensive cars are more likely to behave more recklessly.<ref>''Higher social class predicts increased unethical behavior'', Piff et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Mar 2012, 109 (11) 4086-4091; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1118373109</ref> According to the German ''Verkehrsklima 2020'' (''Traffic Mood 2020'') study, women feel more insecure in traffic than men, and they want more controls and stricter laws.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rnd.de/panorama/studie-aggressivitat-im-verkehr-steigt-leicht-XSZ7EOO3GS2NO3HYKYNPWPIV5E.html |title=Studie: Aggressivität im Verkehr steigt leicht |language=de |website=RedaktionsNetzwerk Deutschland |date=1 October 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}}</ref> On the other hand, the "evil eye" design of vehicles is increasingly used by manufacturers to sell vehicles to drivers who want to feel strong and superior on the road.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/auto-design-wenn-autos-wie-eine-geladene-waffe-wirken-a-1225779.html |title=Aggressives Auto-Design: "Manche Autos wirken wie eine geladene Waffe" |language=de |last=Sorge|first=Nils-Viktor |website=Der Spiegel |date=13 September 2018 |access-date=10 September 2023 |issn=2195-1349}}</ref> Accident reporting by the press and the police sometimes paints a distorted picture.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rifs-potsdam.de/de/blog/2021/04/wir-brauchen-eine-neue-sprache-fuer-die-verkehrsberichterstattung |title=Wir brauchen eine neue Sprache für die Verkehrsberichterstattung |language=de |first=Dr. Dirk |last=von Schneidemesser |website=RIFS Postdam |date=22 April 2021 |access-date=10 September 2023}}</ref>
=== Traffic congestion ===
Another driving factor of the mobility transition is the increasing standstill in [[traffic congestion]] in streets and on roads. Traditional traffic policy usually relies on expanding the roads to solve the congestion problem.<ref name="Zeit" /> From a global perspective, there are two important factors behind the increasing traffic jams: more and more people are moving to the cities in the course of [[urbanization|urbanisation]] and more automobiles (also known as [[status symbol]]) are being bought as prosperity increases. It can be assumed that the expansion of public and non-motorised transport will play a greater role again in the future.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Jean-Paul Rodrigue|title=The Geography of Transport Systems|edition=5|publisher=Routledge|publication-place=New York|at=(456 pages)|contribution=Chapter 3 – Transportation, Economy and Society > Transportation and Society > Passengers Mobility Transition|isbn=978-0-367-36463-2|date=2020|language=German|url=https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5463 |access-date=2020-09-20
}} {{Digitalisat|https://transportgeography.org/|LT=Gesamtes Buch als Digitalisat}}.</ref>
=== Peak oil ===
{{Further|Peak oil#Possible consequences}}
Another reason for an energy transition in mobility is the fact that [[peak oil]] production is approaching fast, or may already have been passed (as of 2021; it is difficult to estimate peak oil).{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|pp=2–4}} The Earth's [[oil reserves]] are finite, and [[Extraction of petroleum|oil extraction]] will become increasingly and eventually prohibitively expensive to the point where fewer and fewer [[petroleum]]-fuelled vehicles can be powered anymore. Sooner or later in the 21st century, mobility will have no choice but to switch to sufficiently sustainable and affordable fuels for propulsion.{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|pp=2–4}}
== Mobility transition concept ==
=== Origins ===
[[File:Pressiegroep Stop de kindermoord brengt bezoek aan Tweede Kamer , kinderen buite, Bestanddeelnr 925-9454.jpg|thumb|Action group "Stop the Child Murder" protesting in front of the [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|Dutch Parliament]] in 1972. The banners state "Stop child murder" and "Safe walking and cycling paths".]]
There has been criticism of [[automotive city|automotive cities]] and [[car dependency]] since at least the 1960s. In the [[Netherlands]], [[Provo (movement)|Provo]] [[Luud Schimmelpennink]]'s 1965 White Bicycle Plan was an early attempt to stop the rising death toll due to car-related traffic accidents, and to stimulate cycling as a safer and healthier alternative for short-distance travel in the city of [[Amsterdam]].<ref name="Cox">{{Cite book |last1=Cox |first1=Peter |last2=Koglin |first2=Till |date=2020 |title=The Politics of Cycling Infrastructure: Spaces and (In)Equality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ_LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT125 |location=Bristol |publisher=Policy Press |pages=122–126 |isbn=9781447345183 |access-date=28 February 2022}}</ref> Although the plan itself was a complete failure, it drew widespread publicity and influenced urban planning ideas around the world – with the white bicycle becoming 'an almost mythical worldwide symbol for a better world'.<ref name="Cox"/> It inspired the emergence of both strongly anti-car movements such as Kabouter (Gnome), Amsterdam Autovrij ("Amsterdam Car-Free") and De Lastige Amsterdammer ("The Troubled/Troublesome Amsterdammer"), as well as pro-cycling movements in Amsterdam and elsewhere in the Netherlands in the early 1970s.<ref name="Cox"/> A prominent example was protest group Stop de Kindermoord ("Stop the Child Murder"), founded in 1972 (formalised in 1973) by a journalist from Eindhoven whose young daughter was killed in a traffic accident, and shortly thereafter another daughter of his was almost killed as well.<ref name="Cox"/> The movement highlighted how lethally dangerous traffic had become for children in particular, and that the authorities had failed to acknowledge and address the problem.<ref name="Cox"/> It mobilised parents, teachers, journalists, other citizens and politicians; even right-wing politicians, who had traditionally promoted automobile interests, were influenced by the campaign and became more willing to adopt preventive measures.<ref name="Cox"/> In ''Autokind vs Mankind'' (1971) and ''On the Nature of Cities'' (1979), [[United States|American]] author Kenneth R. Schneider vehemently criticised the excesses of automobile dependence and called for a struggle to halt and partially reverse negative developments in transportation, although he was largely ignored at the time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kenworthy |first=Jeffrey R. |date=2010 |title=An Introduction to Sustainable Transportation: Policy, Planning and Implementation |chapter=Box. 8.7 Kenneth R. Schneider: Fighting for change |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXRYG2BxzGAC&pg=PT254 |location=London / Washington, D.C. |publisher=Earthscan / Routledge |page=254 |isbn=9781136541940 |access-date=27 February 2022}}</ref>
An early theorist on mobility transitions was American cultural geographer [[Wilbur Zelinsky]], whose 1971 paper "The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition" formed the basis of what has become known as the [[Zelinsky Model]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zelinsky|first=Wilbur|date=April 1971|title=The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition|journal=Geographical Review|volume=61|issue=2|pages=219–249|doi=10.2307/213996|jstor=213996|bibcode=1971GeoRv..61..219Z |s2cid=129240935 |url=http://rcin.org.pl/Content/38759}}</ref>{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|pp=16-19}} In 1975, [[Austria]]n civil engineer and transportation planner [[Hermann Knoflacher]] sought to promote [[cycling]] traffic in [[Vienna]]. He caricatured the enormous spatial demands of automobiles with his self-invented ''Gehzeug'' ("walking gear/vehicle").<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wienerzeitung.at/meinung/blogs/freitritt/672654_Vom-Gehzeug-zum-Fahrzeug.html|title=Vom "Gehzeug" zum "Fahrzeug" |work=[[Wiener Zeitung]] |date=2014-10-15 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mobilservice.ch/de/home/news/news-dossiers/buchtipp-bvirus-autol-von-hermann-knoflacher-272.html |title=Buchtipp: "Virus Auto" von Hermann Knoflacher |work=mobilservice.ch |date=2010-04-06 |access-date=2017-05-08}}</ref>
=== Definitions and scope ===
[[File:Cyclists at red 2.jpg|thumb|[[Cycling in Copenhagen]] also means organising commuter traffic by bike. 45 per cent of the population commutes by bicycle.]]
The German dictionary ''[[Duden]]'' defines 'mobility transition' (German: ''Verkehrswende'') as "fundamental conversion of public transport [especially with ecological objectives]" (German: „grundlegende Umstellung des öffentlichen Verkehrs [besonders mit ökologischen Zielvorstellungen]“).<ref name="duden">
{{Cite web
|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Verkehrswende
|title= Verkehrswende, die
|work=[[Duden]]
|access-date=2020-09-22
|language=de}}
</ref> Adey et al. (2021) defined 'mobility transition' as 'the necessary and inevitable transformation from a world in which mobility is dominated by the use of fossil fuels, the production of greenhouse gases and the dominance of automobility to one in which mobility entails reduced or eliminated fossil fuels and GHG emissions and is less dependent on the automobile.'{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|p=4}}
According to a 2016 thesis paper by Agora Verkehrswende – a joint initiative of Stiftung Mercator<ref>[[:de:Stiftung Mercator|Stiftung Mercator]] ("Mercator Foundation", named after [[Gerardus Mercator]]) is a German non-profit organisation which promotes equal opportunities, social cohesion, respect, tolerance, cosmopolitanism and protection of nature and the environment.</ref> and the [[European Climate Foundation]] – the goal of a traffic transition (''Verkehrswende'') in [[Germany]] is ensuring [[climate neutrality]] in transport by 2050.<ref name="Zeit"/> It must be based on two pillars:
# Mobility transition (''Mobilitätswende''): The goal is a significant [[energy conservation|reduction of energy consumption]]. The mobility transition is intended to bring about a qualitative change in traffic behaviour (''Verkehrsverhalten''), in particular avoiding and relocating traffic. An efficient design of the traffic systems without restricting mobility should be achieved.<ref name="Zeit"/>
# [[Energy transition]] in traffic (''[[Energiewende|Energiewende im Verkehr]]'', see also [[phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles]]): In order to [[Low-carbon economy|decarbonise]] traffic, the conversion of the energy supply of traffic towards [[renewable energy]] is considered a necessity.<ref name="Zeit">{{Cite news |author=Peter Ilg |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2016-09/verkehr-autos-carsharing-elektromobilitaet-agora-verkehrswende |title=30 Prozent der Autos würden reichen |work=[[Die Zeit]] |date=2016-09-26 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref name="AgoraVerkehrswende-12Thesen">
{{Cite book
|author=Christian Hochfeld, Alexander Jung, Anne Klein-Hitpaß, Dr. Urs Maier, Kerstin Meyer, Dr. Fritz Vorholz
|title=Mit der Verkehrswende die Mobilität von morgen sichern. 12 Thesen zur Verkehrswende
|publisher=Agora Verkehrswende
|location=Berlin
|date=2017
|language=de
|url=https://www.agora-verkehrswende.de/fileadmin/Projekte/2017/12_Thesen/Agora-Verkehrswende-12-Thesen_WEB.pdf
|access-date=2020-09-20}}</ref>
A mobility transition also includes a cultural change, in particular a re-evaluation of "the street". Currently, the primary purpose of streets is to direct traffic through the city with as little disruption as possible. In the future, the dominance of the car should give way to equal rights for all modes of transport.<ref name="FAZ">{{Cite news |author=Mark Siemons |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/bald-eine-fahrradstadt-berlin-kamikaze-14280353.html?printPagedArticle=true#pageIndex_2 |title=Bald eine Fahrradstadt? Berlin Kamikaze |work=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] |date=2016-06-12 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>
In an expanded definition, the mobility transition is distinguished from a pure propulsion transition on the one hand to a fundamental mobility transition on the other:<ref name="Brunnengräber">{{citation|surname1=Katharina Manderscheid|editor-surname1= Achim Brunnengräber, Tobias Haas|periodical=Baustelle Elektromobilität – Sozialwissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die Transformation der (Auto-)Mobilität|title=Antriebs-, Verkehrs- oder Mobilitätswende? Zur Elektrifizierung des Automobilitätsdispositivs|publisher=transcript|publication-place=Bielefeld|at=pp. 37-67|isbn=978-3-8376-5165-2|date=2020|language=German|url=https://www.transcript-verlag.de/media/pdf/34/07/26/oa9783839451656Y4hda57HXkydW.pdf |access-date=2020-08-11
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2940</ref>
# Propulsion transition (''Antriebswende''): the gradual replacement of [[internal combustion engines]] by those powered by hydrogen, fuel cells or battery-electric power.<ref name="Brunnengräber"/><ref>{{Cite web |author=Gerald Traufetter, Florian Gathmann |url=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/andreas-scheuer-csu-verbote-sind-fuer-mich-kein-politikstil-a-1204886.html |title=Verkehrsminister Scheuer im Interview: "Verbote sind für mich kein Politikstil" |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |date=2018-04-26 |access-date=2020-08-10 |language=de}}</ref>
# Traffic transition (''Verkehrswende''): private car traffic<ref>{{Cite interview |url=https://www.aufruhr-magazin.de/klimaschutz/verkehrswende-warum-wissen-wir-nicht-wie-viel-ein-auto-im-monat-kostet/ |title=Warum wissen wir nicht, wie viel ein Auto im Monat kostet? |language=de |last=Andor |first=Dr. Mark |interviewer-first=Maren |interviewer-last=Beck |website=AufRuhr Magazin |publisher=Stiftung Mercator |date=11 August 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}}</ref> is reduced or replaced by other modes of transportation. In the large cities and metropolitan regions in particular, the focus is increasingly on establishing and spreading alternative means of transport - from the expansion of public transport to the promotion of so-called active transport (pedestrian and bicycle traffic), the approval of new electrified micro-vehicles such as [[e-scooter]]s and the range of different mobility services (the so-called MaaS, "mobility as a service").<ref name="Brunnengräber"/>
# Mobility transition (''Mobilitätswende''): This perspective takes into account not only the distances travelled and the means of transport used for them, but also the socio-economic, cultural and spatial dynamics and constraints that cause the need to overcome distances. These include, for example, settlement and transport policies, housing and labour markets, social policy and migration. The need to quickly overcome distances is not understood as an invariant characteristic of people, but as part and prerequisite of the current, growth-oriented capitalist shape of society.<ref name="Brunnengräber"/>
[[File:Charging stations in SF City Hall 02 2009 02.jpg|thumb|Electric cars in a [[carsharing]] as part of [[Intermodal passenger transport|mixed-mode commuting]] ([[San Francisco City Hall]] 2009)]]
In some cases, a mobility transition is also presented as a [[paradigm shift]] of the 'understanding of ownership'. Collective use of means of transport makes it possible to use modes of transportation 'adapted to specific needs', such as [[carsharing]], [[peer-to-peer carsharing]], [[bicycle-sharing system]]s. It also enables connecting different modes of transportation to one another on a route to be travelled. Electromobiles could better exploit their advantages in networking with other means of transport. Electric vehicles adapted to the respective uses can be small or large depending on the application, and do not (always) have to be designed for long distances. A suitable charging infrastructure is required. Under certain circumstances, in such an environment it will no longer be necessary to own private transport for one's own use.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Weert |last1=Canzler |first2=Andreas |last2=Knie |url=https://www.innoz.de/sites/default/files/sote_2_14_canzler_knie.pdf |title=Die Energie- und Verkehrswende in "Schlauen Netzen" |publisher=Innovationszentrum für Mobilität und gesellschaftlichen Wandel |date=February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423063907/https://www.innoz.de/sites/default/files/sote_2_14_canzler_knie.pdf |archive-date=2017-04-23 |access-date=2017-04-23 |language=de}}</ref>
In Germany, the mobility transition can be contrasted to the ''Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2030'' ('Federal Transport Routes Plan 2030'). The mobility transition is based on avoiding traffic and shifting to [[rail transport|rail]], but the ''Bundesverkehrswegeplan'' is based on the construction and expansion of [[trunk road]]s in Germany (including but not limited to the ''[[Autobahn]]'').<ref>{{citation|editor-surname1= Umweltbundesamt|title=Klimaschutzbeitrag des Verkehrs bis 2050|series=Texte 56/2016 Umweltbundesamt|publication-place=Dessau-Roßlau|issn=1862-4804|date=June 2016|language=German|url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/1410/publikationen/texte_56_2016_klimaschutzbeitrag_des_verkehrs_2050_getagged.pdf |access-date=2020-09-20
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 3658 accessible at {{Cite book |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/klimaschutzbeitrag-des-verkehrs-bis-2050 |title=Klimaschutzbeitrag des Verkehrs bis 2050 |date=7 June 2016 |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/bundesverkehrswegeplan-es-ist-keine-verkehrswende.694.de.html?dram:article_id=362053 |title=Bundesverkehrswegeplan: "Es ist keine Verkehrswende" |publisher=[[Deutschlandfunk]] |date=2016-08-03 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> Transport scientist {{interlanguage link|Heiner Monheim|de|Heiner Monheim}} regards the transition as a "turning away from car subsidies through billions [of euros] in road network expansion". He sees a decisive change in the priorities of [[transport policy]] as a necessary condition to achieve this.<ref name="ZDF">{{Cite web |url=http://www.heute.de/makro-interview-verkehrsexperte-monheim-fordert-intelligente-verkehrskonzepte-46874306.html |title=Experte: "Verkehrspolitik auf dem Holzweg" |work=[[heute.de]] |date=2017-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404215604/http://www.heute.de/makro-interview-verkehrsexperte-monheim-fordert-intelligente-verkehrskonzepte-46874306.html |archive-date=2017-04-04 |access-date=2017-04-21 |language=de}} (Interview with Heiner Monheim)</ref>
The ''[[Umweltbundesamt]]'' announced that in 2018, the sum of all [[environmentally harmful subsidies]] in Germany was 65.4 billion euros, almost half of them in the areas of traffic and transport. In traffic, such subsidies with harmful effects even increased from 2012 to 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Martin Stallmann |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/presse/pressemitteilungen/umweltschaedliche-subventionen-fast-die-haelfte |title=Umweltschädliche Subventionen: fast die Hälfte für Straßen- und Flugverkehr |publisher=Das Umweltbundesamt |date=2021-10-27 |language=de |access-date=2021-10-31}}</ref>
=== Changes in behaviour due to the COVID-19 pandemic ===
{{See also|Travel during the COVID-19 pandemic|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on public transport|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment#Cycling}}
[[File:Street dining on W51 jeh.jpg|thumb|During the pandemic, the efficiency of urban land use has been reconsidered. (Temporary) outdoor areas for restaurants are sometimes more economical than parking spaces, and enhance the cityscape.<ref name="knof" />]]
The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] made it clear that work and transport can be organised differently, even in a comparatively short time. An increased focus on [[remote work|working from home]] could save millions of tonnes of greenhouse gases.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/greenpeace-home-office-kann-millionen-tonnen-co2-einsparen-16913200.html |title=Greenpeace-Studie: Homeoffice kann Millionen Tonnen {{CO2}} einsparen |work=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] |date=2020-08-20 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bmbf.de/de/ist-die-coronakrise-gut-fuer-die-verkehrswende-11561.html |title=Ist die Coronakrise gut für die Verkehrswende? |publisher=[[Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung]] |date=2020-05-12 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} (Interview with Sophia Becker, sustainability researcher)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author= |url=https://www1.wdr.de/nachrichten/themen/coronavirus/corona-chance-fuer-verkehrswende-100.html |title=Beschleunigt Corona die Verkehrswende? |publisher=[[Westdeutscher Rundfunk|WDR]] |date=2020-05-19 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>
== Measures in passenger transport ==
=== Overview ===
[[File:Fietssnelweg F35 at Go Planet.jpg|thumb|[[Bike freeway]] F35 in the Netherlands ([[Enschede]])]]
[[File:Mobility pyramid.png|thumb|Mobility pyramid]]
Various measures have been proposed by different people and groups to achieve a mobility transition.
In a 2017 position paper, German think tank Agora Verkehrswende described how a climate-neutral conversion of transport would be possible by 2050 without sacrificing mobility. In addition to technological innovations, there are new traffic concepts, regulatory measures and [[social change|cultural change]]. Multi-link transport chains ([[Intermodal passenger transport]]) are considered.<ref name="dw.com">
{{Cite web
|url=https://www.dw.com/de/wie-schafft-deutschland-die-verkehrswende/a-38167553
|title=Wie schafft Deutschland die Verkehrswende?
|work=[[Deutsche Welle]]
|date=2017-03-28
|access-date=2020-09-23
|language=de}}
</ref><ref name="AgoraVerkehrswende-12Thesen" /> Amongst other things, there were also studies on this in November 2019 by the {{interlanguage link|Verkehrsclub Deutschland|de|Verkehrsclub Deutschland}} (VCD, "Traffic Club Germany") and the [[Heinrich Böll Foundation]].<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Frahm, Emil Nefzger |url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/mobilitaetsatlas-2019-wie-sich-deutschland-bewegt-und-was-es-kostet-a-1294503.html |title=So viel kostet Autofahren - auch Menschen, die nicht Auto fahren |work=[[Spiegel Online]] |date=2019-11-05 |access-date=2019-11-07 |language=de}}</ref>
=== Mobility transition ===
Various measures have been proposed to achieve the mobility transition – in particular a significant reduction in energy requirements and a change in traffic behaviour:
[[File: 8398 autobus-seestadt Janis-Joplin-Promenade.jpg|thumb|The ''Autonomous Bus Vienna'' (2019–2021) was an experimental company for [[Self-driving car|self-driving buses]].]]
Major changes can succeed with the help of traffic avoidance, and a shift towards [[sustainable transport]] in the form of [[pedestrian]] traffic, cycling, rail transport and local [[public transport]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Huber |first=Berthold |date=February 2022 |title=Die Bahn bleibt das Rückgrat der Verkehrswende |url=https://www.system-bahn.net/aktuell/die-bahn-bleibt-das-rueckgrat-der-verkehrswende/ |language=de |access-date=10 September 2023 |website=System Bahn}}</ref><ref name="Metaanalyse">
{{Cite web
|url=http://www.forschungsradar.de/metaanalysen/einzelansicht/news/metaanalyse-ueber-massnahmen-und-instrumente-fuer-die-energiewende-im-verkehr.html
|title=Metaanalyse über Maßnahmen und Instrumente für die Energiewende im Verkehr
|work=forschungsradar.de
|publisher=Agentur für erneuerbare Energien (AEE)
|date=July 2016
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116192135/http://www.forschungsradar.de/metaanalysen/einzelansicht/news/metaanalyse-ueber-massnahmen-und-instrumente-fuer-die-energiewende-im-verkehr.html
|archive-date=2019-11-16
|access-date=2017-04-13
|language=de}}
</ref> According to a 2010 report, each person in Germany in 2008 conducted an average of 3.4 trips a day, with an average length of 11.5 kilometres. On average, private cars were parked for around 22,5 hours a day, because they were used for only 1 hour and 19 to 28 minutes a day.<ref name="Zeit" /><ref name="DLRinfas">
{{citation|editor-surname1= [[German Aerospace Center]] (DLR), Institut für angewandte Sozialwissenschaft (infas) |title=Mobilität in Deutschland 2008 (MiD2008): Ergebnisbericht. Struktur – Aufkommen – Emissionen – Trends|publication-place=Bonn/Berlin|date=February 2010|language=German|url=http://www.mobilitaet-in-deutschland.de/pdf/infas_MiD2008_Abschlussbericht_I.pdf |access-date=2020-09-22}} Commissioned by the [[Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport]], Format: PDF, KBytes: 16634
accessible at {{Cite web
|url=http://www.mobilitaet-in-deutschland.de/mid2008-publikationen.html
|title=Publikationen zur Erhebungswelle 2008
|work=Mobilität in Deutschland
|access-date=2020-09-22
|language=de}} (see "Ergebnisbericht MiD 2008" (PDF, 16MB))
</ref>{{rp|1, 28}} Electric cars with a short range, bicycles, [[electric bicycle]]s (e-bikes), [[pedelec]]s, [[cargo bike]]s, but also recently [[e-scooter]]s, are usually well suited for a majority of these routes. The joint use of automobiles in carsharing could increase the utilisation of the vehicles and lead to fewer cars being needed overall. This could also reduce the [[land consumption]] of parking spaces and free up space for other uses.<ref name="Zeit" /> In 2002 and 2008, vehicles in Germany were occupied by an average of 1.5 people.<ref name="DLRinfas" />{{rp|87}} One method of efficient use of passenger cars is the formation of [[carpool]]s and the operation of [[Ridesharing company|ridesharing companies]]. Needs-based use of various sorts of [[low emission vehicle]]s can also serve to reduce fuel consumption. The latter measures would lead to an increase in energy and vehicle efficiency.<ref name="Metaanalyse" /> Another component in the future mobility mix could be [[Neighborhood Electric Vehicle]]s.
Numerous regulatory control measures are possible, for example [[Congestion pricing|congestion charges]], [[aviation taxation and subsidies]] (such as a [[jet fuel tax]] and a [[departure tax]]), a reform of company car taxation, parking space management (for example through [[pay and display]]), or an extension of [[emissions trading]] to road traffic.<ref name="Metaanalyse" /> The introduction of [[speed limit]]s, or lowering existing speed limits, would also have an impact on greenhouse gas emissions such as CO<sub>2</sub> ([[carbon dioxide]]) and [[NOx|NO<sub>x</sub>]] ([[nitric oxide]] and [[nitrogen dioxide]]). Passenger cars consume a disproportionately large amount of fuel at high speeds. A speed limit can also have secondary emissions-reducing effects, about which there is still considerable uncertainty: lower maximum speeds and longer travel times can contribute to a shift in traffic to rail and to the promotion of vehicles with lower engine power.<ref name="AgoraVerkehrswende-12Thesen" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.vcd.org/service/presse/pressemitteilungen/energiegipfel-im-kanzleramt/ |title=Energiegipfel im Kanzleramt |publisher=Verkehrsclub Deutschland |date=2006-10-09 |access-date=2017-05-17 |language=de}} (press release)</ref><ref>{{citation|surname1=Gunnar Gohlisch, Marion Marlow|editor-surname1= Umweltbundesamt|title=Umweltauswirkungen von Geschwindigkeitsbeschränkungen|series=Texte 40/1999 Umweltbundesamt|publication-place=Berlin|at=pp. 23-29|issn=1862-4804|date=June 1999|language=German|url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/publikation/long/3136.pdf |access-date=2020-09-20
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 338 accessible at {{Cite book |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/umweltauswirkungen-von |title=Umweltauswirkungen von Geschwindigkeitsbeschränkungen |date=19 March 2009 |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>
The [[Externality|externalities]] of traffic, namely the impact that air pollution caused by motor vehicles has on society and the environment, must also be taken into account here.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2022-01/soziale-kosten-strassenverkehr-auto-studie/komplettansicht |title=Soziale Kosten des Straßenverkehrs: Was Autofahren wirklich kostet |language=de |first=Andrea |last=Reidl |website=Die Zeit |date=26 January 2022 |access-date=10 September 2016}}</ref>
The {{interlanguage link|2019 Dutch nitrogen emissions crisis|nl|stikstofcrisis}}, which [[Dutch farmers' protests#Background|indirectly caused the Dutch farmers' protests]], convinced the government in November 2019 to lower the [[speed limits in the Netherlands]] on national roads to 100 kilometres per hour during the day, from 6 am to 7 pm. In the evening and at night the old speeds were maintained.<ref name="Nagtegaal">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2019/11/13/stikstofaanpak-geld-voor-boeren-noodwet-voor-dijken-en-rotmaatregel-maximumsnelheid-a3980126 |title=Stikstofaanpak: landbouwinnovatie, noodwet voor de bouw en 'rotmaatregel' snelheid |author=Bastiaan Nagtegaal |work=[[NRC Handelsblad]] |date=13 November 2019 |access-date=2 March 2022 |language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tempolimit in den Niederlanden: Bremsen für den Fortschritt |trans-title=Speed limit in the Netherlands: braking for progress |last=Frommeyer |first=Lena |work=Der Spiegel |date=14 November 2019 |access-date=2 March 2022 |url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/tempolimit-in-den-niederlanden-endlich-belastbare-daten-a-1296540.html |language=de}}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation]] court case was decided in favour of its plaintiff [[Urgenda]] (initially in June 2015, upheld on appeal in October 2018, and finally confirmed by the [[Supreme Court of the Netherlands]] on 20 December 2019), who successfully forced the government to implement the necessary measures to reduce the Netherlands' CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from 1990 levels by 25% by 2020. Although the government was free to choose which measures it would take to achieve this reduction, the plaintiff and other environmentalists had been suggesting throughout the legal process to lower the speed limit as one of several effective options to do so.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/niederlande-klimaaktivisten-siegen-gegen-eigene-regierung-a-1302412.html|title=Niederlande: Klimaaktivisten siegen gegen eigene Regierung - Der Spiegel - Wissenschaft|last=SPIEGEL|first=Claus Hecking, DER|newspaper=Der Spiegel|date=20 December 2019 |language=de|access-date=2020-01-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/klimaklage-in-den-niederlande-ein-historisches-urteil.1773.de.html?dram:article_id=462389|title=Klimaklage in den Niederlande - Ein historisches Urteil|website=Deutschlandfunk|language=de-DE|access-date=2020-01-26}}</ref> Similar environmental arguments for speed limits have been [[Speed limits in Germany#Arguments|proposed in Germany]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Was Stauforscher, Klimaschützer und Unfallforscher zum Tempolimit sagen|url=https://app.handelsblatt.com/technik/forschung-innovation/tempolimit-debatte-was-stauforscher-klimaschuetzer-und-unfallforscher-zum-tempolimit-sagen/23922718.html|access-date=2021-05-22|website=app.handelsblatt.com|language=de}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=2020-01-16|title=Das wissen wir über Tempolimits|url=https://www.quarks.de/technik/mobilitaet/faq-tempolimits/|access-date=2021-05-22|website=quarks.de|language=de-DE}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news|last=Götz|first=Sören|title=Weniger {{CO2}} und weniger Unfälle|url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2020-07/tempolimit-gruene-autobahn-klimaschutz-verkehrssicherheit|access-date=2021-05-22|newspaper=Die Zeit|date=17 July 2020 }}</ref>
As one of several methods to mitigate the [[environmental effects of aviation|environmental impact of aviation]], a shift to other modes of transport or a switch from short-haul air traffic to [[high-speed rail|high-speed trains]] has been proposed.<ref name="Rockström" /> In several countries in Europe, increasingly in the 2010s and early 2020s, some governments have even imposed a [[short-haul flight ban]] on all airlines, while many governmental agencies, commercial companies, universities, and NGOs have imposed restrictions or prohibitions on their employees to not take short-haul flights that can also be properly accomplished by train.<ref name="Wabl">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/airline-bailouts-point-to-greener-travel-and-higher-fares-1.1447702 |title=Airline bailouts point to greener travel—and higher fares |author=Matthias Wabl and Christopher Jasper |work=[[BNN Bloomberg]] |date=9 June 2020 |access-date=13 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="scientists4future">{{Cite web |url=https://unter1000.scientists4future.org/best-practice-administration/ |title=Exemplary measures taken by universities and public administrations |work=Unter 1000 |publisher=Scientists 4 Future |access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref>
In the field of [[urban planning]], there are concepts for [[walkability]], the [[compact city]] (or 'city of short distances'), [[New Urbanism]] (or its variant New Pedestrianism), and [[Car-free movement|car-free living]]. In [[science policy|research policy]], there are demands to give more consideration to the consequences of motorised private transport in the form of practice- and solution-oriented research.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fona.de/de/mobil-bleiben-forschung-bereit-fuer-anwendung|title=Mobil bleiben: Forschung bereit für Anwendung |publisher=Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) |date=2017-06-22 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>
=== Further development of local public transport ===
According to a 2015 study by the Verkehrsclub Deutschland, local public transport in Germany was not customer-friendly enough. Cryptic route networks, opaque fare systems, ticket machines that cannot be operated, [[wind|draft]] bus stops, and a lack of announcements about transfer and connection options were criticised. The club also called for better linking of local public transport with other modes of transportation. This included bike racks at bus stops, information on taking bikes on buses and trains, and options for switching to carsharing providers. Furthermore, the synchronisation of timetables was criticised, because it led to unnecessarily long waiting times for connecting buses or trains.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.evangelisch.de/inhalte/128043/04-11-2015/studie-oeffentlicher-nahverkehr-zu-wenig-kundenfreundlich |title=Studie: Öffentlicher Nahverkehr zu wenig kundenfreundlich |work=evangelisch.de |language=de |date=4 November 2015 |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref> In 2012, several local public transport companies reportedly had been making efforts to improve the usability of ticket machines in [[Bavaria]] and [[Saxony]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.quantic.de/news-blog/bedienbare-fahrkarten-automaten-fuer-nuernberg |title=Ein Klick für Nürnberg |language=de |date=August 2012 |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.quantic.de/news-blog/bedienbare-ticketautomaten-muenchen |title=i-com: Nutzerzentrierte Entwicklung des Bediendialoges für die Münchner Fahrkartenautomaten |work=[[Nürnberger Nachrichten]] / Quantic.de |language=de |date=August 2012 |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref> Against this background, Federal Transport Minister [[Alexander Dobrindt]] in 2017 called for electronic tickets and a uniform tariff system for all transport associations to be established by 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/oeffentlicher-nahverkehr-mehr-transparenz-und-digitale-100.html |title=Öffentlicher Nahverkehr Mehr Transparenz und digitale Tickets |work=Deutschlandfunk Kultur |language=de |date=6 January 2017 |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref>
Since the 2010s, there have been frequent discussions on whether local public transport should be free of charge. The best-known example of free public transport is the [[Estonia]]n capital [[Tallinn]], where buses and trains have been free since 2013. By 2021, most counties in Estonia had also introduced free buses and trains.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/btw21/nahverkehr-kostenlos-101.html |title=Mobilität und Klimaschutz: Wenn der Nahverkehr kostenlos wäre? |author=Kristin Becker and Marcel Heberlein |work=Tagesschau |language=de |date=9 September 2021 |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref> Public transport is also free throughout [[Luxembourg]]. In Germany, the cities of [[Monheim am Rhein]] and [[Langenfeld, Rhineland]] were testing free public transport as of September 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.swr.de/swr1/rp/programm/oepnv-102.html |title=In diesen Städten sind Bus und Bahn kostenlos |date=2 March 2020 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref>
Some cities have introduced mini electric buses, primarily in inner-city areas. The historic city centre of [[Aix-en-Provence]], France is very narrow and closed to cars, taxis and normal bus traffic. In order to get people with restricted mobility to their destination, wheelchair-accessible electric minibuses are frequented there without a fixed timetable.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mobility-talk.com/diablines-die-innenstadt-busse-von-aix/ |title=Diablines: Die Innenstadt-Busse von Aix |date=31 October 2021 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> Likewise, in the medieval old town of [[Regensburg]], only mini-ebuses are still driving around.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.regensburg.de/leben/verkehr-u-mobilitaet/bus-und-bahn/e-bus-emil-fuer-die-regensburger-altstadt |title=E-Bus "emil" für die Regensburger Altstadt |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> Furthermore, two self-propelled e-shuttles are in use in Regensburg's industrial park.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mittelbayerische.de/region/regensburg-stadt-nachrichten/das-ist-der-startplan-fuer-autonome-busse-21179-art1958655.html |title=Das ist der Startplan für autonome Busse |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> Berlin and Göppingen also want to supplement their local public transport with electric, highly automated minibuses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.berlin.de/sen/uvk/presse/pressemitteilungen/2021/pressemitteilung.1100852.php |title=Die "kleinen Gelben" auf neuem Kurs in Alt-Tegel |date=29 June 2021 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://emobilitaet.online/tag/%C3%B6pnv |title="e-Bürgerbus": Bürgerschaftliches Engagement kombiniert mit Elektromobilität |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref>
{{see also|List of aerial tramways}}
In some cities, [[Cable transport|cableways]] are built as part of local public transit. Such cableways can be found in places such as [[Medellín]] (see [[Metrocable (Medellín)]]), [[La Paz]] (see [[Mi Teleférico]]), [[New York City|New York]] (see [[Roosevelt Island Tramway]]), [[Portland (Oregon)|Portland]] (see [[Portland Aerial Tram]]), [[Algiers]] (see {{interlanguage link|Cableways of Algiers|de|Seilbahnen von Algiers|fr|Téléphériques d'Alger}}), [[Lisbon]] (see {{interlanguage link|Funiculars in Lisbon|de|Standseilbahnen in Lissabon}}), Brest (see {{interlanguage link|Cableways of Brest|de|Seilbahn Brest|fr|Téléphériques de Brest}}), [[Bozen]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.suedtirols-sueden.info/de/berge-aktiv/top-highlights/bozner-seilbahnen.html |title=Zwei Seilbahnen in der Landeshauptstadt |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> [[London]] (see [[Emirates Air Line (cable car)]]) and [[Ankara]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ingenieur.de/technik/fachbereiche/verkehr/per-seilbahn-ankara/ |title=Per Seilbahn durch Ankara |date=26 March 2014 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> Cable cars are electrically operated and they have very low CO<sub>2</sub> emissions compared to other modes of transport. At 50% capacity, a cable car causes 27 grams of CO<sub>2</sub> per person and kilometre, a train with an electric locomotive 30 grams, a bus with a diesel engine 38.5 grams, and a car with a combustion engine even 248 grams. Furthermore, cable cars cause practically no [[noise pollution]] on the route, since the individual gondolas do not have their own drive, but are moved by a central motor housed in the station. In Germany, on the occasion of the [[Bundesgartenschau]] ('Federal Horticultural Show'), cable cars have emerged in [[Berlin]] (see [[IGA Cable Car]]), [[Koblenz]] (see [[Koblenz cable car]]) and [[Cologne]] (see [[Cologne Cable Car]]). Compared to underground or suburban trains, cable cars are relatively cheap and can be built quickly. As of November 2021, there are projects to build more cable cars to supplement local public transit in Berlin, Bonn, Düsseldorf, Cologne, Munich, Stuttgart and Wuppertal.<ref>{{citation|editor-surname1= Magazin für Energieversorgung - Planung - Bau - Betrieb - Service|title=Netzpraxis November 2021 - Mit gutem Gewissen über den Stau hinweg schweben|at=pp. 74ff|language=German
}}</ref>
Continuous development is also affecting the rural areas as well. As a solution, what came into play was the integrated systems of public transport that is playing an important role in the development of rural areas, especially in post-communist countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Šťastná |first1=Milada |last2=Vaishar |first2=Antonín |date=2017-09-01 |title=The relationship between public transport and the progressive development of rural areas |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837716306573 |journal=Land Use Policy |language=en |volume=67 |pages=107–114 |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.05.022 |issn=0264-8377}}</ref>
=== Propulsion and energy transition in transport ===
{{Further|Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles}}
In order to achieve the energy transition in transport, it is considered necessary to refrain from burning [[petroleum]]-based fuel and to use more climate-friendly propulsion technologies or fuels.<ref name="Metaanalyse" /> Electricity from renewable sources, or [[e-fuel]]s or [[biofuel]]s produced from green electricity, can serve as substitutes for petrol and diesel fuel.<ref name="Rockström" />
Since the overall [[fuel efficiency|efficiency of e-fuels]] is far lower than direct electrification via electric cars, the German Advisory Council on the Environment has recommended restricting the use of electricity-based synthetic fuels to air and shipping traffic in particular, in order not to increase electricity consumption too much. For example, [[Hydrogen vehicle|hydrogen-powered]] [[fuel cell vehicle]]s (FCVs) require more than twice as much energy per kilometre as [[battery electric vehicle]]s (BEVs), and vehicles with combustion engines powered by [[Power-to-X|power-to-liquid fuels]] even need between four and six times as much.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Claudia Hornberg et al.|editor-surname1= Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen [SRU]|title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor: Sondergutachten November 2017|publication-place=Berlin|isbn=978-3-947370-11-5 |date=2017 |language=German |url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=26 |access-date=2020-09-20
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2326 accessible at {{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.html |title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor |date=2017-11-23 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> Battery vehicles therefore have significantly better energy efficiency than vehicles that are operated with e-fuels.<ref>{{citation|surname1=[[Volker Quaschning]]|editor-surname1= [[Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin]]|title=Sektorkopplung durch die Energiewende. Anforderungen an den Ausbau erneuerbarer Energien zum Erreichen der Pariser Klimaschutzziele unter Berücksichtigung der Sektorkopplung|publication-place=Berlin|date=2016|language=German|url=https://pvspeicher.htw-berlin.de/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/HTW-2016-Sektorkopplungsstudie.pdf |access-date=2020-09-22
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 5347 accessible at {{Cite web |url=https://pvspeicher.htw-berlin.de/veroeffentlichungen/studien/ |title=Studien |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} (see „Sektorkopplungsstudie: Sektorkopplung durch die Energiewende“)</ref> In general, electric cars consume around 12 to 15 kWh of electrical energy per 100 km, while conventionally powered cars use the equivalent of around 50 kWh per 100 km.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Günther Brauner|title=Energiesysteme: regenerativ und dezentral. Strategien für die Energiewende|publisher=Springer Vieweg|publication-place=Wiesbaden|at=p. 119|isbn=978-3-658-12754-1|date=2016|language=German
}}</ref> At the same time, the energy required for the production, transport and distribution of fuels such as petrol or diesel is also eliminated.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Andreas Burkert |url=https://www.springerprofessional.de/elektromobilitaet/dieselmotor/endenergiebezogene-analyse-diesel-versus-elektromobilitaet/16673694 |title=Endenergiebezogene Analyse Diesel versus Elektromobilität |work=[[Springer Nature|Springer-Professionals]] |date=2019-05-02 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> In [[China]] in particular, the switch from internal combustion engines to electromobility is being promoted for health reasons (to avoid [[smog]]) in order to counteract the massive [[air pollution]] in the cities.<ref name="MondeKriener" />
According to Canzler & Wittowsky (2016), the propulsion transition could also become the central building block of Germany's [[Energiewende]],<ref name="Canzler Impact">{{citation|surname1=Weert Canzler, Dirk Wittowsky|periodical=Utilities Policy|title=The impact of Germany's Energiewende on the transport sector – Unsolved problems and conflicts|volume=41|at=pp. 246–251|date=2016|language=German|doi=10.1016/j.jup.2016.02.011
}}</ref> While the switch to renewable energies is already underway worldwide, the energy transition in transport is proving more difficult, especially with the switch from oil to sustainable energy sources. However, [[Disruptive innovation|disruptive technologies]] (such as the development of more powerful and cheaper batteries or innovations in the field of autonomous driving) and new business models (especially in the field of digitalisation) can also lead to unpredictable, rapid and far-reaching changes in mobility.<ref name="dw.com" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.3sat.de/gesellschaft/makro/vw-the-next-big-thing-100.html?mode=play&obj=61991 |title=VW: "The next big thing" |work=[[3sat]] |date=2016-10-07 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>
New methods of getting around in urban traffic have also emerged:
<gallery>
File:AA9I2385 ret.jpg|[[Quadricycle]]s combining muscle power and an electric motor
File:Renault Twizy from the left.jpg|[[Light electric vehicle]]s are small, light and drive electrically (Austria).
File:Electric scooter (Ekoskoter Elektro1).jpg|Swedish nostalgic E-roller with a modern Japanese engine
File:ZOOMLP-5467-Overvolt-HT-900-075.jpg|A [[pedelec]] with mid-engine from French company [[Lapierre Bikes]]
File:13-06-29-robocup-eindhoven-037.jpg|[[Cargo bike]] for transporting children in Eindhoven, Netherlands
</gallery>
=== Example: Vienna ===
[[File:Wien - Graben (1).JPG|thumb|[[Pedestrian zone]]s, such as the [[Graben, Vienna|Graben in Vienna]] (introduced in 1971), make a city attractive.]]
[[Vienna]], the capital of [[Austria]], has been consistently developing into a city that is restructuring public space and promoting local public transport. Viennese urban planner [[Hermann Knoflacher]] has stated: 'The money comes on foot or by bike.' The economic use of space as parking spaces is inefficient. A car-free street increases the turnover of restaurants, clothing stores and retailers. This would create new jobs.<ref name="knof">{{Cite news|title=Verkehrswende: Wie sich die Blechlawine stoppen lässt|language=de|work=FAZ.NET|url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wissen/physik-mehr/verkehrswende-wie-es-gelingt-die-blechlawine-zu-stoppen-und-staedte-fuer-menschen-zu-gestalten-16967470.html|access-date=2023-01-06|issn=0174-4909}}</ref>
The attractiveness of public transport can be stimulated by lowering the price of an annual pass: in Vienna one can use public transport with a subscription fee of 1 euro a day.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Peter Münch |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/auto/sz-serie-nahverkehr-weltweit-die-wiener-oeffis-kosten-nur-einen-euro-am-tag-1.3854634 |title=Die Wiener "Öffis" kosten nur einen Euro am Tag |work=[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]] |date=2018-02-11 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wienerlinien.at/eportal3/ep/channelView.do/pageTypeId/66526/channelId/-46642 |title=Jahreskarte |publisher=[[Wiener Linien]] |access-date=2018-02-11 |language=de}}</ref> Between 2012 and 2018 the number of annual ticket holders increased from 373,000 to 780,000. At the same time as the changeover, the city began to invest more heavily in local transport. In July 2018, some German cities announced that they would follow the Viennese model and lower the prices for annual tickets.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Melanie Berger |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/oeffentlicher-nahverkehr-jahresticket-365-euro-deutsche-staedte-moegen-wiener-modell/22751878.html |title=Öffentlicher Nahverkehr – Jahresticket 365 Euro: Deutsche Städte mögen Wiener Modell |work=[[Der Tagesspiegel]] |date=2018-06-30 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Mariahilferstrasse1.jpg|The Mariahilfer Straße in Vienna in 2006, with frequent car congestion
File:Maria Vassilakou 334.jpg|During 2010–2015, the road was restructured and pedestrianised.
File:Wien 07 Mariahilfer Straße Shopping f.jpg|2015: redesigned street with spacious pedestrian and meeting zones
</gallery>
=== Example: Luxembourg ===
Since 1 March 2020, local public transport across [[Luxembourg]] has been free of charge for everyone. The Grand Duchy thus became the first country in the world to introduce [[free public transport|free local public transit]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kirsch|first=Matthias|date=2020-02-29|title=Gratis-ÖPNV in Luxemburg: Es hapert mit dem Vorzeigeprojekt|language=de|work=Der Spiegel|url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/luxemburg-und-der-gratis-oepnv-es-hapert-mit-dem-vorzeigeprojekt-a-2f8d9a0f-6b32-4493-82fe-2d5dad51e9bf|access-date=2023-01-06|issn=2195-1349}}</ref> An exception to this is [[first class travel]] on the railways.<ref>sda/mr: ''Öffentlicher Verkehr in Luxemburg wird kostenlos''. In: [[Eisenbahn-Revue International]] 3/2019, S. 153.</ref> A major reason for the overhaul was the increasingly problematic traffic jams on Luxembourg's roads.<ref>{{Cite web|last=NACHRICHTEN|first=n-tv|title=Kostenloser ÖPNV allein bringt nichts|url=https://www.n-tv.de/politik/Kostenloser-OPNV-allein-bringt-nichts-article22074174.html|access-date=2023-01-06|website=n-tv.de|language=de}}</ref>
=== Further examples ===
{{See also|Fare#Types of Fare Structure}}
[[File:Münster Mobilstation Weseler Straße 4682.jpg|thumb|[[Münster#Bicycling|Cycling in Münster]]: a ''mobility station'' connects buses and bikes.]]
Several more significant examples of (potential) components and initiatives for mobility transition that have been proposed, studied, or put into practice include:
* As an alternative to the Viennese model of the annual ticket, a citizen ticket is being discussed in some German municipalities as a new way of financing and using local public transport. It is to be financed by a levy for all citizens of a municipality and function as a kind of [[flat rate]] for buses and trains.<ref>{{Cite web |author=René Rabenschlag |url=http://www1.wdr.de/nachrichten/rheinland/buergerticket-wuppertal-100.html |title=Bürgerticket: Flatrate für Bus und Bahn? |publisher=[[Westdeutscher Rundfunk]] |date=2016-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526213210/http://www1.wdr.de/nachrichten/rheinland/buergerticket-wuppertal-100.html |archive-date=2017-05-26 |access-date=2017-04-21 |language=de}}</ref><ref name="ZDF" />
* [[Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles]]: In Germany, a ban on the sale of combustion engines from 2030 has been adopted by the [[German Bundesrat|Bundesrat]] in October 2016.<ref name="Böll">{{cite news|author=Sven Böll|date=8 October 2016|title=Bundesländer wollen Benzin- und Dieselautos verbieten|language=de|work=Der Spiegel|url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/bundeslaender-wollen-benzin-und-dieselautos-ab-2030-verbieten-a-1115671.html|access-date=19 September 2020|archive-date=26 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926035517/https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/bundeslaender-wollen-benzin-und-dieselautos-ab-2030-verbieten-a-1115671.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Norway, on the other hand, already wants no cars with petrol or diesel engines to be registered from 2025 and ships and ferries only to be registered without fossil fuels from 2030, and is therefore considered a leading nation in electromobility. The Netherlands are also planning a ban on the registration of conventional drives in cars from 2025.<ref name="SPON">
{{Cite web
|url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/norwegen-will-autos-mit-benzin-oder-dieselmotor-verbieten-a-1107885.html
|title=Norwegen will Benzin- und Dieselautos verbieten
|work=[[Spiegel Online]]
|date=2016-08-16
|access-date=2020-09-23
|language=de}}
</ref> In China, all automotive groups are obliged to meet a quota for the production and sale of purely electric or [[plug-in hybrid]] drives.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Steffen Wurze |url=https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/china-e-autos-101.html |title=Weicht China die Quote für E-Autos auf? |work=[[Tagesschau.de]] |date=2017-02-27 |access-date=2017-04-23 |language=de}}</ref>
*There are numerous electromobility projects in Germany, such as the Modellregionen Elektromobilität and BeMobility. The [[German Association of Towns and Municipalities]] (DStGB) sees towns and municipalities as drivers and designers of the mobility transition and also supports a number of projects.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dstgb.de/dstgb/Homepage/Aktuelles/Archiv/Archiv%202017/Neue%20Mobilität%20–%20Kommunen%20als%20Akteure%20der%20Verkehrswende/ |title=Neue Mobilität – Kommunen als Akteure der Verkehrswende |publisher=[[Deutscher Städte- und Gemeindebund]] |date=2017-02-17 |access-date=2017-05-04 |language=de}}</ref>
[[File:3a cm070922.jpg|thumb|[[Critical Mass (cycling)|Critical Mass]] in [[Budapest]] (2007)]]
* ''[[Critical Mass (cycling)|Critical Mass]]'' is a form of direct action for promoting more and safer cycling in cities around the world. When riding together through inner cities, cyclists draw attention to cycling as a form of individual transport, advocate for mobility transition and, in particular, more rights for cyclists, better cycling traffic networks and infrastructure, and more room for non-motorised traffic. The first Critical Mass action took place in September 1992 in San Francisco.<ref name=10years>{{cite news
|last = Garofoli
|first = Joe
|title = Critical Mass turns 10
|work = San Francisco Chronicle
|date = September 28, 2002
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2002/09/26/BA133774.DTL
|access-date = July 2, 2007
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080120165148/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2002%2F09%2F26%2FBA133774.DTL
|archive-date = January 20, 2008
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref>
* To improve air quality, efforts across Europe are being stepped up to introduce [[low-emission zone]]s. A progressive approach is the French ''[[Crit'air]]'', which provides for different restrictions depending on air pollution. The applicable prohibitions can be viewed on the Internet or via phone app. Electric vehicles or hydrogen-powered vehicles receive category 0 (green vignette) and can always drive anywhere.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kfz-anzeiger.com/logistik-verkehr/durchblick-mit-der-green-zones-app |title=Umweltzonen: Durchblick mit der Green-Zones-App |work=KFZ-Anzeiger |date=2017-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216084527/http://kfz-anzeiger.com/logistik-verkehr/durchblick-mit-der-green-zones-app |archive-date=2018-02-16 |access-date=2017-05-09 |language=de}}</ref> {{interlanguage link|Diesel driving bans|de|Dieselfahrverbot}} were also issued in Germany.
* Instead of a [[company car]], individual companies offer their employees a {{interlanguage link|mobility budget|de|Mobilitätsbudget}} that can be used to pay for different means of transport for business purposes.
* The city-state [[Singapore]] has not allowed additional private cars since 1 February 2018. This is intended to promote the switch to other means of transport. The state only gives permission for a new car if another car disappears beforehand.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Zubaidah Jalil |url=https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Contra-Verkehrsinfarkt-Singapur-laesst-keine-zusaetzlichen-Autos-zu-3954138.html |title=Contra Verkehrsinfarkt: Singapur lässt keine zusätzlichen Autos zu |work=[[heise online]] |date=2018-01-30 |access-date=2018-01-31 |language=de}}</ref>
* Since 2003, there has been a [[London congestion charge]] which drivers have to pay in [[Central London]]. From October 2017 on, an additional, new fee for older and more polluting cars and vans is due with a [[toxicity charge]].<ref>{{Cite web |author=Björn Finke |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/auto/sz-serie-nahverkehr-weltweit-die-giftmaut-soll-londons-verkehrsprobleme-loesen-1.3838089 |title=Die Giftmaut soll Londons Verkehrsprobleme lösen |work=[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]] |date=2018-01-28 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/17/world/europe/london-smog-air-pollution.html |title=A Push for Diesel Leaves London Gasping Amid Record Pollution |work=[[New York Times]] |date=2017-02-17 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=en}}</ref>
* In many cities in Germany there are citizens' initiatives which, following the example of the Initiative Volksentscheid Fahrrad ("Cycling Referendum Initiative") in Berlin, advocate for mobility transition and "bicycle laws".<ref>{{Cite news |author=Stefan Tomik |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/verkehrswende-initiative-mehr-fahrrad-wagen-15644614.html |title=Verkehrswende-Initiative: Mehr Fahrrad wagen |work=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] |date=2018-06-17 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}</ref> In June 2018, the Berlin Mobility Act to promote cycling was passed in Berlin, also due to a successful application for a referendum.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Jörn Hasselmann, Klaus Kurpjuweit |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/mobilitaetsgesetz-berlin-regelt-den-verkehr-neu/22743314.html |title=Mobilitätsgesetz: Berlin regelt den Verkehr neu |work=[[Der Tagesspiegel]] |date=2018-06-27 |access-date=2018-08-19 |language=de}}</ref>
* Traffic lights are being tested in [[Karlsruhe]] as part of a pilot project which, in contrast to conventional [[Traffic light#Pedestrians|pedestrian traffic lights]], display a permanent green light for pedestrians and cyclists, not for vehicles, and only interrupt this when a vehicle approaches.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heise.de/news/Schritt-zur-Verkehrswende-Immer-gruen-fuer-Fussgaenger-Pilotprojekt-in-Karlsruhe-6315619.html |title= Schritt zur Verkehrswende: Immer grün für Fußgänger – Pilotprojekt in Karlsruhe |work=heise.de |date=2022-01-01 |access-date=2022-01-07}}</ref>
* In [[Japan]], it is generally illegal to park a car on the street; a car buyer must provide evidence of owning private parking space or renting a public parking space for the car.<ref name="Kölling"/> As of 2019, renting fees for public parking spaces in the more central districts of [[Tokyo]] cost about {{euro|300-500}} a month, while in residential areas on the outskirts of Tokyo they cost around {{euro|100}} a month.<ref name="Kölling"/> Only after the police have verified that the parking lot exists and is large enough for the car the owner want to buy, the car dealer approves the purchase, and gives the owner a parking sticker to put on the new car's front or rear window.<ref name="Kölling"/> The Japanese state has been using regulations to discourage the sale of [[luxury car]]s and to stimulate consumers to buy small light-weight cars with small engines (see also: [[kei car]]) or to motivate them to switch to local public transport.<ref name="Kölling">{{Cite web |author=Martin Kölling |url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/international/weltgeschichten/koelling/japan-autos-die-wie-toastbrote-aussehen-japans-autopolitik-regt-trump-auf/24067414.html |title=Autos, die wie Toastbrote aussehen – Japans Autopolitik regt Trump auf |work=[[Handelsblatt]] |date=2019-03-06 |access-date=28 March 2022 |language=de}}</ref>
* In [[Spain]], a general speed limit of {{convert|30|km/h|abbr=on}} in built-up areas was introduced in 2021. On narrow streets with only one lane (often found in historic city centres), the permitted speed was limited to a maximum of {{convert|20|km/h|abbr=on}}; for streets with more than one lane in both directions, the previously set speed limit was maintained at 50 km/h. A total of 509 people died in urban traffic accidents in Spain in 2019. The 2021 reduction of urban speed limits was intended to reduce the risk of pedestrians dying after being hit by a car by 80%.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.heise.de/news/Spanien-fuehrt-30-km-h-Tempolimit-innerorts-ein-6043809.html |title=Spanien führt 30-km/h-Tempolimit innerorts ein |author=dpa |work=heise.de |publisher=[[Heinz Heise]] |date=11 May 2021 |access-date=28 March 2022 |language=de |quote=Mit den neuen Höchstgeschwindigkeiten sinke das Risiko, dass ein von einem Auto erfasster Fußgänger sterbe, um 80 Prozent.}}</ref>
* With the educational motto ''Weniger Wagen wagen'' ("risk fewer cars"), the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cologne]] has sought to raise awareness, and has calculated: 'Due to mobility (journeys to work, committees, church services, etc.), around 16,370 tons of {{CO2}} (as of 2012) are emitted annually in the Archdiocese of Cologne. This corresponds to a share of approx. 13 per cent of the archdiocese's total emissions.' In response, the Archdiocese stated it sought 'strategic and practical reorientation of mobility', including stimulating cycling through the ''Pharr-Rad'' initiative (a [[pun]] on ''Pfarrer'' "priest" and ''Fahrrad'' "bycicle") and the ''BistumsTicket'' ("diocesan ticket") which offers reduced fees for public transport travels by groups of 50 people or more to Catholic events organised within the archdiocese.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.erzbistum-koeln.de/erzbistum/schoepfungsverantwortung/emissionsarm-mobil-sein/ |title=Emissionsarm mobil sein |author= |work=erzbistum-koeln.de |publisher=Archdiocese of Cologne |date=September 2017 |access-date=28 March 2022 |language=de}}</ref>
=== Short-haul flight ban ===
{{Excerpt|Short-haul flight ban}}
By July 2019, most political parties in Germany, including the Left Party, the Social Democrats, the Green Party and the Christian Democrats, started to agree to move all [[Berlin-Bonn Act|governmental institutions remaining]] in [[Bonn]] (the former capital of [[West Germany]]) to [[Berlin]] (the official capital since [[German Reunification]] in 1990), because ministers and civil servants were flying between the two cities about 230,000 times a year, which was considered too impractical, expensive and environmentally damaging. The distance of 500 kilometres between Bonn and Berlin could only be travelled by train in 5.5 hours, so either the train connections required upgrading, or Bonn had to be abolished as the secondary capital.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/07/23/calls-end-bonns-status-germanys-second-city-greens-seek-ban/ |title=Calls to end Bonn's status as Germany's second city as Greens seek to ban all domestic flights |author=Jorg Luyken |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=23 July 2019 |access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.dw.com/en/german-government-employees-increased-air-travel-in-2019/a-54406097 |title=German government employees increased air travel in 2019 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=2 August 2020 |access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref>
== Measures in freight transport ==
=== Sea freight ===
{{Further|MARPOL 73/78|Environmental effects of shipping}}
{{See also|Regulation of ship pollution in the United States|Cruise ship pollution in the United States|Cruise ship pollution in Europe}}
[[File:Freight goods according to mode of transportation 2010.png|thumb|309x309px|Global freight volumes according to mode of transport in trillions of [[tonne-kilometre]]s in 2010]]
By far the largest part of the world's [[freight traffic]] is [[sea freight]]. In 2010, about 60,000 trillion [[kilometre-tonne]]s were transported by sea, which was 85% of the world's total freight traffic. According to a 2015 forecast by [[Statista]], by 2050 the volume of freight will have increased to four times the levels of 2010, while the share of sea freight will remain about the same.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/482955/umfrage/frachtvolumen-weltweit-nach-verkehrstraegern/ |title=Frachtgut nach Verkehrsträger weltweit |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}}</ref>
Transporting goods by [[container ship]] is very efficient. Relatively few carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) emissions are caused per transported tonne and kilometre compared to transport by truck (lorry). According to the [[Naturschutzbund Deutschland]] (NABU), the latter emit 50 grams of carbon dioxide per tonne and kilometre, while container ships only emit 15 grams.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nabu.de/umwelt-und-ressourcen/verkehr/schifffahrt/containerschifffahrt/16646.html |title=Mythos klimafreundliche Containerschiffe |publisher=Naturschutzbund Deutschland |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}}</ref> However, the mineral oil-based ship fuel used by container ships is particularly polluting; 90 per cent of all large ships run on [[heavy fuel oil]] (bunker fuel). Among other things, this means that emissions of toxic sulfur oxide are many times higher.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |url=https://reset.org/nachhaltige-konzepte-fuer-containerschiffe-03052019/ |title=Nachhaltige Konzepte für Containerschiffe |author=Thorge Jans |language=de |date=6 March 2019 |access-date=2021-09-11}}</ref> To counteract this problem, the [[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO) lowered the limit value for sulfur in fuel from 3.5% to 0.5% in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/neuer-schwefelgrenzwert-fuer-seeschiffskraftstoffe |title=Neuer Grenzwerkt für Seeschiffkraftstoffe |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |date=2020-01-15 |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}}</ref>
Efficiency can be further increased and fuel consumption reduced by building the ships even larger.<ref name=":02" />
There are innovations to harness wind power for sea transportation. These include cylindrical sails that can be retrofitted to cargo ships (making them "[[rotor ship]]s" or "[[Anton Flettner|Flettner]] ships") and can reduce fuel consumption. Another option is a towing kite construction, which was originally developed in 2001 by the Hamburg-based company [[SkySails]] and is now being sold by AirSeas. The sail has an area of 1,000 square metres and was developed to reduce fuel consumption on cargo ships by up to 20%. As of 2019, the aviation group [[Airbus]] was testing this idea on four of its own freighters with the aim of saving up to 8,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.<ref name=":02" />
=== Inland navigation ===
[[File:Zeitraffer - Schifffahrt auf dem Rhein in Köln (2) Time lapse - ships on the Rhine at Cologne (2).webm|thumb|Timelapse of ships on the [[Rhine]] at [[Cologne]] (2015)]]
As [[inland navigation]] (also known as 'inland waterway transport' (IWT) or 'inland shipping') is a relatively environmentally friendly option for freight transport (similar to [[rail freight transport]]), researchers and policy makers have been aiming to shift the volume of cargo transported by more pollutive means towards inland navigation (for example, as part of the 2019 [[European Green Deal]]).<ref name="Hofbauer">{{Cite journal |last1=Hofbauer |first1=Florian |last2=Putz |first2=Lisa-Maria |date=2020 |title=External Costs in Inland Waterway Transport: An Analysis of External Cost Categories and Calculation Methods |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/14/5874/pdf |journal=[[Sustainability (journal)|Sustainability]] |publisher=MDPI |volume=12 |issue=5874 |pages=9 (Table 11) |doi= 10.3390/su12145874|access-date=29 March 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref> According to the Research Information System for Mobility and Traffic (FIS; an agency of the [[Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport|German Transport Ministry]]), deficits in the competitiveness of German inland navigation, especially in an international comparison, are responsible for the stagnating transport volume of German inland navigation. A water infrastructure that is not optimally developed with insufficient water channel depths and bridge clearance heights lead to low loading capacities and thus to high costs. A certain exception are the waterways of the [[Rhine]] area, which also have by far the highest transport volume.<ref name="forschungsinformationssystem.de">{{Cite web |url=https://www.forschungsinformationssystem.de/servlet/is/123359/ |title=Gebietsstruktur der Binnenschifffahrt und deutsche Binnenhäfen |language=de |access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref> Furthermore, the German inland waterway fleet is quite old by international comparison (45 years in 2013).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=https://www.forschungsinformationssystem.de/servlet/is/123506/ |title=Gründe für die Ertüchtigung der Binnenschifffahrt |language=de |access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref>
Inland navigation is closely related to seaport [[hinterland]] traffic. For example, in the [[modal split]] in hinterland traffic at the Dutch and Belgian seaports ([[Port of Rotterdam|Rotterdam]], [[Port of Amsterdam|Amsterdam]], [[Port of Antwerp|Antwerp]] and [[Port of Zeebrugge|Zeebrugge]]), inland shipping has a share of around 55%, while in Germany it usually remains below 10% of hinterland traffic. The reason for this is the better expansion of the Rhine waterways. Furthermore, the majority of the 250 important inland ports in Germany are owned by large companies that only handle transport goods from third-party companies to a small extent.<ref name="forschungsinformationssystem.de"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.forschungsinformationssystem.de/servlet/is/114702/ |title=Gründe für die Instandhaltung und den Ausbau der deutschen Binnenwasserstraßen |language=de |access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref> Against this background, the FIS has called for the expansion and maintenance of German waterways. The number and carrying capacity of the German inland waterway vessels has remained constant in the early 21st century and was around 2.61 million tonnes in 2015.<ref name=":0" />
Various approaches to energy efficiency and air pollution reduction are being tested and researched in inland shipping. This includes propulsion configurations such as the father–son concept,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/rolf-bach-erhaelt-innovationspreis-der-allianz-esa.html |title=Rolf Bach erhält Innovationspreis der Allianz Esa |work=bonapart |date=2015-09-29 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> [[Diesel–electric transmission|diesel-electric hybrid drives]],<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/dieselelektrisches-guetermotorschiff-goblin-in-fahrt.html |title=Dieselelektrisches Gütermotorschiff "Goblin" in Fahrt |work=bonapart |date=2013-09-13 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> hydrodynamic optimisations,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/rhenus-duisburg-faehrt-mit-flex-tunnel-und-vier-motoren.html |title="Rhenus Duisburg" fährt mit Flex-Tunnel und vier Motoren |work=bonapart |date=2015-08-15 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> fuel water emulsion injection,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/kraftstoff-wasser-emulsionstechnik-macht-rudolf-deymann-zum-schwimmenden-exponat.html |title=Kraftstoff-Wasser-Emulsionstechnik macht "Rudolf Deymann" zum schwimmenden Exponat |work=bonapart |date=2016-02-24 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> [[Selective catalytic reduction|SCR-catalysts]], [[diesel particulate filter]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/laborschiff-max-pruess-erhaelt-abgasreinigungsanlage.html |title=Laborschiff "Max Prüss" erhält Abgasreinigungsanlage |work=bonapart |date=2015-11-06 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> [[Gas to liquids|gas-to-liquid]] fuels (GTL)<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/emissionsarm-ohne-umbau-jenny-bunkert-synthetischen-gtl-kraftstoff.html |title=Emissionsarm ohne Umbau: "Jenny" bunkert synthetischen GTL-Kraftstoff |work=bonapart |date=2016-04-26 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> or [[Liquified Natural Gas]] (LNG),<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/erste-lng-bunkerung-in-deutschland-im-hafen-mannheim-durchgefuehrt.html |title=Erste LNG-Bunkerung in Deutschland im Hafen Mannheim durchgeführt |work=bonapart |date=2013-11-15 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> some of which can also be used in combination and are suitable for retrofitting existing systems.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/deutz-545-faehrt-schadstoffarm-mit-kraftstoff-wasser-emulsion.html |title=Deutz 545 fährt schadstoffarm mit Kraftstoff-Wasser-Emulsion |work=bonapart |date=2016-05-20 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> With an engine funding program, the German Transport Ministry supports inland navigation companies in the installation and retrofitting of low-emission engines or other emission-reducing technologies. The funding rate is up to 70%.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/motorenfoerderprogramm-jetzt-bis-zu-70-prozent-vom-staat.html |title=Motorenförderprogramm: Jetzt bis zu 70 Prozent vom Staat |publisher=bonapart |date=2015-08-04 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref>
=== Road freight and modal share ===
[[File:Freight Shipping in the United States.svg|thumb|Freight in the United States by per cent [[ton-mile]]s (2010 [[Federal Railroad Administration|FRA]] report)<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Rail Plan Progress Report {{!}} FRA |author= |work=railroads.dot.gov |date=September 2010 |access-date=31 March 2022 |url=https://railroads.dot.gov/elibrary/national-rail-plan-progress-report}}</ref>]]
{{Pie chart
|caption =Freight in Germany (2019) (total: 700 [[tonne-kilometres]])<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.allianz-pro-schiene.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/210226_marktanteile_gueterverkehr_2019.pdf |title=Anteile der Verkehrsträger am Güterverkehr; 2019 in Deutschland |publisher=Allianz pro Schiene |date=November 2020 |access-date=2021-09-12 |language=de}}</ref>
|value1=71.2
|label1=Truck
|color1=red
|value2=19
|label2=Rail
|color2=green
|value3=7.3
|label3=Inland ship
|color3=blue
|value4=2.5
|label4=Oil pipeline
|color4=yellow}}
In road freight transport, some transport companies are proposing partly new technologies such as [[trolleytruck]]s, [[electric truck]]s or electric cargo bikes. [[Package delivery]] services are experimenting with new concepts of smart logistics.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.verkehrsrundschau.de/nachrichten/hamburg-sucht-nach-intelligenteren-wegen-fuer-paketzustellung-1854982.html |title=Hamburg sucht nach intelligenteren Wegen für Paketzustellung |work=VerkehrsRundschau |date=2016-11-25 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref> Trolleytrucks with an auxiliary battery offer the possibility of lower-emission long-distance truck transport that is also more energy-efficient than battery-powered trucks.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Jens Tartler |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/verkehrswende-hendricks-faehrt-auf-strom-lkw-ab/19660324.html |title=Hendricks fährt auf Strom-LKW ab |work=[[Der Tagesspiegel]] |date=2017-04-11 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref> Equipping motorways with overhead lines for [[Large goods vehicle|heavy goods vehicles]] (HGVs) has the advantage that HGVs would only have to carry small batteries, as only comparatively short distances would be covered in battery-only mode. At the same time, trolleytrucks would be a cost-effective way to make freight transport climate-friendly, as the electrification of motorways, at a cost of 3 million euros/km, does not represent too much of a financial outlay.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Sonja Fröhlich |url=https://www.haz.de/Nachrichten/Wissen/Uebersicht/E-Highways-Erste-Elektro-Autobahn-fuer-Lastwagen-eine-oekologische-Alternative |title=Erste Elektro-Autobahn für Lastwagen – eine ökologische Alternative? |work=[[Hannoversche Allgemeine Zeitung]] |date=2019-05-07 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref>
Another option to reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and environmental problems is to shift truck traffic to freight rail and inland waterway transport. This process is also known as [[modal share|modal shift]]. The [[Umweltbundesamt|German Environment Agency]] gives the climate impact of transport by truck in the reference year 2020 as 126 grams of CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents per [[tonne-kilometre]] on average (g/tkm). According to the Environment Agency, transport by freight train has a climate impact of 33 g/tkm and transport by inland waterway vessel has a climate impact of 43 g/tkm, making rail and ship significantly more climate-friendly.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/5750/publikationen/2021_fb_umweltfreundlich_mobil_bf.pdf |title=Umweltfreudlich mobil! Ein ökologischer Verkehrsartenvergleich für den Personen- und Güterverkehr in Deutschland |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |date=March 2020 |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}} (see table 9)</ref>
Although the European Union and its member states strongly promote the use of inland waterways and rail in combination with truck transport, in some cases financially,<ref name="bonapart.de">{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/kv-foerderrichtlinie-2017-2021-in-kraft-getreten.html |title=KV-Förderrichtlinie 2017–2021 in Kraft getreten |work=bonapart |date=2017-01-09 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref> only HGVs have been developing positively in the 2010s, while shipping and rail have been stagnating or recording declines.<ref name="destatis.de">{{Cite web |url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Branchen-Unternehmen/Transport-Verkehr/Gueterverkehr/Tabellen/gueterbefoerderung-lr.html |title=Beförderungsmenge und Beförderungsleistung nach Verkehrsträgern |publisher=[[Statistisches Bundesamt]] (Destatis) |date=2020-05-19 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref> For 2016, the [[Federal Statistical Office of Germany]] reported a decline in transport performance of 3.7% for inland waterways, a decline of 0.5% for rail and growth of 2.8% for trucks.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/PresseService/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2017/02/PD17_057_463.html |title=Güterverkehr 2016: Neuer Höchststand beim Transportaufkommen |publisher=[[Statistisches Bundesamt]] (Destatis) |date=2017-02-17 |language=de |access-date=2017-05-19}}</ref> In 2015, with a growing transport volume of 1.1%, there was a plus of 1.9% for road, a minus of 1% for rail and a minus of 3.2% for inland waterways.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/gueterverkehr-2015-waechst-binnenschiff-und-bahn-verlieren.html |title=Güterverkehr 2015 wächst – Binnenschiff und Bahn verlieren |work=bonapart |date=2016-02-19 |language=de |access-date=2017-05-19}}</ref> Overall, 71% of the transport performance is accounted for by the truck.<ref name="destatis.de" />
With growing [[containerization]] however, a combination of different modes of transport ([[intermodal freight transport]]) becomes more efficient. In so-called [[multimodal transport]] or [[combined transport]], the truck only has to cover the [[Last mile (transportation)|last mile]] between the port or rail terminal and the customer. Measures to promote combined transport are, for example:
* The [[Port of Rotterdam]] has set a quota for the [[modal share]] of hinterland transport modes: the truck share is to drop from 47% to 35%, while rail is to provide 20% instead of 13% in the future, and the transport performance of inland waterways is to increase from 40% to 45%.<ref>{{Cite web |author= |url=
https://www.dvz.de/rubriken/region/laender/niederlande/detail/news/schiene-spielt-schluesselrolle-fuer-rotterdam.html |title=Schiene spielt Schlüsselrolle für Rotterdam |work=Deutsche Verkehrs-Zeitung (DVZ) |date=2015-03-02 |access-date=2017-05-19}} (requires subscription)</ref>
* Instead of burdening [[trunk road]]s with the transport of heavy goods such as industrial plants or components for wind turbines, German transport companies have ben required since 2010 to use the electronic portal Procedural Management of Large and Heavy Goods Transport (VEMAGS) to check whether alternative transport routes such as ship and rail are available, and if not, to explain that in their application for a permit to transport goods via road trucks.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/schwergut-und-projektladungen-leichtes-wachstum-in-2017-moeglich.html |title=Schwergut und Projektladungen: Leichtes Wachstum in 2017 möglich |work=bonapart |date=2017-02-13 |access-date=2020-09-23 |language=de}}</ref>
* With the promotion of handling facilities for combined transport, the German federal government supports the shift in traffic to inland waterways and freight trains.<ref name="bonapart.de" />
* The Lower-Rhine Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Schifferbörse and the Development Centre for Naval Technology and Transport Systems (DST) in [[Duisburg]] jointly offer an additional course. Apprentice forwarding and logistics clerks should thus learn about the advantages of alternative modes of transport, rail and inland waterway, and thus integrate them more easily into their everyday work. Frequently, the curriculum only includes road freight transport and additional sea freight or air transport.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Axel Götze-Rohen |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/schifferboerse-startet-qualifikationsinitiative.html |title=Schifferbörse startet Qualifikationsinitiative |work=bonapart |date=2015-02-25 |access-date=2020-09-23 |language=de}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Energy transition]]
* [[Jet fuel tax]]
* [[Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles]]
* [[Urban sprawl]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Literature ==
* {{Cite book |last1=Adey |first1=Peter |last2=Cresswell |first2=Tim |last3=Lee |first3=Jane Yeonjae |last4=Nikolaeva |first4=Anna |last5=Nóvoa |first5=André |last6=Temenos |first6=Cristina |date=2021 |title=Moving Towards Transition: Commoning Mobility for a Low-Carbon Future |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Z1CEAAAQBAJ |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=4 |isbn=9781786998989 |access-date=26 February 2022 |ref={{harvid|Adey et al.|2021}}}}
* {{citation|surname1=Claudia Hornberg et al.|editor-surname1=Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen [SRU]|title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor: Sondergutachten November 2017|publication-place=Berlin|isbn=978-3-947370-11-5|date=2017|language=German|url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=26 |access-date=2020-09-20
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2326 <ref>{{Cite web|title=Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen - Publikationen - Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor|url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.html|access-date=2023-01-06|website=www.umweltrat.de}}</ref>
* Udo Becker: ''Grundwissen Verkehrsökologie: Grundlagen, Handlungsfelder und Maßnahmen für die Verkehrswende.'' München 2016, ISBN 978-3-86581-993-2.
* Andrej Cacilo: ''Wege zu einer nachhaltigen Mobilität: Im Spannungsfeld kultureller Werte, ökonomischer Funktionslogik und diskursrationaler Wirtschafts- und Umweltethik.'' 2., durchges. Aufl., Metropolis, Marburg 2021, ISBN 978-3-7316-1473-9.
* Weert Canzler, Andreas Knie: ''Schlaue Netze – Wie die Energie- und Verkehrswende gelingt.'' München 2013, ISBN 978-3-86581-440-1.
* Weert Canzler, Andreas Knie, Lisa Ruhrort, Christian Scherf: ''Erloschene Liebe? Das Auto in der Verkehrswende. Soziologische Deutungen''. transcript, Bielefeld 2018, ISBN 978-3-8376-4568-2.
* [[Hermann Knoflacher]]: ''Zurück zur Mobilität! Anstöße zum Umdenken.'' Ueberreuter, Wien 2013, ISBN 978-3-8000-7557-7.
* {{citation|surname1=Katharina Manderscheid|editor-surname1= Achim Brunnengräber, Tobias Haas|periodical=Baustelle Elektromobilität – Sozialwissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die Transformation der (Auto-)Mobilität|title=Antriebs-, Verkehrs- oder Mobilitätswende? Zur Elektrifizierung des Automobilitätsdispositivs|publisher=transcript|publication-place=Bielefeld|at=pp. 37-67|isbn=978-3-8376-5165-2|date=2020|language=German|url=https://www.transcript-verlag.de/media/pdf/34/07/26/oa9783839451656Y4hda57HXkydW.pdf |access-date=2020-08-11
}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2940
* Markus Hesse: ''Verkehrswende. ökologisch-ökonomische Perspektiven für Stadt und Region.'' Marburg 1993, ISBN 978-3-926570-62-8.
== External links ==
* {{Cite news |author=Stephan Rammler |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2018-02/verkehrswende-bundesregierung-fahrverbote-luftverschmutzung/komplettansicht |title=Verkehrswende: Bürgermeister, fangt einfach an! |work=[[Die Zeit]] |date=2018-02-20 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}
* {{Cite web|author=Stefan Hajek |url=https://www.wiwo.de/my/unternehmen/auto/falsche-zahlen-steile-thesen-die-mythen-der-e-auto-kritiker/23906014-all.html |title=Falsche Zahlen, steile Thesen: Die Mythen der E-Auto-Kritiker |work=[[Wirtschaftswoche]] |date=2019-01-24 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wissen/physik-mehr/verkehrswende-wie-es-gelingt-die-blechlawine-zu-stoppen-und-staedte-fuer-menschen-zu-gestalten-16967470.html |title=So geht sich das nicht aus |language=de |first=Andreas |last=Frey |newspaper=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung |date=27 September 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}}, long article on the mobility transition in Germany
* {{Cite web
|url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/verkehrswende-das-ende-des-verbrennungsmotors/13819824.html
|title=Das Ende des Verbrennungsmotors
|work=[[Der Tagesspiegel]]
|date=2016-07-02
|access-date=2020-09-23
|language=de}}
[[Category:Energy policy]]
[[Category:Environmental policy]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Transport and the environment]]
[[Category:Urban planning]] |
Sustainable Development Goals | {{Advert|date=January 2024}}
{{Short description|UN's sustainable development goals for 2030}}
{{Short description|United Nations' 17 sustainable development goals
for 2030}}
{{Redirect|SDG}}
{{About|the 2023 goals|the 2015 goals|Millennium Development Goals}}{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}{{Infobox project
| name = Sustainable Development Goals
| logo = Sustainable Development Goals logo.svg
| mission_statement = "A shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future"
| location = Global
| owner =
| founder = [[United Nations]]
| established = 2015
| website = {{URL|https://sdgs.un.org/}}
|abbreviation=SDGs}}
The ''2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development'', adopted by all [[United Nations]] members in 2015, created 17 world '''Sustainable Development Goals''' ('''SDGs'''). They were created with the aim of "[[peace]] and prosperity for people and the planet..."<ref name="the17SDGs">{{Cite web |title=The 17 Goals |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals | publisher = UN |access-date=2022-08-10 |website= Sustainable Development Goals}}</ref><ref name="UN-2017b">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201128194012/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 |date=28 November 2020 }})</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Isnaeni |first1=Nur Meily |last2=Dulkiah |first2=Moh |last3=Wildan |first3=Asep Dadan |date=2022-11-18 |title=Patterns of Middle-Class Communities Adaptation to the Village SDGS Program in Bogor Regency |url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/temali/article/view/20466 |journal=Temali: Jurnal Pembangunan Sosial |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages= 173–82 |doi=10.15575/jt.v5i2.20466 |issn= 2615-5028|doi-access=free }}</ref> They state that ending poverty and other deprivations, goes alongside strategies that improve health and education, reduce inequality, and increase economic growth – while tackling [[climate change]] and working to preserve oceans and forests. The SDGs emphasize the interconnected environmental, social and economic aspects of [[sustainable development]] by putting [[sustainability]] at their center.<ref name="Schleicher-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Schleicher |first1=Judith |last2=Schaafsma |first2=Marije |last3=Vira |first3=Bhaskar |date=2018 |title=Will the Sustainable Development Goals address the links between poverty and the natural environment? |journal=Current Opinion in L̾o̾l̾o̾l̾o̾47 |volume=34 |pages=43–47 |bibcode=2018COES...34...43S |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2018.09.004 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bali Swain |first1=R. |last2=Yang-Wallentin |first2=F. |date=2020 |title=Achieving sustainable development goals: predicaments and strategies |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=96–106 |doi=10.1080/13504509.2019.1692316 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2020IJSDW..27...96B }}</ref>
The short titles of the 17 SDGs are: No poverty ([[Sustainable Development Goal 1|SDG 1]]), Zero hunger ([[Sustainable Development Goal 2|SDG 2]]), Good health and well-being ([[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]]), Quality education ([[SDG 4]]), Gender equality ([[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]), Clean water and sanitation ([[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]]), Affordable and clean energy ([[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]]), Decent work and economic growth ([[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]), Industry, innovation and infrastructure ([[Sustainable Development Goal 9|SDG 9]]), Reduced inequalities ([[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]]), Sustainable cities and communities ([[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]]), Responsible consumption and production ([[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]]), Climate action ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]), Life below water ([[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]]), Life on land ([[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]), Peace, justice, and strong institutions ([[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]]), and Partnerships for the goals ([[SDG 17]]).
Despite the ambitious goals set, reports and outcomes indicate a challenging path. Most, if not all, of the goals are unlikely to be met by 2030, with rising inequalities, climate change, and [[biodiversity loss]] among the critical concerns threatening progress. The COVID pandemic exacerbated these challenges. While some regions, such as Asia, have experienced significant setbacks, the global effort towards the SDGs calls for prioritizing environmental sustainability, understanding the indivisible nature of the goals, and seeking synergies across sectors.
Political impact assessments of the SDGs suggest they have mainly influenced global and national debates, leading to discursive effects, but have struggled to achieve transformative changes in policy and institutional structures. The pandemic impacted all 17 goals, emphasizing the interconnectedness of global health, economic, social, and environmental challenges. The uneven prioritization of goals, with a tendency to favor socio-economic objectives over environmental ones, reflects longstanding national development policies, complicating the global endeavor towards sustainable development.
Funding remains a critical issue, with significant financial resources required across continents to achieve the SDGs. While the UN, other international organizations, and national governments are mobilizing efforts, the role of private investment and need for a shift towards sustainable financing, are increasingly recognized as essential for realizing the SDGs. Amidst these challenges, examples of progress from countries demonstrate the potential for achieving sustainable development through concerted global action.
== History ==
The SDGs build on work by countries and the UN, including the UN department of economic and social affairs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE 17 GOALS {{!}} Sustainable Development |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> This agenda is a plan of action for People, Planet and Prosperity. It also seeks to strengthen university peace in larger freedom. We recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimension, including extreme poverty is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs |url=https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> The Agenda 2030 recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global challenge and indispensable development in its three dimensions-economic, social and environmental in a balanced and integrated manner. To end poverty and hunger everywhere, to combat inequalities within and among countries, to build peaceful, just and inclusive society, to protect human right and promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls and to ensure the lasting protection of the plant and its natural resources.
== Results and outcomes ==
Most or all of the goals and targets are unlikely to be achieved by 2030.<ref name="CEEW-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=SEI |last2=CEEW |date=2022-05-18 |title=Stockholm+50: Unlocking a Better Future |url=https://www.sei.org/publications/stockholm50-unlocking-better-future |journal=SEI Reports |doi=10.51414/sei2022.011 |s2cid=248881465 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|41}}
Of particular concern - which cut across many of the SDGs – are rising inequalities, ongoing climate change and increasing biodiversity loss.<ref name="CEEW-2022" />{{rp|41}} In addition, there is a [[trade-off]] between the planetary boundaries of Earth and the aspirations for wealth and well-being. This has been described as follows: "the world's social and natural biophysical systems cannot support the aspirations for universal human well-being embedded in the SDGs."<ref name="CEEW-2022" />{{rp|41}}
An independent group of scientists appointed by the Secretary General, found that: "the world is far off track".<ref name=":0">Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the Secretary-General, ''Global Sustainable Development Report 2023: Times of crisis, times of change: Science for accelerating transformations to sustainable development'', (United Nations, New York, 2023).</ref> This report urges "urgent course correction" to help achieve the SDGs.<ref name=":0" /> This report blames the lingering drag of the COVID-19 pandemic, a rise in conflicts and, inflation for the lagging progress of the SDGs.<ref name=":0" />
Due to various economic and social issues, many countries are seeing a major decline in the progress made. In Asia for example, data shows a loss of progress on goals 2, 8,10,11, and 15.<ref name="SEI-2020">{{cite web |date=1 October 2020 |title=Let's get the SDGs back on track |url=https://www.sei.org/perspectives/lets-get-the-sdgs-back-on-track/ |access-date=19 October 2022 |website=Stockholm Environment Institute}}</ref> Recommended approaches to still achieve the SDGs are: "Set priorities, focus on harnessing the environmental dimension of the SDGs, understand how the SDGs work as an indivisible system, and look for synergies."<ref name="SEI-2020" />
=== Assessing the political impact of the SDGs ===
In 2022, the last book in series of books analysed the political impacts of the SDGs.<ref name="BiermannCh8">{{Citation |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |title=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals |date=2022-07-31 |pages=204–26 |editor-last=Biermann |editor-first=Frank |contribution=Chapter 8: The Sustainable Development Goals as a Transformative Force?: Key Insights |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009082945.009 |isbn=978-1-009-08294-5 |last2=Hickmann |first2=Thomas |last3=Sénit |first3=Carole-Anne |last4=Grob |first4=Leonie |editor2-last=Hickmann |editor2-first=Thomas |editor3-last=Sénit |editor3-first=Carole-Anne |doi-access=free}}</ref> It reviewed over 3,000 scientific articles, mainly from the social sciences, and looked at possible discursive, normative and institutional effects. The presence of all three types of effects throughout a political system is defined as ''transformative impact'', which is the eventual goal of the 2030 Agenda.<ref name="Biermann-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |last2=Hickmann |first2=Thomas |last3=Sénit |first3=Carole-Anne |last4=Beisheim |first4=Marianne |last5=Bernstein |first5=Steven |last6=Chasek |first6=Pamela |last7=Grob |first7=Leonie |last8=Kim |first8=Rakhyun E. |last9=Kotzé |first9=Louis J. |last10=Nilsson |first10=Måns |last11=Ordóñez Llanos |first11=Andrea |last12=Okereke |first12=Chukwumerije |last13=Pradhan |first13=Prajal |last14=Raven |first14=Rob |last15=Sun |first15=Yixian |date=2022-06-20 |title=Scientific evidence on the political impact of the Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=795–800 |doi=10.1038/s41893-022-00909-5 |issn=2398-9629 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022NatSu...5..795B |hdl-access=free |hdl=2066/253734}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref>
''Discursive effects'' relate to changes in global and national debates that make them more aligned with the SDGs.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> ''Normative effects'' would be adjustments in legislative and regulatory frameworks and policies in line with, and because of, the SDGs. ''Institutional effects'' would be the creation of new departments, committees, offices or programs linked to the achievement of the SDGs or the realignment of existing institutions.<ref name="Biermann-2022" />
The review found that the SDGs are too nonspecific to be quantified or measured. Subjective assessments are often paradoxical due to the nature of wealth and prosperity. An individual with good health, supportive family and social well-being could be considered a form of wealth not enjoyed by individuals who are isolated, in poor health and employed in labor which exacts an extreme physical toll and frequent injuries or toxin-related illness.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> They have had mainly discursive effects only.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> For example, the broad uptake of the principle of ''leaving no one behind'' in pronouncements by policymakers and civil society activists is a discursive effect. The SDGs have also led to some isolated normative and institutional reforms.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> However, there is widespread doubt that the SDGs can steer societies towards more ecological integrity at the planetary scale.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> This is because countries generally prioritize the more socioeconomic SDGs (e.g. SDGs 8 to 12) over the environmentally oriented ones (e.g. SDGs 13 to 15), which is in alignment with their long-standing national development policies.<ref name="Biermann-2022" />
=== Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic ===
The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 had impacts on all 17 goals. It has become "the worst human and economic crisis in a lifetime."<ref name="UNESC2020" />{{rp|2}} The pandemic threatened progress made in particular for SDG 3 (health), SDG 4 (education), SDG 6 (water and sanitation for all), SDG 10 (reduce inequality) and SDG 17 (partnerships).<ref name="UNESC2020" />
The [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) has also taken the initiative to achieve the SDGs by offering their support to developing countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IMF and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2023/IMF-Sustainable-development-goals-SDGs |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=IMF |language=en}}</ref> For example, the IMF works to reduce poverty in low-income developing countries by offering financial support during the COVID-19 pandemic.
=== Uneven priorities of goals ===
In 2019 five progress reports on the 17 SDGs were published. Three came from the [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]] (UNDESA),<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sustainable Development Goals report 2019 |date=2019 |publisher=United Nations |isbn=978-92-1-101403-7 |oclc=1117643666}}{{page needed|date=June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Publications |first1=United Nations |title=Report of the inter-agency task force on financing for development 2019: financing for sustainable development report 2019 |date=2019 |isbn=978-92-1-101404-4 |oclc=1098817400}}{{page needed|date=June 2021}}</ref> one from the [[Bertelsmann Foundation]] and one from the [[European Union]].<ref>Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the Secretary-General, Global Sustainable Development Report 2019: [https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/24797GSDR_report_2019.pdf The Future is Now – Science for Achieving Sustainable Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063857/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/24797GSDR_report_2019.pdf|date=30 December 2020}}, (United Nations, New York, 2019)</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable development in the European Union |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/9940483/KS-02-19-165-EN-N.pdf/1965d8f5-4532-49f9-98ca-5334b0652820 |publisher=Eurostat}}</ref> A review of the five reports analyzed which of the 17 Goals were addressed in priority and which ones were left behind.<ref name="BICE-2020">{{cite web |title=Leaving Biodiversity, Peace and Social Inclusion behind |url=http://commons.ch/wp-content/uploads/Synopsis_SDG_Reports_Goals_Allocation_2019.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063855/http://commons.ch/wp-content/uploads/Synopsis_SDG_Reports_Goals_Allocation_2019.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=27 November 2019 |publisher=Basel Institute of Commons and Economics |language=en}}</ref> In explanation of the findings, the Basel Institute of Commons and Economics said [[Biodiversity]], Peace and Social Inclusion were "left behind" by quoting the official SDGs motto "Leaving no one behind."<ref name="BICE-2020" />
It has been argued that governments and businesses actively prioritize the social and economic goals over the environmental goals (such as Goal 14 and 15) in both rhetoric and practice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Forestier |first1=Oana |last2=Kim |first2=Rakhyun E. |date=September 2020 |title=Cherry-picking the Sustainable Development Goals: Goal prioritization by national governments and implications for global governance |journal=Sustainable Development |language=en |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1269–1278 |doi=10.1002/sd.2082 |issn=0968-0802 |s2cid=225737527 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+SDG preferences in the World's five major SDG reports in 2019<ref name="BICE-2020" />
!SDG Topic
!Rank
!Average Rank
!Mentions
|-
|Health
|1
|3.2
|1814
|-
|Energy<br />Climate <br />Water
|2
|4.0
|1328<br />1328<br />1784
|-
|Education
|3
|4.6
|1351
|-
|Poverty
|4
|6.2
|1095
|-
|Food
|5
|7.6
|693
|-
|Economic Growth
|6
|8.6
|387
|-
|Technology
|7
|8.8
|855
|-
|Inequality
|8
|9.2
|296
|-
|Gender Equality
|9
|10.0
|338
|-
|Hunger
|10
|10.6
|670
|-
|Justice
|11
|10.8
|328
|-
|Governance
|12
|11.6
|232
|-
|Decent Work
|13
|12.2
|277
|-
|Peace
|14
|12.4
|282
|-
|Clean Energy
|15
|12.6
|272
|-
|Life on Land
|16
|14.4
|250
|-
|Life below Water
|17
|15.0
|248
|-
|Social Inclusion
|18
|16.4
|22
|}
=== Measuring progress ===
[[File:Map Sustainable Development Goals 2019.jpg|alt=|thumb|upright=2|Countries that are closest to meeting the SDGs (in dark blue) and those with the greatest remaining challenges (in the lightest shade of blue) in 2018<ref>Sachs, J., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G. (2019): [https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/ Sustainable Development Report 2019] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922112837/https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/|date=22 September 2019}}. New York: Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN)</ref> ]]
==== Monitoring tools and websites ====
The online publication SDG-Tracker was launched in June 2018 and presents data across all available indicators.<ref name="SDGtracker">{{Cite web |title=SDG Tracker |url=https://sdg-tracker.org/ |access-date=6 August 2020 |publisher=Our World in Data}}</ref> It relies on the [[Our World In Data|Our World in Data]] database and is also based at the [[University of Oxford]].<ref name="Ritchie-2020">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina. "[https://sdg-tracker.org/ Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals]". SDG-Tracker.org, 2018. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063910/https://sdg-tracker.org/|date=30 December 2020}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SDG-Tracker.org Releases New Resources |url=http://sdg.iisd.org/news/sdg-tracker-org-releases-new-resources/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063949/http://sdg.iisd.org/news/sdg-tracker-org-releases-new-resources/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-03-10 |website=IISD's SDG Knowledge Hub |language=en-US}}</ref> The publication has global coverage and tracks whether the world is making progress towards the SDGs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eerste 'tracker' die progressie op SDG's per land volgt {{!}} Fondsnieuws |url=https://www.fondsnieuws.nl/nieuws/eerste-tracker-die-progressie-op-sdgs-land-volgt |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063913/https://www.fondsnieuws.nl/nieuws/eerste-tracker-die-progressie-op-sdgs-land-volgt |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-03-10 |website=www.fondsnieuws.nl}}</ref> It aims to make the data on the 17 goals available and understandable to a wide audience.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=SDG Gracker |url=https://sdg-tracker.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063944/https://sdg-tracker.org/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=28 July 2020}}</ref> The SDG-Tracker highlights that the world is currently (early 2019) very far away from achieving the goals.
The ''Global SDG Index and Dashboards Report'' is the first publication to track countries' performance on all 17 Sustainable Development Goals.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=SDSN |last2=Bertelsmann Stiftung |title=SDG Index |url=https://sdgindex.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064016/https://sdgindex.org/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-05-24 |website=SDG Index and Dashboards Report |language=en-US}}</ref> The annual publication, co-produced by [[Bertelsmann Stiftung]] and [[Sustainable Development Solutions Network|SDSN]], includes a ranking and dashboards that show key challenges for each country in terms of implementing the SDGs. The publication also shows an analysis of government efforts to implement the SDGs.
==== UN High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) ====
{{Main|High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development}}{{Excessive examples|date=January 2024}}
This subdivision should be a "regular meeting place for governments and non-state representatives to assess global progress towards sustainable development."<ref name="BiermannCh8">{{Citation |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |title=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals |date=2022-07-31 |pages=204–26 |editor-last=Biermann |editor-first=Frank |contribution=Chapter 8: The Sustainable Development Goals as a Transformative Force?: Key Insights |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009082945.009 |isbn=978-1-009-08294-5 |last2=Hickmann |first2=Thomas |last3=Sénit |first3=Carole-Anne |last4=Grob |first4=Leonie |editor2-last=Hickmann |editor2-first=Thomas |editor3-last=Sénit |editor3-first=Carole-Anne |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|206}} The meetings take place under the auspices of the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|United Nations economic and Social Council]]. In July 2020 the meeting took place online for the first time due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The theme was "Accelerated action and transformative pathways: realizing the decade of action and delivery for sustainable development" and a ministerial declaration was adopted.<ref name="UNESC2020" />
High-level progress reports for all the SDGs are published in the form of reports by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|United Nations Secretary General]]. The most recent one is from April 2020.<ref name="UNESC2020" />
However, the HLPF has a range of problems.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> It has not been able to promote system-wide coherence. The reasons for this include its broad and unclear mandate combined with a lack of resources and divergent national interests.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> Therefore, this reporting system is mainly just a platform for voluntary reporting and [[peer learning]] among governments.<ref name="Biermann-2022" />
The [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development]] (HLPF) replaced the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development in 2012.<ref name="BiermannCh8" />{{rp|206}}
== Examples of progress ==
These are examples of what different countries have done to progress the 17 goals.
===Asia and Pacific===
==== Australia ====
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goals and Australia|paragraphs=2-3}}
=== Africa ===
{{See also|Sustainable Development Goals and Ghana}}
The [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) has collected information to show how awareness about the SDGs among government officers, civil society and others has been created in many African countries.<ref name="UNDP-2020a">{{Cite web |title=Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064154/https://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-09-20 |website=UNDP in Ghana |language=en}}</ref>
==== Nigeria ====
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goals and Nigeria|paragraphs=2|file=no}}
===Europe and Middle East===
{{See also|Sustainable Development Goals and Iran}}
Baltic nations, via the [[Council of the Baltic Sea States]], have created the [[Baltic 21|Baltic 2030 Action Plan]].<ref name="cbss.org-2030">{{Cite news |title=Sustainable Development – Baltic 2030 |url=http://www.cbss.org/sustainable-prosperous-region/egsd-baltic-2030-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220914/http://www.cbss.org/sustainable-prosperous-region/egsd-baltic-2030-2/ |archive-date=15 November 2017 |access-date=2017-11-11 |work=cbss.org |language=en-US}}</ref>
==== Lebanon ====
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goals and Lebanon|paragraphs=2|file=no}}
==== Syria ====
Higher education in Syria began with sustainable development steps through Damascus University.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Al-Raeei |first=Marwan |date=2023-05-22 |title=Analysing of the sustainable development goals in Damascus University during Syrian crisis using the strategy in the university and the bibliometrics data from SciVal |journal=Discover Sustainability |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=24 |bibcode=2023DiSus...4...24A |doi=10.1007/s43621-023-00140-y |issn=2662-9984 |pmc=10201509 |pmid=37251498}}</ref>
==== United Kingdom ====
The UK's approach to delivering the Global SDGs is outlined in Agenda 2030: Delivering the Global Goals, developed by the [[Department for International Development]].<ref>Department for International Development (2017) [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/603500/Agenda-2030-Report4.pdf Agenda 2030 The UK Government's approach to delivering the Global Goals for Sustainable Development – at home and around the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064022/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/603500/Agenda-2030-Report4.pdf|date=30 December 2020}}</ref> In 2019, the Bond network analyzed the UK's global progress on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 June 2019 |title=The UK's global contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals – Progress, gaps and recommendations |url=https://www.bond.org.uk/resources/the-uks-global-contribution-to-the-sustainable-development-goals |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064057/https://www.bond.org.uk/resources/the-uks-global-contribution-to-the-sustainable-development-goals |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=30 October 2019 |website=Bond}}</ref> The Bond report highlights crucial gaps where attention and investment are most needed. The report was compiled by 49 organizations and 14 networks and working groups.
== Criticism ==
=== Too many goals and overall problems ===
Scholars have pointed out flaws in the design of the SDGs for the following aspects: "the number of goals, the structure of the goal framework (for example, the non-hierarchical structure), the coherence between the goals, the specificity or measurability of the targets, the language used in the text, and their reliance on [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] economic development-oriented sustainable development as their core orientation."<ref name="Kotzé-2022">{{Citation |last1=Kotzé |first1=Louis J. |title=Chapter 6: Planetary Integrity |date=2022 |work=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals: Transforming Governance Through Global Goals? |pages=140–171 |editor-last=Sénit |editor-first=Carole-Anne |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009082945.007 |isbn=978-1-316-51429-0 |last2=Kim |first2=Rakhyun E. |last3=Burdon |first3=Peter |last4=du Toit |first4=Louise |last5=Glass |first5=Lisa-Maria |last6=Kashwan |first6=Prakash |last7=Liverman |first7=Diana |last8=Montesano |first8=Francesco S. |last9=Rantala |first9=Salla |editor2-last=Biermann |editor2-first=Frank |editor3-last=Hickmann |editor3-first=Thomas |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|161}}
The SDGs may simply maintain the ''status quo'' and fall short of delivering an ambitious development agenda. The current status quo has been described as "separating human wellbeing and environmental sustainability, failing to change governance and to pay attention to trade-offs, root causes of poverty and environmental degradation, and social justice issues."<ref name="Schleicher-2018" />
A commentary in ''[[The Economist]]'' in 2015 argued that 169 targets for the SDGs is too many, describing them as sprawling, misconceived and a mess compared to the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).<ref name="The Economist-2017">{{Cite news |title=The 169 commandments |url=https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21647286-proposed-sustainable-development-goals-would-be-worse-useless-169-commandments |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018114345/https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21647286-proposed-sustainable-development-goals-would-be-worse-useless-169-commandments |archive-date=18 October 2017 |access-date=2016-02-19 |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref>
=== Weak on environmental sustainability ===
[[File:SDG wedding cake.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|SDG wedding cake model: A way of viewing the economic, social and ecological aspects of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).<ref name="Resilience-2016">{{Cite web |date=14 June 2016 |title=The SDGs wedding cake |url=https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2016-06-14-the-sdgs-wedding-cake.html |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=www.stockholmresilience.org |language=en}}</ref>]]
{{Further|Sustainability}}
Scholars have criticized that the SDGs "fail to recognize that planetary, people and prosperity concerns are all part of one earth system, and that the protection of planetary integrity should not be a means to an end, but an end in itself."<ref name="Kotzé-2022" />{{rp|147}} The SDGs "remain fixated on the idea that economic growth is foundational to achieve all pillars of sustainable development."<ref name="Kotzé-2022" />{{rp|147}} They do not prioritize [[environmental protection]].<ref name="Kotzé-2022" />{{rp|144}}
The SDGs include three environment-focused SDGs, which are Goal 13, 14 and 15 (climate, land and oceans), but there is no overarching environmental or planetary goal.<ref name="Kotzé-2022" />{{rp|144}} The SDGs do not pursue planetary integrity as such.<ref name="Kotzé-2022" />{{rp|144}}Other SDGs, which as Goal 7, 12 and 13 ignore the planetary limits and encourage consumption <ref name=":1">{{Citation |last1=Robra |first1=Ben |title=Degrowth and the Sustainable Development Goals |date=2021 |work=Decent Work and Economic Growth |pages=253–262 |editor-last=Leal Filho |editor-first=Walter |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95867-5_37 |access-date=2023-12-27 |series=Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-95867-5_37 |isbn=978-3-319-95867-5 |last2=Heikkurinen |first2=Pasi |editor2-last=Azul |editor2-first=Anabela Marisa |editor3-last=Brandli |editor3-first=Luciana |editor4-last=Lange Salvia |editor4-first=Amanda}}</ref>
Environmental constraints and [[planetary boundaries]] are underrepresented within the SDGs. For instance, the way the current SDGs are structured leads to a negative correlation between environmental sustainability and SDGs, with most indicators within even the sustainability-focused goals focusing on social or economic outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wackernagel |first1=Mathis |last2=Hanscom |first2=Laurel |last3=Lin |first3=David |date=11 July 2017 |title=Making the Sustainable Development Goals Consistent with Sustainability |journal=Frontiers in Energy Research |volume=5 |pages=18 |doi=10.3389/fenrg.2017.00018 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This helps further the denial that there are absolute limits to economic growth.<ref name=":1" /> They could unintentionally promote [[Environmental degradation|environmental destruction]] in the name of sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web |last=The University of Queensland |date=6 July 2020 |title=Latest U.N. sustainability goals pose more harm than good for environment, scientists warn |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-07-latest-sustainability-goals-pose-good.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706163936/https://phys.org/news/2020-07-latest-sustainability-goals-pose-good.html |archive-date=6 July 2020 |access-date=27 August 2020 |website=phys.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Yiwen |last2=Maxwell |first2=Sean |last3=Runting |first3=Rebecca K. |last4=Venter |first4=Oscar |last5=Watson |first5=James E. M. |last6=Carrasco |first6=L. Roman |date=October 2020 |title=Environmental destruction not avoided with the Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=795–798 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-0555-0 |bibcode=2020NatSu...3..795Z |s2cid=220260626}}</ref>
Certain studies also argue that the focus of the SDGs on [[neoliberal]] sustainable development is detrimental to planetary integrity and justice.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> Both of these ambitions (planetary integrity and justice) would require limits to economic growth.<ref name="Kotzé-2022" />{{rp|145}}This helps further the denial that there are absolute limits to economic growth. These studies question whether economic growth and ecological sustainability go hand in hand.
Scientists have proposed several ways to address the weaknesses regarding environmental sustainability in the SDGs:
* The monitoring of essential variables to better capture the essence of coupled environmental and social systems that underpin sustainable development, helping to guide coordination and systems transformation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reyers |first1=Belinda |last2=Stafford-Smith |first2=Mark |last3=Erb |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Scholes |first4=Robert J |last5=Selomane |first5=Odirilwe |date=June 2017 |title=Essential Variables help to focus Sustainable Development Goals monitoring |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |volume=26–27 |pages=97–105 |bibcode=2017COES...26...97R |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2017.05.003 |s2cid=113715479 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002E-1851-0}}</ref>
* More attention to the context of the biophysical systems in different places (e.g., coastal [[river delta]]s, mountain areas)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scown |first1=Murray W. |date=November 2020 |title=The Sustainable Development Goals need geoscience |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=714–715 |bibcode=2020NatGe..13..714S |doi=10.1038/s41561-020-00652-6 |s2cid=225071652}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kulonen |first1=Aino |last2=Adler |first2=Carolina |last3=Bracher |first3=Christoph |last4=Dach |first4=Susanne Wymann von |date=2019 |title=Spatial context matters in monitoring and reporting on Sustainable Development Goals: Reflections based on research in mountain regions |journal=GAIA – Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=90–94 |doi=10.14512/gaia.28.2.5 |s2cid=197775743 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/350274}}</ref>
* Better understanding of feedbacks across scales in space (e.g., through [[globalization]]) and time (e.g., affecting future generations) that could ultimately determine the success or failure of the SDGs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reyers |first1=Belinda |last2=Selig |first2=Elizabeth R. |date=August 2020 |title=Global targets that reveal the social–ecological interdependencies of sustainable development |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=4 |issue=8 |pages=1011–1019 |doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1230-6 |pmid=32690904 |bibcode=2020NatEE...4.1011R |s2cid=220656353 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2263/78221}}</ref>
* Reframing the message of the SDGs to help advocate to limits to growth rather than the empirically unfounded idea that economic growth can continue in a limited world.<ref name=":1" />
* Reformulating specific goals that emphasis reduced consumption instead of the business as usual model.<ref name=":1" />
=== Ethical aspects ===
There are concerns about the ethical orientation of the SDGs: they remain "underpinned by strong (Western) modernist notions of development: sovereignty of humans over their environment (anthropocentricism), [[individualism]], competition, freedom (rights rather than duties), self-interest, belief in the market leading to collective welfare, [[private property]] (protected by legal systems), rewards based on merit, [[materialism]], quantification of value, and instrumentalization of labor."<ref name="Kotzé-2022" />{{rp|146}}
The SDGs have been criticised for furthering a neoliberal agenda that extends to promote neoliberal and business interests.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Arora-Jonsson |first=Seema |date=2023-02-01 |title=The sustainable development goals: A universalist promise for the future |journal=Futures |volume=146 |pages=103087 |doi=10.1016/j.futures.2022.103087 |issn=0016-3287 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Furthermore, the framework represents a universal template grounded in Western ideology. This framework is then used to reproduce a flawed Western paradigm.<ref name=":2" /> Some scientists worry that the SDGs could be used against legitimate protests about development initiatives.<ref name=":2" />
Some studies warn that the SDGs could be used to camouflage business-as-usual by disguising it using SDG-related sustainability rhetoric.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> A meta-analysis review study in 2022 found that: "There is even emerging evidence that the SDGs might have even adverse effects, by providing a "smokescreen of hectic political activity" that blurs a reality of stagnation, dead ends and business-as-usual."<ref name="BiermannCh8" />{{rp|220}}
=== Difficulties with tracking qualitative indicators ===
Regarding the targets of the SDGs, there is generally weak evidence linking the means of implementation to outcomes.<ref name="Bartram-2018" /> The targets about means of implementation (those denoted with a letter, for example, Target 6.a) are imperfectly conceptualized and inconsistently formulated, and tracking their largely qualitative indicators will be difficult.<ref name="Bartram-2018" />
=== Trade-offs not explicitly addressed ===
The trade-offs among the 17 SDGs might prevent their realization.<ref name="Berg-2020">{{Cite book |last=Berg |first=Christian |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1124780147 |title=Sustainable action: overcoming the barriers |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-57873-1 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |oclc=1124780147}}</ref>{{rp|66}} For example, these are three difficult trade-offs to consider: "How can ending hunger be reconciled with environmental sustainability? (SDG targets 2.3 and 15.2) How can economic growth be reconciled with environmental sustainability? (SDG targets 9.2 and 9.4) How can income inequality be reconciled with economic growth? (SDG targets 10.1 and 8.1)."<ref name="Machingura-2017">{{Cite web |last=Machingura |first=Fortunate |date=2017-02-27 |title=The Sustainable Development Goals and their trade-offs |url=https://odi.org/en/publications/the-sustainable-development-goals-and-their-trade-offs/ |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=ODI: Think change |language=en-gb}}</ref>
The SDGs do not specifically address the tensions between economic growth and environmental sustainability. Instead, they emphasize "longstanding but dubious claims about decoupling and resource efficiency as technological solutions to the environmental crisis."<ref name="Kotzé-2022" />{{rp|145}} For example, continued global economic growth of 3 percent (SDG 8) may not be reconcilable with ecological sustainability goals, because the required rate of absolute global [[eco-economic decoupling]] is far higher than any country has achieved in the past.<ref name="Hickel-2019">{{cite journal |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason |date=September 2019 |title=The contradiction of the sustainable development goals: Growth versus ecology on a finite planet |journal=Sustainable Development |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=873–884 |doi=10.1002/sd.1947 |s2cid=159060032}}</ref>
=== Covid-19 pandemic ===
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on the mental and physical wellbeing of communities around the world.<ref name=":0" /> The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] slowed progress towards achieving the SDGs. The COVID-19 pandemic has "exacerbated existing fault lines of inequality".<ref name=":0" /> The brunt of the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic were felt by poorer segments of the population.<ref name=":0" />
At the UN [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development]] in July 2023, speakers remarked that the pandemic, and multiple worldwide crises such as climate change, threatened decades of progress on the SDGs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Impact of Pandemic, Worldwide Crises Must Be Overcome to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals, Speakers Stress, as High-Level Political Forum Opens {{!}} UN Press |url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/ecosoc7134.doc.htm |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=press.un.org}}</ref>
=== Rising Levels of Conflict, War and Instability ===
Conflict and unrest have increased in many regions around the world which has created tangible barriers to implementing the SDGs.<ref name=":0" /> In 2021, the number of individuals forcibly displaced were the highest recorded.<ref name=":0" /> Global military expenditure has also been rising, in 2021 this exceeded $2 trillion globally.<ref name=":0" />
=== Cost of Living Crisis ===
The COVID-19 pandemic and the War in Ukraine have caused a cost-of-living crisis.<ref name=":0" /> The food prices globally peaked in March 2022.<ref name=":0" /> Many countries around the world are still seeing domestic food inflation.<ref name=":0" /> The poorest are most affected by this crisis which in turn respond by consuming less, cheaper, or less nutritious options.<ref name=":0" /> These short-term solutions have long term heath impacts.<ref name=":0" />
== Funding ==
=== Cost estimates ===
The United Nations estimates that for Africa, considering the continent's population growth, yearly funding of $1.3 trillion would be needed to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals in Africa. [[International Monetary Fund|The International Monetary Fund]] also estimates that $50 billion may be needed only to cover the expenses of [[Climate change adaptation|climate adaptation]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa – Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Financing for Sustainable Development Report 2021 |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/2021-Report.pdf |website=UN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Nations |first=United |title=Population growth, environmental degradation and climate change |url=https://www.un.org/en/desa/population-growth-environmental-degradation-and-climate-change |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=United Nations |language=en}}</ref>
Estimates for providing clean water and sanitation for the whole population of all continents have been as high as US$200 billion.<ref name="Hutton-2017">{{Cite web |last=Hutton |first=Guy |date=15 November 2017 |title=The Costs of Meeting the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal Targets on Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene |url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/847191468000296045/pdf/103172-PUB-Box394556B-PUBLIC-EPI-K8632-ADD-SERIES.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063857/http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/847191468000296045/pdf/103172-PUB-Box394556B-PUBLIC-EPI-K8632-ADD-SERIES.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=15 November 2017 |website=Documents/World Bank}}</ref> The [[World Bank]] says that estimates need to be made country by country, and reevaluated frequently over time.<ref name="Hutton-2017" />
In 2014, [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]] estimated the annual costs to achieving the UN Goals at US$2.5 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2014 |title=UNCTAD {{!}} Press Release |url=https://unctad.org/en/pages/PressRelease.aspx?OriginalVersionID=194 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063956/https://unctad.org/press-material/developing-countries-face-25-trillion-annual-investment-gap-key-sustainable |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-12-08 |website=unctad.org}}</ref> Another estimate from 2018 (by the Basel Institute of Commons and Economics, that conducts the [[World Social Capital Monitor]]) found that to reach all of the SDGs this would require between US$2.5 and $5.0 trillion per year.<ref name="Dill-2018">Alexander Dill (2018) [https://developmentfinance.un.org/sites/developmentfinance.un.org/files/The_SDGs_are_public_goods_IATF_2019.pdf The SDGs are public goods – Costs, Sources and Measures of Financing for Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063900/https://developmentfinance.un.org/sites/developmentfinance.un.org/files/The_SDGs_are_public_goods_IATF_2019.pdf|date=30 December 2020}} – Policy paper to the UN Inter-Agency Taskforce on Financing for Development, Basel Institute of Commons and Economics</ref>
=== Allocation of funds ===
In 2017 the UN launched the Inter-agency Task Force on Financing for Development (UN IATF on FfD) that invited to a public dialogue.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the IATF {{!}} United Nations |url=https://developmentfinance.un.org/about-iatf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063959/https://developmentfinance.un.org/about-iatf |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-12-08 |website=developmentfinance.un.org}}</ref> The top-5 sources of financing for development were estimated in 2018 to be: Real new [[Government debt|sovereign debt]] OECD countries, [[Military budget|military expenditures]], official increase sovereign debt OECD countries, [[remittance]]s from expats to developing countries, [[official development assistance]] (ODA).<ref name="Dill-2018" />
The [[Rockefeller Foundation]] asserted in 2017 that "The key to financing and achieving the SDGs lies in mobilizing a greater share of the $200+ trillion in annual private capital investment flows toward development efforts, and philanthropy has a critical role to play in catalyzing this shift."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Madsbjerg |first=Saadia |date=19 September 2017 |title=A New Role for Foundations in Financing the Global Goals |url=https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/blog/new-role-foundations-financing-global-goals/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823162537/https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/blog/new-role-foundations-financing-global-goals/ |archive-date=23 August 2018 |access-date=4 June 2018}}</ref> Large-scale funders participating in a Rockefeller Foundation-hosted design thinking workshop concluded that "while there is a moral imperative to achieve the SDGs, failure is inevitable if there aren't drastic changes to how we go about financing large scale change."<ref name="Burgess-2018">{{Cite web |last=Burgess |first=Cameron |date=March 2018 |title=From Billions to Trillions: Mobilising the Missing Trillions to Solve the Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://sphaera.world/billions-to-trillions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215312/https://sphaera.world/billions-to-trillions/ |archive-date=17 September 2018 |access-date=4 June 2018 |website=sphaera.world}}</ref>
A meta-analysis published in 2022 found that there was scant evidence that governments have substantially reallocated funding to implement the SDGs, either for national implementation or for international cooperation. The SDGs do not seem to have changed public budgets and financial allocation mechanisms in any important way, except for some local governance contexts.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> National budgets cannot easily be reallocated.<ref name="Llanos-2022">{{Citation |last1=Llanos |first1=Andrea Ordóñez |title=Chapter 3: Implementation at Multiple Levels |date=2022-07-31 |work=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals |pages=59–91 |editor-last=Biermann |editor-first=Frank |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/EE1BEAD7D6D3F216EB2016FDCCC3936C/9781316514290c3_59-91.pdf/implementation-at-multiple-levels.pdf |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009082945.004 |isbn=978-1-009-08294-5 |last2=Raven |first2=Rob |last3=Bexell |first3=Magdalena |last4=Botchwey |first4=Brianna |last5=Bornemann |first5=Basil |last6=Censoro |first6=Jecel |last7=Christen |first7=Marius |last8=Díaz |first8=Liliana |last9=Hickmann |first9=Thomas |editor2-last=Hickmann |editor2-first=Thomas |editor3-last=Sénit |editor3-first=Carole-Anne |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|81}}
=== SDG-driven investment ===
[[Stewardship|Capital stewardship]] is expected to play a crucial part in the progressive advancement of the SDG agenda to "shift the economic system towards sustainable investment by using the SDG framework across all [[asset class]]es."<ref name="auto2">{{cite news |last1=Firzli |first1=Nicolas |date=3 April 2018 |title=Greening, Governance and Growth in the Age of Popular Empowerment |url=http://www.pensions-expert.com/Special-Features/The-Cut/Greening-governance-and-growth-in-the-age-of-popular-empowerment |access-date=27 April 2018 |work=FT Pensions Experts |publisher=Financial Times}}</ref><ref name="Revue Analyse Financiere">{{cite news |last1=Firzli |first1=M. Nicolas J. |date=October 2016 |title=Beyond SDGs: Can Fiduciary Capitalism and Bolder, Better Boards Jumpstart Economic Growth? |url=https://www.academia.edu/28982570 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063938/https://www.academia.edu/28982570/Beyond_SDGs_Can_Fiduciary_Capitalism_and_Bolder_Better_Boards_Jumpstart_Economic_Growth |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=1 November 2016 |work=Analyse Financiere}}</ref> The notion of ''SDG Driven Investment'' gained further ground amongst institutional investors in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Firzli |first1=Nicolas |date=10 February 2020 |title=G7 Pensions Roundtable: Les ODD ('SDGs') Désormais Incontournables |work=Cahiers du Centre des Professions Financières |publisher=CPF |ssrn=3545217}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=McGregor |first1=Jena |date=20 August 2019 |title=Group of top CEOs says maximizing shareholder profits no longer can be the primary goal of corporations |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/08/19/lobbying-group-powerful-ceos-is-rethinking-how-it-defines-corporations-purpose |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063945/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/08/19/lobbying-group-powerful-ceos-is-rethinking-how-it-defines-corporations-purpose/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=17 March 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |publisher=WP}}</ref>
In 2017, 2018 and early 2019, the [[World Pensions & Investments Forum|World Pensions Council (WPC)]] held a series of ESG-focused (Environmental, Social and Governance) discussions with pension board members (trustees) and senior investment executives from across [[G20]] nations. Many pension investment executives and board members confirmed they were in the process of adopting or developing SDG-informed investment processes, with more ambitious investment governance requirements – notably when it comes to climate action, gender equality and social fairness.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Firzli |first1=Nicolas |date=7 December 2018 |title=An Examination of Pensions Trends. On Balance, How Do Things Look? |url=https://securities.bnpparibas.pl/insights/examination-pensions-trends.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063939/https://securities.bnpparibas.pl/insights/examination-pensions-trends.html |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=3 January 2019 |work=BNPSS Newsletter |publisher=BNP Paribas Securities Services}}</ref><ref name="auto2" />
Some studies, however, warn of selective implementation of SDGs and political risks linked to private investments in the context of continued shortage of [[public funding]].<ref name="Biermann-2022" />
== 17 Sustainable Development goals ==
{{Very long|date=January 2024}}
=== Structure of goals, targets and indicators ===
The lists of targets and indicators for each of the 17 SDGs was published in a UN resolution in July 2017.<ref name="UN-2017a">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128194012/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313|date=28 November 2020}})</ref> Each goal typically has 8{{ndash}}12 targets, and each target has between one and four indicators used to measure progress toward reaching the targets, with the average of 1.5 indicators per target.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Rakhyun E. |date=2023-04-01 |title=Augment the SDG indicator framework |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |language=en |volume=142 |pages=62–67 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2023.02.004 |s2cid=256758145 |issn=1462-9011|doi-access=free }}</ref> The targets are either ''outcome targets'' (circumstances to be attained) or ''means of implementation'' targets.<ref name="Bartram-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |journal=npj Clean Water |date=December 2018 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3 |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> The latter targets were introduced late in the process of negotiating the SDGs to address the concern of some Member States about how the SDGs were to be achieved. Goal 17 is wholly about how the SDGs will be achieved.<ref name="Bartram-2018" />
The numbering system of targets is as follows: Outcome targets use numbers, whereas means of implementation targets use lower case letters.<ref name="Bartram-2018" /> For example, SDG 6 has a total of 8 targets. The first six are outcome targets and are labeled Targets 6.1 to 6.6. The final two targets are means of implementation targets and are labeled as Targets 6.a and 6.b.
The [[United Nations Statistics Division]] (UNSD) website provides a current official indicator list which includes all updates until the 51st session Statistical Commission in March 2020.<ref name="UN Stats-2017">{{Cite web |title=SDG Indicators – Global indicator framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/ |access-date=6 August 2020 |website=United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD)}}</ref>
The indicators for the targets have varying levels of methodological development and availability of data at the global level.<ref name="UN Stats-2020c">{{Cite web |title=IAEG-SDGs – Tier Classification for Global SDG Indicators |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/tier-classification/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063855/https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/tier-classification/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=10 September 2020 |website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division}}</ref> Initially, some indicators (called Tier 3 indicators) had no internationally established methodology or standards. Later, the global indicator framework was adjusted so that Tier 3 indicators were either abandoned, replaced or refined.<ref name="UN Stats-2020c" /> As of 17 July 2020, there were 231 unique indicators.<ref name="UN Stats-2020c" />
Data or information must address all vulnerable groups such as children, elderly folks, [[Disability|persons with disabilities]], [[refugee]]s, [[indigenous peoples]], [[Migrant worker|migrants]], and [[Internally displaced person|internally-displaced persons]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Leaving no one behind — SDG Indicators |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2016/leaving-no-one-behind |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064017/https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2016/leaving-no-one-behind |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2019-02-04 |website=unstats.un.org}}</ref>
==== Reviews of indicators ====
The indicator framework was comprehensively reviewed at the 51st session of the [[United Nations Statistical Commission]] in 2020. It will be reviewed again in 2025.<ref name="UN Stats-2020b">{{Cite web|title=IAEG-SDGs 2020 Comprehensive Review Proposals Submitted to the 51st session of the United Nations Statistical Commission for its consideration|url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/2020-comprev/UNSC-proposal/|access-date=1 September 2020|website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063956/https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/2020-comprev/UNSC-proposal/|url-status=live}}</ref> At the 51st session of the Statistical Commission (held in [[New York City]] from 3–6 March 2020) a total of 36 changes to the global indicator framework were proposed for the commission's consideration. Some indicators were replaced, revised or deleted.<ref name="UN Stats-2020b" /> Between 15 October 2018 and 17 April 2020, other changes were made to the indicators.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 April 2020|title=SDG Indicator changes (15 October 2018 and onward) – current to 17 April 2020|url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/List_of_changes_since_15_Oct_2018.pdf|access-date=10 September 2020|website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division}}</ref> Yet their measurement continues to be fraught with difficulties.<ref>{{cite book |last=Winfried |first=Huck |title=Measuring Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with Indicators: Is Legitimacy Lacking? |date=2019 |editor-first1=Massimo |editor-last1=Iovane |editor-first2=Fulvio |editor-last2=Palombino |editor-first3=Daniele |editor-last3=Amoroso |editor-first4=Giovanni |editor-last4=Zarra |work=The Protection of General Interests in Contemporary International Law: A Theoretical and Empirical Inquiry |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3360935|s2cid=203377817 }}</ref>
{{Further|List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators}}
=== Goal 1: No poverty ===
[[File:Sustainable_Development_Goal_01NoPoverty.svg|220x124px|thumb|right|alt=Sustainable Development Goal 1|SDG 1]]
SDG 1 is to: "End poverty in all its forms everywhere."<ref name="UNDP-2020b">{{Cite web|title=Goal 1: No poverty|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-1-no-poverty.html|access-date=2020-12-30|website=UNDP|language=en}}</ref> Achieving SDG 1 would end [[extreme poverty]] globally by 2030. One of its indicators is the proportion of population living below the [[poverty line]].<ref name="UNDP-2020b" /> The data gets analyzed by sex, age, employment status, and geographical location (urban/rural). {{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 1|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->End poverty in all its forms everywhere, by 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less that $1.25 a day. Reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimension according to national definition. By 2030, all men and women in particular the poor and the vulnerable have equal right to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resource, appropriate new technology and financial services including microfinance. High fertility rates can trap countries in poverty large family size and poverty often go hand in hand. People living in deprived areas are usually not empowered to choose the number of children they have and in some cases feel the need to have many so they can be provided for in their old age, when people are poor and have many children which leads to kids not being able to attend school and girls getting married off as child bride.
=== Goal 2: Zero hunger (No hunger) ===
[[File:Tasty Food Abundance in Healthy Europe.png|Sufficient and healthy foods should be made available to everyone|thumb|left]]
SDG 2 is to: "End hunger, achieve [[food security]] and improved nutrition, and promote [[sustainable agriculture]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-2-zero-hunger.html|title=Goal 2: Zero hunger|website=UNDP|access-date=13 April 2017|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063934/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-2-zero-hunger.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Indicators for this goal are for example the prevalence of undernourishment, prevalence of severe food insecurity, and prevalence of [[Stunted growth|stunting]] among children under five years of age.
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 2|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->The goal 2 end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.
=== Goal 3: Good health and well-being ===
SDG 3 is to: "Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages."<ref name="UNDP-2020c">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-3-good-health-and-well-being.html|title=Goal 3: Good health and well-being|website=UNDP|access-date=13 April 2017|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063900/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-3-good-health-and-well-being.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Important indicators here are [[life expectancy]] as well as child and maternal mortality. Further indicators are for example deaths from road traffic injuries, prevalence of current tobacco use, and suicide mortality rate.<ref name="UNDP-2020c" />
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 3|paragraphs=2|file=0|tables=2021}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Sovereignty and Property Rights ===
In 2023, [[Tennessee]] enacted legislation to block the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and other programs "originating in, or traceable to, the United Nations or a subsidiary entity of the United Nations."<ref>{{cite web | title=State of Tennessee Public Chapter No. 479 | url=https://publications.tnsosfiles.com/acts/113/pub/pc0479.pdf | website=Tennessee Secretary of State | access-date=January 17, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last=Sullivan | first=Kevin | title=Inside the Tennessee legislature, where a GOP supermajority reigns | newspaper=Washington Post | date=May 15, 2023 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2023/05/15/inside-tennessee-legislature-where-gop-supermajority-reigns/ | access-date=January 17, 2024}}</ref>
=== Goal 4: Quality education ===
[[File:(2011 Education for All Global Monitoring Report) -School children in Kakuma refugee camp, Kenya 1.jpg|thumb|240x240px|School children in Kakuma refugee camp, Kenya]]
SDG 4 is to: "Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all."<ref name="UNDP-2018d">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4-quality-education.html|title=Goal 4: Quality education|website=UNDP|access-date=13 April 2017|archive-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911002735/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4-quality-education.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The indicators for this goal are, for example, attendance rates at primary schools, completion rates of primary school education, participation in tertiary education, and so forth. In each case, parity indices are looked at to ensure that disadvantaged students do not miss out (data is collected on "female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples") . There is also an indicator around the facilities that the school buildings have (access to electricity, the internet, computers, drinking water, toilets etc.).<ref name="UNDP-2018d" />
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 4|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 5: Gender equality ===
SDG 5 is to: "Achieve [[gender equality]] and empower all women and girls."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-5-gender-equality.html|title=Goal 5: Gender equality|website=UNDP|access-date=13 April 2017|archive-date=27 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227135817/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-5-gender-equality.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Indicators include, for example, having suitable legal frameworks and the representation by women in [[Parliament|national parliament]] or in local deliberative bodies.<ref name="UNESC2020">United Nations Economic and Social Council (2020) [https://undocs.org/en/E/2020/57 Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals Report of the Secretary-General] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063859/https://undocs.org/en/E/2020/57|date=30 December 2020}}, High-level political forum on sustainable development, convened under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council (E/2020/57), 28 April 2020</ref> Numbers on [[forced marriage]] and [[Female genital mutilation|female genital mutilation/cutting]] (FGM/C) are also included in another indicator.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Female genital mutilation |url=https://www.unicef.org/protection/female-genital-mutilation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063938/https://www.unicef.org/protection/female-genital-mutilation |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-08-27 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="UNESC2020" />
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 5|paragraphs=3|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation ===
[[File:School toilet 2 - WASH in schools (Bangladesh) (38403428742).jpg|thumb|Example of sanitation for all: School toilet (IPH school and college, Mohakhali, Dhaka, Bangladesh)]]
SDG 6 is to: "Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web|title=Goal 6 Targets|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/|access-date=16 November 2017|website=United Nations Development Programme|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219061511/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Joint Monitoring Programme ([[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]]) of [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]] is responsible for monitoring progress to achieve the first two targets of this goal. Important indicators for this goal are the percentages of the population that uses safely managed drinking water, and has access to safely managed sanitation. The JMP reported in 2017 that 4.5 billion people do not have [[Improved sanitation|safely managed sanitation]].<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://washdata.org/reports Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725020452/https://washdata.org/reports|date=25 July 2019}}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref> Another indicator looks at the proportion of [[Sewage|domestic]] and [[Industrial wastewater treatment|industrial wastewater]] that is safely treated. {{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 6|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy ===
SDG 7 is to "Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all."<ref name="UNDP-2018b">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-7-affordable-and-clean-energy.html|title=Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy|website=UNDP|access-date=28 September 2015|archive-date=7 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907180441/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-7-affordable-and-clean-energy.html|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the indicators for this goal is the percentage of population with access to electricity (progress in expanding access to electricity has been made in several countries, notably [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Kenya]]<ref name="Energyreport2019">IEA, IRENA, UNSD, WB, WHO (2019), [https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/data/files/download-documents/2019-Tracking%20SDG7-Full%20Report.pdf Tracking SDG 7: The Energy Progress Report 2019] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063844/https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/data/files/download-documents/2019-Tracking%20SDG7-Full%20Report.pdf|date=30 December 2020}}, Washington DC (on [https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/ Tracking SDG 7 website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064018/https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/|date=30 December 2020}})</ref>). Other indicators look at the renewable energy share and energy efficiency.
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 7|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth ===
SDG 8 is to: "Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all."<ref name="UNDP-2018a">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-8-decent-work-and-economic-growth.html|title=Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=25 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225022602/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-8-decent-work-and-economic-growth.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Important indicators for this goal include economic growth in least developed countries and the rate of real [[Lists of countries by GDP per capita|GDP per capita]]. Further examples are rates of youth unemployment and [[occupational injuries]] or the number of women engaged in the labor force compared to men.<ref name="UNDP-2018a" />
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 8|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure ===
SDG 9 is to: "Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation."<ref>{{cite web|title=Goal 9: Industry, innovation, infrastructure|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-9-industry-innovation-and-infrastructure.html|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301060431/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-9-industry-innovation-and-infrastructure.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Indicators in this goal include for example, the proportion of people who are employed in [[manufacturing]] activities, are living in areas covered by a [[mobile network]], or who have access to the internet.<ref name="UNESC2020" /> An indicator that is connected to climate change is "CO<sub>2</sub> emissions per unit of value added."
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 9|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 10: Reduced inequality ===
SDG 10 is to: "Reduce income inequality within and among countries."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-10-reduced-inequalities.html|title=Goal 10: Reduced inequalities|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063954/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-10-reduced-inequalities.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Important indicators for this SDG are: income disparities, aspects of gender and disability, as well as policies for migration and mobility of people.<ref name="UN Stats-2020a">United Nations (2020) [https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2020/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2020.pdf Sustainable development goals report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064006/https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2020/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2020.pdf|date=30 December 2020}}, New York</ref>
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 10|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities ===
SDG 11 is to: "Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html|title=Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911192025/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Important indicators for this goal are the number of people living in urban slums, the proportion of the urban population who has convenient access to public transport, and the extent of built-up area per person.<ref name="UNESC2020" />
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 11|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production ===
SDG 12 is to: "Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-12-responsible-consumption-and-production.html|title=Goal 12: Responsible consumption, production|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813113459/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-12-responsible-consumption-and-production.html|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the indicators is the number of national policy instruments to promote [[sustainable consumption]] and production patterns.<ref name="UNESC2020" />{{rp|14}} Another one is global fossil fuel subsidies.<ref name="UNESC2020" />{{rp|14}} An increase in domestic recycling and a reduced reliance on the global plastic [[waste trade]] are other actions that might help meet the goal.<ref name="Walker">{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=Tony R. |date=August 2021 |title=(Micro)plastics and the UN Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry |volume=30 |pages=100497 |doi=10.1016/j.cogsc.2021.100497 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 12|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 13: Climate action ===
SDG 13 is to: "Take urgent action to combat [[climate change]] and its impacts by regulating emissions and promoting developments in renewable energy."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-13-climate-action.html|title=Goal 13: Climate action|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813130618/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-13-climate-action.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021 to early 2023, the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) published its [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|Sixth Assessment Report]] which assesses scientific, technical, and socio-economic information concerning climate change.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AR6 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2023 — IPCC |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/ |access-date=2023-03-01}}</ref>
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 13|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 14: Life below water ===
SDG 14 is to: "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and [[marine resources]] for sustainable development."<ref name="UNDP-2018c">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-14-life-below-water.html|title=Goal 14: Life below water|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=15 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815201503/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-14-life-below-water.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The current efforts to protect oceans, marine environments and small-scale fishers are not meeting the need to protect the resources.<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Increased [[ocean temperature]]s and [[Ocean deoxygenation|oxygen loss]] act concurrently with ocean acidification to constitute the ''deadly trio'' of climate change pressures on the marine environment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2017 |title=Ocean acidification (Issues Brief) |url=https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/ocean_acidification_issues_brief.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063843/https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/ocean_acidification_issues_brief.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)}}</ref>[[File:Nusa Lembongan Reef.jpg|thumb|Nusa Lembongan Reef]]
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 14|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 15: Life on land ===
SDG 15 is to: "Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat [[desertification]], and halt and reverse land [[Environmental degradation|degradation]] and halt [[biodiversity loss]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-15-life-on-land.html|title=Goal 15: Life on land|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064011/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-15-life-on-land.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The proportion of remaining forest area, desertification and [[Extinction|species extinction]] risk are example indicators of this goal.<ref name="UNESC2020" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Desertification, land degradation and drought .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/desertificationlanddegradationanddrought |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063959/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/desertificationlanddegradationanddrought |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-09-05 |website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 15|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 16: Peace, justice and strong institutions ===
SDG 16 is to: "Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-16-peace-justice-and-strong-institutions.html|title=Goal 16: Peace, justice and strong institutions|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063908/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-16-peace-justice-and-strong-institutions.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Rates of birth registration and prevalence of bribery are two examples of indicators included in this goal.<ref name="SDGChildren20182">{{cite web |title=Progress for Every Child in the SDG Era |url=https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Progress_for_Every_Child_V4.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715000653/https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Progress_for_Every_Child_V4.pdf |archive-date=15 July 2020 |access-date=2 April 2018 |website=UNICEF}}</ref><ref name="UNESC2020" />
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 16|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Goal 17: Strengthen the means of Implementation and revitalize the global Partnership for sustainable development goals ===
SDG 17 is to: "Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-17-partnerships-for-the-goals.html|title=Goal 17: Partnerships for the goals|website=UNDP|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064022/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-17-partnerships-for-the-goals.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Increasing [[Multilateralism|international cooperation]] is seen as vital to achieving each of the 16 previous goals.<ref name="Alan2">{{Cite web|last=Pierce|first=Alan|date=26 November 2018|title=SDG Indicators: why SDG 17 is the most important UN SDG|url=https://www.sopact.com/perspectives/sdg17-most-important-sdg|access-date=24 September 2020|website=Sopact|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064014/https://www.sopact.com/perspectives/sdg17-most-important-sdg|url-status=live}}</ref> Developing multi-stakeholder partnerships to facilitate knowledge exchange, expertise, technology, and financial resources is recognized as critical to overall success of the SDGs. The goal includes improving north–south and [[South-South Cooperation|South-South]] cooperation. [[Public–private partnership|Public-private partnerships]] which involve civil societies are specifically mentioned.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg17|title=Sustainable Development Goal 17|date=16 November 2017|website=Sustainable Development Goals|access-date=16 November 2017|archive-date=5 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905221234/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg17|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Peccia, T., R. Kelej, A. Hamdy, A. Fahmi (2017), "A reflection on Public-Private
Partnerships' contribution to the attainment of Sustainable Development
Goals", Scienza e Pace, VIII, 1, pp. 81–103.</ref>
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goal 17|paragraphs=2|file=0}} <!-- this should take from the second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article so that the targets are repeated here-->
=== Finance ===
* Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue collection.
* Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance commitments, including the commitment by many developed counties to achieve the target of 0.7 per cent of ODA/GNI to developing countries and encouraged to consider setting a target to provide at least 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries.
* Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources.
* Assis developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through coordinated polices aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief and debt restructuring as appropriate and address external debts of highly indebted poor countries to reduce debt distress.
* Adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for least developed countries
=== Technology ===
Enhance North-South-South and triangular regional international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nation level and through a global technology facilitation mechanism.
== Public relations ==
[[File:Flash Mop at Mirpur 14.webm|thumb|left|SDG materials are being painted in the form of graffiti to raise public awareness by independent volunteers in Dhaka, Bangladesh in collaboration with UNDP, Bangladesh]]
[[File:Katherine Maher. Wikimania 2019.jpg|thumb|[[Katherine Maher]], then-Executive Director of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], talks about "The role of free knowledge in advancing the SDGs" in Stockholm, 2019]]
[[File:SDG-pyramid.jpg|thumb|A proposal to visualize the 17 SDGs in a thematic pyramid]]
The 2030 Agenda did not create specific authority for communicating the SDGs; however, both international and local advocacy organizations have pursued significant non-state resources to communicate the SDGS.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mulholland |first=Eric |url=https://www.esdn.eu/fileadmin/ESDN_Reports/ESDN_Quarterly_Report_51_Final.pdf |title=Communicating Sustainable Development and the SDGs in Europe: Good practice examples from policy,academia, NGOs, and media |date=January 2019 |publisher=EUROPEAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT NETWORK |series=ESDN Quarterly Report 51}}</ref> UN agencies which are part of the [[United Nations Development Group]] decided to support an independent campaign to communicate the new SDGs to a wider audience. This campaign, Project Everyone, had the support of corporate institutions and other international organizations.<ref name="Everyone-2018">{{cite web |title=Project Everyone |url=http://www.project-everyone.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917101256/https://www.project-everyone.org/ |archive-date=17 September 2018 |access-date=11 October 2016 |website=Project-everyone.org}}</ref>
Using the text drafted by diplomats at the UN level, a team of communication specialists developed icons for every goal.<ref name="Hub-2020">{{cite web |date=16 December 2014 |title=Guest Article: Making the SDGs Famous and Popular |url=http://sdg.iisd.org/commentary/guest-articles/making-the-sdgs-famous-and-popular/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063939/http://sdg.iisd.org/commentary/guest-articles/making-the-sdgs-famous-and-popular/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=14 November 2018 |website=IISD's SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref> They also shortened the title ''The 17 Sustainable Development Goals'' to ''Global Goals'', then ran workshops and conferences to communicate the Global Goals to a global audience.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Wudel |first1=Katie |date=2015-09-24 |title=How This Great Design Is Bringing World Change to the Masses |url=https://www.good.is/slideshows/designing-the-global-goals-for-everyone |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010211100/https://www.good.is/slideshows/designing-the-global-goals-for-everyone |archive-date=10 October 2017 |access-date=2017-11-11 |work=GOOD Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Festival of Action |url=http://globalfestivalofideas.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024035632/http://globalfestivalofideas.org/ |archive-date=24 October 2017 |access-date=2017-11-11 |website=globalfestivalofideas.org |language=en-US}}</ref>
The [[Aarhus Convention]] is a United Nations convention passed in 2001, explicitly to encourage and promote effective public engagement in environmental decision making. Information transparency related to social media and the engagement of youth are two issues related to the Sustainable Development Goals that the convention has addressed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Aarhus Convention safeguards transparency and supports disaster risk reduction and measurement of Sustainable Development Goals |url=http://www.unece.org/info/media/news/environment/2019/the-aarhus-convention-safeguards-transparency-and-supports-disaster-risk-reduction-and-measurement-of-sustainable-development-goals/doc.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063946/https://unece.org/environment/news/aarhus-convention-safeguards-transparency-and-supports-disaster-risk-reduction-and |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-01-25 |website=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mamadov |first=Ikrom |date=2018 |title=Youth, Aarhus and the Sustainable Development Goals |url=http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/wgp/WGP-22/Special_sessions/Anniversary_segment/WGP-22_Special_Segment_Aarhus_Centre_Ikfrom_Mamadov.pdf |publisher=Youth Group on the Protection of the Environment |location=Geneva}}</ref>
=== Advocates ===
In 2019 and then in 2021, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres appointed 17 ''SDG advocates''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 May 2019 |title=United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres has Appointed 17 Sustainable Development Goals Advocates |url=https://www.globalgoals.org/news/secretary-general-antonio-guterres-has-appointed-new |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064017/https://www.globalgoals.org/news/secretary-general-antonio-guterres-has-appointed-new |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=21 August 2020 |website=The Global Goals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 July 2022 |title=UN Secretary-General António Guterres announces Founder and CEO of Chobani, Mr. Hamdi Ulukaya as SDG Advocate |url=https://www.unsdgadvocates.org/news/un-secretary-general-antonio-guterres-announces-founder-and-ceo-of-chobani-mr-hamdi-ulukaya-as-sdg-advocate |access-date=2022-07-28 |website=SDG Advocates |language=en-US}}</ref> The role of the public figures is to raise awareness, inspire greater ambition, and push for faster action on the SDGs. The co-chairs are: [[Mia Mottley]], Prime Minister of [[Barbados]] and [[Justin Trudeau]], Prime Minister of [[Canada]]. {{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}
=== Global events ===
[[File:Global Goals Week Logo.png|thumb|right|Global Goals Week logo]]
[[Global Goals Week]] is an annual week-long event in September for action, awareness, and accountability for the Sustainable Development Goals.<ref name="GGW">{{Cite web |title=Global Goals Week – About |url=https://globalgoalsweek.org/about/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063942/https://globalgoalsweek.org/about/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=4 August 2020 |publisher=United Nations Foundation}}</ref> It is a shared commitment for over 100 partners to ensure quick action on the SDGs by sharing ideas and transformative solutions to global problems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=global goals week |url=https://globalgoalsweek.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064024/https://globalgoalsweek.org/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=5 August 2020}}</ref> It first took place in 2016. It is often held concurrently with [[Climate Week NYC]].<ref name="IISD2019">{{Cite web |title=Global Goals Week 2019 |url=http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2019/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064012/http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2019/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=4 August 2020 |publisher=IISD SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref>
The [[Arctic Film Festival]] is an annual film festival organized by [[HF Productions]] and supported by the SDGs' Partnership Platform. Held for the first time in 2019, the festival is expected to take place every year in September in [[Longyearbyen]], [[Svalbard]], Norway.<ref name="FilmFreeway">{{cite web |title=Arctic Film Festival |url=https://filmfreeway.com/ArcticFilmFestival |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064030/https://filmfreeway.com/ArcticFilmFestival |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=14 October 2019 |website=FilmFreeway |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Arctic Film Festival – United Nations Partnerships for SDGs platform |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=32901 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063950/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=32901 |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=14 October 2019 |website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>
== History ==
[[File:SustainableDevelopmentGoalsLogo.svg|thumb|The sustainable development goals are a UN initiative]]
[[File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|thumb|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development containing the targets and indicators, July 2017 (UN resolution A/RES/71/313)]]
{{Main|Post-2015 Development Agenda}}
[[File:UN SDGs consulltations in Mariupol (29274119644).jpg|thumb|UN SDG consultations in Mariupol, Ukraine]]
The Post-2015 Development Agenda was a process from 2012 to 2015 led by the United Nations to define the future global development framework that would succeed the Millennium Development Goals. The SDGs were developed to succeed the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which ended in 2015.
In 1983, the United Nations created the [[Brundtland Commission|World Commission on Environment and Development]] (later known as the Brundtland Commission), which defined sustainable development as "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm|title=Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development – A/42/427 Annex, Chapter 2 – UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements|last=Development|first=World Commission on Environment and|website=www.un-documents.net|access-date=2017-11-17|archive-date=17 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517002735/http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1992, the first [[United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]] (UNCED) or Earth Summit was held in [[Rio de Janeiro]], where the first agenda for Environment and Development, also known as [[Agenda 21]], was developed and adopted.
In 2012, the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]] (UNCSD), also known as Rio+20, was held as a 20-year follow up to UNCED.<ref>{{cite web|title=Major Agreements & Conventions .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=122|publisher=United Nations|access-date=6 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063946/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=122|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Resources .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/resourcelibrary|publisher=United Nations|access-date=6 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064120/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/resourcelibrary|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Colombia]] proposed the idea of the SDGs at a preparation event for Rio+20 held in Indonesia in July 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://deliver2030.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/A-short-history-of-the-SDGs-Paula-Caballero.pdf|title=A Short History of the SDGs|last=Caballero|first=Paula|date=29 April 2016|website=Deliver 2030|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118221940/http://deliver2030.org/wp%2Dcontent/uploads/2016/04/A%2Dshort%2Dhistory%2Dof%2Dthe%2DSDGs%2DPaula%2DCaballero.pdf|archive-date=2017-11-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2011, this idea was picked up by the [[United Nations Department of Public Information]] 64th NGO Conference in Bonn, Germany. The outcome document proposed 17 sustainable development goals and associated targets. In the run-up to Rio+20 there was much discussion about the idea of the SDGs. At the Rio+20 Conference, a resolution known as "The Future We Want" was reached by member states.<ref name="SustDev-2012">{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/futurewewant.html|title=Future We Want – Outcome document |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063948/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/futurewewant.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Among the key themes agreed on were poverty eradication, energy, water and sanitation, health, and human settlement.
In January 2013, the 30-member UN General Assembly Open Working Group (OWG) on Sustainable Development Goals was established to identify specific goals for the SDGs. The OWG submitted their proposal of 8 SDGs and 169 targets to the 68th session of the General Assembly in September 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgsproposal|title=Open Working Group proposal for Sustainable Development Goals |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=6 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006035004/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgsproposal/|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 5 December 2014, the UN General Assembly accepted the Secretary General's Synthesis Report, which stated that the agenda for the post-2015 SDG process would be based on the OWG proposals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/69/700&Lang=E|title=The road to dignity by 2030: ending poverty, transforming all lives and protecting the planet |date=4 December 2014 |website=United Nations|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064030/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A%2F69%2F700&Lang=E|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Background ===
In 2015, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] (UNGA) created the SDGs as part of the [[Post-2015 Development Agenda]]. This agenda sought to design a new global development framework, replacing the [[Millennium Development Goals]], which were completed that same year.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |last2=Kanie |first2=Norichika |last3=Kim |first3=Rakhyun E |date=2017-06-01 |title=Global governance by goal-setting: the novel approach of the UN Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877343517300209 |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |series=Open issue, part II |language=en |volume=26–27 |pages=26–31 |bibcode=2017COES...26...26B |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2017.01.010 |issn=1877-3435}}</ref> These goals were formally articulated and adopted in a [[United Nations General Assembly resolution|UNGA resolution]] known as the '''2030 Agenda''', often informally referred to as '''Agenda 2030'''.<ref>United Nations (2015) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, [[:File:N1529189.pdf|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ A/RES/70/1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128002202/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/|date=28 November 2020}})</ref> On 6 July 2017, the SDGs were made more actionable by a UNGA resolution that identifies [[List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators|specific targets]] for each goal and provides indicators to measure progress.<ref name="UN-2017a" /> Most targets are to be achieved by 2030, although some have no end date.<ref name="UN Stats-2017" />
There are cross-cutting issues and synergies between the different goals; for example, for SDG 13 on climate action, the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]] sees robust synergies with SDGs 3 (health), 7 (clean energy), 11 (cities and communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production) and 14 (oceans).<ref name="IPCC-2018">IPCC, 2018: [https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res.pdf Global Warming of 1.5°C.An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty] [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. In Press</ref><ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp|70}} On the other hand, critics and observers have also identified [[trade-off]]s between the goals,<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp|67}}such as between ending hunger and promoting environmental sustainability.<ref name="Machingura-2017" />{{rp|26}} Furthermore, concerns have arisen over the high number of goals (compared to the eight Millennium Development Goals), leading to compounded trade-offs, a weak emphasis on [[Sustainability#Environmental sustainability|environmental sustainability]], and difficulties tracking qualitative indicators.
The SDGs are monitored by the [[United Nations|UN]] (United Nations) [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development]] (HLPF), an annual forum held under the auspices of the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]]. However, the HLPF comes with its own set of problems due to a lack of political leadership and divergent [[national interest]]s.<ref name="BiermannCh8" />{{rp|206}} To facilitate monitoring of progress on SDG implementation, the online SDG Tracker was launched in June 2018 to present all available data across all indicators.<ref name="SDGtracker" /> The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] had serious negative impacts on all 17 SDGs in 2020.<ref name="UNESC2020" /> A scientific assessment of the political impacts of the SDGs found in 2022 that the SDGs have only had limited ''transformative political impact'' thus far.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> At the very least, they have affected the way actors understand and communicate about sustainable development.<ref name="Biermann-2022" />
=== Adoption ===
[[File:N1529189.pdf|thumb|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UN Resolution A/RES/70/1), containing the goals (October 2015)]]
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|A diagram listing the 17 Sustainable Development Goals]]
On 25 September 2015, the 193 countries of the UN General Assembly adopted the 2030 Development Agenda titled "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development."<ref name="UN SustDev-2017">{{cite web |title=Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205210925/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld |archive-date=5 December 2017 |access-date=23 August 2015 |website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs - Sustainable Development}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=25 September 2015 |title=Breakdown of U.N. Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/26/world/breakdown-of-un-sustainable-development-goals.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709115207/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/26/world/breakdown-of-un-sustainable-development-goals.html?_r=0 |archive-date=9 July 2017 |access-date=26 September 2015 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=Sep 25, 2015 |title=World leaders adopt Sustainable Development Goals |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2015/09/24/undp-welcomes-adoption-of-sustainable-development-goals-by-world-leaders.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064011/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2015/09/24/undp-welcomes-adoption-of-sustainable-development-goals-by-world-leaders.html |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=25 September 2015 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> This agenda has 92 paragraphs. Paragraph 59 outlines the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and the associated 169 targets and 232 indicators.
The UN-led process involved its 193 [[Member states of the United Nations|Member States]] and global [[civil society]]. The resolution is a broad intergovernmental agreement that acts as the Post-2015 Development Agenda. The SDGs build on the principles agreed upon in Resolution A/RES/66/288, entitled "The Future We Want".<ref name="United Nations Official Document">{{cite web |date=June 2012 |title=The Future We Want |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/733FutureWeWant.pdf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423213340/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/733FutureWeWant.pdf/ |archive-date=Apr 23, 2018 |access-date=2016-10-18 |website=United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development}}</ref> This was a non-binding document released as a result of [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|Rio+20 Conference]] held in 2012.<ref name="United Nations Official Document" />
=== Implementation ===
[[File:Finanzierung der Ziele für Nachhaltige Entwicklung.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Cost comparison for UN Goals]]Implementation of the SDGs started worldwide in 2016. This process can also be called ''Localizing the SDGs''. In 2019 [[António Guterres]] (secretary-general of the United Nations) issued a global call for a ''Decade of Action'' to deliver the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Decade of Action |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/decade-of-action/ |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development |language=en-US}}</ref> This decade will last from 2020 to 2030. The plan is that the secretary general of the UN will convene an annual platform for driving the Decade of Action.<ref name="UN-2022">{{Cite web |last1=Guterres |first1=António |date=24 September 2019 |title=Remarks to High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development |url=https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/speeches/2019-09-24/remarks-high-level-political-sustainable-development-forum |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=United Nations Secretary-General}}</ref>
There are two main types of actors for implementation of the SDGs: state and non-state actors.<ref name="Biermann-2022" /> State actors include national governments and sub-national authorities, whereas non-state actors are corporations and civil society.<ref name="Llanos-2022" />{{rp|80}} Civil society participation and empowerment is important but there are also diverse interests in this group.<ref name="Llanos-2022" />{{rp|80}}
Building new partnerships is useful.<ref name="Llanos-2022" /> However, the SDGs are not legally binding and purposefully designed to provide much leeway for actors. Therefore, they can interpret the goals differently and often according to their interests.<ref name="Biermann-2022" />
=== Issues ===
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals (Lima, Peru) 1.jpg|thumb|240px|Young people holding SDG banners in Lima, Peru]]Three aspects need to come together to achieve sustainable development: the economic, socio-political, and environmental dimensions are all vital and interdependent.<ref name="JIID-2016">{{cite web |date=2016-08-21 |title=Sustainable Development Goals 2016–2030: Easier Stated Than Achieved – JIID |url=http://jiid.in/2016/08/sustainable-development-goals-2016-2030-easier-stated-achieved/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421014629/http://jiid.in/2016/08/sustainable-development-goals-2016-2030-easier-stated-achieved/ |archive-date=21 April 2018 |access-date=2016-09-17 |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[Multidisciplinary]] and [[Transdisciplinarity|trans-disciplinary]] research across all three sectors are required to achieve progress. This proves difficult when major governments fail to support it.<ref name="JIID-2016" />
Gender equality, education, culture and health are examples of cross cutting issues. These are some examples of various interlinkages inherent in the SDGs.
'''Gender equality'''
The widespread consensus is that progress on all of the SDGs will be stalled if women's empowerment and gender equality are not prioritized, and treated holistically. The SDGs look to policy makers as well as private sector executives and board members to work toward gender equality.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Firzli |first1=Nicolas |date=5 April 2017 |title=6th World Pensions Forum held at the Queen's House: ESG and Asset Ownership |url=https://amnt.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/6th-World-Pensions-Forum2017.pdf |access-date=28 April 2017 |work=Revue Analyse Financière |publisher=Revue Analyse Financière}}</ref><ref name="auto2" /> Statements from diverse sources such as the [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development]] (OECD), [[UN Women]] and the [[World Pensions & Investments Forum|World Pensions Forum]], have noted that investments in women and girls have positive impacts on economies. National and global development investments in women and girls often exceed their initial scope.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gender equality and women's rights in the post-2015 agenda: A foundation for sustainable development |url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/gender-development/POST-2015%20Gender.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063852/https://www.oecd.org/dac/gender-development/POST-2015%20Gender.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2016-10-18 |website=Oecd.org}}</ref>
Gender equality is mainstreamed throughout the SDG framework by ensuring that as much sex-disaggregated data as possible are collected.<ref name="UNESCO-2019">UNESCO (2019) [http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/publication_culture_2020_indicators_en.pdf Culture | 2030 Indicators] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063854/http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/publication_culture_2020_indicators_en.pdf|date=30 December 2020}}, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, France, {{ISBN|978-92-3-100355-4}}, CC-BY-ND 3.0 IGO</ref>{{rp|11}}
[[Education for sustainable development]] (ESD) is explicitly recognized in the SDGs as part of Target 4.7 of the SDG on education. [[UNESCO]] promotes the [[Global citizenship education|Global Citizenship Education]] (GCED) as a complementary approach.<ref>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002329/232993e.pdf Global Citizenship Education: Topics and learning objectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712215733/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002329/232993e.pdf|date=12 July 2018}}, UNESCO, 2015.</ref> Education for sustainable development is important for all the other 16 SDGs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=UNESCO |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002474/247444e.pdf |title=Education for Sustainable Development Goals: Learning Objectives |publisher=Paris, UNESCO |year=2017 |isbn=978-92-3-100209-0 |pages=7 |access-date=13 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230063855/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000247444_eng |archive-date=30 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Culture is explicitly referenced in SDG 11 Target 4 ("Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world's cultural and natural heritage"). However, culture is seen as a cross-cutting theme because it impacts several SDGs.<ref name="UNESCO-2019" /> For example, culture plays a role in SDG targets where they relate to environment and resilience (within SDGs 11, 12 and 16), prosperity and livelihoods (within SDG 8), inclusion and participation (within SDG 11 and 16).<ref name="UNESCO-2019" />{{rp|2}}
SDGs 1 to 6 directly address [[health disparities]], primarily in developing countries.<ref name="UN2015">{{Cite web |title=Sustainable development goals – United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ |access-date=25 November 2015 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development}}</ref> These six goals address key issues in Global Public Health, Poverty, Hunger and Food security, Health, Education, Gender equality and women's empowerment, as well as water and sanitation.<ref name="UN2015" /> Public health officials can use these goals to set their own agenda and plan for smaller scale initiatives for their organizations.
The links between the various sustainable development goals and [[public health]] are numerous and well established:
* SDG 1: Living below the poverty line is attributed to poorer health outcomes and can be even worse for persons living in developing countries where extreme poverty is more common.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NCCP {{!}} Child Poverty |url=http://www.nccp.org/topics/childpoverty.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624190322/http://www.nccp.org/topics/childpoverty.html |archive-date=24 June 2018 |access-date=25 November 2015 |website=www.nccp.org}}</ref> A child born into poverty is twice as likely to die before the age of five compared to a child from a wealthier family.<ref name="UNhealth2015">{{Cite web |title=Health – United Nations Sustainable Development |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/health/ |access-date=25 November 2015 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development}}</ref>
* SDG 2: The detrimental effects of hunger and malnutrition that can arise from systemic challenges with food security are enormous. The World Health Organization estimates that 12.9 percent of the population in developing countries is undernourished.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hunger and food security – United Nations Sustainable Development |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/hunger/ |access-date=25 November 2015 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development}}</ref>
* SDG 4 and 5: Educational equity has yet to be reached in the world. Public health efforts are impeded by this, as a lack of education can lead to poorer health outcomes. This is shown by children of mothers who have no education having a lower survival rate compared to children born to mothers with primary or greater levels of education.<ref name="UNhealth2015" />
Synergies
Synergies amongst the SDGs are "the good antagonists of trade-offs."<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp|67}}With regards to SDG 13 on climate action, the IPCC sees robust synergies particularly for the SDGs 3 (health), 7 (clean energy), 11 (cities and communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production) and 14 (oceans).<ref name="IPCC-2018" /><ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp|70}}
To meet SDG 13 and other SDGs, sustained long-term investment in green innovation is required to: [[Decarbonization|decarbonize]] the physical capital stock – energy, industry, and transportation infrastructure – and ensure its resilience to a changing future climate; to preserve and enhance [[natural capital]] – forests, oceans, and wetlands; and to train people to work in a climate-neutral economy.<ref name="EIB-2020">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-eib-group-climate-bank-roadmap |title=The EIB Group Climate Bank Roadmap 2021–2025 |date=2020-12-14 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-4908-5 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Amar |last2=Ivanyna |first2=Maksym |last3=Oman |first3=William |last4=Stern |first4=Nicholas |date=2021-05-26 |title=Climate Action to Unlock the Inclusive Growth Story of the 21st Century |url=https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/001/2021/147/article-A001-en.xml |journal=IMF Working Papers |language=en |volume=2021 |issue=147 |page=1 |doi=10.5089/9781513573366.001 |s2cid=242841434 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Grand Duchy of Luxembourg International Climate Finance Strategy |url=https://gouvernement.lu/dam-assets/documents/actualites/2021/07-juillet/26-fci-dieschbourg/Strategie-FCI.pdf}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[SDG Publishers Compact]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{portal|Politics|Environment|World}}
{{Wikisource}}
{{offline|med}}
*[http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – The SDGs]
*[http://www.globalgoals.org "Global Goals" Campaign] Campaign on the SDGs published by Project Everyone
*[https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/ Global SDG Indicators Database of the United Nations]
*[https://sdg-tracker.org/ SDG-Tracker.org] – Visualized tracking of progress towards the SDGs
*[https://sdg-pathfinder.org/ SDG Pathfinder] – Explore content on SDGs from six international organizations (powered by the [[OECD]])
{{United Nations}}
{{Sustainable Development Goals}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Poverty}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:International sustainable development]]
[[Category:United Nations documents]]
[[Category:Global policy organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals| ]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:United Nations Common Agenda]] |
Sustainability studies | {{multiple issues|
{{one source|date=December 2018}}{{unbalanced|date=December 2018}}{{peacock|date=December 2018}}
{{Essay-like|date=October 2022}}
}}
[[File:Sustainable development.svg|thumb|335x335px|The Three Spheres of Sustainability]]
'''Sustainability studies''' is an academic discipline that focuses on the interdisciplinary perspective of the concept of [[sustainability]]. Programs include instruction in [[sustainable development]], [[geography]], [[Environmental policy|environmental policies]], [[ethics]], [[ecology]], [[landscape architecture]], [[City planning|city]] and [[regional planning]], [[economics]], [[natural resources]], [[sociology]], and [[anthropology]].<ref>[http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/cipcode/cipdetail.aspx?y=55&cip=30.3301 Detail for CIP Code 30.3301, Title: Sustainability Studies.]. Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP), The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), National Center for Education Statistics, US Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences. Accessed 10 May 2011</ref> Sustainability studies also focuses on the importance of [[climate change]], [[poverty]], [[social justice]] and [[environmental justice]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Compare 85 Masters Programs in Sustainability Studies |url=https://www.masterstudies.com/Masters-Degree/Sustainability-Studies/ |website=MASTERSTUDIES.COM |access-date=10 March 2018}}</ref> Many universities across the world currently offer sustainability studies as a degree program. The main goal of sustainability studies is for students to find ways to develop novel solutions to environmental problems.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cohen |first1=Steven |title=The Growing Field of Sustainability Studies |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/steven-cohen/the-growing-field-of-sust_b_1272831.html |website=[[HuffPost]] |date=13 February 2012 |access-date=10 March 2018}}</ref>
== History ==
Towards the end of the 1980s, a new focus emerged globally on the importance of the environmental and [[Sustainability|ecological sustainability]]. In 1987 the [[Brundtland Report]] was delivered by the [[World Commission on Environment and Development]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.histecon.magd.cam.ac.uk/history-sust/sustainability.htm |title=History and Sustainability |website=www.histecon.magd.cam.ac.uk |access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> The commission was appointed to examine the consequences of global environmental change and was chaired by Norway’s Prime Minister, [[Gro Harlem Brundtland]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/paradigm-shift-towards-sustainability-must-go-ahead-full-speed |title=The paradigm shift towards sustainability must go ahead at full speed |work=D+C |access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> It introduced the concept of sustainable development, defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Du Pisani |first=Jacobus A. |date=June 2006 |title=Sustainable development – historical roots of the concept |journal=Environmental Sciences |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=83–96 |doi=10.1080/15693430600688831 |s2cid=216113039 |issn=1569-3430}}</ref> Several definitions have been proposed since then (refer to (Pezzoli, 1997) among others) but after almost 20 years of debate a consensus that sustainability assessments ought to: integrate economic, environmental, social and increasingly institutional issues as well as to consider their interdependencies; consider the consequences of present actions well into the future; acknowledge the existence of uncertainties concerning the result of our present actions and act with a precautionary bias; engage the public; includes equity considerations (intragenerational and intergenerational).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gasparatos |first1=Alexandros |last2=El-Haram |first2=Mohamed |last3=Horner |first3=Malcolm |title=A critical review of reductionist approaches for assessing the progress towards sustainability |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |date=May 2008 |volume=28 |issue=4–5 |pages=286–311 |doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2007.09.002 |access-date=7 December 2022|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2007.09.002}}</ref> This report started a paradigm shift in which global actors began to engage in initiatives that sought to focus on sustainable development.
[[File:World-energy-consumption-by-fuel-projections-1990---2035-USDOE-IEA-2011.png|thumb|[[Infographic]] of [[world energy consumption]] by fuel.]]
Five years after the report was launched, the UN Earth’s Summit in Rio adopted the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Framework Convention on Climate Change]].<ref name=":0" /> Five years later, this framework helped lead to the creation of the [[Kyoto Protocol]], a plan in which rich nations pledged to reduce their [[Greenhouse gas|carbon emissions]].<ref name=":0" /> All countries that partook in the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC) also signed up to the Kyoto Protocol. Unfortunately progress towards sustainability stalled when the Kyoto Protocol was never ratified by the United States, and other nations consequently ignored their pledges in the agreement.<ref name=":0" />
The UN has composed 17 Sustainable Development Goals that are aimed to be achieved by 2030. The SDG goals include: 1. no poverty, 2. zero hunger, 3. good health and well-being, 4. quality education, 5. gender equality, 6. clean water and sanitation, 7. affordable and clean energy, 8. decent work and economic growth, 9. industry, innovation and infrastructure, 10. reduced inequalities, 11. sustainable cities and communities, 12. responsible consumption and production, 13. climate action, 14. life below water, 15. life on land, 16. peace justice and strong institutions, and 17. partnerships for the goals.
Recently, the [[United Nations]] (UN) [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) released a report that says “urgent and unprecedented changes are needed to reach the target” of keeping the global temperature at moderate levels.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/08/global-warming-must-not-exceed-15c-warns-landmark-un-report |title=We have 12 years to limit climate change catastrophe, warns UN |last=Watts |first=Jonathan |date=2018-10-08 |website=the Guardian |access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> They state that countries must follow the [[Paris Agreement]] pledge to keep temperatures between 1.5 degrees Celsius and 2 degrees Celsius, otherwise the earth will faces extreme challenges from [[climate change]], including the eradication of corals and the accelerated melting of [[Arctic ice pack|Arctic ice caps]]. <ref name=":1" /> The IPCC also explained that a rise in temperatures would trigger catastrophic results in the form of intense [[natural disaster]]s, unpredictable weather, and food shortages. In order to prevent this outcome governments would need to require a “supercharged roll-back of emissions courses that have built up over the past 250 years.”<ref name=":1" /> In order to do so developments in land use and technological changes are necessary. [[Carbon dioxide]] emissions would have to be cut by 45% by 2030 and come down to 0 by 2050.<ref name=":1" /> Although this would require carbon prices to be three to four times higher, the consequences of [[global warming]] at the current rate would be far more severe. The world is currently on course to reach 3 degrees Celsius of global warming, and scientists have 12 years to impose significant changes to prevent this from happening.<ref name=":1" /> This shift towards [[environmental protection]] demands a workforce that is more heavily dedicated to studying sustainable development, hence the growing importance of interdisciplinary studies. Individuals studying sustainable development could be focused on reducing the climate in which catastrophic global warming would take place and understanding how policy decisions link to other areas such as urban planning, sociology, economics and ecology.
== Spheres of sustainability ==
Sustainability comprises three major spheres: the social sphere, the economic sphere, and the environmental sphere. These three spheres can also be referred to as the "triple bottom line" or the three pillars of sustainability.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robertson |first=Margaret |title=Sustainability Principles and Practice |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0367365219 |edition=3rd |pages=4}}</ref> While these spheres are vastly different from one another, they each play a crucial role in maintaining the efficiency of society and the betterment of the planet.
* ''Social Sphere:'' The social sphere examines issues that different human populations can face, or the impacts that certain actions have on society.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=What are the Three Pillars of Sustainable Development? |url=https://greenly.earth/en-us/blog/company-guide/3-pillars-of-sustainable-development |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=greenly.earth |language=en-us}}</ref> Examples of social issues include food insecurity, housing instability, poverty, healthcare, and access to education. Equity and equal access to opportunities are at the foundation of this pillar.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Soken-Huberty |first=Emmaline |date=2020-02-13 |title=What Does Social Justice Mean? |url=https://www.humanrightscareers.com/issues/what-does-social-justice-mean/ |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=Human Rights Careers |language=en-US}}</ref> This sphere involves subject fields such as sociology, psychology, and anthropology. Nonprofit and government organizations are often at the core of the social sphere. In regards to sustainability, it is crucial for policies to be in place that represent all populations and ensure that basic human rights are being met.<ref name=":4" />
* ''Economic Sphere:'' The economic sphere prioritizes a high-functioning economy and making a profit. Consumerism is at the root of this sphere.Those who work in business and finance related fields are included in this sphere. Relating to sustainability, it is crucial for global corporations and companies to establish efficient practices to develop and grow. <ref name=":3" />
* ''Environmental Sphere:'' The environmental sphere promotes the wellbeing of the physical Earth. This pillar evaluates environmental issues and proposes solutions that could be implemented anywhere from the local to global level. Examples of environmental issues include natural disasters, temperatures rising, pollution, energy resources, and deforestation. Environmental scientists and activists are closely associated with this sphere.<ref name=":3" />
Sustainability is an interdisciplinary subject. Therefore, much like a Venn Diagram, these spheres do overlap. When the social and economic spheres intersect, this is known as social justice. The economic and environmental spheres make the subject of environmental stewardship. Lastly, environmental justice is then established when the environmental and social spheres connect.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-09-21 |title=Sustainable Materials: The Seventh Perspective of a Bioregional Lifestyle |url=https://www.cascadianow.org/articles/principle-7-sustainable-materials |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=CascadiaNow! |language=en-US}}</ref>
''Social Justice:'' Social justice is important when ensuring that everyone has the opportunity to thrive and make a sufficient living, as well as making sure the economy can operate smoothly. <ref name=":4" />A big debate in many nations is how much money should be going to welfare programs- it is crucial to find a balance between helping citizens while having enough money for the governing body to run. Another issue commonly discussed with social justice is workers rights. Workers can be exploited by businesses, so policies regarding safe working conditions and fair wages ensure that workers are treated fairly. For example, Fairtrade is a symbol that can be found on products that verify that the resources used to product the item is ethical.
''Environmental Stewardship:'' Environmental stewardship involves the collaboration of businesses and environment-centered initiatives. These actions are angled to not only help the planet, but also save money for the business. Organizations may consider efforts to reduce their waste. This could look like switching from plastic to paper packaging, or recycling any unused products. Also, businesses could look for ways to manage their energy more efficiently. Using a renewable energy source rather than nonrenewable source and limiting production times are both examples of how a business can adopt energy-saving techniques.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Presentation on Environmental Stewardship |url=https://www.nepa.gov.jm/sites/default/files/2019-12/Environmental_Stewardship.pdf |website=National Environmental Policy Act}}</ref>
''Environmental Justice:'' Environmental justice is the intersection between social and environmental issues. This intersection involves providing equitable access to environmental protections and funding for all populations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Learn About Environmental Justice |url=https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice/learn-about-environmental-justice |website=United States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> Climate change events like natural disasters, increased temperatures, and unpredictable weather patterns disproportionately impact lower-income and impoverished communities. Oftentimes, these communities do not have the means to move away from their neighborhoods. An example of an environmental justice issue in the United States is the lack of properly working septic tanks in Lowndes County, Alabama. In her book "Waste: A Woman's Fight Against America's Dirty Secret," Catherine Coleman Flowers explains the environmental issues that this impoverished community faces. A predominantly African-American area, many residents have lived with raw sewage in their backyards because they cannot afford to buy or install a septic system. Furthermore, these residents can be criminally charged for not having working septic tanks, even for those who cannot afford the cost. Not only are residents forced to live in unhygienic conditions, but they are also punished by the government. Coleman Flowers and other environmental justice advocates have dedicated years in their fight to achieve justice for the residents of Lowndes County.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coleman Flowers |first=Catherine |title=Waste: One Woman's Fight Against America's Dirty Secret |publisher=The New Press |year=2020}}</ref>
A global example of environmental justice is the impact that climate change events are having on third-world countries. Former Irish President Mary Robinson published "Climate Justice," a book that amplifies the voices of those in different countries around the world who are fighting climate change everyday. Robinson tells the story of Constance Okollet, a resident of Uganda, who is facing seasons of floods and droughts regularly, making food and water supply scarce. An activist from Vietnam, Vu Thi Hien, shares the impacts that war and deforestation has had on her country's land and people. The former president of Kiribati, Anote Tong, has considered moving the entire nation off of their island to another because of sea levels rising. Robinson shares these stories to spread awareness of the impacts that climate change is having around the world, especially to smaller, poorer nations. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Mary |title=Climate Justice |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2018}}</ref>
When each of these spheres overlap equally, like at the center of the Venn Diagram, sustainability has been established.
== Careers in sustainability studies ==
Sustainability studies emphasizes an interdisciplinary approach to environmental problems, so it can lead into many future careers such as:
* [[Law]]
* [[Politics]]
* Policy and Planning
* [[Journalism]]
* [[Business]] and [[Architecture|Architectural Design]]
* [[Oceanography|Marine Sciences]]
* Sustainability Professionals
* Urban planning
* Agriculture<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ajeng |first=Aaronn Avit |last2=Abdullah |first2=Rosazlin |last3=Ling |first3=Tau Chuan |last4=Ismail |first4=Salmah |last5=Lau |first5=Beng Fye |last6=Ong |first6=Hwai Chyuan |last7=Chew |first7=Kit Wayne |last8=Show |first8=Pau Loke |last9=Chang |first9=Jo-Shu |date= |year=2020-11-01 |title=Bioformulation of biochar as a potential inoculant carrier for sustainable agriculture |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352186420314681 |journal=Environmental Technology & Innovation |language=en |volume=20 |pages=101168 |doi=10.1016/j.eti.2020.101168}}</ref>
* Pharmaceutical industry
* Herbal Medicine
Professional in sustainability studies earn between $75,000 to $93,000, and is based on the average salaries of those in [[engineering]] and [[environmental science]]s.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |url=https://www.wayup.com/guide/lockheed-martin-994063-sponsored-6-sustainability-studies-major/ |title=What is a Sustainability Studies Major and is it Right for Me? {{!}} Career Advice & Interview Tips {{!}} WayUp Guide |date=2017-07-31 |work=Career Advice & Interview Tips {{!}} WayUp Guide |access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> Chief sustainability executives earn an average of $167,000.<ref name=":2" />
== See also ==
* [[List of environmental degrees]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Sustainability|state=collapsed}}
[[Category:Environmental studies]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Richard Reames | {{Short description|American artist, arborsculptor, nurseryman, writer and public speaker}}
{{Infobox writer <!-- For more information see [[:Template:Infobox Writer/doc]]. -->
| name = <!-- Deleting this line will use the article title as the page name. -->
| image = File:Richard Reames in 2016.jpg
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| caption = Richard Reames in 2016
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| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1957|09|20}}<!-- {{Birth date and age|Year|Month|Day}} -->
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| death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|Year|Month|Day|Year|Month|Day}} -->
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| occupation = Arborsculptor, nursery owner, writer
| language = English
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| genre = [[Horticulture]]
| subject = [[Arborsculpture]]
| movement = [[Environmental art]], [[Environmental humanities]]
| notableworks = ''How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary'' with Barbara Delbol (1995)<br /> ''Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet'' (2005)
| spouse = Maya Many Moons Reames
| partner =
| children = Myray Reames
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[[File:Peace in cherry spring 2002.jpg|thumb|300px|''Peace in Cherry'', Spring 2002]]
'''Richard C. Reames''' (born September 20, 1957) is an American artist, [[arborsculptor]], [[nurseryman]], writer, and public speaker. He lives and works in [[Williams, Oregon]].<ref name="Dwell magazine">{{cite journal |last1=Nestor |first1=James |title=Branching Out |journal=Dwell |date=27 February 2009 |url=https://www.dwell.com/article/branching-out-4aca10ce |access-date=14 July 2021}}</ref>
Reames coined the word "arborsculpture" to describe the art of shaping living tree trunks and woody plants into sculptural forms, furniture and shelters.<ref name="SantaCruzS">{{cite news |last1=Kreiger |first1=Kathy |title=Grow Your Own: Twisting Trees into Furniture |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/95244223 |access-date=14 July 2021 |publisher=Santa Cruz Sentinel |date=21 March 1996}}</ref><ref name=TLink>{{Citation| last = Link| first = Tracey| title = Arborsculpture: An Emerging Art Form and Solutions to our Environment| chapter = Senior project for Bachelor of Science degree in Landscape Architecture| page = 41| date = June 13, 2008| chapter-url = http://lda.ucdavis.edu/people/2008/TLink.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120225225911/http://lda.ucdavis.edu/people/2008/TLink.pdf| archive-date = February 25, 2012}}</ref><ref name=Reames2/>{{rp|24}} His writing and artistic practice are grounded in ecological principles of living in harmony with nature and with creating living structures from trees.<ref name="Cabinet magazine" /> He has written two books on arborsculpture and [[tree shaping]].
Reames was appointed, in 2005, as the "international arborsculpture coordinator" for the [[World's fair|World Expo]]'s ''Growing Village'' in Aichi, Japan;<ref name="TreeNews">{{cite journal |last1=May |first1=John |title=The Growing Village: A World of Arborsculpture |journal=TreeNews Journal of the Tree Council (United Kingdom) |date=Spring–Summer 2005}}</ref> his work was also exhibited there.<ref name="Cabinet magazine" />
== Biography ==
Richard Reames was born in 1957.<ref name="Life" /> He grew up near [[Santa Cruz, California]], which is within ten miles of [[Axel Erlandson]]’s famed "Circus Trees," known at that time as ''The Lost World,'' a mid-century roadside attraction.<ref name="SantaCruzS" />
Reames's mother showed him the value of working with nature including vegetable gardening. Reames studied horticulture, biology, botany and log-house building in college, however the structure of the educational establishment did not appeal to him.<ref name="Life" /><ref name="Okenga-Eden on their minds" /> He traveled the country by hitchhiking or by [[Road trip|road-tripping]] in a 1969 Chevy van for over a decade. Throughout this time he worked as an itinerant landscaper. Reames has stated "I was volunteer homeless. A real gypsy."<ref name=Life>{{Citation|last=Cole |first=Jamie |title =Life and Limbs: For arborsmith Richard Reames, art is quite literally alive |date=6 December 2012 |url=https://myfarmlife.com/2012/life-and-limbs/ |publisher=MyFarmLife }}</ref> During the times he was not on road trips, he made a living selling wild herbs and mushrooms he foraged through his knowledge of [[wildcrafting]].<ref name="SantaCruzS" />
In 1991, he met Maya Many Moons in southwest Oregon. They settled down in [[Williams, Oregon]] near the border of [[Klamath National Forest]], where they bought land in cooperation with another couple. Over a period of three years he constructed an octagonal two-story log house, 24 feet in diameter, using dead standing trees and native stone for the foundation.<ref name="Okenga-Eden on their minds" /><ref name="Reames2" /> Reames and Many Moons have a daughter named Myray Reames.<ref name=Reames2>{{Cite book|last = Reames|first = Richard |title = Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet|publisher = Arborsmith Studios|year = 2005|location = Oregon |isbn = 0-9647280-8-7}}</ref><ref name=Life/><ref name=ArborsmithBio>[http://arborsmith.com/bio.html Arborsmith, Biography of Richard Reames] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231002818/http://arborsmith.com/bio.html |date=2010-12-31 }}</ref> During this time he founded Arborsmith Studios.<ref name="SantaCruzS" />
==Work==
Reames uses basic tools and ancient grafting techniques to produce his works of arborsculpture, furniture and functional objects. His work involves the time-based processes of bending, pruning, grafting, and multiple plantings that are similar to those used in [[bonsai]] but most closely related to [[espalier]].<ref name="Cabinet magazine" />
In an interview with [[Joshua Foer]] in [[Cabinet Magazine]], Reames describes some of the ecological principles behind his work as being grounded in a desire to teach others ways to live in harmony with trees and therefore with nature. He is interested in ecological advantages of working with trees such as erosion control, [[carbon dioxide sequestration]], food sources, habitat creation for wildlife, and climate change mitigation.<ref name="Cabinet magazine" />
One of his primary inspirations was the work of [[Axel Erlandson]], and his ''Tree Circus'', and [[Tree shaping#John Krubsack|John Krubsack]], known for his ''Living Chair''.<ref name="Life" /> In 1993, with Erlandson in mind, he started [[Arborsmith Studios]], a tree nursery and outdoor art studio.<ref name=Reames2/><ref name=Life/> Other influences include the 18th century Swedish mystic [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], the 19th century Austrian mystic, [[Jakob Lorber]], and modern pioneers of arborsculptural tree shaping such as [[Arthur Wiechula]] among others.<ref name="Cabinet magazine" /> Reames was also intrigued with the organic architecture of [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], whose work "bring[s] nature into the house."<ref name="Life" />
[[File:Arborsculpture ash rings.jpg|thumb|left|''Ash Rings'' arborsculpture, in July 2021]]
In 2000, together with the people of the town of Jōkōji, Japan, he and [[John Gathright]] planted 1100 trees, which, combined with existing trees, created the "Laughing Happy Tree Park." The environmental installation included a living tree house with living furniture.<ref name=Reames2/>
Some of his arborsculptures were exhibited at the [[Growing Village Pavilion]] of the [[Expo 2005|World Expo 2005]] in [[Nagakute]], [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]], [[Japan]].<ref name="AmForests">{{cite journal |last1=Amoroso |first1=Meghan |title=A House of the Trees |journal=American Forests |date=Autumn 2005 |volume=111 |issue=3 |url=https://web-a-ebscohost-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ehost/detail/detail?vid=4&sid=1064e9e5-868e-497c-a833-0dadeccd6da0%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=18969365&db=a9h |access-date=23 July 2021}}</ref> The producer and organizer of the project was John Gathright.<ref name="GVP-Gathright">{{cite web |title=Team Members - John Gathright |url=http://www.growingvillage.com/Growing_Village_Team_Members.htm |website=Growing Village Pavilion - Expo 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107062047/http://www.growingvillage.com/Growing_Village_Team_Members.htm |access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=2006-11-07 }}</ref><ref name="awsj-archive">{{cite news |last1=Harris |first1=John |title=Fair Puts the Spotlight on the Planet's Environmental Problems |url=http://www.growingvillage.com/The_Asian_Wall_Street_Journal.htm |access-date=14 July 2021 |publisher=The Asian Wall Street Journal |date=29 March 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107062141/http://www.growingvillage.com/The_Asian_Wall_Street_Journal.htm |archive-date=2006-11-07 }}</ref><ref name="E2005AJ">{{cite web |title=Laughing Happy Tree Park finds new home at Expo 2005 |url=http://www.growingvillage.com/GrowingVillage_Happy_Tree_Park.htm |website=Growing Village Pavillion |publisher=Expo 2005 Aichi Japan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060715173033/http://www.growingvillage.com/GrowingVillage_Happy_Tree_Park.htm |access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=2006-07-15 }}</ref> Reames participated as a team member of the Growing Village Pavilion,<ref name="Team Member RR">{{cite web |title=Team Member - Richard Reames |url=http://www.growingvillage.com/Team_Members_Richard_Reames.htm |website=Welcome to Growing Village |publisher=Expo 2005 Aichi Japan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107062035/http://www.growingvillage.com/Team_Members_Richard_Reames.htm |access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=2006-11-07 }}</ref><ref name=ArborsmithBio/> and in 2005, he was appointed the international arborsculpture coordinator, overseeing the work of artists from several countries.<ref name="TreeNews" />
Reames has lectured internationally on arborsculpture,<ref name="Team Member RR" /> and gives live demonstrations of bending and weaving a chair at garden shows, fairs and folk art festivals throughout the U.S.<ref name=Life/><ref name="Cabinet magazine">{{cite journal |last1=Foer |first1=Joshua |last2=Reames |first2=Richard |title=How to grow a chair: An interview with Richard Reames - The Roots of Arborsculpture |journal=Cabinet Magazine |date=Winter 2005–2006 |url=https://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/20/foer_reames.php |access-date=14 July 2021}}</ref><ref name=VWANewsletter>{{Citation|title=Arbor Sculpture: "If you like I'll grow you a mirror" |work=The Cutting Edge; the Newsletter of the Victorian Woodworkers Association, Inc. |page=16 |date=June 2006 |url=http://www.vwa.org.au/newsletter/Archive06/June%20Newsletter%202006.pdf |access-date=2010-05-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025001712/http://www.vwa.org.au//newsletter/Archive06/June%20Newsletter%202006.pdf |archive-date=October 25, 2009 }}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090531024238/http://gardencenterassociation.org/garden_symposium_2008.html Speaker announcement for Garden Symposium 2008 in Kansas City, MO]</ref>
Reames, like the artist Konstantin Kirsch, has been exploring sustainable, living architecture using tree branches to form latticeworks that can be trained and designed into cylindrical, multi-room dwellings. These botanical domes or self-growing treehouses can form a sustainable abode that grows fruit and other edible foods, and can also utilize waste within a closed-loop system.<ref name="Inhabit">{{cite web |last1=Winter |first1=Catherine |title=How to Grow Your Own Treehouse |date=7 August 2009 |url=https://inhabitat.com/grow-your-own-treehouse/ |publisher=INHABIT |access-date=14 July 2021}}</ref> The German language book, ''Lebende Bauten - trainierbare Tragwerke (Living buildings - trainable structures)'' features a chapter on Reames.<ref name="LIT Verlag">{{cite book |last1=de Bruyn |first1=Gerd |last2=Schwertfeger |first2=Hannes |title=Lebende Bauten - trainierbare Tragwerke |date=2009 |publisher=LIT Verlag, Kultur und Technik Collection |location=Munster, Germany |isbn=9783643104830 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lFSGelGITR8C&q=Richard%20Reames |pages=149–164|access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref>
After the publication of his first book, ''How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary'' (1995), he was invited to create site-specific arborsculptures by various clients, who he then mentors on the care of the living installations. His arborsculptures have been created in gardens throughout the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]].<ref name="Life" />
In 2023, Reames worked with a group of 40 others to plant a Sequoia-Sanctuary a major work of [[land art]] in the Pacifica Preserve in Oregon, in the form of a circle of 114 sequoia seedling trees, three-feet apart, in a 100-foot diameter. When fully grown the [[environmental sculpture]] will create a 7,000 square-foot "sanctuary" space of intertwined branches. The variety of sequoia seedlings that were planted are the endangered ''Sequoiadendron giganteum'', [[Sequoiadendron giganteum|giant sequoia]] which can live as long as 3,000 years.<ref name="DC-Pacifica">{{cite news |last1=Hall |first1=Shaun |title=Circle of 114 sequoias planted at Pacifica |work=Page 1, 6A |publisher=Daily Courier, Grants Pass |date=21 February 2023}}</ref>
==Arborsculpture==
[[File:Arborsculpture of peace and love.jpg|thumb|Arborsculpture of peace and love, in 2016]]
In 1995, Reames coined the word "arborsculpture" to describe tree-trunk sculptural modifications as art.<ref name="Cabinet magazine" /> The word has since been used by several writers, creative practitioners and scholars.<ref name="Smolina-1">{{cite journal |last1=Smolina |first1=O.O. |title=Variability of approaches to arborsculpture |journal= IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering|date=2019 |volume=687 |issue=5 |page=055035 |doi=10.1088/1757-899X/687/5/055035 |bibcode=2019MS&E..687e5035S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="USDA">{{cite journal |last1=Mudge |first1=Ken |last2=Janick |first2=Jules |last3=Scofield |first3=Stephen |last4=Goldschinidt |first4=Eliezer E. |title=A History of Grafting |journal=Horticultural Reviews |date=2009 |volume=35 |pages=437–493 |doi=10.1002/9780470593776.ch9 |isbn=9780470593776 |url=https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/download/39857/PDF |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="Greenery as Art-Design">{{cite journal |last1=Marcinková |first1=Dana |title=Greenery as Art-Design in Urban Public Space |journal=Proceedings of the International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on Social Scientists and Arts |date=2016 |pages=359–366 |url=https://web-b-ebscohost-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ehost/detail/detail?vid=6&sid=23ce00bc-4303-4be8-80e8-4def0f12a558%40sessionmgr101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=128319194&db=a9h |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="Vallas & Courard" /> Arborsculpture has also been called "arbor sculpture"<ref name="Okenga-Eden on their minds">{{cite book |last1=Ockenga |first1=Starr |title=Eden on Their Minds: American Gardeners with Bold Visions |date=2001 |publisher=Clarkson Potter Publishers |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-609-60587-9 |pages=108–117}}</ref> and "arborisculpture". In French it is known as ''l'arborisculpture''),<ref name="Loterre">{{cite web |title=Arborisculpture |url=https://www.loterre.fr/skosmos/JLC/fr/page/-PV72R3PB-D |website=Loterre (scientific terminology database) |publisher=Loterre Terminologie Subjects (Getty Research Institute |access-date=24 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="IJoPhyto">{{cite journal |last1=Stoops |first1=L. Renee |title=Conference Review 8Th Annual Conference, International Phytotechnology Society, Putting Plants to Work, Where We Live, Labor, Breathe, and Play, September 13–16, 2011, Portland, Oregon, USA |journal=International Journal of Phytoremediation |date=2013 |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=827–829 |doi=10.1080/15226514.2013.764676 |pmid=23819278 |bibcode=2013IJPhy..15..827S |s2cid=45584331 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15226514.2013.764676 |access-date=24 July 2021}}</ref> and in German arborsculpture is known as ''Baumplastiken''.<ref name="LIT Verlag" /> Reames refers to the use of arborsculpture to produce architectural structures or dwellings as "arbortecture",<ref name="Cabinet magazine" /> it has also been called "arborarchitecture" by Olga O. Smolina who has written on arborsculpture and on Reames.<ref name="Smolina arbortecture">{{cite journal |last1=Smolina |first1=O.O. Smolina |title=Arborarchitecture: Modern Trends |journal=Urban Construction and Architecture |date=2020 |volume=10 |issue=w|pages=87–92 |doi=10.17673/Vestnik.2020.02.12 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Smolina-1" /> Arbortecture is called ''Baumarchitektur'' in German.<ref name="LIT Verlag" /><ref name="Smolina-1" /><ref name="Smolina3">{{cite journal |last1=Smolina |first1=O.O. |title=Arborsculpture: a promising trend in the interior gardening of buildings |journal= IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering|date=2020 |volume=962 |issue=3 |page=032058 |doi=10.1088/1757-899X/962/3/032058|bibcode=2020MS&E..962c2058S |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Reames uses arborsculptural tree bending and shaping techniques to create his work and also uses the [[horticulture|horticultural]] and [[arboriculture|arboricultural]] techniques of [[ring barking]], [[grafting#Approach|approach grafting]], [[pruning]], and framing, in various combinations, to craft his artworks and functional objects.<ref name=Reames2/><ref name=Reames1>{{cite book|last=Reames|first=Richard |author2=Delbol, Barbara |title=How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary|year=1995|publisher=Arborsmith Studios |isbn=0-9647280-0-1}}</ref>
Reames has described his arborsculpture tree shaping practice:<ref name="description of as">{{cite web |title=What is Arbor Sculpture |url=http://www.growingvillage.com/GrowingVillage_Arborsulpture.htm |website=Growing Village |publisher=Expo 2005 Aichi Japan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050308172904/http://www.growingvillage.com/GrowingVillage_Arborsulpture.htm |access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=2005-03-08 }}</ref>
{{Blockquote|Arborsculpture is a unique art form that has been called the ultimate branch of [[topiary]] with the potential to save the environment. There are other words and terms that are used to describe this art. [[Pleaching]], grafting, permaculture, tree trunk topiary, botanical art, botanical architecture, biotechture, living art, visionary art, and really weird.|Richard Reames}}
When making architectural arborsculptures such as fences, Reames prefers using the diamond pattern, a structurally sound design. This technique has been used by traditional Belgian fence crafters however Reames creates a tighter diamond grid by planting the trees closer together to keep certain wildlife such as deer out of an area. He has also made gazebos and a ''Fruit Room''; the latter was created by espaliering together apple, plum, cherry and pear trees. Another arbortectural project is his ''Living House'', a 22-foot diameter dwelling created from 77 alder trees planted 11 inches apart, intentionally based on multiples of elevens.<ref name="Okenga-Eden on their minds" />
===Process and technique===
[[File:Birch 2006.jpg|upright|thumb|left|''Birch Window Frame'' arborsculpture, September 2006]]
On Reames' property in Oregon, there are a dozen nursery beds, each of which are between 100 and 200 feet long, constructed in a configuration to optimize their orientation to the sun. The beds are filled with thousands of tree saplings, which he refers to as "art supplies." Saplings are transplanted from November to March, the dormant season for working with bare-root trees. In winter through early spring, the tree trunks are sculpted by bending, weaving and twisting as this is the time of year they are most pliable. The young trees are then attached to a metal or wood support structure until they are mature enough to retain their shape without support.<ref name="Okenga-Eden on their minds" />
===History of arborsculptural practices===
The medieval and post-medieval English scholar, Kathleen Kelly, identifies both modern and medieval examples of arborsculptures. In her paper, ''Anthophilia and the Medieval Ecologies of Grafting'', she cites the work of Axel Erlandson as exemplary of "extreme grafting as art" to produce "astonishing arborsculptures".<ref name="Kelly, Anthohilia">{{citation |last1=Kelly |first1=Kathleen |title=Anthophilia and the Medieval Ecologies of Grafting |publisher=Scholarly paper presented to the New Chaucer Society|url=https://www.academia.edu/14943767 |access-date=1 August 2021 }}</ref> She also places a painting from circa 1410, ''[[Paradiesgärtlein]] (The Littile Garden of Paradise)'' by [[Meister des Frankfurter Paradiesgärtleins]] an unknown medieval painter who is also known as the Upper Rhenish Master, as an example of aesthetic inarched grafting of tree trunks. The painting, which is in the collection of the [[Städel Museum]], depicts [[Dorothea of Caesarea]], the patron saint of gardeners, picking fruit from a tree.<ref name="Kelly, Anthohilia" /><ref name="Gallwitz">{{cite book |last1=Gallwitz |first1=Esther |title=Kleiner Kräutergarten : Kräuter und Blumen bei den Alten Meistern im Städel (in German) |date=1992 |publisher=Insel Taschenbuch |location=Frankfurt am Main |isbn=978-3-458-33120-9}}</ref>
The science journalist [[James Nestor]] writes that "Arborsculpture is the art of shaping living trees into furniture, sculpture, and shelters. Part grazing and grafting, pleaching and patience, it exists in the shady area between landscaping, gardening, and furniture design."<ref name="Dwell magazine" /> Nestor states that arborsculpture can be traced back to a 16th-century [[illuminated manuscript]] painting by Jean Perréal, ''La Complainte de Nature à l'Alchimiste Errant (The Lament of Nature to the Wandering Alchemist)'' that depicts a lavish "living chair". Reames' interpretation of the painting is that the angel is criticizing the alchemist for attempting to make gold out of lead, when nature herself can make fruit out of dirt.<ref name="LIT Verlag" />
In the book, ''Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees'', the author Nalini M. Nadkarni, an ecosystem ecologist, wrote that gardeners who practice arborsculpture have "vision, patience, and humor" and names Axel Erlandson as the "grand old man of arborsculpture."<ref name="Between Earth and Sky">{{cite book |last1=Nadkarni |first1=Nalini M. |title=Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees |date=2008 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1pntz0 |isbn=978-0520261655 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1pntz0 |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
File:Complainte de la Nature - Perréal - 1516.jpg|''La Complainte de la Nature à l'Alchimiste Errant,'' (1516), [[Jean Perréal]]
File:Meister des Frankfurter Paradiesgärtleins arborsculpture detail.jpg|Detail, ''[[Paradiesgärtlein]]'' ''(Little Garden of Paradise)'', (c. 1410), [[Upper Rhenish Master]]
File:Needle n thread.jpg|Needle and thread tree by [[Axel Erlandson]] whose work influenced Reames
File:Krubsack chair.jpg|John Krubsack's ''Chair that Grew'' (in 1915), his work inspired Reames
File:Growing tool handle in the Laughing Happy Tree Park in Jōkōji Japan.jpg|Reames growing a tool handle in the Laughing Happy Tree Park in Jōkōji Japan, May 2002
</gallery>
===Sustainable design applications===
Reames believes that "arbortecture" is the future of arborsculpture.<ref name="Dwell magazine" /> Arbotecture is a viable green alternative in urban design.<ref name="Simply Green">{{cite journal |last1=Oommen |first1=Ansel |title=Arborsculpture: The Artful Science of Tree Shaping |journal=Simply Green Magazine (South Africa) |date=2013 |issue=5 |pages=18–19 |url=https://issuu.com/africannewsagency/docs/sg_-_0513/18 |access-date=2 August 2021}}</ref> According to Reames, arbor-architects (''Baumarchitekten'') can design and build energy-efficient structures that have a reciprocal "exchange with the natural environment" and that these dwellings should be planned specifically for a location and environment. He has stated that he believes that the natural environment should enter into the house, and the interior of the building can extend outdoors.<ref name="LIT Verlag" /> Alison Gillespie writes in her article, ''Taking treehouses to a whole new level'' in the journal ''Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment'', that arborsculpture is not a new practice but when combined with [[Tree shaping#aeroponic culture|aeroponics]] it can be used for sustainable design applications.<ref name="Gillespie">{{cite journal |last1=Gillespie |first1=Allison |title=Taking Treehouses to a Whole New Level |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=October 2008 |volume=6 |issue=8 |page=407 |jstor=20440955 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20440955 |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref>
== Publications ==
In 1995, Reames published the book ''How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary'' with Barbara Delbol co-authoring.<ref name="EBTS-2">{{cite journal |last1=Foley |first1=Caroline |title=Review: How to Grow a Chair - The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary |journal=European Boxwood & Topiary Society |volume=11 |issue=Summer 2007 |url=http://www.ebts.org/UK/4-Bibliography/UK-Biblio2.htm |access-date=14 July 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414154311/http://www.ebts.org/UK/4-Bibliography/UK-Biblio2.htm |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref><ref name="TW">{{cite news |last1=Decker |first1=Edith |title=Sculptures grow from twisted past |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/338166023 |access-date=14 July 2021 |publisher=The World (Coos Bay, Oregon) |date=11 November 1995}}</ref> The book details his process of shaping trees to create chairs, benches fences, and other structures.<ref name=Reames1/><ref name=Hicks>{{Citation| last1 = Hicks| first1 = Ivan| last2 = Rosenfeld| first2 = Richard|last3=Whitworth|first3=Jo| title = Tricks with Trees| publisher = Pavilion Books| year = 2007| page =123| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=WDy1fnWXsN8C&q=arborsculptor| isbn = 978-1-86205-734-0}}</ref>
In 2005, Reames published the book ''Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet'', that describes the history of tree and woody plant shaping, and elaborates on a selection of practitioners in the field of tree shaping.<ref name=Reames2/><ref name=Bookreview>{{cite book |last=Foley |first=Caroline |title=Book Review: Arborsculpture - Solutions for a Small Planet |volume=11 |issue=Summer 2007 |url=http://www.ebts.org/UK/4-Bibliography/UK-Biblio2.htm |publisher=European Boxwood & Topiary Society |date=Summer 2007 |access-date=2021-12-05 |archive-date=2013-04-14 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414154311/http://www.ebts.org/UK/4-Bibliography/UK-Biblio2.htm |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>
Reames has written for ''Compass Magazine'' in the March/April 2006 issue.<ref name=ArborsmithBio/>{{dead link|date=July 2021}}
===Reception===
Reames' books have been called "reference books" by Vallas and Courard in the journal, ''Frontiers of Architectural Research''. The authors go on to state that Reames has "inspired many architects,"<ref name="Vallas & Courard">{{cite journal |last1=Vallas |first1=Thomas |last2=Courard |first2=Luc |title=Using nature in architecture: Building a living house with mycelium and trees |journal=Frontiers of Architectural Research |date=September 2017 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=318–328 |doi=10.1016/j.foar.2017.05.003 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
His book, ''Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet'' was reviewed in the ''[[Utne Reader]]''.<ref name="Utne">{{cite magazine |last1=Dodge |first1=Chris |title=Book Review: A Living Art - Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet By Richard Reames, Arborsmith Studios |magazine=[[Utne Reader]] |date=March 2006 |url=https://content.utne.com/community/bookreviews/}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Environmental art]] – Art genre engaging nature and ecology
* {{annotated link|Ecological art}}
* {{annotated link|Tree shaping}}
* {{annotated link|Gilroy Gardens}}
* {{annotated link|Fab Tree Hab}}
* {{annotated link|Full Grown}}
* {{annotated link|Christopher Cattle}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=lFSGelGITR8C ''Von der Baumplastik der Baum-architektur: Interview mit Richard Reames''] (in German), in the book ''Lebende Bauten - trainierbare Tragwerke'', pp. 149–163, by Gerd de Bruyn, Hannes Schwertfeger. LitVerlag Münster (2009) {{ISBN|9783643104830}}.
== External links ==
* {{official website|http://arborsmith.com/}}
* [https://www.opb.org/article/2022/02/19/oregon-artist-richard-reames-tree-art-arborsculpture/ Oregon Public Broadcasting/PBS – ''At his Southern Oregon home, Richard Reames makes living art through ‘arborsculpture’'']
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Reames, Richard}}
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:20th-century American artists]]
[[Category:21st-century American artists]]
[[Category:American sculptors]]
[[Category:Environmental artists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Sculptors from Oregon]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:20th-century American writers]]
[[Category:Environmental humanities]] |
Biomimicry Institute | {{Short description|Non-profit organization in the USA}}
The '''Biomimicry Institute''' is a [[501(c)(3) organization|501(c)(3) not-for-profit organization]] founded in 2006 and based in [[Missoula]], [[Montana]] in the United States.<ref name="ProPublica">{{cite web |title=The Biomimicry Institute - Nonprofit Explorer |url=https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/861153859 |website=ProPublica |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |date=9 May 2013}}</ref> Its goal is to help innovators learn from nature in order to design [[sustainable]] products, processes, and policies in response to real-world problems.<ref name="Donoff" /> The Biomimicry Institute has become a key communicator in the field of [[biomimetics]], connecting thousands of practitioners and organizations across the world. Its Global Network currently supports 38 regional networks across 26 countries as of 2022.<ref name="MacKinnon" />
The Biomimicry Institute was founded by Bryony Schwan, Dayna Baumeister and [[Janine Benyus]]<ref name="mission">{{cite web |title=The Biomimicry Institute empowers people to create nature-inspired solutions for a healthy planet |url=https://biomimicry.org/ourmission/ |website=Biomimicry Institute |access-date=6 October 2022}}</ref>
and originated following the publishing of Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature<ref>{{Cite web |title=You are being redirected... |url=https://biomimicry.org/ourmission/ |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=biomimicry.org}}</ref> by Janine Benyus; a natural sciences writer, innovation consultant and author.<ref name="Bonime">{{cite news |last1=Bonime |first1=Western |title=Biomimicry: Using Nature's Perfect Innovation Systems To Design The Future |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/westernbonime/2020/07/12/biomimicry-using-natures-perfect--innovation-systems-to-design-the-future/?sh=6c3a9f8b174e |access-date=7 October 2022 |work=Forbes |date=July 12, 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
==Approach==
[[File:Tiny surface structures make nasturtium leaves water-resistant.jpg | thumb|right | Creating structures to mimic the surface of nasturtium leaves is an example of Biomimicry.<ref name="Bird">{{cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=James C. |last2=Dhiman |first2=Rajeev |last3=Kwon |first3=Hyuk-Min |last4=Varanasi |first4=Kripa K. |title=Reducing the contact time of a bouncing drop |journal=Nature |date=November 2013 |volume=503 |issue=7476 |pages=385–388 |doi=10.1038/nature12740 |pmid=24256803 |bibcode=2013Natur.503..385B |s2cid=1329448 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12740 |language=en |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>]]
[[Biomimetics|Biomimicry]] is an approach to design and innovation that finds inspiration in the function of living organisms.<ref name="Brooks">{{cite news |last1=Brooks |first1=Michael |title=Biomimicry in Architecture - review |url=https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Biomimicry_in_Architecture_-_review |access-date=18 October 2022 |work=www.designingbuildings.co.uk |date=28 Dec 2021 |language=en-gb}}</ref> The idea of connecting biologists, ecologists and other life scientists with designers and product engineers in the design process was introduced by [[Janine Benyus]].<ref name="Bernstein">{{cite news |last1=Bernstein |first1=Amy |title=Janine Benyus: The Thought Leader Interview |url=https://www.strategy-business.com/article/06310 |access-date=4 October 2022 |work=strategy+business |date=August 28, 2006 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name="Swallow">{{cite book |last1=Swallow |first1=Lisa |title=Green Business Practices For Dummies® |date=10 February 2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-48033-5 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfco7u3GOWIC&pg=PA146 |access-date=4 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="MacKinnon">{{cite journal |last1=MacKinnon |first1=Rebecca Barbara |last2=Oomen |first2=Jeroen |last3=Pedersen Zari |first3=Maibritt |title=Promises and Presuppositions of Biomimicry |journal=Biomimetics |date=September 2020 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=33 |doi=10.3390/biomimetics5030033 |pmid=32660092 |pmc=7557929 |language=en |issn=2313-7673|doi-access=free }}</ref> This design methodology can be applied to the creation of materials, products, and solutions for a wide variety of fields and human systems including biochemistry<ref name="Fudge">{{cite journal |last1=Fudge |first1=Douglas S. |last2=Schorno |first2=Sarah |last3=Ferraro |first3=Shannon |title=Physiology, Biomechanics, and Biomimetics of Hagfish Slime |journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry |date=2 June 2015 |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=947–967 |doi=10.1146/annurev-biochem-060614-034048 |pmid=25534639 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biochem-060614-034048 |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |issn=0066-4154}}</ref> fluid mechanics,<ref name="Triantafyllou">{{cite journal |last1=Triantafyllou |first1=Michael S. |last2=Weymouth |first2=Gabriel D. |last3=Miao |first3=Jianmin |title=Biomimetic Survival Hydrodynamics and Flow Sensing |journal=Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics |date=3 January 2016 |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1146/annurev-fluid-122414-034329 |bibcode=2016AnRFM..48....1T |hdl=1721.1/110664 |s2cid=17049300 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-fluid-122414-034329 |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |issn=0066-4189|hdl-access=free }}</ref> physical chemistry, materials design,<ref name="Yaraghi">{{cite journal |last1=Yaraghi |first1=Nicholas A. |last2=Kisailus |first2=David |title=Biomimetic Structural Materials: Inspiration from Design and Assembly |journal=Annual Review of Physical Chemistry |date=20 April 2018 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=23–57 |doi=10.1146/annurev-physchem-040215-112621 |pmid=29237136 |bibcode=2018ARPC...69...23Y |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-physchem-040215-112621 |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |issn=0066-426X}}</ref> architecture,<ref name="Okeke">{{cite journal |last1=Okeke |first1=F. O. |last2=Okeke |first2=O. C. J. |last3=Adibe |first3=F. A. |title=Biomimicry and Sustainable Architecture: A Review of Existing Literature |journal=Journal of Environmental Management and Safety |date=2017 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=11–24}}</ref> energy,<ref name="Varshabi">{{cite journal |last1=Varshabi |first1=Niloufar |last2=Arslan Selçuk |first2=Semra |last3=Mutlu Avinç |first3=Güneş |title=Biomimicry for Energy-Efficient Building Design: A Bibliometric Analysis |journal=Biomimetics |date=24 January 2022 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=21 |doi=10.3390/biomimetics7010021 |pmid=35225914 |pmc=8883929 |doi-access=free }}</ref> textiles,<ref name="Weerasinghe">{{cite journal |last1=Weerasinghe |first1=Du |last2=Perera |first2=Srimala |last3=Dissanayake |first3=Dgk |title=Application of biomimicry for sustainable functionalization of textiles: review of current status and prospectus |journal=Textile Research Journal |date=October 2019 |volume=89 |issue=19–20 |pages=4282–4294 |doi=10.1177/0040517518821911 |s2cid=104351504 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0040517518821911 |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |issn=0040-5175}}</ref> medicine,<ref name="Stenvinkel">{{cite journal |last1=Stenvinkel |first1=P |last2=Painer |first2=J |last3=Johnson |first3=RJ |last4=Natterson-Horowitz |first4=B |title=Biomimetics - Nature's roadmap to insights and solutions for burden of lifestyle diseases. |journal=Journal of Internal Medicine |date=March 2020 |volume=287 |issue=3 |pages=238–251 |doi=10.1111/joim.12982 |pmid=31639885 |s2cid=204850089 |doi-access=free |pmc=7035180 }}</ref> transportation,<ref name="Boaretto">{{cite journal |last1=Boaretto |first1=Joel |last2=Fotouhi |first2=Mohammad |last3=Tende |first3=Eduardo |last4=Aver |first4=Gustavo Francisco |last5=Marcon |first5=Victoria Rafaela Ritzel |last6=Cordeiro |first6=Guilherme Luís |last7=Bergmann |first7=Carlos Pérez |last8=Vannucchi de Camargo |first8=Felipe |title=Biomimetics and Composite Materials toward Efficient Mobility: A Review |journal=Journal of Composites Science |date=January 2021 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=22 |doi=10.3390/jcs5010022 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and agriculture.<ref name="Othmani">{{cite journal |last1=Othmani |first1=N I |last2=Sahak |first2=N M |last3=Yunos |first3=M Y M |title=Biomimicry in agrotechnology: Future solution of water problem for the agriculture industry? |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |date=1 May 2021 |volume=756 |issue=1 |pages=012051 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/756/1/012051 |bibcode=2021E&ES..756a2051O |s2cid=235289103 |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/756/1/012051/pdf |access-date=7 October 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Gremmen">{{cite journal |last1=Gremmen |first1=Bart |title=Regenerative agriculture as a biomimetic technology |journal=Outlook on Agriculture |date=March 2022 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=39–45 |doi=10.1177/00307270211070317 |s2cid=245820727 |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/00307270211070317 |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en |issn=0030-7270|doi-access=free }}</ref>
The Biomimicry Institute supports the development of nature-inspired solutions for the [[sustainability]] of the planet.<ref name="mission"/><ref name="Linder">{{cite journal |last1=Linder |first1=Benjamin |last2=Huang |first2=Jean |title=Beyond Structure-Function: Getting at Sustainability within Biomimicry Pedagogy |journal=Biomimetics |date=September 2022 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=90 |doi=10.3390/biomimetics7030090 |pmid=35892360 |pmc=9326754 |language=en |issn=2313-7673|doi-access=free }}</ref> Within the larger field of biomimicry the Institute has three primary objectives, to change the areas of:
1) Education: Increase access to high quality materials and services for learning, teaching, and practicing biomimicry as a design process.<ref name="mission"/><ref name="MacKinnon"/><ref name="Baldwin">{{cite news |last1=Baldwin |first1=Eric |title=Biomimicry Institute Launches New Online Course for Designers |url=https://www.archdaily.com/935248/biomimicry-institute-launches-new-online-course-for-designers |access-date=7 October 2022 |work=ArchDaily |date=11 March 2020}}</ref>
2) Practice: Develop the proficiency and practice of next generation innovators so that they have the orientation, skills, and support necessary to use biomimicry to tackle pressing sustainability challenges.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Biomimicry Process |url=https://toolbox.biomimicry.org/methods/process/ |website=Biomimicry Toolbox |access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="mission"/><ref name="MacKinnon"/>
3) Culture: Shift the design culture so that biomimicry is widely recognized and used as a tool to advance sustainable and restorative innovation.<ref name="mission"/><ref name="MacKinnon"/>
==History==
In 1998, Benyus and Dayna Baumeister co-founded the Biomimicry Guild<ref name="Bernstein"/><ref name="Hayes"/> as an innovation consultancy. Their goal was to help innovators learn from and emulate natural models in order to design [[sustainable]] products, processes, and policies that create conditions conducive to life.<ref name="Donoff">{{cite news |last1=Donoff |first1=Elizabeth |title=One-on-One with Janine Benyus Championing nature as the source for sustainable design solutions |url=https://www.architectmagazine.com/technology/lighting/one-on-one-with-janine-benyus_o |access-date=6 October 2022 |work=Architect |date=July 30, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Bernstein"/>
In 2006, Benyus co-founded [[The Biomimicry Institute]] with Dayna Baumeister and Bryony Schwan.<ref name="mission"/> Beth Rattner is Executive Director of the [[non-profit organization]],<ref name="Bonime"/> whose mission is to naturalize biomimicry in the culture by promoting the transfer of ideas, designs, and strategies from biology to sustainable human systems design.<ref name="MacKinnon"/>
In 2008 the Biomimicry Institute launched AskNature.org, "an encyclopedia of nature's solutions to common design problems".<ref name="Wendt">{{cite news |last1=Wendt |first1=Allyson |title=AskNature.org Connects Designers to Biomimicry Research |url=https://www.buildinggreen.com/newsbrief/asknatureorg-connects-designers-biomimicry-research |access-date=6 October 2022 |work=BuildingGreen |date=4 December 2008 |language=en}}</ref> The Biomimicry Institute has become a key communicator in the field of biomimetics, connecting thousands of practitioners and organizations in 38 regional networks and 26 countries through its Biomimicry Global Network as of 2022.<ref name="MacKinnon"/>
In 2010, Benyus, Dayna Baumeister, Bryony Schwan, and Christopher Lee Allen formed Biomimicry 3.8, separated their for-profit and nonprofit work by creating a [[benefit corporation]]. Biomimicry 3.8, which achieved [[B Corporation (certification)|B-corp certification]],<ref name="ASU2013">{{cite news |title=Benyus to receive honorary degree |url=https://news.asu.edu/content/benyus-receive-honorary-degree |access-date=6 October 2022 |work=ASU News |date=5 April 2013 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Biomimicry 3.8 - Certified B Corporation - B Lab Global |url=https://www.bcorporation.net/en-us/find-a-b-corp/company/biomimicry-38 |website=www.bcorporation.net |access-date=6 October 2022 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name="Merritt">{{cite news |last1=Merritt |first1=Elizabeth |title=To B Corps or not to B Corps—A Case Study |url=https://www.aam-us.org/2017/06/20/to-b-corps-or-not-to-b-corps-a-case-study/ |access-date=6 October 2022 |work=American Alliance of Museums |agency=Center for the Future Of Museums Blog |date=20 June 2017}}</ref>
offers consultancy, professional training, development for educators,<ref name="ASU2013"/> and "inspirational speaking".<ref name="Bryony">{{cite web |title=About - Bryony Schwan Consulting - Missoula, Montana |url=https://bryonyschwan.com/about/ |website=Bryony Schwan Consulting |access-date=6 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="Scanlon">{{cite news |last1=Scanlon |first1=Jessie |title=Janine Benyus Looks to Nature for Design Inspiration |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-04-07/8-innovations-inspired-by-nature-s-genius |access-date=5 October 2022 |work=Bloomberg |date=April 7, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Zari">{{cite book |last1=Zari |first1=Maibritt Pedersen |last2=Connolly |first2=Peter |last3=Southcombe |first3=Mark |title=Ecologies Design: Transforming Architecture, Landscape, and Urbanism |date=7 July 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-06651-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy_sDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT97 |language=en}}</ref> Among its more than 250 clients are [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]], [[Kohler Co.|Kohler]]. [[Seventh Generation Inc.|Seventh Generation]] and [[C40 Cities]].<ref name="clients">{{cite web |title=Work Examples |url=https://biomimicry.net/work-examples/ |website=Biomimicry 3.8 |access-date=6 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="Hayes">{{cite news |last1=Hayes |first1=Megan |title=Janine Benyus on 3.8 billion-year-old solutions to today's design challenges |url=https://today.appstate.edu/2018/08/15/benyus |access-date=6 October 2022 |work=Appalachian Today |date=August 15, 2018 |language=en}}</ref> By 2013, over 100 universities had joined the Biomimicry Educator’s Network, offering training in biomimetics.<ref name="ASU2013"/> In 2014, the profit and non-profit aspects again became separate entities, with Biomimicry 3.8 engaging in for-profit consultancy and the Biomimicry Institute as a non-profit organization.<ref name="G20">{{cite web |title=Biomimicry Institute |url=https://www.g20-insights.org/think_tanks/biomimicry-institute/ |website=G20 Insights |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=de}}</ref>
==Programs==
'''AskNature''' is a freely accessible and comprehensive online database that connects nature's solutions with innovation professionals, students, and educators. Launched in 2008,<ref name="Wendt" /> AskNature contains nearly 1,700 "biological strategies" describing how living systems have adapted to thrive amongst a myriad of conditions and challenges. It also features a catalog of bio-inspired inventions and research projects, and a resource library for people learning about and teaching bio-inspired design.<ref>{{cite web |title=Field Guide to the Field Guide — AskNature |url=https://asknature.org/field-guide-to-the-field-guide/ |access-date=7 October 2022 |website=asknature.org}}</ref><ref name="Penick">{{cite journal |last1=Penick |first1=Clint A |last2=Cope |first2=Grace |last3=Morankar |first3=Swapnil |last4=Mistry |first4=Yash |last5=Grishin |first5=Alex |last6=Chawla |first6=Nikhilesh |last7=Bhate |first7=Dhruv |date=29 June 2022 |title=The Comparative Approach to Bio-Inspired Design: Integrating Biodiversity and Biologists into the Design Process |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icac097 |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |pages= |doi=10.1093/icb/icac097 |pmid=35767863 |access-date=7 October 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Bhatnagar">{{cite web |last1=Bhatnagar |first1=Sampada |date=8 January 2022 |title=Nature-inspired innovations: Applying design thinking to biomimicry |url=https://uxdesign.cc/nature-inspired-innovations-applying-design-thinking-to-biomimicry-56bc568ea063 |access-date=7 October 2022 |website=UX Collective |language=en}}</ref> According to the annual report for 2013-2014, over half a million people had visited AskNature in one year,<ref>{{cite web |title=Biomimicry Institute Annual Report 2013-2014 |url=https://biomimicry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/The_Biomimicry_Institute_Annual_Report_2013-2014-Spreads.pdf |access-date=7 October 2022 |website=Biomimicry Institute |page=12}}</ref>
The '''Biomimicry Youth Design Challenge (YDC)''' is a hands-on, project-based learning experience for middle and high school students. This STEM challenge provides classroom and informal educators with an interdisciplinary framework that combines science, engineering, and environmental literacy with the envisioning of solutions to social and environmental problems. Students identify problems, find inspiration in nature, and engineer designs to mitigate their problems. Students combine biological strategies from multiple organisms into their design. For example, a team of seventh graders wanted to reduce the need for harmful ice-melting products. They developed a design to reduce ice buildup on airplane wings after studying the structures of mint leaves, cicada wings and pine needles.<ref name="Matheson">{{cite news |last1=Matheson |first1=Hilary |title=Middle school team takes second in national Youth Design Challenge |url=https://dailyinterlake.com/news/2022/jun/17/middle-school-team-takes-second-national-youth-des/ |access-date=4 October 2022 |work=Daily Inter Lake |date=17 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
The '''Ray of Hope Prize®''' identifies the top nature-inspired startups in the world and fosters their growth by providing sustainable business training, communications support, and opportunities for non-dilutive funding—the top being a $100,000 equity-free prize.<ref>{{Cite web |title=You are being redirected... |url=https://biomimicry.org/rayofhopeprize |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=biomimicry.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Petrisor/Pexels |first=Published 2 months ago About a 7 minute read Image: Cosmin |date=2022-08-16 |title=10 Biomimetic Innovations Poised to Tackle Countless Climate, Biodiversity, Business Challenges |url=https://sustainablebrands.com/read/product-service-design-innovation/10-biomimetic-innovations-poised-to-tackle-countless-climate-biodiversity-business-challenges |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=Sustainable Brands |language=en}}</ref>
The '''Biomimicry Launchpad''' is an accelerator program that supports early-stage entrepreneurs working to bring nature-inspired innovations to market. The Launchpad provides entrepreneurs with resources to launch and grow biomimicry businesses, accelerates the development and commercialization of biomimicry innovations, and helps create new sustainability entrepreneurs.<ref name="Ray2022">{{cite news |title=10 Biomimetic Innovations Poised to Tackle Countless Climate, Biodiversity, Business Challenges |url=https://sustainablebrands.com/read/product-service-design-innovation/10-biomimetic-innovations-poised-to-tackle-countless-climate-biodiversity-business-challenges |access-date=4 September 2022 |work=Sustainable Brands |date=16 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Anderson">{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Ray C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uaWSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 |title=Mid-Course Correction Revisited: The Story and Legacy of a Radical Industrialist and his Quest for Authentic Change |last2=Lanier |first2=John A. |date=2019 |publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing |isbn=978-1-60358-889-8 |language=en |access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="tomato">{{cite news |title=Adaptations in Nature Inspire Students in Award-Winning Design to Reduce Food Waste |url=https://www.pratt.edu/news/adaptations-in-nature-inspire-students-in-award-winning-design-to-reduce-fo/ |access-date=7 October 2022 |work=Pratt |date=6 June 2022 |language=en-us}}</ref>
'''Design for Decomposition''' launched in December 2021 and is a two-year, multi-million dollar project dedicated to demonstrating scalable new pathways for the ~92 million tonnes of fashion waste discarded annually by embracing true decomposition—the way leaves break down into soil—that builds healthy ecosystems.<ref name="d4d.biomimicry.org">{{Cite web |title=The Nature of Fashion: Design for Decomposition - The Biomimicry Institute |url=https://d4d.biomimicry.org/ |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=d4d.biomimicry.org}}</ref>
The initiative originated from the 2020 Nature of Fashion report,<ref>{{Cite web |title=You are being redirected... |url=https://biomimicry.org/thenatureoffashion/ |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=biomimicry.org}}</ref> which identified decomposition as a critical part of nature’s material cycles missing from current industrial thinking, and design for decomposition as the quickest route to a regenerative and equitable fashion industry.
The '''Biomimicry Global Design Challenge (BGDC)''' was an annual program that gave scientists, inventors and designers the opportunity to apply biomimicry to create solutions to problems of climate change. Whether emulating the functions of a healthy forest floor to support cost-effective reforestation, or creating a rock-like aggregate that sequesters carbon in concrete (modeled on the formation of shells and coral reefs), the design challenge teams created solutions to man-made problems by learning from nature.<ref name="Rainey">{{cite news |last1=Rainey |first1=James |date=October 28, 2018 |title=To fight global warming, humans look to plants and animals |language=en |work=NBC News |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/how-plants-animals-are-teaching-scientists-fight-climate-change-ncna924946 |access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="O'Reilly">{{cite news |last1=O'Reilly |first1=Katie |date=November 6, 2017 |title=Innovators Compete for $100,000 to Revolutionize Global Food Systems |language=en |work=www.sierraclub.org |url=https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/innovators-compete-for-100000-revolutionize-global-food-systems |access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref> Participants received access to training, mentoring, and other resources. Finalists were invited to join the Biomimicry Launchpad to get support to bring their design to market.<ref name="Anderson" /> The program was first announced at the 2014 Annual Meeting of the [[Clinton Global Initiative]]. The first two years of the challenge focused on the issue of [[food insecurity]].<ref>{{cite news |date=September 22, 2014 |title=Ray C. Anderson Foundation and Biomimicry Institute Announce Biomimicry Design Challenge and "Ray of Hope" $100,000 Prize Press Release |work=Biomimicry.org |url=https://biomimicry.org/rcaf-bi-design-challenge/ |access-date=18 October 2022}}</ref> The Challenge was discontinued in 2021.
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Biomimicry}}
[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in Montana]]
[[Category:Biomimetics]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
De Ceuvel | {{Short description|Circular office park on former shipyard in Amsterdam}}
{{Orphan|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox urban development project
| embed =
| name = De Ceuvel
| image = 2019-06-09-De Ceuvel-5737.jpg
| caption = Houseboats and jetty at De Ceuvel
| other_names = De Ceuvel-Volharding
| location = Amsterdam
| address = Korte Papaverweg 2-6, 1032KB Amsterdam
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| buildings = 17
| size = 1250 m2
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'''De Ceuvel''' is a former shipyard in [[Amsterdam-Noord|North Amsterdam]], repurposed as a circular office park. Former houseboats hoisted onto the land are used as workspaces and ateliers for various creative and sustainable initiatives.<ref name="Schuetze">{{Cite news |last=Schuetze |first=Christopher F. |date=2014-11-19 |title=Building a Community on Polluted Land |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/20/business/energy-environment/ex-shipyard-in-amsterdam-houses-shops-and-offices.html |access-date=2022-11-08 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Plants purify the polluted soil through [[phytoremediation]] and the terrain is used for various experiments with clean technologies. The terrain has a bed-and-breakfast and a cafe-restaurant which is famous for its sustainable approach.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Eamon |title=Regeneration of Disused Industrial Heritage Spaces of Europe and Beyond: Recreated Spaces, Transformed Communities and Contested Sustainability? |url=https://www.globalbuiltenvironmentreview.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/ReidGBER2018ASpecialIssue.pdf |journal=Global Built Environment Review}}</ref>
== History ==
[[File:2019-06-09-De_Ceuvel-5732.jpg|thumb|Timeline with pictures on an information sign at the terrain]]
In 1919 a shipyard was built next to the Fokker factory. Partly due to the ice-free water at the wharf in the winter, the company flourished from the 1920s. During [[World War II]], it was slightly damaged by bombs dropping on the nearby Fokker factory. In the 1950s, Louis Marie Pieterson bought the shipyard in poor financial condition. He invested in a new engine room and a new pier and also built his private house on the yard of the shipyard. In the early 1970s, the De Ceuvel company bought the facility, which was expanded several times in the following years. However, the yard closed in 2000, partly due to competition and plans to build a bridge that would restrict access for ships. The shipyard buildings were demolished in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web |title=De Ceuvel |url=https://www.asileflottant.com/de-ceuvel/ |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=Hotel Asile Flottant |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url= https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2019-06-09-De_Ceuvel-5737.jpg |title=History of De Ceuvel sign |website=Wikimedia Commons|date=9 June 2019 }}</ref>
In 2012, a team of architects won a ten-year lease for their concept of sustainable office park De Ceuvel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=De Ceuvel |url=https://openresearch.amsterdam/nl/page/31942/de-ceuvel |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=openresearch.amsterdam |language=nl}}</ref> Since 2013, houseboats have been hoisted out of the water and positioned on land. The site opened in 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barba Lata |first1=Iulian |last2=Duineveld |first2=Martijn |date=November 2019 |title=A harbour on land: De Ceuvel's topologies of creative reuse |journal=Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space |language=en |volume=51 |issue=8 |pages=1758–1774 |doi=10.1177/0308518X19860540 |issn=0308-518X|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019EnPlA..51.1758B }}</ref>
== Terrain and sustainable technologies ==
[[File:De_Ceuvel_(20468018631).jpg|thumb|Repurposed houseboats at De Ceuvel]]
[[File:2019-06-09-De_Ceuvel-1.jpg|thumb|The boats are connected through a jetty on land]]
De Ceuvel is a site of 1250 m² located at the ''Van Hasselt Canal'' with 15 former houseboats on land. The houseboat concept takes into account the temporality of the project and is intended to make it easier to move the project later on.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Schwantje |first=Gunda |date=2015-08-23 |title=Alternative Stadtplanung: Die Verknüpfung der Elemente |language=de |work=Die Tageszeitung: taz |url=https://taz.de/!5218419/ |access-date=2022-11-08 |issn=0931-9085}}</ref> Due to the soil contamination, it was not possible to dig deeper than 50 cm for foundations or utility pipes, so that they run over the surface.<ref name="Schuetze"/>
The boats were converted into offices, studios and workspaces. The architects, landscape planners and sustainability experts opted for low-cost solutions to make the boats largely self-sufficient, using solar heating, heat exchangers and composting toilets, as well as filtering and using rainwater and vegetable wastewater treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Klaversma |first1=E. |last2=Roest |first2=K. |last3=Smeets |first3=P. |last4=van den Brand |first4=T. |last5=Cortial |first5=H. |date=2016 |title=Decentral drinking water and wastewater treatment at 'De Ceuvel' in Amsterdam |url=http://uest.ntua.gr/swws/proceedings/pdf/SWWS2016_Klaversma.pdf |journal=The International Water Association}}</ref> According to the operators, water consumption is around 75% lower than a conventional commercial space of this size. Plants are also used to clean the contaminated soil. They remove toxic metals from the soil through phytoremediation.<ref name=":0" /> Since 2017 De Ceuvel has experimented with blockchain technologies to be able to trade sustainable energy within the community.<ref>{{Cite web |last=City |first=Amsterdam Smart |title=Jouliette |url=https://amsterdamsmartcity.com/updates/project/blockchain-based-energy-token |access-date=8 November 2022 |website=Amsterdam Smart City |date=27 September 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bekhuis |first=Kyra |date=21 June 2018 |title=The transition towards a sustainable way of living: an evaluation of the energy system at De Ceuvel |url=https://studenttheses.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/20.500.12932/31201/Bekhuis_Kyra_5553318.pdf?sequence=2 |website=Student Theses University of Utrecht}}</ref>
The individual houseboats are connected by a winding plank-clad wooden jetty. In the center of the area there is a café with terrace and a bed and breakfast. The future destination of the site after ten years of interim use is still uncertain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=De Ceuvel |url=https://beyond-social.org/archive/articles/De_Ceuvel.html |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=beyond-social.org}}</ref>
== Café de Ceuvel ==
[[File:Cafe_de_Ceuvel_(40222344863).jpg|thumb|Café de Ceuvel]]
The cafe-restaurant, designed by architect Wouter Valkenier, was also built with recycled materials such as a former emergency brigade and 80-year-old bollards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lata |first1=Iulian Barba |last2=Duineveld |first2=Martijn |title=A harbour on land: De Ceuvel's topologies of creative reuse |url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/236875/236875.pdf?sequence=1 |journal=Economy and Space|date=2019 |volume=51 |issue=8 |page=1758 |doi=10.1177/0308518X19860540 |bibcode=2019EnPlA..51.1758B }}</ref> The cafe has been praised for its radically sustainable approach,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-12-03 |title=ENTREE Hospitality & Style Awards 2014 |url=https://www.glamourland.tv/entree-hospitality-style-awards-2014/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Glamourland Magazine |language=nl}}</ref> which cooks partly with ingredients from a greenhouse on the roof and organizes festivals around the theme. In 2017 a [[Omroep NTR|public broadcaster (NTR)]] made a documentary on the story behind the owners.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hsLEnSpDhe8 |title=Make the world great again - NTR Documentaire over Café de Ceuvel |language=nl-NL}}</ref> The cafe was in the newspaper in 2021 as it convinced the Dutch Hospitality Pension Fund through a campaign to be the first fund in the country to divest from fossil fuels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Café de Ceuvel in Amsterdam wanted to save the planet, and the pension fund eventually joined in |url=https://www.paudal.com/2021/09/27/cafe-de-ceuvel-in-amsterdam-wanted-to-save-the-planet-and-the-pension-fund-eventually-joined-in/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=NRC |language=en}}</ref>
== External links ==
* [https://deceuvel.nl/en/ Official website]
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Amsterdam-Noord]]
[[Category:Industrial parks]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Sustainable finance | {{Short description|Financial regulations, standards, norms and products that pursue an environmental objective.}}
'''Sustainable finance''' is the set of financial regulations, standards, norms and products that pursue an environmental objective. It allows the [[financial system]] to connect with the economy and its populations by financing its agents while maintaining a growth objective. The long-standing concept was promoted with the adoption of the [[Paris Agreement|Paris Climate Agreement]], which stipulates that parties must make "finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and climate-resilient development."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf |title=Paris Agreement |date=2015 |website=[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]}}</ref> In addition, sustainable finance had already a key role to play in the [[European Green Deal]] and in other EU International agreements, but since the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] its role is even more important.
In 2015, the [[UN|United Nations]] adopted the [[2030 Agenda]] to steer the transition towards a sustainable and inclusive economy. This commitment involves 193 member states and comprises 17 goals and 169 targets. [[Sustainable Development Goals|SDGs]] aimed at tackling current global challenges, including protecting the planet. Sustainable finance has become a key cornerstone for the achievement of these goals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/banking-and-finance/sustainable-finance/overview-sustainable-finance_en|title=Overview of sustainable finance|website=European Commission}}</ref>
==Terminology==
The terminology is essential to understand the different concepts around sustainable finance and the differences. The [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) defines three concepts that are different but often used as synonyms, namely: climate, green and sustainable finance. First, [[climate finance]] is a subset of [[environmental finance]], it mainly refers to funds which are addressing [[climate change]] adaptation and mitigation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/10603/definitions_concept.pdf |title=United Nations Environment Programme, Definitions and Concepts |date=2016 |website=[[United Nations Environment Programme]]}}</ref> Then, green finance has a broader scope because it also covers other environmental issues such as [[biodiversity]] protection. Lastly, sustainable finance includes [[Environmental, Social and Corporate Governance]] (ESG) factors in its scope. Sustainable finance extends its domain to the three components of ESG; it is therefore the broadest term, covering all financing activities that contribute to sustainable development.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/store/en/PUB100458.pdf |title=Green and sustainable finance |date=2022 |website=[[ISO]]}}</ref>
== International Initiative ==
By signing the [[Paris Agreement]], more than 190 countries have committed to fighting climate change and reducing [[environmental degradation]]. To reach the target of a maximum temperature increase of 2 °C, we need billions of green investments each year in key sectors of the global economy. Public finance will continue to play a key role, but a significant share of the funding will have to come from the private sector. Because financial markets are global, they offer a great opportunity, but this potential is largely untapped. Indeed, to mobilize international investors, it is necessary to promote integrated markets for environmentally sustainable finance at the global level.The UNFCCC and Paris Agreement's collective goal of mobilizing USD 100 billion per year by 2020 in the context of meaningful mitigation action and transparency on implementation fell short in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AR6 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2023 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.ipcc.ch |language=en}}</ref> Therefore, this requires a high degree of coherence between the different capital market frameworks and tools that are essential for investors to identify and seize green investment opportunities. This means working together to ensure the potential of financial markets, and it is in this context that the International Platform on Sustainable Finance has been created.<ref name=":7">{{cite web |title=International Platform on Sustainable Finance |url=https://finance.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2021-11/international-platform-sustainable-finance-factsheet_en.pdf |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=Europa}}</ref>
=== International Platform on Sustainable Finance (IPSF) ===
The International Platform on Sustainable Finance (IPSF) was launched on 18 October 2019 by the [[European Union]]. The platform is a multi-stakeholder forum for dialogue between policymakers tasked with developing regulatory measures for sustainable finance to help investors identify and seize sustainable investment opportunities that truly contribute to climate and environmental goals.<ref name=":7"/><ref>{{cite web |title=International Platform on Sustainable Finance |url=https://finance.ec.europa.eu/sustainable-finance/international-platform-sustainable-finance_en#:~:text=The%20platform%20is%20a%20forum,invested%20in%20environmentally%20sustainable%20investments.&text=The%20ultimate%20objective%20of%20the,capital%20towards%20environmentally%20sustainable%20investments. |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=Europa}}</ref>
The founding members of the IPSF are obviously the [[European Union]], but also the competent authorities of [[Argentina]], [[Canada]], [[Chile]], [[China]], [[India]], [[Kenya]] and [[Morocco]]. However, since its foundation, the [[Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China|Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (HKSAR)]], [[Indonesia]], [[Japan]], [[Malaysia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Senegal]], [[Singapore]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[United Kingdom]] have also joined IPSF. Together, the 18 IPSF members represent 50% of the world's [[greenhouse gas emissions]], 50% of the world's population and 45% of the world's GDP.<ref name=":7"/>
There are also seven Observers of the International Platform, namely, the [[European Central Bank]], [[European Investment Bank]], [[OECD]], [[UNEP]], NGFS, OICV-IOSCO and The Coalition of Finance Ministers for Climate Action.<ref name=":7" />
The ultimate objectives of the IPSF are to scale up the mobilization of private capital towards environmentally sustainable finance at the global level and to promote integrated markets for environmentally sustainable finance to increase the amount of private capital invested in environmentally sustainable investments by enabling members to exchange and disseminate information to promote best practice, benchmark their different initiatives and identify barriers and opportunities for sustainable finance while respecting national and regional contexts. Where appropriate, willing members can work to align their initiatives and approaches.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Platform on Sustainable Finance (IPSF) |url=https://www.switch-asia.eu/resource/international-platform-on-sustainable-finance-ipsf/ |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=Switchasia}}</ref>
== Sustainable Finance and China ==
=== Development of Sustainable Finance in China ===
China, as one of the world's largest economies and a global leader in environmental challenges, has taken significant strides in the development of sustainable finance. The country's journey toward integrating environmental, social, and governance ([[Environmental, social, and corporate governance|ESG]]) criteria into its financial system is characterized by a commitment to addressing climate change, promoting green investment, and adopting international best practices.
=== Catalyst of Sustainable Finance in China ===
==== Green Bond Market in China ====
A pivotal moment in China's sustainable finance journey was the emergence of green bonds. In 2015, the [[People's Bank of China]] and the [[National Development and Reform Commission]] issued guidelines for green bond issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=People's Bank of China Green Bond Endorsed Project Catalogue (2020 Edition) {{!}} Green Finance Platform |url=https://www.greenfinanceplatform.org/policies-and-regulations/peoples-bank-china-green-bond-endorsed-project-catalogue-2020-edition |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=www.greenfinanceplatform.org}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Zhang |first=Hao |date=January 2020 |year=2020 |title=REGULATING GREEN BONDS IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA: DEFINITIONAL DIVERGENCE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY MAKING |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/562076/adbi-wp1072.pdf |access-date=November 17, 2023 |website=ADBI Working Paper Series}}</ref> These guidelines established the framework for certifying and regulating green bonds, ushering in a new era of green investment in the country. The guidelines looked to help classify projects and set eligibility criteria within six environmental sectors.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last1=Deng |first1=Manshu |last2=Xie |first2=Wenhong |last3=MacGeoch |first3=Matthew |last4=Xu |first4=Xinru |last5=Shi |first5=Yi |last6=Shang |first6=Jin |last7=Chen |first7=Yingying |last8=Lu |first8=Zhengwei |last9=Qian |first9=Lihua |date=May 2023 |title=China Sustainable Debt - State of the Market Report 2022 |url=https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi_china_sotm_22_en.pdf |access-date=November 17, 2023 |website=Climate Bonds Initiative}}</ref> By the end of 2022 China had a cumulative labelled green bond volume of USD489bn (RMB 3.3tn).<ref name=":12" /> In June 2020, the People's Bank of China (PBoC), China's central bank, China Securities and Regulatory Commission (CSRC), and National Development and Reform Commission released a Green Bond Endorsed Project Catalogue draft which looked to build an overarching guideline for green bonds in China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=People's Bank of China Green Bond Endorsed Project Catalogue (2020 Edition) {{!}} Green Finance Platform |url=https://www.greenfinanceplatform.org/policies-and-regulations/peoples-bank-china-green-bond-endorsed-project-catalogue-2020-edition |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=www.greenfinanceplatform.org}}</ref><ref name=":02" /> China has since become the world's largest issuer of green bonds, with both domestic and international issuers seeking to fund environmentally friendly projects. Notable examples of issuers include the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC), which among the 40 green [[Kungfu bond|Kung Fu bond]] issuers ranked the largest with at about 6.75bn USD.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Meng |first1=Alan X. |last2=Xie |first2=Wenhong |last3=Shao |first3=Huan |last4=Shang |first4=Jin |last5=Qiqige |first5=Zhula |date=July 2021 |title=China Green Bond Market Report – 2022 |url=https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi_china_sotm_2021_06c_final_0.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119011357/https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi_china_sotm_2021_06c_final_0.pdf |access-date=November 17, 2023 |website=Climate Bonds Initiative |archive-date=November 19, 2023 }}</ref>
==== Promotion of Green Finance Policies in China ====
China's commitment to sustainable finance is reinforced by its strategic policy decisions. In 2016, the People's Bank of China launched a green finance pilot program in five provinces, followed by the Green Credit Issuance Guidelines, encouraging financial institutions to support green projects and integrate ESG criteria into their lending practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yanbo |last2=Li |first2=Xiang |date=2022-06-15 |title=The Impact of the Green Finance Reform and Innovation Pilot Zone on the Green Innovation—Evidence from China |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=7330 |doi=10.3390/ijerph19127330 |issn=1661-7827 |pmc=9223728 |pmid=35742578 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In June 2022, China's National Development and Reform Commission released its 14th 5 year plan on renewable energy development (2021-2025), to accelerate renewable energy expansion.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=zhoufeng |title=China's 14th Five-Year Plans on Renewable Energy Development and Modern Energy System |url=https://www.efchina.org/Blog-en/blog-20220905-en |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=www.efchina.org |language=en}}</ref> The plan looks to increase renewable energy generation by 50% and looks for a target of 3.3 trillion kWh as compared to 2020's 2.2 trillion kWh and hopes to reduce emissions by 2.6 gigatons annually.<ref name=":14"/> China's National Energy Administration has also furthered this goal by introducing policies supporting renewable energy development, facilitating investments in wind, solar, and hydroelectric power.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Shangjia |last2=Zhao |first2=Wenhui |last3=Fan |first3=Shuwen |last4=Xue |first4=Lei |last5=Huang |first5=Zijuan |last6=Liu |first6=Zhigang |date=January 2022 |title=Is the Renewable Portfolio Standard in China Effective? Research on RPS Allocation Efficiency in Chinese Provinces Based on the Zero-Sum DEA Model |journal=Energies |language=en |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=3949 |doi=10.3390/en15113949 |issn=1996-1073 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
China's National Energy Administration is committed to supporting renewable energy development through a variety of policies, including feed-in tariffs, renewable portfolio standards, investment subsidies, and grid access.<ref name=":13" /> These policies have helped to make China the world leader in renewable energy development, and are attracting significant investment in renewable energy projects. The China Development Bank issued green bonds worth 10 billion yuan to improve the environmental protection efforts of the Yellow River and advance social development of regions.<ref>{{Cite web |website=China Development Bank |date=August 24, 2021 |title=China Development Bank enhances green initiatives |url=https://www.cdb.com.cn/English/xwzx_715/khdt/202108/t20210824_8996.html |access-date=December 1, 2023}}</ref> These efforts reflect China's aim to align its financial system with green development goals and transition toward a low-carbon economy.
==== International Collaboration ====
China recognizes the importance of international collaboration in sustainable finance. In 2015, China established the Green Finance Committee (GFC) to promote the development of green finance and align with international green finance principles. This platform was created in response to China hosting the G20 and has only grown since its founding. The GFC has actively engaged with global organizations such as the Green Finance Initiative (GFI) in the United Kingdom, contributing to a greater understanding of green finance's international dynamics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Fourth Anniversary of the China Green Finance Committee |url=https://www.paulsoninstitute.org/green-finance/green-scene/the-fourth-anniversary-of-the-china-green-finance-committee/ |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=Paulson Institute |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Next Generation of China for Sustainable Finance ===
China's dedication to sustainable finance is extending to multiple fronts, demonstrating a holistic approach to green development. The ambitious [[Belt and Road Initiative]] (BRI), a flagship project spanning numerous countries, is increasingly embracing green finance principles, prioritizing eco-friendly investments across its vast infrastructure and development endeavors. This shift aligns the BRI with sustainability goals, emphasizing clean energy, climate resilience, and biodiversity protection in partner nations.<ref name=":04">{{Cite web |last1=Ivey |first1=Rebecca |last2=Song |first2=Sha |last3=Guo |first3=Kaidi |last4=Yeung |first4=Elton |last5=Cai |first5=Amy |last6=Qing |first6=Ni |last7=Leung |first7=Sammie |last8=Kuo |first8=Ivy |last9=Qian |first9=Wu |display-authors=3 |title=Advancing the Green Development of the Belt and Road Initiative: Harnessing Finance and Technology to Scale Up Low-Carbon Infrastructure |url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Advancing_the_Green_Development_of_the_Belt_and_Road_Initiative_2022.pdf |access-date=December 1, 2023}}</ref> The Green Investment Principles for the BIR were launched in 2018 and looked to create a plan that calls for assessment and disclosure of strategies for managing climate risk, setting new green investment targets, and a commitment to decreasing investment in carbon-intensive practices.<ref name=":04" /> Simultaneously, the People's Bank of China is diligently crafting a green taxonomy to standardize the classification of environmentally responsible projects and assets, enhancing transparency and reducing the risk of greenwashing.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Alim |first1=Serena |last2=Asakura |first2=Rie |last3=Becka |first3=Nicolas |last4=Benoiton |first4=Cyril |date=April 2022 |title=Enhancing market transparency in green and transition finance |url=https://www.ngfs.net/sites/default/files/medias/documents/enhancing_market_transparency_in_green_and_transition_finance.pdf}}</ref> China is further solidifying its commitment by establishing a Green Finance Research Center, which will act as a global hub for sustainable finance research, fostering international collaboration.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Patel |first=Anika |date=2023-10-06 |title=Experts: How will the next decade of China's 'belt and road initiative' impact climate action? |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/experts-how-will-the-next-decade-of-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-impact-climate-action/ |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}}</ref> Notably, China's 14th Five-Year Plan introduces a comprehensive sustainability approach that permeates various sectors, encompassing agriculture, mining, transportation, and more.<ref name=":14"/> China's active engagement in international collaborations is poised to influence global green finance standards, driving increased transparency and accountability in sustainable investments.<ref name=":14" />
=== Sustainable Finance in Hong Kong ===
Hong Kong’s Financial Secretary, Paul Chan, delivered the 2023-24 budget on 22 February 2023 with the promotion of a [[green economy]], sustainable development and China’s “3060 Dual Carbon Targets” at the forefront.<ref>{{cite web |title= The Way Forward in Green and Sustainable Financing in Hong Kong – A Reflection from the 2023-24 Budget |url=https://www.mayerbrown.com/zh-hans/perspectives-events/publications/2023/03/the-way-forward-in-green-and-sustainable-financing-in-hong-kong-a-reflection-from-the-2023-24-budget |website=Mayer Brown |access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
== Sustainable Finance and The European Union ==
=== European Green Deal===
{{Main|European Green Deal}}
The [[European Green Deal]] is a proposal by the [[European Commission]], approved in 2020, to put in place a series of policies to make Europe climate neutral by 2050 and to cut at least half of its {{CO2}} emissions by 2030.<ref>{{cite web |title=A European Green Deal |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en |website=Europa |date=14 July 2021 |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> Within it, the Commission has promised to raise no less than €1 trillion in order to achieve the objectives of the [[European Green Deal]] by making sustainable investments. Part of this money has been raised to finance the [[Next Generation EU]]. Sustainable finance is therefore one of the pillars on which the EU Green Deal focuses and in addition to its own investments, the Commission would also like to promote private investments by introducing taxonomy regulation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Finance and the Green Deal |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal/finance-and-green-deal_en |website=Europa |access-date=12 November 2022}}</ref>
=== Next Generation EU===
{{Main|Next Generation EU}}
More recently, the [[European Commission]], on behalf of its 27 member states, is also making greater use of green finance, especially [[green bond]] (see green bonds section) to finance part of NextGenerationEU.<ref>{{cite web |title=NextGenerationEU |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/eu-budget/eu-borrower-investor-relations/nextgenerationeu_en |website=Europa |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> The aim of this initiative is to relaunch the economy following [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and aims to improve the [[European Union]] on several levels including; making it greener, accelerating its digitalisation, improving the health system and preparing it for future challenges or supporting young people and making Europe more inclusive.<ref>{{cite web |title=Recovery Plans for Europe |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/recovery-plan-europe_en |website=Europa |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> The main project under this initiative is the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) which provides grants and loan funding to EU member states to support reform and investment. In order to access these funds, each EU Member State must propose a plan which must be approved by the [[European Commission]] and then by the [[Council]]. One of the most important criteria of this plan is that at least 37% is dedicated to the green aspect and 20% to digitalisation. Disbursement is gradual, with 13% received after the contract is signed, and the remainder on the basis of a bi-annual evaluation based on a report submitted and a payment request.<ref>{{cite web |title=Recovery and Resilience Facility |url=https://commission.europa.eu/business-economy-euro/economic-recovery/recovery-and-resilience-facility_en |website=Europa |date=12 February 2021 |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref>
==Tools and Standards==
=== Green bonds ===
{{Main|green bond}}
In order to actually green finance or make it more sustainable, specific tools may be required and some have already been developed. The main one is the [[green bond]]. Green bonds are loans issued in the market by a public or private organization to finance environmentally friendly activities. Their issuance is growing steadily with an average growth of over 50% per year over the last five years. They reached $170 billion in 2018 and $523 billion in 2021.<ref name="Climate Bonds Initiative">{{cite web|title=Climate Bonds Initiative|url=https://www.climatebonds.net/|access-date=2021-10-17|website=Climate Bonds Initiative|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=C |last2=MacGeoch |first2=M |last3=Michetti |first3=C |title=Sustainable Debt Global State of the Market 2021 |date=2022 |publisher=Climate Bonds Initiative |url=https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi_global_sotm_2021_02h_0.pdf |access-date=22 October 2022}}</ref>
The aim of this type of [[bond (finance)]] is to encourage the financing of green projects by attracting investors and therefore reducing the cost of borrowing. According to empirical studies, the high demand for this type of bond provides it with a lower yield than its standard equivalent.<ref name=":4">{{cite book |last1=Gabor |first1=Daniela |last2=Dafermos |first2=Yannis |last3=Nikolaid |first3=Maria |last4=Rice |first4=Peter |last5=van Lerven |first5=Frank |last6=Kerslake |first6=Robert |last7=Pettifor |first7=Ann |last8=Jacobs |first8=Michael |title=Finance and climate change: a progressive green finance strategy for the UK |date=2019 |publisher=Labour |url=https://labour.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/12851_19-Finance-and-Climate-Change-Report.pdf |access-date=11 November 2022}}</ref> Some scientific papers such as Gabor & al. (2019) strongly recommend including this climate factor in the risk assessment of bonds. The aim is, on the one hand, to increase the borrowing cost of brown bonds which can fund carbon-intensive projects and de-incentivise their investment by increasing the weight of climate risk. On the other hand, the goal is to reduce the weight of risk of green bonds in order to stimulate investment and potentially encourage banks to reduce the interest rate of these bonds.<ref name=":4" />
From a legal point of view, green bonds are not really different from traditional bonds. The promises made to investors are not always included in the contract, and not often in a binding way. Issuers of green bonds usually follow standards and principles set by private-led organisations such as the [[International Capital Market Association]] (ICMA)'s Green Bond Principles<ref>{{cite web|title=Green Bond Principles|url=https://www.icmagroup.org/green-social-and-sustainability-bonds/green-bond-principles-gbp/|access-date=2020-05-22|website=www.icmagroup.org}}</ref> or the label of the Climate bond initiative.<ref name="Climate Bonds Initiative" /> The [[Paris Agreement|Paris agreement on climate change]] highlighted a desire to standardize reporting practices related to green bonds, in order to avoid [[greenwashing]]. To date, there are no regulations requiring the borrower to specify its "green" intentions in writing, however, the EU is currently developing a green bond standard which will force issuers to fund activities aligned with the [[EU taxonomy for sustainable activities]].<ref>{{cite web|date=6 July 2021|title=Commission puts forward a new strategy to make the EU's financial system more sustainable and proposes new European Green Bond Standard|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en|access-date=2021-10-17|website=European Commission|language=en}}</ref> This standard is expected to be a voluntary standard, operating alongside other voluntary standards, with academics and practitioners raising the policymakers' awareness to the dangers of imposing it as a mandatory standard.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karim Henide|date=2021-12-22|title=Green lemons: overcoming adverse selection in the green bond market|url=https://www.un-ilibrary.org/content/journals/2076099x/28/3/2|journal=Transnational Corporations|language=en|volume=28|issue=3|pages=35–63|doi=10.18356/2076099x-28-3-2|s2cid=245453922}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Henide|first=Karim|date=2022-01-17|title=The European Central Bank's vision for green bond standards forgoes inclusivity|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2022/01/17/the-european-central-banks-vision-for-green-bond-standards-forgoes-inclusivity/|access-date=2022-01-22|website=LSE Business Review}}</ref>
The [[European Union]] has already created its own "Next Generation EU Green bonds framework" to use green bonds to raise part of the funds for the [[Next Generation EU]] project. This project promises an investment of 750 billion euros in grants and loans (at 2018 prices), by the European Commission, aiming to revive the post-covid-19 economy in the 27 EU member states. Up to 30% of the budget will be raised by issuing green bonds, which results in up to 250 million, and a total of 14.5 million had already been raised by January 2022. This will make the [[European Commission]] the largest issuer of green bonds.<ref name=":4"/>
Empirical studies such as that conducted by Baldi and Pandimiglio (2022) show that the risk of [[greenwashing]] is present and may wrongly induce investors to accept lower rates of return than for brown investments.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Baldi |first1=F |last2=Pandimiglio |first2=A |title=The role of ESG scoring and greenwashing risk in explaining the yields of green bonds: A conceptual framework and econometric analysis. |date=May 2022 |journal=Global Finance Journal |volume=52 |page=100711 |doi=10.1016/j.gfj.2022.100711 |s2cid=246209080 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfj.2022.100711 |access-date=27 October 2022|hdl=11585/947074 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The standardization of this taxonomy would reduce the criticism of greenwashing that can be attributed to this type of obligation and enhance clarity and transparency in their use.<ref name=":3" /> Baldi and Pandimiglio (2022) further suggest that rating agencies focus more on this type of risk in order to identify and quantify it better.<ref name=":5" />
=== Taxonomy of sustainable activities ===
{{Main|EU taxonomy for sustainable activities}}
Because energy transition is a broad concept and sustainability or green can apply to many projects (renewable energy, energy efficiency, waste management, water management, public transportation, reforestation...), several taxonomies are being established to evaluate and certify "green" investments (having no or very little impact on the environment).
In 2018, the [[European Commission]] created a working group of technical experts on sustainable finance (TEG: Technical Expert Group) to define a classification of economic activities (the "taxonomy"), in order to have a robust methodology defining whether an activity or company is sustainable or not. The aim of the taxonomy is to prevent [[greenwashing]] and to help investors make greener choices.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|last=Sholem|first=Michael|date=10 March 2021|title=ESMA Proposes Rules for Taxonomy-Alignment of Non-Financial Undertakings and Asset Managers|url=https://www.natlawreview.com/article/esma-proposes-rules-taxonomy-alignment-non-financial-undertakings-and-asset-managers|access-date=5 April 2021|website=The National Law Review|language=en}}</ref> Investments are judged by six objectives: [[climate change mitigation]], [[climate change adaptation]], the [[circular economy]], pollution, effect on water, and [[biodiversity]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=EU taxonomy for sustainable activities|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/banking-and-finance/sustainable-finance/eu-taxonomy-sustainable-activities_en|access-date=5 April 2021|website=European Commission|language=en}}</ref>
The taxonomy came into force in July 2020.<ref name=":1" /> The taxonomy is seen as the most comprehensive and sophisticated initiative of its type; it may inspire other countries to develop their own taxonomies or may indeed become the world's 'gold standard. However, when the disclosure regime comes into effect in January 2022 there will still be huge gaps in data and it may be several years before it becomes effective.
The classifications of [[Natural gas|fossil gas]] and [[Nuclear power|nuclear energy]] are controversial.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|last=Sánchez Nicolás|first=Elena|date=2 April 2021|title=Experts threaten to quit over new EU 'green finance' rules|url=https://euobserver.com/climate/151437|access-date=5 April 2021|website=EUobserver|language=en}}</ref> The [[European Commission]] asked its [[Joint Research Centre]] to assess the [[environmental sustainability]] of nuclear. The results will be investigated for three months by two expert groups before the Commission makes a decision on the classification.<ref name=":0" /> Natural gas is seen by some countries as the bridge between coal and [[renewable energy]], and those countries argue for natural gas to be considered sustainable under a set of conditions.<ref>{{cite web|last=Morgan|first=Sam|date=29 March 2021|title=View from Brussels: Nuclear power set for EU boost|url=https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2021/03/view-from-brussels-nuclear-power-set-for-eu-boost/|access-date=5 April 2021|website=eandt.theiet.org|language=en-US}}</ref> In response, various members of the expert group that advises the [[European Commission]] threatened to step down. They stated they see the inclusion of gas as a contradiction to climate science, as [[methane emissions]] from the natural gas form are a significant [[greenhouse gas]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite web|last=Hall|first=Siobhan|date=25 March 2021|title=Draft EU taxonomy sparks discord over gas, nuclear future|url=http://www.montelnews.com/en/story/draft-eu-taxonomy-sparks-discord-over-gas-nuclear-future/1207136|access-date=5 April 2021|website=Montel news}}</ref>
The UK is working on its own separate taxonomy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chancellor sets out ambition for future of UK financial services|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/chancellor-sets-out-ambition-for-future-of-uk-financial-services|access-date=2021-05-20|website=GOV.UK|language=en}}</ref>
=== Green-supporting factor on capital requirements ===
To encourage banks to increase green lending, commercial banks<ref>{{cite web|date=2014-01-22|title=Supporting Factor|url=https://www.ebf.eu/sustainable-finance/supporting-factor/|access-date=2021-10-16|website=European Banking Federation|language=en-US|archive-date=2022-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124044244/https://www.ebf.eu/sustainable-finance/supporting-factor/|url-status=dead}}</ref> have been proposing to introduce a "Green-supporting factor" on banks' capital requirements. This proposal is currently being considered by the [[European Commission]] and the European Banking Authority.<ref>{{cite web|title=Keynote speech of Vice-President Valdis Dombrovskis on challenges and impacts of implementing Basel III|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/SPEECH_19_6269|access-date=2021-10-16|website=European Commission - European Commission|language=en}}</ref> However this approach is generally being opposed by central bankers<ref>{{cite web|title=A Green Supporting Factor — The Right Policy?, SUERF Policy Notes .:. SUERF - The European Money and Finance Forum|url=https://www.suerf.org/policynotes/3473/a-green-supporting-factor-the-right-policy|access-date=2021-10-16|website=SUERF.ORG}}</ref> and nonprofits organisations, which propose instead the adoption of higher capital requirements for assets linked with fossil fuels ("Brown-penalizing factor").<ref>{{cite web|date=2020-06-07|title=Report – Breaking the climate-finance doom loop {{!}} Finance Watch|url=https://www.finance-watch.org/publication/breaking-the-climate-finance-doom-loop/|access-date=2021-10-16|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Mandatory and voluntary disclosure ===
{{Main|Sustainability Reporting}}
In addition, another tool and some standards lie in reporting and transparency. In 2015, the Financial Stability Board (FSB) launched the Taskforce on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) which is led by Michael Bloomberg. The TCFD's recommendations aim to encourage companies to better disclose the climate-related risks in their business, as well as their internal governance enabling the management of these risks. In the United Kingdom, the Governor of the Bank of England, Mark Carney, has actively supported the TCFD's recommendations and has called on several occasions for the implementation of obligations for companies in the financial sector to be transparent and to take into account financial risks in their management, notably through climate stress tests.
In France, the 2015 Energy Transition Law requires institutional investors to be transparent about their integration of Environmental, Social and Governance Criteria into their investment strategy.<ref>{{cite web|last=2016-04-22T15:13:00+01:00|title=French Energy Transition Law: Global investor briefing on Article 173|url=https://www.unpri.org/climate-change/french-energy-transition-law-global-investor-briefing-on-article-173/295.article|access-date=2021-10-17|website=PRI|language=en|archive-date=2021-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020091109/https://www.unpri.org/climate-change/french-energy-transition-law-global-investor-briefing-on-article-173/295.article|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Nevertheless, empirical research has shown the limited effect of disclosure policies if they remain voluntary.<ref>Bingler, Julia Anna and Kraus, Mathias and Leippold, Markus, Cheap Talk and Cherry-Picking: What ClimateBert has to say on Corporate Climate Risk Disclosures (March 2, 2021).</ref><ref>Mésonnier Jean-Stéphane, Nguyen Benoît « [https://publications.banque-france.fr/en/showing-cleaner-hands-mandatory-climate-related-disclosure-financial-institutions-and-financing Showing off cleaner hands: mandatory climate-related disclosure by financial institutions and the financing of fossil energy] », Banque de France, January 2021</ref>
In addition, in October 2022, the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive was adopted. This new reporting rule will apply to all large firms, whether listed on stock markets or not. Therefore, around 50,000 companies will be covered by new rules, compared to about 11,700 with the former set of rules. More precisely, the impact of an organization on the environment, human rights and social standards will be introduced in this CSRD. Indeed, this reporting directive asks for more detailed reporting requirements thanks to common criteria, in line with the EU’s climate goals. The Commission will adopt the first set of standards by June 2023 after that, the aim of the Commission is to enlarge more and more companies to this set of standards. Indeed, from 1 January 2026, the rules will apply to listed SMEs and other undertakings, with reports due in 2027. However, SMEs can opt out until 2028. Thanks to this new set of rules, the EU has become a front-runner in global sustainability reporting standards.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable economy: Parliament adopts new reporting rules for multinationals |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20221107IPR49611/sustainable-economy-parliament-adopts-new-reporting-rules-for-multinationals |website=News European Parliament |date=11 October 2022 |access-date=1 December 2022}}</ref>
== Green Monetary Policy ==
Policymakers, through their green monetary policies, help speed up the adoption of sustainable finance by supporting the development of investment instruments and fund structures tailored specifically to sustainable finance, creating incentives for investors, and establishing a regulatory agenda to standardize ESG measures of performance.<ref name="Green central banking">{{cite web |title=Green central banking |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2022)733614 |website=European Parliament |access-date=11 November 2022}}</ref>
=== Green Central Banking ===
The term "Green Central Banking" refers to the critical role that central banks must play in achieving zero-net-emissions targets and mitigating climate change. By adjusting their monetary policies into “green monetary policy” and capital requirements, central banks can redirect investment into green financing.<ref name="Green central banking"/>
=== Network for Greening the Financial System (NGFS) ===
{{Main|Network for Greening the Financial System}}
In 2018, under the leadership of [[Mark Carney]], [[Frank Elderson]], and Banque de France Governor [[François Villeroy de Galhau|Villeroy de Galhau]], eight central banks created the [[Network for Greening the Financial System]] (NGFS), a network of central banks and financial supervisors wanting to explore the potential role of central banks to accompany the energy transition. This network has nearly 116 central banks and supervisors and 19 observers including the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[European Central Bank]] (ECB). Priorities for the NGFS include sharing best practices, advancing climate and environmental risk management in the financial sector, and mobilizing mainstream finance.<ref name="ngfs.net">{{cite web |title=NGFS climate scenarios for central banks and supervisors |url=https://www.ngfs.net/en/ngfs-climate-scenarios-central-banks-and-supervisors |website=NGFS |date=24 June 2020 |access-date=22 November 2022}}</ref>
Several policy options for greening monetary policy instruments have been explored by the NGFS:<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-24 |title=Adapting central bank operations to a hotter world: Reviewing some options |url=https://www.ngfs.net/en/adapting-central-bank-operations-hotter-world-reviewing-some-options |access-date=2022-06-01 |website=Banque de France |language=en-GB}}</ref>
* '''Green refinancing operations:''' central banks can adopt green conditions when banks refinance themselves from central banks, for example by granting a lower interest rate if banks issue a certain volume of loans for green projects.
* '''Green collateral frameworks:''' central banks can restrict collateral eligibility rules by excluding polluting assets, or requiring banks to mobilize a pool of assets that is aligned with net zero trajectories.
* '''Green quantitative easing:''' central banks could restrict their asset purchases programmes to green bonds.
The NGFS, through its working group “Workstream 2”, has published new Scenarios for central banks and supervisors in September 2022 in partnership with an academic consortium. The NGFS Scenarios were developed to assess the impact of climate change on the global economy and financial markets. While developed primarily for use by central banks and supervisors, they may be valuable to the broader business sector, government, and academics as well.<ref name="ngfs.net"/>
=== European Central Bank’s Financial Commitment to Addressing Climate Change ===
During the [[United Nations Climate Change Conference]] (COP 26), in July 2021, under the leadership of [[Christine Lagarde]] and after pressure from NGOs, the ECB committed to contributing to the implementation of the Paris Agreement's aim of “making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development”. (Article 2.1. (c) of the Paris Agreement, 2015) <ref>{{cite web |title=The ECB pledge on climate change action |url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/ecb.pledge_climate_change_action211103~6af74636d8.pt.pdf |website=Europa |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> The ECB also announced a detailed roadmap to incorporate climate change in its monetary policy framework.<ref>{{Cite journal|website=European Central Bank|date=2021-07-08|title=ECB presents action plan to include climate change considerations in its monetary policy strategy|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2021/html/ecb.pr210708_1~f104919225.en.html|language=en}}</ref> The action plan includes measures to integrate climate-risks metrics in the ECB's collateral framework and corporate sector purchase programme (CSPP) referred to bonds. Christine Lagarde said she was also in favour of developing "green lending facilities"<ref>{{Cite web |last=Randow |first=Jana |date=1 June 2022 |title=Lagarde Has Open Mind on ECB Lending as a Climate-Crisis Tool |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-01/lagarde-has-open-mind-on-ecb-lending-as-a-climate-crisis-tool |access-date=2022-06-01 |website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> like the [[Bank of Japan]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-21 |title=Bank of Japan to launch climate lending facility |url=https://greencentralbanking.com/2021/06/21/bank-of-japan-to-launch-climate-lending-facility/ |access-date=2022-06-01 |website=Green Central Banking |language=en-US}}</ref> and [[People's Bank of China]].
=== Action Plan of the ECB on Climate Change ===
In accordance with its recent decisions, the ECB commits to contributing to the Paris Agreement goals and NGFS initiatives within its mandate by taking the following specific actions:<ref>{{cite web |title=The ECB pledge on climate change action |url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/ecb.pledge_climate_change_action211103~6af74636d8.pt.pdf |website=Europa |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref>
# Integrating climate-related risks into financial stability monitoring and prudential supervision of bank
# Integrating sustainability factors into own portfolio management
# Exploring the effects of climate-related risks on the Eurosystem monetary policy framework within our mandate
# Bridging data gaps in climate-related data
# Working towards higher awareness and intellectual capacity, also through technical assistance and knowledge sharing
== Debate ==
There are a few concerns and limitations that can be attributed to sustainable finance.
=== The important number of standards ===
First, as already seen, the concept of sustainable finance is directly linked with ESG. However, there are still no universally adopted standards for how companies and organisations can measure and report on their sustainability performance. Instead, we have a large number of NGOs working independently to develop standards for sustainability reporting, which is creating complexity and confusion for companies and investors.<ref name=":8">{{Cite news |last1=Barker |first1=Richard |last2=Eccles |first2=Robert G. |last3=Serafeim |first3=George |date=2020-12-03 |title=The Future of ESG Is … Accounting? |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2020/12/the-future-of-esg-is-accounting |access-date=2022-12-14 |issn=0017-8012}}</ref> Indeed, the initiators of reforms in sustainable finance can be very different. There are initiatives from non-governmental organisations such as [[Global Reporting Initiative]] (GRI), [[IFRS Foundation]], the International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC) and the [[Carbon Disclosure Project]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite news |last1=Eccles |first1=Robert G. |last2=Mirchandani |first2=Bhakti |date=2022-02-15 |title=We Need Universal ESG Accounting Standards |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2022/02/we-need-universal-esg-accounting-standards |access-date=2022-12-14 |issn=0017-8012}}</ref> However, recently, it seems like the [[IFRS Foundation]] is taking the lead.<ref name=":8" /> This is possible because the organisation possess a deep expertise in the standard-setting process, it also have a legitimacy in the corporate and investor community, and regulators support it internationally.
Then, since sustainable finance is rather new and above all, a constantly evolving topic with an important number of actors, it is impossible to find a constant framework overtime. For example, a new framework for sustainable finance, ISO 32210 was published in October 2022. This tool provides guidance to all organisations, active in the financial sector, including, but not limited to, direct lenders and investors, asset managers and service providers, on the implementation of sustainability principles, practices and terminology for financing activities.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISO 32210:2022(en) Sustainable finance — Guidance on the application of sustainability principles for organizations in the financial sector |url=https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:32210:ed-1:v1:en |access-date=12 November 2022 |website=ISO}}</ref>
Because of this pool of standards and the constant evolution, it is not unusual hat some [[funds]] or [[companies]] are not as green as they claim to be. Indeed, some ESG funds still hold shares in oil and coal companies. However, since there are no universally adopted standards, this practice is still ongoing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cardoni |first1=Andrea |last2=Kiseleva |first2=Evgeniia |last3=Terzani |first3=Simone |date=2019 |title=Evaluating the Intra-Industry Comparability of Sustainability Reports: The Case of the Oil and Gas Industry |journal=Sustainability |volume=11|issue=4 |page=1093 |doi=10.3390/su11041093 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Businesses can also leverage the opacity and the diversity of ESG ratings methodologies thus questioning the reliability of ratings,<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w30562 |title=ESG Confusion and Stock Returns: Tackling the Problem of Noise |last1=Berg |first1=Florian |last2=Koelbel |first2=Julian |date=October 2022 |publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research |location=Cambridge, MA |last3=Pavlova |first3=Anna |last4=Rigobon |first4=Roberto|doi=10.3386/w30562 }}</ref> greenwashing threats, and the relaying of inaccurate and piecemeal information to investors through self-reporting.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-08 |title=Here's why comparable ESG reporting is crucial for investors |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/comparable-esg-investors/ |access-date=2023-12-30 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bril |first1=Herman |last2=Kell |first2=Georg |last3=Rasche |first3=Andreas |date=2022-10-06 |title=Sustainability, Technology, and Finance |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003262039 |doi=10.4324/9781003262039|isbn=978-1-003-26203-9 |s2cid=252775344 }}</ref> This is considered as morally hazardous as they depend on dubious self-reported data based on the free will of companies to disclose information more than often unaudited and incomplete.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Lykkesfeldt |first1=Poul |title=Encompassing ESG Rating Agencies |date=2022 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05800-4_39 |work=Investor Relations and ESG Reporting in a Regulatory Perspective |pages=305–311 |access-date=2023-12-30 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-031-05799-1 |last2=Kjaergaard |first2=Laurits Louis|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-05800-4_39 }}</ref>
For instance, according to ESMA’s consultancy, of the 34 respondents disclosing the number of ESG rating agencies they rely on, 77% use more than one provider for ESG ratings, while 23% use only one provider.<ref>https://www.esma.europa.eu/sites/default/files/library/esma80-416-347_letter_on_esg_ratings_call_for_evidence_june_2022.pdf</ref>
If the incentives to greenwash are quite high, it is partly correlated to the fact that rated ESG firms enjoy lower capital and debt costs for doing so.<ref>Ferriani, F. (2023). Issuing bonds during the Covid-19 pandemic: Was there an ESG premium?. ''International Review of Financial Analysis'', ''88'', 102653.</ref> This problem is said to be mainly a question of the company’s maturity on [[Corporate social responsibility|Corporate and Societal Responsibility]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karwowski |first1=Mariusz |last2=Raulinajtys-Grzybek |first2=Monika |date=2021-03-19 |title=The application of corporate social responsibility (<scp>CSR</scp>) actions for mitigation of environmental, social, corporate governance (<scp>ESG</scp>) and reputational risk in integrated reports |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/csr.2137 |journal=Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=1270–1284 |doi=10.1002/csr.2137 |s2cid=233652951 |issn=1535-3958}}</ref> and where it is situated on the CSR pyramid that distinguishes four distinct levels of responsibilities: economic, legal, ethical, and lastly philanthropic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carroll |first1=Archie B. |last2=Shabana |first2=Kareem M. |date=2010-01-15 |title=The Business Case for Corporate Social Responsibility: A Review of Concepts, Research and Practice |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00275.x |journal=International Journal of Management Reviews |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=85–105 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00275.x |s2cid=8385030 |issn=1460-8545}}</ref>
Lastly, it is important to mention that the focus here was almost exclusively on the [[European Union]], at an international level, the lack of homogeneity on sustainable finance norms and standards is even larger. However, initiatives such as the International Platform on Sustainable Finance open the discussion and the exchange of best practices to have more international norms and standards.
=== A legislative Spaghetti Bowl ===
The global regulatory framework evolves in a global context of shift toward sustainable finance regulations. Currently, 29 countries in the world have in significant level of mandatory ESG disclosure regulation.<ref><nowiki>https://stacs.io/governments-eye-mandatory-esg-disclosures/</nowiki>, see also <nowiki>https://www.azeusconvene.com/articles/the-global-state-of-mandatory-esg-disclosures</nowiki></ref> Investors and financiers often favor companies with strong ESG records, which in turn can influence their ability to engage in international trade. Those who do are confronted to the multiplicity and divergence of regulatory frameworks around the world with specific market access prerequisites, disclosure standards, compliance supervision, authorities, etc.
Thus, the ESG market is often referred to as a “mess”,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ft.com/content/246010cd-5274-4f20-b63a-7eaaa6186251 | title=Letter: Untangling ESG mess will need more than regulation }}</ref> comparable to the [[Spaghetti bowl effect|“spaghetti bowl” effect]] regarding the profusion of global trade agreements.<ref>Bhagwati, J. N. (1995). US trade policy: The infatuation with FTAs.</ref> As global supply chains expand, it is harder to find a common guideline on ESG factoring and face the subsequent “red tape” and costs, especially for SMEs.<ref>O’Reilly, S., Gorman, L., Mac An Bhaird, C., & Brennan, N. M. (2023, November). Implementing the European Union Green Taxonomy: implications for small-and medium-sized enterprises. In ''Accounting Forum'' (pp. 1-26). Routledge.</ref><ref name="climate.ec.europa.eu">https://climate.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2016-11/s2_a_barkmann_eea_en.pdf</ref>
All around the world, the green regulatory framework hardens, complexifies and presents never-ending interdependencies. The greenhouse gas emissions reporting requirements are a probing example of this "spaghetti bowl”. It is said to lead to inefficiencies and a lack of transparency that can only be mitigated through advanced streamlining processes.<ref name="climate.ec.europa.eu"/>
=== Lack of comparability ===
In addition, the same actors also face a lack of comparability. Indeed, it is very difficult to compare companies and investments on the basis of their ESG performance. Taking again the example of the oil and gas industry, the reporting on sustainability is carried in varied ways. Indeed, according to a study conducted by researchers at the University of Perugia's Economics Department, out of 51 relevant GRI indicators, only four indicators appear in over 75% of the companies' GRI reports.<ref name=":9" />
Also, a paper finds that only 60% of ESG ratings concord, compared to 99% for credit ratings from the largest rating agencies.<ref>Cited by Fichtner, J., Jaspert, R. and Petry, J. (2023), Mind the ESG capital allocation gap: The role of index providers, standard-setting, and “green” indices for the creation of sustainability impact. Regulation & Governance. {{doi|10.1111/rego.12530}} </ref> The explanation of these discrepancies of methodologies according to the authors is the challenge of aggregating scores on three pillars, mainly the more complex social aspect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=CAPIZZI |first1=VINCENZO |last2=GIOIA |first2=ELEONORA |last3=GIUDICI |first3=GIANCARLO |last4=TENCA |first4=FRANCESCA |date=2021-11-12 |title=The Divergence of Esg Ratings: An Analysis of Italian Listed Companies |journal=Journal of Financial Management, Markets and Institutions |volume=09 |issue=2 |doi=10.1142/s2282717x21500067 |issn=2282-717X|doi-access=free |hdl=11311/1186251 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Berg 1315–1344">{{Cite journal |last1=Berg |first1=Florian |last2=Kölbel |first2=Julian F |last3=Rigobon |first3=Roberto |date=2022-05-23 |title=Aggregate Confusion: The Divergence of ESG Ratings |journal=Review of Finance |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=1315–1344 |doi=10.1093/rof/rfac033 |issn=1572-3097|doi-access=free }}</ref> This phenomenon can be referred to as the '''“'''[[ESG ratings gap]]” in the academic literature and highlights how ratings provided by ESG providers often vary significantly, leading to what is referred to as "aggregate confusion".<ref name="Berg 1315–1344"/>
Another problem concerning methodologies is that there are no set-in stone and can evolve with time, making comparison attempts null and void. For instance, '''[[MSCI]]''' has a rating system that is based on a scale of AAA (top of the line) to CCC (bottom of line), accompanied with a report explaining why a company went up or down in its score overtime. It was noted that of 150 companies on MSCI’s repertoire, 50% had a score going up while changing nothing. The ESG rater later explained that they upgraded those companies because they updated their methodologies thus the scores went up. This way, most companies had upgraded for what MSCI calls “corporate behavior and data protection”, while only one company was upgraded for emission reduction. It was argued that MSCI worked in the interest of big S&P 500 corporations to get a higher score of ESG rating to help them lower their cost of capital and attract more investors.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Simpson |first1=Cam |last2=Rathi |first2=Akshat |last3=Kishan |first3=Saijel |date=2021-12-10 |title=Sustainable Investing Is Mostly About Sustaining Corporations |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2021-what-is-esg-investing-msci-ratings-focus-on-corporate-bottom-line/ |access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref>
This kind of ''post hoc'' adjustments were meticulously observed and linked to the thorny question of data manipulation to make ESG raters look more accurate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berg |first1=Florian |last2=Fabisik |first2=Kornelia |last3=Sautner |first3=Zacharias |date=2020 |title=Rewriting History II: The (Un)Predictable Past of ESG Ratings |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3722087 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3722087 |s2cid=237288718 |issn=1556-5068}}</ref> The result is that the ESG rating landscape is plagued with incoherence and makes it much harder for end investors to make a profound and thorough investment analysis.<ref>El-Hage, J. (2021). Fixing ESG: Are Mandatory ESG Disclosures the Solution to Misleading ESG Ratings?. ''Fordham J. Corp. & Fin. L.'', ''26'', pp368</ref>
=== Green Central Banking legitimacy ===
Another concern worth debating in sustainable finance is the legitimacy of Green Central Banking.
First, in response to the recent global financial crisis, which started with the outbreak of the pandemic, there has been a strong reliance on central banks to intervene not only for their traditional prudential motives of ensuring price and financial stability but also for more promotional purposes as a means of supporting other policy objectives such as promoting a low-carbon economy (Baer et al. 2021).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baer |first1=Moritz |last2=Campiglio |first2=Emanuele |last3=Deyris |first3=Jérôme |date=December 2021 |title=It takes two to dance: Institutional dynamics and climate-related financial policies |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092180092100269X |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=190 |pages=107210 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107210|bibcode=2021EcoEc.19007210B |hdl=11585/835003 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> However, according to many researchers, the pursuit of such promotional goals in monetary policy decisions raises serious questions about the legitimacy of independent central banks (Fontan et al. 2016).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fontan |first1=Clément |last2=Claveau |first2=François |last3=Dietsch |first3=Peter |date=2016-07-31 |title=Central banking and inequalities |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1470594x16651056 |journal=Politics, Philosophy & Economics |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=319–357 |doi=10.1177/1470594x16651056 |s2cid=156079188 |issn=1470-594X}}</ref> By way of illustration, Greenpeace protestors claimed in March 2021 that the [[European Central Bank]]'s (ECB) monetary policies subsidise fossil fuel companies (Treeck, 2021).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-10 |title=Greenpeace lands on ECB tower in climate finance protest |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/greenpeace-protest-european-central-bank-paraglider-climate-finance-carbon/ |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=POLITICO |language=en-US}}</ref>
Furthermore, the Central Bank Independence (CBI) framework says that central banks should be permitted to operate independently within a limited mandate (Dietsch et al., 2018),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tucker |first=Paul |date=2020-02-20 |title=Do Central Banks Serve the People? Peter Dietsch, Francois Claveau and Clement Fontan. Polity Press, 2018, vii + 135 pages. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s026626711900035x |journal=Economics and Philosophy |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=481–487 |doi=10.1017/s026626711900035x |s2cid=213077397 |issn=0266-2671}}</ref> although other writers feel that changing the central bank's mandate is insufficient (Fontan et al. 2022).<ref name=":10" />
Central banks are rarely tasked with advancing environmental or climate change mitigation objectives. When it comes to these environmental policies, central banks must deal with arbitrary issues, and there is no agreement on who should bear the burden. Neither conservative nor progressive central bankers defend this dilemma (Fontan et al. 2022).<ref name=":10" /> As a result, according to the previous authors, their pursuit of green monetary policies puts central banks in a tough spot, casting doubt on their legitimacy.
In a nutshell, Baer and co-authors argue that central banks may their legitimacy issues by working in tandem with elected officials. In other words, a thorough examination of the actions of central banks necessitates a close examination of the actions of the governments and parliaments that formulate the central bank's mandate (Elgie 2002).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Elgie |first=Robert |date=January 2002 |title=The politics of the European Central Bank: principal-agent theory and the democratic deficit |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13501760110120219 |journal=Journal of European Public Policy |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=186–200 |doi=10.1080/13501760110120219 |s2cid=53073648 |issn=1350-1763}}</ref> Whether it's through working with a green investment bank to reduce their carbon footprint or forming joint committees of central bankers and members of parliament to influence the types of assets they purchase (Fontan et al. 2022).<ref name=":10">{{cite book |last1=Dietsch |first1=Peter |last2=Fontan |first2=Clément |last3=Dion |first3=Jérémie |last4=Claveau |first4=François |title=Green Central Banking |date=2022 |url=https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/ymre2/ |access-date=27 October 2022}}</ref>
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Sustainable business]]
[[Category:Ethical investment]]
[[Category:Ethical banking]]
[[Category:Corporate social responsibility]]
[[Category:Social finance]]
[[Category:Economy and the environment]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
United States building energy codes | [[File:U.S. primary energy consumption by source and sector, 2018.jpg|thumb|U.S. primary energy consumption by source and sector, 2018. '''Note''': Energy Consumption for combined commercial and residential sectors is 39% of Total Energy Consumption when electrical system energy losses are included.<ref name=":21" />]]
'''[[United States]] building energy codes''' are a [[subset]] of [[building codes]] that set minimum requirements for [[Energy conservation|energy-efficient]] design and [[construction]] for new and renovated buildings.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Why Building Energy Codes? |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/why-building-energy-codes#:~:text=Building%20energy%20codes%2C%20which%20govern,money%20back%20into%20consumer's%20pockets |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes Program}}</ref> The intent of these energy codes is to moderate and reduce energy use and [[Emission intensity|emissions]] throughout the lifetime of a building.<ref name=":0" /> Energy code provisions may include various aspects of building design and construction, such as: [[Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning|HVAC]] systems, [[building envelope]], electrical, and [[lighting]] systems.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Cox |first=Sadie |date=February 2016 |title=Building Energy Codes: Policy Overview and Good Practices |url=https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/65542.pdf |journal=National Renewable Energy Laboratory |via=Clean Energy Solutions Center}}</ref> There are building energy codes for both commercial and residential buildings.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Codes 101 |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/codes-101 |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes Program}}</ref> However, just as the United States does not have a national building code, it also does not have a national building energy code; rather, state, and local governments choose to adopt—and potentially revise—national model energy codes and standards.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Cohan |first=David |date=May 31, 2016 |title=Energy Codes 101: What Are They and What is DOE's Role? |url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/buildings/articles/energy-codes-101-what-are-they-and-what-does-role |website=Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy: Buildings}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Bartlett |first=R. |last2=Halverson |first2=M.A. |last3=Shankle |first3=D.I. |date=March 2003 |title=Understanding Building Energy Codes and Standards |url=https://www.pnnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-14235.pdf |journal=Pacific Northwest National Laboratory |via=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Code Program}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite web |date=May 2010 |title=Building Energy Codes 101: An Introduction |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/BECU_Codes_101.pdf |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=energycodes.gov}}</ref> Consequently, building energy codes, and building codes in general, vary between states and jurisdictions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=VanGeem |first=Martha G. |date=October 24, 2016 |title=Energy Codes and Standards |url=https://www.wbdg.org/resources/energy-codes-and-standards |access-date=December 15, 2022 |website=Whole Building Design Guide}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=June 21, 2022 |title=Understanding Building Codes |url=https://www.nist.gov/buildings-construction/understanding-building-codes |website=National Institute of Standards and Technology: Buildings & Construction}}</ref>
[[Commercial property|Commercial]] and [[Residential area|residential]] buildings, combined, account for 39% of total U.S. energy consumption and about 75% of total U.S. [[Electricity generation|electricity]] use.<ref name=":21">{{Cite web |date=November 25, 2022 |title=How much energy is consumed in U.S. buildings? |url=https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=86&t=1 |website=U.S. Energy Information Administration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 2015 |title=Chapter 5: Increasing Energy Efficiency of Building Systems and Technologies |url=https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2017/03/f34/qtr-2015-chapter5.pdf |journal=Quadrennial Technology Review |via=U.S. Department of Energy}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Introduction to Building Codes |url=https://www.iccsafe.org/products-and-services/i-codes/code-development/cs/introduction-to-building-codes/ |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=International Code Council}}</ref> As such, by setting the minimum energy-efficiency requirements for building design and construction, energy codes have the capacity to increase cost-savings, advance [[United States energy independence|energy independence]], reduce [[Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States|greenhouse gas emissions]], and drive economic opportunity through technological innovations.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
== Overview of Building Codes in the United States ==
[[File:World-building-fire-1882.jpg|thumb|Depiction of New York World Building fire in New York City in 1882.]]
[[Building code|Building codes]] in the United States are a collection of [[Regulation|regulations]] and [[Law|laws]] adopted by state and local [[Jurisdiction|jurisdictions]] that set “minimum requirements for how [[Structural system|structural systems]], [[plumbing]], heating, ventilation, and air conditioning ([[Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning|HVAC]]), natural gas systems and other aspects of residential and commercial buildings should be designed and constructed.”<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> The building code in many jurisdictions will often refer to an overarching “building code," which contains a collection of subset regulations (also called codes), such as the: Electrical Code (referring to the electrical system), Building Code (referring to structure and design), [[Plumbing code|Plumbing Code]], [[Fire safety|Fire Code]], Mechanical Code, and Energy Code.<ref name=":4" /> In general, these codes are interrelated and inform aspects of one another, for example, provisions in the Fire Code regarding commercial cooking appliances and [[Kitchen hood|exhaust hoods]] may refer to installation provisions of appliances in the Mechanical Code.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=2021 International Building Code (IBC) |url=https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/IBC2021P2 |access-date=November 28, 2022 |website=International Code Council}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Cocke |first=Elizabeth A. |date=February 20, 2018 |title=Building Codes: The Role They Can Play |url=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/pdredge/pdr-edge-frm-asst-sec-022018.html |access-date=December 6, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development}}</ref> Built on a long history of fire and [[natural disaster]] protection, the foundational purpose of building codes is to protect “the health, safety, and welfare of the public” as it pertains to the design and construction of buildings.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ching |first=Francis D.K. |title=Building Codes Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding the 2015 International Building Code |last2=Winkel |first2=Steven R. |publisher=Wiley |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-119-15094-7 |edition=5th}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simon |first=Peter |date=October 2017 |title=Urban Construction: Building Code Requirements Improve Safety & Health |journal=Professional Safety |volume=62 |issue=10 |pages=40-44 |via=EBSCOhost: Academic Search Complete}}</ref>
=== <u>Codes vs. Standards vs. Model Codes</u> ===
There is a distinction to be made between codes, standards, and model codes.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /> Codes are mandatory, legally enforceable requirements adopted by state and local jurisdictions.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=August 2, 2016 |title=Codes and Standards Development |url=https://www.wbdg.org/resources/codes-and-standards-development |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=Whole Building Design Guide}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5" /> Standards, founded on evidence-based technical information, are non-mandatory recommendations and guidelines for best practices regarding various aspects of building design and construction.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Vierra |first=Stephanie |date=June 17, 2022 |title=Green Building Standards and Certification Systems |url=https://www.wbdg.org/resources/green-building-standards-and-certification-systems |access-date=November 28, 2022 |website=Whole Building Design Guide}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Leon |first=Dr. Roberto |last2=Rossberg |first2=James |date=2012 |title=Evolution and Future of Building Codes in the USA |journal=Structural Engineering International |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=265-269 |via=Taylor&Francis}}</ref> Though jurisdictions can adopt [[Standards organization|standards]] directly in a building code, “standard committees generally write standards with the intent that they become a component of a model code.”<ref name=":3" /> A [[model building code]] is a [[building code]] that incorporates standards and is “developed and maintained by an organization independent of the [[jurisdiction]] responsible for enacting the building code.”<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" />
A model code does not carry the force of law, but is created to be adopted by a jurisdiction and is “written in a mandatory, enforceable language, [so] state and local jurisdictions can easily adopt the model.”<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> If the model code is adopted—and likely revised to fit the context of a specific jurisdiction—then the model becomes a part of, or serves as the “model” for, the legally enforceable building code in state and local jurisdictions.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 9, 2022 |title=Architectural Engineering |url=https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/c.php?g=388626&p=3484426 |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=Penn State University Libraries: Architectural Engineering Databases and Resources}}</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":4" />
=== <u>Model Building Codes in the United States</u> ===
The most widely used [[Model building code|model building codes]] in the United States are [[Publishing|published]] by the [[International Building Code|International Code Council]], or the ICC, colloquially known as the I-Codes.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=The International Codes (I-Codes) |url=https://www.iccsafe.org/products-and-services/i-codes/the-i-codes/ |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=International Code Council}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":7" /> Fifty states and the District of Columbia have adopted the I-Codes at the state or jurisdictional level.<ref name=":8" /> The [[International Code Council]] (ICC) develops the [[Code|codes]] and standards used to construct [[Residential area|residential]] and [[Commercial property|commercial buildings]], including homes and [[School|schools]].<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
For commercial buildings, the central model code adopted as a base code in many jurisdictions is the [[International Building Code]], developed by the ICC, and for residential buildings, the predominant model code used is the [https://www.iccsafe.org/products-and-services/i-codes/2018-i-codes/irc/ International Residential Code] (IRC), also developed by the ICC.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> Other model building codes, created by the ICC, and often adopted as a part of jurisdictional building codes, include the International Fire Code, [[International Energy Conservation Code]], and [[International Mechanical Code|International Mechanical code]].<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" /> The I-Codes are updated every three years.<ref name=":8" />
Model building codes are applied differently between states and jurisdictions.<ref name=":3" /> This is by design, when model codes are adopted, the code provisions are dependent on regional climate and hazard risks, for example, “while California’s codes focus more on earthquakes, Florida’s include more measures addressing hurricanes.”<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /> Upon adoption, model codes are often amended and managed in accordance with jurisdictional needs, preferences, and currently existing legislation.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":1" /> This means that, with every three year update of the I-Codes, some model code provisions will not be included in certain jurisdictional building codes.<ref name=":3" />
As the National Institute of Standards and Technology put it, “some states may limit or strike out new requirements they view as too costly, unnecessary or otherwise inappropriate for their constituents. Others may see value in the updates, sealing them into law or even strengthening them to protect their community.”<ref name=":3" /> For example, in 2009 the International Residential Code (IRC) was updated to include a provision requiring [[Fire sprinkler system|sprinklers]] in all new one-and two-family residences, and [[Townhouse|townhouses]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite news |last=Roulo |first=Candace |date=August 6, 2010 |title=Residential fire sprinkler battle continues: now states decide |work=Contractor Magazine |url=https://www.contractormag.com/piping/fire-sprinklers/article/20877811/residential-fire-sprinkler-battle-continues-now-states-decide |access-date=November 28, 2022}}</ref> While [[California]] and [[Pennsylvania]] adopted the new change, other states like [[New Hampshire]] delayed adoption of the code until 2012, and further, some states like [[Alaska]], [[Texas]], and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] opposed the addition of the provision to their building codes altogether.<ref name=":9" />
== Building Energy Codes: Development & Adoption ==
=== <u>Model Energy Codes & Standards</u> ===
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, “energy codes and standards set minimum efficiency requirements for new and renovated buildings, assuring reductions in energy use and emissions over the life of the building.”<ref name=":0" /> As with other building codes, model energy codes and standards are often written in a language such that they can be adopted—wholly, partially, or amended—into a jurisdiction’s legal building code.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
The primary baseline national model energy codes are the [[International Energy Conservation Code]] (IECC), the ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1: Energy-Efficient Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings ([[ASHRAE 90.1]]), and [https://www.ashrae.org/news/esociety/newly-revised-standard-90-2-includes-new-performance-specifications-more ASHRAE Standard 90.2]: Energy-Efficient Standard of New Low-Rise Residential Buildings.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":12" /> Two private organizations develop these model energy codes, the International Code Council (ICC) and the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers ([[ASHRAE]]).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":11" />
The IECC has provisions that apply to both residential and commercial buildings, and, as stated in the above description, ASHRAE 90.1 refers to all buildings except low-rise residential, and ASHRAE 90.2 refers to residential buildings three stories or less.<ref name=":1" />
In the development of model energy codes and standards, commercial and residential buildings are considered separate in order to allow for different provisions and parameters.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
=== <u>Commercial</u> ===
[[Commercial property|Commercial buildings]] are defined as “all buildings other than low-rise residential buildings, including multi-family high-rise residential buildings over three stories."<ref name=":2" /> The model code, IECC, and the standard, ASHRAE 90.1, apply to commercial buildings.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> The [[International Energy Conservation Code|IECC]] references several [[ASHRAE]] Standards, in particular, [[ASHRAE 90.1]] for commercial building construction.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=2021 International Energy Conservation Code |url=https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/IECC2021P1 |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=International Code Council: Digital Codes}}</ref>
Being a part of the ICC’s collection of model codes, the IECC is revised annually and published in full-form every three years.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":8" /> Headed by an ICC committee, revisions and code changes can be proposed by any interested individual, business, or organization.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":10" /> The development and revision process include two public hearings to consider revisions and testimony.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":11" /> The process concludes with a consensus vote, by IECC members, on all the changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":11" />
ASHRAE 90.1 follows a similar path of development and revision.<ref name=":1" /> Though ASHRAE 90.1 is revised and published every three years just like the IECC, people can submit interim revisions at any time within this period.<ref name=":10" /> ASHRAE has a standards committee that manages the process, and votes on the final versions of the energy code.<ref name=":10" />
Provisions in the commercial sector of the model codes affect building design and construction factors such as: thermal envelope, water heating, HVAC, and lighting systems.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14" /> In the 2021 IECC model code, for example, there are provisions that reference ASHRAE 90.1 concerning insulation R-values for opaque parts of the building envelope.<ref name=":14" /> As another example, there are provisions in the IECC concerning the length, flow-rate, and [[Insulation value|insulation]] of [[piping]] as it relates to [[Water heating|hot-water heaters]] in commercial buildings.<ref name=":14" />
=== <u>Residential</u> ===
Residential buildings are defined as “one- and two-family attached or detached [[Dwelling|dwellings]], and multi-family buildings three or fewer stories above grade.”<ref name=":2" /> The model code, IECC, and standard, ASHRAE 90.2, apply to residential buildings.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />
Both the residential component of the IECC and ASHRAE 90.2 follow the same development and revision processes as described above in the commercial section, however, in the case of ASHRAE 90.2, the standards committee is maintained by a separate committee than the one that heads ASHRAE 90.1.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":2" />
Provisions in these model codes concern many of the same aspects as those in the commercial sector, just at a different scope.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":2" /> In the 2021 IECC model code concerning residential energy efficiency, for example, there are provisions concerning different [[Fenestration (architecture)|fenestration]] (window) [[U-factor|U-Factors]] that are dependent on climate zone. Additionally, similar to the commercial sector, the residential provisions address hot-water circulation systems, exterior lighting systems, and insulation.<ref name=":14" />
=== <u>Prescriptive vs. Performance</u> ===
Energy code provisions are usually designed with two different compliance path formats (i.e., the path needed to meet the requirements or intended result of the code): ''Prescriptive'' and ''Performance-based''. <ref name=":12" /><ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacobsen |first=Grant D. |date=2016 |title=Improving Energy Codes |journal=International Association for Energy Economics |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=25-40 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
A prescriptive energy code delineates specific requirements or criteria for building components that must be fulfilled in order to be in compliance with the code.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":14" /> For example, “the allowable watts per square foot of lighting systems, and the minimum energy efficiencies required of mechanical systems.”<ref name=":12" />
Performance-based codes are results-oriented, where compliance is predicated more on performing to a certain baseline of energy use.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite web |title=Performance Based Energy Codes |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/performance_based_compliance |access-date=December 12, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes Program}}</ref> The performance path allows for some more flexibility, when compared to prescriptive codes. <ref name=":12" /><ref name=":15" /> The performance path achieves this by creating space for building design-solutions that provide trade-offs between energy-intensive systems in order to meet both the energy performance goal and optimize cost-effective measures for a specific building.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":15" />
=== <u>Code Adoption</u> ===
Model energy codes and standards can be adopted into legal building codes by jurisdictions around the United States.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" /> However, state and local jurisdictions will often carryout amendments, [[Addendum|addenda]], and provisions of their own to suit specific needs and preferences.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />
The adoption of energy codes typically follow two main avenues: legislation or regulatory action.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last=Cohan |first=David |date=September 19, 2016 |title=How Are Building Codes Adopted? |url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/buildings/articles/how-are-building-codes-adopted |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=Department of Energy: Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy}}</ref> In each case, the adoption process usually includes an advisory body, review and revision process, and public hearings.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":1" /> With the legislation route, rather than creating an entire energy model code wholesale, the state legislation will often reference an already existing model energy code and standard like the IECC.<ref name=":1" /> In this case, state legislation is adopting the model code directly.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":17" /> The regulation route uses legislation not to adopt the code directly, but instead to delegate a regulatory agency or authority to adopt, implement, and enforce the energy code.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":1" />
As reported by [[Pacific Northwest National Laboratory]], there is one other, more rare path to code adoption via local government: “if a state has limited authority to adopt an energy code (a ‘[[home rule]]’ state), units of local government have the option to assume that responsibility.”<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":17" /> For example, in 2001, [[Chicago]] became the first jurisdiction in [[Illinois]] to adopt a building energy code, a modified version of IECC 2000.<ref name=":1" />
The U.S. Department of Energy has a presence throughout the development and adoption of building energy codes and standards; the DOE participates in provisions, hearings, and suggests changes to model codes.<ref name=":2" /> Likewise, federal regulations impact the processes involved in the development and adoption of national model energy codes.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |title=Statutory Requirements |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/statutory-requirements |access-date=December 5, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes Program}}</ref> For example, the Energy Conservation and Production Act (ECPA) requires the DOE “to provide technical assistance to states to support implementation of state residential and commercial building energy efficiency codes.”<ref name=":18" /> Indeed, the DOE’s [[Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy|Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy]] runs the [[Building Energy Codes Program]] (BECP) for this exact reason, in order “to support building energy code development, adoption, implementation, and enforcement processes.”<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Building Energy Codes |url=https://www.energycodes.gov/about |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=U.S. Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes Program}}</ref>
=== <u>Compliance & Enforcement</u> ===
Building energy code compliance is usually done at the local or municipal level by professionals trained to conduct field inspections and review construction plans.<ref name=":10" /> Compliance is where the standards and agreed-upon codes become a reality, without proper compliance and enforcement the goals of the code will likely not come to fruition.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Cohan |first=David |date=November 14, 2016 |title=Building Energy Code Compliance |url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/buildings/articles/building-energy-code-compliance |access-date=December 8, 2022 |website=Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy: Buildings}}</ref> However, “compliance and enforcement of building energy codes is a key challenge, even in jurisdictions with advanced building code processes. Local governments are often the most critical actors in supporting effective compliance and building code enforcement.”<ref name=":16" />
Compliance requires cooperation at multiple levels and in multiple ways: state and local government issuing proper permits and establishing dedicated departments, the thorough education of building officials on new code developments, and the responsibility of building design and construction professionals to comply with the energy code.<ref name=":19" /> As the energy code continues develop in the United States, this sentiment may become increasingly outdated, but in discussing compliance: <blockquote>“It is important to note that building officials and builders in some parts of the country see the energy code as fundamentally different from the historical ‘health, life, and safety’ codes that were created primarily to protect occupants from fire, flooding, and collapse. Energy codes are a more recent addition to the building codes family, with the first having been adopted in the late 1970s, while structural and fire codes have existed for hundreds of years/When resources are limited at local building departments, which is often the case, the energy code is likely to get less attention.”<ref name=":19" /></blockquote>
=== <u>Energy Code Impacts</u> ===
[[File:U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 390 002 010 (9393913883).jpg|thumb|''Interdisciplinary Science Building at Brookhaven National Laboratory:'' energy efficient and environmentally sustainable laboratory building focused on energy-related research]]
==== Benefits and Future Considerations ====
Since buildings make-up such a large percentage of U.S. energy consumption, energy efficient building codes can have a large positive impact on cost-savings, energy independence, and ecological systems.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
Additionally, the adoption of codes that increase energy performance can improve building habitability and comfort which has been linked to an increase in productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chatterjee |first=Souran |date=2021 |title=Measuring the productivity impacts of energy efficiency: The case of high-efficiency buildings |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=318 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> Building-focused [[energy conservation]] has the potential to greatly reduce global carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=He |last2=Wang |first2=Honglei |last3=Hu |first3=Yu-Jie |date=2022 |title=The development trends of existing building energy conservation and emission reduction—A comprehensive review |journal=Energy Reports |volume=8 |pages=13170-13188 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> A reduction in carbon emissions can reduce air pollutants, mitigate harmful effects of climate change, and drive positive impacts on overall wellbeing and health.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Candanosa |first=Roberto Molar |date=2021 |title=Reducing Emissions to Lessen Climate Change Would Yield Dramatic Health Benefits by 2030 |url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3134/reducing-emissions-to-lessen-climate-change-would-yield-dramatic-health-benefits-by-2030/#:~:text=The%20research%20shows%20reducing%20global,million%20lost%20workdays%2C%201.7%20million |access-date=December 14, 2022 |website=climate.nasa.gov}}</ref>
==== Barriers and Drawbacks ====
In certain circumstances, adopting the energy efficient technologies required to meet building energy codes may increase overall costs for a builder.<ref name=":16" /> The vast amount of buildings codes and standards that regulate building design and construction can be confusing for builders, lawmakers, and code developers alike.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal |last=Enker |first=Robert A. |last2=Morrison |first2=Gregory M. |date=2020 |title=The potential contribution of building codes to climate change response policies for the built environment |journal=Energy Efficiency |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=789-807 |via=EBSCOhost: Academic Search Complete}}</ref> This is made more apparent when trying to chart a path toward a specific goal such as energy efficiency and emissions reduction.<ref name=":20" /> In turn, it can present a barrier to energy code adoption.<ref name=":20" />
== <small>See Also</small> ==
* [[Energy conservation]] ("Buildings")
* [[Green building]]
* [[International Energy Conservation Code]]
* [[Building code]]
* [[International Building Code]]
* [[Energy]]
* [[Energy-efficient HVAC]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Building codes]]
[[Category:Standards of the United States]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Red Sea Project | {{Infobox settlement
| name =
| native_name = البحر الأحمر
| native_name_lang = ar
| settlement_type = Tourism destination
| image_blank_emblem = [[file:Red Sea Global Logo.svg|120px]]
| image_flag =
| image_seal =
| image_shield =
| motto =
| pushpin_map = Saudi Arabia
| coordinates = {{Coord|25|30|18|N|36|57|18|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = Saudi Arabia
| established_title = Announced
| established_date = July 2017
| seat_type =
| government_footnotes =
| leader_party =
| leader_title1 = CEO
| leader_name1 = [[John Pagano (CEO)|John Pagano]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/article/560049/SAUDI-ARABIA/Construction-underway-on-Red-Sea-project-site |title=Construction underway on Red Sea project site |date=Feb 27, 2019 |website=Saudigazette |access-date=Aug 21, 2020 |archive-date=September 7, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907203919/http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/article/560049/SAUDI-ARABIA/Construction-underway-on-Red-Sea-project-site |url-status=live }}</ref>
| leader_title2 =
| leader_name2 =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 28,000
| area_land_km2 =
| area_water_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_footnotes =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| timezone1 = Arabian Standard Time
| utc_offset1 = +03
| postal_code_type =
| postal_code =
| area_code_type =
| area_code =
| website = {{Official URL}}
| official_name = The Red Sea
}}
'''The Red Sea Project,''' commonly referred to as The Red Sea, is a planned tourism [[megaproject]] in [[Saudi Arabia]]. The project forms part of the [[Saudi Vision 2030]] program.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://saudigazette.com.sa/article/560049/SAUDI-ARABIA/Construction-underway-on-Red-Sea-project-site |title=Construction underway on Red Sea project site |date=2019-02-27 |website=Saudigazette |access-date=2019-02-27 |archive-date=2019-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227193037/http://saudigazette.com.sa/article/560049/SAUDI-ARABIA/Construction-underway-on-Red-Sea-project-site |url-status=live }}</ref> The project was announced by the Saudi Crown Prince [[Mohammad bin Salman]] in July 2017.
Construction began at The Red Sea in February 2019<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mitchell |first=Bea |date=2019-02-28 |title=Construction begins on The Red Sea Project |url=https://blooloop.com/play/news/saudi-giga-red-sea-project/ |access-date=2023-01-24 |website=Blooloop |language=en-GB}}</ref> and was expected to be completed by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/travel-hospitality/409733-red-sea-project-set-to-add-58bn-to-saudi-arabias-gdp |title=Red Sea Project set to add $5.8bn to Saudi Arabia's GDP |last=Bridge |first=Sam |website=ArabianBusiness.com |access-date=2019-02-22 |archive-date=2019-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222152040/https://www.arabianbusiness.com/travel-hospitality/409733-red-sea-project-set-to-add-58bn-to-saudi-arabias-gdp |url-status=live }}</ref> The first three hotels are expected to open in 2023,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Phase I of Red Sea Project 50% complete: Official |url=https://www.argaam.com/en/article/articledetail/id/1616876 |access-date=2023-01-24 |website=ArgaamPlus |language=en}}</ref> while 16 hotels, the [[Red Sea International Airport]], a yachting marina, historical sites and recreation centers are expected to open in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inside Saudi Arabia's Red Sea: Everything you need to know |url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/industries/travel-hospitality/inside-saudi-arabias-red-sea-global-everything-you-need-to-know |access-date=24 January 2023 |website=Arabian Business}}</ref>
On completion in 2030, The Red Sea aims to have 50 hotels with 8,000 rooms, and more than 1,000 residential properties across 22 islands and six inland sites.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Inside Saudi Arabia's Red Sea: Everything you need to know |url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/industries/travel-hospitality/inside-saudi-arabias-red-sea-global-everything-you-need-to-know |access-date=24 January 2023 |website=Arabian Business}}</ref>
[[File:Red Sea island.jpg|thumb|One of the 92 islands that form an archipelago at The Red Sea tourism destination on the west coast of Saudi Arabia.]]
== Location ==
The project is located on the west coast of Saudi Arabia in a 28,000 km<sup>2</sup> area in [[Tabuk province]] between the cities of [[Umluj]] and [[Al Wajh|Al-Wajh]]. The area includes 90 unspoiled offshore islands, 200km of coastline on the Red Sea, beaches, desert, mountains and volcanoes.<ref name=":1" /> This also incorporates the Al Wajh lagoon, a pristine 2,081 km2 area that includes valuable habitats (coral reefs, seagrass, and mangroves) and species of global conservation importance. <ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.3389/fmars.2020.00168 | doi-access=free | title=Reconciling Tourism Development and Conservation Outcomes Through Marine Spatial Planning for a Saudi Giga-Project in the Red Sea (The Red Sea Project, Vision 2030) | date=2020 | last1=Chalastani | first1=Vasiliki I. | last2=Manetos | first2=Panos | last3=Al-Suwailem | first3=Abdulaziz M. | last4=Hale | first4=Jason A. | last5=Vijayan | first5=Abhishekh P. | last6=Pagano | first6=John | last7=Williamson | first7=Ian | last8=Henshaw | first8=Scott D. | last9=Albaseet | first9=Raed | last10=Butt | first10=Faisal | last11=Brainard | first11=Russell E. | last12=Coccossis | first12=Harry | last13=Tsoukala | first13=Vasiliki K. | last14=Duarte | first14=Carlos M. | journal=Frontiers in Marine Science | volume=7 | hdl=10754/662629 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Neom]]
* [[Amaala]]
* [[Saudi Red Sea Authority]]
== Notes and references ==
'''Notes'''
{{Notelist}}
'''References'''
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Tabuk Province]]
[[Category:Economy of Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Planned communities in Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Proposed infrastructure in Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
__FORCETOC__ |
Government by algorithm | {{short description|Alternative form of government or social ordering}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Regulation of algorithms]], [[e-government]] or [[Cyberocracy]]}}
{{Government by algorithm}}
{{Governance|Models}}
'''Government by algorithm'''<ref name=sstandford>{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Government by Algorithm: A Review and an Agenda |url=https://law.stanford.edu/publications/government-by-algorithm-a-review-and-an-agenda/ |website=Stanford Law School |access-date=20 March 2020}}</ref> (also known as '''algorithmic regulation''',<ref name=medina>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation. |journal=Kybernetes |date=2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052 |url=http://wosc.co/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Medina-Rethinking-Algorithmic-Regulation.pdf}}</ref> '''regulation by algorithms''', '''algorithmic governance''',<ref name="Engin">{{cite journal |last1=Engin |first1=Zeynep |last2=Treleaven |first2=Philip |title=Algorithmic Government: Automating Public Services and Supporting Civil Servants in using Data Science Technologies |journal=The Computer Journal|date=March 2019 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=448–460 |doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxy082|doi-access=free}}</ref> '''algocratic governance''', '''algorithmic legal order''' or '''algocracy'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=1 September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=2210-5441}}</ref>) is an alternative form of [[government]] or [[social order]]ing where the usage of computer [[algorithm]]s is applied to regulations, law enforcement, and generally any aspect of everyday life such as transportation or land registration.<ref name="karen">{{cite journal |last1=Yeung |first1=Karen |title=Algorithmic regulation: A critical interrogation |journal=Regulation & Governance |date=December 2018 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=505–523 |doi=10.1111/rego.12158|s2cid=157086008 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katzenbach |first1=Christian |last2=Ulbricht |first2=Lena |title=Algorithmic governance |journal=Internet Policy Review |date=29 November 2019 |volume=8 |issue=4 |doi=10.14763/2019.4.1424 |hdl=10419/210652 |url=https://policyreview.info/concepts/algorithmic-governance |access-date=19 March 2020 |issn=2197-6775|doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abril |first1=Rubén Rodríguez |title=DERECOM. Derecho de la Comunicación. - An approach to the algorithmic legal order and to its civil, trade and financial projection |website=www.derecom.com |url=http://www.derecom.com/secciones/articulos-de-fondo/item/398-an-approach-to-the-algorithmic-legal-order-and-to-its-civil-trade-and-financial-projection |access-date=20 May 2020 |language=es-es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Rule by Algorithm? Big Data and the Threat of Algocracy |url=https://ieet.org/index.php/IEET2/more/danaher20140107 |access-date=20 May 2020 |work=ieet.org}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain>{{citation |last1=Werbach |first1=Kevin |title=The Siren Song: Algorithmic Governance By Blockchain |date=24 September 2018 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3578610}}.</ref> The term "government by algorithm" has appeared in academic literature as an alternative for "algorithmic governance" in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williamson |first1=Ben |title=Decoding identity: Reprogramming pedagogic identities through algorithmic governance |journal=British Educational Research Association Conference |date=January 2013 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4477644 |access-date=26 December 2020}}</ref> A related term, algorithmic regulation, is defined as setting the standard, monitoring and modifying behaviour by means of computational algorithms{{snd}}automation of [[judiciary]] is in its scope.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hildebrandt |first1=Mireille |title=Algorithmic regulation and the rule of law |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=6 August 2018 |volume=376 |issue=2128 |pages=20170355 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2017.0355|pmid=30082301 |bibcode=2018RSPTA.37670355H |doi-access=free|hdl=2066/200765 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In the context of blockchain, it is also known as '''blockchain governance'''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lumineau |first1=Fabrice |last2=Wang |first2=Wenqian |last3=Schilke |first3=Oliver |title=Blockchain Governance—A New Way of Organizing Collaborations? |journal=Organization Science |date=1 March 2021 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=500–521 |doi=10.1287/orsc.2020.1379 |s2cid=225123270 |issn=1047-7039|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Government by algorithm raises new challenges that are not captured in the [[e-government]] literature and the practice of public administration.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Veale |first1=Michael |last2=Brass |first2=Irina |title=Administration by Algorithm? Public Management Meets Public Sector Machine Learning |date=2019 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3375391}}</ref> Some sources equate [[cyberocracy]], which is a hypothetical [[Government#Forms|form of government]] that rules by the effective use of information,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2008/P7745.pdf |title=Cyberocracy, Cyberspace, and Cyberology:Political Effects of the Information Revolution |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1991|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reprints/2007/RAND_RP222.pdf|title=Cyberocracy is Coming |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1992|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Ronfeldt |first1=David |last2=Varda |first2=Danielle |title=The Prospects for Cyberocracy (Revisited) |date=1 December 2008 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=1325809}}.</ref> with algorithmic governance, although algorithms are not the only means of processing information.<ref>{{cite web |title=Transparency in governance, through cyberocracy |url=https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2019/07/04/transparency-in-governance-through-cyberocracy |website=The Kathmandu Post |first=Bimal Pratap |last=Shah |date=July 4, 2019 |access-date=25 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hudson |first1=Alex |title='Far more than surveillance' is happening and could change how government is run |url=https://metro.co.uk/2019/08/28/far-more-than-surveillance-is-already-in-place-and-cyberocracy-could-change-how-government-is-run-10637802/ |website=Metro |access-date=25 April 2020 |date=28 August 2019}}</ref> [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo argued that the combination of a human society and certain regulation algorithms (such as reputation-based scoring) forms a [[social machine]].<ref name=socialmachine>{{cite journal |last1=Cristianini |first1=Nello |last2=Scantamburlo |first2=Teresa |title=On social machines for algorithmic regulation |journal=AI & Society |date=8 October 2019 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=645–662 |doi=10.1007/s00146-019-00917-8 |arxiv=1904.13316 |bibcode=2019arXiv190413316C |s2cid=140233845 |issn=1435-5655}}</ref>
==History==
[[File:CyberSyn-render-103.png|thumb|Computer-generated image of [[Project Cybersyn]] operations room]]
[[File:Legol Group 1977 (3832930465).jpg|thumb|LEGOL Group (1977)]]
[[File:-rpTEN - Tag 3 (26745091551).jpg|thumb|''"Blockchain and the future of governance. Let's overcome the hype and understand what can be done."'' with Andrea Bauer, Boris Moshkovits und Shermin Voshmgir at [[re:publica]]]]
In 1962, the director of the Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] in Moscow (later Kharkevich Institute),<ref>{{cite web |title=Organisations: Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute): Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute), Moscow, Russia |url=http://www.mathnet.ru/php/organisation.phtml?orgid=5026&option_lang=eng |website=www.mathnet.ru |access-date=24 March 2021}}</ref> [[Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Kharkevich|Alexander Kharkevich]], published an article in the journal "Communist" about a computer network for processing information and control of the economy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Machine of communism. Why the USSR did not create the Internet |url=http://csef.ru/en/politica-i-geopolitica/223/mashiny-kommunizma-pochemu-v-sssr-tak-i-ne-sozdali-svoj-internet-6983 |website=csef.ru |access-date=21 March 2020 |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kharkevich |first1=Aleksandr Aleksandrovich|title=Theory of information. The identification of the images. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 3|date=1973|publisher=Moscow: Publishing House "Nauka", 1973. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of information transmission problems|location=Information and technology|pages=495–508}}</ref> In fact, he proposed to make a network like the modern Internet for the needs of algorithmic governance. This created a serious concern among CIA analysts.<ref name=cyberthreat>{{cite news |last1=Gerovitch |first1=Slava |title=How the Computer Got Its Revenge on the Soviet Union |url=https://nautil.us/issue/23/dominoes/how-the-computer-got-its-revenge-on-the-soviet-union |access-date=19 September 2021 |work=Nautilus |date=9 April 2015 |archive-date=22 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922175839/https://nautil.us/issue/23/Dominoes/how-the-computer-got-its-revenge-on-the-soviet-union |url-status=dead }}</ref> In particular, [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]] warned that ''"by 1970 the USSR may have a radically new production technology, involving total enterprises or complexes of industries, managed by closed-loop, feedback control employing [[self-teaching computer]]s"''.<ref name=cyberthreat/>
Between 1971 and 1973, the [[Chile]]an government carried out [[Project Cybersyn]] during the [[presidency of Salvador Allende]]. This project was aimed at constructing a distributed [[decision support system]] to improve the management of the national economy.<ref>{{ cite web| url=http://newsinfo.iu.edu/web/page/normal/11088.html| title=IU professor analyzes Chile's 'Project Cybersyn'| publisher=UI News Room| access-date=27 May 2013| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090910060602/http://newsinfo.iu.edu/web/page/normal/11088.html| archive-date=10 September 2009}}</ref><ref name=medina/> Elements of the project were used in 1972 to successfully overcome the traffic collapse caused by a [[Presidency of Salvador Allende#Crisis|CIA-sponsored strike of forty thousand truck drivers]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation |journal=Kybernetes |date=1 January 2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052}}</ref>
Also in the 1960s and 1970s, [[Herbert A. Simon]] championed [[expert systems]] as tools for rationalization and evaluation of administrative behavior.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freeman Engstrom |first1=David |last2=Ho |first2=Daniel E. |last3=Sharkey |first3=Catherine M. |last4=Cuéllar |first4=Mariano-Florentino |title=Government by Algorithm: Artificial Intelligence in Federal Administrative Agencies |url=https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |date=2020 |access-date=2020-03-26 |archive-date=2022-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815021400/https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The automation of rule-based processes was an ambition of tax agencies over many decades resulting in varying success.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Helen |last1=Margretts |author-link1=Helen Margetts |title=Information technology in government : Britain and America |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=9780203208038}}</ref> Early work from this period includes Thorne McCarty's influential TAXMAN project<ref name ="mccarty">McCarty, L. Thorne. ''Reflections on" Taxman: An Experiment in Artificial Intelligence and Legal Reasoning.'' Harvard Law Review (1977): 837–893.</ref> in the US and Ronald Stamper's [[LEGOL]] project<ref name="stamper77">Stamper, Ronald K. ''The LEGOL 1 prototype system and language.'' The Computer Journal 20.2 (1977): 102-108.</ref> in the UK. In 1993, the computer scientist [[Paul Cockshott]] from the [[University of Glasgow]] and the economist Allin Cottrell from the [[Wake Forest University]] published the book ''[[Towards a New Socialism]]'', where they claim to demonstrate the possibility of a democratically [[planned economy]] built on modern computer technology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cockshott |first1=W. Paul |title=Towards a new socialism |date=1993 |publisher=Spokesman |location=Nottingham, England |isbn=978-0851245454}}</ref> The Honourable Justice [[Michael Kirby (judge)|Michael Kirby]] published a paper in 1998, where he expressed optimism that the then-available computer technologies such as [[legal expert system]] could evolve to computer systems, which will strongly affect the practice of courts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kirby |first1=Michael |title=The Future of Courts - Do They Have One |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/jlinfos9&div=19&id=&page= |journal=Journal of Law and Information Science |access-date=12 April 2020 |pages=141 |date=1998|volume=9 }}</ref> In 2006, attorney [[Lawrence Lessig]], known for the slogan [[Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace|"Code is law"]], wrote:
<blockquote>[T]he invisible hand of cyberspace is building an architecture that is quite the opposite of its architecture at its birth. This invisible hand, pushed by government and by commerce, is constructing an architecture that will perfect control and make highly efficient regulation possible<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=Lessig |author-link1=Lawrence Lessig |title=Code |date=2006 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03914-2 |edition=Version 2.0}}</ref></blockquote>
Since the 2000s, algorithms have been designed and used to [[Closed-circuit television#Computer-controlled analytics and identification|automatically analyze surveillance videos]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sodemann |first1=Angela A. |last2=Ross |first2=Matthew P. |last3=Borghetti |first3=Brett J. |title=A Review of Anomaly Detection in Automated Surveillance |journal=IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part C: Applications and Reviews|date=November 2012 |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1257–1272 |doi=10.1109/TSMCC.2012.2215319|s2cid=15466712}}</ref>
In his 2006's book ''Virtual Migration'', [[A. Aneesh]] developed the concept of algocracy — information technologies constrain human participation in public decision making.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelty |first1=Christopher |title=Explaining IT |journal=Political and Legal Anthropology Review |date=2009 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=156–160 |doi=10.1111/j.1555-2934.2009.01035.x |jstor=24497537 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24497537 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=1081-6976}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DANTTO-13 }}</ref> Aneesh differentiated algocratic systems from bureaucratic systems (legal-rational regulation) as well as market-based systems (price-based regulation).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aneesh |first1=A. |title=Virtual Migration: the Programming of Globalization. |date=2006 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-3669-3 |url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/Virtual-Migration/}}</ref>
In 2013, algorithmic regulation was coined by [[Tim O'Reilly]], founder and CEO of O'Reilly Media Inc.:
<blockquote>Sometimes the "rules" aren't really even rules. Gordon Bruce, the former CIO of the city of Honolulu, explained to me that when he entered government from the private sector and tried to make changes, he was told, "That's against the law." His reply was "OK. Show me the law." "Well, it isn't really a law. It's a regulation." "OK. Show me the regulation." "Well, it isn't really a regulation. It's a policy that was put in place by Mr. Somebody twenty years ago." "Great. We can change that!" [...] Laws should specify goals, rights, outcomes, authorities, and limits. If specified broadly, those laws can stand the test of time. Regulations, which specify how to execute those laws in much more detail, should be regarded in much the same way that programmers regard their code and algorithms, that is, as a constantly updated toolset to achieve the outcomes specified in the laws. [...] It's time for government to enter the age of big data. Algorithmic regulation is an idea whose time has come.<ref name=timoreilly>{{cite book |last1=O’Reilly |first1=Tim |author-link1=Tim O'Reilly |editor1-last=Goldstein |editor1-first=B. |editor2-last=Dyson |editor2-first=L. |title=Beyond Transparency: open Data and the Future of Civic Innovation |date=2013 |publisher=Code for America Press |location=San Francisco |pages=289–300 |chapter=Open Data and Algorithmic Regulation}}</ref></blockquote>
In 2017, Ukraine's [[Ministry of Justice (Ukraine)|Ministry of Justice]] ran experimental [[government auction]]s using [[blockchain]] technology to ensure transparency and hinder corruption in governmental transactions.<ref name=ukrainereuteers/> "Government by Algorithm?" was the central theme introduced at Data for Policy 2017 conference held on 6–7 September 2017 in London.<ref>{{cite web |title=Data for Policy 2017 |url=https://dataforpolicy.org/data-for-policy-2017/ |website=Data for Policy CIC |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref>
==Examples==
===Smart cities===
[[File:Architecture-of-the-IoT-for-home-care-systems.jpg|thumb|Architecture of the [[IoT]] for home care systems]]
A [[smart city]] is an urban area where collected surveillance data is used to improve various operations. Increase in computational power allows more automated decision making and replacement of public agencies by algorithmic governance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brauneis |first1=Robert |last2=Goodman |first2=Ellen P. |title=Algorithmic Transparency for the Smart City |journal=Yale Journal of Law & Technology |date=1 January 2018 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=103 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-544510684/algorithmic-transparency-for-the-smart-city}}</ref> In particular, the combined use of artificial intelligence and blockchains for [[Internet of things|IoT]] may lead to the creation of [[sustainable]] smart city ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Saurabh |last2=Sharma |first2=Pradip Kumar |last3=Yoon |first3=Byungun |last4=Shojafar |first4=Mohammad |last5=Cho |first5=Gi Hwan |last6=Ra |first6=In-Ho |title=Convergence of blockchain and artificial intelligence in IoT network for the sustainable smart city |journal=Sustainable Cities and Society |date=1 December 2020 |volume=63 |pages=102364 |doi=10.1016/j.scs.2020.102364 |s2cid=225022879 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210670720305850 |access-date=24 March 2021 |issn=2210-6707}}</ref> [[Intelligent street lighting]] in [[Glasgow]] is an example of successful government application of AI algorithms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gardner |first1=Allison |title=Don't write off government algorithms – responsible AI can produce real benefits |work=The Conversation |url=https://theconversation.com/dont-write-off-government-algorithms-responsible-ai-can-produce-real-benefits-145895 |access-date=1 April 2021}}</ref> A study of smart city initiatives in the US shows that it requires public sector as a main organizer and coordinator, the private sector as a technology and infrastructure provider, and universities as expertise contributors.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morrow |first1=Garrett |title=The Robot in City Hall: The Limitations, Structure, and Governance of Smart City Technology Regimes|date=2022 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/6785af5e14f63d5e91d47b76337e4aec/1.pdf |via=ProQuest |language=en}}</ref>
The [[cryptocurrency]] millionaire Jeffrey Berns proposed the operation of [[local governments]] in [[Nevada]] by tech firms in 2021.<ref name=nevada>{{cite news |title=Nevada smart city: A millionaire's plan to create a local government |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56409924 |access-date=24 March 2021 |work=BBC News |date=18 March 2021}}</ref> Berns bought 67,000 acres (271 km<sup>2</sup>) in Nevada's rural [[Storey County]] (population 4,104) for $170,000,000 (£121,000,000) in 2018 in order to develop a smart city with more than 36,000 residents that could generate an annual output of $4,600,000,000.<ref name=nevada/> Cryptocurrency will be allowed for payments.<ref name=nevada/> Blockchains, Inc. "Innovation Zone" was canceled in September 2021 after it failed to secure enough water<ref>{{Cite web |last=Independent |first=Daniel Rothberg {{!}} The Nevada |title=Blockchains, Inc. withdraws 'Innovation Zone' plan for Storey County |url=http://www.nnbw.com/news/2021/oct/12/blockchains-inc-withdraws-innovation-zone-plan-sto/ |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=www.nnbw.com}}</ref> for the planned 36,000 residents, through water imports from a site located 100 miles away in the neighboring [[Washoe County, Nevada|Washoe County]].<ref name="thenevadaindependent.com">{{Cite web |title=Months before a company lobbied the Legislature to create its own county, it purchased faraway water rights that could fuel future growth |url=https://thenevadaindependent.com/article/months-before-a-company-lobbied-the-legislature-to-create-its-own-county-it-purchased-faraway-water-rights-that-could-fuel-future-growth |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=The Nevada Independent |date=12 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Similar water pipeline proposed in 2007 was estimated to cost $100 million and to would have taken about 10 years to develop.<ref name="thenevadaindependent.com"/> With additional water rights purchased from Tahoe Reno Industrial General Improvement District, "Innovation Zone" would have acquired enough water for about 15,400 homes - meaning that it would have barely covered its planned 15,000 dwelling units, leaving nothing for the rest of the projected city and its 22 million square-feet of industrial development.<ref name="thenevadaindependent.com"/>
In [[Saudi Arabia]], the planners of [[The Line, Saudi Arabia|The Line]] assert that it will be monitored by AI to improve life by using data and predictive modeling.<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi Arabia is planning a 100-mile line of car-free smart communities |url=https://www.engadget.com/the-line-neom-smart-city-saudi-arabia-mohammed-bin-salman-113539487.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnLw&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAMcI4yDl2upDPXrWiYcCTvvnvLTYKdun8IrX9Z5qdG4mnuWTzhJXw6ImGxBrHyoFm8THyrYuJAnCXujn6nMP5RtPji43N5A0iz5T2qguDg1q8342WV8_PitetSew8vJ9bA-5qKIjexmcriDG6I84NBwoIgZbzR_BlQhWICkM5Jk3 |access-date=18 May 2022 |work=Engadget}}</ref>
===Reputation systems===
{{See also|Credit score}}
[[File:Model Cybernetic Factory.svg|thumb|Model of cybernetic thinking about organisation. On the one hand in reality a system is determined. On the other hand, cybernetic factory can be modeled as a control system.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Cybernetic and Management |date=1959 |publisher=English Universities Press |chapter=XVI}}</ref>]]
Tim O'Reilly suggested that data sources and [[reputation system]]s combined in algorithmic regulation can outperform traditional regulations.<ref name=timoreilly/> For instance, once taxi-drivers are rated by passengers, the quality of their services will improve automatically and "drivers who provide poor service are eliminated".<ref name=timoreilly/> O'Reilly's suggestion is based on [[control theory|control-theoreric]] concept of [[feedback|feed-back loop]]—[[positive feedback|improvements]] and [[negative feedback|disimprovements]] of reputation enforce desired behavior.<ref name=socialmachine/> The usage of feed-loops for the management of social systems is already been suggested in [[management cybernetics]] by [[Stafford Beer]] before.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beer |first1=Stafford |author-link1=Stafford Beer |title=Platform for change : a message from Stafford Beer. |date=1975 |publisher=J. Wiley |isbn=978-0471948407}}</ref>
These connections are explored by [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo, where the reputation-credit scoring system is modeled as an incentive given to the citizens and computed by a [[social machine]], so that rational agents would be motivated to increase their score by adapting their behaviour. Several ethical aspects of that technology are still being discussed.<ref name=socialmachine/>
China's [[Social Credit System]] was said to be a mass surveillance effort with a centralized numerical score for each citizen given for their actions, though newer reports say that this is a widespread misconception.<ref name=":46">{{Cite web |title=China's social credit score – untangling myth from reality {{!}} Merics |url=https://merics.org/en/opinion/chinas-social-credit-score-untangling-myth-reality |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=merics.org |date=11 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="jamestown_2110">{{cite journal |last1=Daum |first1=Jeremy |date=8 October 2021 |title=Far From a Panopticon, Social Credit Focuses on Legal Violations |url=https://jamestown.org/program/far-from-a-panopticon-social-credit-focuses-on-legal-violations/ |journal=China Brief |volume=21 |issue=19 |doi= |access-date=10 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="diplomat_2103">{{cite web |title=China's Social Credit System: Speculation vs. Reality |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/chinas-social-credit-system-speculation-vs-reality/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330122252/https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/chinas-social-credit-system-speculation-vs-reality/ |archive-date=30 March 2021 |website=The Diplomat}}</ref>
===Smart contracts===
[[Smart contract]]s, [[cryptocurrencies]], and [[decentralized autonomous organization]] are mentioned as means to replace traditional ways of governance.<ref name=indiadao>{{cite news |last1=Bindra |first1=Jaspreet |title=Transforming India through blockchain |url=https://www.livemint.com/Technology/UZIex6fPPyAqVuTHqpzZiN/Transforming-India-through-blockchain.html |access-date=31 May 2020 |work=Livemint |date=30 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Finn |first1=Ed |date=10 April 2017 |title=Do digital currencies spell the end of capitalism? |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/political-science/2017/apr/10/do-digital-currencies-spell-the-end-of-capitalism |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain/> Cryptocurrencies are currencies, which are enabled by algorithms without a governmental [[central bank]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reiff |first1=Nathan |title=Blockchain Explained |website=Investopedia |url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blockchain.asp |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref> [[Central bank digital currency]] often employs similar technology, but is differentiated from the fact that it does use a central bank. It is soon to be employed by major unions and governments such as the European Union and China. [[Smart contracts]] are self-executable [[contract]]s, whose objectives are the reduction of need in trusted governmental intermediators, arbitrations and enforcement costs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Szabo |first1=Nick |author-link1=Nick Szabo |title=View of Formalizing and Securing Relationships on Public Networks |journal=First Monday |date=1997 |doi=10.5210/fm.v2i9.548 |s2cid=33773111 |url=https://firstmonday.org/article/view/548/469 |access-date=2020-05-31 |archive-date=2022-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410235953/https://firstmonday.org/article/view/548/469 |url-status=dead |doi-access= free}}</ref><ref name=conbook>{{cite book |last1=Fries |first1=Martin |last2=P. Paal |first2=Boris |title=Smart Contracts |year=2019 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |jstor=j.ctvn96h9r |isbn=978-3-16-156911-1 |language=de}}</ref> A decentralized autonomous organization is an [[organization]] represented by smart contracts that is transparent, controlled by shareholders and not influenced by a central government.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is DAO - Decentralized Autonomous Organizations |url=https://blockchainhub.net/dao-decentralized-autonomous-organization/ |website=BlockchainHub |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Prusty |first=Narayan |date=27 Apr 2017 |title=Building Blockchain Projects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=80EwDwAAQBAJ |location=Birmingham, UK |publisher=Packt |page=9 |isbn=9781787125339}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Chohan |first1=Usman W. |title=The Decentralized Autonomous Organization and Governance Issues |date=4 December 2017 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3082055}}.</ref> Smart contracts have been discussed for use in such applications as use in (temporary) [[employment contract]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3270867|title=The Gig Economy, Smart Contracts, and Disruption of Traditional Work Arrangements|first1=Seth|last1=Oranburg|first2=Liya|last2=Palagashvili|date=October 22, 2018|via=Social Science Research Network|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3270867|ssrn=3270867 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328657407|title=A Blockchain-Based Decentralized System for Proper Handling of Temporary Employment Contracts}}</ref> and automatic transfership of funds and property (i.e. [[inheritance]], upon registration of a [[death certificate]]).<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/581948/EPRS_IDA(2017)581948_EN.pdf How blockchain technology could change our lives]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@illuminatesofficial/business-inheritance-in-blockchain-b3fab4613c8c|title=Business inheritance in blockchain|first=Illuminates|last=Official|date=September 11, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/chris-j-snook/4-small-business-verticals-artificial-intelligence-blockchain-will-destroy-in-coming-decade.html|title=Blockchain and AI are coming to kill these 4 business verticals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://silentnotary.com/#project|title=Silent Notary - Blockchain Notary Service 100% events falsification protection|website=silentnotary.com}}</ref> Some countries such as Georgia and Sweden have already launched blockchain programs focusing on property ([[Title search|land titles]] and [[real estate]] ownership)<ref name=ukrainereuteers>{{cite news |last1=Chavez-Dreyfuss |first1=Gertrude |title=Ukraine launches big blockchain deal with tech firm Bitfury |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-bitfury-blockchain-idUSKBN17F0N2 |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=Reuters |date=17 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bitfury.com/content/downloads/the_bitfury_group_republic_of_georgia_expand_blockchain_pilot_2_7_16.pdf|title=The Bitfury Group and Government of Republic of Georgia Expand Blockchain Pilot}}</ref><ref>[https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/inov_a_00276 A BLOCKCHAIN - Journals Gateway]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/corruption/integrity-forum/academic-papers/Georg%20Eder-%20Blockchain%20-%20Ghana_verified.pdf|title=Digital Transformation: Blockchain and Land Titles}}</ref> Ukraine is also looking at other areas too such as [[Public records|state registers]].<ref name=ukrainereuteers/>
===Algorithms in government agencies===
{{See also|Artificial intelligence in government}}
[[File:Team Rubicon - Rockaways - Palantir screenshot.jpg|thumb|Team Rubicon in the Rockaways Nov 12, 2012 - Palantir screenshot]]
According to a study of [[Stanford University]], 45% of the studied US federal agencies have experimented with AI and related machine learning (ML) tools up to 2020.<ref name=sstandford/> US federal agencies counted the number of [[artificial intelligence]] applications, which are listed below.<ref name=sstandford/> 53% of these applications were produced by in-house experts.<ref name=sstandford/> Commercial providers of residual applications include [[Palantir Technologies]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Leaked Palantir Doc Reveals Uses, Specific Functions And Key Clients |url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/01/11/leaked-palantir-doc-reveals-uses-specific-functions-and-key-clients/ |access-date=22 April 2020 |work=TechCrunch}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Agency Name !! Number of Use Cases
|-
| [[Office of Justice Programs]] || 12
|-
| [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] || 10
|-
| [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] || 9
|-
| [[Food and Drug Administration]] || 8
|-
| [[United States Geological Survey]] || 8
|-
| [[United States Postal Service]] || 8
|-
| [[Social Security Administration]] || 7
|-
| [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] || 6
|-
| [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] || 5
|-
| [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] || 4
|}
In 2012, [[NOPD]] started a collaboration with Palantir Technologies in the field of [[predictive policing]].<ref name=verge>{{cite news |last1=Winston |first1=Ali |title=Palantir has secretly been using New Orleans to test its predictive policing technology |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/2/27/17054740/palantir-predictive-policing-tool-new-orleans-nopd |access-date=23 April 2020 |work=The Verge |date=27 February 2018}}</ref> Besides Palantir's Gotham software, other similar ([[numerical analysis software]]) used by police agencies (such as the NCRIC) include [[SAS (software)|SAS]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/neapqg/300-californian-cities-secretly-have-access-to-palantir|title=300 Californian Cities Secretly Have Access to Palantir|first=Caroline|last=Haskins|date=July 12, 2019}}</ref>
In the fight against money laundering, [[Financial Crimes Enforcement Network|FinCEN]] employs the FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System (FAIS) since 1995.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Senator |first1=Ted E. |last2=Wong |first2=Raphael W.H. |last3=Marrone |first3=Michael P. |last4=Llamas |first4=Winston M. |last5=Klinger |first5=Christina D. |last6=Khan |first6=A.F. Umar |last7=Cottini |first7=Matthew A. |last8=Goldberg |first8=Henry G. |last9=Wooton |first9=Jerry |title=The FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System: Identifying Potential Money Laundering from Reports of Large Cash Transactions |journal=AAAI |url=https://www.aaai.org/Library/IAAI/1995/iaai95-015.php |access-date=10 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldberg |first1=H. G. |last2=Senator |first2=T. E. |chapter=The FinCEN AI System: Finding Financial Crimes in a Large Database of Cash Transactions |title=Agent Technology: Foundations, Applications, and Markets |date=1998 |pages=283–302 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-03678-5_15 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-03678-5_15 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-08344-0 |language=en}}</ref>
National health administration entities and organisations such as AHIMA (American Health Information Management Association) hold [[medical record]]s. Medical records serve as the central repository for planning patient care and documenting communication among patient and health care provider and professionals contributing to the patient's care. In the EU, work is ongoing on a [[European Health Data Space]] which supports the use of health data.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en|title=Press corner|website=European Commission - European Commission}}</ref>
US [[Department of Homeland Security]] has employed the software ATLAS, which run on [[Amazon Cloud]]. It scanned more than 16.5 million of records of naturalized Americans and flagged approximately 124,000 of them for manual analysis and review by [[USCIS]] officers regarding [[denaturalization]].<ref name=debal>{{cite news |last1=Biddle |first1=Sam |last2=Saleh |date=August 25, 2021 |first2=Maryam |title=Little-Known Federal Software Can Trigger Revocation of Citizenship |url=https://theintercept.com/2021/08/25/atlas-citizenship-denaturalization-homeland-security/ |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=The Intercept}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cuccinelli Announces USCIS' FY 2019 Accomplishments and Efforts to Implement President Trump's Goals |website=USCIS |url=https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/cuccinelli-announces-uscis-fy-2019-accomplishments-and-efforts-to-implement-president-trumps-goals |access-date=21 September 2021 |date=16 October 2019}}</ref> There were flagged due to potential fraud, public safety and national security issues. Some of the scanned data came from [[Terrorist Screening Database]] and [[National Crime Information Center]].
The [[NarxCare]] is a US software,{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=41}} which combines data from the prescription registries of various [[U.S. state]]s{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=40}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Romo|first=Vanessa|date=2018-05-08|title=Walmart Will Implement New Opioid Prescription Limits By End Of Summer|work=[[National Public Radio|NPR]]|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/05/08/609442939/walmart-will-implement-new-opioid-prescription-limits-by-end-of-summer|access-date=2021-10-06}}</ref> and uses [[machine learning]] to generate various three-digit "risk scores" for prescriptions of medications and an overall "Overdose Risk Score", collectively referred to as Narx Scores,{{Sfn|Oliva|2020|p=847}} in a process that potentially includes [[Emergency medical services|EMS]] and criminal justice data{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=41}} as well as court records.{{Sfn|Oliva|2020|p=848}}
In Estonia, artificial intelligence is used in its [[e-government]] to make it more automated and seamless. A virtual assistant will guide citizens through any interactions they have with the government. Automated and proactive services "push" services to citizens at key events of their lives (including births, bereavements, unemployment, ...). One example is the automated registering of babies when they are born.<ref>See section on smart contracts; this is possible by means of a digital birth certificate, triggering a smart contract</ref> Estonia's [[E-government in Europe#Estonia|X-Road system]] will also be rebuilt to include even more privacy control and accountability into the way the government uses citizen's data.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://govinsider.asia/innovation/marten-kaevats-national-digital-advisor-estonias-vision-for-an-invisible-government/|title=Exclusive: Estonia's vision for an 'invisible government'|date=March 20, 2019}}</ref>
In Costa Rica, the possible digitalization of public procurement activities (i.e. tenders for public works, ...) has been investigated. The paper discussing this possibility mentions that the use of ICT in procurement has several benefits such as increasing transparency, facilitating digital access to public tenders, reducing direct interaction between procurement officials and companies at moments of high integrity risk, increasing outreach and competition, and easier detection of irregularities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/countries/costarica/costa-rica-public-procurement-system.pdf|title=Enhancing the use of competitive tendering in Costa Rica's Public Procurement System}}</ref>
Besides using e-tenders for regular [[public works]] (construction of buildings, roads, ...), e-tenders can also be used for [[reforestation]] projects and other [[carbon sink]] restoration projects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/forestry-commission/about/procurement|title=Procurement at Forestry Commission|website=GOV.UK}}</ref> [[Carbon sink]] restoration projects [[Climate change mitigation#Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks|may]] be part of the [[nationally determined contributions]] plans in order to reach the national [[Paris Agreement#Effectiveness|Paris agreement goals]]
Government [[procurement]] [[Audit management|audit software]] can also be used.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourceforge.net/software/audit/for-government/|title=Best Government Audit Software - 2023 Reviews & Comparison|website=sourceforge.net}}</ref><ref>[https://revista.tcu.gov.br/ojs/index.php/RTCU/article/download/1379/1561 Audit app: an effective tool for government procurement assurance]</ref> Audits are performed in some countries after [[Subsidy#Preventing fraud|subsidies have been received]].
Some government agencies provide track and trace systems for services they offer. An example is [[track and trace]] for applications done by citizens (i.e. driving license procurement).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/track-your-driving-licence-application|title=Track your driving licence application|website=GOV.UK}}</ref>
Some government services use [[issue tracking system]] to keep track of ongoing issues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/services/track-progress-reported-road-fault-or-issue|title=Track progress of a reported road fault or issue | nidirect|date=May 18, 2018|website=www.nidirect.gov.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://flsenate.gov/Tracker/help |title=Senate Tracker Help – The Florida Senate |website=flsenate.gov |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/legislation |title=Legislative Search Results |website=congress.gov |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://govtrack.us |title=GovTrack.us: Tracking the U.S. Congress |website=govtrack.us |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref>
===Justice by algorithm===
Judges' decisions in Australia are supported by the [[Split Up (expert system)|"Split Up" software]] in case of determining the percentage of a split after a [[divorce]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stranieri |first1=Andrew |last2=Zeleznikow |first2=John |title=Proceedings of the fourth international conference on Information and knowledge management - CIKM '95 |chapter=Levels of reasoning as the basis for a formalisation of argumentation |date=2 December 1995 |pages=333–339 |doi=10.1145/221270.221608 |chapter-url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/221270.221608 |access-date=5 February 2022 |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|isbn=0897918126 |s2cid=12179742 }}</ref> [[COMPAS (software)|COMPAS]] software is used in USA to assess the risk of [[recidivism]] in courts.<ref>{{cite news |title=A computer program used for bail and sentencing decisions was labeled biased against blacks. It's actually not that clear. |author=Sam Corbett-Davies |author2=Emma Pierson |author3=Avi Feller |author4=Sharad Goel |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/10/17/can-an-algorithm-be-racist-our-analysis-is-more-cautious-than-propublicas/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=October 17, 2016 |access-date=January 1, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author=Aaron M. Bornstein |title=Are Algorithms Building the New Infrastructure of Racism? |magazine=[[Nautilus (science magazine)|Nautilus]] |date=December 21, 2017 |url=http://nautil.us/issue/55/trust/are-algorithms-building-the-new-infrastructure-of-racism |access-date=January 2, 2018 |issue=55 |archive-date=January 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103011728/http://nautil.us/issue/55/trust/are-algorithms-building-the-new-infrastructure-of-racism |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to the statement of Beijing Internet Court, China is the first country to create an internet court or cyber court.<ref name=internetcourt>{{cite web |title=Beijing Internet Court launches online litigation service center |url=https://english.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn/2019-07/01/c_190.htm |website=english.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn |access-date=13 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=China Now Has AI-Powered Judges |url=https://radiichina.com/china-now-has-ai-powered-robot-judges/ |access-date=13 April 2020 |work=RADII {{!}} Culture, Innovation, and Life in today's China |date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fish |first1=Tom |title=AI shock: China unveils 'cyber court' complete with AI judges and verdicts via chat app |url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/science/1214019/ai-china-cyber-court-artificial-intelligence-judges-verdicts-chat-app |access-date=13 April 2020 |work=Express.co.uk |date=6 December 2019}}</ref> The Chinese AI judge is a [[virtual actor|virtual recreation]] of an actual female judge. She "will help the court's judges complete repetitive basic work, including litigation reception, thus enabling professional practitioners to focus better on their trial work".<ref name=internetcourt/> Also [[Estonia]] plans to employ artificial intelligence to decide small-claim cases of less than €7,000.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Can AI Be a Fair Judge in Court? Estonia Thinks So |url=https://www.wired.com/story/can-ai-be-fair-judge-court-estonia-thinks-so/ |access-date=13 April 2020 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>
[[Lawbot]]s can perform tasks that are typically done by paralegals or young associates at law firms. One such technology used by US law firms to assist in legal research is from ROSS Intelligence,<ref>"ROSS Intelligence Lands Another Law Firm Client." The American Lawyer. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 June 2017. <http://www.americanlawyer.com/id=1202769384977/ROSS-Intelligence-Lands-Another-Law-Firm-Client>.</ref> and others vary in sophistication and dependence on scripted [[algorithm]]s.<ref>CodeX Techindex. Stanford Law School, n.d. Web. 16 June 2017. <https://techindex.law.stanford.edu/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331081439/https://techindex.law.stanford.edu/ |date=2022-03-31 }}>.</ref> Another legal technology [[chatbot]] application is [[DoNotPay]].
===Algorithms in education===
{{further|Ofqual exam results algorithm}}
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, in-person final exams were impossible for thousands of students.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Broussard |first1=Meredith |author-link=Meredith Broussard |title=Opinion {{!}} When Algorithms Give Real Students Imaginary Grades |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/08/opinion/international-baccalaureate-algorithm-grades.html |work=The New York Times |date=8 September 2020}}</ref> The public high school [[Westminster High School (Westminster, California)|Westminster High]] employed algorithms to assign grades. UK's [[Department for Education]] also employed a statistical calculus to assign final grades in [[A-levels]], due to the pandemic.<ref name="fuckthealgorithm">{{cite magazine |title=Skewed Grading Algorithms Fuel Backlash Beyond the Classroom |url=https://www.wired.com/story/skewed-grading-algorithms-fuel-backlash-beyond-classroom/ |access-date=26 September 2020 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>
Besides use in grading, software systems like AI were used in preparation for college entrance exams.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/18/education/artificial-intelligence-tutors-teachers.html|title=The Machines Are Learning, and So Are the Students|first=Craig S.|last=Smith|date=December 18, 2019|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref>
AI teaching assistants are being developed and used for education (e.g., Georgia Tech's Jill Watson)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.educationworld.com/could-artificial-intelligence-replace-our-teachers|title=Could Artificial Intelligence Replace Our Teachers? | Education World}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/a-professor-built-an-ai-teaching-assistant-for-his-courses-and-it-could-shape-the-future-of-education-2017-3|title=A professor built an AI teaching assistant for his courses — and it could shape the future of education|first=Todd|last=Leopold|website=Business Insider}}</ref> and there is also an ongoing debate on whether perhaps teachers can be entirely replaced by AI systems (e.g., in [[homeschooling]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/roybi-robot/the-future-of-homeschooling-how-robots-are-changing-in-home-education-473ede32e228|title=The Future of Homeschooling: How Robots are Changing In-Home Education|first=Roybi|last=Robot|date=September 23, 2018}}</ref>
===AI politicians===
{{See also|Chatbot#Politics}}
In 2018, an activist named Michihito Matsuda ran for mayor in the [[Tama, Tokyo|Tama city area of Tokyo]] as a human proxy for an [[artificial intelligence]] program.<ref>{{cite web |first=Michihito |last=Matsuda |title=POLITICS 2028: WHY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE WILL REPLACE POLITICIANS |website=SlideShare |date=14 July 2018 |url=https://www.slideshare.net/MichihitoMatsuda/politics-2028-why-artificial-intelligence-will-replace-politicians-by-michihito-matsuda |access-date=22 September 2019}}</ref> While election posters and campaign material used the term ''robot'', and displayed [[stock images]] of a feminine [[Android (robot)|android]], the "AI mayor" was in fact a [[machine learning algorithm]] trained using Tama city datasets.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnston |first1=Lachlan |title=There's an AI Running for the Mayoral Role of Tama City, Tokyo |url=https://www.otaquest.com/tama-city-ai-mayor/ |website=OTAQUEST |access-date=22 September 2019 |date=12 April 2018}}</ref> The project was backed by high-profile executives Tetsuzo Matsumoto of [[Softbank]] and Norio Murakami of [[Google]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ai-mayor.com/|title=AI党 | 多摩市議会議員選挙2019|website=AI党 | 多摩市議会議員選挙2019}}</ref> Michihito Matsuda came third in the election, being defeated by [[Hiroyuki Abe (politician)|Hiroyuki Abe]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Werden Bots die besseren Politiker? |url=https://www.politik-kommunikation.de/ressorts/artikel/werden-bots-die-besseren-politiker-73781989 |access-date=31 October 2020 |work=Politik & Kommunikation |language=de}}</ref> Organisers claimed that the 'AI mayor' was programmed to analyze [[Online petition|citizen petitions]] put forward to the [[city council]] in a more 'fair and balanced' way than human politicians.<ref>{{cite web|title=Robot to run for mayor in Japan promising 'fairness and balance' for all|first1=Abigail|last1=O'Leary|first2=Anna |last2=Verdon|date=April 17, 2018|website=mirror |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/robot-run-mayor-japan-world-12377782}}</ref>
In 2018, [[Cesar Hidalgo]] presented the idea of [[augumented democracy]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perez |first1=Oren |title=Collaborative е-Rulemaking, Democratic Bots, and the Future of Digital Democracy |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=31 January 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1145/3352463 |s2cid=211519367 |language=en |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free }}</ref> In an augumented democracy, legislation is done by [[digital twin]]s of every single person.
In 2019, AI-powered messenger [[chatbot]] SAM participated in the discussions on social media connected to an electoral race in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarmah |first1=Harshajit |title=World's First AI-powered Virtual Politician SAM Joins The Electoral Race In New Zealand |url=https://analyticsindiamag.com/worlds-first-ai-powered-virtual-politician-sam-joins-the-electoral-race-in-new-zealand/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=Analytics India Magazine |date=28 January 2019}}</ref> The creator of SAM, Nick Gerritsen, believes SAM will be advanced enough to run as a [[Virtual politician|candidate]] by late 2020, when New Zealand has its next general election.<ref>{{cite news |title=Meet SAM, world's first AI politician that hopes to run for New Zealand election in 2020 |date=26 November 2017 |work=Hindustan Times |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126111001/http://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 26, 2017 |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref>
In 2022, the chatbot "Leader Lars" or "Leder Lars" was nominated for [[The Synthetic Party]] to run in the 2022 [[Danish Realm|Danish]] parliamentary election,<ref>{{cite news |last=Sternberg |first=Sarah |date=20 June 2022 |title=Danskere vil ind på den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=Danes want to enter the political scene with artificial intelligence |newspaper=[[Jyllands-Posten]] |url=https://jyllands-posten.dk/kultur/ECE14145385/danskere-vil-ind-paa-den-politiske-scene-med-kunstig-intelligens/ |access-date=2022-06-20}}</ref> and was built by the artist collective [https://computerlars.com Computer Lars].<ref>{{cite news |last=Diwakar |first=Amar |date=2022-08-22 |title=Can an AI-led Danish party usher in an age of algorithmic politics? |trans-title= |newspaper=[[TRT World]] |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/can-an-ai-led-danish-party-usher-in-an-age-of-algorithmic-politics-60008 |access-date=2022-08-22}}</ref> Leader Lars differed from earlier virtual politicians by leading a [[political party]] and by not pretending to be an objective candidate.<ref>{{cite news |last=Xiang |first=Chloe |date=13 October 2022 |title=This Danish Political Party Is Led by an AI |trans-title= |newspaper=[[Motherboard (website)|Vice: Motherboard]] |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/jgpb3p/this-danish-political-party-is-led-by-an-ai |access-date=2022-10-13}}</ref> This chatbot engaged in critical discussions on politics with users from around the world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hearing |first=Alice |date=14 October 2022 |title=A.I. chatbot is leading a Danish political party and setting its policies. Now users are grilling it for its stance on political landmines |url=https://fortune.com/2022/10/14/ai-chatbot-leader-lars-the-synthetic-party-discord-russia-ukraine-crimea-policy/ |work=Fortune }}</ref>
In 2023, In the Japanese town of Manazuru, a mayoral candidate called "[[AI Mayer]]" hopes to be the first AI-powered officeholder in Japan in November 2023. This candidacy is said to be supported by a group led by Michihito Matsuda <ref>{{cite news |date=2023-11-07|title=Danskere vil ind den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=AI Mayer run to the election in Manazuru Town|newspaper=Tokyo Sports |url= https://www.tokyo-sports.co.jp/articles/-/282034 |access-date=2023-11-25}}</ref>
===Management of infection===
{{See also|Digital contact tracing|Disease surveillance|COVID-19 apps}}
[[File:A schematic of app-based COVID-19 contact tracing (Fig. 4 from Ferretti et al. 2020).jpg|thumb|A schematic of app-based COVID-19 contact tracing<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ferretti |first1=Luca |last2=Wymant |first2=Chris |last3=Kendall |first3=Michelle |last4=Zhao |first4=Lele |last5=Nurtay |first5=Anel |last6=Abeler-Dörner |first6=Lucie |last7=Parker |first7=Michael |last8=Bonsall |first8=David |last9=Fraser |first9=Christophe |title=Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 transmission suggests epidemic control with digital contact tracing |journal=Science |date=8 May 2020 |volume=368 |issue=6491 |pages=eabb6936 |doi=10.1126/science.abb6936 |pmid=32234805 |pmc=7164555 |language=en |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>]]
In February 2020, China launched a [[mobile app]] to deal with the [[Coronavirus disease 2019|Coronavirus outbreak]]<ref>{{cite news |title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact' app |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51439401 |access-date=7 March 2020 |work=BBC News |date=11 February 2020}}</ref> called "close-contact-detector".<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/tech/apps-social/article/3050054/china-launches-coronavirus-close-contact-detector-effort-reassure|title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact detector' platform|date=February 12, 2020|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref> Users are asked to enter their name and ID number. The app is able to detect "close contact" using surveillance data (i.e. using public transport records, including trains and flights)<ref name="auto"/> and therefore a potential risk of infection. Every user can also check the status of three other users. To make this inquiry users scan a Quick Response (QR) code on their smartphones using apps like [[Alipay]] or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51439401|title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact detector' app|work=BBC News |date=February 11, 2020}}</ref> The close contact detector can be accessed via popular mobile apps including Alipay. If a potential risk is detected, the app not only recommends self-quarantine, it also alerts local health officials.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chen |first1=Angela |title=China's coronavirus app could have unintended consequences |website=MIT Technology Review |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/615199/coronavirus-china-app-close-contact-surveillance-covid-19-technology/ |access-date=7 March 2020}}</ref>
Alipay also has the [[Alipay Health Code]] which is used to keep citizens safe. This system generates a QR code in one of three colors (green, yellow, or red) after users fill in a form on Alipay with personal details. A green code enables the holder to move around unrestricted. A yellow code requires the user to stay at home for seven days and red means a two-week quarantine. In some cities such as Hangzhou, it has become nearly impossible to get around without showing one's Alipay code.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/china-coronavirus-surveillance.html|title=In Coronavirus Fight, China Gives Citizens a Color Code, With Red Flags|first1=Paul |last1=Mozur|first2=Raymond |last2=Zhong|first3=Aaron|last3=Krolik|newspaper=The New York Times |date=March 2, 2020}}</ref>
In Cannes, France, monitoring software has been used on footage shot by [[CCTV]] cameras, allowing to monitor their compliance to local [[social distancing]] and [[Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic|mask wearing]] during the COVID-19 pandemic. The system does not store identifying data, but rather allows to alert city authorities and police where breaches of the mask and mask wearing rules are spotted (allowing [[Fine (penalty)|fining]] to be carried out where needed). The algorithms used by the monitoring software can be incorporated into existing surveillance systems in public spaces (hospitals, stations, airports, shopping centres, ...) <ref>{{cite news |date=May 4, 2020 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-52529981|title=Coronavirus France: Cameras to monitor masks and social distancing|work=BBC News}}</ref>
Cellphone data is used to locate infected patients in South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and other countries.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Manancourt |first1=Vincent |title=Coronavirus tests Europe's resolve on privacy |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/coronavirus-tests-europe-resolve-on-privacy-tracking-apps-germany-italy/ |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=POLITICO |date=10 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/28/tech/korea-coronavirus-tracking-apps/index.html|title=Coronavirus mobile apps are surging in popularity in South Korea|author1=Ivan Watson |author2=Sophie Jeong |website=CNN|date=28 February 2020 }}</ref> In March 2020, the Israeli government enabled security agencies to track mobile phone data of people supposed to have coronavirus. The measure was taken to enforce quarantine and protect those who may come into contact with infected citizens.<ref>{{cite news|last=Tidy|first=Joe|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51930681|title=Coronavirus: Israel enables emergency spy powers|date=17 March 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=18 March 2020}}</ref> Also in March 2020, [[Deutsche Telekom]] shared private cellphone data with the federal government agency, [[Robert Koch Institute]], in order to research and prevent the spread of the virus.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Paksoy |first1=Yunus |title=German telecom giant shares private data with government amid privacy fears |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/german-telecom-giant-shares-private-data-with-government-amid-privacy-fears-34665 |access-date=20 March 2020 |agency=trtworld}}</ref> Russia deployed [[Facial recognition system|facial recognition technology]] to detect quarantine breakers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Moscow deploys facial recognition technology for coronavirus quarantine |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-moscow-technology-idUSKBN20F1RZ |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=Reuters |date=21 February 2020}}</ref> Italian regional health commissioner [[Giulio Gallera]] said that "40% of people are continuing to move around anyway", as he has been informed by mobile phone operators.<ref>{{cite news |title=Italians scolded for flouting lockdown as death toll nears 3,000 |url=https://www.post-gazette.com/news/world/2020/03/18/Italy-coronavirus-475-deaths-one-day-death-toll-2978-COVID-19-doctors/stories/202003180182 |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette}}</ref> In USA, Europe and UK, [[Palantir Technologies]] is taken in charge to provide COVID-19 tracking services.<ref>{{cite news |title=Palantir provides COVID-19 tracking software to CDC and NHS, pitches European health agencies |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/04/01/palantir-coronavirus-cdc-nhs-gotham-foundry/ |access-date=22 April 2020 |work=TechCrunch}}</ref>
===Prevention and management of environmental disasters===
{{See also|Early warning system}}
[[Tsunami]]s can be detected by [[Tsunami warning system]]s. They can make use of AI.<ref>{{cite web |title=Japanese team develops AI-based system to forecast tsunami and damages |url=https://www.preventionweb.net/news/how-ai-will-help-us-better-understand-tsunami-risks |website=www.preventionweb.net}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221057355|title=Artificially Intelligent Tsunami Early Warning System}}</ref> [[Flooding]]s can also be detected using AI systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2019/08/10/artificial-intelligence-wildfires-flooding-rescue/|title=How Artificial Intelligence Could Help Fight Climate Change-Driven Wildfires and Save Lives|website=Fortune}}</ref> [[Wildfire]]s can be predicted using AI systems.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Predictive modeling of wildfires: A new dataset and machine learning approach|first1=Younes Oulad|last1=Sayad|first2=Hajar |last2=Mousannif|first3=Hassan|last3=Al Moatassime|date=March 1, 2019|journal=Fire Safety Journal |volume=104|pages=130–146|doi=10.1016/j.firesaf.2019.01.006|s2cid=116032143|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261272818|title=Artificial intelligence for forest fire prediction}}</ref> [[Wildfire#Detection|Wildfire detection is possible by AI systems]] (i.e. through satellite data, aerial imagery, and GPS phone personnel position) and can help in the evacuation of people during wildfires,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Zhao |first1=Xilei |last2=Lovreglio |first2=Ruggiero |last3=Kuligowski |first3=Erica |last4=Nilsson |first4=Daniel |date=April 15, 2020 |title=Using Artificial Intelligence for Safe and Effective Wildfire Evacuations |journal=Fire Technology |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=483–485 |doi=10.1007/s10694-020-00979-x |s2cid=218801709 |doi-access=free}}</ref> to investigate how householders responded in wildfires<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Xilei |last2=Xu |first2=Yiming |last3=Lovreglio |first3=Ruggiero |last4=Kuligowski |first4=Erica |last5=Nilsson |first5=Daniel |last6=Cova |first6=Thomas J. |last7=Wu |first7=Alex |last8=Yan |first8=Xiang |date=2022-06-01 |title=Estimating wildfire evacuation decision and departure timing using large-scale GPS data |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136192092200102X |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |volume=107 |pages=103277 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2022.103277 |issn=1361-9209|arxiv=2109.07745 }}</ref> and spotting wildfire in real time using [[computer vision]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/05/tech/ai-wildfires/index.html |title=How AI is helping spot wildfires faster|author1=Rachel Metz |others=Video by John General |website=CNN|date=5 December 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/11/06/california-has-million-acres-forest-this-company-is-training-artificial-intelligence-scour-it-all-wildfire/|title=California has 33 million acres of forest. This company is training artificial intelligence to scour it all for wildfire. |first=Peter|last=Holley |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> [[Earthquake warning system|Earthquake detection systems]] are now improving alongside the development of AI technology through measuring seismic data and implementing complex algorithms to improve detection and prediction rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Mostafa |last2=Sheng |first2=Yixiao |last3=Zhu |first3=Weiqiang |last4=Beroza |first4=Gregory C. |date=2019 |title=STanford EArthquake Dataset (STEAD): A Global Data Set of Seismic Signals for AI |journal=IEEE Access |volume=7 |pages=179464–179476 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2947848 |s2cid=208111095 |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Banna |first1=Md. Hasan Al |last2=Taher |first2=Kazi Abu |last3=Kaiser |first3=M. Shamim |last4=Mahmud |first4=Mufti |last5=Rahman |first5=Md. Sazzadur |last6=Hosen |first6=A. S. M. Sanwar |last7=Cho |first7=Gi Hwan |date=2020 |title=Application of Artificial Intelligence in Predicting Earthquakes: State-of-the-Art and Future Challenges |journal=IEEE Access |volume=8 |pages=192880–192923 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3029859 |s2cid=226292959 |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-09 |title=How Location Intelligence Can Help Protect Lives During Disasters |url=https://ehsdailyadvisor.blr.com/2022/02/how-location-intelligence-can-help-protect-lives-during-disasters/ |access-date=2024-01-23 |website=EHS Daily Advisor |language=en-US}}</ref> Earthquake monitoring, phase picking, and seismic signal detection have developed through AI algorithms of [[Deep learning|deep-learning]], analysis, and computational models.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Mostafa |last2=Ellsworth |first2=William L. |last3=Zhu |first3=Weiqiang |last4=Chuang |first4=Lindsay Y. |last5=Beroza |first5=Gregory C. |date=2020-08-07 |title=Earthquake transformer—an attentive deep-learning model for simultaneous earthquake detection and phase picking |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=3952 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17591-w |pmid=32770023 |pmc=7415159 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3952M |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> [[Locust]] breeding areas can be approximated using machine learning, which could help to stop locust swarms in an early phase.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gómez |first1=Diego |last2=Salvador |first2=Pablo |last3=Sanz |first3=Julia |last4=Casanova |first4=Carlos |last5=Taratiel |first5=Daniel |last6=Casanova |first6=Jose Luis |date=August 15, 2018 |title=Machine learning approach to locate desert locust breeding areas based on ESA CCI soil moisture |journal=Journal of Applied Remote Sensing |volume=12 |issue=3 |at=036011 |bibcode=2018JARS...12c6011G |doi=10.1117/1.JRS.12.036011 |doi-access=free |s2cid=52230139}}</ref>
==Reception==
===Benefits===
{{See also|Techno-progressivism}}
Algorithmic regulation is supposed to be a system of governance where more exact data, collected from citizens via their smart devices and computers, is used to more efficiently organize human life as a collective.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McCormick |first1=Tim |title=A brief exchange with Tim O'Reilly about "algorithmic regulation" {{!}} Tim McCormick |date=15 February 2014 |url=https://tjm.org/2014/02/15/a-brief-exchange-with-tim-oreilly-about-algorithmic-regulation/ |access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Why the internet of things could destroy the welfare state |url=http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jul/20/rise-of-data-death-of-politics-evgeny-morozov-algorithmic-regulation |access-date=2 June 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=19 July 2014}}</ref> As [[Deloitte]] estimated in 2017, automation of US government work could save 96.7 million federal hours annually, with a potential savings of $3.3 billion; at the high end, this rises to 1.2 billion hours and potential annual savings of $41.1 billion.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Eggers |first1=illiam D. |last2=Schatsky |first2=David |last3=Viechnick |first3=Peter |title=Demystifying artificial intelligence in government |website=Deloitte Insights |url=https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/focus/cognitive-technologies/artificial-intelligence-government.html |access-date=4 April 2020}}</ref>
===Criticism===
There are potential risks associated with the use of algorithms in government. Those include [[Algorithmic bias|algorithms becoming susceptible to bias]],<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=https://ash.harvard.edu/files/ash/files/artificial_intelligence_for_citizen_services.pdf|title=Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government|last=Mehr|first=Hila|date=August 2017|website=ash.harvard.edu|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> a lack of transparency in how an algorithm may make decisions,<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.capgemini.com/consulting/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/10/ai-in-public-sector.pdf|title=Unleashing the potential of Artificial Intelligence in the Public Sector|last=Capgemini Consulting|date=2017|website=www.capgemini.com|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> and the accountability for any such decisions.<ref name=":6" /> According to a 2016's book [[Weapons of Math Destruction]], algorithms and [[big data]] are suspected to increase inequality due to opacity, scale and damage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=Shikha |title=Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy |journal=Vikalpa: The Journal for Decision Makers |date=June 2019 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=97–98 |doi=10.1177/0256090919853933 |s2cid=198779932 |issn=0256-0909|doi-access=free }}</ref>
There is also a serious concern that [[gaming the system|gaming]] by the regulated parties might occur, once more [[Right to explanation|transparency is brought into the decision making by algorithmic governance]], regulated parties might try to manipulate their outcome in own favor and even use [[adversarial machine learning]].<ref name=sstandford/><ref name=socialmachine/> According to [[Yuval Noah Harari|Harari]], the conflict between democracy and dictatorship is seen as a conflict of two different data-processing systems—AI and algorithms may swing the advantage toward the latter by processing enormous amounts of information centrally.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harari |first1=Story by Yuval Noah |title=Why Technology Favors Tyranny |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/10/yuval-noah-harari-technology-tyranny/568330/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=The Atlantic}}</ref>
In 2018, the Netherlands employed an algorithmic system SyRI (Systeem Risico Indicatie) to detect citizens perceived being high risk for committing [[welfare fraud]], which quietly flagged thousands of people to investigators.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Europe Limits Government by Algorithm. The US, Not So Much |url=https://www.wired.com/story/europe-limits-government-algorithm-us-not-much/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref> This caused a public protest. The district court of Hague shut down SyRI referencing [[Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights]] (ECHR).<ref>Rechtbank Den Haag 5 February 2020, C-09-550982-HA ZA 18-388 (English), {{ECLI|ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2020:1878}}</ref>
The contributors of the 2019 documentary [[iHuman (2019 film)|iHuman]] expressed apprehension of "infinitely stable dictatorships" created by government AI.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Amber |title='iHuman': IDFA Review |url=https://www.screendaily.com/reviews/ihuman-idfa-review/5144918.article |website=Screen |access-date=21 April 2020}}</ref>
Due to public criticism, the Australian government announced the suspension of [[Robodebt scheme]] key functions in 2019, and a review of all debts raised using the programme.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rinta-Kahila |first1=Tapani |last2=Someh |first2=Ida |last3=Gillespie |first3=Nicole |last4=Indulska |first4=Marta |last5=Gregor |first5=Shirley |title=Algorithmic decision-making and system destructiveness: A case of automatic debt recovery |journal=European Journal of Information Systems |date=4 May 2022 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=313–338 |doi=10.1080/0960085X.2021.1960905|s2cid=239735326 |doi-access=free |hdl=1885/294609 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
In 2020, algorithms assigning exam grades to students in the [[2020 UK GCSE and A-Level grading controversy|UK sparked open protest]] under the banner "Fuck the algorithm."<ref name="fuckthealgorithm" /> This protest was successful and the grades were taken back.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Reuter |first1=Markus |title=Fuck the Algorithm - Jugendproteste in Großbritannien gegen maschinelle Notenvergabe erfolgreich |url=https://netzpolitik.org/2020/fuck-the-algorithm-jugendproteste-in-grossbritannien-gegen-maschinelle-notenvergabe-erfolgreich/ |access-date=3 October 2020 |work=netzpolitik.org |date=17 August 2020 |language=de-DE}}</ref>
In 2020, the US government software [[ATLAS (software)|ATLAS]], which run on [[Amazon Cloud]], sparked uproar from activists and Amazon's own employees.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Government Is Using an Algorithm to Flag American Citizens for Denaturalization: Report |url=https://gizmodo.com/u-s-government-is-using-an-algorithm-to-flag-american-1847565703 |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=Gizmodo}}</ref>
In 2021, Eticas Foundation has launched a database of governmental algorithms called ''Observatory of Algorithms with Social Impact'' (OASI).<ref>{{cite press release |title=OASI, the first search engine to find the algorithms that governments and companies use on citizens |url=https://www.eureporter.co/lifestyle/computer-technology/2021/10/11/oasi-the-first-search-engine-to-find-the-algorithms-that-governments-and-companies-use-on-citizens/ |access-date=16 October 2021}}</ref>
====Algorithmic bias and transparency====
{{Main|Algorithmic bias}}
An initial approach towards transparency included the [[Open-source software|open-sourcing of algorithms]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Heald|first=David|title=Transparency: The Key to Better Governance?|date=2006-09-07|publisher=British Academy|isbn=978-0-19-726383-9|doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197263839.003.0002}}</ref> Software code can be looked into and improvements can be proposed through [[Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities|source-code-hosting facilities]].
===Public acceptance===
A 2019 poll conducted by [[IE University]]'s Center for the Governance of Change in Spain found that 25% of citizens from selected European countries were somewhat or totally in favor of letting an artificial intelligence make important decisions about how their country is run.<ref>{{cite web |title=European Tech Insights (2019) {{!}} IE CGC |website=Center for the Governance of Change |access-date=11 April 2020 |url=https://docs.ie.edu/cgc/European-Tech-Insights-2019.pdf}}</ref> The following table lists the results by country:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Country !! Percentage
|-
| France || 25%
|-
| Germany || 31%
|-
| Ireland || 29%
|-
| Italy || 28%
|-
| Netherlands || 43%
|-
| Portugal || 19%
|-
| Spain || 26%
|-
| UK || 31%
|}
Researchers found some evidence that when citizens perceive their political leaders or security providers to be untrustworthy, disappointing, or immoral, they prefer to replace them by artificial agents, whom they consider to be more reliable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spatola |first1=Nicolas |last2=Macdorman |first2=Karl F. |title=Why Real Citizens Would Turn to Artificial Leaders |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=11 July 2021 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=26:1–26:24 |doi=10.1145/3447954 |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free |hdl=1805/30988 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The evidence is established by survey experiments on university students of all genders.
==In popular culture==
The novels [[Daemon (novel series)|''Daemon'']] and ''[[Freedom™]]'' by [[Daniel Suarez (author)|Daniel Suarez]] describe a fictional scenario of global algorithmic regulation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rieger |first1=Frank |title=Understanding the Daemon |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/medien/english-version-understanding-the-daemon-1621404.html |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=FAZ.NET |language=de}}</ref> [[Matthew De Abaitua]]'s ''If Then'' imagines an algorithm supposedly based on "fairness" recreating a premodern rural economy.<ref>Stainforth, Elizabeth and Jo Lindsay Walton. "Computing Utopia: The Horizons of Computational Economies in History and Science Fiction." Science Fiction Studies, vol. 46 no. 3, 2019, p. 471-489. Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/sfs.2019.0084.</ref>
==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Anti-corruption]]
* [[Civic technology]]
* [[Code for America]]
* [[Cyberpunk]]
* [[Cybersyn]]
* [[Digital divide]]
* [[Digital Nations]]
* [[Distributed ledger technology law]]
* [[Dutch childcare benefits scandal]]
* [[ERulemaking]]
* [[Lawbot]]
* [[Legal informatics]]
* [[Management cybernetics]]
* [[Multivac]]
* [[Predictive analytics]]
* [[Sharing economy]]
* [[Smart contract]]
* [[Algorithmocracy]] - [https://algorithmocracy.org/]
{{div col end}}
== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}
== General and cited references ==
* {{Cite book |last=Lessig |first=Lawrence |year=2006 |title=Code: Version 2.0 |url=https://lessig.org/product/codev2 |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03914-2 |oclc=133467669}} Wikipedia article: ''[[Code: Version 2.0]]''.
* {{Cite journal |last=Oliva |first=Jennifer |date=2020-01-08 |title=Prescription-Drug Policing: The Right To Health Information Privacy Pre- and Post-Carpenter |url=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/dlj/vol69/iss4/1 |journal=[[Duke Law Journal]] |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=775–853 |issn=0012-7086}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Szalavitz |first=Maia |date=October 2021 |title=The Pain Algorithm |url=https://www.wired.com/story/opioid-drug-addiction-algorithm-chronic-pain |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|WIRED]] |pages=36–47 |issn=1059-1028}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Yeung |first1=Karen |last2=Lodge |first2=Martin |year=2019 |title=Algorithmic Regulation |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198838494}}
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|algocracy}}
* [https://dataforpolicy.org/data-for-policy-2017/ Government by Algorithm?] by Data for Policy 2017 Conference
* [https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf Government by Algorithm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815021400/https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |date=2022-08-15 }} by [[Stanford University]]
* [https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/624262/EPRS_STU(2019)624262_EN.pdf A governance framework for algorithmic accountability and transparency] by [[European Parliament]]
* [https://academic.oup.com/comjnl/article/62/3/448/5070384 Algorithmic Government] by Zeynep Engin and Philip Treleaven, [[University College London]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fsz6Zw1BkTg Algorithmic Government] by Prof. Philip C. Treleaven of [[University College London]]
* [https://ash.harvard.edu/files/ash/files/artificial_intelligence_for_citizen_services.pdf Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government] by Hila Mehr of [[Harvard University]]
* [https://eticasfoundation.org/oasi/register/ The OASI Register], algorithms with social impact
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt11279794/?ref_=nm_flmg_dr_1 ''iHuman''] (Documentary, 2019) by [[Tonje Hessen Schei]]
* [https://motivatingspeech.com/how-blockchain-can-transform-india-jaspreet-bindra/ How Blockchain can transform India: Jaspreet Bindra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628064819/https://motivatingspeech.com/how-blockchain-can-transform-india-jaspreet-bindra/ |date=2021-06-28 }}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sr2ga3BBMTc Can An AI Design Our Tax Policy?]
* [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09540962.2020.1821514/ New development: Blockchain—a revolutionary tool for the public sector], An introduction on the Blockchain's usage in the public sector by Vasileios Yfantis
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/cesar_hidalgo_a_bold_idea_to_replace_politicians A bold idea to replace politicians] by [[César Hidalgo]]
[[Category:Government by algorithm| ]]
[[Category:Applications of artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Collaboration]]
[[Category:E-government]]
[[Category:Information society|*]]
[[Category:Social influence]]
[[Category:Social information processing]]
[[Category:Social networks]]
[[Category:Social systems]]
[[Category:Sociology of technology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Technological utopianism]]
[[Category:Technology in society]]
[[Category:Transhumanism]] |
Christoph Becker | {{Short description|Canadian academic}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Christoph Becker
| image = Christoph Becker.jpg
| birth_place = Austria
| education = Vienna University of Technology (BSc Computer Science, MSc Computer Science, MSc Economics, Doctorate Computer Science)
| employer = [[University of Toronto]]
| known_for = Sustainability in System Design Digital Curation
Digital Preservation Planning
| notable_works = [https://www.sustainabilitydesign.org/karlskrona-manifesto/ Karlskrona Manifesto] (2015) <br>
[https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262545600/insolvent/ Insolvent: How to Reorient Computing for Just Sustainability] (2023)
| website = {{URL|christoph-becker.info}}
}}
'''Christoph Becker''' is a Professor of Information and Director of the Digital Curation Institute at the [[University of Toronto]]. His research focuses on the design of just and sustainable information and software systems, judgment and decision-making in systems design, social responsibility in computing, and digital curation.
Becker is one of the co-founders of the [[The Karlskrona Manifesto|Karlskrona Manifesto for Sustainability Design]] and is the author of the book ''[https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262545600/insolvent/ Insolvent: How to Reorient Computing for Just Sustainability].''
== Career ==
Becker received his BSc in Computer Science, MSc in Software Engineering, MSc in Economics and Computer Science, and Doctorate in Computer Science at the [[TU Wien|Vienna University of Technology]]. After completing his PhD in 2010 with a thesis on decision-making in digital preservation, he spent a winter in Lisbon as a visiting post-doctoral researcher with the Information Systems research group at IST Lisbon. He returned to Vienna to lead a research program on scalable decision support for digital preservation as part of the large-scale EC-funded project [https://scape-project.eu/ SCAPE: Scalable Preservation Environments], which he co-developed with an international consortium of universities, memory organizations, industrial research and commercial partners.
In 2013, he moved to Toronto, Canada to become an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Information and later an Associate Professor in 2018. Since 2014, he has served as the Director of the [https://dci.ischool.utoronto.ca/ Digital Curation Institute], where he leads interdisciplinary research in digital curation along with appointed fellows, graduate students, faculty, researchers and industry partners. Becker is also an Associate Member of the School of the Environment at the University of Toronto.
His book ''Insolvent: How to Reorient Computing for Just Sustainability'' appears at [[MIT Press]] from June 2023.
== Research ==
Becker’s current research focuses on [[sustainability]] and social justice within computing and system design and the use of critical theories to examine the politics, values and cognitive processes of design.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-10-19 |title=Research {{!}} Christoph Becker |url=https://www.christoph-becker.info/research/ |access-date=2023-04-20 |language=en-US}}</ref>
His previous research included digital sustainability through digital curation and preservation, archiving and digital libraries.
He has received funding from the [[Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council|National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada]], Ontario Research Fund, [[Canada Foundation for Innovation]], the [[Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development|European Commission’s Framework Program]], the Vienna Science and Technology Fund, the United Nation’s Food and Agriculture Organization, and the University of Toronto’s Connaught Fund.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ORCID |url=https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8364-0593 |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=orcid.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Christoph Becker |url=https://discover.research.utoronto.ca/21004-christoph-becker |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=discover.research.utoronto.ca}}</ref>
Becker is an associate editor of the recently launched [https://dl.acm.org/journal/jrc/editorial-board ACM Journal of Responsible Computing], a member of the program committees of [https://conf.researchr.org/committee/icse-2023/icse-2023-technical-track-programme-committee ICSE], [https://conf.researchr.org/committee/chase-2023/chase-2023-research-track-program-committee CHASE], [http://ict4s.org/ ICT4S], [https://computingwithinlimits.org/2023/ Computing within Limits], and [https://conf.researchr.org/committee/ease-2023/ease-2023-research-program-committee EASE]''',''' and a co-founder of ''[https://techotherwise.pubpub.org/ TechOtherwise]'''''.'''
== Works ==
* [https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262545600/insolvent/ Insolvent: How to Reorient Computing for Just Sustainability]
* [https://scholar.google.ca/citations?user=sYZlySIAAAAJ Christoph Becker - Google Scholar]
== Public Writing ==
* Christoph Becker, Andrew Clement. [https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/2021/02/22/its-time-to-defund-big-tech-and-empower-communities.html It’s time to defund Big Tech and empower communities]. Toronto Star. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-24 |title=Opinion {{!}} It's time to defund Big Tech and empower communities |url=https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/2021/02/22/its-time-to-defund-big-tech-and-empower-communities.html |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=thestar.com |language=en}}</ref>
* Christopher Frauenberger, Ann Light, Christoph Becker, Dawn Walker, Curtis McCord, Steve Easterbrook, Lisa Nathan, Irina Shklovski, Elizabeth Patitsas. [https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000114033073/ein-neuer-kompass-fuer-die-digitale-zukunft Ein neuer Kompass für die digitale Zukunft]. Kommentare der anderen, DerStandard.at <ref>{{Cite web |title=Ein neuer Kompass für die digitale Zukunft |url=https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000114033073/ein-neuer-kompass-fuer-die-digitale-zukunft |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=DER STANDARD |language=de-AT}}</ref>
== Awards ==
* '''2019''': Best Paper award, 6th International Conference on ICT for Sustainability (ICT4S), for “Sidewalk and Toronto: Critical Systems Heuristics and the Smart City” {{arxiv|1906.02266}}.
* '''2019''': W. Kaye Lamb Prize of the Association of Canadian Archivists (ACA) for article “Metaphors We Work By: Reframing Digital Objects, Significant Properties and the Design of Digital Preservation Systems” <ref>{{Cite web |title=W. Kaye Lamb Prize Winners {{!}} Archivaria |url=https://archivaria.ca/index.php/archivaria/awards/w-kaye-lamb-prize-winners |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=archivaria.ca}}</ref>
* '''2014''': Best Demo award, Combined ACM/IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries & Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries Conference, for SCAPE Planning and Watch System
* '''2012''': Digital Preservation Coalition: Digital Preservation Award for Research & Innovation in Digital Preservation for the PLANETS project ([[Digital Preservation Award|Digital Preservation Award - Wikipedia]])
* '''2011''': Shortlisted for the German/Austrian/Swiss computer science doctoral dissertation award.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Becker |first=Christoph |url=http://dl.gi.de/handle/20.500.12116/33775 |title=Trustworthy Preservation Planning |date=2011 |publisher=Gesellschaft für Informatik |isbn=978-3-88579-415-8 |language=de}}</ref>
* '''2010''': German Association for the Advancement of Information Sciences: Thesis award for doctoral thesis, “Trustworthy preservation planning”.<ref>{{Cite web |last=JP |date=2011-01-26 |title=Vergabe des VFI-Förderungspreises 2010 |url=https://voeb-b.at/vergabe-des-vfi-foerderungspreises-2010/ |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=Vereinigung Österreichischer Bibliothekarinnen und Bibliothekare |language=de-DE}}</ref>
== References ==
<references />
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[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:University of Toronto people]]
[[Category:21st-century Austrian writers]]
[[Category:Austrian academics]]
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[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainability books]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]] |
Reconstructed clothing | [[File:Ruwanthi's collection at TFDA 2021.jpg|thumb|Reconstructed clothing at a fashion show.]]
{{Clothing and the environment}}
'''Reconstructed clothing''' is used or [[vintage clothing]] that has been [[fashion design|redesigned]] and [[sewing|resewn]] into a new garment.<ref name="pdi">De la Paz, Gino. "If It's Worth It, Then Rework It." Philippine Daily Inquirer (November 13, 2004).</ref> Reconstructed [[clothing]] became [[Fashion trends|trendy]] in the [[2000s in fashion|mid-2000s]].<ref name="pdi"/> During this first wave of trend, ''Generation T'' (2006), which gave instructions for "108 Ways to Transform a [[T-Shirt]]", was published.<ref>Nicolay, Megan. Generation T: 108 Ways to Transform a T-Shirt. Workman Publishing Company, 2006.</ref> The book included instructions for how to make [[halter top]]s, [[A-line skirt]]s, and string [[bikini]]s out of T-shirts. In 2008, Nicolay released another book entitled: ''Generation T-Beyond Fashion 120 More Ways to Transform Your T's''. This book had a bigger variety of projects including ones for children, men, and even pets.
In March 2006, the DIY group Compai released their first DIY clothing reconstruction book, ''99 Ways to Cut, Sew, Trim, and Tie Your T-shirt Into Something Fabulous!'' After this book's release, Compai went on to release three more books about reconstructing jeans, sweaters and scarves.
During the latter half of the 2010s, reconstructed clothing became popular within high fashion. Brands such as RE/DONE and [[Vetements]] popularized jeans constructed from vintage denim. [[Marine Serre]], winner of the 2017 [[LVMH]] prize for young designers, pledges a minimum of 50% of her collections consist of reconstructed clothing. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-16|title=Here's How Marine Serre's Upcycled Clothes Actually Get Made|url=https://www.papermag.com/marine-serre-spring-2020-upcycling-2645734672.html|access-date=2020-09-10|website=PAPER|language=en}}</ref> New York brand [[Bode (fashion brand)|BODE]] has from its 2016 inception focused on pieces reconstructed from vintage or antique textiles such as quilts, tablecloths, lace doilies, and oven mitts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Colyar |first=Brock |date=2023-07-05 |title=Welcome to Bodeworld |url=https://www.thecut.com/article/bode-menswear-clothing-brand-emily-adams-bode-aujla.html |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=The Cut |language=en}}</ref>
Reconstructed clothing is appealing because it allows the designer to "stamp [their ideas] into an existing piece...and come up with a totally different piece" and because it makes the wearer's clothing unique.<ref name="pdi"/>
==References==
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[[Category:2000s fashion]]
[[Category:Fashion design]]
[[Category:Clothing and the environment]]
[[Category:Reuse]]
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Music of the Spheres World Tour | {{Short description|2022–2024 concert tour by Coldplay}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox concert
| concert_tour_name = Music of the Spheres World Tour
| artist = [[Coldplay]]
| image = Music of the Spheres World Tour Poster.png
| image_size = 220px
| image_caption = Promotional poster example
| location = {{Flatlist|
* Asia
* Europe
* North America
* South America
* Oceania
}}
| album = ''[[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|Music of the Spheres]]''
| start_date = {{Start date|df=yes|2022|03|18}}
| end_date = {{End date|df=yes|2024|11|16}}
| number_of_shows = 177
| producer = [[Live Nation (events promoter)|Live Nation]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Fields a Global Tour |url=https://hitsdailydouble.com/news&id=328689&title=COLDPLAY-FIELDS-A-GLOBAL-TOUR- |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220807215014/https://hitsdailydouble.com/news&id=328689&title=COLDPLAY-FIELDS-A-GLOBAL-TOUR- |archive-date=7 August 2022 |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=Hits Daily Double}}</ref>
| attendance = 7.66 million{{efn|name=COLDBOX|Based on the 132 reported dates.}}
| gross = $810.9 million{{efn|name=COLDBOX}}
| website = {{URL|coldplay.com/tour}}
| last_tour = [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour]]<br/>(2016–2017)
| this_tour = '''Music of the Spheres World Tour'''<br/>(2022–2024)
| next_tour = ...
}}
The '''Music of the Spheres World Tour''' is the ongoing eighth [[concert tour]] undertaken by British [[Rock music|rock]] band [[Coldplay]]. Announced on 14 October 2021, it is being staged in support of their ninth studio album, ''[[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|Music of the Spheres]]'', marking their return to live performances after the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. The band had not toured for their previous record, ''[[Everyday Life (Coldplay album)|Everyday Life]]'' (2019), because they wanted to launch an [[Environmentalism in music|environmentally friendly]] strategy to travel. According to the plans they developed over the previous two years with specialists, [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] will be reduced by 50% in comparison to the [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour|Head Full of Dreams Tour]] (2016–17).
Similar to the [[Mylo Xyloto Tour]] (2011–12), the concerts make extensive use of [[pyrotechnics]] and [[confetti]]. However, they were adapted to minimise the group's [[carbon footprint]]. Other ideas involved creating the first mobile rechargeable show battery in the world with [[BMW]] and planting a tree for every ticket sold. The tour began at [[Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica (2011)|Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica]] on 18 March 2022 and is scheduled to end at New Zealand's [[Eden Park]] on 16 November 2024. Coldplay received widespread acclaim from music critics, who praised the band for their musicianship, stage presence, joyfulness, and production value.
With a [[Impact of the Music of the Spheres World Tour|global cultural impact]], the Music of the Spheres World Tour surpassed $810.9 million in revenue from 7.66 million tickets across 132 dates, making it the [[List of highest-grossing concert tours|third-highest-grossing]] and [[List of most-attended concert tours|second-most attended]] tour of all time. The band also [[#Venue records|broke several records]] at the venues they visited. To celebrate the performances, ''[[Coldplay – Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate|Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate]]'' (2023) was broadcast in cinemas around the world. Emissions were cut by 47% in the concert run's first year, leading ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' to rank Coldplay among the most influential climate action leaders on the planet. Similarly, ''[[Pollstar]]'' declared that they ushered into "a new era of sustainable touring".
== Development ==
=== Background ===
After the release of Coldplay's eighth album, ''[[Everyday Life (Coldplay album)|Everyday Life]]'' (2019), [[Chris Martin]] said the band would not tour until they could ensure their shows are [[Environmentalism in music|environmentally friendly]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2019 |title=Coldplay to Pause Touring Until Concerts are Environmentally Beneficial |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-50490700 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20191121120734/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-50490700 |archive-date=21 November 2019 |access-date=5 September 2023 |website=BBC News}}</ref> which led the record to be promoted with small charity concerts and a performance at the [[Amman Citadel]] in Jordan, broadcast by [[YouTube]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 November 2019 |title=Coldplay Apresenta Novo Disco, Everyday Life, Sob Amanhecer da Jordânia |trans-title=Coldplay Present New Album, Everyday Life, Under Jordan's Dawn |url=https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-apresenta-novo-disco-everyday-life-sob-amanhecer-da-jordania-assista/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230621112852/https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-apresenta-novo-disco-everyday-life-sob-amanhecer-da-jordania-assista/ |archive-date=21 June 2023 |access-date=21 June 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> On 14 October 2021, a day before ''[[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|Music of the Spheres]]'' was made available, the group posted on social media they would be returning to live shows following the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Announce 2022 World Tour |url=https://pitchfork.com/news/coldplay-announce-2022-world-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615211311/https://pitchfork.com/news/coldplay-announce-2022-world-tour/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Pitchfork}}</ref> The announcement was accompanied by a detailed 12 steps plan, which was developed in two years with environmental experts and set out how Coldplay would reduce [[carbon dioxide]] emissions by 50% compared to [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour]] (2016–17).<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Music of the Spheres World Tour Announced |url=https://www.coldplay.com/music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-announced/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016160004/https://www.coldplay.com/music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-announced/ |archive-date=16 October 2021 |access-date=14 October 2021 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref> To celebrate the album's release, they inaugurated [[Climate Pledge Arena]] on 22 October 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Covers Pearl Jam, Brings Six-Year-Old On Stage at Seattle Show |url=https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-covers-pearl-jam-brings-six-year-old-on-stage-at-seattle-show/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220105171010/https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-covers-pearl-jam-brings-six-year-old-on-stage-at-seattle-show/ |archive-date=5 January 2022 |access-date=5 January 2022 |website=American Songwriter}}</ref> The event was broadcast by [[Amazon Prime Video]] and later followed by a performance at [[Expo 2020]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 November 2021 |title=Live From Climate Pledge Arena EP Out Today |url=https://www.coldplay.com/live-from-climate-pledge-arena-ep-out-today/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220706024831/https://www.coldplay.com/live-from-climate-pledge-arena-ep-out-today/ |archive-date=6 July 2022 |access-date=5 July 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}
* {{Cite web |date=14 February 2022 |title=Coldplay To Perform Free Show For Dubai Expo |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-to-perform-free-show-for-dubai-expo-3161160 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220626200944/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-to-perform-free-show-for-dubai-expo-3161160 |archive-date=26 June 2022 |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=NME}}</ref> while the concert run began in Costa Rica due to [[Renewable energy in Costa Rica|the country's renewable-energy-sourced]] power grid.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 October 2021 |title=Why Coldplay Chose Costa Rica To Open Their World Tour |url=https://costaricaforexpats.com/why-coldplay-chose-costa-rica-to-open-their-world-tour/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220616004457/https://costaricaforexpats.com/why-coldplay-chose-costa-rica-to-open-their-world-tour/ |archive-date=16 June 2022 |access-date=16 June 2022 |website=Costa Rica for Expats}}</ref>
=== Ecological plan ===
[[File:Coldplay MOTS World Tour Press Release Photo 1.png|thumb|alt=A man performs with a microphone as the stage behind him release numerous fireworks|Coldplay's stage was adapted to require less energy to function]]
A team of sustainability experts was commissioned to investigate Coldplay's [[carbon footprint]] and study how to reduce it.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Announce Details of Sustainable 2022 World Stadium Tour |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-announce-details-of-sustainable-2022-world-stadium-tour-dates-tickets-3070629 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220426001835/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-announce-details-of-sustainable-2022-world-stadium-tour-dates-tickets-3070629 |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=25 April 2022 |website=NME}}</ref> Alongside [[BMW]], the band also developed the first ever mobile rechargeable show battery,<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 June 2021 |title=The First-Ever BMW iX and the First-Ever BMW i4: Joint Global Campaign Plays to the Rhythm of Coldplay's New Hit |url=https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0335298EN/the-first-ever-bmw-ix-and-the-first-ever-bmw-i4:-joint-global-campaign-plays-to-the-rhythm-of-coldplay-s-new-hit?language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220106225032/https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0335298EN/the-first-ever-bmw-ix-and-the-first-ever-bmw-i4:-joint-global-campaign-plays-to-the-rhythm-of-coldplay-s-new-hit?language=en |archive-date=6 January 2022 |access-date=13 June 2021 |website=Press BMW Group}}</ref> which was made from recyclable [[BMW i3]] batteries and powered concerts by using renewable resources such as [[hydrotreated vegetable oil]], [[solar power]] and [[kinetic energy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 December 2021 |title=Coldplay's New Tour Powered by BMW Batteries |url=https://luxuryboutiquemagazine.com/2021/10/18/coldplays-new-tour-powered-by-bmw-batteries/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220106230929/https://luxuryboutiquemagazine.com/2021/10/18/coldplays-new-tour-powered-by-bmw-batteries/ |archive-date=6 January 2022 |access-date=6 January 2022 |website=Luxury Boutique}}</ref> Unavoidable emissions were [[Carbon offset|offset]] according to [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]'s principles.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 October 2021 |title=Coldplay To Use Oxford Offsetting Principles For Unavoidable Tour Emissions |url=https://netzeroclimate.org/coldplay-to-use-oxford-offsetting-principles-for-unavoidable-tour-emissions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615203324/https://netzeroclimate.org/coldplay-to-use-oxford-offsetting-principles-for-unavoidable-tour-emissions/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Net Zero Climate}}</ref> They claimed a tree would be planted for every ticket sold through a global [[reforestation]] agreement with One Tree Planted as well.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=One Tree Planted To Fulfill Coldplay's Reforestation Targets Around Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://onetreeplanted.org/blogs/stories/coldplay-sustainability-reforestation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220116232615/https://onetreeplanted.org/blogs/stories/coldplay-sustainability-reforestation |archive-date=16 January 2022 |access-date=29 December 2021 |website=One Tree Planted}}</ref> For transportation, the tour was routed to [[Environmental effects of aviation|reduce air travel]], ground freight used [[electric vehicle]]s or [[biofuel]] and the band embarked on commercial flights whenever possible.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coldplay's 12-Point Sustainability Plan |url=https://ecolibrium.earth/case-study/coldplays-12-point-sustainability-plan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615193630/https://ecolibrium.earth/case-study/coldplays-12-point-sustainability-plan/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Ecolibrium}}</ref> In all of them, commercial and charter, an additional charge was paid to provide airplanes with [[Neste]]'s [[Aviation biofuel|sustainable aviation fuel]], made from waste and residues such as used cooking oil.<ref name="OSP">{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Music of the Spheres World Tour – Sustainability Plan |url=https://sustainability.coldplay.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014121010/https://sustainability.coldplay.com/ |archive-date=14 October 2021 |access-date=14 October 2021 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>
The stages were built "from a combination of lightweight, low-carbon and re-usable materials including recycled steel", being also customized to incorporate low-energy [[LED display|displays]], [[laser]]s, [[lighting]] set-ups and a [[Public address system|PA system]] that consumed 50% less power, helping to reduce environmental noise outside.<ref name="OSP" /> Similarly, delay towers had wind-turbines and unused seats had solar blankets.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Music of the Spheres – The Tour Report |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/09/music-of-the-spheres-the-tour-report/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220919181407/https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/09/music-of-the-spheres-the-tour-report/ |archive-date=19 September 2022 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=IQ}}</ref>
For special effects, Coldplay used [[Biodegradation|biodegradable]] confetti adapted to require less compressed gas for ignition, while [[pyrotechnics]] had new formulas to reduce or eliminate harmful chemicals and mitigate the explosive charge.<ref name="OSP" /> [[Xyloband]]s were substituted by [[PixMob]] wristbands made from 100% compostable materials and the band pledged to decrease their production by collecting, sterilising and recharging them after every show.<ref name="L&SA">{{Cite web |date=July 2022 |title=Pythagorean Theorems: Working Out the Complex Geometry of Coldplay's Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://edition.pagesuite-professional.co.uk/html5/reader/production/default.aspx?pubname=&edid=56011c8e-f0d6-4654-925d-ae39a868aac3&pnum=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730042114/https://edition.pagesuite-professional.co.uk/html5/reader/production/default.aspx?pubname=&edid=56011c8e-f0d6-4654-925d-ae39a868aac3&pnum=1 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |access-date=30 July 2022 |website=Lighting & Sound America |page=51}}
* {{Cite web |date=26 October 2021 |title=Coldplay's Music of the Spheres World Tour Will Be Environment Friendly |url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/coldplays-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-will-be-environment-friendly-63962/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230325025337/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/coldplays-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-will-be-environment-friendly-63962/ |archive-date=25 March 2023 |access-date=25 March 2023 |website=NDTV}}</ref> To minimise [[Food loss and waste|food waste]], they had crew catering menus that offered [[Plant-based diet|plant-based]] and [[Meat-free days|meat-free]] options as the standard, sourced products from suppliers adept to regenerative agriculture techniques, supported the development of synthetic, lab-grown cultured meals, donated surplus to local [[food bank]]s and [[compost]]ed organic waste such as vegetable peelings and scraps.<ref name="OSP" /> The band also worked with venues to establish recycling programs, replace [[Single-use plastic|single-use water bottles]] with alternatives such as the [[Ball Corporation|Ball]] aluminium cups, include refill stations, introduce aerated taps, lower flushing toilets and reduce water pressure.<ref name="OSP" />
=== Fan accessibility ===
Coldplay partnered with [[SAP]] to develop a free [[mobile app]]lication for the tour which calculated the total carbon footprint generated by concert goers and encouraged them to take environmentally friendly travel options.<ref name="APP">{{Cite web |date=12 March 2022 |title=How Technology Tunes Coldplay's Eco-friendly Tour To Hit The Right Note |url=https://news.sap.com/2022/03/technology-tunes-eco-friendly-coldplay-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615184928/https://news.sap.com/2022/03/technology-tunes-eco-friendly-coldplay-tour/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=SAP News Center}}</ref> Fans who committed to the effort were given a discount code on their merchandise store.<ref name="APP" /> Partners and vendors were carefully selected to provide high quality products made from natural fibres and re-usable materials, which were then packaged in recycled paper, card or compostable bags.<ref name="OSP" /> Additionally, the band incorporated kinetic floors and [[stationary bicycle]]s to venues to power the C-stage and further interact with attendees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 August 2022 |title=Music of the Spheres Designers Put Our Planet First |url=https://www.livedesignonline.com/concerts/music-spheres-designers-reach-stars |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220822033415/https://www.livedesignonline.com/concerts/luz-studio-provides-production-design-leon-bridges-tour |archive-date=22 August 2022 |access-date=22 August 2022 |website=Live Design}}</ref> They provided bass-delivering vests from [[SubPac (company)|SubPac]] and two sign language interpreters for concert goers with [[hearing loss]] as well,<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2022 |title=Here's How Coldplay Ensures Their Shows Are Inclusive And Accessible To All |url=https://kiisfm.iheart.com/content/2022-05-15-heres-how-coldplay-ensures-their-shows-are-inclusive-and-accessible-to-all/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220601135024/https://kiisfm.iheart.com/content/2022-05-15-heres-how-coldplay-ensures-their-shows-are-inclusive-and-accessible-to-all/ |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=1 June 2022 |website=102.7 Kiis FM}}</ref> while guests who are [[Visual impairment|blind or have low vision]] were offered a designated platform and touch tours before each show.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 July 2022 |title=Inclusivity On The Tour |url=https://www.coldplay.com/inclusivity-on-the-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220708115449/https://www.coldplay.com/inclusivity-on-the-tour/ |archive-date=8 July 2022 |access-date=8 July 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref> In May 2022, the band announced Infinity Tickets, a limited set of $20 admissions for fans who could not afford standard prices.{{efn|Infinity Ticket batches were sold only in pairs and had their locations selected at random, while values did not included possible taxes and fees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2022 |title=Infinity Ticket, La Iniciativa de Coldplay para Fanáticos que No Pueden Pagar Boletos |trans-title=Infinity Ticket, Coldplay's Initiative for Fans That Can't Pay Tickets |url=https://www.24-horas.mx/2022/05/26/infinity-ticket-la-iniciativa-de-coldplay-para-fanaticos-que-no-pueden-pagar-boletos/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220601141117/https://www.24-horas.mx/2022/05/26/infinity-ticket-la-iniciativa-de-coldplay-para-fanaticos-que-no-pueden-pagar-boletos/ |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=1 June 2022 |website=24 Horas El Diario Sin Límites |language=es}}</ref>}}
=== Partnerships ===
In May 2022, ''[[The Times]]'' revealed Coldplay donated over £2.1 million to environmental causes through J Van Mars Foundation during the previous year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2022 |title=Coldplay's Chris Martin Net Worth |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/sunday-times-rich-list-coldplay-net-worth-chris-martin-guy-berryman-jonny-buckland-will-champion-v66n69xsp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220522030130/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/sunday-times-rich-list-coldplay-net-worth-chris-martin-guy-berryman-jonny-buckland-will-champion-v66n69xsp |archive-date=22 May 2022 |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=The Times}}</ref> Aside from teaming up with One Tree Planted, the band continued their cooperation with [[ClientEarth]], to which they have been patrons since 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2010 |title=Coldplay Become Patrons of ClientEarth |url=http://coldplay.com/newsdetail.php?id=665 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708174633/http://coldplay.com/newsdetail.php?id=665 |archive-date=8 July 2011 |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref> Support to [[the Ocean Cleanup]] was declared as well, as they sponsored two watercrafts to collect plastic from polluted rivers before it reaches the sea in [[Malaysia]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 2021 |title=Coldplay Sponsors Watercraft To Clean Up Polluted Rivers In Malaysia |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-sponsors-watercraft-to-clean-up-polluted-rivers-in-malaysia-2910867 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220116232457/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-sponsors-watercraft-to-clean-up-polluted-rivers-in-malaysia-2910867 |archive-date=16 January 2022 |access-date=29 December 2021 |website=NME}}</ref> Other organizations endorsed by Coldplay include [[Global Citizen (organization)|Global Citizen]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 March 2017 |title=Coldplay Brings 20 Years of Music and Charity to Global Citizen Germany |url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/coldplay-global-citizen-festival-hamburg/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220116231525/https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/coldplay-global-citizen-festival-hamburg/ |archive-date=16 January 2022 |access-date=29 December 2021 |website=Global Citizen}}</ref> The Food Forest Project,<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 May 2022 |title=Shepton Mallet Charity, The Food Forest Project, Gets the Backing of Coldplay |url=https://sheptonmallet.nub.news/news/local-news/shepton-mallet-charity-the-food-forest-project-gets-the-backing-of-coldplay-130911 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615174841/https://sheptonmallet.nub.news/news/local-news/shepton-mallet-charity-the-food-forest-project-gets-the-backing-of-coldplay-130911 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Shepton Mallet News}}</ref> [[Sea Shepherd Conservation Society operations|Sea Shepherd UK]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 March 2022 |title=Coldplay Supports Sea Shepherd To Protect Marine Wildlife |url=https://www.seashepherd.org.uk/news-and-commentary/news/coldplay-supports-sea-shepherd-to-protect-marine-wildlife.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615174758/https://www.seashepherd.org.uk/news-and-commentary/news/coldplay-supports-sea-shepherd-to-protect-marine-wildlife.html |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Sea Shepherd UK}}</ref> Project Seagrass,<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2022 |title=Coldplay Become Ambassadors For Swansea Charity Project Seagrass |url=https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2022-03-04/coldplay-becomes-ambassador-for-swansea-seagrass-restoration-charity |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615174931/https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2022-03-04/coldplay-becomes-ambassador-for-swansea-seagrass-restoration-charity |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=ITV News}}</ref> Seafields,<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 October 2021 |title=Coldplay's World Tour Supports Low-carbon Seaweed Harvesting Project |url=https://marineindustrynews.co.uk/coldplays-world-tour-supports-low-carbon-seaweed-harvesting-project/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615175806/https://marineindustrynews.co.uk/coldplays-world-tour-supports-low-carbon-seaweed-harvesting-project/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Marine Industry News}}</ref> My Trees Trust,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Partners Zimbabwe's My Tree Trust In Efforts To Reduce Carbon Emissions |url=https://www.chronicle.co.zw/coldplay-partners-zimbabwes-my-tree-trust-in-efforts-to-reduce-carbon-emissions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615175820/https://www.chronicle.co.zw/coldplay-partners-zimbabwes-my-tree-trust-in-efforts-to-reduce-carbon-emissions/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Chronicle}}</ref> Farm Under the Radar,<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 September 2021 |title=Support |url=https://farmundertheradar.uk/support/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615180054/https://farmundertheradar.uk/support/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Farm Under The Radar}}</ref> Project Quercus,<ref name="GQR">{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Goes Climate Positive For 2022 Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/coldplay-2022-tour-sustainability/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615180641/https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/coldplay-2022-tour-sustainability/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Green Queen}}</ref> Sustainable Food Trust,<ref name="GQR" /> Global Tech Advocates,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tech For Net Zero Resource Hub |url=https://www.globaltechadvocates.org/tech-for-net-zero-resource-hub/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615180900/https://www.globaltechadvocates.org/tech-for-net-zero-resource-hub/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Global Tech Advocates}}</ref> Knowledge Pele,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2022 |title=Knowledge Pele Partners With Coldplay, Costa Rica To Engender Sustainability |url=https://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/knowledge-pele-partners-with-coldplay-costa-rica-to-engender-sustainability-2022-04-20/rep_id:4136 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615181046/https://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/knowledge-pele-partners-with-coldplay-costa-rica-to-engender-sustainability-2022-04-20/rep_id:4136 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Engineering News}}</ref> [[Climeworks]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 October 2021 |title=Is Carbon Capture Here? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/31/climate/is-carbon-capture-here.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211101022320/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/31/climate/is-carbon-capture-here.html |archive-date=1 November 2021 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> Cleaner Seas Group,<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Cleaner Seas Group And Coldplay |url=https://cleanerseasgroup.com/cleaner-seas/coldplay-and-cleaner-seas-group |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615182150/https://cleanerseasgroup.com/cleaner-seas/coldplay-and-cleaner-seas-group |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Cleaner Seas Group}}</ref> Conservation Collective and the Devon Environment Foundation,<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2022 |title=New Supporter: Coldplay |url=https://conservation-collective.org/new-partnership-coldplay/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615182116/https://conservation-collective.org/new-partnership-coldplay/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Conservation Collective}}</ref> which have all assisted them to reach the tour's goal. Additionally, [[Imperial College London]]'s [[Grantham Institute – Climate Change and Environment|Grantham Institute]] helped the band to study and publish their progress.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Coldplay And Imperial To Measure Climate Impact of Touring |url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/231175/coldplay-imperial-measure-climate-impact-touring/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615184455/https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/231175/coldplay-imperial-measure-climate-impact-touring/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Imperial College London}}</ref> In 2022, [[DHL]] announced they were partnering with Coldplay to provide expertise in sustainable logistics and transport solutions,<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 July 2022 |title=DHL Teams Up with Coldplay to Make Their Tour as Sustainable as Possible |url=https://www.dhl.com/global-en/home/press/press-archive/2022/dhl-teams-up-with-coldplay-to-make-their-tour-as-sustainable-as-possible.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713050153/https://www.dhl.com/global-en/home/press/press-archive/2022/dhl-teams-up-with-coldplay-to-make-their-tour-as-sustainable-as-possible.html |archive-date=13 July 2022 |access-date=8 December 2022 |website=DHL}}</ref> while the following year saw an alliance with [[AIA Group|AIA Vitality]] in Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 November 2023 |title=AIA Vitality Ambil Peran Pada Aspek Sustainability Konser Coldplay |trans-title=AIA Vitality Takes Role in Sustainability Aspects of Coldplay Concerts |url=https://kumparan.com/kumparanhits/aia-vitality-ambil-peran-pada-aspek-sustainability-konser-coldplay-21b47tg9zqu/full |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117190134/https://kumparan.com/kumparanhits/aia-vitality-ambil-peran-pada-aspek-sustainability-konser-coldplay-21b47tg9zqu |archive-date=17 November 2023 |access-date=17 November 2023 |website=Kumparan |language=id}}</ref>
== Opening acts ==
[[File:Coldplay MOTS World Tour Press Release Photo 2.png|thumb|alt=A woman performs with a microphone and guitar while a man plays the piano and sing with her|[[Chris Martin]] and [[H.E.R.]] performing "[[Let Somebody Go]]" at [[Raymond James Stadium]], [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]]]
American singer [[H.E.R.]] was the band's most frequent [[Opening act|supporting act]], opening for them in [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]] (with [[MishCatt|Mish Catt]]),<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 February 2022 |title=Mishcatt y H.E.R. Serán los Actos Teloneros de Coldplay en Costa Rica |trans-title=Mishcatt and H.E.R. Will Be the Opening Acts for Coldplay in Costa Rica |url=https://delfino.cr/2022/02/mishcatt-y-h-e-r-seran-los-actos-teloneros-de-coldplay-en-costa-rica |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303142856/https://delfino.cr/2022/02/mishcatt-y-h-e-r-seran-los-actos-teloneros-de-coldplay-en-costa-rica |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Delfino |language=es}}</ref> [[Santo Domingo]] (with La Marimba),<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 March 2022 |title=La Marimba Será Telonera de Coldplay |trans-title=La Marimba Will Be Coldplay's Opening Act |url=https://lainformacion.com.do/mirador/musica-y-literatura/la-marimba-sera-telonera-de-coldplay |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303143328/https://lainformacion.com.do/mirador/musica-y-literatura/la-marimba-sera-telonera-de-coldplay |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=La Información |language=es}}</ref> and [[Buenos Aires]] (with [[Zoe Gotusso]]) in 2022.{{efn|name=CAVA|The concert in Buenos Aires on 2 November 2022 was originally going to feature Gotusso as well, but she was replaced by Clara Cava due to illness.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 October 2022 |title=Coldplay en Argentina: Así Fue el Show de Zoe Gotusso en la Previa |trans-title=Coldplay in Argentina: This was the Zoe Gotusso Show in the preview |url=https://www.lavoz.com.ar/vos/musica/coldplay-en-argentina-asi-fue-el-show-de-zoe-gotusso-en-la-previa/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303145914/https://www.lavoz.com.ar/vos/musica/coldplay-en-argentina-asi-fue-el-show-de-zoe-gotusso-en-la-previa/ |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=La Voz |language=es}}
* {{Cite web |date=2 November 2022 |title=Coldplay en Argentina: Quién es Clara Cava, la Cantante Convocada de Emergencia |trans-title=Coldplay in Argentina: Who is Clara Cava, the Singer Called in Emergency |url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/espectaculos/quien-es-clara-cava-la-cantante-convocada-de-emergencia-por-coldplay-nid02112022/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221103113942/https://www.lanacion.com.ar/espectaculos/quien-es-clara-cava-la-cantante-convocada-de-emergencia-por-coldplay-nid02112022/ |archive-date=3 November 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=La Nación |language=es}}</ref>}} During the first run across the United States, she was paired with a new act in each stop, those included Leila Pari ([[Dallas]]), Alaina Castillo ([[Houston]]), [[Kacy Hill]] ([[Glendale, Arizona|Glendale]]), Bobby Gonz ([[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]]), [[Drama (American band)|Drama]] ([[Chicago]]), [[Shaed]] ([[Landover, Maryland|Landover]]), [[Bea Miller]] ([[East Rutherford, New Jersey|East Rutherford]]), [[Lizzy McAlpine]] ([[Philadelphia]]), [[Mariah the Scientist]] ([[Atlanta]]), and [[Gigi (Canadian band)|Gigi]] ([[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2022 |title=Coldplay Anuncia Shows em SP e Outro no RJ, Além do Rock in Rio |trans-title=Coldplay Announces Shows in São Paulo and Another in Rio de Janeiro, Besides Rock in Rio |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/blogs/lineup/2022/04/coldplay-anuncia-shows-em-sp-e-outro-no-rj-alem-do-rock-in-rio.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303153536/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/blogs/lineup/2022/04/coldplay-anuncia-shows-em-sp-e-outro-no-rj-alem-do-rock-in-rio.shtml |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Folha de S.Paulo |language=pt}}</ref> However, for the second leg in the continent, she was accompanied by [[070 Shake]] and Gonz in all performances.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2023 |title=Coldplay is Bringing Their Music of the Spheres World Tour Out West: See the Dates |url=https://www.audacy.com/national/music/coldplay-bringing-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-out-west-see-the-dates |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303151044/https://www.audacy.com/national/music/coldplay-bringing-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-out-west-see-the-dates |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Audacy}}
* {{Cite tweet |number=1710425757686595657 |user=gonz_foreal |title=Ever grateful to @coldplay & everyone involved |author=Bobby Gonz |date=6 October 2023 |access-date=13 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013134528/https://twitter.com/gonz_foreal/status/1710425757686595657 |archive-date=13 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>
H.E.R. also took part in many dates from the first European batch, although occasionally replaced by [[London Grammar]].<ref name="EUROKING2">{{Cite tweet |number=1531909144109883393 |user=coldplay |title=We're very pleased to announce the opening acts for this summer's UK / European dates |author=Coldplay |date=1 June 2022 |access-date=3 March 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303160353/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1531909144109883393 |archive-date=3 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> They collaborated with Alli Neumann in [[Frankfurt]] and [[Berlin]];{{efn|The concerts in Berlin on 10 and 12 July 2022 were originally going to feature [[Zoe Wees]], but she was replaced by Neumann due to illness.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1546078098466258951|user=ZoeWeesOfficial|title=Thank you @Coldplay for giving me this opportunity! You can't imagine how much I was looking forward to this! Hope we can make it happen next time|author=Zoe Wees|date=10 July 2022|access-date=11 July 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220711011558/https://twitter.com/ZoeWeesOfficial/status/1546078098466258951|archive-date=11 July 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>|name=WEES}} [[Mery Spolsky]] in [[Warsaw]]; Gaumar and [[Lous and the Yakuza]] in [[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis]]; and [[Nina Nesbitt]] in [[Glasgow]].<ref name="EUROKING2" /> The former was additionally invited to the [[City of Brussels|Brussels]] concerts, while the secondary openers at [[Wembley Stadium]] were [[Griff (singer)|Griff]], [[Ibibio Sound Machine]] and [[Laura Mvula]].<ref name="EUROKING2" /> Mexico had exclusively national supporters in the initial shows ([[Carla Morrison]] and [[DannyLux]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 April 2022 |title=Meet DannyLux, the Mexican-American Singer Opening for Coldplay |url=https://remezcla.com/features/music/meet-dannylux-mexican-american-singer-opening-coldplay-interview/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303165243/https://remezcla.com/features/music/meet-dannylux-mexican-american-singer-opening-coldplay-interview/ |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Remezcla}}</ref> Still in 2022, [[Camila Cabello]] played in [[Lima]] (with Andrea Martinez), [[Bogotá]] (with Mabiland), and [[Santiago]] (with Princesa Alba).<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 September 2022 |title=September Opening Acts + Extra Tickets Released |url=https://www.coldplay.com/september-opening-acts-extra-tickets-released/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303174258/https://www.coldplay.com/september-opening-acts-extra-tickets-released/ |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref> [[Chvrches]] then followed Elana Dara ([[São Paulo]]) and Clara x Sofia ([[Curitiba]] and [[Rio de Janeiro]]) in 2023.<ref name="LULA132">{{Cite web |date=17 October 2022 |title=Após Adiar Shows, Coldplay Anuncia Apresentação Extra em Curitiba em 2023 |trans-title=After Postponing Shows, Coldplay Announce Extra Presentation in Curitiba in 2023 |url=https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/10/17/coldplay-curitiba.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303180511/https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/10/17/coldplay-curitiba.htm |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref>
For the second European run, they held shows after [[Hinds (band)|Hinds]] ([[Barcelona]]), [[Mafalda (British singer)|Ona Mafalda]] (Barcelona), Porij ([[Manchester]]),{{efn|name=OASIS|The concerts in Manchester on 31 May and 1 June 2023 included a surprise set from the Oasis Academy Temple Steel Band before the opening acts.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1663876466361155584|user=coldplay|title=#ColdplayManchester|author=Coldplay|date=31 May 2023|access-date=9 June 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230609190106/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1663876466361155584/|archive-date=9 June 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>}} [[Hana Lili]] ([[Cardiff]]), Laila al Habash ([[Naples]]) and [[Mara Sattei]] ([[Milan]]), while Griff joined [[Bárbara Bandeira]] in [[Coimbra]]; Caroline Alves in [[Zürich]]; [[Oh Land]] in [[Copenhagen]];{{efn|name=LAND|The concerts in Copenhagen on 5 and 6 July 2023 were originally going to feature Jada, but she was replaced by Oh Land due to pregnancy complications.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Sender Kærlig Hilsen til Gravid Jada: Kede af, at du Ikke Kan Være Her |trans-title=Coldplay Sends Loving Greetings to Pregnant Jada: Sorry You Can't Be Here |url=https://www.seoghoer.dk/kendte/coldplay-sender-kaerlig-hilsen-til-gravid-jada-kede-af-du-ikke-kan-vaere-her |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230706161609/https://www.seoghoer.dk/kendte/coldplay-sender-kaerlig-hilsen-til-gravid-jada-kede-af-du-ikke-kan-vaere-her |archive-date=6 July 2023 |access-date=6 July 2023 |website=Se og Hør |language=da}}</ref>}} Luciia in [[Gothenburg]]; and Zoë Tauran in [[Amsterdam]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 April 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Support Acts for 2023 European Tour |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-announce-support-acts-for-2023-european-tour-3427069 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230406223830/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-announce-support-acts-for-2023-european-tour-3427069 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |access-date=6 April 2023 |website=NME}}</ref> A few months later, Coldplay announced the openers for [[Tokyo]] ([[Yoasobi]]), [[Kaohsiung]] ([[Accusefive]]), [[Jakarta]] (Rahmania Astrini), [[Kuala Lumpur]] (Bunga),<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Four Stadium Shows in Singapore in 2024 |url=https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-asia-tour-2024-dates-tickets-3454415 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230612031153/https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-asia-tour-2024-dates-tickets-3454415 |archive-date=12 June 2023 |access-date=12 June 2023 |website=NME}}</ref> [[Bocaue]] (Jikamarie), [[Singapore]] ([[Jasmine Sokko]], [[Sandra Riley Tang|Rriley]], and Jinan Laetitia), and [[Bangkok]] (Valentina Ploy).<ref name="FERNANDEZ">{{Cite web |date=8 December 2023 |title=Jikamarie to Open for Coldplay's Philippine Arena Concerts |url=https://billboardphilippines.com/music/news/jikamarie-to-open-for-coldplays-philippine-arena-concerts/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210032658/https://billboardphilippines.com/music/news/jikamarie-to-open-for-coldplays-philippine-arena-concerts/ |archive-date=10 December 2023 |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=Billboard Philippines}}</ref> Oceania had seven guests: [[Thelma Plum]], [[Amy Shark]], [[Tash Sultana]], Adrian Dzvuke, King Ibis, [[PinkPantheress]] and Emmanuel Kelly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Australia and New Zealand 2024 Tour Dates |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-australia-new-zealand-2024-tour-dates-tickets-3543972 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125044037/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-australia-new-zealand-2024-tour-dates-tickets-3543972 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |access-date=25 November 2023 |website=NME}}
* {{Cite web |date=15 October 2023 |title=Coldplay Name Local Support Acts for Music of the Spheres Double-Header in Perth |url=https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/coldplay-local-supports-music-of-the-spheres-perth/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125043547/https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/coldplay-local-supports-music-of-the-spheres-perth/ |archive-date=25 November 2023 |access-date=25 November 2023 |website=Music Feeds}}</ref> Europe's third stint featured [[Maisie Peters]], [[Janelle Monáe]] and [[Maggie Rogers]], who had to team up with Antonia Kaouri ([[Athens]]), [[Emaa]] ([[Bucharest]]), Solére ([[Budapest]]), [[Alma (Finnish singer)|Alma]] ([[Helsinki]]), Ronisia ([[Décines-Charpieu]]), [[Rose Villain]] ([[Rome]]), Wees ([[Düsseldorf]]), Wilhelmine ([[Munich]]), Oska ([[Vienna]]), and Aby Coulibaly ([[Dublin]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 February 2024 |title=2024 European Tour Supports Announced |url=https://www.coldplay.com/2024-european-tour-supports-announced/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217044725/https://www.coldplay.com/2024-european-tour-supports-announced/ |archive-date=17 February 2024 |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>
== Concert synopsis ==
Martin mentioned that the concert was divided into four acts because it is "a journey traveling outwards into the unknown to then come home having learned something new. This is represented both visually and with what songs fit into what act".<ref name="WILDE">{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Coldplay's Manager (and Chris Martin, Too!) Answer Our Questions |url=https://www.setlist.fm/news/06-23/coldplays-manager-and-chris-martin-too-answer-our-questions-6bd6aad6 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230608201845/https://www.setlist.fm/news/06-23/coldplays-manager-and-chris-martin-too-answer-our-questions-6bd6aad6 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |website=Setlist FM}}</ref> Following the support performances, two guest speakers (usually from the visited country) greet the attendees and introduce a video with Coldplay's sustainability efforts.<ref name="SHARP">{{Cite web |date=23 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Bring a Higher Power at Their Wembley Finale |url=https://www.express.co.uk/entertainment/music/1659382/coldplay-wembley-stadium-finale-music-Higher-Power |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220904130454/https://www.express.co.uk/entertainment/music/1659382/coldplay-wembley-stadium-finale-music-Higher-Power |archive-date=4 September 2022 |access-date=4 September 2022 |website=Daily Express}}</ref> It runs for about three minutes and features "Light Through the Veins" by [[Jon Hopkins]] as its soundtrack.<ref name="RUTH">{{Cite web |date=22 August 2022 |title=Alan Partridge Joins Coldplay on Stage to Sing Running Up That Hill at Wembley |url=https://www.radiox.co.uk/artists/coldplay/alan-partridge-joins-sing-running-up-that-hill-wembley/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230318210150/https://www.radiox.co.uk/artists/coldplay/alan-partridge-joins-sing-running-up-that-hill-wembley/ |archive-date=18 March 2023 |access-date=18 March 2023 |website=Radio X}}</ref> Once the short film ends, the band are welcomed and "Flying", a score written by [[John Williams]] for ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (soundtrack)|E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' (1982), is played.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2023 |title=Show do Coldplay Sacode Curitiba. Nesta Quarta-Feira Tem Mais. Veja Fotos |trans-title=Coldplay's Show Shakes Curitiba. More to Come This Wednesday. See Photos |url=https://www.bemparana.com.br/cultura/show-do-coldplay-sacode-curitiba-nesta-quarta-feira-tem-mais-veja-fotos/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610133915/https://www.bemparana.com.br/cultura/show-do-coldplay-sacode-curitiba-nesta-quarta-feira-tem-mais-veja-fotos/ |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Bem Paraná |language=pt}}</ref> This marks the beginning of '''''Act I – Planets''''', which is about "knowing there's a bigger magic out there somewhere and choosing to go and look for it".<ref name="WILDE" /> The screens exhibit a live feed of each group member emerging from under or near the stage.<ref name="FILM">{{Cite AV media |title=Coldplay – Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate |year=2023 |publisher=Trafalgar Releasing |location=United Kingdom |type=film}}</ref> After they wave to the audience, "Flying" is transitioned into "Music of the Spheres" and Martin stays on the B-stage, while [[Guy Berryman]], [[Jonny Buckland]] and [[Will Champion]] head to the main one.<ref name="FILM" /> Red lights are emitted from the wristbands, leading to "[[Higher Power (Coldplay song)|Higher Power]]".<ref name="FILM" />
Following the song, Martin makes his way to the main stage for "[[Adventure of a Lifetime]]" and giant colourful balls are thrown to the public.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Coldplay in Cardiff Review: Chris Martin and Co's Mind-Blowing Gig Brings Riot of Colour to Principality Stadium |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/coldplay-cardiff-review-chris-martin-27060763 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610151348/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/coldplay-cardiff-review-chris-martin-27060763 |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Wales Online}}</ref> Coldplay then transition into "[[Paradise (Coldplay song)|Paradise]]", which features an extended introduction and outro based on a call-and-repeat exchange with the crowd.{{efn|Before the shows in [[Bogotá]], however, the song did not include this extension.<ref name="LORIS">{{Cite AV media |date=20 July 2022 |title=Coldplay Live Paris 2022 – Music of the Spheres – Stade de France – 17/07/2022 4K |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cDJm0ogbwA |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625173422/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cDJm0ogbwA |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}
* {{Cite AV media|date=17 September 2022 |title=Coldplay en Bogotá – Concierto Completo (16 de Septiembre de 2022) |trans-title=Coldplay in Bogotá – Complete Concert (16 September 2022) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqwC1EW_xpA |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625172058/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqwC1EW_xpA |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |via=[[YouTube]] |language=es}}</ref>}} They used to perform "[[Charlie Brown (Coldplay song)|Charlie Brown]]" right after, but it was removed from the set list starting from [[Bogotá]].<ref name="LORIS" /> An excerpt of "Oceans" can be heard and "[[The Scientist (song)|The Scientist]]" begins; Martin formally thanks the audience for their time while on the piano, then a sped up, backwards version of the song is played as the band head to the B-stage once again.<ref name="FILM" /> This transition leads to "[[Viva la Vida]]", the first track from '''''Act II – Moons''''',<ref name="UKLIST">{{Cite web |date=7 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Music of the Spheres Tour Setlist 2023 in Full: What Chris Martin and Co Will Perform at Their Cardiff Concerts, Support Acts, Stage Time and More |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour-setlist-2023-in-full-what-chris-martin-and-co-will-perform-at-their-cardiff-concerts-support-acts-stage-time-and-more__37152/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610205841/https://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour-setlist-2023-in-full-what-chris-martin-and-co-will-perform-at-their-cardiff-concerts-support-acts-stage-time-and-more__37152/ |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Official Charts Company}}</ref> a segment defined by struggle, since the universe "is rough and gritty sometimes".<ref name="WILDE" /> After the night is continued with either "[[Hymn for the Weekend]]" or "[[Something Just Like This]]", they reach a section which often changes: "[[Let Somebody Go]]" might have a guest appearance,<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Take Wembley with Craig David, Max Martin, Natalie Imbruglia, Jiggle Jiggle |url=https://www.stereogum.com/2196314/coldplays-wembley-shows-had-a-jiggle-jiggle-cover-a-craig-david-medley-more/news/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610223313/https://www.stereogum.com/2196314/coldplays-wembley-shows-had-a-jiggle-jiggle-cover-a-craig-david-medley-more/news/ |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Stereogum}}</ref> be followed by "بنی آدم" ("''Bani Adam''"),<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 March 2022 |title=Coldplay Kick Off Eco-Friendly Music of the Spheres World Tour in Costa Rica |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-begin-eco-friendly-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-costa-rica-setlist-reaction-video-3185945 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610221323/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-begin-eco-friendly-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-costa-rica-setlist-reaction-video-3185945 |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=NME}}</ref> or accompanied by "Politik".<ref name="POLIFRANK">{{Cite web |date=11 July 2022 |title=Coldplay-Star: Deutschland ist ein Tolles Vorbild |trans-title=Coldplay Star: Germany is a Great Role Model |url=https://www.t-online.de/unterhaltung/musik/id_92355206/coldplay-in-berlin-chris-martin-deutschland-ist-ein-tolles-vorbild-.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610222112/https://www.t-online.de/unterhaltung/musik/id_92355206/coldplay-in-berlin-chris-martin-deutschland-ist-ein-tolles-vorbild-.html |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=T-Online |language=de}}</ref> Since 2023, however, this part became The Songbook, where Martin invites a fan and holds a piano session with them.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 June 2023 |title=La Sostenibile Leggerezza dei Coldplay a Napoli |trans-title=The Sustainable Lightness of Coldplay in Naples |url=https://www.rollingstone.it/musica/live/la-sostenibile-leggerezza-dei-coldplay-a-napoli/759339/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230902133457/https://www.rollingstone.it/musica/live/la-sostenibile-leggerezza-dei-coldplay-a-napoli/759339/ |archive-date=2 September 2023 |access-date=2 September 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Italia |language=it}}</ref>
[[File:ColdplayCWB210323 (4 of 6).jpg|left|thumb|alt=Four men wearing custom helmets perform on stage, from left to right, they are on the bass, dancing, electronic drum pad and guitar|Coldplay performing "Aeterna" at [[Estádio Couto Pereira]], [[Curitiba]]]]
His bandmates rest on the main stage and only return for "[[In My Place]]",<ref name="POLIFRANK" /> which is occasionally exchanged with "[[Orphans (Coldplay song)|Orphans]]",<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2023 |title=Com Participação de Milton Nascimento, Coldplay Encerra Turnê no Brasil |trans-title=With Guest Appearance from Milton Nascimento, Coldplay Finish Tour in Brazil |url=https://www.band.uol.com.br/noticias/coldplay-turne-brasil-milton-nascimento-16592291 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610235006/https://www.band.uol.com.br/noticias/coldplay-turne-brasil-milton-nascimento-16592291 |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Band |language=pt}}</ref> "[[A Head Full of Dreams (song)|A Head Full of Dreams]]" or "Charlie Brown".<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 April 2023 |title=Coldplay em São Paulo: Relembre os Seis Shows da Banda no Nosso #ThrowbackApril |trans-title=Coldplay in São Paulo: Remember the Band's Six Shows in Our #ThrowbackApril |url=https://coldplaybrasil.com/2023/04/coldplay-em-sao-paulo-relembre-os-seis-shows-da-banda-no-nosso-throwbackapril/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230610233709/https://coldplaybrasil.com/2023/04/coldplay-em-sao-paulo-relembre-os-seis-shows-da-banda-no-nosso-throwbackapril/ |archive-date=10 June 2023 |access-date=10 June 2023 |website=Coldplay Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> To finish "Yellow", the public are asked to dedicate the last chorus to those who are seated on the back of the venue.<ref name="FILM" /> Giant red hearts are created across the venue with the wristbands to mark the beginning of '''''Act III – Stars'''''.<ref name="FILM" /> This section was inspired by meeting free aliens and represents "loving oneself and therefore being able to love others of all creeds and colours".<ref name="WILDE" /> Martin is joined by Angel Moon for "Human Heart" and the puppet makes the vocals from [[We Are King]].<ref name="FILM" />
Conversely, flashing white lights and green lasers are used in "People of the Pride" and "[[Clocks (song)|Clocks]]", respectively.<ref name="WILDE" /> Following the two songs, a secondary act known as The Lightclub kicks off with "Infinity Sign" being played while Martin, Berryman, Buckland and Champion are wearing custom alien helmets.<ref name="UKLIST" /> Depending on which song was performed earlier, the transition leads to either "Something Just Like This" or "Hymn for the Weekend" ([[Seeb (music producers)|Seeb]] Remix).<ref name="ROTATION">{{Cite tweet|number=1634742397283319811|user=coldplayxtra|title=Night 2 of #ColdplaySãoPaulo included a revamped setlist and a new song titled Aeterna|author=ColdplayXtra|date=11 March 2023|access-date=12 March 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230312024650/https://twitter.com/coldplayxtra/status/1634742397283319811|archive-date=12 March 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> Both of them are carried out in [[American Sign Language]].<ref name="FILM" /> After the first option, the concert is continued by "[[Midnight (Coldplay song)|Midnight]]", but if the second is chosen, "Aeterna" is reproduced instead.<ref name="ROTATION" />
Once this segment ends, Coldplay head back to the main stage for "[[My Universe (song)|My Universe]]" (featuring [[Holography|holographic]] images of [[BTS]] members on the screens) and "[[A Sky Full of Stars]]" (stopped before the chorus and restarted after Martin tells the audience to put their phones away).<ref name="FILM" /> "Sunrise", which includes [[Louis Armstrong]]'s speech from "[[What a Wonderful World]]", is responsible for starting '''''Act IV – Home''''',{{efn|Before the shows in [[Bogotá]], however, the song was used as the ending of Act II.<ref name="LORIS" />}} when you conclude a journey "knowing/loving yourself a bit more" and able to see all beings as beautiful.<ref name="WILDE" /> During this interlude, the band walk to the C-stage, where they usually perform tracks from ''[[Parachutes (Coldplay album)|Parachutes]]'' (2000), covers or invite a local guest.<ref name="BOURNE">{{Cite web |date=31 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Deliver Stunning Show at Etihad Stadium – As Chris Martin Makes Sure to Endear Himself to Manchester Crowd |url=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/coldplay-etihad-stadium-manchester-review-27024450 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230601125428/https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/coldplay-etihad-stadium-manchester-review-27024450 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |access-date=1 June 2023 |website=Manchester Evening News}}</ref> This section then sees Martin thanking the tour's crew, introducing his bandmates by name and asking the public to raise their arms to send love out into the world, triggering multiple fireworks.<ref name="FILM" /> After two or three songs, Coldplay return to the main stage for "Humankind", "[[Fix You]]" and "Biutyful".<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Se Despide de Barcelona Tras un Póquer de Conciertos para la Historia |trans-title=Coldplay Say Goodbye to Barcelona After a Poker of Concerts for History |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/musica/20230528/9001648/coldplay-despide-barcelona-poker-conciertos-historia.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230529080508/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/musica/20230528/9001648/coldplay-despide-barcelona-poker-conciertos-historia.html |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=11 June 2023 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es}}</ref> The latter features the Weirdos, a puppet group led by Angel Moon.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 June 2023 |title=14 Ways Coldplay Had Cardiff Fans Saying It Was the Best Show Ever |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/14-ways-coldplay-cardiff-fans-27070678 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230611155740/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/14-ways-coldplay-cardiff-fans-27070678 |archive-date=11 June 2023 |access-date=11 June 2023 |website=Wales Online}}</ref> When the final blast of confetti gets launched, the phrase "Believe in Love" appears on the central screen, end credits are exhibited on the remaining ones, and the band bid farewell as "A Wave" is played in the background.<ref name="FILM" />
== Commercial performance ==
=== Ticket sales ===
Coldplay broke numerous attendance, gross and demand records around the world. Sales for the first European leg were opened on 22 October 2021 and the band sold more than a million tickets in 24 hours according to ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]''.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=25 April 2022 |title=Revealed: Billboard's 2022 International Power Players |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/billboard-international-power-players-2022-list/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220425175254/https://www.billboard.com/pro/billboard-international-power-players-2022-list/ |archive-date=25 April 2022 |access-date=25 April 2022}}</ref> Additional dates were announced in all cities.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1452939002970091526|user=coldplay|title=New extra dates added|author=Coldplay|date=26 October 2021|access-date=23 August 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230823140715/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1452939002970091526|archive-date=23 August 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> Over 200,000 admissions were bought for the four shows at [[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]] in less than a day.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 December 2021 |title=Coldplay Vuelve a la Argentina y es Furor: Más 200 mil Entradas Vendidos en 7 Horas y Cuarta Fecha Confirmada |trans-title=Coldplay Returns to Argentina and It's Furious: More Than 200k Tickets Sold In 7 Hours and Fourth Date Confirmed |url=https://www.clarin.com/espectaculos/musica/salen-venta-entradas-coldplay-argentina-cuestan-comprarlas_0_9Ys8D5FQt.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220426002520/https://www.clarin.com/espectaculos/musica/salen-venta-entradas-coldplay-argentina-cuestan-comprarlas_0_9Ys8D5FQt.html |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=12 December 2021 |website=Clarín |language=es}}</ref> Months later, the group scheduled another six performances at the venue, becoming the first act to hold 10 concerts during a single tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Confirmó Su 10° River Plate |trans-title=Coldplay Confirmed Their 10th River Plate |url=https://billboard.com.ar/coldplay-confirmo-su-10-river-plate/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220609131858/https://billboard.com.ar/coldplay-confirmo-su-10-river-plate/ |archive-date=9 June 2022 |access-date=9 June 2022 |website=Billboard Argentina |language=es}}</ref> On 25 August 2022, the second European run saw 1.4 million entries being purchased in 24 hours,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Sell 1.4 Million Tickets for 2023 UK and European Tour |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-sell-1-4million-tickets-for-2023-uk-and-european-tour-announce-new-dates-buy-tickets-3298401 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220826214212/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-sell-1-4million-tickets-for-2023-uk-and-european-tour-announce-new-dates-buy-tickets-3298401 |archive-date=26 August 2022 |access-date=26 August 2022 |website=NME}}</ref> marking the fastest sales in history by a band and the biggest overall since [[Robbie Williams]]' [[Close Encounters Tour]] in 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 November 2005 |title=Robbie Sets Ticket Sales Record |url=https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/music/robbie-sets-ticket-sales-record-20051125-ge1baz.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230326150825/https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/music/robbie-sets-ticket-sales-record-20051125-ge1baz.html |archive-date=26 March 2023 |access-date=26 March 2023 |website=The Age}}</ref> More than 712,000 customers tried to buy tickets in the United Kingdom, with the extremely high demand at [[City of Manchester Stadium|Etihad]] and [[Millennium Stadium|Principality]] stadiums causing the British [[Ticketmaster]] website to crash.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=As It Happened: Coldplay Add Two More Nights to Manchester 2023 Shows as Thousands Buy Tickets |url=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/live-coldplay-manchester-2023-tickets-24839317 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825161617/https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/live-coldplay-manchester-2023-tickets-24839317 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=25 August 2022 |website=Manchester Evening News}}
* {{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Recap: Coldplay Add Second Cardiff Show Due to Overwhelming Demand as Thousands Buy Tickets |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/recap-coldplay-cardiff-2023-tickets-24840473 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825163201/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/recap-coldplay-cardiff-2023-tickets-24840473 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=25 August 2022 |website=Wales Online}}</ref> The same happened in Spain, where they achieved the fastest sales of all time.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Vende Todo el Aforo de los Cuatro Conciertos en Barcelona |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20220825/8483262/coldplay-anuncia-cuarto-concierto-barcelona-gira-mundial-venta-entradas.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220825172809/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20220825/8483262/coldplay-anuncia-cuarto-concierto-barcelona-gira-mundial-venta-entradas.html |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=25 August 2022 |website=La Vanguardia}}</ref>[[File:Coldplay MOTS World Tour Press Release Photo 3 (cropped).png|thumb|alt=A man walks on the stage as giant colourful balls bouce in the background|Coldplay broke a variety of records in Asia, Europe and Latin America]]Media outlets reported extensive online queues in Portugal (450,000 users),<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Nunca Houve Tanta Procura Para Um Evento em Portugal Como Para Coldplay, Diz Ticketline |trans-title=There Has Never Been So Much Demand for an Event in Portugal as for Coldplay, Says Ticketline |url=https://observador.pt/2022/08/25/nunca-houve-tanta-procura-para-um-evento-em-portugal-como-para-coldplay-diz-ticketline/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230823191257/https://observador.pt/2022/08/25/nunca-houve-tanta-procura-para-um-evento-em-portugal-como-para-coldplay-diz-ticketline/ |archive-date=23 August 2023 |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Observador |language=pt}}</ref> Italy (700,000 users),<ref name="LAFFRANCHI">{{Cite web |date=26 August 2022 |title=Coldplay, Biglietti Esauriti. Perché Piacciono Tanto Agli Italiani |trans-title=Coldplay Tickets Sold Out. Because Italians Like Them So Much |url=https://www.corriere.it/spettacoli/22_agosto_26/01-spettacoli-apretxtcorriere-web-sezioni-d0a8e55c-24a9-11ed-9477-8142972fc587.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230123021937/https://www.corriere.it/spettacoli/22_agosto_26/01-spettacoli-apretxtcorriere-web-sezioni-d0a8e55c-24a9-11ed-9477-8142972fc587.shtml |archive-date=23 January 2023 |access-date=26 August 2022 |website=Corriere della Sera |language=it}}</ref> and the Netherlands (700,000 users) as well.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Ook Stormloop op Vierde Concert Coldplay: Enorme Digitale Wachtrij |trans-title=Another Rush to Coldplay's Fourth Concert: Huge Digital Queue |url=https://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/nederland/artikel/5329003/coldplay-johan-cruijff-arena-ticketmaster-marktplaats-mojo-tickets |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220825184446/https://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/nederland/artikel/5329003/coldplay-johan-cruijff-arena-ticketmaster-marktplaats-mojo-tickets |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=25 August 2022 |website=RTL Nieuws |language=nl}}</ref> In December 2022, ''Billboard'' observed that despite reporting data from only 40 out of 64 shows performed, Coldplay achieved the most successful tour of the year by a group.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=1 December 2022 |title=2022 Year-End Boxscore Charts |url=https://www.billboard.com/2022-year-end-boxscore-charts/#top-40-tours |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221201183147/https://www.billboard.com/2022-year-end-boxscore-charts/%23top-40-tours |archive-date=1 December 2022 |access-date=1 December 2022 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref> When missing were numbers made available, it was revealed they actually earned the biggest concert run in overall terms, with $342.1 million from 3.8 million tickets sold.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Add Six New Asian Dates for 2024 |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/12/coldplay-add-six-new-asian-dates-for-2024/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230625062435/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/12/coldplay-add-six-new-asian-dates-for-2024/ |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> As the band concluded their second Latin American leg, it was announced Coldplay had the biggest tour of the continent's history ($193 million from 2.3 million entries sold).<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1648030764422819848|user=touringdata|title=@Coldplay's "Music of the Spheres" extends its record as the highest-grossing tour in Latin America's history, with $193.3 million from 2.375 million tickets sold (40 shows)|author=Touring Data|date=17 April 2023|access-date=8 May 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230508204348/https://twitter.com/touringdata/status/1648030764422819848|archive-date=8 May 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>
On 15 May 2023, presale for [[Perth Stadium|Optus Stadium]] saw the biggest demand ever registered on Ticketmaster Australia, as over 300,000 people were attempting to buy tickets.<ref name="FEEDS">{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Both Coldplay Shows at Perth's Optus Stadium Are Now Sold Out |url=https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/both-coldplay-shows-at-perths-optus-stadium-are-now-sold-out/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823201820/https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/both-coldplay-shows-at-perths-optus-stadium-are-now-sold-out/ |archive-date=23 August 2023 |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Music Feeds}}</ref> The record was extended to 365,000 during general sales.<ref name="FEEDS" /> ''[[BH (newspaper)|BH]]'' mentioned that 400,000 users entered GoLive Asia's website simultaneously for the [[Bukit Jalil National Stadium]] concert.<ref name="SALLEHUDDIN">{{Cite web |date=17 May 2023 |title=Tiket Konsert Coldplay Sold Out |trans-title=Coldplay Concert Tickets Sold Out |url=https://www.bharian.com.my/hiburan/selebriti/2023/05/1102368/tiket-konsert-coldplay-sold-out |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230521000343/https://www.bharian.com.my/hiburan/selebriti/2023/05/1102368/tiket-konsert-coldplay-sold-out |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=BH |language=ms}}</ref> Similarly, 1.7 million customers tried to get admissions at [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]].<ref name="LOKET">{{Cite tweet|number=1659511549768380416|user=loketcom|title=New record for Loket.com!!|author=Loket|date=19 May 2023|access-date=21 May 2023|language=id|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230521001312/https://twitter.com/loketcom/status/1659511549768380416/|archive-date=21 May 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[NME]]'' claimed a million buyers were in the queue for the [[National Stadium, Singapore|Singapore National Stadium]] shows.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Sixth Stadium Show in Singapore Due to Overwhelming Demand |url=https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-six-stadium-concert-singapore-2024-dates-tickets-3458184 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230620025002/https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-six-stadium-concert-singapore-2024-dates-tickets-3458184 |archive-date=20 June 2023 |access-date=20 June 2023 |website=NME}}</ref> [[SM Investments|SM Tickets]] delayed online purchasing for the second performance at [[Philippine Arena]] following a website crash.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 June 2023 |title=Online Ticket Sales for Coldplay's Second Philippine Arena Concert Paused Due to Technical Issues; Tickets Available at SM Store and SM Cinemas |url=https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/online-ticket-sales-for-coldplay-s-second-philippine-arena-concert-paused-due-to-technical-issues-sm-tickets-2023-2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230623113601/https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/online-ticket-sales-for-coldplay-s-second-philippine-arena-concert-paused-due-to-technical-issues-sm-tickets-2023-2024 |archive-date=23 June 2023 |access-date=23 June 2023 |website=Bandwagon}}</ref>
As per ''[[Die Presse]]'', around 600,000 people tried to secure admissions for the dates at [[Ernst-Happel-Stadion]] in August 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 August 2023 |title=Hype Um Stadionkonzerte: Warum Spielen Taylor Swift und Coldplay So Oft in Wien? |trans-title=Stadium Concerts Hype: Why Do Taylor Swift and Coldplay Play So Often in Vienna? |url=https://www.diepresse.com/14427497/hype-um-stadionkonzerte-warum-spielen-taylor-swift-und-coldplay-so-oft-in-wien |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230822142808/https://www.diepresse.com/14427497/hype-um-stadionkonzerte-warum-spielen-taylor-swift-und-coldplay-so-oft-in-wien |archive-date=22 August 2023 |access-date=22 August 2023 |website=Die Presse |language=de}}</ref> Three months later, ''[[Stuff (company)|Stuff]]'' informed that over 200,000 customers lined up for [[Eden Park]]'s presale.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 November 2023 |title=Over 200,000 People Waited in Line to Get Tickets to Coldplay's NZ Show |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/music/301017289/over-200000-people-waited-in-line-to-get-tickets-to-coldplays-nz-show |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129191337/https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/music/301017289/over-200000-people-waited-in-line-to-get-tickets-to-coldplays-nz-show |archive-date=29 November 2023 |access-date=29 November 2023 |website=Stuff}}</ref> Moreover, the Music of the Spheres World Tour has been ranked as the [[List of highest-grossing concert tours|third-highest-grossing concert run of all time]], with over $810.9 million from 7.66 million entries.<ref name="ALLEN">{{Cite web |date=16 February 2024 |title=Chart Scene: Coldplay Back to No. 1 on Live75 |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2024/02/16/chart-scene-coldplay-back-to-no-1-on-live75/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240222050828/https://news.pollstar.com/2024/02/16/chart-scene-coldplay-back-to-no-1-on-live75/ |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> ''[[IQ (magazine)|IQ]]'' noted that Coldplay sold nine million tickets worldwide counting upcoming concerts, becoming the first act in history to achieve the feat.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2023 |title=Coldplay World Tour Powers to Ticket Sales Record |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/11/coldplay-world-tour-powers-to-ticket-sales-record/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231120182038/https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/11/coldplay-world-tour-powers-to-ticket-sales-record/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=IQ}}</ref>
=== Venue records ===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+Achievements of the Music of the Spheres World Tour
|-
! scope="col" style="width:2em;" |Year
! scope="col" style="width:14em;" |Period
! scope="col" style="width:16em;" |Venue
! scope="col" style="width:8em;" |Country
! scope="col" style="width:40em;" |Description
! scope="col" class="unsortable" |{{Abbr|Ref.|References}}
|-
! rowspan="29" scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |2022
| rowspan="2" |18 and 19 March
| rowspan="2" |[[Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica (2011)|Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica]]
| rowspan="2" |Costa Rica
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform two sold-out shows on a single tour
| <ref name="WAL">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Tour Shatters Latin American Records |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/06/coldplay-tour-shatters-latin-america-records/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220616015115/https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/06/coldplay-tour-shatters-latin-america-records/ |archive-date=16 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=IQ}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance for a male act (86,199)
| <ref name="MXBOX">{{Cite magazine |date=21 April 2022 |title=Bad Bunny Sets New Records in March 2022 Boxscore Report |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/bad-bunny-sets-records-march-2022-boxscore-report/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220623235007/https://www.billboard.com/pro/bad-bunny-sets-records-march-2022-boxscore-report/ |archive-date=23 June 2022 |access-date=23 June 2022 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |25 and 26 March
| rowspan="2" |[[Estadio BBVA]]
| rowspan="6" |Mexico
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform two sold-out shows on a single tour
| <ref name="WAL" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (112,262)
| <ref name="MXBOX" />
|-
| rowspan="2" |29 and 30 March
| rowspan="2" |[[Estadio Akron]]
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform two sold-out shows on a single tour.
| <ref name="WAL" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (90,153)
| <ref name="MXBOX" />
|-
| rowspan="2" |3–7 April
| rowspan="2" |[[Foro Sol]]
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform four shows on a single tour in the 21st century
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=17 June 2023 |title=Taylor Swift Logró Agotar Cuatro Conciertos: ¿Qué Otros Artistas Han Llenado Más Veces el Foro Sol? |trans-title=Taylor Swift Managed to Sold Out Four Concerts: Which Other Artists Have Filled Foro Sol the Most Times? |url=https://www.infobae.com/mexico/2023/06/17/taylor-swift-logro-agotar-cuatro-conciertos-que-otros-artistas-han-llenado-mas-veces-el-foro-sol/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230618130639/https://www.infobae.com/mexico/2023/06/17/taylor-swift-logro-agotar-cuatro-conciertos-que-otros-artistas-han-llenado-mas-veces-el-foro-sol/ |archive-date=18 June 2023 |access-date=18 June 2023 |website=Infobae |language=es}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance for an English-speaking act (259,591)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=24 April 2022 |title=Coldplay Generó Estos Milliones de Pesos Con Sus 8 Conciertos En Mexico |trans-title=Coldplay Generated These Millions of Pesos With Their 8 Concerts In Mexico |url=https://jaliscohoy.com.mx/coldplay-genero-estos-millones-de-pesos-con-sus-8-conciertos-en-mexico/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220505185835/https://jaliscohoy.com.mx/coldplay-genero-estos-millones-de-pesos-con-sus-8-conciertos-en-mexico/ |archive-date=5 May 2022 |access-date=5 May 2022 |website=Jalisco Hoy |language=es}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |10–13 July
| rowspan="2" |[[Olympiastadion (Berlin)|Olympiastadion]]
| rowspan="2" |Germany
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=11 July 2022 |title=Coldplay im Olympiastadion – Alle Farben und Alle Gefühle |trans-title=Coldplay in the Olympiastadion – All Colors and All Feelings |url=https://www.moz.de/nachrichten/kultur/open-air-konzert-coldplay-im-olympiastadion-_-alle-farben-und-alle-gefuehle-65409611.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230823013615/https://www.moz.de/nachrichten/kultur/open-air-konzert-coldplay-im-olympiastadion-_-alle-farben-und-alle-gefuehle-65409611.html |archive-date=23 August 2023 |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Märkische Oderzeitung |language=de}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (216,535)
| <ref>{{Cite magazine |date=25 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Tops July Boxscore Report with More Than $60 Million in Concert Grosses |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-july-boxscore-report-top-live-acts/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220825174620/https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-july-boxscore-report-top-live-acts/ |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=25 August 2022}}</ref>
|-
| 16–19 July
| rowspan="5" |[[Stade de France]]
| rowspan="5" |France
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in France (over 200,000 units in a morning)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=25 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Le 20 Juillet 2022 – Billetterie Officielle |trans-title=Coldplay On 20 July 2022 – Official Ticketing |url=https://www.stadefrance.com/fr/billetterie/coldplay-4-2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220603221010/https://www.stadefrance.com/fr/billetterie/coldplay-4-2022 |archive-date=3 June 2022 |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Stade de France |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" |16–20 July
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to sell over 300,000 tickets on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=20 July 2022 |title=Coldplay Enchante le Stade de France avec Quatre Soirées Spectaculaires et Festives |trans-title=Coldplay Enchants the Stade de France with Four Spectacular and Festive Evenings |url=https://www.francetvinfo.fr/culture/musique/coldplay-enchante-le-stade-de-france-avec-quatre-soirees-spectaculaires-et-festives_5268286.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721215627/https://www.francetvinfo.fr/culture/musique/coldplay-enchante-le-stade-de-france-avec-quatre-soirees-spectaculaires-et-festives_5268286.html |archive-date=21 July 2022 |access-date=21 July 2022 |website=France Info |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2022 |title=Coldplay: 320,000 Spectateurs pour les Concerts au Stade de France, Record pour le Groupe |trans-title=Coldplay: 320,000 Spectators for Concerts at the Stade de France, Record for the Group |url=http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-121952.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722122249/http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-121952.html |archive-date=22 July 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=Pure Charts |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (318,331)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=5 August 2022 |title=Coldplay: Les Chiffres Fous des Quatre Concerts au Stade de France |trans-title=Coldplay: The Crazy Figures of the Four Concerts at the Stade de France |url=http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-122094.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805115220/http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-122094.html |archive-date=5 August 2022 |access-date=5 August 2022 |website=Pure Charts |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Most career performances by an international group (8 shows)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=10 September 2023 |title=Muse: Les Chiffres des Concerts en France Cet Été Donnent le Tournis |trans-title=Muse: The Figures for Concerts in France This Summer are Dizzying |url=https://www.chartsinfrance.net/Muse/news-126032.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230910165904/https://www.chartsinfrance.net/Muse/news-126032.html |archive-date=10 September 2023 |access-date=10 September 2023 |website=Pure Charts |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| 5–8 August
| rowspan="4" |[[King Baudouin Stadium]]
| rowspan="4" |Belgium
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Belgium (over 150,000 units in a morning)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2021 |title=Koop Tickets Voor Coldplay: Music of the Spheres World Tour |trans-title=Buy Tickets For Coldplay: Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://nl.livenation.be/show/1350672/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour/brussels/2022-08-09/nl |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220602131416/https://nl.livenation.be/show/1350672/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour/brussels/2022-08-09/nl |archive-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=2 June 2022 |website=Live Nation Belgium |language=nl}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |5–9 August
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to sell over 200,000 tickets on a single tour
| rowspan="3" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2022 |title=Coldplay, le Groupe de Tous les Records Arrive à Bruxelles |trans-title=Coldplay, the Group of All the Records Arrive in Brussels |url=https://www.lesoir.be/457358/article/2022-08-01/coldplay-le-groupe-de-tous-les-records-arrive-bruxelles |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220805100315/https://www.lesoir.be/457358/article/2022-08-01/coldplay-le-groupe-de-tous-les-records-arrive-bruxelles |archive-date=5 August 2022 |access-date=5 August 2022 |website=Le Soir |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform three and four shows on a single tour
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (224,719)
|-
| 12–21 August
| [[Wembley Stadium]]
| England
| style="text-align:left;" |Longest residency for a rock act (tied with [[the Rolling Stones]])
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=22 December 2022 |title=Coldplay, Ed Sheeran and Harry Styles Help Wembley Stadium Hit 1.3M Concert Attendance in 2022 |url=https://www.musicweek.com/live/read/coldplay-ed-sheeran-and-harry-styles-help-wembley-stadium-hit-1-3m-concert-attendance-in-2022/087169 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221222194939/https://www.musicweek.com/live/read/coldplay-ed-sheeran-and-harry-styles-help-wembley-stadium-hit-1-3m-concert-attendance-in-2022/087169 |archive-date=22 December 2022 |access-date=22 December 2022 |website=Music Week}}</ref>
|-
| 10 September
| [[Barra Olympic Park]]
| Brazil
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever for a headlining group at [[Rock in Rio]]
| <ref name="CPRIR">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2022 |title=Ingressos para o Rock in Rio Acabam para os Dias de Justin Bieber, Coldplay, Post Malone, Dua Lipa, Green Day e Guns N' Roses |trans-title=Rock in Rio Tickets for Justin Bieber, Coldplay, Post Malone, Dua Lipa, Green Day and Guns N' Roses Days are Sold Out |url=https://g1.globo.com/pop-arte/musica/rock-in-rio/2022/noticia/2022/04/05/dia-de-justin-bieber-no-rock-in-rio-tem-ingressos-esgotados-em-12-minutos.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220426001252/https://g1.globo.com/pop-arte/musica/rock-in-rio/2022/noticia/2022/04/05/dia-de-justin-bieber-no-rock-in-rio-tem-ingressos-esgotados-em-12-minutos.ghtml |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=25 April 2022 |website=G1 |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |13 and 14 September
| rowspan="2" |[[National Stadium of Peru|Estadio Nacional del Perú]]
| rowspan="2" |Peru
| style="text-align:left;" |First English-speaking act to perform two consecutive sold-out dates
|<ref name="WAL" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance for an English-speaking act (85,845)
| <ref name="POLLSTAR">{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Coldplay – Tour History Report |url=https://pdfhost.io/v/0qRXxIUak_Coldplay_Pollstar_Tour_History_200123 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908225449/https://pdfhost.io/v/0qRXxIUak_Coldplay_Pollstar_Tour_History_200123 |archive-date=8 September 2023 |access-date=8 September 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| 16 and 17 September
| [[Estadio El Campín]]
| Colombia
| style="text-align:left;" |Most sold-out shows on a single tour (tied with [[Guns N' Roses]])
| <ref name="WAL" />
|-
| rowspan="2" |20–24 September
| rowspan="2" |[[Estadio Nacional Julio Martínez Prádanos|Estadio Nacional de Chile]]
| rowspan="2" |Chile
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform three and four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2023 |title=Iron Maiden Smash Colombia Ticket Sales Record |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/12/iron-maiden-smash-colombia-ticket-sales-record/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231206204801/https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/12/iron-maiden-smash-colombia-ticket-sales-record/ |archive-date=6 December 2023 |access-date=6 December 2023 |website=IQ}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (256,916)
| <ref name="POLLSTAR" />
|-
| rowspan="3" |25 October–8 November
| rowspan="3" |[[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]]
| rowspan="3" |Argentina
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform 10 shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=7 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Agotó su Décimo River y Rompió Todos los Récords |trans-title=Coldplay's has Sold Out Their Tenth River and Broken All the Records |url=https://tn.com.ar/musica/bandas/2022/06/07/coldplay-agoto-su-decimo-river-y-rompio-todos-los-records/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220607183039/https://tn.com.ar/musica/bandas/2022/06/07/coldplay-agoto-su-decimo-river-y-rompio-todos-los-records/ |archive-date=7 June 2022 |access-date=7 June 2022 |website=TN |language=es}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance boxscore worldwide (626,841)
| <ref name="GOTTFRIED">{{Cite web |date=11 December 2023 |title=Year in Europe: What's Next After the Year of the Stadium? |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/12/11/year-in-europe-whats-next-after-the-year-of-the-stadium/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212033254/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/12/11/year-in-europe-whats-next-after-the-year-of-the-stadium/ |archive-date=12 December 2023 |access-date=12 December 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest-grossing boxscore in Latin American history ($49.7 million)
| <ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1603200972263944193|user=touringdata|title=Coldplay earns the highest-grossing report in Latin America history, with $49.7 million from 627,000 tickets sold in 10 shows at Estadio River Plate in Buenos Aires on Oct. 25-Nov. 8.|author=Touring Data|date=14 December 2022|access-date=22 December 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20221222201304/https://twitter.com/touringdata/status/1603200972263944193|archive-date=22 December 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="34" scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |2023
| rowspan="3" |10–18 March
| rowspan="3" |[[Estádio do Morumbi]]
| rowspan="7" |Brazil
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform five and six shows on a single tour
| <ref name="SPRJ">{{Cite web |date=8 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Bate Recordes de Público em Maratona de Shows no Brasil |trans-title=Coldplay Breaks Public Records in Marathon of Shows in Brazil |url=https://orbi.band.uol.com.br/entretenimento/coldplay-bate-recordes-de-publico-em-maratona-de-shows-no-brasil-4448 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230309021409/https://orbi.band.uol.com.br/entretenimento/coldplay-bate-recordes-de-publico-em-maratona-de-shows-no-brasil-4448 |archive-date=9 March 2023 |access-date=9 March 2023 |website=Orbi |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (439,651)
| rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=13 June 2023 |title=How Coldplay's Commitment to Latin America Delivered the Year's Biggest Shows in the World |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-concerts-latin-america-years-biggest-shows/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230625144829/https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-concerts-latin-america-years-biggest-shows/ |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |magazine=Billboard}}
* {{Cite magazine |date=20 April 2011 |title=U2 Breaks All-Time Tour Gross Record in Brazil |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/u2-breaks-all-time-tour-gross-record-in-brazil-1178263/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230425131935/https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/u2-breaks-all-time-tour-gross-record-in-brazil-1178263/ |archive-date=25 April 2023 |access-date=25 April 2023 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest-grossing boxscore in Brazilian history ($40.1 million)
|-
| rowspan="2" |21 and 22 March
| rowspan="2" |[[Estádio Couto Pereira]]
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform two shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2022 |title=Coldplay em Curitiba: Banda Anuncia Show Extra Após Ingressos para Primeira Apresentação Esgotarem |trans-title=Coldplay in Curitiba: Band Announces Extra Show After Tickets for the First Performance is Sold Out |url=https://g1.globo.com/pr/parana/noticia/2022/10/20/coldplay-anuncia-show-extra-em-curitiba.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230305000516/https://g1.globo.com/pr/parana/noticia/2022/10/20/coldplay-anuncia-show-extra-em-curitiba.ghtml |archive-date=5 March 2023 |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=G1 |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (85,776)
| <ref name="BRBOX">{{Cite web |date=21 April 2023 |title=Chart Scene: Coldplay Tops Live75 with Latin American Sellouts |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/04/21/coldplay-tops-live75-with-latin-american-sellouts/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230425130856/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/04/21/coldplay-tops-live75-with-latin-american-sellouts/ |archive-date=25 April 2023 |access-date=25 April 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |25–28 March
| rowspan="2" |[[Estádio Olímpico Nilton Santos]]
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform three shows on a single tour
| <ref name="SPRJ" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (211,012)
| <ref name="BRBOX" />
|-
| rowspan="4" |17–21 May
| rowspan="4" |[[Estádio Cidade de Coimbra]]
| rowspan="4" |Portugal
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Portugal (over 200,000 units in a morning)
| rowspan="3" |<ref name="LUSIADAS">{{Cite web |date=10 May 2023 |title=Coldplay: Mas Afinal que Loucura é Esta? Tudo o que Há para Saber Sobre o Maior Espetáculo do Mundo |trans-title=Coldplay: But What Kind of Madness is This? Everything There Is To Know About the World's Greatest Show |url=https://www.flash.pt/weekend/detalhe/coldplay-mas-afinal-que-loucura-e-esta-tudo-o-que-ha-para-saber-sobre-o-maior-espetaculo-do-mundo |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230511143124/https://www.flash.pt/weekend/detalhe/coldplay-mas-afinal-que-loucura-e-esta-tudo-o-que-ha-para-saber-sobre-o-maior-espetaculo-do-mundo |archive-date=11 May 2023 |access-date=11 May 2023 |website=Flash! |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to sell over 200,000 tickets on a single tour
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform three and four shows on a single tour
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (208,284)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Música, Cor e Sonhos: Todas as Palavras São Poucas para Descrever a Noite dos Coldplay em Coimbra |trans-title=Music, Colour and Dreams: All the Words are Few to Describe Coldplay's Night in Coimbra |url=https://mag.sapo.pt/musica/artigos/musica-cor-e-sonhos-todas-as-palavras-sao-poucas-para-descrever-a-noite-dos-coldplay-em-coimbra |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230518185130/https://mag.sapo.pt/musica/artigos/musica-cor-e-sonhos-todas-as-palavras-sao-poucas-para-descrever-a-noite-dos-coldplay-em-coimbra |archive-date=18 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=SAPO |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |24–28 May
| rowspan="3" |[[Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys]]
| rowspan="3" |Spain
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Spain (over 200,000 units in a morning)
| rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Agota en Tiempo Récord las 200,000 Entradas para Sus Cuatro Conciertos en Barcelona |trans-title=Coldplay's 200,000 Tickets for Their Shows in Barcelona Sold Out in Record Time |url=https://www.expansion.com/directivos/estilo-vida/2022/08/22/6303c8f1468aeb975d8b4629.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827121326/https://www.expansion.com/directivos/estilo-vida/2022/08/22/6303c8f1468aeb975d8b4629.html |archive-date=27 August 2022 |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=Expansión |language=es}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform three and four shows on a single tour
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (224,761)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=31 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Set Spanish Stadium Record |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/05/coldplay-set-spanish-stadium-record/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230601121356/https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/05/coldplay-set-spanish-stadium-record/ |archive-date=1 June 2023 |access-date=1 June 2023 |website=IQ}}</ref>
|-
| 21 and 22 June
| [[Stadio Diego Armando Maradona]]
| rowspan="4" |Italy
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Naples (over 86,000 units in half an hour)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=5 October 2022 |title=Chris Martin Ha Una Brutta Infezione, i Coldplay Rimandano 8 Concerti |trans-title=Chris Martin Has a Bad Infection, Coldplay Postpone 8 Concerts |url=https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2022/10/05/coldplay-concerti-rinviati |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230203023250/https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2022/10/05/coldplay-concerti-rinviati |archive-date=3 February 2023 |access-date=3 February 2023 |website=Sky TG24 |language=it}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |25–29 June
| rowspan="3" |[[San Siro]]
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Italy (over 240,000 units in a morning)
| rowspan="2" |<ref name="LAFFRANCHI" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |First international act to perform three and four shows on a single tour
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance for an international act (249,560)
| <ref name="GOTTFRIED" />
|-
| rowspan="2" |8–12 July
| rowspan="2" |[[Ullevi]]
| rowspan="2" |Sweden
| style="text-align:left;" |First international act to perform four shows on a single tour
| <ref name="KNUTSSON">{{Cite web |date=13 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Slår Rekord – Första Internationella Akt att Sälja Ut Fyra Ullevi |trans-title=Coldplay Break Records – First International Act to Sell Out Four Ullevi |url=https://gaffa.se/nyheter/2023/juli/coldplay-slar-rekord-forsta-internationella-akt-att-salja-ut-fyra-ullevi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725025013/https://gaffa.se/nyheter/2023/juli/coldplay-slar-rekord-forsta-internationella-akt-att-salja-ut-fyra-ullevi/ |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=GAFFA Sweden |language=sv}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance for an international act (267,180)
| <ref name="GOTTFRIED" />
|-
| rowspan="2" |15–19 July
| rowspan="2" |[[Johan Cruyff Arena]]
| rowspan="2" |Netherlands
| style="text-align:left;" |First group to perform four shows on a single tour in the 21st century
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2023 |title=Coldplay in de Johan Cruijff Arena: De Grootste Rock-'N-Roll-Onderneming Ooit Komt Naar Amsterdam |trans-title=Coldplay in the Johan Cruyff Arena: The Biggest Rock 'N' Roll Company Ever Comes to Amsterdam |url=https://www.ad.nl/show/coldplay-in-de-johan-cruijff-arena-de-grootste-rock-n-roll-onderneming-ooit-komt-naar-amsterdam~a35967f4/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230715212232/https://www.ad.nl/show/coldplay-in-de-johan-cruijff-arena-de-grootste-rock-n-roll-onderneming-ooit-komt-naar-amsterdam~a35967f4/ |archive-date=15 July 2023 |access-date=15 July 2023 |website=AD |language=nl}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance of the 21st century for a group (217,609)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=3 January 2024 |title=High Stakes in Lowlands: The Dutch Business Is Firing on All Cylinders |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2024/01/03/high-stakes-in-lowlands-the-dutch-business-is-firing-on-all-cylinders/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104153151/https://news.pollstar.com/2024/01/03/high-stakes-in-lowlands-the-dutch-business-is-firing-on-all-cylinders/ |archive-date=4 January 2024 |access-date=4 January 2024 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |27 and 28 September
| rowspan="2" |[[Snapdragon Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |United States
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform two shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=Coldplay Extends Tour and Adds Second Concerts at San Diego's Snapdragon Stadium and Pasadena's Rose Bowl |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/entertainment/music/story/2023-01-27/coldplay-extends-tour-and-adds-second-concerts-at-snapdragon-stadium-in-san-diego-and-rose-bowl-in-pasadena |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230128153541/https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/entertainment/music/story/2023-01-27/coldplay-extends-tour-and-adds-second-concerts-at-snapdragon-stadium-in-san-diego-and-rose-bowl-in-pasadena |archive-date=28 January 2023 |access-date=28 January 2023 |website=The San Diego Union-Tribune}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (64,130)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=3 November 2023 |title=Chart Scene: Jason Aldean Lands on Live75 Following Tour Wrap |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/11/03/chart-scene-jason-aldean-lands-on-live75-following-tour-wrap/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231103211500/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/11/03/chart-scene-jason-aldean-lands-on-live75-following-tour-wrap/ |archive-date=3 November 2023 |access-date=3 November 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |11 and 12 November
| rowspan="3" |[[National Stadium (Kaohsiung)|Kaohsiung National Stadium]]
| rowspan="3" |Taiwan
| style="text-align:left;" |First English-speaking act to perform two shows on a single tour
| rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 加場6分鐘完售! |trans-title=Coldplay's Extra Show Sold Out in 6 Minutes! |url=https://star.ettoday.net/news/2501738 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231106034304/https://star.ettoday.net/news/2501738 |archive-date=6 November 2023 |access-date=6 November 2023 |website=ETtoday |language=zh}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Taiwan (over 100,000 units in a morning)
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance for an English-speaking act (102,949)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=11 December 2023 |title=RBD Conquers Billboard's November Boxscore Report |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/rbd-billboard-november-boxscore/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231224031119/https://www.billboard.com/pro/rbd-billboard-november-boxscore/ |archive-date=24 December 2023 |access-date=24 December 2023 |website=Billboard}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |15 November
| rowspan="2" |[[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |Indonesia
| style="text-align:left;" |Biggest queue in Indonesian history (over 1.7 million customers)
| <ref name="LOKET" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest-grossing single-day boxscore in Asian history ($13.9 million)
| <ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1755368389940232656 |user=touringdata |title=@Coldplay earns the highest-grossing concert in Asia's history, with $13.9 million at Gelora Bung Karno Stadium in Jakarta on November 15, 2023 |author=Touring Data |date=7 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240208020220/https://twitter.com/touringdata/status/1755368389940232656 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |18 and 19 November
| rowspan="3" |[[Perth Stadium|Optus Stadium]]
| rowspan="3" |Australia
| style="text-align:left;" |Biggest queue in Australian Ticketmaster history (over 365,000 customers)
| rowspan="2" |<ref name="FEEDS" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |First group to perform two shows on a single tour
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (124,883)
| <ref name="REID">{{Cite web |date=19 November 2023 |title=Coldplay's Celestial Playground: Chris Martin Brings Joy, Tears to Perth's Optus Stadium |url=https://au.rollingstone.com/music/music-live-reviews/coldplay-perth-optus-stadium-live-review-52530/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231119132712/https://au.rollingstone.com/music/music-live-reviews/coldplay-perth-optus-stadium-live-review-52530/ |archive-date=19 November 2023 |access-date=19 November 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Australia}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |22 November
| rowspan="2" |[[Bukit Jalil National Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |Malaysia
| style="text-align:left;" |Biggest queue in Malaysian history (over 400,000 customers)
| <ref name="SALLEHUDDIN" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest single-day attendance in Asian history for a Western act (81,812)
| <ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1755368809475506503 |user=touringdata |title=@Coldplay earns the most attended concert by a western artist in Asia's history, with 81,812 tickets sold at Bukit Jalil Stadium in Kuala Lumpur on November 22, 2023. |author=Touring Data |date=7 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240208020225/https://twitter.com/touringdata/status/1755368809475506503 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="25" scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |2024
| rowspan="2" |19 and 20 January
| rowspan="2" |[[Philippine Arena]]
| rowspan="2" |Philippines
| style="text-align:left;" |First English-speaking group to perform two shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1728003824735203340 |user=philconcerts |title=Next Stop: PILIPINAS! Coldplay will be the first band to hold two sold-out shows on Jan. 19 and 20, 2024 at the Philippine Arena by @livenationph |author=Philippine Concerts |date=24 November 2023 |access-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240118195659/https://twitter.com/philconcerts/status/1728003824735203340/ |archive-date=18 January 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (96,079)
| <ref name="ALLEN" />
|-
| 23–27 January
| rowspan="3" |[[National Stadium, Singapore|Singapore National Stadium]]
| rowspan="3" |Singapore
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Singapore (over 200,000 units in a morning)
| rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 October 2023 |title=Asia News: No Eras Movie in Malaysia; Coldplay Releases More Tix |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/10/06/asia-news-no-eras-movie-in-malaysia-coldplay-releases-more-tix/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007185551/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/10/06/asia-news-no-eras-movie-in-malaysia-coldplay-releases-more-tix/ |archive-date=7 October 2023 |access-date=7 October 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |23–31 January
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to perform three, four, five and six shows on a single tour
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance (321,113)
| <ref name="ALLEN" />
|-
| rowspan="2" |3 and 4 February
| rowspan="2" |[[Rajamangala Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |Thailand
| style="text-align:left;" |First English-speaking act to perform two shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=23 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Second Bangkok Concert Date, Final Show for Asia Leg of Music of the Spheres Tour |url=https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/coldplay-announce-a-second-bangkok-concert-date-for-music-of-the-spheres-asia-tour-tickets-february-2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230623111726/https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/coldplay-announce-a-second-bangkok-concert-date-for-music-of-the-spheres-asia-tour-tickets-february-2024 |archive-date=23 June 2023 |access-date=23 June 2023 |website=Bandwagon}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Highest attendance for an English-speaking act (106,027)
| <ref name="ALLEN" />
|-
| 8 and 9 June
| [[Olympic Stadium (Athens)|Olympic Stadium]]
| Greece
| style="text-align:left;" |First international act to schedule two shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2023 |title=Sold Out Οι Δύο Συναυλίες Των Coldplay Στο ΟΑΚΑ |trans-title=Coldplay's Two Concerts at OAKA are Sold Out |url=https://www.newsbomb.gr/bombplus/politismos/story/1453021/sold-out-oi-dyo-synavlies-ton-coldplay-sto-oaka |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230728172230/https://www.newsbomb.gr/bombplus/politismos/story/1453021/sold-out-oi-dyo-synavlies-ton-coldplay-sto-oaka |archive-date=28 July 2023 |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=Newsbomb |language=el}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |12 and 13 June
| rowspan="3" |[[Arena Națională]]
| rowspan="3" |Romania
| style="text-align:left;" |Biggest queue in Romanian history (over 100,000 customers)
| rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2023 |title=Primele Bilete Puse în Vânzare Pentru Concertele Coldplay au Fost Epuizate. Peste 100.000 de Oameni S-Au Înscris la Presale |trans-title=The First Tickets on Sale for the Coldplay Concerts Have Sold Out. Over 100,000 People Signed Up at the Press |url=https://observatornews.ro/entertainment/primele-bilete-puse-in-vanzare-pentru-concertele-coldplay-au-fost-epuizate-533519.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725165252/https://observatornews.ro/entertainment/primele-bilete-puse-in-vanzare-pentru-concertele-coldplay-au-fost-epuizate-533519.html |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=The Observator |language=ro}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to schedule two shows on a single tour
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Romania
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2023 |title=Record la Vânzarea Biletelor Pentru Concertele din România ale Trupei Coldplay |trans-title=Record Sales of Tickets for Coldplay Concerts in Romania |url=https://www.brasov.net/record-la-vanzarea-biletelor-pentru-concertele-din-romania-ale-trupei-coldplay-este-cea-mai-rapida-vanzare-din-istoria-show-urilor-live-din-tara-noastra/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230728164619/https://www.brasov.net/record-la-vanzarea-biletelor-pentru-concertele-din-romania-ale-trupei-coldplay-este-cea-mai-rapida-vanzare-din-istoria-show-urilor-live-din-tara-noastra/ |archive-date=28 July 2023 |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=Brasov |language=ro}}</ref>
|-
| 16–19 June
| [[Puskás Aréna]]
| Hungary
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to schedule three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=17 October 2023 |title=Azahriah Meglátogatta Azokat, Akik a Körúton Álltak Sorba Jegyért a Puskás Arénabeli Harmadik Koncertjére |trans-title=Azahriah Visited Those Who Lined Up on the Boulevard for Tickets to the Third Concert at Puskás Aréna |url=https://www.vg.hu/extra/2023/10/azahriah-meglatogatta-azokat-akik-a-koruton-alltak-sorba-jegyert-a-harmadik-puskas-arena-koncertjere |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231017150925/https://www.vg.hu/extra/2023/10/azahriah-meglatogatta-azokat-akik-a-koruton-alltak-sorba-jegyert-a-harmadik-puskas-arena-koncertjere |archive-date=17 October 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 |website=Világgazdaság |language=hu}}</ref>
|-
| 22–25 June
| [[Parc Olympique Lyonnais|Groupama Stadium]]
| France
| style="text-align:left;" |First group to schedule three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Ajoute Une Troisième Date à Lyon en 2024 |trans-title=Coldplay Add a Third Date in Lyon in 2024 |url=https://www.nrj.fr/artistes/coldplay/actus/coldplay-ajoute-une-troisieme-date-a-lyon-en-2024-71359896 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725181958/https://www.nrj.fr/artistes/coldplay/actus/coldplay-ajoute-une-troisieme-date-a-lyon-en-2024-71359896 |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=NRJ |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| 29 June
| [[Glastonbury Festival#Location|Worthy Farm]]
| England
| style="text-align:left;" |Most career performances by a headliner at [[Glastonbury Festival]] (5 shows)
| <ref name="THOMAS">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2024 |title=Dua Lipa, Coldplay and SZA to Headline 2024 Glastonbury Festival |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2024/mar/14/2024-glastonbury-festival-lineup-dua-lipa-coldplay-sza-shania-twain |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314124819/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2024/mar/14/2024-glastonbury-festival-lineup-dua-lipa-coldplay-sza-shania-twain |archive-date=14 March 2024 |access-date=14 March 2024 |website=The Guardian}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |12–16 July
| rowspan="2" |[[Stadio Olimpico]]
| rowspan="2" |Italy
| style="text-align:left;" |First international act to schedule three and four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2023 |title=Coldplay a Roma, i Concerti All'Olimpico Diventano Quattro |trans-title=Coldplay in Rome, Concerts at the Olimpico Become Four |url=https://www.romatoday.it/eventi/cultura/coldplay-olimpico-nuove-date-luglio-2024.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725162455/https://www.romatoday.it/eventi/cultura/coldplay-olimpico-nuove-date-luglio-2024.html |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=RomaToday |language=it}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Rome (over 240,000 units in a morning)
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2023 |title=Coldplay in Concerto a Roma Nel 2024: Biglietti Esauriti in Pochi Minuti |trans-title=Coldplay Concert in Rome in 2024: Tickets Sold Out in Minutes |url=https://tg.la7.it/cronaca/coldplay-i-biglietti-per-roma-2024-esauriti-in-pochi-minuti-fan-in-rivolta-28-07-2023-190017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240123160417/https://tg.la7.it/cronaca/coldplay-i-biglietti-per-roma-2024-esauriti-in-pochi-minuti-fan-in-rivolta-28-07-2023-190017 |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |website=TG La7 |language=it}}
* {{Cite web |date=16 August 2023 |title=Le Band Sono Tutt'altro Che Finite |trans-title=Bands Are Far From Finished |url=https://www.rockol.it/news-738931/le-band-non-sono-finite-blur-muse-depeche-mode-coldplay-rinascita |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230816193252/https://www.rockol.it/news-738931/le-band-non-sono-finite-blur-muse-depeche-mode-coldplay-rinascita |archive-date=16 August 2023 |access-date=16 August 2023 |website=Rockol |language=it}}</ref>
|-
| 20–23 July
| [[Merkur Spiel-Arena]]
| Germany
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to schedule three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2023 |title=Presale Startet Heute: Coldplay Mit Drei Konzerten 2024 in Düsseldorf – Zeitplan, Einlass und Alle Infos |trans-title=Presale Starts today: Coldplay with Three concerts in 2024 in Düsseldorf – Schedule, Admission and All Information |url=https://www.tonight.de/duesseldorf/coldplay-konzert-in-duesseldorf-merkur-spiel-arena-termin-20-21-23-juli-2024-zeitplan-einlass-tickets-preise-vorband-anfahrt-alle-infos_281579.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725185831/https://www.tonight.de/duesseldorf/coldplay-konzert-in-duesseldorf-merkur-spiel-arena-termin-20-21-23-juli-2024-zeitplan-einlass-tickets-preise-vorband-anfahrt-alle-infos_281579.html |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=Tonight |language=de}}</ref>
|-
| 27–31 July
| [[Helsinki Olympic Stadium]]
| Finland
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to schedule three and four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=27 July 2023 |title=Det Blir en Fjärde Coldplay-Konsert på Olympiastadion i Helsingfors |trans-title=There Will Be a Fourth Coldplay Concert at the Olympic Stadium in Helsinki |url=https://svenska.yle.fi/a/7-10038757 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230727200355/https://svenska.yle.fi/a/7-10038757 |archive-date=27 July 2023 |access-date=27 July 2023 |website=Yle |language=sv}}</ref>
|-
| 15–18 August
| [[Olympiastadion (Munich)|Olympiastadion]]
| Germany
| style="text-align:left;" |First international group to schedule three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=26 July 2023 |title=Coldplay (Music of the Spheres World Tour – Delivered by DHL) |url=https://www.olympiapark.de/de/veranstaltungen/coldplay-n3938 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230726214431/https://www.olympiapark.de/de/veranstaltungen/coldplay-n3938 |archive-date=26 July 2023 |access-date=26 July 2023 |website=Olympiapark München |language=de}}</ref>
|-
| 21–25 August
| [[Ernst-Happel-Stadion]]
| Austria
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to schedule four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=27 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Stellt Neuen Rekord Auf: Viertes Konzert für Wien 2024 Bestätigt |trans-title=Coldplay Sets a New Record: Fourth Concert for Vienna 2024 Confirmed |url=https://kurier.at/kultur/coldplay-stellt-neuen-rekord-auf-viertes-konzert-fuer-wien-2024-bestaetigt/402537761 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230727141805/https://kurier.at/kultur/coldplay-stellt-neuen-rekord-auf-viertes-konzert-fuer-wien-2024-bestaetigt/402537761 |archive-date=27 July 2023 |access-date=27 July 2023 |website=Kurier |language=de}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |29 August–2 September
| rowspan="2" |[[Croke Park]]
| rowspan="2" |Ireland
| style="text-align:left;" |First group to schedule four shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2023 |title=Ticketmaster Website Crashes for Some Coldplay Fans, with Two More Croke Park Dates Announced |url=https://www.thejournal.ie/ticketmaster-website-crashes-for-some-coldplay-fans-6127881-Jul2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725173833/https://www.thejournal.ie/ticketmaster-website-crashes-for-some-coldplay-fans-6127881-Jul2023/ |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=The Journal}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Fastest ticket sales ever in Ireland
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2023 |title=Irish Coldplay Fans Hit Out at Ticketmaster As Four Dublin Concerts Sell Out in Record Time |url=https://www.irishstar.com/culture/entertainment/irish-coldplay-fans-hit-out-30576650 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230728164424/https://www.irishstar.com/culture/entertainment/irish-coldplay-fans-hit-out-30576650 |archive-date=28 July 2023 |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=Irish Star}}</ref>
|-
| 30 October–3 November
| [[Docklands Stadium|Marvel Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |Australia
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |First group to schedule four shows on a single tour
| rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Adds More Aussie Shows as They Smash Box Office Records |url=https://www.heraldsun.com.au/entertainment/music/coldplay-adds-more-aussie-shows-as-concert-presale-goes-nuts/news-story/7874902a29d72fbee1fe7c430d06bf34 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231130210117/https://www.heraldsun.com.au/entertainment/music/coldplay-adds-more-aussie-shows-as-concert-presale-goes-nuts/news-story/7874902a29d72fbee1fe7c430d06bf34?amp&nk=c559663bdb9cf16ce9107976d797028d-1701378085 |archive-date=30 November 2023 |access-date=30 November 2023 |website=Herald Sun}}</ref>
|-
| 6–10 November
| [[Stadium Australia|Accor Stadium]]
|-
| 13–16 November
| [[Eden Park]]
| New Zealand
| style="text-align:left;" |First act to schedule three shows on a single tour
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Make NZ History with Third Eden Park Show: Dates, Tickets and Sale Information |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/coldplay-makes-nz-history-with-third-eden-park-show-dates-tickets-and-presale-information/6JK4T3LOM5BRZDG7BHCCJVSB4E/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130031752/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/coldplay-makes-nz-history-with-third-eden-park-show-dates-tickets-and-presale-information/6JK4T3LOM5BRZDG7BHCCJVSB4E/ |archive-date=30 November 2023 |access-date=30 November 2023 |website=The New Zealand Herald}}</ref>
|}
== Critical reception ==
=== North America ===
The tour received widespread acclaim from music critics worldwide.{{efn|Six stars: ''[[Gaffa (magazine)|GAFFA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 July 2023 |title=Chris Martin Lyckas få Hela Ullevi att Lägga Undan Mobilerna |trans-title=Chris Martin Manages to Get All of Ullevi to Put Away Their Phones |url=https://gaffa.se/recensioner/2023/juli/konserter/coldplay-ullevi-8-7-allsangen-tranger-sig-obehindrat-in-i-varje-oppet-fonster/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230710211503/https://gaffa.se/recensioner/2023/juli/konserter/coldplay-ullevi-8-7-allsangen-tranger-sig-obehindrat-in-i-varje-oppet-fonster/ |archive-date=10 July 2023 |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=GAFFA Sweden |language=sv}}</ref> Five: ''[[Daily Express]]'',<ref name="SHARP" /> ''[[Evening Standard]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 August 2022 |title=Coldplay at Wembley Review: As Good as it Gets in a Stadium |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/music/coldplay-wembley-review-london-chris-martin-music-of-the-spheres-b1018565.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220816013224/https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/music/coldplay-wembley-review-london-chris-martin-music-of-the-spheres-b1018565.html |archive-date=16 August 2022 |access-date=15 August 2022 |website=Evening Standard}}</ref> and ''[[Glasgow Times]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2022 |title=Review of Coldplay, Who Create Something Special at Glasgow's Hampden Park |url=https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/scottish-news/20723772.review-coldplay-create-something-special-glasgows-hampden-park/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220904130433/https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/scottish-news/20723772.review-coldplay-create-something-special-glasgows-hampden-park/ |archive-date=4 September 2022 |access-date=4 September 2022 |website=Glasgow Times}}</ref> Four: ''[[Algemeen Dagblad|AD]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Pakt in de Arena Zelfs de Grootste Cynicus Met Boter en Suiker In |trans-title=Coldplay Pack Even the Biggest Cynic with Butter and Sugar in the Arena |url=https://www.ad.nl/show/recensie-coldplay-pakt-in-de-arena-zelfs-de-grootste-cynicus-met-boter-en-suiker-in~ab4f4095/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230716120212/https://www.ad.nl/show/recensie-coldplay-pakt-in-de-arena-zelfs-de-grootste-cynicus-met-boter-en-suiker-in~ab4f4095/ |archive-date=16 July 2023 |access-date=16 July 2023 |website=AD |language=nl}}</ref> ''[[Rolling Stone|Rolling Stone UK]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Live at Wembley: Chris Martin Delivers a Masterclass in Showmanship |url=https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/live-reviews/coldplay-live-at-wembley-chris-martin-delivers-a-masterclass-in-showmanship-21800/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220827192310/https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/live-reviews/coldplay-live-at-wembley-chris-martin-delivers-a-masterclass-in-showmanship-21800/ |archive-date=27 August 2022 |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=Rolling Stone UK}}</ref> and ''[[The Scotsman]]''.<ref name="SHEPHERD">{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Music Review: Coldplay, Hampden Park, Glasgow |url=https://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/music-review-coldplay-hampden-park-glasgow-3818882 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230405124613/https://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/music-review-coldplay-hampden-park-glasgow-3818882 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |access-date=5 April 2023 |website=The Scotsman}}</ref>}} Andrew Chamings from ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' said that despite his "cynicism, Coldplay's show was a joyous, bright, cathartic post-pandemic triumph".<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 May 2022 |title=Chris Martin and Coldplay Harness Strange Technology at Triumphant Bay Area Concert at Levi's Stadium |url=https://www.sfgate.com/sf-culture/amp/coldplay-concert-review-san-francisco-17176646.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220517032059/https://www.sfgate.com/sf-culture/amp/coldplay-concert-review-san-francisco-17176646.php |archive-date=17 May 2022 |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=SFGate}}</ref> Writing for ''[[Houston Press]]'', Marco Torres called it "a beautiful dream, with balloons flying around, confetti bursting from air cannons and lasers shooting from the stage through the smoke" as the group performed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Makes Dreams Come True at NRG Stadium |url=https://www.houstonpress.com/music/last-night-coldplay-at-nrg-13350389 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220606135945/https://www.houstonpress.com/music/last-night-coldplay-at-nrg-13350389 |archive-date=6 June 2022 |access-date=6 June 2022 |website=Houston Press}}</ref> ''[[Fort Worth Star-Telegram]]''{{'s}} Mac Engel claimed that Martin showed all of the skills that make him one of the top performers of his generation and made [[Cotton Bowl (stadium)|Cotton Bowl]] feel intimate with a powerful set.<ref name="HPR">{{Cite web |date=7 May 2022 |title=Led by Chris Martin, Coldplay Makes the Cotton Bowl Feel Intimate with a Powerful Set |url=https://amp.star-telegram.com/entertainment/article261164377.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615224157/https://amp.star-telegram.com/entertainment/article261164377.html |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Fort Worth Star-Telegram}}</ref> In her review for ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'', Selena Fragassi credited the concerts with setting the bar for what tours could be like in the future.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2022 |title=At Coldplay's Space-Themed Show, the Pressing Matters of Earth Prevail |url=https://chicago.suntimes.com/2022/5/29/23146574/coldplay-review-soldier-field-chicago-tour-music-of-the-spheres-uvalde-ukraine-green-chris-martin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220601140023/https://chicago.suntimes.com/2022/5/29/23146574/coldplay-review-soldier-field-chicago-tour-music-of-the-spheres-uvalde-ukraine-green-chris-martin |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=23 March 2023 |website=Chicago Sun-Times}}</ref> Similarly, Christopher A. Daniel from ''[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]'' praised the production values as "reminiscent of the art rock foundation paved by bands like [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]], [[Kraftwerk]] and [[Pink Floyd]]", adding that Coldplay are set to become a "must-see legendary act".<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Returns to Atlanta with a Musical and Visual Feast |url=https://www.ajc.com/things-to-do/coldplay-returns-to-atlanta-with-a-musical-and-visual-feast/IE3P5PIKSFHS5OSWYC5LP3FGUU/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220614103144/https://www.ajc.com/things-to-do/coldplay-returns-to-atlanta-with-a-musical-and-visual-feast/IE3P5PIKSFHS5OSWYC5LP3FGUU/ |archive-date=14 June 2022 |access-date=17 August 2022 |website=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution}}</ref> Furthermore, Philip Cosores of ''[[Uproxx]]'' mentioned "there is no wasted energy, with every bit of the set time used to create memories and impact the audience".<ref name="COSORES">{{Cite web |date=29 September 2023 |title=The Sustainability of Coldplay |url=https://uproxx.com/indie/coldplay-concert-review-music-of-the-spheres-tour-san-diego-snapdragon-sustainability/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230930134932/https://uproxx.com/indie/coldplay-concert-review-music-of-the-spheres-tour-san-diego-snapdragon-sustainability/ |archive-date=30 September 2023 |access-date=30 September 2023 |website=Uproxx}}</ref> He then concluded that if environmental concerns are further adopted for touring, the status of the band "as one of the essential artists of our time will take on greater meaning than just the legacy of their music".<ref name="COSORES" />
=== Europe ===
''Regioactive''{{'s}} Torsten Reitz declared that they were "full of energy and much more powerful than on record", mastering both upbeat and quiet moments.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2022 |title=Coldplay Verbreiten Im Deutsche Bank Park Frankfurt Pure Lebensfreude |trans-title=Coldplay Spread Pure Joie de Vivre in Deutsche Bank Park, Frankfurt |url=https://www.regioactive.de/review/2022/07/04/coldplay-verbreiten-im-deutsche-bank-park-frankfurt-pure-lebensfreude-df1Xmz436k |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722143841/https://www.regioactive.de/review/2022/07/04/coldplay-verbreiten-im-deutsche-bank-park-frankfurt-pure-lebensfreude-df1Xmz436k |archive-date=22 July 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=Regioactive |language=de}}</ref> Marine Pineau wrote that Coldplay lived up to their reputation as a live act and lauded the band for their showmanship in her review for [[Virgin Radio]].<ref name="SDFR">{{Cite web |date=20 July 2022 |title=Coldplay au Stade de France: Retour sur une Troisième Soirée Magistrale |trans-title=Coldplay at the Stade de France: Back on a Third Masterful Evening |url=https://www.virginradio.fr/musique/coldplay-au-stade-de-france-retour-sur-une-troisieme-soiree-magistrale-97573.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722131447/https://www.virginradio.fr/musique/coldplay-au-stade-de-france-retour-sur-une-troisieme-soiree-magistrale-97573.html |archive-date=22 July 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=Virgin Radio |language=fr}}</ref> [[Alexis Petridis]] from ''[[The Guardian]]'' praised the tour for being a "genuinely immersive" experience which gave depth to its [[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|namesake album]] through an inventive approach, rating the residency at [[Wembley Stadium]] with five stars.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Review – A Barrage of Hits and Eye-popping Spectacle |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2022/aug/13/coldplay-review-a-barrage-of-hits-and-eye-popping-spectacle?CMP=twt_a-culture_b-gdnculture |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220813172242/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2022/aug/13/coldplay-review-a-barrage-of-hits-and-eye-popping-spectacle?CMP=twt_a-culture_b-gdnculture |archive-date=13 August 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=The Guardian}}</ref> Kate Solomon of ''[[The Times]]'' considered it a "triumphant homecoming", awarded Coldplay four stars and commended their musicianship.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Review – Feel-Good Factor Rubs Off at Triumphant Homecoming |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-review-feel-good-factor-rubs-off-at-triumphant-homecoming-xdf8w5s5q |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220813021338/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-review-feel-good-factor-rubs-off-at-triumphant-homecoming-xdf8w5s5q |archive-date=13 August 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=The Times}}</ref> [[The Daily Telegraph|''The Telegraph'']]{{'s}} [[Neil McCormick]] hailed them as "modern masters" of stadium entertainment and granted the same score.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 August 2022 |title=Coldplay, Wembley Stadium, Review: Chris Martin's Infectious Joy Is Impossible To Resist |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/music/concerts/coldplay-wembley-stadium-review-chris-martins-infectious-joy/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220813132858/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/music/concerts/coldplay-wembley-stadium-review-chris-martins-infectious-joy/ |archive-date=13 August 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=The Telegraph}}</ref> Writing a five-star piece for ''[[NME]]'', Hannah Mylrea stated that the band offered a masterclass in how a massive pop show can be done.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Live in London: A Fantastical, Feel-Good Bonanza That Delives on a Bold Promise |url=https://www.nme.com/reviews/live/coldplay-live-in-london-wembley-stadium-music-of-the-spheres-natalie-umbruglia-3292045 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220817182807/https://www.nme.com/reviews/live/coldplay-live-in-london-wembley-stadium-music-of-the-spheres-natalie-umbruglia-3292045 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |access-date=17 August 2022 |website=NME}}</ref> Moreover, Wilson Ledo from [[CNN Portugal]] mentioned the concerts had a permanent euphoria and praised how Martin interacted with the public constantly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2020 |title=Coldplay em Coimbra. E Se Nos Desligássemos, para nos Encontrarmos na Imensidão das Luzes? |trans-title=Coldplay in Coimbra. What If We Disconnected, to Find Ourselves in the Vastness of the Lights? |url=https://cnnportugal.iol.pt/coldplay/coimbra/coldplay-em-coimbra-e-se-nos-desligassemos-para-nos-encontrarmos-na-imensidao-da-luz/20230518/646579b3d34ea91b0aac9fbc |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230518030228/https://cnnportugal.iol.pt/coldplay/coimbra/coldplay-em-coimbra-e-se-nos-desligassemos-para-nos-encontrarmos-na-imensidao-da-luz/20230518/646579b3d34ea91b0aac9fbc |archive-date=18 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=CNN Portugal |language=pt}}</ref> In his ''Muzikalia'' article, Pau Clot informed that Coldplay offered a spectacle which "cannot be matched by anyone on this planet today".<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2023 |title=Coldplay (Estadi Olimpic) Barcelona 25/05/23 |url=https://muzikalia.com/coldplay-estadi-olimpic-barcelona-25-05-23/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230530124548/https://muzikalia.com/coldplay-estadi-olimpic-barcelona-25-05-23/ |archive-date=30 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=Muzikalia |language=es}}</ref> ''[[Göteborgs-Posten]]''{{'s}} Johan Lindqvista highlighted the stage presence of the group and said Martin had enough "love and showman charisma that he shines brighter than all the lights and lasers".<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 July 2023 |title=Recension: Coldplay, Ullevi – Lördag 8 Juli |trans-title=Review: Coldplay, Ullevi – Saturday 8 July |url=https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-lördag-8-juli-1.104402431 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230708214755/https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-l%C3%B6rdag-8-juli-1.104402431 |archive-date=8 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Göteborgs-Posten |language=sv}}</ref>
=== Rock in Rio ===
[[File:GuyBerrymanWembley160822 (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=A man wearing a custom space helmet plays the bass|Berryman performing "Infinity Sign" at [[Wembley Stadium]], [[London]]]]
Felipe Branco Cruz from ''[[Veja (magazine)|Veja]]'' argued the band "reinvented the concept of arena rock" with their performance at [[Rock in Rio]] festival, turning the public into protagonists of the show rather than mere spectators and consequently carrying on the legacy of spectacles "which transcend music" that was established by groups such as [[Pink Floyd]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]] and [[U2]].<ref name="CRUZ">{{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Com Show no Rock in Rio, Coldplay Reinventa o Conceito de Rock de Arena |trans-title=With Rock in Rio Show, Coldplay Reinvents the Concept of Arena Rock |url=https://veja.abril.com.br/cultura/com-show-no-rock-in-rio-coldplay-reinventa-o-conceito-de-rock-de-arena/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911153822/https://veja.abril.com.br/cultura/com-show-no-rock-in-rio-coldplay-reinventa-o-conceito-de-rock-de-arena/ |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Veja |language=pt}}</ref> Writing for [[Universo Online|UOL]], Yolanda Reis said it is "undeniable" they are "true showmen" and defined the concert as "unforgettable".<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Ame ou Odeie, é Fato: Coldplay fez Show que Rock in Rio Quis e Mereceu |trans-title=Love or Hate, It's a Fact: Coldplay Made the Show Rock in Rio Wanted and Deserved |url=https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/09/11/ame-ou-odeie-e-fato-coldplay-fez-show-que-rock-in-rio-quis-e-mereceu.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911141852/https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/09/11/ame-ou-odeie-e-fato-coldplay-fez-show-que-rock-in-rio-quis-e-mereceu.htm |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref> ''[[Folha de S.Paulo|Folha de São Paulo]]''{{'s}} Carlos Albuquerque affirmed Coldplay exhibited "nearly two hours of delicious escapism" and effortlessly took advantage of everything at their disposal on stage.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Coldplay no Rock in Rio faz Show Apoteótico com Luzes e a Potência de Chris Martin |trans-title=Coldplay does Apotheotic Show at Rock in Rio with Lights and Chris Martin's Power |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2022/09/coldplay-no-rock-in-rio-leva-blockbuster-ao-palco-mundo-em-show-de-cinema.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911142950/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2022/09/coldplay-no-rock-in-rio-leva-blockbuster-ao-palco-mundo-em-show-de-cinema.shtml |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Folha de S.Paulo |language=pt}}</ref> Ana Raquel Lelles praised them for keeping the audience excited with a "masterful" repertory in spite of the rainstorm in her review for ''[[Estado de Minas]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Rouba a Cena no Penúltimo Dia do Rock in Rio |trans-title=Coldplay Steals the Show at Rock in Rio's Second-to-last Day |url=https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2022/09/11/interna_cultura,1392839/coldplay-rouba-a-cena-no-penultimo-dia-do-rock-in-rio.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911142756/https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2022/09/11/interna_cultura,1392839/coldplay-rouba-a-cena-no-penultimo-dia-do-rock-in-rio.shtml |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Estado de Minas |language=pt}}</ref> Julio Maria from ''[[O Estado de S. Paulo|Estadão]]'' commented the band managed to achieve a "higher level of spectacle" and highlighted "[[Paradise (Coldplay song)|Paradise]]" as the "first great catharsis" in the curve which "continued to climb" throughout the night.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Rock in Rio: Coldplay Está em Um Nível Superior de Espetáculo |trans-title=Rock in Rio: Coldplay are on a Higher Level of Spectacle |url=https://www.estadao.com.br/cultura/musica/rock-in-rio-coldplay-esta-em-um-nivel-superior-de-espetaculo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911135631/https://www.estadao.com.br/cultura/musica/rock-in-rio-coldplay-esta-em-um-nivel-superior-de-espetaculo/ |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Estadão |language=pt}}</ref> Roberto Medina, the founder and president of the festival, claimed "there was only one moment like today, [[Freddie Mercury]] in 1985. It was incredible, it was memorable".<ref name="CRUZ" />
=== Latin America ===
Writing for ''[[El Comercio (Peru)|El Comercio]]'', Juan Carlos Fangacio Arakaki mentioned Coldplay were "impeccable", delivering a complete and diverse set list in a show which "never let down".<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 September 2022 |title=Coldplay en Lima: El Impecable Concierto de Una Banda-ONG |trans-title=Coldplay in Lima: The Impeccable Concert of an NGO Band |url=https://elcomercio.pe/luces/musica/coldplay-en-lima-el-impecable-concierto-de-una-banda-ong-cronica-chris-martin-estadio-nacional-13-de-septiembre-music-of-the-spheres-noticia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221101000152/https://elcomercio.pe/luces/musica/coldplay-en-lima-el-impecable-concierto-de-una-banda-ong-cronica-chris-martin-estadio-nacional-13-de-septiembre-music-of-the-spheres-noticia/ |archive-date=1 November 2022 |access-date=1 November 2022 |website=El Comercio |language=es}}</ref> [[CNN Chile]]'s Pablo Figueroa said the group showcased "confidence, strength and respect for their audience", becoming "protagonists in one of the most exciting musical moments" of the country since the [[Chilean transition to democracy|transition to democracy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 September 2022 |title=Opinión de Pablo Figueroa: Coldplay le Canta a la Memoria |trans-title=Pablo Figueroa's Opinion: Coldplay Sings to the Memories |url=https://www.cnnchile.com/opinion/opinion-pablo-figueroa-concierto-coldplay_20220921/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221031230719/https://www.cnnchile.com/opinion/opinion-pablo-figueroa-concierto-coldplay_20220921/ |archive-date=31 October 2022 |access-date=31 October 2022 |website=CNN Chile |language=es}}</ref> Marcelo Fernández Bitar from ''[[Clarín (Argentine newspaper)|Clarín]]'' emphasised Martin's charisma, his bandmates' solidity and the band's connection with the public, adding the performance reaffirmed the passion evoked by their songs.<ref name="BITAR">{{Cite web |date=26 October 2022 |title=Coldplay en Argentina: Las Razones de Un Show Espectacular que No Hay que Perderse |trans-title=Coldplay in Argentina: The Reasons for a Spectacular Show That You Can't Miss |url=https://www.clarin.com/espectaculos/musica/coldplay-argentina-espectacular-primer-show-maraton-river_0_cFWO8cwkUl.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221027195230/https://www.clarin.com/espectaculos/musica/coldplay-argentina-espectacular-primer-show-maraton-river_0_cFWO8cwkUl.html |archive-date=27 October 2022 |access-date=31 October 2022 |website=Clarín |language=es}}</ref> Similarly, an editorial by ''[[Infobae]]'' praised Coldplay for being "versatile" and "synchronised" in a concert that ranged from "the most subtle" to "the most grand".<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2022 |title=Coldplay en Argentina: Cómo Fue el Espectacular Primer Show en River |trans-title=Coldplay in Argentina: How the First Spectacular Show at River Went |url=https://www.infobae.com/teleshow/2022/10/26/coldplay-comenzo-su-serie-en-river-y-renovo-el-romance-con-argentina-con-un-homenaje-a-soda-stereo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221026190811/https://www.infobae.com/teleshow/2022/10/26/coldplay-comenzo-su-serie-en-river-y-renovo-el-romance-con-argentina-con-un-homenaje-a-soda-stereo/ |archive-date=26 October 2022 |access-date=31 October 2022 |website=Infobae |language=es}}</ref> In his review for ''[[La Nación]]'', Mauro Apicella commented they managed to be in the vanguard of stadium technology with good and simple ideas which never leaves out the audience and have songs that "became classics".<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2022 |title=Fórmula de Éxito: Tras el Primer Show en River, las Claves para Entender Por Qué Todos Quieren Ir a Ver a Coldplay |trans-title=Formula of Success: The Key Points to Understand Why Everyone Wants to See Coldplay, After the First Show at River |url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/espectaculos/musica/formula-de-exito-tras-el-primer-show-en-river-las-claves-para-entender-por-que-todos-quieren-ir-a-nid26102022/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221101015754/https://www.lanacion.com.ar/espectaculos/musica/formula-de-exito-tras-el-primer-show-en-river-las-claves-para-entender-por-que-todos-quieren-ir-a-nid26102022/ |archive-date=1 November 2022 |access-date=1 November 2022 |website=La Nación |language=es}}</ref> [[Omelete]]'s Caio Coletti stated Berryman's bass is "irresistibly propulsive", Martin's uncoordinated dancing "at this point is already a trademark" and Champion has proved to be a good vocalist by guiding the "[[Viva la Vida]]" chants.<ref name="COLETTI">{{Cite web |date=10 March 2023 |title=O Coldplay é Coadjuvante no Espetáculo do Coldplay – E com Toda a Razão |trans-title=Coldplay are Supporters in Coldplay's Spectacle – And with Good Reason |url=https://www.omelete.com.br/musica/coldplay-relato-sao-paulo-2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230311183338/https://www.omelete.com.br/musica/coldplay-relato-sao-paulo-2023 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |access-date=11 March 2023 |website=Omelete |language=pt}}</ref> He also lauded them for giving a highly sensorial performance and understanding how the night of the show "is all about entertaining fans and finding new ways to elevate their experience".<ref name="COLETTI" />
=== Asia–Pacific ===
''Barks''{{'}} Saori Yoshiba ({{lang-ja|吉羽さおり}}) considered the tour a "captivating mixture of depth and intensity" which allowed her to "fully feel the power of music and the energy of a live performance".<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title= |script-title=ja:ライブレポート : コールドプレイ、会場が一体となった6年ぶり来日公演 |trans-title=Live Report: Coldplay Performs in Japan for the First Time in 6 Years with a Unified Venue |url=https://www.barks.jp/news/?id=1000241929 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213043756/https://www.barks.jp/news/?id=1000241929 |archive-date=13 December 2023 |access-date=13 December 2023 |website=Barks |language=ja}}</ref> Writing for [[CNN Indonesia]], Muhammad Feraldi Hifzurahman revealed that while the statement feels exaggerated at first, Coldplay "really deserve to be called a musical experience that must be tried at least once in your life".<ref name="HIFZURAHMAN">{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=Konser Coldplay di Jakarta Yang (Semestinya) Paripurna |trans-title=Coldplay's (Supposedly) Plenary Concert in Jakarta |url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20231116165008-227-1025194/konser-coldplay-di-jakarta-yang-semestinya-paripurna/1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213050417/https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20231116165008-227-1025194/konser-coldplay-di-jakarta-yang-semestinya-paripurna/1 |archive-date=13 December 2023 |access-date=13 December 2023 |website=CNN Indonesia |language=id}}</ref> Conversely, his review included only four stars out of five because the organisers of the venue failed to manage the crowd.<ref name="HIFZURAHMAN" /> Sam Mead from ''[[The Music (magazine)|The Music]]'' declared that "over two decades in, this is the band at their best – hard-hitting, punchy grooves".<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 November 2023 |title=Live Review: Coldplay – Music of the Spheres Tour @ Optus Stadium, Perth |url=https://themusic.com.au/reviews/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour-optus-stadium-perth/JEmaNjk4Ozo/19-11-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231119132605/https://themusic.com.au/reviews/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour-optus-stadium-perth/JEmaNjk4Ozo/19-11-23 |archive-date=19 November 2023 |access-date=13 December 2023 |website=The Music}}</ref> As per Caleb Runciman of ''[[The West Australian]]'', they delivered the greatest event of [[Perth Stadium|Optus Stadium]] history and a set that "felt like a concert, theatre production, and light show all in one".<ref name="RUNCIMAN">{{Cite web |date=19 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Perth Review: Rock Band Led by Chris Martin Given an Eccentric and Energetic Show at Optus Stadium |url=https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/coldplay-in-perth-rock-band-led-by-chris-martin-given-an-eccentric-and-energetic-show-at-optus-stadium-c-12551130 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231119014621/https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/coldplay-in-perth-rock-band-led-by-chris-martin-given-an-eccentric-and-energetic-show-at-optus-stadium-c-12551130 |archive-date=19 November 2023 |access-date=15 December 2023 |website=The West Australian}}</ref> He commended the musical prowess of the group as well, rating them with five stars.<ref name="RUNCIMAN" /> ''[[Rolling Stone Australia]]''{{'s}} Poppy Reid defended that Coldplay solidified their status among the most visionary live acts in [[rock music]] and seamlessly "blended their hits with visual wonders" on their performances.<ref name="REID" /> In a review for the ''[[Manila Bulletin]]'', Gregorio Larrazabal pointed out that the inclusion of national guests at the [[Philippine Arena]] has offered "a cultural confluence, a dazzling spectacle not just of musical prowess, but of global and local melodies intertwining".<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 January 2024 |title=Finding Harmony in a Global Soundscape |url=https://mb.com.ph/2024/1/31/finding-harmony-in-a-global-soundscape |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240201143043/https://pdfhost.io/v/MH67A85Wg_Finding_Harmony_in_a_Global_Soundscape_Larrazabal_2024 |archive-date=1 February 2024 |access-date=1 February 2024 |website=Manila Bulletin}}</ref>
== Accolades ==
''[[Folha de S.Paulo|Folha de São Paulo]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 September 2022 |title=Veja os Melhores e Piores Shows do Rock in Rio 2022, com Green Day e Coldplay |language=pt |trans-title=See the Best and the Worst Shows of Rock in Rio 2022, with Green Day and Coldplay |website=Folha de S.Paulo |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2022/09/veja-os-melhores-e-piores-shows-do-rock-in-rio-2022-com-green-day-e-coldplay.shtml |url-status=live |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220912233718/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2022/09/veja-os-melhores-e-piores-shows-do-rock-in-rio-2022-com-green-day-e-coldplay.shtml |archive-date=12 September 2022}}</ref> [[G1 (website)|G1]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Os Melhores e os Piores Shows do Rock in Rio 2022... Os Destaques e as Decepções do Festival |trans-title=The Best and the Worst Shows from Rock in Rio 2022... Highlights and Disappointments of the Festival |url=https://g1.globo.com/pop-arte/musica/rock-in-rio/2022/noticia/2022/09/12/os-melhores-e-os-piores-shows-do-rock-in-rio-2022-veja-os-destaques-e-as-decepcoes-do-festival.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220912182108/https://g1.globo.com/pop-arte/musica/rock-in-rio/2022/noticia/2022/09/12/os-melhores-e-os-piores-shows-do-rock-in-rio-2022-veja-os-destaques-e-as-decepcoes-do-festival.ghtml |archive-date=12 September 2022 |access-date=12 September 2022 |website=G1 |language=pt}}</ref> ''[[O Globo]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Rock in Rio 2022: Saiba Quais Foram os Dez Melhores Shows, na Opinião dos Críticos |trans-title=Rock in Rio 2022: Check Out the Ten Best Shows, in the Critics' Opinion |url=https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/musica/noticia/2022/09/rock-in-rio-2022-saiba-quais-foram-os-dez-melhores-shows-do-festival-na-opiniao-dos-criticos.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220912232328/https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/musica/noticia/2022/09/rock-in-rio-2022-saiba-quais-foram-os-dez-melhores-shows-do-festival-na-opiniao-dos-criticos.ghtml |archive-date=12 September 2022 |access-date=13 September 2022 |website=O Globo |language=pt}}</ref> and [[Universo Online|UOL]] ranked Coldplay's performance among the best of [[Rock in Rio]] 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Rock in Rio 2022: Os Melhores Shows da Edição, de Coldplay a Ludmilla |trans-title=Rock in Rio 2022: The Edition's Best Shows, from Coldplay to Ludmilla |url=https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/09/12/rock-in-rio-2022-os-melhores-shows-da-edicao-de-coldplay-a-ludmilla.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220912182111/https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/09/12/rock-in-rio-2022-os-melhores-shows-da-edicao-de-coldplay-a-ludmilla.htm |archive-date=12 September 2022 |access-date=12 September 2022 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref> ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' mentioned the stage's inflatable spheres while discussing the best special effects of the year.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=16 December 2022 |title=The Year's Top 5 Concert Special Effects: Fiery Pianos, Floating Dolphins and Flaming Cannons |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/adele-lady-gaga-bad-bunny-concerts-best-special-effects-2022/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221221223830/https://www.billboard.com/pro/adele-lady-gaga-bad-bunny-concerts-best-special-effects-2022/ |archive-date=21 December 2022 |access-date=22 December 2022}}</ref> ''[[Panorama (magazine)|Panorama]]'', [[Sky TG24]] and ''[[The West Australian]]'' called the tour one of the greatest events of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 December 2023 |title=I 10 Concerti Più Belli del 2023 |trans-title=The 10 Best Concerts of 2023 |url=https://www.panorama.it/lifestyle/musica/10-concerti-piu-belli-del-2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230171438/https://www.panorama.it/lifestyle/musica/10-concerti-piu-belli-del-2023 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |access-date=30 December 2023 |website=Panorama |language=it}}
* {{Cite web |date=26 December 2023 |title=Un Anno di Concerti Fantastici: I Dieci Tour da Ricordare del 2023 |trans-title=A Year of Fantastic Concerts: The Ten Tours to Remember of 2023 |url=https://www.tgcom24.mediaset.it/spettacolo/tour-2023-dieci-da-ricordare_74727582-202302k.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227055649/https://www.tgcom24.mediaset.it/spettacolo/tour-2023-dieci-da-ricordare_74727582-202302k.shtml |archive-date=27 December 2023 |access-date=27 December 2023 |website=Sky TG24 |language=it}}
* {{Cite web |date=28 December 2023 |title=Basil Zempilas: The Defining Moments of 2023 As I See Them |url=https://thewest.com.au/opinion/basil-zempilas-the-defining-moments-of-2023-as-i-see-them-c-13044004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231228194125/https://thewest.com.au/opinion/basil-zempilas-the-defining-moments-of-2023-as-i-see-them-c-13044004 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |access-date=28 December 2023 |website=The West Australian}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+Awards and nominations for the Music of the Spheres World Tour
|-
! scope="col" |Year
! scope="col" |Ceremony
! scope="col" |Category
! scope="col" |Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable" |{{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
! rowspan="8" scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |2023
| [[iHeartRadio Music Awards]]
| Tour of the Year
| {{Won}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Celebrates Tour of the Year Win with Performance from Brazil |url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2023-03-27-coldplay-celebrates-tour-of-the-year-win-with-performance-from-brazil/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230627190657/https://www.iheart.com/content/2023-03-27-coldplay-celebrates-tour-of-the-year-win-with-performance-from-brazil/ |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=27 June 2023 |website=iHeartMedia}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Pollstar|''Pollstar'' Awards]]
| Major Tour of the Year
| {{Nominated}}
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2022 |title=Voting Opens for 34th Annual Pollstar Awards: Everything You Need to Know |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2022/11/11/voting-opens-for-34th-annual-pollstar-awards/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221114171555/https://news.pollstar.com/2022/11/11/voting-opens-for-34th-annual-pollstar-awards/ |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=3 December 2022 |website=Pollstar}}
* {{Cite web |date=22 February 2023 |title=Harry Styles, Bad Bunny Among 2023 Pollstar Award Winners; Chappelle, Grohl & Henley Make Surprise Cameos |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/02/22/harry-styles-bad-bunny-among-2023-pollstar-award-winners-chappelle-grohl-henley-make-surprise-cameos/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230223120045/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/02/22/harry-styles-bad-bunny-among-2023-pollstar-award-winners-chappelle-grohl-henley-make-surprise-cameos/ |archive-date=23 February 2023 |access-date=23 February 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| Rock Tour of the Year
| {{Nominated}}
|-
| WhizBang Award
| {{Won}}
|-
| Live Music Is Better Award
| {{Nominated}}
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Ticketmaster|Ticketmaster Awards]]
| Concert of the Year – Poland
| {{Nominated}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite instagram|user=ticketmasterpl|postid=CnOzzXOIsn9|date=10 January 2023|title=The 2023 Ticketmaster Awards|access-date=21 January 2023|author=Ticketmaster Polska|archive-date=21 January 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230121135609/https://instagram.fbfh3-3.fna.fbcdn.net/v/t51.2885-15/324468706_2465989346885607_6704113552292041063_n.webp?stp=dst-jpg_e35&_nc_ht=instagram.fbfh3-3.fna.fbcdn.net&_nc_cat=103&_nc_ohc=_i9yM3lkeo8AX-6UW4A&edm=ACOOH6wBAAAA&ccb=7-5&ig_cache_key=MzAxMjU3MzAyMTE0MjYzNDAxMw%3D%3D.2-ccb7-5&oh=00_AfAN15c3xA48C-M4Img8uTNv6jBVGg6lGrqwcBoZTRPaqQ&oe=63D1924F&_nc_sid=ec1c8f|language=pl}}</ref>
|-
| Best International Concert – France
| {{Won}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="ELISE">{{Cite web |date=9 February 2024 |title=Ticketmaster Awards 2024: Revivez Vos Meilleurs Lives! |trans-title=Ticketmaster Awards 2024: Relive Your Best Lives! |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.fr/ticketmaster-et-vous/ticketmaster-awards/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222042748/https://blog.ticketmaster.fr/ticketmaster-et-vous/ticketmaster-awards/ |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster France |language=fr}}</ref>
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2023 – Italy
| {{Won}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="TMIT">{{Cite web |date=18 January 2024 |title=Ticketmaster Awards: Tutti i Vincitori |trans-title=Ticketmaster Awards: All the Winners |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.it/tempo-libero-eventi-speciali/ticketmaster-awards-2024-vota-i-migliori-cantanti-concerti-ed-eventi-dellanno-4423/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222045450/https://blog.ticketmaster.it/tempo-libero-eventi-speciali/ticketmaster-awards-2024-vota-i-migliori-cantanti-concerti-ed-eventi-dellanno-4423/ |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster Italy |language=it}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="11" scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |2024
| [[iHeartRadio Music Awards]]
| Favorite Tour Photographer{{efn|Credited to American photographer Anna Lee instead of Coldplay.<ref name="FIELDS">{{Cite web |date=18 January 2024 |title=2024 iHeartRadio Music Awards Nominees Revealed |url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2024-01-17-2024-iheartradio-music-awards-nominees-revealed/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118150020/https://www.iheart.com/content/2024-01-17-2024-iheartradio-music-awards-nominees-revealed/ |archive-date=18 January 2024 |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=iHeartMedia}}</ref>}}
| {{Pending}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="FIELDS" />
|-
| [[People's Choice Awards]]
| {{Sort|Concert Tour of the Year|The Concert Tour of the Year}}
| {{Nominated}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 January 2024 |title=2024 People's Choice Awards: Complete List of Nominees |url=https://www.eonline.com/news/1392489/2024-peoples-choice-awards-complete-list-of-nominees |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111144930/https://www.eonline.com/news/1392489/2024-peoples-choice-awards-complete-list-of-nominees |archive-date=11 January 2024 |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=E! Online}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Pollstar|''Pollstar'' Awards]]
| Pop Tour of the Year
| {{Nominated}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="STAFF">{{Cite web |date=10 November 2023 |title=Nominations Announced for 35th Annual Pollstar Awards, Voting Open Now |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/11/10/nominations-announced-for-35th-annual-pollstar-awards-voting-open-now/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231110180814/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/11/10/nominations-announced-for-35th-annual-pollstar-awards-voting-open-now/ |archive-date=10 November 2023 |access-date=10 November 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref>
|-
| Road Warrior of the Year{{efn|Credited to American tour manager Marguerite Nguyen instead of Coldplay.<ref name="STAFF"/>}}
| {{Nominated}}
|-
| rowspan="7" |[[Ticketmaster|Ticketmaster Awards]]
| Concert of the Year – Sweden
| {{Won}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 February 2024 |title=Vinnarna i Ticketmaster Awards |trans-title=The Winners of the Ticketmaster Awards 2024 |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.se/ticketmaster-awards/vinnarna-i-ticketmaster-awards-2024/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222035307/https://blog.ticketmaster.se/ticketmaster-awards/vinnarna-i-ticketmaster-awards-2024/ |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster Sweden |language=sv}}</ref>
|-
| Concert of the Year – Switzerland
| {{Won}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 February 2024 |title=Ticketmaster Awards 2024 {{!}} Die Gewinner Stehen Fest |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.ch/de/news/ticketmaster-awards-2024-4318 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222051807/https://blog.ticketmaster.ch/de/news/ticketmaster-awards-2024-4318 |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster Switzerland}}</ref>
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2024 – Australia
| {{Nominated}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 February 2024 |title=Most Anticipated Event of 2024 Nominees |url=https://www.facebook.com/TicketmasterAU/posts/pfbid0yTsDTN6nAnZkuKkxmtzxLZzEfAK8f3MJMHQNcAvydLLarBqLSWhBeVsnUxCFu4TZl |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240222155848/https://www.facebook.com/TicketmasterAU/posts/pfbid0yTsDTN6nAnZkuKkxmtzxLZzEfAK8f3MJMHQNcAvydLLarBqLSWhBeVsnUxCFu4TZl |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster Australia |via=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2024 – France
| {{Won}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="ELISE" />
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2024 – Germany
| {{Won}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 February 2024 |title=Ticketmaster Awards 2024: Eure Gewinner Innen stehen fest! |trans-title=Ticketmaster Awards 2024: Your Winners Have Been Chosen! |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.de/musik/ticketmaster-awards-2024-gewinner-fan-voting-15135/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222040416/https://blog.ticketmaster.de/musik/ticketmaster-awards-2024-gewinner-fan-voting-15135/ |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster Germany |language=de}}</ref>
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2024 – Italy
| {{Won}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="TMIT" />
|-
| Most Anticipated Event of 2024 – New Zealand
| {{Won}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 January 2024 |title=Vote Now! The 2024 Ticketmaster Awards Are Here |url=https://blog.ticketmaster.co.nz/news-2/vote-now-the-2024-ticketmaster-awards-are-here-3180 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222054637/https://blog.ticketmaster.co.nz/news-2/vote-now-the-2024-ticketmaster-awards-are-here-3180 |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Ticketmaster New Zealand}}</ref>
|}
== Concert film ==
{{Main|Coldplay – Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate{{!}}''Coldplay – Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate''}}
In September 2022, the band announced that one of their performances at [[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]] would be transmitted to cinemas around the world through a partnership with Trafalgar Releasing, the company responsible for premiering ''[[Coldplay: A Head Full of Dreams]]'' back in 2018.<ref name="KAUFMAN">{{Cite magazine |date=8 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Announce Live Worldwide Concert Screening from Buenos Aires |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-live-worldwide-concert-broadcast-buenos-aires-1235136150/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220908171615/https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-live-worldwide-concert-broadcast-buenos-aires-1235136150/ |archive-date=8 September 2022 |access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> Released as ''Live Broadcast from Buenos Aires'', the project was directed by Paul Dugdale and exhibited in 81 countries, setting the record for live theatrical events.<ref name="BOXPRO">{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=Coldplay: Music of the Spheres Live Cinema Event Breaks Record |url=https://www.boxofficepro.com/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-live-cinema-event-breaks-record/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221103164450/https://www.boxofficepro.com/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-live-cinema-event-breaks-record/ |archive-date=3 November 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=Boxoffice Pro}}</ref> On 19 April 2023, a [[director's cut]] was made available featuring remastered sound, visuals captured using different filming techniques, and an exclusive behind-the-scenes interview with the group.<ref name="RAMACHANDRAN">{{Cite web |date=1 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Concert Film Featuring BTS' Jin Sets April Release Dates |url=https://variety.com/2023/film/news/coldplay-concert-film-bts-jin-1235539633/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230301224852/https://variety.com/2023/film/news/coldplay-concert-film-bts-jin-1235539633/ |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=1 March 2023 |website=Variety}}</ref> This version was titled ''Coldplay – Music of the Spheres: Live at River Plate'' and additionally included [[ScreenX|panoramic]] and [[4DX]] formats.<ref name="RAMACHANDRAN" /> Writing for ''MadMass'', Mattia Salvi noted the film was engaging, versatile, and a "complex visual transliteration, which fortunately Dugdale and his entire crew manage to achieve with great naturalness, without inappropriate artifices".<ref name="SALVI">{{Cite web |date=7 May 2023 |title=Coldplay: Music of the Spheres – Live at River Plate, Recensione Concerto Live di Paul Dugdale |trans-title=Coldplay: Music of the Spheres – Live at River Plate, Paul Dugdale's Live Concert Review |url=https://www.madmass.it/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-live-at-river-plate-recensione-concerto-live-paul-dugdale/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230927041502/https://www.madmass.it/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-live-at-river-plate-recensione-concerto-live-paul-dugdale/ |archive-date=27 September 2023 |access-date=27 September 2023 |website=MadMass |language=it}}</ref>
== Legacy ==
{{Main|Impact of the Music of the Spheres World Tour}}
According to ''[[Pollstar]]''{{'s}} Eric Renner Brown, Coldplay have ushered into "a new era of sustainable touring" with the Music of the Spheres World Tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Coldplay's Greener Pastures: With Music of the Spheres, One of the Most Successful Touring Bands Ever Kicks Off a New Era of Sustainable Touring |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2021/10/20/coldplays-greener-pastures-with-music-of-the-spheres-one-of-the-most-successful-touring-bands-ever-kicks-off-a-new-era-of-sustainable-touring-2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220630010327/https://news.pollstar.com/2021/10/20/coldplays-greener-pastures-with-music-of-the-spheres-one-of-the-most-successful-touring-bands-ever-kicks-off-a-new-era-of-sustainable-touring-2/ |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> Their efforts were considered unprecedented for a stadium concert run,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2022 |title=La Tournée de Coldplay Est-Elle Vraiment Écologique? |trans-title=Is the Coldplay Tour Really Eco-Friendly? |url=https://www.lesoir.be/457640/article/2022-08-02/la-tournee-de-coldplay-est-elle-vraiment-ecologique |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220805101321/https://www.lesoir.be/457640/article/2022-08-02/la-tournee-de-coldplay-est-elle-vraiment-ecologique |archive-date=5 August 2022 |access-date=5 August 2022 |website=Le Soir |language=fr}}</ref> as the band reduced their [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] by 47% in the first year activities,<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Reduced Its Carbon Footprint of Live Shows by 47% |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/02/coldplay-reduced-its-carbon-footprint-of-live-shows-by-47/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230603230448/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/02/coldplay-reduced-its-carbon-footprint-of-live-shows-by-47/ |archive-date=3 June 2023 |access-date=3 June 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> planted seven million trees in forest reserves,<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 September 2023 |title=Coldplay Kick Off West Coast Tour with Explosive Seattle Show |url=https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-kicks-off-west-coast-tour-with-explosive-seattle-show/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230925211034/https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-kicks-off-west-coast-tour-with-explosive-seattle-show/ |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=American Songwriter}}</ref> and had their methods adopted by [[Live Nation (events promoter)|Live Nation]] to provide green options to more artists.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=22 April 2022 |title=Touring Returned from the Pandemic Greener Than Ever |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/concerts-green-touring-pandemic-coldplay-billie-eilish/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220426221638/https://www.billboard.com/pro/concerts-green-touring-pandemic-coldplay-billie-eilish/ |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=26 April 2022}}</ref> Furthermore, they were listed among the most influential climate action leaders in the world by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=The 100 Most Influential Climate Leaders in Business 2023 |url=https://time.com/collection/time100-climate/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116151051/https://time.com/collection/time100-climate/ |archive-date=16 November 2023 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=Time}}</ref> Since the tour became a leading topic of news coverage in visited countries, it was also called a media phenomenon.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2022 |title=Coldplay Invadió de Positividad las Redes Sociales |trans-title=Coldplay Invaded Social Media with Positivity |url=https://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/967493/espectaculos/coldplay-invadio-positividad-redes-sociales.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230917053055/https://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/967493/espectaculos/coldplay-invadio-positividad-redes-sociales.html |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=17 September 2023 |website=La Gaceta |language=es}}</ref> Mark Beaumont from ''[[The Times]]'' opined that the band regained public respect and credibility, which prompted a shift in attitude towards them.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=How It Became Cool to Like Coldplay |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-stadium-tour-how-they-became-cool-928dd6n93 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220825075016/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-stadium-tour-how-they-became-cool-928dd6n93 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=The Times}}</ref>
Due to its high demand, the tour caused [[Ticket resale|ticket speculation]] to rise in numerous regions, including Portugal,<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 May 2023 |title=ASAE Deteve 32 Pessoas por Especulação com Bilhetes dos Coldplay |trans-title=ASAE Detained 32 People for Coldplay Tickets Speculation |url=https://www.jn.pt/justica/asae-deteve-32-pessoas-por-especulacao-com-bilhetes-dos-coldplay-16400050.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230523234151/https://www.jn.pt/justica/asae-deteve-32-pessoas-por-especulacao-com-bilhetes-dos-coldplay-16400050.html |archive-date=23 May 2023 |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=JN |language=pt}}</ref> Italy,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay e Blanco, Secondary Ticketing: Scoperti 26 Bagarini Con 15 Mila Biglietti |trans-title=Coldplay and Blanco, Secondary Ticketing: 26 Touts Discovered with 15,000 Tickets |url=https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/coldplay-e-blanco-secondary-ticketing-scoperti-26-bagarini-15mila-biglietti-AE7lwxlD |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230919172521/https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/coldplay-e-blanco-secondary-ticketing-scoperti-26-bagarini-15mila-biglietti-AE7lwxlD |archive-date=19 September 2023 |access-date=19 September 2023 |website=Il Sole 24 Ore |language=it}}</ref> and Malaysia.<ref name="DAIM">{{Cite web |date=23 May 2023 |title=Govt to Enact Anti-Scalping Law Following Coldplay Concert Tickets Controversy |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2023/05/912380/govt-enact-anti-scalping-law-following-coldplay-concert-tickets |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230524000501/https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2023/05/912380/govt-enact-anti-scalping-law-following-coldplay-concert-tickets |archive-date=24 May 2023 |access-date=24 May 2023 |website=New Straits Times}}</ref> In the latter country, investigation of those cases inspired new legislation for future shows.<ref name="DAIM" /> Similarly, the [[government of Indonesia]] decided to make their event permit process more flexible after Coldplay could not schedule enough dates to meet demand.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2023 |title=Coldplay's One-Day Concert Pushes Indonesia to Simplify Permits |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-01/coldplay-s-one-day-concert-pushes-indonesia-to-simplify-permits |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230801122202/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-01/coldplay-s-one-day-concert-pushes-indonesia-to-simplify-permits |archive-date=1 August 2023 |access-date=1 August 2023 |website=Bloomberg}}</ref> Media outlets commented that ticketless fans gathered outside venues to hear the group perform in cities such as [[Barcelona]], [[Rio de Janeiro]] and [[Kaohsiung]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Desborda el Estadi |trans-title=Coldplay Overflows the Estadi |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20230529/9001167/fiesta-masiva-coldplay.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230529233912/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20230529/9001167/fiesta-masiva-coldplay.html |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es}}
* {{Cite tweet|number=1641106566672785411|user=tracklist|title=E esses fãs do Coldplay assistindo o show do lado de fora do estádio no Rio de Janeiro?|author=Tracklist|date=29 March 2023|access-date=17 September 2023|language=pt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918000639/https://twitter.com/tracklist/status/1641106566672785411|archive-date=18 September 2023|url-status=live|trans-title=And these Coldplay fans watching the show outside the stadium in Rio de Janeiro?}}
* {{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:怎算的? 世運館容5.5萬 Coldplay 稱吸8.6萬 高雄交通局給答案 |trans-title=How to Calculate It? The World Games Stadium Has a Capacity of 55,000. It Is Claimed That Coldplay Will Attract 86,000. The Kaohsiung Transportation Bureau Gives the Answer |url=https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7570222 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113121011/https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7570222 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=United Daily News |language=zh}}</ref> Concerts were noted for boosting local economies as well, drawing comparisons to winning a [[lottery]] prize.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Concert: Malaysia Missed Economic Lottery, Says Muar MP |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/politics/2023/06/922432/coldplay-concert-malaysia-missed-economic-lottery-says-muar-mp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230822133240/https://www.nst.com.my/news/politics/2023/06/922432/coldplay-concert-malaysia-missed-economic-lottery-says-muar-mp |archive-date=22 August 2023 |access-date=22 August 2023 |website=New Straits Times}}</ref> Additionally, the band experienced a resurgence on the music charts, as [[Coldplay discography|their discography]] saw major gains in sales.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=31 August 2022 |title=New Around the World: Coldplay's Catalog Climbs Global Charts |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-catalog-global-charts-new-around-the-world/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220901134228/https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-catalog-global-charts-new-around-the-world/ |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=4 September 2022}}</ref> To endorse local [[Nonprofit organization|non-profits]], they partnered with [[Global Citizen (organization)|Global Citizen]] and the Love Button Global Movement.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Love Button World Tour |url=https://www.lovebutton.org/world-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515142214/https://www.lovebutton.org/world-tour/ |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=Love Button}}</ref>
== Set list ==
This set list was taken from the 3 July 2022 concert in [[Frankfurt]], Germany. It does not represent all shows throughout the tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 April 2023 |title=Scaletta Concerto Coldplay 2023: Music of the Spheres World Tour |trans-title=Coldplay's 2023 Concert Setlist: Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://www.tag24.it/586671-scaletta-concerto-coldplay-2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230625164905/https://www.tag24.it/586671-scaletta-concerto-coldplay-2023/ |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=Tag 24 by Unicusano |language=it}}</ref>
{{div col}}
;Act I – Planets
#"Flying" {{small|(from ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (soundtrack)|E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'')}}
#"Music of the Spheres" {{small|(intro)}}
#"[[Higher Power (Coldplay song)|Higher Power]]"
#"[[Adventure of a Lifetime]]"
#"[[Paradise (Coldplay song)|Paradise]]"
#"[[Charlie Brown (Coldplay song)|Charlie Brown]]"
#"[[The Scientist (song)|The Scientist]]" {{small|(with elements of "Oceans")}}
;Act II – Moons
#<li value="8">"[[Viva la Vida]]"
#"[[Hymn for the Weekend]]"
#"[[Let Somebody Go]]"
#"Politik"
#"[[In My Place]]"
#"[[Yellow (Coldplay song)|Yellow]]"
#"Sunrise" {{small|(with [[Louis Armstrong]]'s speech from "[[What a Wonderful World]]")}}
;Act III – Stars
#<li value="15">"Human Heart"
#"People of the Pride"
#"[[Clocks (song)|Clocks]]"
#"Infinity Sign" {{small|(with elements of "Music of the Spheres II" and "[[Every Teardrop Is a Waterfall]]")}}
#"[[Something Just Like This]]" {{small|(performed in [[American Sign Language]])}}
#"[[Midnight (Coldplay song)|Midnight]]" {{small|(with elements of [[Lone (musician)|Lone]]'s "Blue Moon Tree")}}
#"[[My Universe (song)|My Universe]]"
#"[[A Sky Full of Stars]]"
;Act IV – Home
#<li value="23">"[[Sparks (Coldplay song)|Sparks]]"
#"[[Magic (Coldplay song)|Magic]]"
#"Humankind"
#"[[Fix You]]"
#"Biutyful"
#"A Wave" {{small|(outro)}}
{{div col end}}
=== Details ===
* A video showcasing Coldplay's sustainability efforts was exhibited before every performance, with "Light Through the Veins" by [[Jon Hopkins]] serving as its soundtrack.<ref name="RUTH" />
* "Infinity Sign", "[[Something Just Like This]]", "[[Midnight (Coldplay song)|Midnight]]", "[[My Universe (song)|My Universe]]" and "[[A Sky Full of Stars]]" are collectively referred to as The Lightclub.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1505040851143208960|user=coldplayxtra|title=Confirmed setlist for Coldplay's tour opening show in Costa Rica, handwritten by Chris Martin!|author=Coldplay Xtra|date=19 March 2022|access-date=20 March 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220320174442/https://twitter.com/coldplayxtra/status/1505040851143208960|archive-date=20 March 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
* "[[God Put a Smile upon Your Face]]",<ref>{{Cite AV media|date=19 March 2022 |title=Coldplay – God Put a Smile upon Your Face @ Estadio Nacional, San Jose, CR |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DCmJQvAalE |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715200050/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DCmJQvAalE |archive-date=15 July 2023 |access-date=15 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> "[[In My Place]]",<ref name="BITAR" /> and "[[The Scientist (song)|The Scientist]]" featured [[Will Champion]]'s main vocals in select dates.<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=2 July 2023 |title=Coldplay – Live in Zürich – The Scientist |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KnQP1TmyVRQ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702210328/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KnQP1TmyVRQ |archive-date=2 July 2023 |access-date=2 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* "[[Don't Panic (Coldplay song)|Don't Panic]]" was performed during Act IV in select dates, sometimes featuring Buckland and Champion's main vocals.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Canta Magic em Espanhol em Segundo Show no Peru |trans-title=Coldplay Sings Magic in Spanish at Second Show in Peru |url=https://www.vagalume.com.br/news/2022/09/15/coldplay-canta-magic-em-espanhol-em-segundo-show-no-peru.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220915210211/https://www.vagalume.com.br/news/2022/09/15/coldplay-canta-magic-em-espanhol-em-segundo-show-no-peru.html |archive-date=15 September 2022 |access-date=15 September 2022 |website=Vagalume |language=pt}}</ref>
* "Don't Panic" featured [[Fher Olvera]] on the harmonica in Zapopan on 30 March 2022 and [[Roger Federer]] on the shaker in Zürich on 2 July 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 March 2022 |title=Coldplay Vuelve a Invitar a Cantante de Maná, pero Cambia de Canción |trans-title=Coldplay Invites Mana's Singer Again, but Changes the Song |url=https://www.merca20.com/coldplay-mana-dont-panic-guadalajara/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220606141347/https://www.merca20.com/coldplay-mana-dont-panic-guadalajara/ |archive-date=6 June 2022 |access-date=6 June 2022 |website=Merca 2.0 |language=es}}
* {{Cite magazine |date=3 July 2023 |title=Roger Federer Joins Coldplay on Stage in Zürich: You are Flawless on the Shaker |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-joined-guest-roger-federer-shaker-zurich-concert-1235365836/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230703152407/https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-joined-guest-roger-federer-shaker-zurich-concert-1235365836/ |archive-date=3 July 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref>
* "[[Sparks (Coldplay song)|Sparks]]" featured pedal steel guitar players in select dates, including [[Josh Abbott Band|Preston Wait]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Dedicates Powerful Song to Texas During Concert |url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2022-05-10-coldplay-dedicates-powerful-song-to-texas-during-concert/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230311042108/https://www.iheart.com/content/2022-05-10-coldplay-dedicates-powerful-song-to-texas-during-concert/ |archive-date=11 March 2023 |access-date=11 March 2023 |website=iHeartRadio}}</ref> [[Far from Alaska|Cris Botarelli]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Faz História em Show no Brasil com Estrutura Surreal, Seu Jorge e Mais |trans-title=Coldplay Makes History in Show in Brazil with Surrealistic Structure, Seu Jorge and More |url=https://www.tenhomaisdiscosqueamigos.com/2023/03/11/coldplay-show-sao-paulo-resenha/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230311054953/https://www.tenhomaisdiscosqueamigos.com/2023/03/11/coldplay-show-sao-paulo-resenha/ |archive-date=11 March 2023 |access-date=11 March 2023 |website=Tenho Mais Discos Que Amigos! |language=pt}}</ref> and Laura Solla.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 May 2023 |title=Laura Solla, la Guitarrista Gallega a la que Llamó Coldplay para Tocar con Ellos: Aún no Me lo Creo |trans-title=Laura Solla, the Galician Guitarist Whom Coldplay Invited to Play with Them: I Still Can't Believe It |url=https://www.niusdiario.es/espana/galicia/20230519/laura-solla-guitarrista-gallega-llamo-coldplay-conciertos-espana-portugal_18_09567920.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230520015419/https://www.niusdiario.es/espana/galicia/20230519/laura-solla-guitarrista-gallega-llamo-coldplay-conciertos-espana-portugal_18_09567920.html |archive-date=20 May 2023 |access-date=20 May 2023 |website=Nius |language=es}}</ref>
* "[[Let Somebody Go]]" featured Coldplay's opening acts or fans in select dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Joined on Stage by H.E.R. as Music of the Spheres US Tour Concludes |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-joined-on-stage-by-h-e-r-as-music-of-the-spheres-us-tour-concludes-3248190 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615225559/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-joined-on-stage-by-h-e-r-as-music-of-the-spheres-us-tour-concludes-3248190 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=NME}}
* {{Cite web |date=21 July 2022 |title=Coldplay: Incroyable Moment sur Scène au Stade de France pour ce Fan Français |trans-title=Coldplay: Incredible Moment on Stage at Stade de France for This French Fan |url=http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-121942.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722123137/http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Coldplay/news-121942.html |archive-date=22 July 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=Pure Charts |language=fr}}</ref> [[Selena Gomez]] appeared with both in Pasadena on 1 October 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 October 2023 |title=Selena Gomez Faz Participação em Show do Coldplay |trans-title=Selena Gomez Performs at Coldplay Concert |url=https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2023/10/02/interna_cultura,1570242/selena-gomez-faz-participacao-em-show-do-coldplay.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231002153832/https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2023/10/02/interna_cultura,1570242/selena-gomez-faz-participacao-em-show-do-coldplay.shtml |archive-date=2 October 2023 |access-date=2 October 2023 |website=Estado de Minas |language=pt}}</ref>
* "Sparks" and "[[Magic (Coldplay song)|Magic]]" were performed in each country's respective language in select dates.<ref name="GRZYBOWSKI">{{Cite web |date=9 July 2022 |title=Coldplay Zagrał w Polsce. Sen o Warszawie Znów na Narodowym |trans-title=Coldplay Performs in Poland. Sen o Warszawie Again at the National Stadium |url=https://www.terazmuzyka.pl/coldplay-zagral-w-polsce-sen-o-warszawie-znow-na-narodowym-relacja-zdjecia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711140243/https://www.terazmuzyka.pl/coldplay-zagral-w-polsce-sen-o-warszawie-znow-na-narodowym-relacja-zdjecia/ |archive-date=11 July 2022 |access-date=11 July 2022 |website=Teraz Muzyka |language=pl}}
* {{Cite web |date=11 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Arrebata o Rock in Rio e Canta até em Português |trans-title=Coldplay Takes Over Rock in Rio and Even Sings in Portuguese |url=https://www.omelete.com.br/rock-in-rio/coldplay-rock-in-rio-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911142831/https://www.omelete.com.br/rock-in-rio/coldplay-rock-in-rio-22 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Omelete |language=pt}}</ref> The latter sometimes featured Coldplay's opening acts or fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Coldplay em Coimbra: As Novidades do Segundo Concerto, com Vídeos e Alinhamento |trans-title=Coldplay in Coimbra: News from the Second Concert, with Videos and Setlist |url=https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-19-Coldplay-em-Coimbra-as-novidades-do-segundo-concerto-com-videos-e-alinhamento-1d550752 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230519030006/https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-19-Coldplay-em-Coimbra-as-novidades-do-segundo-concerto-com-videos-e-alinhamento-1d550752 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |access-date=19 May 2023 |website=Expresso |language=pt}}
* {{Cite web |date=12 July 2023 |title=Recension: Coldplay, Ullevi – Onsdag 12 Juni |trans-title=Review: Coldplay, Ullevi – Wednesday 12 June |url=https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-onsdag-12-juni-1.104731274 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230712215132/https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-onsdag-12-juni-1.104731274 |archive-date=12 July 2023 |access-date=13 July 2023 |website=Göteborgs-Posten |language=sv}}</ref>
* "Something Just Like This" was performed for a second time featuring a choir during Act IV in select dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 July 2022 |title=Coldplay Im Olympiastadion, Berlin: Nicht Wirklich Nachhaltig, Aber Für Immer Schön |trans-title=Coldplay In Olympiastadion, Berlin: Not Really Sustainable, But Beautiful Forever |url=https://www.musikexpress.de/coldplay-im-olympiastadion-berlin-nicht-wirklich-nachhaltig-aber-fuer-immer-schoen-2172295/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220711123150/https://www.musikexpress.de/coldplay-im-olympiastadion-berlin-nicht-wirklich-nachhaltig-aber-fuer-immer-schoen-2172295/ |archive-date=11 July 2022 |access-date=11 July 2022 |website=Musikexpress |language=de}}
* {{Cite web |date=17 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Sorprendió en Bogotá: Cantó Reguetón de J Balvin y en Lenguaje de Señas |trans-title=Coldplay Surprises in Bogotá: They Sang J Balvin's Reggaeton and in Sign Language |url=https://www.elcolombiano.com/cultura/concierto-de-coldplay-sorprende-con-lenguaje-de-senas-y-regueton-de-j-balvin-en-bogota-LK18650586 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220918120819/https://www.elcolombiano.com/cultura/concierto-de-coldplay-sorprende-con-lenguaje-de-senas-y-regueton-de-j-balvin-en-bogota-LK18650586 |archive-date=18 September 2022 |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=El Colombiano |language=es}}</ref>
* "Sunrise",<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1557376121271885826|user=coldplay|title=The mighty @davrossimusic graced our stage in Brussels for Sunrise, which he arranged and performed on Everyday Life.|author=Coldplay|date=10 August 2022|access-date=11 August 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220811031427/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1557376121271885826|archive-date=11 August 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> "[[Pino Daniele|Napule È]]",<ref name="NAPOLAY">{{Cite web |date=22 June 2023 |title=Coldplay, nel Secondo Show a Napoli Cambia la Scaletta |trans-title=Coldplay, the Set List Changes at the Second Show in Naples |url=https://www.ilmattino.it/spettacoli/musica/coldplay_trouble_secondo_show_napoli-7478162.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230622214131/https://www.ilmattino.it/spettacoli/musica/coldplay_trouble_secondo_show_napoli-7478162.html |archive-date=22 June 2023 |access-date=22 June 2023 |website=Il Mattino |language=it}}</ref> "[[Oh mia bela Madunina|Oh Mia Bela Madunina]]",<ref name="REDAZIONE">{{Cite web |date=26 June 2023 |title=Con O Mia Bela Madunina i Coldplay Omaggiano Anche Milano |trans-title=With O Mia Bela Madunina Coldplay Also Pay Homage to Milan |url=https://www.rockol.it/news-738131/coldplay-live-milano-chris-martin-canta-o-mia-bela-madunina |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627131739/https://www.rockol.it/news-738131/coldplay-live-milano-chris-martin-canta-o-mia-bela-madunina |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=26 June 2023 |website=Rockol |language=it}}</ref> and "[[Eppure sentire (Un senso di te)|Eppure Sentire (Un Senso di Te)]]" featured [[Davide Rossi]] on the violin in select dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2023 |title=Coldplay a Milano, Elisa Canta Eppure Sentire Insieme a Loro |trans-title=Coldplay in Milan, Elisa Sings Eppure Sentire with Them |url=https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2023/06/30/coldplay-elisa-eppure-sentire |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230703151647/https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2023/06/30/coldplay-elisa-eppure-sentire |archive-date=3 July 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=Sky TG24 |language=it}}</ref>
* "My Universe" and "A Sky Full of Stars" featured [[Max Martin]] on the tambourine in London on 13 August 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 2022 |title=Watch Coldplay Perform with Craig David at Wembley Stadium |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-coldplay-perform-with-craig-david-at-wembley-stadium-3289485 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220814130009/https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-coldplay-perform-with-craig-david-at-wembley-stadium-3289485 |archive-date=14 August 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022 |website=NME}}</ref>
* "[[Clocks (song)|Clocks]]" featured Benjamin Teacher on the guitar in London on 17 August 2022 plus Manchester on 3 and 4 June 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2022 |title=Londra, Buskers: Proteste Contro il Divieto di Esibirsi nei Giorni di Lutto |trans-title=London, Buskers: Protests Against the Ban on Performing on Days of Mourning |url=https://italia-uktv.co.uk/londra-buskers-proteste-contro-il-divieto-di-esibirsi-nei-giorni-di-lutto/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230727131716/https://italia-uktv.co.uk/londra-buskers-proteste-contro-il-divieto-di-esibirsi-nei-giorni-di-lutto/ |archive-date=27 July 2023 |access-date=27 July 2023 |website=Italia UK TV |language=it}}
* {{Cite web |date=30 May 2023 |title=Something Special This Weekend Coming |url=https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=1268555767294258&set=pb.100024195406015.-2207520000. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230727132326/https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=1268555767294258&set=pb.100024195406015.-2207520000. |archive-date=27 July 2023 |access-date=27 July 2023 |website=Benjamin Teacher |via=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
* "A Sky Full of Stars" featured [[Simon Pegg]] on the tambourine in London on 20 August 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2022 |title=Watch Coldplay Perform Kate Bush and ABBA Covers with Alan Partridge and Jacob Collier |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-coldplay-perform-kate-bush-and-abba-covers-with-alan-partridge-and-jacob-collier-3294491 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220821130421/https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-coldplay-perform-kate-bush-and-abba-covers-with-alan-partridge-and-jacob-collier-3294491 |archive-date=21 August 2022 |access-date=21 August 2022 |website=NME}}</ref>
* "[[Viva la Vida]]" was performed twice in Rio de Janeiro on 10 September 2022.<ref name="CRUZ" />
* "[[Fix You]]" and "Biutyful" featured percussionists or choirs in select dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 March 2023 |title=Show do Coldplay Tem Participação da Bateria do Curso de Direito da USP |trans-title=Coldplay's Show Features USP's Law School Bateria |url=https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2023/03/19/interna_cultura,1470675/show-do-coldplay-tem-participacao-da-bateria-do-curso-de-direito-da-usp.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230323200859/https://www.em.com.br/app/noticia/cultura/2023/03/19/interna_cultura,1470675/show-do-coldplay-tem-participacao-da-bateria-do-curso-de-direito-da-usp.shtml |archive-date=23 March 2023 |access-date=23 March 2023 |website=Estado de Minas |language=pt}}
* {{Cite web |date=3 October 2023 |title=AGT Finalists Mzansi Youth Choir Performs an Intimate Rendition of Fix You Alongside Coldplay |url=https://talentrecap.com/agt-finalists-mzansi-youth-choir-performs-an-intimate-rendition-of-fix-you-alongside-coldplay/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008044354/https://talentrecap.com/agt-finalists-mzansi-youth-choir-performs-an-intimate-rendition-of-fix-you-alongside-coldplay/ |archive-date=8 October 2023 |access-date=8 October 2023 |website=Talent Recap}}</ref>
* "Cry Cry Cry" was performed during Act IV in select dates, featuring [[Lauren Mayberry]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 July 2023 |title=Interview with Lauren from Chvrches |url=https://www.coldplay.com/interview-with-lauren-from-chvrches/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230707172916/https://www.coldplay.com/interview-with-lauren-from-chvrches/ |archive-date=7 July 2023 |access-date=7 July 2023 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>
* "A Wave" was replaced by a recording session for "One World" in São Paulo on 18 March and Rio de Janeiro on 28 March 2023.<ref name="EXPRESSO">{{Cite web |date=21 May 2023 |title=Hoje é o Dia do Último Concerto dos Coldplay: Estas São as Canções que Eles Ainda Não Tocaram em Coimbra |trans-title=Today Is the Day of Coldplay's Last Concert: These Are the Songs They Have Not Played in Coimbra Yet |url=https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-21-Hoje-e-o-dia-do-ultimo-concerto-dos-Coldplay-estas-sao-as-cancoes-que-eles-ainda-nao-tocaram-em-Coimbra-8ef98e66 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210011301/https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-21-Hoje-e-o-dia-do-ultimo-concerto-dos-Coldplay-estas-sao-as-cancoes-que-eles-ainda-nao-tocaram-em-Coimbra-8ef98e66 |archive-date=10 December 2023 |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=Expresso |language=pt}}</ref>
* "Humankind" and "Biutyful" were replaced by "Charlie Brown" and "Metade de Mim" with 5ª Punkada, respectively, in Coimbra on 21 May 2023.<ref name="CARMINHO">{{Cite web |date=21 May 2023 |title=Coldplay em Coimbra: Carminho Subiu ao Palco para Cantar a Balada da Despedida com Chris Martin |trans-title=Coldplay in Coimbra: Carminho Took the Stage to Sing Balada da Despedida with Chris Martin |url=https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-21-Coldplay-em-Coimbra-Carminho-subiu-ao-palco-para-cantar-a-Balada-da-Despedida-com-Chris-Martin-d6f29e9d |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230522010015/https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-05-21-Coldplay-em-Coimbra-Carminho-subiu-ao-palco-para-cantar-a-Balada-da-Despedida-com-Chris-Martin-d6f29e9d |archive-date=22 May 2023 |access-date=22 May 2023 |website=Expresso |language=pt}}</ref>
* "[[What's Love Got to Do with It (song)|What's Love Got to Do with It]]" was covered during Act II in select dates, sometimes featuring Coldplay's opening acts or fans.<ref name="SURIO">{{Cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Épica y Buenrollismo en el Tercer Concierto de Coldplay en Barcelona |trans-title=Epicness and Good Vibes at Coldplay's Third Concert in Barcelona |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/musica/20230528/9000235/epica-buenrollismo.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230528124057/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/musica/20230528/9000235/epica-buenrollismo.html |archive-date=28 May 2023 |access-date=28 May 2023 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es}}</ref>
* "Human Heart" featured Collier, [[Stevie Mackey]] and [[We Are King]] in Pasadena on 30 September and 1 October 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 October 2023 |title=Music of the Spheres Tour Review: Coldplay Bring a Higher Power to the Rose Bowl |url=https://www.blastoutyourstereo.com/music-of-the-spheres-tour-coldplay-rose-bowl-review-9-30/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231002154458/https://www.blastoutyourstereo.com/music-of-the-spheres-tour-coldplay-rose-bowl-review-9-30/ |archive-date=2 October 2023 |access-date=2 October 2023 |website=Blast}}</ref>
* "Sparks" was followed by a recording session for an untitled song in Bocaue on 19 January 2024.<ref name="PAGULONG">{{Cite web |date=24 January 2024 |title=Coldplay Turns Philippine Arena Into a Beautiful Universe of Its Own |url=https://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2024/01/24/2327961/coldplay-turns-philippine-arena-beautiful-universe-its-own |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123172158/https://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2024/01/24/2327961/coldplay-turns-philippine-arena-beautiful-universe-its-own |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |website=The Philippine Star}}</ref>
* "The Jumbotron Song" was performed during Act IV on select dates, it consisted of Martin improvising a track based on the audience members appearing on the screens.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2024 |title=Coldplay Kickstart 6-Night Singapore Residency with Vibrant Performances and Heartfelt Connections – Photo Gallery |url=https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/coldplay-kickstart-6-night-singapore-residency-with-colourful-performances-heartfelt-connections-fans-coldplayers-jasmine-sokko-jinan-laetitia-chris-martin-national-stadium-setlist-january-2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127045641/https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/coldplay-kickstart-6-night-singapore-residency-with-colourful-performances-heartfelt-connections-fans-coldplayers-jasmine-sokko-jinan-laetitia-chris-martin-national-stadium-setlist-january-2024 |archive-date=27 January 2024 |access-date=27 January 2024 |website=Bandwagon Asia}}</ref>
=== Highlights ===
The band performed covers, invited guests and fans, wrote songs specifically for the occasion and made dedications in numerous dates, skipping to the rest of the show otherwise:
;2022
* 18 and 19 March – San José: "Patriótica Costarricense".<ref name="LUNA">{{Cite web |date=4 April 2022 |title=Coldplay y Fher de Maná Cantaron Rayando el Sol en México |trans-title=Coldplay and Fher of Maná Sing Rayando el Sol in Mexico |url=https://www.dondeir.com/musica/coldplay-fher-mana-rayando-el-sol-mexico/2022/03/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231104163306/https://www.dondeir.com/musica/coldplay-fher-mana-rayando-el-sol-mexico/2022/03/ |archive-date=4 November 2023 |access-date=4 November 2023 |website=Dónde Ir |language=es}}</ref>
* 22 March – Santo Domingo: "[[Juan Luis Guerra|Bachata Rosa]]".<ref name="LUNA" />
* 26 March – Guadalupe: "[[Gravity (Embrace song)|Gravity]]" with a fan and "[[Vicente Fernández|El Corrido de Monterrey]]".<ref name="LUNA" />
* 29 and 30 March – Zapopan: "Rayando el Sol" with [[Fher Olvera]].<ref name="LUNA" />
* 3 April – Mexico City: "[[Juan Gabriel|Amor Eterno]]".<ref name="INFOBAE">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2022 |title=Quién Es Huillo, el Niño Mexicano Con Autismo que Coldplay Subió al Escenario |trans-title=Who Is Huillo, the Mexican Boy with Autism That Coldplay Took to the Stage |url=https://www.infobae.com/america/mexico/2022/04/05/quien-es-huillo-el-nino-mexicano-con-autismo-que-coldplay-subio-al-escenario/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120000904/https://www.infobae.com/america/mexico/2022/04/05/quien-es-huillo-el-nino-mexicano-con-autismo-que-coldplay-subio-al-escenario/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=Infobae |language=es}}</ref>
* 4 April – Mexico City: "Different is OK" with Huillo.<ref name="INFOBAE" />
* 7 April – Mexico City: "Green Eyes" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=18 April 2022 |title=Coldplay – Green Eyes (Foro Sol, Mexico City, April 7th, 2022) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ud2LMcVPWD |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716223951/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ud2LMcVPWD |archive-date=16 July 2023 |access-date=16 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* 6 May – Dallas: "Dallas Every Day" with [[Josh Abbott Band|Preston Wait]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 November 2022 |title=How Did We Miss This Dallas Song by Coldplay? |url=https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/a-tiktok-makes-the-rounds-with-a-dallas-af-song-by-coldplay-15349009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126165143/https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/a-tiktok-makes-the-rounds-with-a-dallas-af-song-by-coldplay-15349009 |archive-date=26 January 2023 |access-date=26 January 2023 |website=Dallas Observer}}</ref>
* 8 May – Houston: "Houston #2".<ref name="HPR" />
* 12 May – Glendale: "Phoenix, AZ".<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 May 2022 |title=How Coldplay Shot a Music Video With Puppets and Still Gave Metro Phoenix a Show |url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/music/2022/05/13/coldplay-2022-tour-review-phoenix-video-shoot/9758795002/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220522022130/https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/music/2022/05/13/coldplay-2022-tour-review-phoenix-video-shoot/9758795002/ |archive-date=22 May 2022 |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=The Arizona Republic}}</ref>
* 28 and 29 May – Chicago: "[[Superstar (Lupe Fiasco song)|Superstar]]" with [[Lupe Fiasco]].<ref name="FIASCO">{{Cite magazine |date=30 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Blast Chicago Fans With Waves of Intergalactic Love at Show Featuring Hometown Superstar Lupe Fiasco |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/concerts/coldplay-chicago-soldier-field-concert-2022-tour-lupe-fiasco-1235078780/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220606134810/https://www.billboard.com/music/concerts/coldplay-chicago-soldier-field-concert-2022-tour-lupe-fiasco-1235078780/ |archive-date=6 June 2022 |access-date=6 June 2022 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref> The latter date also included "Chicago Song".<ref name="FIASCO" />
* 1 June – Landover: "Washington, DC the Day We Got Set Free".<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Bring Pop Rock with a Side of Confetti to N.J. in Huge Stadium Show |url=https://www.nj.com/entertainment/2022/06/coldplay-bring-pop-rock-with-a-side-of-confetti-to-nj-in-huge-stadium-show-review.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615225403/https://www.nj.com/entertainment/2022/06/coldplay-bring-pop-rock-with-a-side-of-confetti-to-nj-in-huge-stadium-show-review.html |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=NJ.com}}</ref>
* 4 June – East Rutherford: "[[Can't Get You Out of My Head]]" with [[Kylie Minogue]].<ref name="IRVIN">{{Cite web |date=13 June 2022 |title=Watch Coldplay Bring Kelly Rowland Onstage to Sing Destiny's Child's Independent Women in Atlanta |url=https://people.com/music/coldplay-covers-destinys-child-independent-women-with-kelly-rowland-in-atlanta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231104164142/https://people.com/music/coldplay-covers-destinys-child-independent-women-with-kelly-rowland-in-atlanta/ |archive-date=4 November 2023 |access-date=4 November 2023 |website=People}}</ref>
* 5 June – East Rutherford: "[[Working on a Dream (song)|Working on a Dream]]" and "[[Dancing in the Dark (Bruce Springsteen song)|Dancing in the Dark]]" with [[Bruce Springsteen]].<ref name="IRVIN" />
* 8 June – Philadelphia: "Philadelphia Song".<ref>{{Cite AV media|date=28 July 2022 |title=Coldplay Philadelphia Song (Improv) Live at Lincoln Financial Field, Philadelphia, PA 6/8/2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqNUO_W475I |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712030239/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqNUO_W475I |archive-date=12 July 2023 |access-date=12 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* 11 June – Atlanta: "[[Independent Women Part I]]" with [[Kelly Rowland]].<ref name="IRVIN" />
* 14 June – Tampa: "Tampa Bay on a Tuesday".<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Bathes Packed Tampa Stadium in Light, Color and Fun |url=https://www.tampabay.com/life-culture/music/music-reviews/2022/06/15/coldplay-bathes-packed-tampa-stadium-in-light-color-and-fun/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615220417/https://www.tampabay.com/life-culture/music/music-reviews/2022/06/15/coldplay-bathes-packed-tampa-stadium-in-light-color-and-fun/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Tampa Bay Times}}</ref>
* 8 July – Warsaw: "[[Sen o Warszawie]]" and "[[Okean Elzy|Obiymy]]", the latter featuring Romario Punch.<ref name="GRZYBOWSKI" />
* 8 August – Brussels: "Green Eyes" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 August 2022 |title=Beau Moment au Concert de Coldplay à Bruxelles, Chris Martin Partage une Chanson Avec une Fan Sur Scène |trans-title=Beautiful Moment at the Coldplay Concert in Brussels, Chris Martin Shares a Song with a Fan on Stage |url=https://www.lavenir.net/culture/2022/08/09/beau-moment-au-concert-de-coldplay-a-bruxelles-chris-martin-partage-une-chanson-avec-une-fan-sur-scene-video-ZX2F5MVBTVFS7PRHUT7DFJ6UTI/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809142319/https://www.lavenir.net/culture/2022/08/09/beau-moment-au-concert-de-coldplay-a-bruxelles-chris-martin-partage-une-chanson-avec-une-fan-sur-scene-video-ZX2F5MVBTVFS7PRHUT7DFJ6UTI/ |archive-date=9 August 2022 |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=L'avenir |language=fr}}</ref>
* 9 August – Brussels: "Obiymy" with [[Svyatoslav Vakarchuk]].<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1557383013054533645|user=s_vakarchuk|title=Dear @coldplay thank you very much for your support! @okeanelzy #Ukraine|author=Sviatoslav Vakarchuk|date=10 August 2022|access-date=11 August 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220811032628/https://twitter.com/s_vakarchuk/status/1557383013054533645|archive-date=11 August 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 12 and 13 August – London: "Live in the Moment" and "[[Fill Me In]]" with [[Craig David]] and [[Jacob Collier]].<ref name="RICHARDS">{{Cite web |date=22 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Bring Out Stormzy for Blinded by Your Grace, Pt. 1 Performance at Final Wembley Show |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-bring-out-stormzy-for-blinded-by-your-grace-pt-1-performance-at-final-wembley-show-3295072 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220822131628/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-bring-out-stormzy-for-blinded-by-your-grace-pt-1-performance-at-final-wembley-show-3295072 |archive-date=22 August 2022 |access-date=22 August 2022 |website=NME}}</ref> The latter was replaced by "[[7 Days (Craig David song)|7 Days]]" on the second night.<ref name="RICHARDS" />
* 16 August – London: "[[Torn (Ednaswap song)#Natalie Imbruglia version|Torn]]" and "[[Summer Nights (Grease song)|Summer Nights]]" with [[Natalie Imbruglia]] and Collier.<ref name="RICHARDS" />
* 17 August – London: "[[Pure Shores]]" and "[[Never Ever (All Saints song)|Never Ever]]" with [[Shaznay Lewis]] and Collier.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 August 2022 |title=Watch Coldplay Cover All Saints Songs with Shaznay Lewis at Wembley Stadium Gig |url=https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/news/watch-coldplay-cover-all-saints-songs-with-shaznay-lewis-at-wembley-stadium-gig-21567/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220818115907/https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/news/watch-coldplay-cover-all-saints-songs-with-shaznay-lewis-at-wembley-stadium-gig-21567/ |archive-date=18 August 2022 |access-date=18 August 2022 |website=Rolling Stone UK}}</ref>
* 20 August – London: "[[Running Up That Hill]]" and "[[Knowing Me, Knowing You]]" with [[Steve Coogan]] and Collier.<ref name="RUTH" />
* 21 August – London: "Blinded by Your Grace, Pt. 1" with [[Stormzy]] and Collier.<ref name="RICHARDS" />
* 23 and 24 August – Glasgow: "[[A Girl Like You (Edwyn Collins song)|A Girl Like You]]" with [[Edwyn Collins]].<ref name="SHEPHERD" />
* 13 September – Lima: "Perú Estoy Enamorado with You" and "Til Kingdom Come" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 September 2022 |title=Coldplay: Los 10 Mejores Momentos que Dejaron los Dos Conciertos de la Banda en Lima |trans-title=Coldplay: The 10 Best Moments Left by the Band's Two Concerts in Lima |url=https://www.infobae.com/america/peru/2022/09/15/coldplay-los-10-mejores-momentos-que-dejaron-los-dos-conciertos-de-la-banda-en-lima/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231231024519/https://www.infobae.com/america/peru/2022/09/15/coldplay-los-10-mejores-momentos-que-dejaron-los-dos-conciertos-de-la-banda-en-lima/ |archive-date=31 December 2023 |access-date=31 December 2023 |website=Infobae |language=es}}</ref>
* 16 September – Bogotá: "[[La Canción]]".<ref name="TENDENCIAS">{{Cite web |date=18 September 2022 |title=La Canción de Manuel Turizo con Chris Martin en Concierto de Coldplay |trans-title=Manuel Turizo's Song with Chris Martin at Coldplay's Concert |url=https://www.eltiempo.com/cultura/gente/coldplay-en-bogota-manuel-turizo-canto-bachata-con-chris-martin-703298 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220918120623/https://www.eltiempo.com/cultura/gente/coldplay-en-bogota-manuel-turizo-canto-bachata-con-chris-martin-703298 |archive-date=18 September 2022 |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=El Tiempo |language=es}}</ref>
* 17 September – Bogotá: "La Bachata" with [[Manuel Turizo]].<ref name="TENDENCIAS" />
* 28 and 29 October – Buenos Aires: "[[Baraye]]" with [[Golshifteh Farahani]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 October 2022 |title=Coldplay Perform Baraye in Farsi with Iranian Actress Golshifteh Farahani |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music-stage/2022/10/30/coldplay-perform-baraye-in-farsi-with-iranian-actress-golshifteh-farahani/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221031122627/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music-stage/2022/10/30/coldplay-perform-baraye-in-farsi-with-iranian-actress-golshifteh-farahani/ |archive-date=31 October 2022 |access-date=31 October 2022 |website=The National}}</ref> The former date also featured "[[The Astronaut (song)|The Astronaut]]" with [[Jin (singer)|Jin]].<ref name="TELAM">{{Cite web |date=9 November 2022 |title=Coldplay Terminó Con Sus Shows en River: Invitados y Agradecimiento a los Fans |trans-title=Coldplay Finished Their Shows at River: Guests and Appreciation to Fans |url=https://tn.com.ar/musica/noticias/2022/11/09/coldplay-termino-con-sus-shows-en-river-invitados-y-agradecimiento-a-los-fans/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228225750/https://tn.com.ar/musica/noticias/2022/11/09/coldplay-termino-con-sus-shows-en-river-invitados-y-agradecimiento-a-los-fans/ |archive-date=28 December 2023 |access-date=28 December 2023 |website=TN |language=es}}</ref>
* 1 and 2 November – Buenos Aires: "[[Let Somebody Go]]" and "Carne y Hueso" with [[Tini (singer)|Tini]].<ref name="TELAM" />
* 7 November – Buenos Aires: "Persiana Americana" and "[[Yellow (Coldplay song)|Yellow]]" with [[Charly Alberti]] and [[Zeta Bosio]].<ref name="TELAM" />
* 8 November – Buenos Aires: "La Bachata" with Turizo, then Alberti and Bosio again.<ref name="TELAM" />
;2023
* 10 and 11 March – São Paulo: "Amiga da Minha Mulher" with [[Seu Jorge]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 March 2023 |title=Watch Coldplay Perform with Seu Jorge in São Paulo |url=https://www.stereogum.com/2216629/coldplay-seu-jorge-san-paulo-performance/news/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230312202020/https://www.stereogum.com/2216629/coldplay-seu-jorge-san-paulo-performance/news/ |archive-date=12 March 2023 |access-date=12 March 2023 |website=Stereogum}}</ref> The latter date also featured "[[Gravity (Embrace song)|Gravity]]" with a fan.<ref name="EXPRESSO" />
* 13 March – São Paulo: "[[Charlie Brown (Coldplay song)|Charlie Brown]]" and "[[Daddy (Coldplay song)|Daddy]]" with fans.<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=14 March 2023 |title=Coldplay – Charlie Brown (Live in São Paulo 2023) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=No3zQaKyoBw |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314213704/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=No3zQaKyoBw |archive-date=14 March 2023 |access-date=14 March 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}
* {{Cite web |date=15 March 2023 |title=Adolescente de Curitiba Toca Daddy com Coldplay em SP e Homenageia Pai que Faleceu de Covid: Estava Comigo Ali |trans-title=Teenager from Curitiba Plays Daddy with Coldplay in São Paulo and Honors Father Who Died of Covid: He was with Me There |url=https://g1.globo.com/pr/parana/noticia/2023/03/15/adolescente-de-curitiba-toca-daddy-com-coldplay-em-sp-e-homenageia-pai-que-morreu-de-covid-estava-comigo-ali.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230316180309/https://g1.globo.com/pr/parana/noticia/2023/03/15/adolescente-de-curitiba-toca-daddy-com-coldplay-em-sp-e-homenageia-pai-que-morreu-de-covid-estava-comigo-ali.ghtml |archive-date=16 March 2023 |access-date=16 March 2023 |website=G1 |language=pt}}</ref>
* 14 March – São Paulo: "[[Magic (Coldplay song)|Magic]]" and "Quando Você Passa" with [[Sandy (singer)|Sandy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 March 2023 |title=Após Seu Jorge, Coldplay Surpreende Fãs e Chama Sandy ao Palco em São Paulo |trans-title=After Seu Jorge, Coldplay Surprise Fans and Invite Sandy to the Stage in São Paulo |url=https://www.tenhomaisdiscosqueamigos.com/2023/03/15/sandy-participacao-show-coldplay/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230315193447/https://www.tenhomaisdiscosqueamigos.com/2023/03/15/sandy-participacao-show-coldplay/ |archive-date=15 March 2023 |access-date=15 March 2023 |website=Tenho Mais Discos Que Amigos! |language=pt}}</ref>
* 17 March – São Paulo: "Everything's Not Lost" and "Green Eyes" with fans.<ref name="EXPRESSO" />
* 18 March – São Paulo: "Envolvidão" with Rael and "Quando Você Passa" with Sandy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Canta Envolvidão com Rael em Seu Último Show da Turnê em São Paulo |trans-title=Coldplay Sing Envolvidão with Rael on Their Last Show of the Tour in São Paulo |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2023/03/coldplay-canta-envolvidao-com-rael-em-seu-ultimo-show-da-turne-em-sao-paulo.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230319023823/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/2023/03/coldplay-canta-envolvidao-com-rael-em-seu-ultimo-show-da-turne-em-sao-paulo.shtml |archive-date=19 March 2023 |access-date=19 March 2023 |website=Folha de S.Paulo |language=pt}}</ref>
* 25 March – Rio de Janeiro: "[[Strawberry Swing]]" with fans, then "Todo Homem" with [[Moreno Veloso|Moreno]], Zeca and Tom Veloso.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 March 2023 |title=Em Primeiro Show no Rio, Coldplay Canta com Filhos de Caetano Veloso |trans-title=At First Show in Rio, Coldplay Sings with the Sons of Caetano Veloso |url=https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2023/03/26/em-primeiro-show-no-rio-coldplay-canta-com-filhos-de-caetano-veloso.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230326143252/https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2023/03/26/em-primeiro-show-no-rio-coldplay-canta-com-filhos-de-caetano-veloso.htm |archive-date=26 March 2023 |access-date=26 March 2023 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref>
* 26 March – Rio de Janeiro: "Green Eyes" with a fan, then Seu Jorge again.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Leva Engenhão a Viagem Intergaláctica com Mensagem Sustentável |trans-title=Coldplay Takes Engenhão to Intergalactic Trip with Sustainability Message |url=https://www.folhape.com.br/cultura/coldplay-leva-engenhao-a-viagem-intergalactica-com-mensagem/263632/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230327145018/https://www.folhape.com.br/cultura/coldplay-leva-engenhao-a-viagem-intergalactica-com-mensagem/263632/ |archive-date=27 March 2023 |access-date=27 March 2023 |website=Folha de Pernambuco |language=pt}}</ref>
* 28 March – Rio de Janeiro: "[[Champion of the World (song)|Champion of the World]]" with fans, Seu Jorge and the Velosos again, then "Maria Maria" with [[Milton Nascimento]] and [[Hamilton de Holanda]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Recebe Milton Nascimento, Seu Jorge e Outros Convidados no Último Show de Turnê no Brasil |trans-title=Coldplay Host Milton Nascimento, Seu Jorge and Other Guests at Last Tour Show in Brazil |url=https://g1.globo.com/rj/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2023/03/29/coldplay-encerra-serie-de-shows-no-brasil-recebendo-convidados-no-rio.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230329114814/https://g1.globo.com/rj/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2023/03/29/coldplay-encerra-serie-de-shows-no-brasil-recebendo-convidados-no-rio.ghtml |archive-date=29 March 2023 |access-date=29 March 2023 |website=G1 |language=pt}}</ref>
* 17 May – Coimbra: "[[The Hardest Part (Coldplay song)|The Hardest Part]]" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Coldplay, Primeiro Round em Coimbra: Chuva de Balões, Luzes, Confetti e Hits |trans-title=Coldplay, First Round in Coimbra: Rain of Balloons, Lights, Confetti and Hits |url=https://www.publico.pt/2023/05/18/culturaipsilon/reportagem/coldplay-round-coimbra-chuva-baloes-luzes-confetti-hits-2050100 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127205008/https://www.publico.pt/2023/05/18/culturaipsilon/reportagem/coldplay-round-coimbra-chuva-baloes-luzes-confetti-hits-2050100 |archive-date=27 January 2024 |access-date=27 January 2024 |website=Público |language=pt}}</ref>
* 20 May – Coimbra: "[[Violet Hill]]" with a dedication to Apple Martin.<ref name="EXPRESSO" />
* 21 May – Coimbra: "Como Tu" with [[Bárbara Bandeira]] and Ivandro.<ref name="CARMINHO" />
* 24 May – Barcelona: "[[Proud Mary]]" with the [[Gipsy Kings]].<ref name="CATALUNYA">{{Cite web |date=25 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Cautiva en un Estadi Olímpic con 55,000 Personas en su Primera Noche de Cuatro en Barcelona |trans-title=Coldplay Captivate in an Estadi Olímpic with 55,000 People on Their First Night of Four in Barcelona |url=https://www.europapress.es/catalunya/noticia-coldplay-cautiva-estadi-olimpic-55000-personas-primera-noche-cuatro-barcelona-20230525002002.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230525111737/https://www.europapress.es/catalunya/noticia-coldplay-cautiva-estadi-olimpic-55000-personas-primera-noche-cuatro-barcelona-20230525002002.html |archive-date=25 May 2023 |access-date=25 May 2023 |website=Europa Press |language=es}}</ref>
* 27 May – Barcelona: "Til Kingdom Come" with a fan and "A Mi Manera" with the Gipsy Kings.<ref name="SURIO" />
* 31 May – Manchester: "Green Eyes" with a fan.<ref name="BOURNE" />
* 1 June – Manchester: "[[Everyday Life (song)|Everyday Life]]" with a fan, then "1989" and "Buss Down" with [[Aitch (rapper)|Aitch]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2023 |title=Watch Aitch Join Coldplay on Stage at Manchester Etihad Gig |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-aitch-join-coldplay-on-stage-at-manchester-etihad-gig-footage-setlist-3450999 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216211635/https://www.nme.com/news/music/watch-aitch-join-coldplay-on-stage-at-manchester-etihad-gig-footage-setlist-3450999 |archive-date=16 December 2023 |access-date=16 December 2023 |website=NME}}</ref>
* 3 June – Manchester: "A Rush of Blood to the Head" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1665103600375197697|user=coldplay|title=A Rush Of Blood To The Head #ColdplayManchester|author=Coldplay|date=3 June 2023|access-date=3 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603211207/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1665103600375197697|archive-date=3 June 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 6 June – Cardiff: "Green Eyes" with Kris Williams, "[[Dakota (song)|Dakota]]" with [[Kelly Jones]] and "[[Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]" with the Bridgend Male Choir.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2023 |title=Kelly Jones Joins Coldplay for First Night of Huge Principality Stadium Gigs in Surprise |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/kelly-jones-joins-coldplay-first-27069665 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230606223528/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/kelly-jones-joins-coldplay-first-27069665 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |access-date=6 June 2023 |website=Wales Online}}</ref>
* 7 June – Cardiff: "Charlie Brown" with fans, then Jones and the Bridgend Male Choir again.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=The Beautiful Moment Coldplay's Chris Martin Played Charlie Brown on Piano and Sang for a Woman Who Had Cancer |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/beautiful-moment-coldplays-chris-martin-27078945 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230608131137/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/beautiful-moment-coldplays-chris-martin-27078945 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |website=Wales Online}}
* {{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Fans Praise Coldplay for Epic Two-Night Concert in Cardiff That Had Respect for Welsh Culture |url=https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2023-06-08/coldplay-was-a-night-full-of-light-and-love-with-a-respect-for-wales |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230608131759/https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2023-06-08/coldplay-was-a-night-full-of-light-and-love-with-a-respect-for-wales |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |website=ITV News}}</ref>
* 21 and 22 June – Naples: "[[Everglow (song)|Everglow]]" with a fan and "[[Pino Daniele|Napule È]]".<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 June 2023 |title=I Coldplay a Napoli Omaggiano Pino Daniele |trans-title=Coldplay in Naples Pay Homage to Pino Daniele |url=https://www.rockol.it/news-738064/coldplay-live-napoli-al-maradona-cover-pino-daniele-napule-e |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230622113611/https://www.rockol.it/news-738064/coldplay-live-napoli-al-maradona-cover-pino-daniele-napule-e |archive-date=22 June 2023 |access-date=22 June 2023 |website=Rockol |language=it}}</ref> The former was replaced by "[[Trouble (Coldplay song)|Trouble]]" on the second night.<ref name="NAPOLAY" />
* 26 June – Milan: "Politik" with a fan, then "[[Diamante (Zucchero Fornaciari song)|Diamante]]" and "Hey Man" with [[Zucchero Fornaciari|Zucchero]].<ref name="SUGAR">{{Cite web |date=27 June 2023 |title=I Coldplay alla Scala del Pop (con l'Aiuto di Zucchero) |trans-title=Coldplay at the Ladder of Pop (with Help from Zucchero) |url=https://www.rockol.it/news-738149/coldplay-a-san-siro-zucchero-duetto-recensione-scaletta-video |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230627132623/https://www.rockol.it/news-738149/coldplay-a-san-siro-zucchero-duetto-recensione-scaletta-video |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=27 June 2023 |website=Rockol |language=it}}</ref>
* 28 June – Milan: "Til Kingdom Come" with a fan.<ref name="CONIGLIO">{{Cite web |date=30 June 2023 |title=Coldplay – Live @ San Siro (Milano, 25 & 29/07/2023) |trans-title=Coldplay – Live @ San Siro (Milan, 25 & 29/07/2023) |url=https://www.indieforbunnies.com/2023/06/30/coldplay-live-san-siro-milano-25-29-07-2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230703151650/https://www.indieforbunnies.com/2023/06/30/coldplay-live-san-siro-milano-25-29-07-2023/ |archive-date=3 July 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=Indie for Bunnies |language=it}}</ref>
* 29 June – Milan: "Swallowed in the Sea" with a fan and "[[Eppure sentire (Un senso di te)|Eppure Sentire (Un Senso di Te)]]" with [[Elisa (Italian singer)|Elisa]].<ref name="CONIGLIO" />
* 1 and 2 July – Zürich: "Til Kingdom Come" with fans and "[[Your Song]]".<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=2 July 2023 |title=Coldplay – Til Kingdom Come – Zürich 01/07/2023 (Chris Invites Guests from the Crowd to Sing Along) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7EsaHhmWlg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702204515/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7EsaHhmWlg |archive-date=2 July 2023 |access-date=2 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}
* {{Cite web |date=1 July 2023 |title=So Spektakulär War das Coldplay-Konzert in Zürich |trans-title=That's How Spectacular the Coldplay Concert in Zürich Was |url=https://www.blick.ch/people-tv/schweiz/ceos-freuen-sich-auf-indi-rock-band-im-zuercher-letzigrund-coldplay-heizt-wirtschaftselite-ein-id18716033.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230702003117/https://www.blick.ch/people-tv/schweiz/ceos-freuen-sich-auf-indi-rock-band-im-zuercher-letzigrund-coldplay-heizt-wirtschaftselite-ein-id18716033.html |archive-date=2 July 2023 |access-date=2 July 2023 |website=Blick |language=de}}</ref> The former was replaced by "Everglow" on the second night.<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=2 July 2023 |title=[4K] Coldplay – Everglow w/ Fans on Stage (Live @ Letzigrund Stadion, Zürich 02-07-2023) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAcc2AHEFkA |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703030317/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAcc2AHEFkA |archive-date=3 July 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* 5 and 6 July – Copenhagen: "Daddy" with a fan and "[[Der er et yndigt land|Der er et Yndigt Land]]".<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Forener Musik, Mennesker og Fællesskab i Park |trans-title=Coldplay Unites Music, People and Community in the Park |url=https://poplish.dk/2023/07/06/coldplay-forener-musik-mennesker-og-faellesskab-i-parken/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230706114101/https://poplish.dk/2023/07/06/coldplay-forener-musik-mennesker-og-faellesskab-i-parken/ |archive-date=6 July 2023 |access-date=6 July 2023 |website=Poplish |language=da}}</ref> The former was replaced by "Trouble" on the second night.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1677067709110972417|user=coldplay|title=Trouble #ColdplayCopenhagen|author=Coldplay|date=6 July 2023|access-date=7 July 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230707021205/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1677067709110972417|archive-date=7 July 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 8 July – Gothenburg: "[[Rocket Man (song)|Rocket Man]]", video call with [[Elton John]] and "Let Somebody Go" with a dedication to [[Avicii]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 July 2023 |title=Varm och Vänlig Ullevi-Triumf för Coldplay |trans-title=Warm and Friendly Ullevi Triumph for Coldplay |url=https://www.aftonbladet.se/nojesbladet/musik/a/Mov81R/coldplay-recension-8-juli-pa-ullevi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230708222602/https://www.aftonbladet.se/nojesbladet/musik/a/Mov81R/coldplay-recension-8-juli-pa-ullevi |archive-date=8 July 2023 |access-date=8 July 2023 |website=Aftonbladet |language=sv}}</ref>
* 9 July – Gothenburg: "[[Everybody (Backstreet's Back)]]" and "[[A Sky Full of Stars]]" with a dedication to Avicii.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 July 2023 |title=Recension: Coldplay, Ullevi – Söndag 9 Juli |trans-title=Review: Coldplay, Ullevi – Sunday 9 July |url=https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-söndag-9-juli-1.104450909 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230709220640/https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-s%C3%B6ndag-9-juli-1.104450909 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |access-date=9 July 2023 |website=Göteborgs-Posten |language=sv}}</ref>
* 11 July – Gothenburg: "Everything's Not Lost" with fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 July 2023 |title=Recension: Coldplay, Ullevi, Tisdag – Recension Låt för Låt |trans-title=Review: Coldplay, Ullevi, Tuesday – Review Song by Song |url=https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-tisdag-recension-låt-för-låt-1.104651365 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230712055843/https://www.gp.se/kultur/musik/recension-coldplay-ullevi-tisdag-recension-l%C3%A5t-f%C3%B6r-l%C3%A5t-1.104651365 |archive-date=12 July 2023 |access-date=12 July 2023 |website=Göteborgs-Posten |language=sv}}</ref>
* 12 July – Gothenburg: Improvised birthday song with fans.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1679250532693622785|user=coldplay|title=Happy birthday Jennifer #ColdplayGothenburg|author=Coldplay|date=12 July 2023|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230713022404/https://twitter.com/coldplay/status/1679250532693622785|archive-date=13 July 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 16 July – Amsterdam: "[[Barbie Girl]]" with fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Sorprende al Público con un Cover Inesperado de Barbie Girl en Concierto |trans-title=Coldplay Surprise the Public with an Unexpected Cover of Barbie Girl in Concert |url=https://www.rockandpop.cl/2023/07/coldplay-sorprende-al-publico-con-un-cover-inesperado-de-barbie-girl-en-concierto/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230717020446/https://www.rockandpop.cl/2023/07/coldplay-sorprende-al-publico-con-un-cover-inesperado-de-barbie-girl-en-concierto/ |archive-date=17 July 2023 |access-date=17 July 2023 |website=Rock & Pop |language=es}}</ref>
* 19 July – Amsterdam: "Daddy" with fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2023 |title=Live Blog from Amsterdam |url=https://www.coldplay.com/live-blog-from-amsterdam-on-wednesday/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230719232602/https://www.coldplay.com/live-blog-from-amsterdam-on-wednesday/ |archive-date=19 July 2023 |access-date=19 July 2023 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>
* 22 September – Vancouver: "[[In My Place]]" with fans and "[[(Everything I Do) I Do It for You]]" with [[Bryan Adams]].<ref>{{Cite AV media |date=23 September 2023 |title=Coldplay – In My Place feat. Fan + Husband @ Vancouver BC Place 09/22/23 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NCW7-s4sUdE |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925021256/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NCW7-s4sUdE |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=25 September 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}
* {{Cite web |date=23 September 2023 |title=Iconic Canadian Singer Surprises Fans at Vancouver Coldplay Concert |url=https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/bryan-adams-vancouver-coldplay-concert |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230923193737/https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/bryan-adams-vancouver-coldplay-concert |archive-date=23 September 2023 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Daily Hive}}</ref>
* 23 September – Vancouver: Improvised birthday song with fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 September 2023 |title=Coldplay Gives Young Fan Unforgettable Birthday Gift During Vancouver Concert |url=https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/coldplay-young-fan-birthday-song |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230927025805/https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/coldplay-young-fan-birthday-song |archive-date=27 September 2023 |access-date=27 September 2023 |website=Daily Hive}}</ref>
* 28 September – San Diego: "Abantabani" with the Mzansi Youth Choir.<ref name="ZULU">{{Cite web |date=8 November 2023 |title=South Africa's Most Talented Youth Choir Performing in Durban |url=https://www.citizen.co.za/berea-mail/news-headlines/2023/11/08/south-africas-most-talented-youth-choir-performing-in-durban/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231108121908/https://www.citizen.co.za/berea-mail/news-headlines/2023/11/08/south-africas-most-talented-youth-choir-performing-in-durban/ |archive-date=8 November 2023 |access-date=8 November 2023 |website=The Citizen}}</ref>
* 30 September – Pasadena: The Mzansi Youth Choir again.<ref name="ZULU" />
* 6 November – Tokyo: "The Astronaut" with a dedication to Jin.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 November 2023 |title=Watch Coldplay's Acoustic Cover of The Astronaut by BTS' Jin |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-perform-acoustic-cover-the-astronaut-bts-jin-3532619 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231107154916/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-perform-acoustic-cover-the-astronaut-bts-jin-3532619 |archive-date=7 November 2023 |access-date=7 November 2023 |website=NME}}</ref>
* 11 November – Kaohsiung: "In My Place" with fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 高雄演唱會「飆台語」問1句話！讚台灣是「美麗的國家」 |trans-title=Coldplay Ask a Question in Taiwanese at Kaohsiung Concert! Praise Taiwan as a Beautiful Country |url=https://www.setn.com/news.aspx?newsid=1381828 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231112035752/https://www.setn.com/news.aspx?newsid=1381828 |archive-date=12 November 2023 |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=SETN |language=zh}}</ref>
* 15 November – Jakarta: "Senja Teduh Pelita" with [[Maliq & D'Essentials|Maliq & D'essentials]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=Maliq & D'essentials Jadi Penampil Kejutan di Konser Coldplay Jakarta |trans-title=Maliq & D'essentials Become Surprise Performers at Coldplay Jakarta Concert |url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20231116023513-227-1024842/maliq-dessentials-jadi-penampil-kejutan-di-konser-coldplay-jakarta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231115235028/https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20231116023513-227-1024842/maliq-dessentials-jadi-penampil-kejutan-di-konser-coldplay-jakarta |archive-date=15 November 2023 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=CNN Indonesia |language=id}}</ref>
* 18 November – Perth: "Song for Australia".<ref name="KANE">{{Cite web |date=20 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Music of the Spheres 2023 Australian Tour Setlists |url=https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-2023-australian-tour-setlists/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120000042/https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-2023-australian-tour-setlists/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=Music Feeds}}</ref>
* 19 November – Perth: "Song for Shane".<ref name="KANE" />
* 22 November – Kuala Lumpur: "Sparks" with a dedication to a dead fan and "Malaysian Rain".<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 November 2023 |title=It Actually Happened, Coldplay Performed Here in Malaysia! |url=https://www.therakyatpost.com/fun/2023/11/23/it-actually-happened-coldplay-performed-here-in-malaysia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123214415/https://www.therakyatpost.com/fun/2023/11/23/it-actually-happened-coldplay-performed-here-in-malaysia/ |archive-date=23 November 2023 |access-date=23 November 2023 |website=The Rakyat Post}}</ref>
;2024
* 19 January – Bocaue: "Raining in Manila" with [[Lola Amour]].<ref name="PAGULONG" />
* 20 January – Bocaue: "Local Traffic Song" and "[[Uhaw]]" with [[Dilaw]].<ref name="PAGULONG" />
* 24 January – Singapore: "Us Against the World" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1750181939879760275 |user=coldplayaccess |title=Setlist #ColdplaySingapore 2/6 |author=Coldplay Access |date=24 January 2024 |access-date=27 January 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240127053905/https://twitter.com/coldplayaccess/status/1750181939879760275 |archive-date=27 January 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* 27 January – Singapore: "Charlie Brown" with a fan.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1751251606572618100 |user=coldplayaccess |title=Setlist #ColdplaySingapore 4/6 |author=Coldplay Access |date=27 January 2024 |access-date=27 January 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240127155447/https://twitter.com/coldplayaccess/status/1751251606572618100 |archive-date=27 January 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* 4 February – Bangkok: "Warning Sign" with a fan and "A Moment" with Zweed N' Roll.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2024 |title= |script-title=th:รีวิวคอนเสิร์ต Coldplay Live in Bangkok 2024 |trans-title=Coldplay Live in Bangkok 2024 Concert Review |url=https://spacebar.th/culture/space-review-coldplay-live-in-bangkok-2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240205154648/https://spacebar.th/culture/space-review-coldplay-live-in-bangkok-2024 |archive-date=5 February 2024 |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=Spacebar |language=th}}</ref>
;Recurrent
<!-- The following songs have been performed three or more times in the same city. Do not add songs which were only played twice. -->
* Buenos Aires – "[[De Música Ligera]]" on all dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2022 |title=En Una Galaxia Muy Lejana: Cómo Fue El Primer Show de La Residencia de Coldplay en Buenos Aires |trans-title=In a Very Distant Galaxy: How the First Show of Coldplay's Buenos Aires Residency Went |url=https://es.rollingstone.com/en-una-galaxia-muy-lejana-como-fue-el-primer-show-de-la-residencia-de-coldplay-en-buenos-aires-slug/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221026185636/https://es.rollingstone.com/en-una-galaxia-muy-lejana-como-fue-el-primer-show-de-la-residencia-de-coldplay-en-buenos-aires-slug/ |archive-date=26 October 2022 |access-date=26 October 2022 |website=Rolling Stone Argentina |language=es}}</ref> The song featured Alberti and Bosio on the last two nights.<ref name="TELAM" />
* Coimbra – "[[Fernando Machado Soares|Balada da Despedida]]" on all dates.<ref name="CARMINHO" /> The song featured Bandeira on the last two nights and [[Carminho]] joined her for the final one.<ref name="CARMINHO" />
* Barcelona – "[[Bamboléo]]" and "[[Nel blu, dipinto di blu (song)|Volare]]" with the Gipsy Kings on all dates.<ref name="CATALUNYA" />
* Manchester – "[[Sit Down (song)|Sit Down]]" on all dates.<ref name="BOURNE" /> The song featured [[Tim Booth]] on the last two nights.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 June 2023 |title=Coldplay: Vocalista dos James Canta Sit Down com Chris Martin Durante Concert |trans-title=Coldplay: James Vocalist Sings Sit Down with Chris Martin During Concert |url=https://mag.sapo.pt/musica/artigos/coldplay-vocalista-dos-james-canta-sit-down-com-chris-martin-durante-concerto |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230604181626/https://mag.sapo.pt/musica/artigos/coldplay-vocalista-dos-james-canta-sit-down-com-chris-martin-durante-concerto |archive-date=4 June 2023 |access-date=4 June 2023 |website=SAPO |language=pt}}</ref>
* Milan – "[[Oh mia bela Madunina|Oh Mia Bela Madunina]]" in the first three dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2023 |title=Coldplay, il Duetto a Sorpresa con Zucchero nel Concerto a San Siro |trans-title=Coldplay, the Surprise Duet with Zucchero in the Concert at San Siro |url=https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2023/06/27/coldplay-concerto-milano-zucchero |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230627132352/https://tg24.sky.it/spettacolo/musica/2023/06/27/coldplay-concerto-milano-zucchero |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=27 June 2023 |website=Sky TG24 |language=it}}</ref> The song featured Zucchero on the second night.<ref name="SUGAR" />
* Various – "Everglow",<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 September 2022 |title=Cantando en Español y un Fan en el Escenario: La Segunda Noche de Coldplay en Chile |trans-title=Singing in Spanish and a Fan on the Stage: Coldplay's Second Night in Chile |url=https://www.latercera.com/culto/2022/09/22/cantando-en-espanol-y-un-fan-en-el-escenario-la-segunda-noche-de-coldplay-en-chile/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220922213125/https://www.latercera.com/culto/2022/09/22/cantando-en-espanol-y-un-fan-en-el-escenario-la-segunda-noche-de-coldplay-en-chile/ |archive-date=22 September 2022 |access-date=22 September 2022 |website=La Tercera |language=es}}
* {{Cite web |date=8 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Wins Praise at Tokyo Concert After Performing Song for Fan Who Lost Her Husband |url=https://cnalifestyle.channelnewsasia.com/entertainment/coldplay-everglow-tokyo-concert-377226 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231108023116/https://cnalifestyle.channelnewsasia.com/entertainment/coldplay-everglow-tokyo-concert-377226 |archive-date=8 November 2023 |access-date=8 November 2023 |website=CNA Lifestyle}}</ref> "Fly On",<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2022 |title=Chris Martin Abandons Messy Coldplay Performance |url=https://britpopnews.com/chris-martin-abandons-messy-coldplay-performance/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230303211539/https://britpopnews.com/chris-martin-abandons-messy-coldplay-performance/ |archive-date=3 March 2023 |access-date=3 March 2023 |website=Brit Pop News}}
* {{Cite web |date=21 September 2023 |title=Review: Coldplay Shows Two Decades of Evolution at Sold-Out Seattle Concert |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/entertainment/music/coldplay-brings-evening-singalong-to-seattle/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921201312/https://www.seattletimes.com/entertainment/music/coldplay-brings-evening-singalong-to-seattle/ |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=The Seattle Times}}</ref> and "[[Up&Up]]" were the most frequent Songbook requests.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Pakt de Johan Cruijff Arena Van Voor Naar Achter In |trans-title=Coldplay Packs the Johan Cruyff Arena from Front to Back |url=https://www.parool.nl/kunst-media/coldplay-pakt-de-johan-cruijff-arena-van-voor-naar-achter-in~bbdd1384/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230715224551/https://www.parool.nl/kunst-media/coldplay-pakt-de-johan-cruijff-arena-van-voor-naar-achter-in~bbdd1384/ |archive-date=15 July 2023 |access-date=15 July 2023 |website=Het Parool |language=nl}}
* {{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:台上脫口中文髒話! Coldplay 接地氣粉絲嗨翻 |trans-title=Swearing in Chinese on Stage! Coldplay's Down-to-Earth Fans are Enjoying It |url=https://hk.news.yahoo.com/%E5%8F%B0%E4%B8%8A%E8%84%AB%E5%8F%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E9%AB%92%E8%A9%B1-coldplay%E6%8E%A5%E5%9C%B0%E6%B0%A3%E7%B2%89%E7%B5%B2%E5%97%A8%E7%BF%BB-075048463.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231114024410/https://hk.news.yahoo.com/%E5%8F%B0%E4%B8%8A%E8%84%AB%E5%8F%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E9%AB%92%E8%A9%B1-coldplay%E6%8E%A5%E5%9C%B0%E6%B0%A3%E7%B2%89%E7%B5%B2%E5%97%A8%E7%BF%BB-075048463.html?guccounter=1 |archive-date=14 November 2023 |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=Yahoo! News Taiwan |language=zh}}</ref>
== Tour dates ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+List of 2022 concerts, showing date, city, country, venue, opening acts, attendance and gross revenue<ref name="POLLSTAR" />
|-
! scope="col" style="width:12em;" |Date (2022)
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |City
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Country
! scope="col" style="width:16em;" |Venue
! scope="col" style="width:11em;" |Opening acts
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Attendance
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Revenue
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |18 March
| rowspan="2" |[[San José, Costa Rica|San José]]
| rowspan="2" |Costa Rica
| rowspan="2" |[[Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica (2011)|Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica]]
| rowspan="2" |[[H.E.R.]]<br/>[[MishCatt]]
| rowspan="2" |86,199 / 86,199
| rowspan="2" |$5,687,127
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |19 March
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |22 March
| [[Santo Domingo]]
| Dominican Republic
| [[Félix Sánchez Olympic Stadium|Estadio Olímpico Félix Sánchez]]
| H.E.R.<br/>La Marimba
| 30,524 / 30,524
| $2,571,873
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |25 March
| rowspan="2" |[[Guadalupe, Nuevo León|Guadalupe]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Monterrey]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan="8" |Mexico
| rowspan="2" |[[Estadio BBVA]]
| rowspan="8" |[[Carla Morrison]]<br/>[[DannyLux]]
| rowspan="2" |112,262 / 112,262
| rowspan="2" |$8,996,432
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |26 March
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |29 March
| rowspan="2" |[[Zapopan]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Guadalajara]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan="2" |[[Estadio Akron]]
| rowspan="2" |90,153 / 90,153
| rowspan="2" |$8,190,681
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |30 March
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |3 April
| rowspan="4" |[[Mexico City]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Foro Sol]]
| rowspan="4" |259,591 / 259,591
| rowspan="4" |$19,544,924
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |4 April
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |6 April
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |7 April
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |6 May
| [[Dallas]]
| rowspan="12" |United States
| [[Cotton Bowl (stadium)|Cotton Bowl]]
| H.E.R.<br/>Leila Pari
| 58,669 / 58,669
| $6,065,763
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |8 May
| [[Houston]]
| [[NRG Stadium]]
| H.E.R.<br/>Alaina Castillo
| 46,959 / 46,959
| $5,413,072
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |12 May{{efn|The concert in Glendale on 12 May 2022 was originally scheduled for 3 May 2022, but it was rescheduled due to logistical reasons.<ref name="USTOUR">{{Cite web |date=28 January 2022 |title=Coldplay Postpones Bay Area, Los Angeles, Phoenix Stadium Shows |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2022/01/28/coldplay-postpones-bay-area-los-angeles-phoenix-stadium-shows/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220308055300/https://www.mercurynews.com/2022/01/28/coldplay-postpones-bay-area-los-angeles-phoenix-stadium-shows/ |archive-date=8 March 2022 |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=The Mercury News}}</ref>}}
| [[Glendale, Arizona|Glendale]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] in promotional material.}}
| [[State Farm Stadium]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Kacy Hill]]
| 42,849 / 42,849
| $3,542,528
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |15 May{{efn|The concert in Santa Clara on 15 May 2022 was originally scheduled for 23 April 2022, but it was rescheduled due to logistical reasons.<ref name="USTOUR" />}}
| [[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]]
| [[Levi's Stadium]]
| H.E.R.<br/>Bobby Gonz
| 50,791 / 50,791
| $5,861,025
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |28 May
| rowspan="2" |[[Chicago]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Soldier Field]]
| rowspan="2" |H.E.R.<br/>[[Drama (American band)|Drama]]
| rowspan="2" |107,072 / 107,072
| rowspan="2" |$10,969,930
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |29 May
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |1 June
| [[Landover, Maryland|Landover]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Washington, D.C.]] in promotional material.}}
| [[FedExField]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Shaed]]
| 47,133 / 47,133
| $5,196,389
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |4 June
| rowspan="2" |[[East Rutherford, New Jersey|East Rutherford]]
| rowspan="2" |[[MetLife Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |H.E.R.<br/>[[Bea Miller]]
| rowspan="2" |117,240 / 117,240
| rowspan="2" |$13,153,892
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |5 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |8 June
| [[Philadelphia]]
| [[Lincoln Financial Field]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Lizzy McAlpine]]
| 57,415 / 57,415
| $5,606,712
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |11 June
| [[Atlanta]]
| [[Mercedes-Benz Stadium]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Mariah the Scientist]]
| 54,059 / 54,059
| $5,913,613
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |14 June
| [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]
| [[Raymond James Stadium]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Gigi (Canadian band)|Gigi]]
| 55,980 / 55,980
| $6,300,175
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |2 July
| rowspan="3" |[[Frankfurt]]
| rowspan="3" |Germany
| rowspan="3" |[[Waldstadion (Frankfurt)|Deutsche Bank Park]]
| rowspan="2" |H.E.R.<br/>Alli Neumann
| rowspan="3" |138,282 / 138,282
| rowspan="3" |$13,745,935
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |3 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |5 July
| [[London Grammar]]<br/>Alli Neumann
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |8 July
| [[Warsaw]]
| Poland
| [[Stadion Narodowy|PGE Narodowy]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Mery Spolsky]]
| 57,574 / 57,574
| $4,576,813
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |10 July{{efn|name=WEES}}
| rowspan="3" |[[Berlin]]
| rowspan="3" |Germany
| rowspan="3" |[[Olympiastadion (Berlin)|Olympiastadion]]
| London Grammar<br/>Alli Neumann
| rowspan="3" |216,535 / 216,535
| rowspan="3" |$20,389,783
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |12 July{{efn|name=WEES}}
| rowspan="2" |H.E.R.<br/>Alli Neumann
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |13 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |16 July
| rowspan="4" |[[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Paris]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan="4" |France
| rowspan="4" |[[Stade de France]]
| rowspan="2" |H.E.R.<br/>Gaumar
| rowspan="4" |318,331 / 318,331
| rowspan="4" |$28,035,164
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |17 July{{efn|The concert in Saint-Denis on 17 July 2022 included an audio-only broadcast for free on Coldplay's mobile tour application.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2022 |title=Live Audio Stream From Paris Through The App |url=https://www.coldplay.com/live-audio-stream-from-paris-through-the-app/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712161845/https://www.coldplay.com/live-audio-stream-from-paris-through-the-app/ |archive-date=12 July 2022 |access-date=12 July 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |19 July
| rowspan="2" | London Grammar<br/>[[Lous and the Yakuza]]
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |20 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |5 August
| rowspan="4" |[[City of Brussels|Brussels]]
| rowspan="4" |Belgium
| rowspan="4" |[[King Baudouin Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |H.E.R.<br/>Lous and the Yakuza
| rowspan="4" |224,719 / 224,719
| rowspan="4" |$20,007,105
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |6 August
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |8 August
| rowspan="2" |London Grammar<br/>Lous and the Yakuza
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |9 August
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |12 August
| rowspan="6" |[[London]]
| rowspan="6" |England
| rowspan="6" |[[Wembley Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |H.E.R.<br/>[[Griff (singer)|Griff]]
| rowspan="6" |464,839 / 464,839
| rowspan="6" |$49,209,920
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |13 August
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |16 August
| London Grammar<br/>[[Ibibio Sound Machine]]
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |17 August
| H.E.R.<br/>Ibibio Sound Machine
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |20 August
| rowspan="2" |London Grammar<br/>[[Laura Mvula]]
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |21 August{{efn|The concert in London on 21 August 2022 was originally scheduled for 19 August 2022, but it was rescheduled due to [[London Underground]] workers' national strike.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 August 2022 |title=19 August Wembley Show Moves To 21 August |url=https://www.coldplay.com/19-august-wembley-show-moves-to-21-august/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220803160805/https://www.coldplay.com/19-august-wembley-show-moves-to-21-august/ |archive-date=3 August 2022 |access-date=3 August 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |23 August
| rowspan="2" |[[Glasgow]]
| rowspan="2" |Scotland
| rowspan="2" |[[Hampden Park]]
| H.E.R.<br/>[[Nina Nesbitt]]
| rowspan="2" |106,209 / 106,209
| rowspan="2" |$10,402,757
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |24 August
| London Grammar<br/>Nina Nesbitt
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |10 September{{efn|The concert in Rio de Janeiro on 10 September 2022 was part of the [[Rock in Rio]] festival.<ref name="CPRIR" />}}
| [[Rio de Janeiro]]
| Brazil
| [[Barra Olympic Park]]
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 13 September{{efn|The concert in Lima on 13 September 2022 was originally scheduled for 20 September 2022, but it was rescheduled due to logistical reasons.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2022 |title=Coldplay Confirma Segunda Presentación en Lima y Primer Concierto Cambia de Fecha |trans-title=Coldplay Confirms Second Presentation in Lima and First Concert Changes Date |url=https://rpp.pe/musica/conciertos/coldplay-confirma-segunda-presentacion-en-lima-y-primer-concierto-cambia-de-fecha-noticia-1398167 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426004559/https://rpp.pe/musica/conciertos/coldplay-confirma-segunda-presentacion-en-lima-y-primer-concierto-cambia-de-fecha-noticia-1398167 |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=RPP |language=es}}</ref>}}
| rowspan="2" |[[Lima]]
| rowspan="2" |Peru
| rowspan="2" |[[National Stadium of Peru|Estadio Nacional del Perú]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Camila Cabello]]<br/>Andrea Martinez
| rowspan="2" |85,845 / 85,845
| rowspan="2" |$9,242,799
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |14 September
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |16 September
| rowspan="2" |[[Bogotá]]
| rowspan="2" |Colombia
| rowspan="2" |[[Estadio El Campín]]
| rowspan="2" |Camila Cabello<br/>Mabiland
| rowspan="2" |88,314 / 88,314
| rowspan="2" |$8,062,927
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |17 September
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |20 September
| rowspan="4" |[[Santiago]]
| rowspan="4" |Chile
| rowspan="4" |[[Estadio Nacional Julio Martínez Prádanos|Estadio Nacional de Chile]]
| rowspan="4" |Camila Cabello<br/>Princesa Alba
| rowspan="4" |256,916 / 256,916
| rowspan="4" |$15,886,887
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |21 September
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |23 September
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |24 September
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |25 October
| rowspan="10" |[[Buenos Aires]]
| rowspan="10" |Argentina
| rowspan="10" |[[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]]
| rowspan="5" |H.E.R.<br/>[[Zoe Gotusso]]
| rowspan="10" |626,841 / 626,841
| rowspan="10" |$49,695,814
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |26 October
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |28 October{{efn|The concert in Buenos Aires on 28 October 2022 was broadcast in various cinemas worldwide.<ref name="KAUFMAN" />}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |29 October
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |1 November
|-
! scope="row" style=text-align:center;"|2 November{{efn|name=CAVA}}
| H.E.R.<br/>Clara Cava
|-
! scope="row" style=text-align:center;"|4 November
| rowspan="4" |H.E.R.<br/>Zoe Gotusso
|-
! scope="row" style=text-align:center;"|5 November
|-
! scope="row" style=text-align:center;"|7 November
|-
! scope="row" style=text-align:center;"|8 November
|}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+List of 2023 concerts, showing date, city, country, venue, opening acts, attendance and gross revenue<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Year-End Top 300 Concert Grosses |url=https://data.pollstar.com/Chart/2024/01/121123_ye.top300.concert.grosses_digital_1040.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226172312/https://data.pollstar.com/Chart/2024/01/121123_ye.top300.concert.grosses_digital_1040.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2024 |access-date=26 February 2024 |website=Pollstar}}
* {{Cite web |date=23 December 2023 |title=RBD Conquista el No. 1 del Billboard Boxscore de Noviembre |trans-title=RBD Conquers the No. 1 on November's Billboard Boxscore |url=https://www.billboard.com/espanol/noticias/rbd-gira-no-1-boxscore-noviembre-2023-1235564856/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208023010/https://www.billboard.com/espanol/noticias/rbd-gira-no-1-boxscore-noviembre-2023-1235564856/ |archive-date=8 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=Billboard |language=es}}</ref>
|-
! scope="col" style="width:12em;" |Date (2023)
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |City
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Country
! scope="col" style="width:16em;" |Venue
! scope="col" style="width:11em;" |Opening acts
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Attendance
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Revenue
|-
! scope="row" style=text-align:center;"|10 March{{efn|name=CSP|The concerts in São Paulo on 10–18 March 2023 were originally scheduled for 15–22 October 2022 at [[Allianz Parque]], but they were rescheduled due to illness.<ref name="MORUMBI">{{Cite web |date=10 October 2022 |title=Coldplay Anuncia Novas Datas de Shows no Brasil |trans-title=Coldplay Announce New Dates for Shows in Brazil |url=https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/10/10/coldplay-anuncia-novas-datas-de-shows-no-brasil-show-em-sp-mudou-de-local.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221010162311/https://www.uol.com.br/splash/noticias/2022/10/10/coldplay-anuncia-novas-datas-de-shows-no-brasil-show-em-sp-mudou-de-local.htm |archive-date=10 October 2022 |access-date=10 October 2022 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref>}}
| rowspan="6" |[[São Paulo]]
| rowspan="11" |Brazil
| rowspan="6" |[[Estádio do Morumbi]]
| rowspan="6" |[[Chvrches]]<br/>Elana Dara
| rowspan="6" |439,651 / 439,651
| rowspan="6" |$40,104,881
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |11 March{{efn|name=CSP}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |13 March{{efn|name=CSP}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |14 March{{efn|name=CSP}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |17 March{{efn|name=CSP}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |18 March{{efn|name=CSP}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |21 March
| rowspan="2" |[[Curitiba]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Estádio Couto Pereira]]
| rowspan="5" |Chvrches<br/>Clara x Sofia
| rowspan="2" |85,776 / 85,776
| rowspan="2" |$8,126,841
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |22 March
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |25 March{{efn|name=CRJ|The concerts in Rio de Janeiro on 25 and 26 March 2023 were originally scheduled for 11 and 12 October 2022, but they were rescheduled due to illness.<ref name="MORUMBI" />}}
| rowspan="3" |Rio de Janeiro
| rowspan="3" |[[Estádio Olímpico Nilton Santos]]
| rowspan="3" |211,012 / 211,012
| rowspan="3" |$17,204,664
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |26 March{{efn|name=CRJ}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |28 March
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |17 May
| rowspan="4" |[[Coimbra]]
| rowspan="4" |Portugal
| rowspan="4" |[[Estádio Cidade de Coimbra]]
| rowspan="4" |Griff<br/>[[Bárbara Bandeira]]
| rowspan="4" |208,284 / 208,284
| rowspan="4" |$21,473,885
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |18 May
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |20 May
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |21 May
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |24 May
| rowspan="4" |[[Barcelona]]
| rowspan="4" |Spain
| rowspan="4" |[[Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys]]
| rowspan="2" |Chvrches<br/>[[Hinds (band)|Hinds]]
| rowspan="4" |224,761 / 224,761
| rowspan="4" |$27,262,896
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |25 May
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |27 May
| rowspan="2" |Chvrches<br/>[[Mafalda (British singer)|Ona Mafalda]]
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |28 May
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |31 May{{efn|name=OASIS}}
| rowspan="4" |[[Manchester]]
| rowspan="4" |England
| rowspan="4" |[[City of Manchester Stadium|Etihad Stadium]]
| rowspan="4" |Chvrches<br/>Porij
| rowspan="4" |195,874 / 195,874
| rowspan="4" |$24,164,085
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |1 June{{efn|name=OASIS}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |3 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |4 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |6 June
| rowspan="2" |[[Cardiff]]
| rowspan="2" |Wales
| rowspan="2" |[[Millennium Stadium|Principality Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |Chvrches<br/>[[Hana Lili]]
| rowspan="2" |119,280 / 119,280
| rowspan="2" |$14,151,135
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |7 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |21 June
| rowspan="2" |[[Naples]]
| rowspan="6" |Italy
| rowspan="2" |[[Stadio Diego Armando Maradona]]
| rowspan="2" |Chvrches<br/>Laila al Habash
| rowspan="2" |93,341 / 93,341
| rowspan="2" |$9,856,532
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |22 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |25 June
| rowspan="4" |[[Milan]]
| rowspan="4" |[[San Siro]]
| rowspan="4" |Chvrches<br/>[[Mara Sattei]]
| rowspan="4" |249,560 / 249,560
| rowspan="4" |$29,439,180
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |26 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |28 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |29 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |1 July
| rowspan="2" |[[Zürich]]
| rowspan="2" |Switzerland
| rowspan="2" |[[Letzigrund]]
| rowspan="2" |Griff<br/>Caroline Alves
| rowspan="2" |95,055 / 95,055
| rowspan="2" |$14,972,413
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |2 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |5 July{{efn|name=LAND}}
| rowspan="2" |[[Copenhagen]]
| rowspan="2" |Denmark
| rowspan="2" |[[Parken Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |Griff<br/>[[Oh Land]]
| rowspan="2" |98,646 / 98,646
| rowspan="2" |$12,230,710
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |6 July{{efn|name=LAND}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |8 July
| rowspan="4" |[[Gothenburg]]
| rowspan="4" |Sweden
| rowspan="4" |[[Ullevi]]
| rowspan="4" |Griff<br/>Luciia
| rowspan="4" |267,180 / 267,180
| rowspan="4" |$26,242,821
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |9 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |11 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |12 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |15 July
| rowspan="4" |[[Amsterdam]]
| rowspan="4" |Netherlands
| rowspan="4" |[[Johan Cruyff Arena]]
| rowspan="4" |Griff<br/>Zoë Tauran
| rowspan="4" |217,609 / 217,609
| rowspan="4" |$30,322,573
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |16 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |18 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |19 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |20 September
| [[Seattle]]
| United States
| [[Lumen Field]]
| rowspan="7" |H.E.R.<br/>[[070 Shake]]<br/>Bobby Gonz
| 60,342 / 60,342
| $8,124,415
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |22 September
| rowspan="2" |[[Vancouver]]
| rowspan="2" |Canada
| rowspan="2" |[[BC Place]]
| rowspan="2" |89,645 / 89,645
| rowspan="2" |$12,405,572
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |23 September
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |27 September
| rowspan="2" |[[San Diego]]
| rowspan="4" |United States
| rowspan="2" |[[Snapdragon Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |64,130 / 64,130
| rowspan="2" |$10,355,147
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |28 September
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |30 September
| rowspan="2" |[[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]]{{efn-lr|name=LAX|Labelled as [[Los Angeles]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan="2" |[[Rose Bowl (stadium)|Rose Bowl]]
| rowspan="2" |136,043 / 136,043
| rowspan="2" |$19,019,116
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |1 October
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |6 November
| rowspan="2" |[[Tokyo]]
| rowspan="2" |Japan
| rowspan="2" |[[Tokyo Dome]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Yoasobi]]
| rowspan="2" |97,267 / 97,267
| rowspan="2" |$13,726,445
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |7 November
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |11 November
| rowspan="2" |[[Kaohsiung]]
| rowspan="2" |Taiwan
| rowspan="2" |[[National Stadium (Kaohsiung)|Kaohsiung National Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Accusefive]]
| rowspan="2" |102,949 / 102,949
| rowspan="2" |$15,159,017
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |12 November
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |15 November
| [[Jakarta]]
| Indonesia
| [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]]
| Rahmania Astrini
| 78,541 / 78,541
| $13,893,822
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |18 November
| rowspan="2" |[[Perth]]
| rowspan="2" |Australia
| rowspan="2" |[[Perth Stadium|Optus Stadium]]
| [[Amy Shark]]<br/>[[Thelma Plum]]<br/>Adrian Dzvuke
| rowspan="2" |124,883 / 124,883
| rowspan="2" |$13,888,883
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |19 November
| [[Tash Sultana]]<br/>Thelma Plum<br/>King Ibis
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |22 November
| [[Kuala Lumpur]]
| Malaysia
| [[Bukit Jalil National Stadium]]
| Bunga
| 81,812 / 81,812
| $10,904,369
|}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+List of 2024 concerts, showing date, city, country, venue, opening acts, attendance and gross revenue<ref name="ALLEN" />
|-
! scope="col" style="width:12em;" |Date (2024)
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |City
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Country
! scope="col" style="width:16em;" |Venue
! scope="col" style="width:11em;" |Opening acts
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Attendance
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Revenue
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |19 January
| rowspan="2" |[[Bocaue, Bulacan|Bocaue]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Manila]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan="2" |Philippines
| rowspan="2" |[[Philippine Arena]]
| rowspan="2" |Jikamarie
| rowspan="2" |96,079 / 96,079
| rowspan="2" |$15,425,465
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |20 January
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |23 January
| colspan="2" rowspan="6" |[[Singapore]]
| rowspan="6" |[[National Stadium, Singapore|Singapore National Stadium]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Jasmine Sokko]]<br/>Jinan Laetitia
| rowspan="6" |321,113 / 321,113
| rowspan="6" |$43,362,247
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |24 January
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |26 January
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |27 January
| rowspan="3" |[[Sandra Riley Tang|Rriley]]<br/>Jinan Laetitia
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |30 January
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |31 January
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |3 February
| rowspan="2" |[[Bangkok]]
| rowspan="2" |Thailand
| rowspan="2" |[[Rajamangala Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |Valentina Ploy
| rowspan="2" |106,027 / 106,027
| rowspan="2" |$16,878,887
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |4 February
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |8 June
| rowspan="2" |[[Athens]]
| rowspan="2" |Greece
| rowspan="2" |[[Olympic Stadium (Athens)|Olympic Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Maisie Peters]]<br/>Antonia Kaouri
| rowspan="2" |—
| rowspan="2" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |9 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |12 June
| rowspan="2" |[[Bucharest]]
| rowspan="2" |Romania
| rowspan="2" |[[Arena Națională]]
| rowspan="2" |Maisie Peters<br/>[[Emaa]]
| rowspan="2" |—
| rowspan="2" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |13 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |16 June
| rowspan="3" |[[Budapest]]
| rowspan="3" |Hungary
| rowspan="3" |[[Puskás Aréna]]
| rowspan="3" |Maisie Peters<br/>Solére
| rowspan="3" |—
| rowspan="3" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |18 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |19 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |22 June
| rowspan="3" |[[Décines-Charpieu]]{{efn-lr|Labelled as [[Lyon]] in promotional material.}}
| rowspan="3" |France
| rowspan="3" |[[Parc Olympique Lyonnais|Groupama Stadium]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Janelle Monáe]]<br/>Ronisia
| rowspan="3" |—
| rowspan="3" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |23 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |25 June
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |29 June{{efn|The concert in Pilton on 29 June 2024 will be part of the [[Glastonbury Festival]].<ref name="THOMAS" />}}
| [[Pilton, Somerset|Pilton]]
| England
| [[Glastonbury Festival#Location|Worthy Farm]]
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |12 July
| rowspan="4" |[[Rome]]
| rowspan="4" |Italy
| rowspan="4" |[[Stadio Olimpico]]
| rowspan="4" |Janelle Monáe<br/>[[Rose Villain]]
| rowspan="4" |—
| rowspan="4" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |13 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |15 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |16 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |20 July
| rowspan="3" |[[Düsseldorf]]
| rowspan="3" |Germany
| rowspan="3" |[[Merkur Spiel-Arena]]
| rowspan="3" |Janelle Monáe<br/>[[Zoe Wees]]
| rowspan="3" |—
| rowspan="3" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |21 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |23 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |27 July
| rowspan="4" |[[Helsinki]]
| rowspan="4" |Finland
| rowspan="4" |[[Helsinki Olympic Stadium]]
| rowspan="4" |Maisie Peters<br/>[[Alma (Finnish singer)|Alma]]
| rowspan="4" |—
| rowspan="4" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |28 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |30 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |31 July
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |15 August
| rowspan="3" |[[Munich]]
| rowspan="3" |Germany
| rowspan="3" |[[Olympiastadion (Munich)|Olympiastadion]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Maggie Rogers]]<br/>Wilhelmine
| rowspan="3" |—
| rowspan="3" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |17 August
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |18 August
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |21 August
| rowspan="4" |[[Vienna]]
| rowspan="4" |Austria
| rowspan="4" |[[Ernst-Happel-Stadion]]
| rowspan="4" |Maggie Rogers<br/>Oska
| rowspan="4" |—
| rowspan="4" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |22 August
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |24 August
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |25 August
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |29 August
| rowspan="4" |[[Dublin]]
| rowspan="4" |Ireland
| rowspan="4" |[[Croke Park]]
| rowspan="4" |Maggie Rogers<br/>Aby Coulibaly
| rowspan="4" |—
| rowspan="4" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |30 August
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |1 September
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |2 September
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |30 October
| rowspan="4" |[[Melbourne]]
| rowspan="8" |Australia
| rowspan="4" |[[Docklands Stadium|Marvel Stadium]]
| rowspan="11" |[[PinkPantheress]]<br/>Emmanuel Kelly
| rowspan="4" |—
| rowspan="4" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |31 October
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |2 November
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |3 November
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |6 November
| rowspan="4" |[[Sydney]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Stadium Australia|Accor Stadium]]
| rowspan="4" |—
| rowspan="4" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |7 November
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |9 November
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |10 November
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |13 November
| rowspan="3" |[[Auckland]]
| rowspan="3" |New Zealand
| rowspan="3" |[[Eden Park]]
| rowspan="3" |—
| rowspan="3" |—
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |15 November
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |16 November
|-
! colspan="5" |Total
! 7,667,658 / 7,667,658 (100%)
! $810,966,041
|}
== Cancelled shows ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+List of 2022 cancelled concerts, showing date, city, country, venue and reason
|-
! scope="col" style="width:12em;" |Date (2022)
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |City
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Country
! scope="col" style="width:16em;" |Venue
! scope="col" style="width:29.95em;" |Reason
! scope="col" class="unsortable" |{{Abbr|Ref.|References}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |26 April
| rowspan="2" |[[Inglewood, California|Inglewood]]{{efn-lr|name=LAX}}
| rowspan="2" |United States
| rowspan="2" |[[SoFi Stadium]]
| rowspan="2" |Logistic and production issues
| rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2022 |title=SoFi Stadium Shows Update |url=https://www.coldplay.com/sofi-stadium-shows-update/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520173023/https://www.coldplay.com/sofi-stadium-shows-update/ |archive-date=20 May 2022 |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" |30 April
|}
== Personnel ==
Credits taken from the band's official tour book, which was released "In loving memory of Ben Farrey and Steve Strange".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salmon |first=Chris |title=Music of the Spheres World Tour Book |publisher=Parlophone |year=2023 |location=Amsterdam|language=en}}</ref>
{{div col}}
;Performing members
* [[Chris Martin]] – lead vocals, piano, rhythm guitar
* [[Jonny Buckland]] – lead guitar, backing vocals, keyboards
* [[Guy Berryman]] – bass, backing vocals, keyboards, percussion
* [[Will Champion]] – drums, backing vocals, percussion
;Management
* [[Phil Harvey (band manager)|Phil Harvey]] – CEO, manager
* Arlene Moon – manager
* Mandi Frost – manager
* Jonathan Kessler – tour advisor
* Alex Pollock – tour advisor
* Marguerite Nguyen – tour manager
* Orla Clarke – assistant tour manager
* Andy Frost – road manager, head of security
* Kim-Maree Penn – band security
* Dan Green – audio producer
* [[Rik Simpson]] – broadcast producer
* Bill Rahko – Pro Tools director
* Chris Salmon – director of communications
* Sam Seager – head of visual content
* Lauren Rauch – management coordinator
* Lauren Evans – physiotherapist
* Valeska Voiges – band chef
* Emma Jane Randall – band assistant
* Jessie Collins – band assistant
* Claire Finbow – band assistant
* Ria Sioux Byers – band tour assistant
* Jen Milkis – assistant to Phil Harvey, creative coordinator
* Luke Howell – sustainability officer
* Bertie Knutzen – head of philanthropy
* Debs Wild – web ambassador
;Audio
* Tony Smith – audio director
* Chris Wood – monitor engineer
* Nick Davis – monitor tech
* Ali Viles – RF tech
* James Smallwood – audio tech, RF tech assistant
* Matt Latham – studio tech
* Nick Mooney – audio crew chief
;Audio crew
* Suzy Mucciarone
* Alex Hadjigeorgiou
* Dom Thorne
* Don Parks
* Simon Hall
* Joe Simmons
* Tim Grant
* Georgios Mavreas
* Alex Martinez
;Wristbands
* Samantha Torres – lead pixel manager, crew chief
* Garrett Fleming – pixel manager
* Stuart Earnshaw – technician
* Alex Huggins – technician
;Videos
* Ant Barrett – multi camera diretor
* Joshua Koffman – screens diretor
* Phil Johnston – video crew chief
* Peter Laleman - head of [[Light-emitting diode|LED]]
* Owen Evans – engineer (server speciality)
* Chris Farrants – engineer (vision speciality)
* Piotr Klimczyk – engineer (vision speciality)
* Micah Williams – camera supervisor
;Video crew
* Gorgon Davies
* Drew Welker
* Lisa Baker
* Maarten Deschacht
* Michaёl Cordier
* Jens Couckuijt
* Matt Canter
* James Cronly
* Tina Clay
* Manan Patel
* Percy Vermeulen
* John Prosser
;Video content
* Studio Flint
* Fray Studio
* North House
* Luke Halls Studio
* Victor Scorrano
* Impossible Brief
* Hello Charlie
* [[Pilar Zeta]]
* Conner Griffith
* Mixed Emotions London
;Band photo/videography
* Anna Lee
* P the Chemist
;Merch
* Paul Nolan – merchandise manager
* Martine Wilson – merchandise manager
;Communications
* Turner Pollari – crew chief
* Dalton McGuire – radios, [[Information technology|IT]], communications
;Production
* Chris Kansy – production manager
* Jake Berry – production consultant
* Eme Boucher – production coordinator
* Kim Van Loon – production coordinator
* Paul Traynor – stage manager
* Russell Glenn – technical stage manager
* Courtney Eusebio – tour accountant
* Nichole Garcia – ticketing
* Julia Whittle – show caller
;Security
* David White – FoH security
* Adrian Murphy – BoH security
;Backline
* Laurie Jenkins – crew chief, drum tech
* Craig Hope – guitar tech
* Matt McGinn – guitar tech
* Matt Tagliaferro – guitar tech
* Paul Newman – bass tech
* Eric Harris – keys and digital tech
* Dan Roe – Pro Tools tech
* Neil Cole – piano tech
* Nicolette Santino – Angel Moon
;Wardrobe and backstage
* Beth Fenton – band clothing director, stylist
* Tiffany Henry – dressing rooms, grooming, wardrobe
* Fabio Borreani – dressing rooms assistant
* Kylie Morris – dressing rooms hospitality
* Tracy On – sous chef
* Minh Nguyen – utilities
* Michael Raven – laundry
* Poppy Ogilvy – band tour assistant
* Samara Henderson – BoH apprentice
;Carpentry
* Flory Turner – head carpenter
* Michael Viehmeyer – inflatables, assistant stage manager
;Carpenter crew
* Bryan Humphries
* Andrew Pearson
* Andy Turner
* Jan Legowski
* Steve Carlsen
* Pat Boyd
* Corey Settle
;Power
* Mick McGillion – crew chief
* Neil Whybrow – electrician
* James Hardy – electrician
* John Hardy – electrician
* Mark Rennocks – generators operator
;Lighting
* Shaheem Litchmore – lighting director
* Emilio Aguilar – FoH tech, operator
* Daric Bassan – lighting crew chief
* Dio Kollia – lighting apprentice
;Lighting crew
* Luke Dobson
* Charlie Collins
* Kyle Rutkowski
* Kevin Royan
* Rob Corman-Savage
* Andrew Mueller
* Calvin Mosier
* Michelle Radogna
* Emma Hart
* Zach Boebel
;Special effects
* Michael Barrett-Bourmier – crew chief
* Ashley Neal – effects operations, laser programming
;Special effects crew
* Michael Hartle
* David Castillo
* Alan Grant
* Brien Carpenter
* Victor Negron
* Steffi Müller
* Thornsten Stein
* Bill Petrina
;Design and art direction
* Pilar Zeta, Victor Scorrano, Coldplay – original album artwork
* [[James Marcus Haney|Marcus Haney]], Stevie Rae Gibbs, Anna Lee, P the Chemist – photo/videography
;Creative
* Misty Buckley – creative director, production designer
* Richard Olivieri – art director
* Holly Molcher – assistant art director, design draughter
* Gloria Lamb – scenic art diretor, props
* Grant Draper – creative project manager
* Sooner Routhier – lighting designer
* David Kennedy – SFX effects designer
* Malcolm Birkett – technical set designer
* Leo Flint – video designer
* Dan Trenchard – video programmer
* Matthew Kemp – lighting programmer [[PixMob]]
* Luke Davies – assistant video designer
;Charity partners
* Rebecca White – [[Global Citizen (organization)|Global Citizen]] representative
* Garrick Dawson – Love Button Global Movement representative
* Océane Bayard – [[KultureCity]] representative
;Rigging crew
* Bjorn Melchert (lead rigger)
* Mark Kohorn
* George Werner
* Jonny Ackles
;Energy zone
* Michelle Ochoa – automation
* Courtney Dodd – tech
* Shariff Lovett – tech
* Edwin Van Eekhout – energy floors
* Tim Jansen – energy floors
* Tim Benson – batteries
;Barricades and cable ramps
* Bjorn Steegen – crew chief
* Koen Daems – tech
;Live Nation promoters
* Jared Braverman
* Phil Bowdery
* Casey Green
* Sophia Burn
* Redd Barua-Norton
;SJM promoters
* Simon Moran
* Andy Redhead
* Rob Ballantine
* Matt Woolliscroft
;Live Nation touring
* Andrew Craig – in tour representative
* Ariel Bojeun – sustainability
* Lau Johannsen – VIP Nation
;Booking agents
* Marty Diamond, Larry Webman – Wasserman
* Josh Javor, Hannah Edds – X-Ray Touring
;Russells
* Gavin Maude
* Ryan Vince
;Dales Evans & Co. Ltd.
* Lester Dales
* Paul Makin
* Donna Nixon
* Shelley Goldin
;David Weise & Associates
* David Weise
* Rob Salzman
* Glenn Frank
* Dina Demas
* Diana Clark
;Steel and advance
* Bart Durbin – site coordinator
* Robert Hale – site coordinator
* Erik Ehn – backstage advance coordinator
* Ross Brown – catering advance
* Samantha Smith – catering advance
* Chris Salmon – tour book words
* RabbitHole – tour book design
{{div col end}}
== Gear ==
Credits taken from ''[[Front of House (magazine)|Projection, Lights & Staging News]]'', with product quantities being represented between parenthesis whenever possible.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://plsn.com/articles/production-spotlight/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230113141819/https://plsn.com/articles/production-spotlight/coldplay-music-of-the-spheres-tour/ |archive-date=13 January 2023 |access-date=13 January 2023 |website=Projection, Lights & Staging News}}</ref>
{{div col}}
;Lighting
* MA Lighting grandMA3 Full Size Console (2)
* MA Lighting grandMA3 Light Console (1)
* MA Lighting Network Processing Units (10)
* ACME Pixel Line IP Strobe (38)
* ACME Thunderbolt (48)
* Astera AX3 with Domes (80)
* Ayrton Domino Profile S (66)
* Ayrton Perseo Profile S (74)
* Chauvet Professional Strike M (192)
* Chauvet Professional Well Panel (12)
* Claypaky Xtylos Aqua (74)
* Robe BMFL FollowSpot (2)
* Robe BMFL FollowSpot LT (12)
* Robe RoboSpot Base Stations (7)
;Video
* Moonrise Arch: ROE Visual CB8 LED Panels
* I-Mag Circles: ROE Visual CB8 LED Panels
* Spheres: PRG 25mm LED Inflatable Spheres
* Media Servers: Disguise GX 2C
;Special Effects
* FireOne Firing System (1)
* X-Laser 36W Triton Unit (8)
* X-Laser 10W Triton Audience Scanning Unit (8)
* Arctos 120W Trident (1)
* Arctos 15W Coral Series Unit (12)
* Explo X2 Wave Flamer (8)
* MagicFX Stadiumblaster Confetti Cannon (16)
* MagicFX Stadiumshot Confetti Cannon (31)
* Master FX Mystic Haze Machine (12)
* HazeBase Base Tour Haze Machine (6)
* TubeHaze Setup (6)
;Truss
* Tyler Truss 10' Custom HUD Truss Arch (14)
* Tyler Truss 10' HUD Truss (8)
* Tyler Truss 5' HUD Truss (26)
* Tyler Truss HUD Truss Corners (32)
* Custom Lighting Ladders (16)
{{div col end}}
== See also ==
* [[List of Coldplay live performances]]
* [[List of highest-grossing live music artists]]
* [[List of highest-grossing concert tours]]
* [[List of most-attended concert tours]]
== Notes ==
;Cities
{{Notelist-lr|3}}
;Others
{{Notelist|1}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|3}}
== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* {{URL|1=https://coldplay.com/|2=Coldplay Official Website}}
* {{URL|1=https://sustainability.coldplay.com/|2=Coldplay Sustainability Website}}
{{Coldplay}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:2022 concert tours]]
[[Category:2023 concert tours]]
[[Category:2024 concert tours]]
[[Category:Climate change in music]]
[[Category:Coldplay concert tours]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Argentina]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Australia]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Austria]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Belgium]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Brazil]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Canada]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Chile]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Colombia]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Denmark]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Finland]]
[[Category:Concert tours of France]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Germany]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Greece]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Hungary]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Ireland]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Italy]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Japan]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Mexico]]
[[Category:Concert tours of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Peru]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Poland]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Portugal]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Romania]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Singapore]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Spain]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Sweden]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Concert tours of Thailand]]
[[Category:Concert tours of the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Concert tours of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Concert tours of the Philippines]]
[[Category:Concert tours of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Concert tours of the United States]]
[[Category:Good articles]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Impact of the Music of the Spheres World Tour | {{Short description|Effect the tour has had on popular culture}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
[[File:ColdplayAMS18072023.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Four men perform on a small stage as a large crowd is gathered around them|Coldplay at the [[Johan Cruyff Arena]] in 2023]]
Publications have widely documented and analysed the environmental, cultural, economic, commercial and philanthropic influence achieved by British [[Rock music|rock]] band [[Coldplay]] with the [[Music of the Spheres World Tour]] (2022–24). Described as a media phenomenon, the concert run marked their return to live entertainment after the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and was said to be responsible for a shift in public attitude towards them, further illustrating [[Cultural impact of Coldplay|the impact the group have on popular culture]]. ''[[The Times]]'' hailed it as "the greatest live music show that humans have yet devised" in visual, emotional and melodic terms.<ref name="BEAUMONT">{{Cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=How It Became Cool to Like Coldplay |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-stadium-tour-how-they-became-cool-928dd6n93 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220825075016/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/coldplay-stadium-tour-how-they-became-cool-928dd6n93 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=The Times}}</ref>
While announcing the first performances, Coldplay also revealed a series of sustainability efforts to reduce their [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] by 50%, in comparison to the [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour]] (2016–17). Those included the creation of brand new [[Light-emitting diode|LED]] stage products and a partnership with [[BMW]] to design the first mobile rechargeable show battery in the world. This association, along with the fact that [[Neste]] was their [[biofuel]] provider, led to [[greenwashing]] accusations. Nevertheless, the group reduced [[carbon footprint]] by 47% and planted over seven million trees. ''[[Pollstar]]'' stated that they ushered into "a new era of sustainable touring",<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Coldplay's Greener Pastures: With Music of the Spheres, One of the Most Successful Touring Bands Ever Kicks Off a New Era of Sustainable Touring |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2021/10/20/coldplays-greener-pastures-with-music-of-the-spheres-one-of-the-most-successful-touring-bands-ever-kicks-off-a-new-era-of-sustainable-touring-2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220630010327/https://news.pollstar.com/2021/10/20/coldplays-greener-pastures-with-music-of-the-spheres-one-of-the-most-successful-touring-bands-ever-kicks-off-a-new-era-of-sustainable-touring-2/ |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> while ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' ranked them among the most influential climate action leaders in the world.
Beyond sold-out stadiums, Coldplay drew crowds of ticketless fans in cities including [[Barcelona]], [[Rio de Janeiro]] and [[Kaohsiung]]. Interest in the shows was considered unprecedented across Asia, Europe, Latin America and Oceania, prompting measures against [[Ticket resale|ticket scalping]] and debates about pricing. The government of countries such as Indonesia decided to make their event documentation process more flexible after the band could not schedule enough concerts to meet demand. Moreover, places visited by the tour experienced financial boosts in hotels, restaurants, bars and [[Service industries|many other services]]. A [[#Wider influence|macroeconomic impact]] was similarly registered in Argentina and [[Singapore]]. On [[Record chart|music charts]], [[Coldplay discography|Coldplay's discography]] had a resurgence in sales and [[Music streaming service|streams]]. They teamed up with [[Global Citizen (organization)|Global Citizen]] and the Love Button Global Movement to endorse local non-profit institutions as well.
== Sustainable touring ==
=== Industry response ===
{{See also|Environmentalism in music}}
[[File:BMW-HQ.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=A tall building formed by cylinders stands beside a short bowl-shaped building, there are trees near both of them as well|Coldplay developed the first mobile rechargeable show battery in the world through a partnership with [[BMW]].]]
Following the release of Coldplay's eighth album, ''[[Everyday Life (Coldplay album)|Everyday Life]]'' (2019), [[Chris Martin]] said the band would not be touring until they could ensure their concerts are environmentally friendly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2019 |title=Coldplay to Pause Touring Until Concerts are Environmentally Beneficial |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-50490700 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20191121120734/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-50490700 |archive-date=21 November 2019 |access-date=5 September 2023 |website=BBC News}}</ref> The record was promoted with small shows for charity and a performance at the [[Amman Citadel]] in Jordan, broadcast by [[YouTube]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 November 2019 |title=Coldplay Apresenta Novo Disco, Everyday Life, Sob Amanhecer da Jordânia |trans-title=Coldplay Present New Album, Everyday Life, Under Jordan's Dawn |url=https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-apresenta-novo-disco-everyday-life-sob-amanhecer-da-jordania-assista/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230621112852/https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-apresenta-novo-disco-everyday-life-sob-amanhecer-da-jordania-assista/ |archive-date=21 June 2023 |access-date=21 June 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> On 14 October 2021, a day before ''[[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|Music of the Spheres]]'' was made available, the group posted on social media they were returning to live entertainment after the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Coldplay Announce 2022 World Tour |url=https://pitchfork.com/news/coldplay-announce-2022-world-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615211311/https://pitchfork.com/news/coldplay-announce-2022-world-tour/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=Pitchfork}}</ref> The announcement also included [[Music of the Spheres World Tour#Ecological plan|a series of environmental plans]] developed in two years with help from sustainability experts; they were aimed at reducing [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] by 50% in comparison to [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour|their previous tour]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=Music of the Spheres World Tour Announced |url=https://www.coldplay.com/music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-announced/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016160004/https://www.coldplay.com/music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-announced/ |archive-date=16 October 2021 |access-date=14 October 2021 |website=Coldplay Official Website}}</ref> Furthermore, the group established a partnership with [[BMW]] to create the first mobile rechargeable show battery in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 June 2021 |title=The First-Ever BMW iX and the First-Ever BMW i4: Joint Global Campaign Plays to the Rhythm of Coldplay's New Hit |url=https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0335298EN/the-first-ever-bmw-ix-and-the-first-ever-bmw-i4:-joint-global-campaign-plays-to-the-rhythm-of-coldplay-s-new-hit?language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220106225032/https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0335298EN/the-first-ever-bmw-ix-and-the-first-ever-bmw-i4:-joint-global-campaign-plays-to-the-rhythm-of-coldplay-s-new-hit?language=en |archive-date=6 January 2022 |access-date=13 June 2021 |website=Press BMW Group}}</ref>
''[[Le Soir]]''{{'s}} Didier Zacharie affirmed that the efforts proposed by Coldplay were unprecedented for a stadium concert run and added their initiative was commendable.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2022 |title=La Tournée de Coldplay Est-Elle Vraiment Écologique? |trans-title=Is the Coldplay Tour Really Eco-Friendly? |url=https://www.lesoir.be/457640/article/2022-08-02/la-tournee-de-coldplay-est-elle-vraiment-ecologique |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220805101321/https://www.lesoir.be/457640/article/2022-08-02/la-tournee-de-coldplay-est-elle-vraiment-ecologique |archive-date=5 August 2022 |access-date=5 August 2022 |website=Le Soir |language=fr}}</ref> Alex Duke from ''[[Impact (student magazine)|Impact]]'' said the band were "redefining the rulebook" in a world that "desperately needs radical climate action" and praised them for bringing environmental issues to the forefront of international music news through a pioneering endeavour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2021 |title=Coldplay's Eco-Friendly Tour: What Is It and What Does It Mean for Touring in the Future? |url=https://impactnottingham.com/2021/11/coldplays-eco-friendly-tour-what-is-it-and-what-does-it-mean-for-touring-in-the-future/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220429214929/https://impactnottingham.com/2021/11/coldplays-eco-friendly-tour-what-is-it-and-what-does-it-mean-for-touring-in-the-future/ |archive-date=29 April 2022 |access-date=29 April 2022 |website=Impact Nottingham}}</ref> In an article for ''[[Vogue Scandinavia]]'', Doris Daga observed the tour set the bar for how artists could contribute to mitigate their environmental impact and complimented the band's transparency on "the reality that no [show] will be carbon negative in 2022".<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2022 |title=Dancing and Solar Power: The Future of Sustainable Touring |url=https://www.voguescandinavia.com/articles/kinetic-energy-and-solar-power-the-future-of-sustainable-touring |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220427044123/https://www.voguescandinavia.com/articles/kinetic-energy-and-solar-power-the-future-of-sustainable-touring |archive-date=27 April 2022 |access-date=27 April 2022 |website=Vogue Scandinavia}}</ref>
According to Lucy August-Perna, the sustainability director of [[Live Nation (events promoter)|Live Nation]], Coldplay's proposal helped to "build on the framework [the company] had been developing over the past five years on their tours and venues".<ref name="MIMS">{{Cite magazine |date=22 April 2022 |title=Touring Returned from the Pandemic Greener Than Ever |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/concerts-green-touring-pandemic-coldplay-billie-eilish/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220426221638/https://www.billboard.com/pro/concerts-green-touring-pandemic-coldplay-billie-eilish/ |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=26 April 2022}}</ref> She also described the measures created by the group as "impressive and forward-thinking", since they focused on concrete solutions.<ref name="MIMS" /> Additionally, the director claimed she was working to adopt their plans, institutionalise what they learn and provide environmentally conscious options for more performers worldwide.<ref name="MIMS" />
Writing for ''[[Veja (magazine)|Veja]]'', Amanda Capuano commented that the [[concert residency]] template used by Coldplay on the tour schedule underscored a trend previously seen with [[Adele]] and [[Harry Styles]], where musicians with sizable demand are traveling less due to an increased interest in [[logistics]], [[quality of life]] and [[mental health]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 September 2022 |title=Do Coldplay a Harry Styles, Vida dos Popstars na Estrada Já Não é a Mesma |trans-title=From Coldplay to Harry Styles, Popstars' Life on the Road is No Longer the Same |url=https://veja.abril.com.br/coluna/o-som-e-a-furia/do-coldplay-a-harry-styles-vida-dos-popstars-na-estrada-ja-nao-e-a-mesma/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230402035501/https://veja.abril.com.br/coluna/o-som-e-a-furia/do-coldplay-a-harry-styles-vida-dos-popstars-na-estrada-ja-nao-e-a-mesma/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=Veja |language=pt}}</ref> Moreover, the group's collaboration with John Wiseman from Worldwide Sales and Frederic Opsomer from PRG Projects led to the development of completely new [[Light-emitting diode|LED]] stage products.<ref name="PEARL">{{Cite web |date=27 July 2022 |title=Executive Profile: PRG Lights Up Coldplay's Music of the Spheres Stadium Tour |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2022/07/27/executive-profile-prg-lights-up-coldplays-music-of-the-spheres-stadium-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220730150747/https://news.pollstar.com/2022/07/27/executive-profile-prg-lights-up-coldplays-music-of-the-spheres-stadium-tour/ |archive-date=30 July 2022 |access-date=30 July 2022 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> Opsomer attested that the custom technology built for the concert run will become commonplace in the next years as well, thanking Coldplay for the initiative.<ref name="PEARL" /> ''[[Uproxx]]'' and ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' later noticed they had an impact on tours from [[Billie Eilish]] and [[Shawn Mendes]], respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 June 2022 |title=From Coldplay to Billie Eilish, Summer Tours are Putting a Focus on Sustainability |url=https://uproxx.com/music/summer-tour-sustainability-coldplay-shawn-mendes-billie-eilish/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220627173629/https://uproxx.com/music/summer-tour-sustainability-coldplay-shawn-mendes-billie-eilish/ |archive-date=27 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022 |website=Uproxx}}
* {{Cite magazine |date=29 April 2022 |title=Shawn Mendes Announces Sustainability Initiatives for Wonder Tour |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/pop/shawn-mendes-sustainability-initiatives-wonder-tour-exclusive-1235064810/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220627173609/https://www.billboard.com/music/pop/shawn-mendes-sustainability-initiatives-wonder-tour-exclusive-1235064810/ |archive-date=27 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref> In 2023, the Kappa FuturFestival took measures similar to the Music of the Spheres World Tour,<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 June 2023 |title=Non Solo UK, Ora Anche L'Italia fa Eventi Musicali Eco-Friendly: Ma a Guidare Sono Sempre i Coldplay |trans-title=Not Only the UK, Now Italy Too Is Hosting Eco-Friendly Music Events: But Coldplay Is Always Leading the Way |url=https://www.repubblica.it/spettacoli/musica/2023/06/13/news/eventi_musicali_sempre_piu_eco-friendly-403944163/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230615013556/https://www.repubblica.it/spettacoli/musica/2023/06/13/news/eventi_musicali_sempre_piu_eco-friendly-403944163/ |archive-date=15 June 2023 |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=La Repubblica |language=it}}</ref> while 2024 saw the band receiving support from Live Nation and [[Warner Music Group]] to fund a carbon footprint study that will suggest practical solutions for live music events at every level.<ref name="HENDERSON">{{Cite web |date=29 January 2024 |title=Coldplay, Live Nation and More Co-Sign on Sustainability Study |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2024/01/coldplay-live-nation-co-sign-sustainability-study/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240202170723/https://www.iq-mag.net/2024/01/coldplay-live-nation-co-sign-sustainability-study/ |archive-date=2 February 2024 |access-date=2 February 2024 |website=IQ}}</ref>
=== Controversy ===
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| quote = When we announced this tour, we said that we would try our best to make it as sustainable and low carbon-impact as possible, but that it would be a work in progress. That remains true. We don't claim to have got it all right yet.
| author = —Coldplay, 2022<ref name="MOORE">{{Cite magazine |date=12 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Respond to Being Called Useful Idiots Over Deal with Oil Company |url=https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/news/coldplay-respond-called-useful-idiots-deal-oil-company-16683/ |url-status=live |magazine=Rolling Stone |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220630160101/https://www.rollingstone.co.uk/music/news/coldplay-respond-called-useful-idiots-deal-oil-company-16683/ |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=30 June 2022}}</ref>
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Carlos Calvo Ambel from [[European Federation for Transport and Environment|Transport & Environment]] declared that Coldplay were "no doubt well-intentioned" but condemned their collaboration with [[Neste]].<ref name="NESLEN">{{Cite web |date=11 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Labelled Useful Idiots for Greenwashing After Deal with Oil Company |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/may/11/coldplay-labelled-useful-idiots-for-greenwashing-after-deal-with-oil-company |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220627152357/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/may/11/coldplay-labelled-useful-idiots-for-greenwashing-after-deal-with-oil-company |archive-date=27 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022 |website=The Guardian}}</ref> He accused the company of "cynically using [the band] to greenwash its reputation", since [[biofuel]]s were supplied to the tour while they had links to deforestation; therefore, the partnership should be discontinued to give priority to better solutions.<ref name="NESLEN" /> [[SumOfUs]]' Eoin Dubsky criticised the ties with [[BMW]] and concluded the group needed to take greater care while doing their diligences, as the multinational was lobbying to prevent the [[European Union]] from establishing a deadline for vehicles to be [[Net zero emissions|carbon neutral]].<ref name="NESLEN" />
On the same day, Coldplay published a statement reiterating that their plan was a work in progress and they "genuinely welcome suggestions as to how to do it better".<ref name="MOORE" /> The band also emphasised having no connection to BMW's corporate policies, adding that various car manufacturers were approached to provide the expertise needed and the company were the ones that provided help.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Respond to Being Called Useful Idiots for Greenwashing: We are Doing Our Best |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/coldplay-greenwashing-chris-martin-b2076459.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230908000503/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/coldplay-greenwashing-chris-martin-b2076459.html |archive-date=8 September 2023 |access-date=8 September 2023 |website=The Independent}}</ref> Neste separately mentioned that investigations regarding their palm oil vendors were launched, but no evidence of violations or links to deforestation was found.<ref name="RIPAOJA">{{Cite web |date=13 June 2022 |title=Suosikkiyhtye Teki Ssopimuksen Suomalaisyrityksen Kanssa – Sitten Repesi Totaalinen Raivo |trans-title=The Favorite Band Made a Deal with a Finnish Company – Then a Total Rage Broke Out |url=https://www.is.fi/viihde/art-2000008813474.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220630163835/https://www.is.fi/viihde/art-2000008813474.html |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=30 June 2022 |website=Ilta-Sanomat |language=fi}}</ref> Their response team affirmed that only renewable aviation fuel produced with used frying fat and animal fat waste was delivered to the concert run as well.<ref name="RIPAOJA" />
=== Reduced emissions ===
After a team led by professor John Fernandez at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) collected data from the concerts and compared it to the [[A Head Full of Dreams Tour]] (2016–17), publications reported that Coldplay have managed to reduce their [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] by 47% so far.<ref name="ARELIZ">{{Cite web |date=3 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Reduced Its Carbon Footprint of Live Shows by 47% |url=https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/02/coldplay-reduced-its-carbon-footprint-of-live-shows-by-47/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230603230448/https://news.pollstar.com/2023/06/02/coldplay-reduced-its-carbon-footprint-of-live-shows-by-47/ |archive-date=3 June 2023 |access-date=3 June 2023 |website=Pollstar}}</ref> Research attested 66% of all waste was diverted from landfills, while [[Xyloband|LED wristbands]] had a production decrease of 80% and a return rate average of 86% per date.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2024 |title=Coldplay Share Details of Game-Changing Environmental Measures on Music of the Spheres World Tour |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-share-details-of-game-changing-environmental-measures-on-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-3570067 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120175243/https://www.nme.com/news/music/coldplay-share-details-of-game-changing-environmental-measures-on-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour-3570067 |archive-date=20 January 2024 |access-date=20 January 2024 |website=NME}}</ref> Furthermore, 3,770 meals and 73 kg of toiletries from the catering were given out to unhoused and unsheltered people.<ref name="ASWAD">{{Cite web |date=5 June 2023 |title=Coldplay's Music of the Spheres Tour Drastically Reduces Band's Carbon Footprint, Sets New Standards in Sustainability |url=https://variety.com/2023/music/news/coldplay-tour-carbon-footprint-sustainability-green-1235632704/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230606120447/https://variety.com/2023/music/news/coldplay-tour-carbon-footprint-sustainability-green-1235632704/ |archive-date=6 June 2023 |access-date=6 June 2023 |website=Variety}}</ref> The solar installations, kinetic floors and [[stationary bicycle]]s generated around 15 kWh every night, being enough to fuel tool-charging stations for the crew.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=2 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Tout 5 Million Trees Planted So Far on Music of the Spheres Tour |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-5-million-trees-planted-carbon-reduction-music-of-spheres-tour-1235344736/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230608210404/https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/coldplay-5-million-trees-planted-carbon-reduction-music-of-spheres-tour-1235344736/ |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref> It was also informed that performances were operating entirely from renewable energy.<ref name="ASWAD" />
Coldplay consequently became "pioneers for the future of sustainability" in live entertainment,<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Work Towards Net Zero on Sustainable Tour |url=https://sustainabilitymag.com/articles/Coldplay-work-towards-net-zero-on-sustainable-tour |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230711125244/https://sustainabilitymag.com/articles/Coldplay-work-towards-net-zero-on-sustainable-tour |archive-date=11 July 2023 |access-date=11 July 2023 |website=Sustainability}}</ref> with Fernandez deeming their plans "critically important, scientifically rigorous and of the highest quality".<ref name="ARELIZ" /> In June 2023, [[BBC News]] interviewed senior cleansing officer Samantha Thomas about waste from concerts and she noticed that after the band performed at [[Millennium Stadium|Principality Stadium]], streets were significantly cleaner than other events.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Coldplay: Are the Band's Fans as Eco-Conscious as Them? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-65836492 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230608210428/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-65836492 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |website=BBC News}}</ref> As per ''[[Gaffa (magazine)|GAFFA]]''{{'s}} Jim Knutsson, the concert run established itself as a platform for green technologies and environmental commitment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Slår Rekord – Första Internationella Akt att Sälja Ut Fyra Ullevi |trans-title=Coldplay Break Records – First International Act to Sell Out Four Ullevi |url=https://gaffa.se/nyheter/2023/juli/coldplay-slar-rekord-forsta-internationella-akt-att-salja-ut-fyra-ullevi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725025013/https://gaffa.se/nyheter/2023/juli/coldplay-slar-rekord-forsta-internationella-akt-att-salja-ut-fyra-ullevi/ |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=GAFFA Sweden |language=sv}}</ref> ''[[American Songwriter]]'' later revealed that over seven million trees have been planted by the group on forest reserves.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 September 2023 |title=Coldplay Kick Off West Coast Tour with Explosive Seattle Show |url=https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-kicks-off-west-coast-tour-with-explosive-seattle-show/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230925211034/https://americansongwriter.com/coldplay-kicks-off-west-coast-tour-with-explosive-seattle-show/ |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=American Songwriter}}</ref> In November 2023, they were included on the inaugural [[Time 100|''Time'' 100 Climate]] editorial,<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=The 100 Most Influential Climate Leaders in Business 2023 |url=https://time.com/collection/time100-climate/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116151051/https://time.com/collection/time100-climate/ |archive-date=16 November 2023 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=Time}}</ref> which ranked the most influential climate action leaders based on their recent and measurable achievements.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=How We Chose the 100 Most Influential Climate Leaders in Business for 2023 |url=https://time.com/6334864/how-we-chose-time100-climate-2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117162024/https://time.com/6334864/how-we-chose-time100-climate-2023/ |archive-date=17 November 2023 |access-date=17 November 2023 |website=Time}}</ref>
== Popular culture ==
=== Media coverage ===
[[File:Chris Martin and Lula (23.03.2023) (52769320559) (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=A casually-dressed man holding a guitar smiles along with another man and a woman, who are dressed formally|Martin giving a guitar to Brazilian President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva|Lula da Silva]] and First Lady [[Rosângela Lula da Silva|Janja]] during their meeting in 2023]]
Discussing the cultural impact of the shows for ''[[The Times]]'', Mark Beaumont opined that they "marked a significant shift in attitude towards this once widely maligned band", since even "the most cynical hacks have been converted" after going to a Coldplay live performance.<ref name="BEAUMONT" /> He also declared that their "dedication to the stadium spectacle is regaining them respect and credibility in all quarters".<ref name="BEAUMONT" /> ''[[La Gaceta (Tucumán)|La Gaceta]]''{{'s}} Pablo Hamada hailed the tour as a media phenomenon which brought a wave of positivity beyond the concerts, as the band became a leading topic of news coverage and [[social media]] engagement in the countries they visited.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2022 |title=Coldplay Invadió de Positividad las Redes Sociales |trans-title=Coldplay Invaded Social Media with Positivity |url=https://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/967493/espectaculos/coldplay-invadio-positividad-redes-sociales.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230917053055/https://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/967493/espectaculos/coldplay-invadio-positividad-redes-sociales.html |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=17 September 2023 |website=La Gaceta |language=es}}</ref>
Furthermore, Sofía Campos from ''[[La Razón (Madrid)|La Razón]]'' stated that the frenzy evoked by Coldplay reflected their cross-generational appeal,<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 May 2023 |title=El Fenómeno Coldplay Aterriza en España Batiendo Récords: Cuatro Días en el Estadi Olimpic |trans-title=The Coldplay Phenomenon Lands in Spain Breaking Records: Four Days at Estadi Olimpic |url=https://www.larazon.es/cultura/musica/fenomeno-coldplay-aterriza-espana-batiendo-records-cuatro-dias-estadi-olimpic_20230524646dbf0c21596b0001366df2.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230917173342/https://www.larazon.es/cultura/musica/fenomeno-coldplay-aterriza-espana-batiendo-records-cuatro-dias-estadi-olimpic_20230524646dbf0c21596b0001366df2.html |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=17 September 2023 |website=La Razón |language=es}}</ref> while Julio Maria claimed that they are the last rock band capable of filling stadiums worldwide in his piece for ''[[O Estado de S. Paulo|Estadão]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 August 2022 |title=Coldplay Traz Maior Espetáculo de Retorno à Vida da Pós-Pandemia |trans-title=Coldplay Bring the Greatest Return to Life Spectacle of the Post-Pandemic Era |url=https://www.estadao.com.br/cultura/musica/coldplay-traz-maior-espetaculo-de-retorno-a-vida-da-pos-pandemia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230917220215/https://www.estadao.com.br/cultura/musica/coldplay-traz-maior-espetaculo-de-retorno-a-vida-da-pos-pandemia/ |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=17 September 2023 |website=Estadão |language=pt}}</ref> Brazilian publications coined the term "Coldplaymania" to portray the group's stay in the country, since the concert run was subject of intense media scrutiny.<ref name="RSBR">{{Cite web |date=29 March 2023 |title=Rolling Stone Brasil Lança Especial Digital Sobre o Coldplay no País |trans-title=Rolling Stone Brazil Releases Digital Special About Coldplay in the Country |url=https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/musica/rolling-stone-brasil-lanca-especial-digital-sobre-o-coldplay-no-pais/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230402230002/https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/musica/rolling-stone-brasil-lanca-especial-digital-sobre-o-coldplay-no-pais/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> Martin was also criticised by [[Jair Bolsonaro]] defenders for meeting with President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva|Lula da Silva]], who invited Coldplay to the 30th [[United Nations Climate Change conference]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2023 |title=Deputado Bolsonarista Cobra Lula por Violão do Coldplay |trans-title=Bolsonarista Deputy Charges Lula for Coldplay's Guitar |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/colunas/painel/2023/03/deputado-bolsonarista-cobra-lula-por-violao-do-coldplay.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230529231222/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/colunas/painel/2023/03/deputado-bolsonarista-cobra-lula-por-violao-do-coldplay.shtml |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=Folha de S. Paulo |language=pt}}
* {{Cite web |date=23 March 2023 |title=Lula Encontra Chris Martin, Ganha Violão e Convida Coldplay para Show na COP |trans-title=Lula Meets Chris Martin, Gets Guitar and Invites Coldplay for Show at COP |url=https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/politica/lula-encontra-chris-martin-ganha-violao-e-convida-coldplay-para-show-na-cop/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230402233333/https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/politica/lula-encontra-chris-martin-ganha-violao-e-convida-coldplay-para-show-na-cop/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=CNN Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> Additionally, multiple outlets noted that ticketless fans gathered outside the venues to hear them perform.{{efn|Including in cities like [[Barcelona]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Desborda el Estadi |trans-title=Coldplay Overflows the Estadi |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20230529/9001167/fiesta-masiva-coldplay.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230529233912/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20230529/9001167/fiesta-masiva-coldplay.html |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es}}</ref> [[Kaohsiung]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:怎算的? 世運館容5.5萬 Coldplay 稱吸8.6萬 高雄交通局給答案 |trans-title=How to Calculate It? The World Games Stadium Has a Capacity of 55,000. It Is Claimed That Coldplay Will Attract 86,000. The Kaohsiung Transportation Bureau Gives the Answer |url=https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7570222 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113121011/https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7570222 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=United Daily News |language=zh}}</ref> [[Rio de Janeiro]],<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1641106566672785411|user=tracklist|title=E esses fãs do Coldplay assistindo o show do lado de fora do estádio no Rio de Janeiro?|author=Tracklist|date=29 March 2023|access-date=17 September 2023|language=pt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918000639/https://twitter.com/tracklist/status/1641106566672785411|archive-date=18 September 2023|url-status=live|trans-title=And these Coldplay fans watching the show outside the stadium in Rio de Janeiro?}}</ref> [[Singapore]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 February 2024 |title=An Adventure of a Lifetime: Coldplay's Singapore Concerts as Told by Fans Outside the National Stadium |url=https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/an-adventure-of-a-lifetime-coldplay-singapore-concert-as-told-by-fans-outside-national-stadium-cat-0-10-15-100-interview-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240209234525/https://www.bandwagon.asia/articles/an-adventure-of-a-lifetime-coldplay-singapore-concert-as-told-by-fans-outside-national-stadium-cat-0-10-15-100-interview-music-of-the-spheres-world-tour |archive-date=9 February 2024 |access-date=9 February 2024 |website=Bandwagon Asia}}</ref> and [[Zürich]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 July 2023 |title=Coldplay in Zürich: So Feiern Die Fans Rund Ums Stadion |trans-title=Coldplay in Zurich: This Is How the Fans Celebrate Around the Stadium |url=https://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/coldplay-in-zuerich-so-feiern-die-fans-rund-ums-stadion-197196745498 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711180138/https://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/coldplay-in-zuerich-so-feiern-die-fans-rund-ums-stadion-197196745498 |archive-date=11 July 2023 |url-access=subscription |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=Tages-Anzeiger |language=de}}</ref>}}
=== Tributes and nods ===
''[[Rolling Stone]]'' released exclusive issues of their magazines in Argentina,<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 September 2022 |title=Sale Un Nuevo Bookazine Rolling Stone: Coldplay, las Mejores Entrevistas y Su Discografía Completa |trans-title=A New Rolling Stone Bookazine is Out: Coldplay, the Best Interviews and Their Complete Discography |url=https://es.rollingstone.com/sale-un-nuevo-bookazine-rolling-stone-coldplay-arg/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230402225600/https://es.rollingstone.com/sale-un-nuevo-bookazine-rolling-stone-coldplay-arg/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Argentina |language=es}}</ref> France,<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2022 |title=Coldplay au Vert en Couverture de Rolling Stone |trans-title=Coldplay Goes Green on the Cover of Rolling Stone |url=https://www.rollingstone.fr/coldplay-au-vert-en-couverture-de-rolling-stone/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230402224830/https://www.rollingstone.fr/coldplay-au-vert-en-couverture-de-rolling-stone/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=2 April 2023 |website=Rolling Stone France |language=fr}}</ref> and Brazil to celebrate the tour.<ref name="RSBR" /> A number of councillors from the [[Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro]] proposed honouring the band with the [[Pedro Ernesto|Pedro Ernesto Medal]], but their submission is yet to be voted.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 December 2022 |title=Coldplay Pode Receber Medalha de Mérito na Câmara dos Vereadores do Rio |trans-title=Coldplay Might Receive Award of Merit at Rio's Municipal Chamber |url=https://www.estadao.com.br/emais/gente/coldplay-pode-receber-medalha-de-merito-na-camara-dos-vereadores-do-rio-entenda/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403011609/https://www.estadao.com.br/emais/gente/coldplay-pode-receber-medalha-de-merito-na-camara-dos-vereadores-do-rio-entenda/ |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Estadão |language=pt}}</ref> ''[[Blitz (Portuguese magazine)|Blitz]]'' held a photography exhibit in [[Coimbra]] to mark their return to Portugal.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 2023 |title=Blitz Apresenta Coldplay em Portugal, a Exposição |trans-title=Blitz Presents Coldplay in Portugal, the Exhibition |url=https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-03-30-BLITZ-apresenta-Coldplay-em-Portugal-a-exposicao-cc81d590 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403114919/https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-03-30-BLITZ-apresenta-Coldplay-em-Portugal-a-exposicao-cc81d590 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Expresso |language=pt}}</ref> Italian illustrator Lorenzo Ruggiero, who has worked for [[Marvel Comics|Marvel]] and [[DC Comics]], paid tribute to their shows in [[Naples]] with a drawing.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=I Coldplay Diventano un Fumetto, il Disegno Pop di Lorenzo Ruggiero |trans-title=Coldplay Become a Comic, Lorenzo Ruggiero's Pop Drawing |url=https://napoli.repubblica.it/cronaca/2023/06/20/news/i_coldplay_diventano_un_fumetto_il_disegno_pop_di_lorenzo_ruggiero-405181608/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230622141228/https://napoli.repubblica.it/cronaca/2023/06/20/news/i_coldplay_diventano_un_fumetto_il_disegno_pop_di_lorenzo_ruggiero-405181608/ |archive-date=22 June 2023 |access-date=22 June 2023 |website=La Repubblica |language=it}}</ref> After the announcement of Asian dates for the tour, numerous brands and companies from the continent launched campaigns referencing Coldplay's discography.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 May 2023 |title=Here are 10 Big Brands Who are Jumping Onto the Coldplay Bandwagon |url=https://www.therakyatpost.com/news/2023/05/12/big-brands-get-on-board-coldplay-hype-netizens-add-on-to-the-fun/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230623212703/https://www.therakyatpost.com/news/2023/05/12/big-brands-get-on-board-coldplay-hype-netizens-add-on-to-the-fun/ |archive-date=23 June 2023 |access-date=23 June 2023 |website=The Rakyat Post}}
* {{Cite web |date=21 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Comes to Asia: Quick Thinking Brands Joining in on the Fun |url=https://www.marketing-interactive.com/coldplay-comes-to-asia-quick-thinking-brands-joining-in-on-the-fun |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230623212820/https://www.marketing-interactive.com/coldplay-comes-to-asia-quick-thinking-brands-joining-in-on-the-fun |archive-date=23 June 2023 |access-date=23 June 2023 |website=Marketing-Interactive}}</ref> In July 2023, Dutch magazine ''Soundz'' published a feature dedicated to them.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Special |url=https://www.soundz.nl/product/pre-sale-coldplay-special/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230918022139/https://www.soundz.nl/product/pre-sale-coldplay-special/ |archive-date=18 September 2023 |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=Soundz |language=nl}}</ref> Influenced by the group's [[Rock in Rio]] set, spinoff festival The Town and the [[Sambadrome Marquês de Sapucaí|Sapucaí Carnival Parade]] began to use [[Xyloband|LED wristbands]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 September 2023 |title=The Town Terá Momento Coldplay Ao Cair da Noite |trans-title=The Town Will Have a Coldplay Moment at Nightfall |url=https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/noticia/2023/09/02/the-town-tera-momento-coldplay-ao-cair-da-noite.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230918010212/https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/noticia/2023/09/02/the-town-tera-momento-coldplay-ao-cair-da-noite.ghtml |archive-date=18 September 2023 |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=O Globo |language=pt}}
* {{Cite web |date=11 February 2024 |title=Tecnologia do Coldplay Conquista a Sapucaí |trans-title=Coldplay's Technology Conquers Sapucaí |url=https://veja.abril.com.br/coluna/veja-gente/tecnologia-do-coldplay-conquista-a-sapucai/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240212054704/https://veja.abril.com.br/coluna/veja-gente/tecnologia-do-coldplay-conquista-a-sapucai/ |archive-date=12 February 2024 |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=Veja |language=pt}}</ref> [[Warner Music Group|Warner Music]] Brazil revealed that Coldplay inspired [[Bruno Mars]] for his visit to the country as well.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 September 2023 |title=Coldplay Inspirou Bruno Mars em Shows e Vídeo Feitos no Brasil, Diz Gravadora |trans-title=Coldplay Inspired Bruno Mars in Shows and Video made in Brazil, Says Record Label |url=https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/musica/noticia/2023/09/25/coldplay-inspirou-bruno-mars-em-shows-e-video-feitos-no-brasil-diz-gravadora.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230925132242/https://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/musica/noticia/2023/09/25/coldplay-inspirou-bruno-mars-em-shows-e-video-feitos-no-brasil-diz-gravadora.ghtml |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=O Globo |language=pt}}</ref> ''[[Rockin'On Japan]]'' reviewed the history and music of the band to celebrate the two concerts at [[Tokyo Dome]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 November 2023 |title= |script-title=ja:ロッキング・オン12月号ではコールドプレイの全アルバムディスコグラフィーを総まとめします！ |trans-title=In the December Issue of Rocking On, We Will Be Summarizing Coldplay's Entire Album Discography! |url=https://rockinon.com/blog/rockinon/207843 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231105223230/https://rockinon.com/blog/rockinon/207843 |archive-date=5 November 2023 |access-date=5 November 2023 |website=Rockin'On Japan |language=ja}}</ref> [[Eden Park]] paid homage to their record-breaking three nights at the venue with a special mural.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2023 |title=Coldplay's New Zealand Show Inspires a New Mural at Eden Park: Here's How It Unfolded |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/coldplays-new-zealand-show-inspires-a-new-mural-at-eden-park-heres-how-it-unfolded/T5CSWNW3EVEU7MEAEQNCAIT4Z4/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130211951/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/coldplays-new-zealand-show-inspires-a-new-mural-at-eden-park-heres-how-it-unfolded/T5CSWNW3EVEU7MEAEQNCAIT4Z4/ |archive-date=30 November 2023 |access-date=2 December 2023 |website=The New Zealand Herald}}</ref>
=== Seismic activity ===
On 10 July 2022, seismic stations in Germany detected a [[Seismic magnitude scales|1.28-magnitude earthquake]] in [[Berlin]].<ref name="REIN">{{Cite web |date=12 July 2022 |title=Berlin-Spandau: Coldplay-Konzert Löst Erdbeben Aus |trans-title=Berlin-Spandau: Coldplay Concert Triggers Earthquake |url=https://www.musikexpress.de/berlin-spandau-coldplay-konzert-loest-erdbeben-aus-2172515/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230918030026/https://www.musikexpress.de/berlin-spandau-coldplay-konzert-loest-erdbeben-aus-2172515/ |archive-date=18 September 2023 |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=Musikexpress |language=de}}</ref> Its main frequency corresponded exactly to the beat of "[[A Sky Full of Stars]]", which led analysts to attribute the triggering to Coldplay's performance at [[Olympiastadion (Berlin)|Olympiastadion]].<ref name="REIN" /> The group acknowledged the occurrence and encouraged their fans to surpass the number in subsequent nights, resulting in a 1.5-magnitude earthquake on 12 July.<ref name="TEMEL">{{Cite web |date=14 July 2022 |title=Erschütterndes Fanverhalten: Mikro-Erdbeben Dei Coldplay |trans-title=Shocking Fan Behavior: Coldplay's Micro-Earthquakes |url=https://kurier.at/kultur/erschuetterndes-fanverhalten-coldplay-loesen-mikro-erdbeben-aus/402074905 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714192700/https://kurier.at/kultur/erschuetterndes-fanverhalten-coldplay-loesen-mikro-erdbeben-aus/402074905 |archive-date=14 July 2022 |access-date=14 July 2022 |website=Kurier |language=de}}</ref> According to ''[[Kurier]]''{{'s}} Peter Temel, the new register outperformed the day [[Florence and the Machine]] played "[[Dog Days Are Over]]" at Tempelhof Sounds.<ref name="TEMEL" /> He also commented that fast songs and crowd coordination can explain the phenomena.<ref name="TEMEL" /> Concert goers provoked a 1.5-magnitude earthquake once again during the third and final show.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1547085381165883393|user=ErdbebenDE|title=Coldplay macht gute Werbung für die eigenen Konzerte|author=Erdbeben Deutschland|date=13 July 2022|access-date=18 September 2023|language=de|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230918031417/https://twitter.com/ErdbebenDE/status/1547085381165883393|archive-date=18 September 2023|url-status=live|trans-title=Coldplay does good advertising for its own concerts}}</ref> In the following year, the band caused tremors at the [[National Stadium (Kaohsiung)|Kaohsiung National Stadium]] neighborhood.<ref name="HUIFEN">{{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay開唱周遭住家地震 有進入侏羅紀世界的錯覺 |trans-title=Earthquake in Nearby Homes as Coldplay Perform, It Feels Like Entering Jurassic World |url=https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7569735 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113173158/https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7569735 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=United Daily News |language=zh}}</ref>
=== Asian protests ===
{{See also|LGBT rights in Indonesia|LGBT rights in Malaysia|l2=Malaysia}}
Coldplay were criticised by several groups of conservative [[muslims]] for performing in Indonesia and Malaysia.<ref name="SADEWO">{{Cite web |date=17 May 2023 |title=Coldplay Hit by LGBT Issues, Continue or Cancel Concert? |trans-title=Coldplay Dihantam Isu LGBT, Lanjut Atau Batal Konser? |url=https://news.republika.co.id/berita/ruspk7318/coldplay-dihantam-isu-lgbt-lanjut-atau-batal-konser |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231123035742/https://news.republika.co.id/berita/ruspk7318/coldplay-dihantam-isu-lgbt-lanjut-atau-batal-konser |archive-date=23 November 2023 |access-date=23 November 2023 |website=Republika |language=id}}</ref> Novel Bamukmin, the Deputy Secretary-General of PA 212, declared the tour should be cancelled in [[Jakarta]] because the band endorse the [[LGBT community]],<ref name="SADEWO" /> while Nasrudin Hassan from the [[Malaysian Islamic Party]] condemned them for promoting a culture of "[[hedonism]]" and "[[Deviance (sociology)|deviance]]".<ref name="SADEWO" /> Conversely, [[Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy|Minister for Tourism]] [[Sandiaga Uno]] argued that the event would improve Indonesia's notoriety as a destination for international artists.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 May 2023 |title=As Coldplay Fever Grips Indonesia, Malaysia, Religious Right Calls to Cancel Band's Shows |url=https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/indonesian/indonesia-malaysia-coldplay-concerts-controversy-05302023114359.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231123025526/https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/indonesian/indonesia-malaysia-coldplay-concerts-controversy-05302023114359.html |archive-date=23 November 2023 |access-date=23 November 2023 |website=Benar News}}</ref> [[Syed Saddiq Syed Abdul Rahman]] likewise regarded it as a chance to generate economic surplus for [[Kuala Lumpur]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Concert: Malaysia Missed Economic Lottery, Says Muar MP |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/politics/2023/06/922432/coldplay-concert-malaysia-missed-economic-lottery-says-muar-mp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230822133240/https://www.nst.com.my/news/politics/2023/06/922432/coldplay-concert-malaysia-missed-economic-lottery-says-muar-mp |archive-date=22 August 2023 |access-date=22 August 2023 |website=New Straits Times}}</ref> On 10 November 2023, dozens of people marched outside Jakarta's British Embassy calling for the cancellation of the [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]] show.<ref name="TIM">{{Cite web |date=14 November 2023 |title=Sandi Respons Ancaman Massa Anti-LGBT Bakar Panggung Konser Coldplay |trans-title=Sandi Responds to Anti-LGBT Crowd Threatening to Burn Coldplay Concert Stage |url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/ekonomi/20231114102204-92-1023864/sandi-respons-ancaman-massa-anti-lgbt-bakar-panggung-konser-coldplay |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231114044923/https://www.cnnindonesia.com/ekonomi/20231114102204-92-1023864/sandi-respons-ancaman-massa-anti-lgbt-bakar-panggung-konser-coldplay |archive-date=14 November 2023 |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=CNN Indonesia |language=id}}</ref> They defended that Indonesian muslims should be mourning the [[War crimes in the 2023 Israel–Hamas war|war crimes Israel committed against Palestine]] instead of watching Coldplay live.<ref name="TIM" /> Extremist groups threatened to burn down their stage set-up,<ref name="TIM" /> while others only asked the police to ensure the venue had no [[Gay agenda|LGBT propaganda]] in place.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 November 2023 |title=Anti LGBT Movement Stage Demonstration Against Coldplay Concert in Jakarta |url=https://en.tempo.co/read/1797203/anti-lgbt-movement-stage-demonstration-against-coldplay-concert-in-jakarta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124193624/https://en.tempo.co/read/1797203/anti-lgbt-movement-stage-demonstration-against-coldplay-concert-in-jakarta |archive-date=24 November 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=Tempo}}</ref> In Malaysia, [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Prime Minister]] [[Anwar Ibrahim]] said that boycott requests were unnecessary because the band support Palestine,<ref name="EWE">{{Cite web |date=23 November 2023 |title=Malaysia's Defining Political Tension Takes the Concert Stage |url=https://time.com/6339205/malaysia-concerts-politicized-coldplay-anwar-islam/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124202125/https://time.com/6339205/malaysia-concerts-politicized-coldplay-anwar-islam/ |archive-date=24 November 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=Time}}</ref> but authorities still had a "kill switch" available for use in case of misbehavior.<ref name="EWE" /> The device was created after two members of [[the 1975]] kissed each other at [[Good Vibes Festival]] earlier that year.<ref name="EWE" /> Although Martin replaced the [[Rainbow flag (LGBT)|rainbow flag]] with one from the Love Button Global Movement, both concerts went out as usual.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=Full of Magic and Love, Coldplay's Appearance Exceeds Expectations |url=https://voi.id/en/musik/330111 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124195253/https://voi.id/en/musik/330111 |archive-date=24 November 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=VOI}}</ref>
== Economy ==
=== Demand and politics ===
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| quote = Our expectations were high and we were aggressive in terms of the routing, but it has surpassed any expectations. It's truly remarkable. The band [are] a juggernaut, a true powerhouse and we're really excited to be involved.
| author = —Bruce Moran, 2022<ref name="HANLEY">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2022 |title=Coldplay Tour Shatters Latin American Records |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/06/coldplay-tour-shatters-latin-america-records/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220616015115/https://www.iq-mag.net/2022/06/coldplay-tour-shatters-latin-america-records/ |archive-date=16 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=IQ}}</ref>
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Sales for the tour led to public and political debate due to unprecedented interest in Asia,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Announce Sixth Stadium Show in Singapore Due to Overwhelming Demand |url=https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-six-stadium-concert-singapore-2024-dates-tickets-3458184 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230620025002/https://www.nme.com/en_asia/news/music/coldplay-six-stadium-concert-singapore-2024-dates-tickets-3458184 |archive-date=20 June 2023 |access-date=20 June 2023 |website=NME}}</ref> Europe,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2022 |title=Coldplay, Biglietti Esauriti. Perché Piacciono Tanto Agli Italiani |trans-title=Coldplay Tickets Sold Out. Because Italians Like Them So Much |url=https://www.corriere.it/spettacoli/22_agosto_26/01-spettacoli-apretxtcorriere-web-sezioni-d0a8e55c-24a9-11ed-9477-8142972fc587.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230123021937/https://www.corriere.it/spettacoli/22_agosto_26/01-spettacoli-apretxtcorriere-web-sezioni-d0a8e55c-24a9-11ed-9477-8142972fc587.shtml |archive-date=23 January 2023 |access-date=26 August 2022 |website=Corriere della Sera |language=it}}</ref> Latin America,<ref name="HANLEY" /> and Oceania.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Both Coldplay Shows at Perth's Optus Stadium Are Now Sold Out |url=https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/both-coldplay-shows-at-perths-optus-stadium-are-now-sold-out/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823201820/https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/both-coldplay-shows-at-perths-optus-stadium-are-now-sold-out/ |archive-date=23 August 2023 |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=MusicFeeds}}</ref> Coldplay announced only two dates in [[Perth]] for latter continent through a partnership with the government of West Australia, which resulted in wide criticism from fans who lived in other regions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 May 2023 |title=Fans Furious Over Coldplay's Major Aussie News: Total Joke |url=https://7news.com.au/entertainment/music/fans-furious-over-coldplays-major-aussie-news-total-joke-c-10606794 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918153350/https://7news.com.au/entertainment/music/fans-furious-over-coldplays-major-aussie-news-total-joke-c-10606794 |archive-date=18 September 2023 |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=7}}</ref> Conversely, [[Live Nation (events promoter)|Live Nation]]'s Bruce Moran lauded the band for "the most spectacular run through Latin America ever", as their numerous performances broke records in nearly all countries visited.<ref name="HANLEY" /> Interviewed by ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'', Bruno Del Granado from [[Creative Artists Agency|CAA]] said that Coldplay's success and the founding of new arenas proved there was no longer an excuse for artists to avoid the territory.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=13 June 2023 |title=How Coldplay's Commitment to Latin America Delivered the Year's Biggest Shows in the World |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-concerts-latin-america-years-biggest-shows/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230918181548/https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-concerts-latin-america-years-biggest-shows/ |archive-date=18 September 2023 |access-date=18 September 2023}}</ref>
Demand for the concerts also caused [[Price gouging|ticket speculation]] to rise in Portugal, with 32 arrests being carried out.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 May 2023 |title=ASAE Deteve 32 Pessoas por Especulação com Bilhetes dos Coldplay |trans-title=ASAE Detained 32 People for Coldplay Tickets Speculation |url=https://www.jn.pt/justica/asae-deteve-32-pessoas-por-especulacao-com-bilhetes-dos-coldplay-16400050.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230523234151/https://www.jn.pt/justica/asae-deteve-32-pessoas-por-especulacao-com-bilhetes-dos-coldplay-16400050.html |archive-date=23 May 2023 |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=JN |language=pt}}</ref> Álvaro Covões, the director of events promoter Everything Is New, mentioned that they are "a global phenomenon which only happens once every 30 years", adding he only experienced such fan frenzy [[Beatlemania|when the Beatles were active]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2023 |title=Álvaro Covões: Os Coldplay São Um Fenómeno Global que Só Acontece de 30 em 30 Anos. A Última Vez que Aconteceu Foi com os Beatles |trans-title=Álvaro Covões: Coldplay are a Global Phenomenon Which Only Happens Once Every 30 Years. The Last Time It Happened was with the Beatles |url=https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-04-29-Alvaro-Covoes-Os-Coldplay-sao-um-fenomeno-global-que-so-acontece-de-30-em-30-anos.-A-ultima-vez-que-aconteceu-foi-com-os-Beatles-cd76e876 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230502223118/https://expresso.pt/blitz/2023-04-29-Alvaro-Covoes-Os-Coldplay-sao-um-fenomeno-global-que-so-acontece-de-30-em-30-anos.-A-ultima-vez-que-aconteceu-foi-com-os-Beatles-cd76e876 |archive-date=2 May 2023 |access-date=2 May 2023 |website=Expresso |language=pt}}</ref> Similarly, the Organization of Consumers and Users (OCU) submitted an appeal to Spain's [[Ministry of Consumer Affairs (Spain)|Ministry of Consumer Affairs]] to reduce resales with abusive prices and poor insurances.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 October 2022 |title=El Boom de Coldplay Llega a Agencias de Comunicación, Cines o la OCU |trans-title=Coldplay's Boom Arrives at Communication Agencies, Cinemas or the OCU |url=https://www.diariodesevilla.es/vivirensevilla/Coldplay-llega-agencias-comunicacion-OCU_0_1723628712.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403034446/https://www.diariodesevilla.es/vivirensevilla/Coldplay-llega-agencias-comunicacion-OCU_0_1723628712.html |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Diario de Sevilla |language=es}}</ref> In Italy, the [[Autorità per le Garanzie nelle Comunicazioni|Authority for Communications Guarantees]] (AGCOM) conducted an operation against scalpers focused on the shows scheduled by Coldplay and arrested 26 lawbreakers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2023 |title=Coldplay e Blanco, Secondary Ticketing: Scoperti 26 Bagarini Con 15 Mila Biglietti |trans-title=Coldplay and Blanco, Secondary Ticketing: 26 Touts Discovered with 15,000 Tickets |url=https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/coldplay-e-blanco-secondary-ticketing-scoperti-26-bagarini-15mila-biglietti-AE7lwxlD |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230919172521/https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/coldplay-e-blanco-secondary-ticketing-scoperti-26-bagarini-15mila-biglietti-AE7lwxlD |archive-date=19 September 2023 |access-date=19 September 2023 |website=Il Sole 24 Ore |language=it}}</ref>
Moreover, [[Fahmi Fadzil]] revealed that the [[government of Malaysia]] will enact new legislation to monitor and control transactions in the secondary market after tickets for [[Kuala Lumpur]] were traded at considerably high prices.<ref name="DAIM">{{Cite web |date=23 May 2023 |title=Govt to Enact Anti-Scalping Law Following Coldplay Concert Tickets Controversy |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2023/05/912380/govt-enact-anti-scalping-law-following-coldplay-concert-tickets |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230524000501/https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2023/05/912380/govt-enact-anti-scalping-law-following-coldplay-concert-tickets |archive-date=24 May 2023 |access-date=24 May 2023 |website=New Straits Times}}</ref> Investigation of these cases helped to write the initial drafts.<ref name="DAIM" /> [[Bloomberg News]] then affirmed that the [[government of Indonesia]] decided to simplify and digitalise their permits process because the band had multiple extra dates in neighbouring capitals, but not in [[Jakarta]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2023 |title=Coldplay's One-Day Concert Pushes Indonesia to Simplify Permits |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-01/coldplay-s-one-day-concert-pushes-indonesia-to-simplify-permits |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230801122202/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-01/coldplay-s-one-day-concert-pushes-indonesia-to-simplify-permits |archive-date=1 August 2023 |access-date=1 August 2023 |website=Bloomberg}}</ref> The tour has promoted discussions regarding admission prices as well, since Coldplay kept them affordable despite the [[economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 May 2022 |title=Coldplay Has the Cheapest Big Tour in the World |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/pop-star-ranking/2022-may/coldplay-has-the-cheapest-big-tour-in-the-world.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230620105005/https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/pop-star-ranking/2022-may/coldplay-has-the-cheapest-big-tour-in-the-world.html |archive-date=20 June 2023 |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=Bloomberg}}</ref> They additionally established a program known as Infinity Tickets, where limited sets of $20 entries were released for fans who could not pay regular costs.{{efn|Infinity Ticket batches were sold only in pairs and had their locations selected at random, while values did not included possible taxes and fees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2022 |title=Infinity Ticket, La Iniciativa de Coldplay para Fanáticos que No Pueden Pagar Boletos |trans-title=Infinity Ticket, Coldplay's Initiative for Fans That Can't Pay Tickets |url=https://www.24-horas.mx/2022/05/26/infinity-ticket-la-iniciativa-de-coldplay-para-fanaticos-que-no-pueden-pagar-boletos/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220601141117/https://www.24-horas.mx/2022/05/26/infinity-ticket-la-iniciativa-de-coldplay-para-fanaticos-que-no-pueden-pagar-boletos/ |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=1 June 2022 |website=24 Horas El Diario Sin Límites |language=es}}</ref>}} Acts like [[Yungblud]] and [[Olivia Rodrigo]] later reproduced the practice.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 June 2023 |title=Yungblud Offers $20 Tickets for His 2023 North American Tour |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/yungblud-offers-20-tickets-for-his-2023-north-american-tour-3460221 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230920172951/https://www.nme.com/news/music/yungblud-offers-20-tickets-for-his-2023-north-american-tour-3460221 |archive-date=20 September 2023 |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=NME}}
* {{Cite AV media |date=17 October 2023 |time=0:36 to 1:29 |title=Olivia Rodrigo Talks Massive New Tour, Prioritizing Her Mental Health |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bMmvjxd1wiY |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017212026/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bMmvjxd1wiY |archive-date=17 October 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>
=== Local business ===
[[File:Confeitaria Colombo no Centro do Rio (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=Overview of an indoors restaurant with numerous people sitting at the tables|Cities visited by the tour enjoyed a financial surge in hotels, restaurants, bars and [[Service industries|various other services]].]]
Coldplay were credited with fueling the commerce of regions where they performed. Hotels with a view for [[Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica (2011)|Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica]] in [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]] became fully booked after their concerts were sold out, since people began to search for other ways to see them.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 October 2021 |title=Ver a Coldplay como Sea: Hoteles con Vista al Estadio Nacional Tienen Reservas Llenas para El 18 de Marzo |trans-title=See Coldplay No Matter What: Hotels with a View of Estadio Nacional are Fully Booked for 18 of March |url=https://www.nacion.com/viva/entretenimiento/ver-a-coldplay-como-sea-hoteles-con-vista-al/SLWGFJXEFZHSPAURFY64IGCVPY/story/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031210136/https://www.nacion.com/viva/entretenimiento/ver-a-coldplay-como-sea-hoteles-con-vista-al/SLWGFJXEFZHSPAURFY64IGCVPY/story/ |archive-date=31 October 2021 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=La Nación |language=es}}</ref> ''[[El Espectador]]'' noticed that accommodation occupancy rates reached 85% when the band visited Bogotá.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 December 2022 |title=Conciertos: Los Protagonistas del Crecimiento de La Economía Colombiana |trans-title=Concerts: The Protagonists of the Colombian Economy's Growth |url=https://www.elespectador.com/entretenimiento/musica/conciertos-los-protagonistas-del-crecimiento-de-la-economia-colombiana/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230920223724/https://www.elespectador.com/entretenimiento/musica/conciertos-los-protagonistas-del-crecimiento-de-la-economia-colombiana/ |archive-date=20 September 2023 |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=El Espectador |language=pt}}</ref> Similarly, [[Buenos Aires]] registered their highest percentages in 10 years during the band's residency at [[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2023 |title=Hoteles en Buenos Aires: El 2022 Logró la Ocupación Más Alta de los Últimos 10 Años, Cuál Fue la Curiosa Razón? |trans-title=Hotels in Buenos Aires: 2022 Achieved the Highest Occupancy of the Last 10 Years, What Was the Curious Reason? |url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/propiedades/hoteles-en-buenos-aires-el-2022-logro-la-ocupacion-mas-alta-de-los-ultimos-10-anos-cual-fue-la-nid10032023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113210957/https://www.lanacion.com.ar/propiedades/hoteles-en-buenos-aires-el-2022-logro-la-ocupacion-mas-alta-de-los-ultimos-10-anos-cual-fue-la-nid10032023/ |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=La Nación |language=es}}</ref> ''[[Clarín (Argentine newspaper)|Clarín]]'' noted that revenue from bars and restaurants in the city triplicated with the tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 November 2022 |title=El Efecto Coldplay en los Restaurantes y Bares de Núñez: Venden el Triple Gracias a los Recitales |trans-title=The Coldplay Effect at Restaurant and Bars in Núñez: They are Selling Thrice as Much Thanks to the Shows |url=https://www.clarin.com/gourmet/efecto-coldplay-restaurantes-bares-nunez-venden-triple-gracias-recitales_0_fiC4ANoZf6.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403162052/https://www.clarin.com/gourmet/efecto-coldplay-restaurantes-bares-nunez-venden-triple-gracias-recitales_0_fiC4ANoZf6.html |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Clarín |language=es}}</ref> Business owners in [[Curitiba]] said its impact surpassed the [[2014 FIFA World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 March 2023 |title=Efeito Coldplay: Bares e Restaurantes Comemoram Movimento Recorde |trans-title=Coldplay Effect: Restaurant and Bars Celebrate Record Movement |url=https://www.gazetadopovo.com.br/bomgourmet/bomgourmet-negocios/efeito-coldplay-bares-e-restaurantes-comemoram-movimento-recorde/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403161758/https://www.gazetadopovo.com.br/bomgourmet/bomgourmet-negocios/efeito-coldplay-bares-e-restaurantes-comemoram-movimento-recorde/ |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Gazeta do Povo |language=pt}}</ref>
During their stay in [[Rio de Janeiro]], the group moved profits superior to [[Brazilian real|R$]]86 million.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 March 2023 |title=Turnê do Coldplay Deve Movimentar Mais de R$86 Milhões na Economia do Rio |trans-title=Coldplay Tour Should Move More Than R$86 Million in Rio's economy |url=https://www.band.uol.com.br/bandnews-fm/rio-de-janeiro/noticias/turne-do-coldplay-deve-movimentar-mais-de-r-86-mi-na-economia-do-rio-16591901 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403161916/https://www.band.uol.com.br/bandnews-fm/rio-de-janeiro/noticias/turne-do-coldplay-deve-movimentar-mais-de-r-86-mi-na-economia-do-rio-16591901 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=UOL |language=pt}}</ref> Furthermore, the [[President of the Municipal Chamber]] of [[Coimbra]] observed that they generated more than [[Euro sign|€]]36 million in direct economic returns to the town.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2023 |title=Coldplay em Coimbra Geraram Retorno Económico Directo de 36 Milhões de Euros |trans-title=Coldplay Generated a Direct Economic Return of 36 Million Euros in Coimbra |url=https://www.publico.pt/2023/06/29/local/noticia/coldplay-coimbra-geraram-retorno-economico-directo-36-milhoes-euros-2055130 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230630012036/https://www.publico.pt/2023/06/29/local/noticia/coldplay-coimbra-geraram-retorno-economico-directo-36-milhoes-euros-2055130 |archive-date=30 June 2023 |access-date=30 June 2023 |website=Público |language=pt}}</ref> Hotel prices rose by 1,000% when they announced concerts there.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 August 2022 |title=Custavam 120€, Agora Custam 1200€: Efeito Coldplay Atinge Alojamentos em Coimbra |trans-title=They Used To Cost €120, Now They Are €1200: Coldplay Effect Reaches Accommodations in Coimbra |url=https://www.nit.pt/fora-de-casa/turismos-rurais-e-hoteis/custavam-120e-agora-custam-1200e-efeito-coldplay-atinge-alojamentos-em-coimbra |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403025646/https://www.nit.pt/fora-de-casa/turismos-rurais-e-hoteis/custavam-120e-agora-custam-1200e-efeito-coldplay-atinge-alojamentos-em-coimbra |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=NiT |language=pt}}</ref> Equivalent boosts were also seen in places such as [[Dublin]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Fans Face Fees of Over €2,440 for Dublin Accommodation for Croke Park Gigs |url=https://www.thejournal.ie/coldplay-accommodation-dublin-croke-park-6124042-Jul2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921003628/https://www.thejournal.ie/coldplay-accommodation-dublin-croke-park-6124042-Jul2023/ |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=The Journal}}</ref> [[Düsseldorf]],<ref name="ULLRICH">{{Cite web |date=1 August 2023 |title=Coldplay: Nach VVK-Chaos – Fans Haben Weiteres Problem |trans-title=Coldplay: After Presale Chaos – Fans Have Another Problem |url=https://www.watson.de/unterhaltung/musik/434842300-coldplay-nach-vvk-chaos-bei-ticketmaster-fans-haben-naechstes-problem |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921003608/https://www.watson.de/unterhaltung/musik/434842300-coldplay-nach-vvk-chaos-bei-ticketmaster-fans-haben-naechstes-problem |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Watson |language=de}}</ref> [[Helsinki]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2023 |title=Suositun Hotellisivuston Hinnat Ampaisivat Taivaisiin, Kun Coldplay Ilmoitti Helsingin-Keikastaan |trans-title=The Prices on the Popular Hotel Website Skyrocketed When Coldplay Announced Their Concert in Helsinki |url=https://www.hs.fi/kaupunki/helsinki/art-2000009738168.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230724155111/https://www.hs.fi/kaupunki/helsinki/art-2000009738168.html |archive-date=24 July 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Helsingin Sanomat |language=fi}}</ref> [[Munich]],<ref name="ULLRICH" /> and [[Singapore]] (where [[Agoda]] reported a 556% increase in searches).<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Jan 2024 Concert in Singapore Has Fans in India Excited; Spike in Search for Hotels, Shows Agoda Data |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/coldplay-jan-2024-concert-in-singapore-has-fans-in-india-excited-spike-in-search-for-hotels-shows-agoda-data/articleshow/101221462.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230625164314/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/coldplay-jan-2024-concert-in-singapore-has-fans-in-india-excited-spike-in-search-for-hotels-shows-agoda-data/articleshow/101221462.cms?from=mdr |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=The Economic Times}}</ref> Marketing agency Hello Monday launched a contest giving away tickets for the [[Barcelona]] nights and received one million comments on [[social media]], along with 80,000 new users on their own platform.<ref name="DIARIO">{{Cite web |date=1 October 2022 |title=El Boom de Coldplay Llega a Agencias de Comunicación, Cines o la OCU |trans-title=Coldplay's Boom Arrives at Communication Agencies, Cinemas or the OCU |url=https://www.diariodesevilla.es/vivirensevilla/Coldplay-llega-agencias-comunicacion-OCU_0_1723628712.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230403034446/https://www.diariodesevilla.es/vivirensevilla/Coldplay-llega-agencias-comunicacion-OCU_0_1723628712.html |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=Diario de Sevilla |language=es}}</ref> ''[[Diario de Sevilla]]'' considered it one of the most viral advertising campaigns of the year in Spain.<ref name="DIARIO" />
In November 2023, the [[Kaohsiung City Government]] donated discount coupons to fans who attended the shows in the region to boost revenue at night markets.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 歌迷快看! 來高雄聽演唱會再送商圈夜市優惠券 |trans-title=Coldplay Fans, Take a Look! Come to Kaohsiung for a Concert and Get Coupons for Night Markets in the Shopping District |url=https://www.ctee.com.tw/news/20231104700422-431401 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106032421/https://www.ctee.com.tw/news/20231104700422-431401 |archive-date=6 November 2023 |access-date=6 November 2023 |website=Commercial Times |language=zh}}</ref> ''[[United Daily News]]'' estimated that around 30,000 citizens were attracted to those businesses.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 演唱會效應加乘 城市嶼浪市集 狂吸3萬人潮 |trans-title=The Coldplay Concert Effect Was Combined with the Urban Island Market to Attract a Crowd of 30,000 People |url=https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7569704 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113152401/https://udn.com/news/story/7327/7569704 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=United Daily News |language=zh}}</ref> Their earnings grew by 30%, while accommodations in the city had a 90% occupancy rate.<ref name="CNA">{{Cite web |date=13 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 嗨唱高雄帶來17萬人次 創5.5億觀光產值 |trans-title=Coldplay's Performance in Kaohsiung Brought 170,000 Visitors and Created a Tourism Output Value of 550 Million |url=https://www.cna.com.tw/news/ahel/202311130202.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231113122227/https://www.cna.com.tw/news/ahel/202311130202.aspx |archive-date=13 November 2023 |access-date=13 November 2023 |website=CNA |language=zh}}</ref> Coldplay generated a record income of [[New Taiwan dollar|NT$]]550 million as a result.<ref name="CNA" /> [[CNBC Indonesia]] stated that the concert at [[Jakarta]]'s [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]] brought [[Indonesian rupiah|Rp]]1.4 trillion in revenue for the city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 November 2023 |title=Konser Hanya Sehari, Coldplay Cuan Rp1,4 Triliun |trans-title=Only One Day Concert, Coldplay Profit Rp1.4 Trillion |url=https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20231117125925-8-489848/video-konser-hanya-sehari-coldplay-cuan-rp-14-triliun |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119143107/https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20231117125925-8-489848/video-konser-hanya-sehari-coldplay-cuan-rp-14-triliun |archive-date=19 November 2023 |access-date=19 November 2023 |website=CNBC Indonesia |language=id}}</ref> It also helped to improve the proceeds of the venue by 50% in comparison to 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2023 |title=Pendapatan GBK di 2023 Melonjak 50%, Dampak Konser Coldplay? |trans-title=GBK Revenue in 2023 Soars 50%, Impact of Coldplay Concert? |url=https://www.liputan6.com/bisnis/read/5474059/pendapatan-gbk-di-2023-melonjak-50-dampak-konser-coldplay |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180802/https://www.liputan6.com/bisnis/read/5474059/pendapatan-gbk-di-2023-melonjak-50-dampak-konser-coldplay |archive-date=7 December 2023 |access-date=7 December 2023 |website=Liputan 6 |language=id}}</ref> [[Expedia Group]] later informed that flight searches to [[Perth]] grew by almost 135% when the band performed at [[Perth Stadium|Optus Stadium]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 November 2023 |title=Aussie City Declared Sydney Destination Dupe |url=https://www.news.com.au/travel/australian-holidays/aussie-city-declared-sydney-destination-dupe/news-story/ba90d4b6cb909c25a67f374800339faa |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207185546/https://www.news.com.au/travel/australian-holidays/aussie-city-declared-sydney-destination-dupe/news-story/ba90d4b6cb909c25a67f374800339faa |archive-date=7 December 2023 |access-date=7 December 2023 |website=News.com.au}}</ref> As per [[Minister for Tourism (Western Australia)|Minister for Tourism]] [[Rita Saffioti]], about 3,500 locals were expected to take new jobs in town with the impact of the tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2023 |title=Coldplay Concerts Set to Provide Extra Work, Create Thousands of Jobs Across Perth |url=https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/coldplay-concerts-set-to-provide-extra-work-create-thousands-of-jobs-across-perth-c-12518939 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231111160028/https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/coldplay-concerts-set-to-provide-extra-work-create-thousands-of-jobs-across-perth-c-12518939 |archive-date=11 November 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |website=The West Australian}}</ref>
=== Civil transport ===
As part of their sustainability efforts, Coldplay teamed up with [[SAP]] to design a [[Mobile app|mobile application]] for the tour.<ref name="SOMERS">{{Cite web |date=12 March 2022 |title=How Technology Tunes Coldplay's Eco-friendly Tour To Hit The Right Note |url=https://news.sap.com/2022/03/technology-tunes-eco-friendly-coldplay-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220615184928/https://news.sap.com/2022/03/technology-tunes-eco-friendly-coldplay-tour/ |archive-date=15 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |website=SAP News Center}}</ref> It calculated the [[Greenhouse gas emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] from the attendees and encouraged them to take eco-friendly travel options by offering merchandise store discounts.<ref name="SOMERS" /> In the United States, the group collaborated with the public transportation providers of four cities to grant cheaper rides, which improved passenger turnout by an average of 59% on performance days.<ref name="HENDERSON" /> Organisations from [[City of Brussels|Brussels]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2022 |title=La Stib Renforce Son offre de Transport Pour Les Concerts de Coldplay |trans-title=Stib Strengthens Its Transport Offer for Coldplay Concerts |url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/la-stib-renforce-son-offre-de-transport-pour-les-concerts-de-coldplay-11041118 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921033808/https://www.rtbf.be/article/la-stib-renforce-son-offre-de-transport-pour-les-concerts-de-coldplay-11041118 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=RTBF |language=fr}}</ref> [[Cardiff]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 June 2023 |title=Great Western Railway Provides Additional Trains for Coldplay Concert Goers |url=https://news.gwr.com/news/great-western-railway-provides-additional-trains-for-coldplay-concert-goers |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921153141/https://news.gwr.com/news/great-western-railway-provides-additional-trains-for-coldplay-concert-goers |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Great Western Railway}}</ref> [[Glasgow]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2022 |title=ScotRail Announces More Trains for Coldplay Gigs at Hampden Stadium |url=https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/scottish-news/20680071.scotrail-announces-trains-coldplay-gigs-hampden-stadium/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921033547/https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/scottish-news/20680071.scotrail-announces-trains-coldplay-gigs-hampden-stadium/ |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Glasgow Times}}</ref> [[Milan]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2023 |title=Coldplay a Milano: Come Arrivare al Concerto, Metro, Orari, Biglietti e Scaletta |trans-title=Coldplay in Milan: How to Get to the Concert, Metro, Timetables, Tickets and Setlist |url=https://www.ilgiorno.it/milano/cosa-fare/coldplay--concerto-come-arrivare-metro-orari-scaletta-xie85ujk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921155103/https://www.ilgiorno.it/milano/cosa-fare/coldplay--concerto-come-arrivare-metro-orari-scaletta-xie85ujk |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Il Giorno |language=it}}</ref> and [[Santiago]] set up exclusive services to support demand as well.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 September 2022 |title=Conoce los Refuerzos de Buses que Dispondrá El DTPM para los Conciertos de Coldplay En El Estadio Nacional |trans-title=Check Out the Bus Reinforcements That DTPM Will Have for the Coldplay Concerts at the National Stadium |url=https://www.red.cl/red-comunica/conoce-los-refuerzos-de-buses-que-dispondra-el-dtpm-para-los-conciertos-de-coldplay-en-el-estadio-nacional/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921160110/https://www.red.cl/red-comunica/conoce-los-refuerzos-de-buses-que-dispondra-el-dtpm-para-los-conciertos-de-coldplay-en-el-estadio-nacional/ |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Red Movilidad |language=es}}</ref> When the band visited Brazil, Tembici and the British Embassy gave admissions to fans who managed to present completely sustainable ways to arrive at the concerts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Dará Ingressos Para Fãs Com Práticas Sustentáveis |trans-title=Coldplay Will Give Tickets to Fans with Sustainable Practices |url=https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-dara-ingressos-para-fas-com-praticas-sustentaveis/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921041239/https://rollingstone.uol.com.br/noticia/coldplay-dara-ingressos-para-fas-com-praticas-sustentaveis/ |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Rolling Stone Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> Over 36,000 people used the [[Rio de Janeiro Metro]] to watch them at [[Estádio Olímpico Nilton Santos]], almost six times more than the weekdays average.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2023 |title=Engenho de Dentro Vive Renascimento com Shows Lotados e Comércio em Alta |trans-title=Engenho de Dentro Is Experiencing a Renaissance with Crowded Shows and Booming Commerce |url=https://oglobo.globo.com/rio/noticia/2023/10/14/engenho-de-dentro-vive-renascimento-com-shows-lotados-e-comercio-em-alta.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231015002015/https://oglobo.globo.com/rio/noticia/2023/10/14/engenho-de-dentro-vive-renascimento-com-shows-lotados-e-comercio-em-alta.ghtml |archive-date=15 October 2023 |access-date=15 October 2023 |website=O Globo |language=pt}}</ref> In [[Gothenburg]], outsiders earned free public transport to [[Ullevi]] after being surveyed by the Green City Zone project, which outlined travel behaviour to reduce [[carbon footprint]] in major events.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 July 2023 |title=Göteborg Utvecklar Utsläppsfria Evenemang Under Coldplay På Ullevi |trans-title=Gothenburg to Develop Emission-Free Events During Coldplay at Ullevi |url=https://via.tt.se/pressmeddelande/3356516/goteborg-utvecklar-utslappsfria-evenemang-under-coldplay-pa-ullevi?publisherId=2567142&lang=sv |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921033454/https://via.tt.se/pressmeddelande/3356516/goteborg-utvecklar-utslappsfria-evenemang-under-coldplay-pa-ullevi?publisherId=2567142&lang=sv |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=VIA TT |language=sv}}</ref> Moreover, the [[Kaohsiung Metro]] attributed their biggest days of activity in 2023 to Coldplay (565,000 passengers).<ref name="HUIFEN" /> ''[[Kompas]]'' revealed that [[Jakarta MRT]] had their largest user rate since 2019 with the [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]] concert.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=Gara-Gara Konser Coldplay, Jumlah Penumpang MRT Tertinggi Sejak 2019 |trans-title=Due to Coldplay's Concert, the Number of MRT Passengers Is the Highest Since 2019 |url=https://www.kompas.com/properti/read/2023/11/16/160000821/gara-gara-konser-coldplay-jumlah-penumpang-mrt-tertinggi-sejak-2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231116145336/https://www.kompas.com/properti/read/2023/11/16/160000821/gara-gara-konser-coldplay-jumlah-penumpang-mrt-tertinggi-sejak-2019 |archive-date=16 November 2023 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=Kompas |language=id}}</ref> In 2024, [[Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)|Singapore MRT]] offered free buses to four train stations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2024 |title=Grab to Offer Free Shuttle Bus Rides to 4 MRT Stations from Coldplay Concerts |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/grab-to-offer-free-shuttle-buses-to-4-mrt-stations-from-coldplay-concerts |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123231900/https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/grab-to-offer-free-shuttle-buses-to-4-mrt-stations-from-coldplay-concerts |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |website=The Straits Times}}</ref>
=== Wider influence ===
[[File:Singapore Marina Bay Sands viewed from UOB Plaza 1 (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=Three buildings connected to each other stand near the seashore|The shows in [[Singapore]] were part of a [[Government of Singapore|government]] plan to promote the city as the music capital of Asia.]]
Several countries experienced a [[Macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] impact associated with the Music of the Spheres World Tour. Referencing the performances at [[Estadio Monumental (Buenos Aires)|Estadio River Plate]], the [[government of Argentina]] established the "Coldplay dollar", an [[exchange rate]] of the American currency which was used for international live events.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 October 2022 |title=Dólar Coldplay y Dólar Qatar: Argentina Devalúa Su Moneda por Sectores |trans-title=Coldplay Dollar and Qatar Dollar: Argentina Devalues Its Currency by Sectors |url=https://elpais.com/argentina/2022-10-12/dolar-coldplay-y-dolar-qatar-argentina-devalua-su-moneda-por-sectores.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221024140910/https://elpais.com/argentina/2022-10-12/dolar-coldplay-y-dolar-qatar-argentina-devalua-su-moneda-por-sectores.html |archive-date=24 October 2022 |access-date=26 October 2022 |website=El País |language=es}}</ref> [[Bank Central Asia]]'s stock exchange value enjoyed a boost after it was announced their card holders got exclusive access to the [[Jakarta]] presales.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 May 2023 |title=BBCA Melesat 2,28%, Efek Coldplay Masih Berlanjut? |trans-title=BBCA Increases 2.28%, Coldplay Effect Still Continues? |url=https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/market/20230519141003-17-438766/bbca-melesat-228-efek-coldplay-masih-berlanjut/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230521004940/https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/market/20230519141003-17-438766/bbca-melesat-228-efek-coldplay-masih-berlanjut/ |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=CNBC Indonesia |language=id}}</ref> According to ''[[Wall Street Italia]]'', the shows in [[Naples]] and [[Milan]] had an overall economic impact of more than €500 million in Italy, based on expenses with tickets, hotel, food and tourism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2023 |title=Coldplay, Qual è Stato L'Impatto dei Loro Concerti Su Economia e Ambiente? |trans-title=Coldplay, What Was the Impact of Their Concerts on the Economy and the Environment? |url=https://www.wallstreetitalia.com/coldplay-qual-e-limpatto-dei-loro-concerti-su-economia-e-ambiente/#l-impatto-sull-economia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921192310/https://www.wallstreetitalia.com/coldplay-qual-e-limpatto-dei-loro-concerti-su-economia-e-ambiente/%23l-impatto-sull-economia |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Wall Street Italia |language=it}}</ref>
''[[The Music (magazine)|The Music]]'' observed that the double nights in [[Perth]] brought at least $75 million for Western Australian economy, drawing 40,000 out-of-state visitors as well.<ref name="ELIEZER">{{Cite web |date=30 November 2023 |title=Has Perth Turned the Corner As a Live Music Destination? |url=https://themusic.com.au/industry/has-perth-turned-the-corner-as-a-live-music-destination/U4PpR0ZJSEs/30-11-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231130195021/https://themusic.com.au/industry/has-perth-turned-the-corner-as-a-live-music-destination/U4PpR0ZJSEs/30-11-23 |archive-date=30 November 2023 |access-date=30 November 2023 |website=The Music}}</ref> [[Premier of Western Australia|Premier]] [[Roger Cook (politician)|Roger Cook]] also added that the group successfully created a model where the city can be included as part of the Asian tours carried out by other artists.<ref name="ELIEZER" /> ''[[Today (Singapore newspaper)|Today]]'' estimated they generated [[Singapore dollar|S$]]96 million in revenue for [[Singapore]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 July 2023 |title=Analysis: How Big Names Like Taylor Swift, Coldplay Can Bring in the Big Bucks for Singapore |url=https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/analysis-taylor-swift-coldplay-concert-tourism-inflation-2203556 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725024135/https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/analysis-taylor-swift-coldplay-concert-tourism-inflation-2203556 |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=Today}}</ref> Marketing professor Seshan Ramaswami declared that while efforts to stage international events were made by the government before, Coldplay and their six-day residency were a major step to expand the region's demographic reach to fans in Asia and the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2023 |title=Coldplay Swiftly Hots Up Concert Tourism Mania: Music to the Ears for Singapore's Economy |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/business/coldplay-swiftly-hots-up-concert-tourism-mania-music-to-the-ears-of-singapore-s-economy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625183738/https://www.straitstimes.com/business/coldplay-swiftly-hots-up-concert-tourism-mania-music-to-the-ears-of-singapore-s-economy |archive-date=25 June 2023 |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=The Straits Times}}</ref> As a result, the band helped to take [[Asia–Pacific]]'s tourism economy back to pre-[[COVID-19 pandemic|pandemic]] levels.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 November 2023 |title=Coldplay, Taylor Swift Boosting Tourism, Travel in AsPac – ForwardKeys |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2023/11/06/coldplay-taylor-swift-boosting-tourism-travel-in-aspac-forwardkeys/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231106043901/https://businessmirror.com.ph/2023/11/06/coldplay-taylor-swift-boosting-tourism-travel-in-aspac-forwardkeys/ |archive-date=6 November 2023 |access-date=6 November 2023 |website=BusinessMirror}}</ref>
In September 2023, ''[[Irish Examiner]]'' informed that concert spending in Ireland rose by 88% with the four dates at [[Croke Park]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 August 2023 |title=Taylor Swift and Coldplay Drive a Surge in Concert Spending by Irish Consumers |url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/business/economy/arid-41206372.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921194055/https://www.irishexaminer.com/business/economy/arid-41206372.html |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=Irish Examiner}}</ref> [[RTÉ]] likewise claimed that they were responsible for the biggest ticket sales day of the year in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 December 2023 |title=Surge in Flight Bookings in January – AIB Spending Report |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2023/1220/1422941-surge-in-flight-bookings-in-january-aib-spend-report/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221001751/https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2023/1220/1422941-surge-in-flight-bookings-in-january-aib-spend-report/ |archive-date=21 December 2023 |access-date=21 December 2023 |website=RTÉ}}</ref> Based on annual comparisons, [[CTS Eventim]] (36%) and Live Nation (32%) mentioned Coldplay among the driving factors behind their increase in profit.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2023 |title=CTS Eventim Revenues Hit €1.75BN for Year-to-Date |url=https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/11/cts-eventim-revenue-hits-e1-75bn-for-year-to-date/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231120183311/https://www.iq-mag.net/2023/11/cts-eventim-revenue-hits-e1-75bn-for-year-to-date/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=IQ}}
* {{Cite web |date=31 January 2024 |title=Billboard 2024 Power 100 List Revealed |url=https://www.billboard.com/h/billboard-2024-power-100-list/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203055505/https://www.billboard.com/h/billboard-2024-power-100-list/ |archive-date=3 February 2024 |access-date=3 February 2024 |website=Billboard}}</ref> Writing for ''[[El Cronista]]'', José Vales credited the group with the rise of [[music tourism]], as they can incite travel-related searches around the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 November 2023 |title=Taylor Swift y Coldplay: Cómo Potencian El Turismo los Influencers Musicales y Qué Se Espera Para 2024 |trans-title=Taylor Swift and Coldplay: How Musical Influencers Boost Tourism and What Is Expected for 2024 |url=https://www.cronista.com/espana/actualidad-es/taylor-swift-y-coldplay-como-potencian-el-turismo-los-influencers-musicales-y-que-se-espera-para-2024/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231115235216/https://www.cronista.com/espana/actualidad-es/taylor-swift-y-coldplay-como-potencian-el-turismo-los-influencers-musicales-y-que-se-espera-para-2024/ |archive-date=15 November 2023 |access-date=21 November 2023 |website=El Cronista |language=es}}</ref>
== Other areas ==
=== Music charts ===
Coldplay's discography experienced considerable sales and streaming gains throughout the tour, leading songs to debut and reach new peaks on [[Billboard Global 200|''Billboard'' Global 200]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=31 August 2022 |title=New Around the World: Coldplay's Catalog Climbs Global Charts |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-catalog-global-charts-new-around-the-world/ |url-status=live |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220901134228/https://www.billboard.com/pro/coldplay-catalog-global-charts-new-around-the-world/ |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=4 September 2022}}</ref> Following their shows at [[Estadio Akron]], in [[Zapopan]], they rose to number two on [[Spotify]] Mexico's Daily Top Artists chart.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 2023 |title=Daily Top Artists Mexico |url=https://charts.spotify.com/charts/view/artist-mx-daily/2022-03-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729213605/https://i.ibb.co/jLXySrW/Screenshot-1.png |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Spotify Charts}}</ref> [[Warner Music Group]] also certified "[[My Universe (song)|My Universe]]" and ''[[Music of the Spheres (Coldplay album)|Music of the Spheres]]'' (2021) as 3× Platinum and Gold in the country, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Coldplay Recibe Disco de Oro de Warner Music México por las Vendas del Álbum Music of the Spheres |trans-title=Coldplay Receives Gold Disc from Warner Music Mexico for Music of the Spheres Sales |url=https://warnermusic.com.mx/files/2022/Coldplay_MOTS_GoldCertification_MX.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220406001027/https://warnermusic.com.mx/files/2022/Coldplay_MOTS_GoldCertification_MX.pdf |archive-date=6 April 2022 |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=Warner Music MX |language=es}}</ref> The album returned to Germany's [[GfK Entertainment charts|Offizielle Top 100]] at number 19 with the [[Frankfurt]] and [[Berlin]] dates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 August 2022 |title=Coldplay – Music of the Spheres |url=https://www.offiziellecharts.de/album-details-483965 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729215336/https://www.offiziellecharts.de/album-details-483965 |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Offizielle Deutsche Charts |language=de}}</ref> In Belgium, the group's entire studio album catalogue – plus ''[[Live in Buenos Aires (Coldplay album)|Live in Buenos Aires]]'' (2018) – appeared in both the [[Flanders]] and [[Wallonia]] rankings.<ref name="BELCHART">{{Cite web |date=13 August 2022 |title=Ultratop – Albums Top 200 |url=https://www.ultratop.be/fr/albums/2022/20220813 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729220916/https://www.ultratop.be/fr/albums/2022/20220813 |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Ultratop |language=fr}}
* {{Cite web |date=13 August 2022 |title=Ultratop – Albums Top 200 |url=https://www.ultratop.be/nl/albums/2022/20220813 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729220828/https://www.ultratop.be/nl/albums/2022/20220813 |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Ultratop |language=nl}}</ref> ''[[Live 2012 (Coldplay album)|Live 2012]]'' entered the latter list as well.<ref name="BELCHART" /> After the residency at [[Wembley Stadium]], "[[Yellow (Coldplay song)|Yellow]]",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Yellow by Coldplay |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-yellow/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729222853/https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-yellow/ |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Official Charts Company}}</ref> "[[Viva la Vida]]",<ref name="UKCHART">{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Viva la Vida by Coldplay |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-viva-la-vida/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729222938/https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-viva-la-vida/ |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Official Charts Company}}</ref> and "[[A Sky Full of Stars]]" were featured in the [[UK Singles Chart]]s for the first time since 2014, 2017 and 2016, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=A Sky Full of Stars by Coldplay |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-a-sky-full-of-stars/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729222927/https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/coldplay-a-sky-full-of-stars/ |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Official Charts Company}}</ref> "[[Viva la Vida]]" has remained on the list for more than 30 non-consecutive weeks ever since.<ref name="UKCHART" />
[[File:ColdplayWembley16082219 (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|215x215px|alt=Four men perform on the stage, from left to right, they are on the bass, timpani, microphone and guitar|Coldplay performing "[[Viva la Vida]]" at [[Wembley Stadium]], London]]
Following their set at [[Rock in Rio]], Coldplay became the first international group to top Spotify Brazil's Daily Top Artists chart.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Celebra Sucesso nos Charts Após Rock in Rio |trans-title=Coldplay Celebrate Chart Success Following Rock in Rio |url=https://www.terra.com.br/diversao/musica/rock-in-rio/coldplay-celebra-sucesso-nos-charts-apos-rock-in-rio,ff0e0e21ae13fc322898dcabe086bd4f0mcxqc2m.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729230210/https://www.terra.com.br/diversao/musica/rock-in-rio/coldplay-celebra-sucesso-nos-charts-apos-rock-in-rio,ff0e0e21ae13fc322898dcabe086bd4f0mcxqc2m.html |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Terra |language=pt}}</ref> In Argentina, ''[[Parachutes (Coldplay album)|Parachutes]]'' (2000) achieved a new peak on the albums chart at number six.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 November 2022 |title=Los Discos Más Vendidos |trans-title=The Best-Selling Records |url=https://www.diariodecultura.com.ar/rankings/los-discos-mas-vendidos-de-la-semana-3/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114162751/https://www.diariodecultura.com.ar/rankings/los-discos-mas-vendidos-de-la-semana-3/ |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Diario de Cultura |language=es}}</ref> The feat was repeated in Portugal, where it rose to number three and was accompanied by eight other projects from the band.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2023 |title=Portuguese Charts: Albums – 21/2023 |url=https://portuguesecharts.com/archive.asp?todo=show&woche=21&jahr=2023&sparte=a |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729233905/https://portuguesecharts.com/archive.asp?todo=show&woche=21&jahr=2023&sparte=a |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Portuguese Charts}}</ref> Out of the 13 songs they had placed on the [[Associação Fonográfica Portuguesa|Portuguese Singles Chart]], eight saw their biggest weekly performance, including "[[Fix You]]", "[[Paradise (Coldplay song)|Paradise]]", "[[Clocks (song)|Clocks]]", "[[Higher Power (Coldplay song)|Higher Power]]" and "[[Sparks (Coldplay song)|Sparks]]".<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2023 |title=Portuguese Charts: Singles – 21/2023 |url=https://portuguesecharts.com/archive.asp?todo=show&woche=21&jahr=2023&sparte=s |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230729234302/https://portuguesecharts.com/archive.asp?todo=show&woche=21&jahr=2023&sparte=s |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=29 July 2023 |website=Portuguese Charts}}</ref>
More countries where sales charts were flooded include Italy (7 albums and 4 songs),<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 June 2023 |title=Album & Compilation – Classifica Settimanale WK 26 |trans-title=Albums & Compilations – Weekly Chart WK 26 |url=https://www.fimi.it/top-of-the-music/classifiche.kl#/charts/1/2023/26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730002554/https://www.fimi.it/top-of-the-music/classifiche.kl%23/charts/1/2023/26 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=FIMI |language=it}}
* {{Cite web |date=23 June 2023 |title=Singoli – Classifica Settimanale WK 26 |trans-title=Singles – Weekly Chart WK 26 |url=https://www.fimi.it/top-of-the-music/classifiche.kl#/charts/3/2023/26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730005152/https://www.fimi.it/top-of-the-music/classifiche.kl%23/charts/3/2023/26 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=FIMI |language=it}}</ref> Switzerland (6 albums and 4 songs),<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 July 2023 |title=Top 100 Alben |trans-title=Top 100 Albums |url=http://swisscharts.com/pdf/hitparade_ch_a_2023_07_09.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730003632/http://swisscharts.com/pdf/hitparade_ch_a_2023_07_09.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Schweizer Hitparade |language=de}}
* {{Cite web |date=9 July 2023 |title=Top 100 Singles |url=https://hitparade.ch/pdf/hitparade_ch_s_2023_07_09.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730003947/https://hitparade.ch/pdf/hitparade_ch_s_2023_07_09.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Schweizer Hitparade |language=de}}</ref> Sweden (8 albums and 12 songs),<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 July 2023 |title=Sverigetopplistan – Albums Top 60 |trans-title=Sweden Top List – Albums Top 60 |url=https://swedishcharts.com/weekchart.asp?cat=a&year=2023&date=20230714 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730002705/https://swedishcharts.com/weekchart.asp?cat=a&year=2023&date=20230714 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Swedish Charts |language=sv}}
* {{Cite web |date=14 July 2023 |title=Sverigetopplistan – Singles Top 100 |trans-title=Sweden Top List – Singles Top 100 |url=https://swedishcharts.com/weekchart.asp?cat=s&year=2023&date=20230714 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730002702/https://swedishcharts.com/weekchart.asp?cat=s&year=2023&date=20230714 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Swedish Charts |language=sv}}</ref> and the Netherlands (7 albums and 10 songs).<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2023 |title=Coldplay Prominent in Nederlandse Albumlijst na ArenaA Shows |trans-title=Coldplay Prominent in Dutch Album Chart After ArenaA Shows |url=https://www.welingelichtekringen.nl/anp/coldplay-prominent-in-nederlandse-albumlijst-na-arenaa-shows |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725043938/https://www.welingelichtekringen.nl/anp/coldplay-prominent-in-nederlandse-albumlijst-na-arenaa-shows |archive-date=25 July 2023 |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=Welingelichte Kringen |language=nl}}
* {{Cite web |date=22 July 2023 |title=Dutch Single Top 100 |url=https://dutchcharts.nl/weekchart.asp?cat=s&date=20230722&year=2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730002006/https://dutchcharts.nl/weekchart.asp?cat=s&date=20230722&year=2023 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Dutch Charts |language=nl}}</ref> Despite not holding shows in Norway, Coldplay had six album and song placements on [[VG-lista|VG-Lista]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 July 2023 |title=Topp 40 Album (2023 – Uke 28) |trans-title=Top 40 Albums (2023 – Week 28) |url=https://www.vglista.no/topplister/topp-40-album-2023-28/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730134221/https://www.vglista.no/topplister/topp-40-album-2023-28/ |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=VG-Lista |language=no}}
* {{Cite web |date=17 July 2023 |title=Topp 20 Single (2023 – Uke 29) |trans-title=Top 20 Singles (2023 – Week 29) |url=https://www.vglista.no/topplister/topp-20-single-2023-29/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730133845/https://www.vglista.no/topplister/topp-20-single-2023-29/ |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=VG-Lista |language=no}}</ref> With the concerts that were carried out in Taiwan, Indonesia and Malaysia, "Yellow", "Viva la Vida" and "A Sky Full of Stars" remained their best-performing tracks.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Taiwan Songs – Week of November 25, 2023 |url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/taiwan-songs-hotw/2023-11-25/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231129183159/https://www.billboard.com/charts/taiwan-songs-hotw/2023-11-25/ |archive-date=29 November 2023 |access-date=29 November 2023 |website=Billboard}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Coldplay – Indonesia Songs |url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/coldplay/chart-history/i43/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230730011535/https://www.billboard.com/artist/coldplay/chart-history/i43/ |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Billboard}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Malaysia Songs – Week of December 9, 2023 |url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/malaysia-songs-hotw/2023-12-09/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209035421/https://www.billboard.com/charts/malaysia-songs-hotw/2023-12-09/ |archive-date=9 December 2023 |access-date=9 December 2023 |website=Billboard}}</ref> After the third European leg was scheduled, the group scored chart entries in Greece (2 albums and 8 songs),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Top 75 Albums Sales Chart (Combined) – Week: 30/2023 |url=https://www.ifpi.gr/charts_en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805030705/https://www.ifpi.gr/charts_en.html |archive-date=5 August 2023 |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=IFPI Greece}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Digital Singles Chart (International) – Week: 30/2023 |url=https://www.ifpi.gr/digital_ien.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805030708/https://www.ifpi.gr/digital_ien.html |archive-date=5 August 2023 |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=IFPI Greece}}</ref> Finland (8 albums and 5 songs),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Suomen Virallinen Lista – Albumit (30/2023) |trans-title=Finland's Official List – Albums (30/2023) |url=https://www.ifpi.fi/lista/albumit/2023/30/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230805025614/https://www.ifpi.fi/lista/albumit/2023/30/ |archive-date=5 August 2023 |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=Musiikki Tuottajat |language=fi}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Suomen Virallinen Lista – Singlet (31/2023) |trans-title=Finland's Official List – Singles (31/2023) |url=https://www.ifpi.fi/lista/singlet/2023/31/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230805025625/https://www.ifpi.fi/lista/singlet/2023/31/ |archive-date=5 August 2023 |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=Musiikki Tuottajat |language=fi}}</ref> and Ireland (5 albums and 4 songs).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Top 100 Albums – Week Ending 4 August 2023 |url=https://www.irma.ie/#chartTab2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923031332/https://pdfhost.io/v/07yUPRdFU_Irish_Albums_Chart_Week_30_2023 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Irish Recorded Music Association |type=Select "28-Jul-23" and write "Coldplay" in the search bar}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Official Irish Singles Chart: 27 July 2023 – 2 August 2023 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/irish-singles-chart/20230728/ie7501/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230923031621/https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/irish-singles-chart/20230728/ie7501/ |archive-date=23 September 2023 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Official Charts Company}}</ref> As per David Pardillos from ''[[Infobae]]'', they were the band with the most searched lyrics of 2023 on [[Google]] because of the tour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2023 |title=Estos Son los Artistas Más Buscados en 2023 |trans-title=These Are the Most Searched Artists in 2023 |url=https://www.infobae.com/espana/2023/11/10/estos-son-los-artistas-mas-buscados-en-2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231111184334/https://www.infobae.com/espana/2023/11/10/estos-son-los-artistas-mas-buscados-en-2023/ |archive-date=11 November 2023 |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=Infobae |language=es}}</ref>
In January 2024, Coldplay earned their first Top 10 hit on the [[Philippines Songs]] ranking with "Yellow".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Coldplay – Philippines Songs |url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/coldplay/chart-history/i42/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131184112/https://www.billboard.com/artist/coldplay/chart-history/i42/ |archive-date=31 January 2024 |access-date=31 January 2024 |website=Billboard}}</ref> [[Lola Amour]] were invited to perform "Raining in Manila" at the first [[Philippine Arena]] show as well,<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2024 |title=Coldplay Turns Philippine Arena Into a Beautiful Universe of Its Own |url=https://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2024/01/24/2327961/coldplay-turns-philippine-arena-beautiful-universe-its-own |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123172158/https://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2024/01/24/2327961/coldplay-turns-philippine-arena-beautiful-universe-its-own |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |website=The Philippine Star}}</ref> leading the track to appear at number 24 on the same week.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Philippines Songs – Week of February 3, 2024 |url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/philippines-songs-hotw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131164718/https://www.billboard.com/charts/philippines-songs-hotw/ |archive-date=31 January 2024 |access-date=31 January 2024 |website=Billboard}}</ref> Out of the 30 slots available on [[Singapore]]'s [[Recording Industry Association Singapore|Top Streaming Chart]], the band occupied 17 of them, including the first nine.<ref name="SINGAPORE">{{cite web |date=1 February 2024 |title=RIAS Top Charts (Week 5) |url=https://www.rias.org.sg/rias-top-charts/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240206113709/https://www.rias.org.sg/rias-top-charts/ |archive-date=6 February 2024 |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=RIAS}}</ref> "Viva la Vida" and "Yellow" became their second and third chart-topping singles in the region,<ref name="SINGAPORE" /> joining "My Universe".<ref>{{cite web |date=30 September 2021 |title=RIAS Top Charts (Week 39) |url=https://www.rias.org.sg/rias-top-charts/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211005090713/https://www.rias.org.sg/rias-top-charts/ |archive-date=5 October 2021 |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=RIAS}}</ref>
=== Philanthropy ===
In addition to donating 10% from all of their profits to charity,<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 May 2005 |title=Coldplay's Slow-Burning Success |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2780109.stm |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805124727/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2780109.stm |archive-date=5 August 2019}}
* {{Cite web |date=14 October 2021 |title=ClientEarth Reaction: Coldplay Announce Music of the Spheres Word Tour |url=https://www.clientearth.org/latest/press-office/press/coldplay-world-tour-release/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134028/https://www.clientearth.org/latest/press-office/press/coldplay-world-tour-release/ |archive-date=29 December 2021 |access-date=16 January 2022 |website=Client Earth}}</ref> Coldplay teamed up with [[Global Citizen (organization)|Global Citizen]] and the Love Button Global Movement to gather volunteers in each tour stop and endorse local non-profit institutions on their individual missions, which included distributing food, creating gardens and providing shelter for refugees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Love Button World Tour |url=https://www.lovebutton.org/world-tour/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515142214/https://www.lovebutton.org/world-tour/ |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=Love Button}}</ref> In [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]], participants helped with United Community Corporation's Sky Full of Stars Carnival and Distribution, an event where residents earned access to free groceries and services such as rental and bill assistance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2022 |title=Newark Carnival Event Ringing in Summer Fun Will Also Provide Outreach Resources to Residents |url=https://www.tapinto.net/towns/newark/sections/giving-back/articles/newark-carnival-event-ringing-in-summer-fun-will-also-provide-outreach-resources-to-residents |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230531115325/https://www.tapinto.net/towns/newark/sections/giving-back/articles/newark-carnival-event-ringing-in-summer-fun-will-also-provide-outreach-resources-to-residents |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=Tap Into Newark}}</ref> They later helped to organise a warehouse used by Team Ukraine Love in [[Warsaw]].<ref name="LOVE">{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Updates Feed (July 7, 2022 & July 8, 2022) |url=https://www.teamukrainelove.com/updates-feed |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230531115856/https://www.teamukrainelove.com/updates-feed |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=Team Ukraine Love}}</ref> The foundation is focused on providing aid to those who were displaced from their homes by the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref name="LOVE" /> In [[Bogotá]], the group donated gifts to the children and health personnel of Hospital Simón Bolívar.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 September 2022 |title=Coldplay Envió Obsequios a Niños del Hospital Simón Bolívar en Bogotá |trans-title=Coldplay Sent Gifts to Children at the Simón Bolívar Hospital in Bogotá |url=https://www.rcnradio.com/entretenimiento/coldplay-envio-obsequios-a-ninos-del-hospital-simon-bolivar-en-bogota |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230921160130/https://www.rcnradio.com/entretenimiento/coldplay-envio-obsequios-a-ninos-del-hospital-simon-bolivar-en-bogota |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=RCN Radio |language=es}}</ref> During their stay in [[Buenos Aires]], volunteers established a partnership with [[TECHO]], an institution focused on improving local infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 November 2022 |title=En Su Paso por Argentina, Coldplay Se Sumó a un Proyecto Solidario en La Matanza |trans-title=In Their Passage Through Argentina, Coldplay Joined a Solidarity Project in La Matanza |url=https://www.el1digital.com.ar/sociedad/en-su-paso-por-argentina-coldplay-se-sumo-a-un-proyecto-solidario-en-la-matanza/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230601020152/https://www.el1digital.com.ar/sociedad/en-su-paso-por-argentina-coldplay-se-sumo-a-un-proyecto-solidario-en-la-matanza/ |archive-date=1 June 2023 |access-date=1 June 2023 |website=El1 Digital |language=es}}</ref> They also helped SP Invisível in [[São Paulo]] for the humanisation of views on homeless people and the promotion of individualised care experiences.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2023 |title=Coldplay Levará Pessoas em Situação de Rua para Assistir ao Show da Banda em São Paulo |trans-title=Coldplay Will Take Homeless People to Watch Their Show in São Paulo |url=https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/entretenimento/coldplay-levara-pessoas-em-situacao-de-rua-para-assistir-ao-show-da-banda-em-sao-paulo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230531114952/https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/entretenimento/coldplay-levara-pessoas-em-situacao-de-rua-para-assistir-ao-show-da-banda-em-sao-paulo/ |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=CNN Brasil |language=pt}}</ref> In [[Coimbra]], various initiatives were launched in collaboration with Serve the City Portugal,<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 May 2023 |title=Love Button: O Movimento Global que Distribui Amor à Boleia dos Coldplay |trans-title=Love Button: The Global Movement That Distributes Love to Coldplay's Ride |url=https://coimbracoolectiva.pt/historias/love-button-o-movimento-global-que-distribui-amor-a-boleia-dos-coldplay/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230531114937/https://coimbracoolectiva.pt/historias/love-button-o-movimento-global-que-distribui-amor-a-boleia-dos-coldplay/ |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=Coimbra Coolectiva |language=pt}}</ref> while [[Copenhagen]] saw a free clinic being set up.<ref name="PALO">{{Cite web |date=8 July 2023 |title=Coldplays Samarbetspartner Planterar Träd i Hammarkullen |trans-title=Coldplay's Partner Plants Trees in Hammarkullen |url=https://www.gp.se/kultur/kultur/coldplays-samarbetspartner-planterar-träd-i-hammarkullen-1.104377335 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230709121654/https://www.gp.se/kultur/kultur/coldplays-samarbetspartner-planterar-tr%C3%A4d-i-hammarkullen-1.104377335 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Göteborgs-Posten |language=sv}}</ref> Love Button then made a joint effort with Folkets Hus and Bostadsbolaget to plant trees in [[Gothenburg]].<ref name="PALO" /> Moreover, Coldplay donated a ticket for auction to the [[Rare Beauty|Rare Impact Fund]], which aims to expand access to mental health services for young people worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 October 2023 |title=Selena Gomez Gets Support from Francia Raisa at Mental Health Fundraiser: Super Proud |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/celebrities/2023/10/05/selena-gomez-inaugural-rare-impact-fund-taylor-swift-francia-raisa/71075057007/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231017004246/https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/celebrities/2023/10/05/selena-gomez-inaugural-rare-impact-fund-taylor-swift-francia-raisa/71075057007/ |archive-date=17 October 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 |website=USA Today}}</ref> During the [[Kaohsiung]] dates, volunteers granted assistance to the Love & Hope Children's Home.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2023 |title= |script-title=zh:Coldplay 高雄開唱前送暖 志工團伴弱勢兒同樂 |trans-title=Coldplay Sent a Volunteer Group to Have Fun with Disadvantaged Children Before the Concert Started in Kaohsiung |url=https://www.cna.com.tw/news/aloc/202311110098.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231111174001/https://www.cna.com.tw/news/aloc/202311110098.aspx |archive-date=11 November 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |website=CNA |language=zh}}</ref> The band additionally gave presents to workers and patients at the Mother and Child Hospital of [[Jakarta]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 November 2023 |title=Diam-Diam Coldplay Donasi Merchandise Kepada Pasien Anak di RSIA Bunda Jakarta |trans-title=Coldplay Secretly Donate Merchandise to Child Patients at RSIA Bunda Jakarta |url=https://www.kompas.com/hype/read/2023/11/29/160526566/diam-diam-coldplay-donasi-merchandise-kepada-pasien-anak-di-rsia-bunda |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123235637/https://www.kompas.com/hype/read/2023/11/29/160526566/diam-diam-coldplay-donasi-merchandise-kepada-pasien-anak-di-rsia-bunda#google_vignette |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |website=Kompas |language=id}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Cultural impact of Coldplay]]
* [[List of Coldplay live performances]]
* [[List of highest-grossing live music artists]]
* [[List of highest-grossing concert tours]]
* [[List of most-attended concert tours]]
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|3}}
== External links ==
* {{URL|1=https://coldplay.com/|2=Coldplay Official Website}}
* {{URL|1=https://sustainability.coldplay.com/|2=Coldplay Sustainability Website}}
{{Coldplay}}
[[Category:Coldplay]]
[[Category:2020s in music]]
[[Category:2022 in music]]
[[Category:2023 in music]]
[[Category:2024 in music]]
[[Category:Climate change in music]]
[[Category:Controversies in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Controversies in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Cultural impact|Music of the Spheres World Tour]]
[[Category:Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic]]
[[Category:LGBT-related controversies in music]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Green finance and the Belt and Road Initiative | [[Green finance]] is officially promoted as an important feature of the [[Belt and Road Initiative]], [[China]]'s signature global economic development initiative. The official vision for the BRI calls for an environmentally friendly "Green Belt and Road".<ref name="iisd">{{cite web |title=Special Policy Study on Green Belt and Road and 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development |url=https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/cciced/agm/cciced-sps-green-belt-roads.pdf |publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development |access-date=2019-11-26 |archive-date=2019-11-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117073910/https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/cciced/agm/cciced-sps-green-belt-roads.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==Policy==
Chinese policy documents for the BRI coordinate and encourage green finance and investment.
The [[Ministry of Ecology and Environment]] with four other ministries released the "Guidance on Promoting a Green Belt and Road" in 2017. A section of the policy document covers mobilizing capital for financing green projects using "international multilateral and bilateral cooperative institutions and funds, such as [[Silk Road Fund]], [[South-South Cooperation Assistance Fund]], [[China-ASEAN Investment Cooperation Fund]], [[China-Central and Eastern Europe Investment Cooperation Fund]], [[China-ASEAN Maritime Cooperation Fund]], [[Special Fund for Asian Regional Cooperation]] and [[LMC Special Fund]]." [[Policy banks|Policy institutions]] like the [[China Development Bank]] and [[Export-Import Bank of China]] are to play the "guiding role".<ref name="guidance">{{cite web |title=Guidance on Promoting Green Belt and Road |url=http://english.mee.gov.cn/Resources/Policies/policies/Frameworkp1/201706/t20170628_416864.shtml |publisher=Ministry of Ecology and Environment}}</ref>
The [[Development Research Center of the State Council]] and Export-Import Bank of China released a report in 2019 on green finance for the Belt and Road. The report gives recommendations and draws on lessons for China to develop Belt and Road green finance and goes into the details about "implementing the concept of green finance" by Export-Import Bank.<ref name="drc">{{cite web |title=DRC and China EximBank release report on green finance for Belt and Road |url=http://en.drc.gov.cn/2019-05/08/content_37466622.htm |publisher=Development Research Center of the State Council}}</ref>
==Forms==
The various forms of green finance includes investments, lending, and insurance by Chinese state-owned financial entities and companies for renewable energy projects in host countries of the Belt and Road.<ref name="nrdc">{{cite web |title=Greener Power Projects for the Belt & Road Initiative (BRI) |date=22 April 2019 |url=https://www.nrdc.org/experts/han-chen/greener-power-projects-belt-road-initiative-bri |publisher=Natural Resources Defense Council}}</ref>
===Bonds===
The market for [[climate bond|green bonds]] in China is the second largest in the world.<ref name="bondmarket">{{cite news |title=Bolstering the Belt and Road Initiative through green finance |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/26/WS5cc24e0fa3104842260b86e6.html |work=China Daily |date=April 26, 2019}}</ref> In the international bond market, Chinese banks have also issued green bonds. China Development Bank in November 2017 issued the first green bond specifically for Belt and Road projects. This first green BRI bond had EUR and USD tranches of US$1.1 billion for "renewable energy, clean transportation and water resource management projects" in BRI countries.<ref name="bond">{{cite news |last1=Geis |first1=Ruediger |title=Can the Belt and Road Initiative Be Green? |url=https://www.brinknews.com/can-the-belt-and-road-initiative-be-green/ |work=Brink |date=March 19, 2019}}</ref> In the same month, the [[Bank of China]] issued a green bond on the [[London Stock Exchange]] although not specifically for projects in the BRI.<ref name="bankofchina">{{cite news |last1=Yu |first1=Enoch |title=London calling: green finance, belt and road the latest China business push |url=https://www.scmp.com/business/china-business/article/2093306/london-calling-green-finance-belt-and-road-latest-china |work=South China Morning Post |date=May 7, 2017}}</ref>
===Loans===
The two primary Chinese policy banks for financing BRI projects are China Development Bank and Export Import Bank and each states support for advancing more green loans. Both banks consider green loans to mean financing projects in renewable energy or environmental protection.<ref name="chatham">{{cite web |title=The Role of Investors in Promoting Sustainable Infrastructure Under the Belt and Road Initiative |url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/research/2018-05-11-role-investors-sustainable-infrastructure-belt-and-road-hoare-hong-hein.pdf |publisher=Chatham House}}</ref> The Export Import Bank claimed to fulfill green obligations under the Belt and Road by supporting "a large number of projects featuring low energy consumption and high value added in areas of new energy development and utilization and the [[circular economy]]."<ref name="whitepaper">{{cite web |title=White Paper on Green Finance |url=http://english.eximbank.gov.cn/News/WhitePOGF/201807/P020180718416279996548.pdf |publisher=The Export-Import Bank of China}}</ref> However, out of the energy project loans advanced by both banks between 2014 and 2017 for the BRI, 18% went to coal while solar and wind accounted for 3.4% and 2.9% respectively.<ref name="nrdc"/><ref name="forbes">{{cite news |title=Leveraging China's "Green Soft Power" For Responsible Belt and Road Initiative Investment |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/energyinnovation/2019/05/14/leveraging-chinas-green-soft-power-for-responsible-belt-and-road-initiative-investment/#6461b6293e4f |work=Forbes |date=May 14, 2019}}</ref>
==Coal projects==
The primary contradiction with adherence to green finance and BRI projects is the large amount of lending by Chinese banks for coal fired power plants. In contrast, Western financial institutions have limited or prohibited financing of coal fired power plants starting with the [[World Bank]] and [[European Investment Bank]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xiong |first1=Minpeng |last2=Yang |first2=Xiaowen |last3=Chen |first3=Sisi |last4=Shi |first4=Fulian |last5=Yuan |first5=Jiahui |title=Environmental Stress Testing for China's Overseas Coal Power Investment Project |journal=Sustainability |date=October 4, 2019|volume=11 |issue=19 |pages=5506 |doi=10.3390/su11195506 |doi-access=free }}</ref> State owned Chinese commercial banks have shown a willingness to limit coal projects. In 2017, [[ICBC]] and [[China Construction Bank]] decided to not fund the [[Carmichael coal mine]] after environmental protests by the Australian public.<ref name="nonfunding">{{cite news |title=China's top two banks won't finance controversial Adani coal mine in Australia |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/australasia/article/2122741/chinas-top-two-banks-wont-finance-us15-billion-controversial |agency=Reuters |date=December 4, 2017}}</ref>
In 2021, the [[International Institute of Green Finance]] reported that China didn't finance any coal projects via its Belt and Road Initiative in the first half of 2021, which is a first since 2013 when BRI was launched.<ref>{{Cite web|title=China Avoids Coal Projects in Belt and Road for First Time|url=https://au.finance.yahoo.com/news/china-avoids-coal-projects-belt-020457525.html|access-date=2021-08-13|website=au.finance.yahoo.com|language=en-AU|archive-date=2021-08-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813000303/https://au.finance.yahoo.com/news/china-avoids-coal-projects-belt-020457525.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Belt and Road Initiative}}
[[Category:Belt and Road Initiative]]
[[Category:Bonds in foreign currencies]]
[[Category:Economy of China]]
[[Category:Finance in China]]
[[Category:Foreign trade of China]]
[[Category:Industrial ecology]]
[[Category:International finance]]
[[Category:Investment]]
[[Category:Natural resources]]
[[Category:Resource economics]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Doctor of Sustainability | '''Doctor of Sustainability''' ({{lang-la|doctor rerum sustinentium}}, lit. 'doctor of things sustainability'), abbreviated '''Dr. rer. sust.''' or '''DSus''' is a [[Transdisciplinarity|transdisciplinary]] doctoral academic degree awarded in the field of [[sustainability science]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=An der Hochschule Darmstadt wird ein Doktor in Nachhaltigkeitswissenschaften möglich |url=https://nachrichten.idw-online.de/2019/03/27/an-der-hochschule-darmstadt-wird-ein-doktor-in-nachhaltigkeitswissenschaften-moeglich |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=nachrichten.idw-online.de |language=de-DE}}</ref> Like other doctorate degrees, it is the highest academic qualification in the field and equivalent to a [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]].
== Motivation ==
The introduction of this doctoral degree was partly due to the demand that science and research make a greater contribution to solving social problems and to produce knowledge that is "socially robust". The main idea is to depart from the understanding of science being a compartmentalized preoccupation with academic problems to an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary process of knowledge genesis in a network of scientists and relevant stakeholders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martens |first=Pim |date=April 2006 |title=Sustainability: science or fiction? |journal=Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=36–41 |doi=10.1080/15487733.2006.11907976 |issn=1548-7733|doi-access=free |bibcode=2006SSPP....2...36M }}</ref>
[[Sustainability science]]s address the complex interplay between society and the environment in an attempt to provide new insights into existing challenges while opening up new forays of knowledge. Research in sustainability science focuses on issues relating to [[sustainability]] and [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Swart |first1=R. J |last2=Raskin |first2=P |last3=Robinson |first3=J |date=2004-07-01 |title=The problem of the future: sustainability science and scenario analysis |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378003000670 |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=137–146 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2003.10.002 |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> A characteristic of dissertations in this field are the practical nature of the problems they address without being strictly restricted to employing theories and methods from any specific discipline.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=William C. |last2=Dickson |first2=Nancy M. |date=2003-07-08 |title=Sustainability science: The emerging research program |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=100 |issue=14 |pages=8059–8061 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1231333100 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=166181 |pmid=12794187 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The overarching principle of [[sustainability measurement]] is often used as a framework for scientific analysis.
== History and Development ==
The first approval for conferment of this degree was granted on March 27, 2019, to [[Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences]] by the Hessian Minister of Science [[Angela Dorn-Rancke|Angela Dorn]]. This was after the federal state of Hesse passed a law that made it possible for its universities of applied sciences to apply for independent rights to award doctoral degrees in research-intensive disciplines.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Doctoral Center Sustainability Sciences – Graduiertenschule Darmstadt |url=https://graduiertenschule.h-da.de/en/doctoral-centers/doctoral-center-sustainability-sciences |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=graduiertenschule.h-da.de}}</ref>
As of 2020, [[Curtin University]] in Perth Australia offers a similar degree albeit as Doctor of Sustainable Development. At Curtin University, the doctoral candidates must complete course work equivalent to 100 credit points before embarking on their doctoral thesis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Doctor of Sustainable Development {{!}} Curtin University |url=https://www.curtin.edu.au/study/offering/course-rs-doctor-of-sustainable-development--dr-susdev/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |language=en}}</ref>
The [[Arizona State University]] offers a Doctor of Philosophy degree in sustainability. Students can be admitted to the PhD program with either a bachelor's or a master's degree from an international institution with recognized and accredited degrees. The course work requirements vary based on the candidates prior qualifications and highest academic degree. The dissertation phase only begins after successfully completing the coursework. A proposal must be submitted and defended before the dissertation research work can be conducted. The doctoral degree program concludes with the publication of the dissertation accompanied by a dissertation defense.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Doctor of Philosophy in sustainability |url=https://schoolofsustainability.asu.edu/graduate-degrees/doctor-of-philosophy-in-sustainability/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=School of Sustainability |language=en-US}}</ref>
As of 2023, the [[United Nations University]] offers a PhD programme in Sustainability Science.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PhD in Sustainability Science |url=https://unu.edu/ias/doctorate-degree/phd-sustainability-science |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=United Nations University |language=en}}</ref> This is a three-year programme that aims to produce scholars who will become key researchers in the field of sustainability science. The program seeks to promote a better understanding on matters sustainability by incorporating global change perspectives, specifically those related to climate change and biodiversity. The entry requirements include having a masters degree in a field related to sustainability and a minimum of 2 years of professional field experience related to sustainability. Students can select courses from those offered by UNU-IAS, while also enjoying the opportunity to take courses at other leading universities in Japan such as the [[University of Tokyo]], [[Sophia University]], and [[International Christian University]]. Like in most other places, the PhD degree concludes with a dissertation.
The [[University of Surrey]] offers a Practitioner Doctorate in Sustainability.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Practitioner Doctorate in Sustainability PhD/ EngD research course {{!}} University of Surrey |url=https://www.surrey.ac.uk/postgraduate/practitioner-doctorate-sustainability-phd-engd |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=www.surrey.ac.uk}}</ref> The degree is designed to allow students to pursue research studies at doctoral level while gaining invaluable research experience in a prestigious organisation external to the University. The programme is aimed at high-achieving researchers and graduates whose vision is to become a sustainability leader in industry. A series of sustainability modules and personal development workshops among four specified taught modules must be completed. The final assessment is based on the presentation of the doctoral thesis, which is discussed during a viva examination with at least two examiners. The dissertation can be submitted as a monograph or as a cumulative of several publication format chapters.
== See also ==
* [[Doctor of Engineering]]
* [[Doctor of Business Administration]]
* [[Doctor of Science]]
* [[Doctor of Philosophy]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Interspecies design | {{Short description|Design approach emphasizing relationships and interactions between multiple species}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
'''Interspecies design''' is design practice that intentionally involves and emphasizes the contributions of multiple species, focusing on the participation and outcomes for both human and non-human lifeforms. It aims to create a mutual benefit and centers on designing ''for'' and ''with'' all life.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Roudavski, S.)) | veditors=((Parham, J.)) | date= 2021 | chapter=Cambridge Companion to Literature and the Anthropocene | title=Interspecies Design | publisher=Cambridge University Press | pages=147–162 | isbn=978-1-108-49853-1 | url=https://zenodo.org/records/5010584/files/Roudavski%20-%202021%20-%20Interspecies%20Design.pdf}}</ref>
== Definition ==
Interspecies design is characterized by the participation of more than one species in design activities and the use of design outcomes by multiple species. This concept extends to all design practices that could potentially involve multiple species, making it a broad and inclusive field.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Roudavski, S.)) | journal=Architect Victoria | title=Design for All Life: Editorial | volume=3 | pages=32–37 | date= 2022 | doi=10.5281/zenodo.7803940}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Parker, D.)), ((Roudavski, S.)), ((Jones, T. M.)), ((Soanes, K.)) | year=2022 | title=New Design Tech Offers Hope for Urban Wildlife | url=https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/new-design-tech-offers-hope-for-urban-wildlife | access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref>
== Need and ethics ==
The field arises from a need to include all those at risk of harm, domination, or oppression in the design process, highlighting the ethical dimension of design decisions. This approach challenges traditional practices by considering the impact on and inclusion of non-human species.<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Roudavski, S.)) | title=DRS2020: Synergy | veditors=((Boess, S.)), ((Cheung, M.)), ((Cain, R.)) | year=2020 | chapter=Multispecies Cohabitation and Future Design | volume=2 | publisher=Design Research Society | doi=10.21606/drs.2020.402| isbn=9781912294381 | s2cid=225227723 | doi-access=free | hdl=11343/241799 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>
== Synonyms and related concepts ==
Interspecies design is related to but distinct from concepts such as interspecies cultures,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Parker, D.)), ((Soanes, K.)), ((Roudavski, S.)) | journal=Transpositiones | title=Interspecies Cultures and Future Design | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages=183–236 | date= 2022 | issn=2749-4128 | doi=10.14220/trns.2022.1.1.183| s2cid=248111213 | doi-access=free }}</ref> multispecies design, ecocentric design, ecological engineering, and more-than-human design. It focuses on processes rather than goals, and values all expressions of life instead of focusing on select species or criteria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://research.deepdesignlab.online/notes/nfidpcqrwaeqhsl5v2k18kx/|title=Interspecies Design|date=30 July 2021 |access-date=2023-12-03}}</ref>
== Challenges and limitations ==
Interspecies design faces challenges in defining its scope and focus. Questions arise about why to focus on species specifically, and not on other taxonomic groups, individual organisms, or broader ecological systems.
== Application in art and design ==
In the realm of art and design, interspecies design has been applied in creating shared spaces and experiences for multiple species, such as in the design of prosthetic habitat-structures for owls.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=Dan|last2=Roudavski|first2=Stanislav|title=Toward Interspecies Art and Design: Prosthetic Habitat-Structures in Human-Owl Cultures|journal=Leonardo|date=2022|volume=55|issue=4|pages=351–356|doi=10.1162/leon_a_02224|s2cid=249076101 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Animal-computer interaction]]
* [[Human–animal studies]]
* [[Ecological design]]
* [[Environmental ethics]]
== References ==
<references />
== Further reading ==
* Alexis, Nekeisha Alayna (2020). ''Beyond Compare: Intersectionality and Interspeciesism for Co-Liberation with Other Animals''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-138-35921-5}}
* Coulter, Kendra (2016). ''Animals, Work, and the Promise of Interspecies Solidarity''. Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-1-137-55879-4}}
* Goodale, Eben; Beauchamp, Guy; Ruxton, Graeme D. (2017). ''Mixed-Species Groups of Animals: Behavior, Community Structure, and Conservation''. Academic Press. {{ISBN|978-0-12-805355-3}}
* Linden, Dirk van der (2021). "Interspecies Information Systems". ''Requirements Engineering''. doi:[https://doi.org/10/gmmvps 10/gmmvps]
* Meijer, Eva (2019). ''When Animals Speak: Toward an Interspecies Democracy''. New York University Press. {{ISBN|978-1-4798-3126-5}}
* Parker, Dan; Roudavski, Stanislav (2022). "Toward Interspecies Art and Design: Prosthetic Habitat-Structures in Human-Owl Cultures". ''Leonardo''. 55 (4): 351–356. [[doi:10.1162/leon_a_02224]].
* Rice, Louis (2018). "Nonhumans in Participatory Design". ''CoDesign''. 14 (3): 238–257. doi:[https://doi.org/10/gfvpfx 10/gfvpfx].
* Roudavski, Stanislav (2021). "Interspecies Design". In Parham, John (ed.). ''Cambridge Companion to Literature and the Anthropocene''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 147–162. {{ISBN|978-1-108-68311-1}}
* Santos, Rodrigo dos; Kaczmarek, Michelle; Shankar, Saguna; Nathan, Lisa P. (2021). "Who Are We Listening to? The Inclusion of Other-than-Human Participants in Design". ''LIMITS ’21: Workshop on Computing within Limits''. doi:[https://doi.org/10/gkdd7f 10/gkdd7f].
* Veselova, Emīlija; Gaziulusoy, İdil (2019). "Implications of the Bioinclusive Ethic on Collaborative and Participatory Design". ''The Design Journal''. 22 (sup1): 1571–1586. doi:[https://doi.org/10/f9p9 10/f9p9].
* Vink, Janneke (2020). ''The Open Society and Its Animals''. Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-3-030-41924-0}}
[[Category:Design]]
[[Category:Animals and humans]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Interspecies communication]] |
List of environmental podcasts | {{Short description|none}}
The following is a '''list of environmental podcasts''' that focus on [[environmentalism]], [[sustainability]], [[climate change]], and [[pollution]].
== List ==
{{Dynamic list|date=November 2021}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Podcast
!Year
!Starring, Narrator(s), or Host(s)
!Produced by
!Ref
|-
|''[[Timber Wars]]''
|2020–present
|Aaron Scott
|[[Oregon Public Broadcasting]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-11|title=3 New Environmental Podcasts You'll Want to Binge|url=https://www.outsideonline.com/culture/books-media/environmental-podcast-recommendations/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Outside Online|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184101/https://www.outsideonline.com/culture/books-media/environmental-podcast-recommendations/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Inherited''
|2020
|Georgia Wright and Julianna Bradley
|Critical Frequency
|<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2022-10-22|title=Podcast ECO CHIC Cloud 10 and iHeartPodcasts|url=https://open.spotify.com/show/7p2jRnwldD4qFMYLmToxHJ |access-date=2022-10-22|website=Outside Online|language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Grouse (podcast)|Grouse]]''
|2020
|Ashley Ahearn
|[[BirdNote]] and [[Boise State Public Radio]]
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|''Living Planet''
|2021–present
|Sam Baker
|[[Deutsche Welle]]
|<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2021-08-20|title=Top 7 environmental and pollution podcasts|url=https://www.skymetweather.com/content/lifestyle-and-culture/top-7-environmental-and-pollution-podcasts/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=www.skymetweather.com|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184053/https://www.skymetweather.com/content/lifestyle-and-culture/top-7-environmental-and-pollution-podcasts/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Threshold Podcast]]''
|2017–present
|Amy Martin
|Auricle Productions
|<ref name=":1" />
|-
|''CleanLaw''
|2018–present
|Hana Vizcarra, Hannah Perls, Ari Peskoe, Carrie Jenks, Lowry Yankwich, and Jody Freeman
|HLS Environmental & Energy Law Program
|<ref name=":1" />
|-
|''[[Terrestrial (podcast)|Terrestrial]]''
|2017
|Ashley Ahearn
|[[KUOW-FM|KUOW]]
|<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2017-06-06|title=6 Hard-Hitting Environmental Podcasts • The Revelator|url=https://therevelator.org/environmental-podcasts/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=The Revelator|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184105/https://therevelator.org/environmental-podcasts/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Mongabay Newscast''
|2016–present
|Mike Gaworecki
|[[Mongabay]]
|<ref name=":2" />
|-
|''The Energy Gang''
|2013–present
|Ed Crooks
|[[Wood Mackenzie]]
|<ref name=":2" />
|-
|''The Big One''
|2019–present
|Jacob Margolis and Misha Euceph
|[[KPCC (radio station)|KPCC]] and [[KPCC (radio station)|Southern California Public Radio]]
|<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2019-04-03|title=These Environmental Podcasts Are Scary as Sh—t|url=https://www.outsideonline.com/culture/books-media/scary-environmental-podcasts/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Outside Online|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184051/https://www.outsideonline.com/culture/books-media/scary-environmental-podcasts/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Hot and Dry''
|2019–present
|Cally Carswell, Collin Haffey, and Page Buono
|Independent
|<ref name=":3" />
|-
|''Edition Spéciale''
|2018
|Fernand Lot
|[[Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-01-11|title=Eau, air, terre : cinq podcasts sur la pollution tous azimuts|url=https://www.telerama.fr/radio/eau,-air,-terre-cinq-podcasts-sur-la-pollution-tous-azimuts,n5428639.php|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Télérama|language=fr|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184051/https://www.telerama.fr/radio/eau,-air,-terre-cinq-podcasts-sur-la-pollution-tous-azimuts,n5428639.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Living on Earth''
|2001–present
|[[Steve Curwood]]
|World Media Foundation
|<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Staff|first=Greener Ideal|title=12 Environmental Podcasts to Listen to in 2021|url=https://greenerideal.com/news/environment/environmental-podcasts/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=greenerideal.com|date=7 May 2021 |language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184052/https://greenerideal.com/news/environment/environmental-podcasts/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Outrage and Optimism''
|2019–present
|[[Christiana Figueres]]
|Global Optimism
|<ref name=":4" />
|-
|''Sustainable(ish)''
|2018–present
|Jen Gale
|Independent
|<ref name=":4" />
|-
|''Target Zero Hunger''
|2016–present
|Sandra Ferrari
|[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]
|<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Movies, Podcasts and Books to Educate Yourself on Climate Change, Sustainability and the Hunger Crisis|url=http://www.ellecanada.com/culture/society/8-movies-podcasts-and-books-to-educate-yourself-on-climate-change-sustainability-and-the-hunger-crisis|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Elle Canada|language=en|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184057/https://www.ellecanada.com/culture/society/8-movies-podcasts-and-books-to-educate-yourself-on-climate-change-sustainability-and-the-hunger-crisis|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''TILclimate''
|2019–present
|Laur Hesse Fisher
|[[MIT]] Environmental Solutions Initiative
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|''A Rational Fear''
|2020–present
|[[Dan Ilic]]
|Independent
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-23|title=Australians are making podcasts about climate change and Bigfoot — and they're earning thousands of dollars in subscriptions every month|url=https://www.businessinsider.com.au/australian-podcasts-subscription-patreon-independent-boonta-vista-a-rational-fear-2020-11|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Business Insider Australia|language=en-AU|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184053/https://www.businessinsider.com.au/australian-podcasts-subscription-patreon-independent-boonta-vista-a-rational-fear-2020-11|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Sustainababble''
|2015–present
|Ol and Dave
|Independent
|<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=2020-10-05|title=The 10 Best Sustainability Podcasts You Need To Listen To Now|url=https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/the-10-best-sustainability-podcasts-you-need-to-listen-to-now/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Green Queen|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184053/https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/the-10-best-sustainability-podcasts-you-need-to-listen-to-now/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Green Dreamer''
|2018–present
|Kamea Chayne
|Independent
|<ref name=":6" />
|-
|''Sustainable Asia''
|2019–present
|Marcy Trent Long
|Independent
|<ref name=":6" />
|-
|''Podship Earth''
|2018–present
|Jared Blumenfeld
|Independent
|<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=13 sustainability podcasts that will keep your earbuds plugged in {{!}} Greenbiz|url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/13-sustainability-podcasts-will-keep-your-earbuds-plugged|access-date=2021-11-15|website=www.greenbiz.com|language=en|archive-date=2022-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115183757/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/13-sustainability-podcasts-will-keep-your-earbuds-plugged|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''The Drawdown Agenda''
|2018–2019
|Fergal Byrne
|Independent
|<ref name=":7" />
|-
|''Carbon Removal Newsroom''
|2019–present
|Ramez Naam
|[[Nori (company)|Nori]]
|<ref name=":7" />
|-
|''Direct Current''
|2016–present
|
|[[United States Department of Energy]]
|<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=7 exceptional sustainability podcasts you should tune in to {{!}} Greenbiz|url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/7-exceptional-sustainability-podcasts-you-should-tune|access-date=2021-11-15|website=www.greenbiz.com|language=en|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184055/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/7-exceptional-sustainability-podcasts-you-should-tune|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''The Sustainability Agenda''
|2016–present
|Fergal Byrne
|Independent
|<ref name=":8" />
|-
|''Infinite Earth Radio''
|2016–2019
|Michael Hancox and Vernice Miller-Travis
|Skeo and the Local Government Commission
|<ref name=":8" />
|-
|''Sustainability Defined''
|2016–present
|Jay Siegel and Scott Breen
|Independent
|<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|title=Pod's green earth: 14 sustainability podcasts you need to know {{!}} Greenbiz|url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/pods-green-earth-14-sustainability-podcasts-you-need-know|access-date=2021-11-15|website=www.greenbiz.com|language=en|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184054/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/pods-green-earth-14-sustainability-podcasts-you-need-know|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Think: Sustainability''
|2016–present
|Sophie Ellis
|2SER 107.3
|<ref name=":9" />
|-
|''[[Climate One]]''
|2007–present
|[[Greg Dalton]]
|[[Commonwealth Club of California]]
|<ref name=":9" />
|-
|''Hot Take''
|2019–present
|[[Amy Westervelt]]
|[[Crooked Media]]
|<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|title=Here Are the Top 10 Climate Change Podcasts Out Right Now|url=https://gizmodo.com/here-are-10-of-the-best-climate-change-podcasts-out-rig-1845397380|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Gizmodo|date=17 October 2020 |language=en-us|archive-date=2022-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418194426/https://gizmodo.com/here-are-10-of-the-best-climate-change-podcasts-out-rig-1845397380|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Floodlines]]''
|2020–2021
|[[Vann R. Newkirk II]]
|[[The Atlantic]]
|<ref name=":10" />
|-
|''[[Boomtown (podcast)|Boomtown]]''
|2019–present
|Christian Wallace
|Imperative Entertainment and [[Texas Monthly]]
|<ref name=":10" />
|-
|''[[Mothers of Invention (podcast)|Mothers of Invention]]''
|2018–present
|[[Mary Robinson]] and [[Maeve Higgins]]
|[[Doc Society]]
|<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|date=2021-05-19|title=5 Climate Change Podcasts You Should Be Listening to Right Now|url=https://studybreaks.com/culture/music/climate-change-podcasts/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Study Breaks|language=en-us|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184053/https://studybreaks.com/culture/music/climate-change-podcasts/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''America Adapts the Climate Change Podcast''
|2016–present
|Doug Parsons
|Independent
|<ref name=":11" />
|-
|''How to Save a Planet''
|2019–present
|Muna Suleiman
|[[Friends of the Earth]]
|<ref name=":11" />
|-
|''Emergence Magazine Podcast''
|2018–present
|Various
|Kalliopeia Foundation
|<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=8 Genuinely Great Podcasts on Climate Change and the Natural World |url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/podcasts-climate-change-environment/ |access-date=2021-11-15 |website=Global Citizen |date=5 March 2021 |language=en |archive-date=2021-10-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008032328/https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/podcasts-climate-change-environment/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|''For What It's Earth''
|2019–present
|Emma Brisdion and Lloyd Hopkins
|Independent
|<ref name=":12" />
|-
|''The Crisis''
|2021–present
|Ramon Campos, Sayre Quevedo, and Agnes Walton
|[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]]
|<ref name=":13">{{Cite news|last=Lett|first=Phoebe|date=2021-04-18|title=Listen to a Changing Planet, Through These 5 Climate Podcasts|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/17/at-home/climate-change-podcasts.html|access-date=2021-11-15|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184055/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/17/at-home/climate-change-podcasts.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Broken Ground''
|2019–present
|Claudine Ebeid McElwain
|[[Southern Environmental Law Center]]
|<ref name=":13" />
|-
|''Life Raft''
|2020–present
|Lauren Malara and Travis Lux
|[[WWNO]] and [[WRKF]]
|<ref name=":13" />
|-
|''[[Costing the Earth|Costing The Earth]]''
|2021–present
|Thais and Lina
|[[BBC Radio]]
|<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=8 Podcasts About Climate Change That Can Help You Remain Informed|url=https://www.bustle.com/p/8-podcasts-about-climate-change-that-can-help-you-remain-informed-16994758|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Bustle|date=23 April 2019 |language=en|archive-date=2021-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115184052/https://www.bustle.com/p/8-podcasts-about-climate-change-that-can-help-you-remain-informed-16994758|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''Climate Cast''
|2021–present
|Paul Huttner
|[[Minnesota Public Radio]]
|<ref name=":14" />
|-
|''A Climate Change Podcast''
|2017–2019
|Rajesh, Dave, and Curt Newton
|[[MIT]] ClimateX
|<ref name=":14" />
|-
|
|}
== See also ==
*[[Popular science]]
*[[Environmental journalism]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Science and the public}}
{{environmental humanities}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Environmental podcasts}}
[[Category:Lists of podcasts|environmental]]
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Pollution]]
[[Category:Green politics]]
[[Category:Environment-related lists|Podcasts]] |
Solar canopy | {{Short description|Arrays on structures built over land with other uses}}
[[File:Parking under Solar Canopy (52937580768).jpg|thumb|Solar canopy parking lot in [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] at Hotel Marcel. There are EV [[Charging station#SAE|level 2]] chargers underneath the canopy and a 12-stall [[Tesla Supercharger]] behind.]]
[[File:NNHS Walnut St solar canopy close.agr.jpg|thumb|Solar canopies over a high school parking lot]]
[[File:1Wiata fotowoltaika Carport.Solar.jpg|thumb|[[Carport]] solar canopy]]
'''Solar canopies''' are [[Solar Arrays|solar arrays]] installed on [[Canopy (architecture)|canopies]], which could be a parking lot canopy, [[carport]], [[gazebo]], [[Pergola]], or [[patio cover]].
==Solar canopy parking lots==
{{See also|Green parking lot}}
[[File:Solar canopy parking ramp Gundersen Hospital.jpg|thumb|Solar canopy parking ramp [[Gundersen Health System|Gundersen Hospital]]]]
The mounting structure makes solar canopy parking lots 50% to twice as expensive to build as traditional grass field solar arrays, but as [[distributed energy resources]] they avoid [[transmission congestion]] and losses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yeaQUhAOdtk |title=Archived copy |access-date=2024-01-03 |archive-date=2024-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103071538/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yeaQUhAOdtk |url-status=live }}</ref> The canopies can protect the cars and [[Asphalt concrete|asphalt]] from extreme weather.
A French law passed in 2023 will require parking lots larger than {{Convert|50000|sqft|m2}} to build solar canopies covering half their area. This could result in installed capacity of 6.75–11.25 gigawatts, at a cost of $8.7–14.6 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Birnbaum |first=Michael |date=2023-02-08 |title=New French law will blanket parking lots with solar panels |language=en-US |work=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2023/02/06/france-solar-parking-lots/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=2023-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306093420/https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2023/02/06/france-solar-parking-lots/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2022, the world's largest solar car park canopy opened in the Netherlands with 35 MW capacity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-11 |title=Largest solar car park in the world opens at Dutch music festival |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/05/11/largest-solar-car-park-in-the-world-opens-at-famous-dutch-festival |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=euronews |language=en |archive-date=2023-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812161622/https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/05/11/largest-solar-car-park-in-the-world-opens-at-famous-dutch-festival |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[Rutgers University]] is building 14.5 MW of solar canopies on parking lots in 2023, which will generate 18 [[GWh]] annually, in addition to the 32-acre 8.8 MW solar canopy parking lot already installed there in 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Michelle |date=2023-06-21 |title=Rutgers University is still a trailblazer in parking lot solar |url=https://electrek.co/2023/06/21/rutgers-university-parking-lot-solar/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Electrek |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-06-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630180734/https://electrek.co/2023/06/21/rutgers-university-parking-lot-solar/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
If [[Walmart Supercenter]]s installed Solar canopies on their 3,500+ parking lots it would generate 11.1 gigawatts of solar power [[nameplate capacity]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Putting Solar Canopies on Parking Lots Is a Smart Green Move |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/putting-solar-panels-atop-parking-lots-a-green-energy-solution |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101131044/https://e360.yale.edu/features/putting-solar-panels-atop-parking-lots-a-green-energy-solution |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deshmukh |first=Swaraj Sanjay |last2=Pearce |first2=Joshua M. |date=2021-05-01 |title=Electric vehicle charging potential from retail parking lot solar photovoltaic awnings |url=https://research.aalto.fi/files/55239913/ELEC_Pearce_Electric_vehicle_charging_potential.pdf |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=169 |pages=608–617 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2021.01.068 |issn=0960-1481}}</ref>
==Gazebos==
At [[Park|parks]] or backyard [[Patio cover|patios]], [[Gazebo|gazebos]] can be installed as a solar canopy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-14 |title=Are solar canopies and carports worth it? |url=https://www.solarreviews.com/content/blog/are-solar-canopies-worth-it |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Solar Reviews |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Thing film solar on standing seam metal roof.webp|thumb|center|[[Thin-film solar cell#Thin film solar on metal roofs|Thin film solar on standing seam metal roof]] gazebo 3D sketch]]
==Tesla Supercharger stations with solar canopies==
Some [[Tesla Supercharger]] stations have solar canopies installed to protect drivers and vehicles from the elements while recharging. [[Tesla Megapack]]s are also installed at some of these locations to store that energy locally.<ref>https://www.tesmanian.com/blogs/tesmanian-blog/first-known-tesla-v4-supercharger-with-solar-panels-and-megapack-is-coming-to-arizona</ref>
[[File:Tesla Supercharger station with solar canopy.webp|thumb|center|3D sketch of [[Tesla Supercharger]] station with solar canopies and 8 [[Tesla Megapack|Megapack]] set for close to 32 [[MWh|Mw/h]]]]
==See also==
* [[Community solar]]
* [[Solar landfill]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Parking]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:Parking facilities]]
[[Category:Solar power]]
[[Category:Photovoltaics]]
[[Category:Sustainability| ]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Human-Environment interaction]] |
Solar landfill | {{Multiple issues|
{{notability|1=Neologisms|date=January 2024}}
{{advert|date=January 2024}}
}}
[[File:Faria 000102 153913 493502 4578 (35502216424).jpg|thumb|Solar arrays on a full [[landfill]] in [[Rehoboth, Massachusetts|Rehoboth, MA]]]]
A '''solar landfill,''' also referred to as a brightfield, is a former [[landfill]] site that has been transformed into a [[solar array]] or [[solar farm]]. Landfills that are no longer in use are often called [[brownfields]] due to potential environmental concerns. By repurposing these brownfields into solar fields, they become known as brightfields.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Barone |first1=Emily |title=U.S. Landfills Are Getting a Second Life as Solar Farms |url=https://time.com/6183376/landfills-becoming-solar-farms/ |magazine=TIME |date=2 June 2022 }}</ref> In the United States, there are more than 10,000 closed or inactive landfills, which have the potential to accommodate over 60 [[gigawatts]] of solar installations.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://rmi.org/insight/the-future-of-landfills-is-bright/ | title=The Future of Landfills is Bright }}</ref>
==Development==
[[File:Growth in Solar Installations on Landfills.webp|thumb|Growth in solar installations on landfills<ref>https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2023-11/re-on-cl-tracking-matrix-112823.pdf{{Bare URL PDF|date=February 2024}}
</ref>]]
[[File:NUMBER OF RE-POWERING PROJECTS BY STATE.webp|thumb|280px|Completed [[Brownfield land|Brownfield]] renewable projects by State as of November 2023
{{legend|#0FA1DF|States with financial incentives}}
{{legend|#ACD097|States with streamlined permitting policies}}
{{legend|#FFCB7A|States with financial incentives and streamlined permitting policies}}
{{legend|#ffffff|States with no incentives}}
{{legend
| white <!--light green-->
| Number of brownfield completed projects in each State
| border = 1px solid black <!--red-->
| textcolor = black <!--blue-->
| size = 100%
| text = 5
}}
]]
In 2023 the largest solar landfill completed construction in [[Houston]], Texas. The 50 [[Megawatt|MW]] solar array was installed on a 240-acre site that was previously an [[Incineration|incinerator]] and landfill closed by the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) in 1974.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://communityplaymaker.com/discoveries/how-a-houston-solar-project-empowered-a-working-class-neighborhood/ | title=How a Houston Solar Project Empowered a Working-Class Neighborhood }}</ref>
Landfill sites are often suitable locations for solar farms due to their existing [[infrastructure]], including [[Access road|access roads]], [[electric utilities]], and systems for using [[landfill gas]]. Additionally, these sites are elevated and devoid of objects that could obstruct [[solar irradiance]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://energytech.com/renewables/article/21275410/where-trash-turns-into-treasure-the-future-of-solar-on-landfills | title=Where Trash Turns into Treasure: The Future of Solar on Landfills | date=12 October 2023 }}</ref> Siting Solar projects on landfills may have the added benefit of not requiring the developer to build on or disrupt existing ecosystems, such as would be the case if the project were to be sited on an area that requires clear-cutting or other modifications.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://governing.com/now/why-arent-more-solar-farms-built-on-municipal-landfills | title=Why Aren't More Solar Farms Built on Municipal Landfills? | date=2 March 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Simon |first1=Julia |title=In some fights over solar, it's environmentalist vs. environmentalist |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/06/18/1177524841/solar-energy-project-location-debate |work=NPR |date=18 June 2023 }}</ref>
In order to be approved to site a solar project on a brownfield, most states require a measure of [[Environmental remediation|rehabilitation]] to be conducted on the land, including the disposal of on-site hazardous materials<ref>{{cite web | url=https://dec.ny.gov/environmental-protection/site-cleanup/brownfield-and-state-superfund-programs/brownfield | title=Brownfield Cleanup Program - NYDEC }}</ref> as well as ecological restoration such as the introduction of native species, improving the resiliency of the land and ensuring that a stable ecosystem is maintained.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/Featured-Stories/Transforming-Brownfields-for-a-Greener-Future | title=Transforming Brownfields for a Greener Future }}</ref>
== Environmental Impact ==
Solar projects sited on brownfields can help mitigate [[Environmental hazard|environmental hazards]] associated with landfill sites by covering and sealing the waste, preventing further contamination of soil and groundwater, and reducing methane emissions through the capture of [[landfill gas]]. By repurposing landfills for solar development, previously unusable land can be reclaimed for a productive purpose, reducing the need for new land development and preserving natural habitats.
Prior to development, landfills may require extensive site preparation, including capping, grading, and soil remediation, to ensure the stability and suitability of the land for solar installation. This work has the added benefit of protecting the surrounding ecosystem from the potentially harmful materials within the landfill.
While Solar Farms' impact on wildlife is a hotly debated topic, in many cases, the benefits provided by rehabilitating a landfill in order to site a solar landfill may outweigh the negative effects posed by the existence of a solar farm.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1525/cse.2018.001123 | doi=10.1525/cse.2018.001123 | title=Best Practices in Responsible Land Use for Improving Biodiversity at a Utility-Scale Solar Facility | date=2018 | last1=Sinha | first1=Parikhit | last2=Hoffman | first2=Beth | last3=Sakers | first3=John | last4=Althouse | first4=Lynnedee | journal=Case Studies in the Environment | volume=2 | pages=1–12 }}</ref> Not only does the conversion of landfills into solar farms reduce [[greenhouse gas]] emissions and contribute to renewable energy generation, but also repurposes previously unusable land and mitigates environmental hazards associated with abandoned landfill sites.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jea.7500165 | doi=10.1038/sj.jea.7500165 | title=The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): A resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants | date=2001 | last1=Klepeis | first1=Neil E. | last2=Nelson | first2=William C. | last3=Ott | first3=Wayne R. | last4=Robinson | first4=John P. | last5=Tsang | first5=Andy M. | last6=Switzer | first6=Paul | last7=Behar | first7=Joseph V. | last8=Hern | first8=Stephen C. | last9=Engelmann | first9=William H. | journal=Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology | volume=11 | issue=3 | pages=231–252 | pmid=11477521 | s2cid=22445147 }}</ref>
While capping a landfill serves to mitigate exposure to waste products, there are some potential downsides to this process.
One issue is that capping the landfill may seal off microbiomes in the soil which are often home to diverse species of fungi and bacteria which thrive in the landfill environment, potentially leading to biodiversity loss through partitioning of the two ecosystems. <ref>{{cite journal | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37126164/ | pmid=37126164 | date=2023 | author1=Morita AKM | last2=Sakamoto | first2=I. K. | author3=Varesche MBA | last4=Wendland | first4=E. | title=Effects of capping on microbial populations and contaminant immobilization in an old unlined landfill | journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research International | volume=30 | issue=26 | pages=68548–68562 | doi=10.1007/s11356-023-27311-8 | bibcode=2023ESPR...3068548M | s2cid=250232441 }}</ref>
A potential route to combat biodiversity loss is to utilize the [[Biodiversity offsetting|mitigation hierarchy]] to ensure that proper measures are taken to offset any impacts caused by development.
== Challenges ==
'''Regulatory Compliance:''' Solar development on landfills must adhere to stringent environmental regulations and permitting requirements to address concerns related to soil contamination, habitat disruption, and public health.
'''Technical Considerations:''' Solar installations on landfills may face technical challenges related to land subsidence, soil settlement, and ground stability, requiring specialized engineering and construction techniques to ensure the long-term viability of the project.
==See also==
*[[Community solar]]
*[[Solar canopy]]
*[[Tesla Megapack]]
{{multiple image
| align = center
| total_width = 420
| image1 = La Crosse landfill solar trackers.webp
| caption1 = [[Solar tracker#Vertical|vertical axis solar trackers]] 3D sketch
| image2 = La Crosse landfill solar trackers morning.webp
| caption2 = Solar trackers in the morning facing east
| image3 = La Crosse landfill solar trackers noon.webp
| height3 = 90
| caption3 = solar trackers at noon laying flat
| image4 = La Crosse landfill solar trackers evening.webp
| height4 = 100
| caption4 = Solar trackers in the evening facing west
| footer = 3D model of solar landfill with [[Solar tracker#Vertical|vertical axis solar trackers]] and [[Tesla Megapack]] with [[solar canopies]]. Showing how the vertical axis solar trackers track the sun across the sky from morning (east) to evening (west).
}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{cleanup-link rot|date=February 2024}}
# https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2023-11/re-on-cl-tracking-matrix-112823.pdf
# https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/Clean-Energy-Siting-Resources/Transitioning-Underused-Spaces
# https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/supporting-brownfields-redevelopment-using-tax-incentives-and-credits
# https://www.powermag.com/solar-farm-at-a-landfill-site-brings-new-meaning-for-waste-to-energy/
# https://encorerenewableenergy.com/services/brownfields-redevelopment/
# {{cite journal |last1=Spiess |first1=Thierry |last2=De Sousa |first2=Christopher |title=Barriers to Renewable Energy Development on Brownfields |journal=Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning |date=7 August 2016 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=507–534 |doi=10.1080/1523908X.2016.1146986 |bibcode=2016JEPP...18..507S |s2cid=155310511 }}
# https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/2019-brownfields-federal-programs-guide
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:Solar power]]
[[Category:Photovoltaics]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Human-Environment interaction]] |
Digital sustainability | {{Short description|Concept involving intangible goods}}
[[File:Icon_Digitale_Nachhaltigkeit_Farbig.svg|alt=Label Digital Sustainability|thumb|Label Digital Sustainability]]
The concept of '''digital sustainability''' describes the long-term oriented production and further development of digital artifacts and addresses the [[tragedy of the anticommons]]. Originating from the term [[sustainability]], which has been predominantly used in connection with ecological topics, the concept of digital sustainability, according to the definition of [[sustainable development]] in the [[Our Common Future|Brundtland Report]], refers to the conscious handling of [[resource]]s in a way that their current creation and use do not impair the needs of future generations.
== Definition and distinction ==
''Digital resources are sustainably managed when their benefit to society is maximized, so that the digital needs of current and future generations are equally met. The societal benefit is maximized when the resources are accessible to the largest number and reusable with a minimum of technical, legal, and social restrictions. Digital resources are knowledge and cultural artifacts digitally represented as text, image, audio, video, or software.'' (Definition after Dapp)
Digital sustainability distinguishes itself from the original definition of sustainability in that digital sustainability exclusively deals with [[intangible good]]s, so-called knowledge goods. Such non-physical resources are [[rivalry (economics)#non-rivalry|non-rivalrous]], so that no consumption of the goods can occur. Nevertheless, digital resources can be both [[excludability|excludable]] (a so-called [[club good]]s) and non-excludable (a so-called [[Public good (economics)|public good]]s). Through the protection of [[intellectual property]], digital resources can be excluded from free use and further development (see also "[[Copyright]]").
== Ten preconditions of digital sustainability ==
In early 2017, a scientific publication appeared in ''[[Sustainability Science]]'' by [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer Publishing]]<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-016-0412-2|title=Digital sustainability: basic conditions for sustainable digital artifacts and their ecosystems|first1=Matthias|last1=Stuermer|first2=Gabriel|last2=Abu-Tayeh|first3=Thomas|last3=Myrach|date=March 1, 2017|journal=Sustainability Science|volume=12|issue=2|pages=247–262|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/s11625-016-0412-2|pmid=30174752|pmc=6106115|bibcode=2017SuSc...12..247S }}</ref> and in July 2017 a related article in German<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parldigi.ch/de/digitale-nachhaltigkeit/|title=Digitale Nachhaltigkeit: Digitale Gemeingüter für die Wissensgesellschaft der Zukunft – Parldigi – Digitale Nachhaltigkeit|date=July 7, 2017}}</ref> describing ten preconditions of digital sustainability. The first four criteria concern the properties of the [[digital good]]s, the next five criteria the properties of the [[ecosystem]], and the last criterion the impact on society. Concrete examples of digital sustainability include [[Wikipedia]], [[Linux]], and [[OpenStreetMap]].
The following ten preconditions of digital sustainability were presented with individual icons at DINAcon 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parldigi.ch/de/icons-voraussetzungen/|title=Icons Voraussetzungen digitale Nachhaltigkeit – Parldigi – Digitale Nachhaltigkeit}}</ref> These are also published on [[Wikimedia Commons]] under the [[Creative Commons]] Zero license.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:DINA_badge_colour|title=Category:DINA badge colour - Wikimedia Commons|website=commons.wikimedia.org}}</ref>
=== Properties of the digital good ===
Source:<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-016-0412-2|title=Digital sustainability: basic conditions for sustainable digital artifacts and their ecosystems|first1=Matthias|last1=Stuermer|first2=Gabriel|last2=Abu-Tayeh|first3=Thomas|last3=Myrach|date=March 1, 2017|journal=Sustainability Science|volume=12|issue=2|pages=247–262|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/s11625-016-0412-2|pmid=30174752|pmc=6106115|bibcode=2017SuSc...12..247S }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable_no-border"
|- class="backgroundcolor5"
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 01 Ausgereift Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''1. Elaborateness:''' The digital good must be qualitatively elaborate. For example, a software solution must be [[software quality|high-quality programmed]], function correctly and [[information security|securely]], and fully cover the [[requirements management|necessary requirements]].
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 02 Transparente Strukturen Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''2. Transparent structures:''' Digitally sustainable goods must have transparent structures, meaning the [[source code]] of a software must be [[open source|fully disclosed]] and the format of data must be publicly documented using an [[open standard]]. This technical transparency enables control and improvements, leading to more trust and [[software bug|fewer errors]].
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 03 Semantische Daten Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''3. Semantic data:''' The advancing digitization requires that information is not only understood by humans but also by machines. Consequently, digitally sustainable information must be linked through [[conceptual schema|semantic data]]. Such [[metadata]] allows large amounts of digital information to be processed, aggregated, and interpreted by machines.
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 04 Verteilte Standorte Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''4. Distributed location:''' In the digital world, the physical aspect also plays an important role. If data is stored only in one location or a system runs only on a single server, the long-term availability of these digital goods is at risk. It is digitally sustainable if information and applications are redundantly stored in multiple locations, for example, using [[peer-to-peer]] approaches. This reduces dependence on the physical location and increases permanent availability.
|-
|}
=== Properties of the ecosystem ===
{| class="wikitable_no-border"
|- class="backgroundcolor5"
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 05 Freie Lizenz Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''5. [[Free license|Open licensing regime]]:''' Legal frameworks must allow digital goods to be freely used, modified, and redistributed. This way, once created digital knowledge can be improved and applied unrestrictedly by society. This is the case, for example, with [[open source]], [[open data]], or [[open access]] licenses.
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 06 Geteiltes Wissen Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''6. Shared tacit knowledge:''' The expert improvement and expansion of digital knowledge require that know-how and experiences ([[tacit knowledge]]) are distributed among as many people as possible from different organizations. This reduces the knowledge-dependence on individual persons and companies ([[vendor lock-in|lock-in effect]]) and increases contributions from others.
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 07 Partizipationskultur Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''7. [[public participation (decision making)|Participatory culture]]:''' All competent individuals should be able to contribute constructively to the expansion and further development of the digital good. This requires a healthy participation culture. For example, [[peer review]] processes in the community can ensure the required quality of data and software.
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 08 Faire Führungsstrukturen Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''8. Good governance:''' Good governance ensure thats control over the digital good does not lie with a single person or organization but is distributed as decentralized as possible. Transparent governance structures such as public elections or the [[meritocracy]] principle regulate the responsibilities. This criterion is based on the concept of [[good governance]].
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 09 Breit Abgestützte Finanzierung Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''9. Diversified financing:''' The infrastructure (such as Internet [[server (computing)|server]]s), the responsible personnel, and other resources should be paid for by as many different actors as possible. Broadly supported financing allows independence from a single institution and reduces [[conflict of interest]].
|-
|}
=== Impact on Society ===
{| class="wikitable_no-border"
|- class="backgroundcolor5"
|-
| [[File:Icon DINA Voraussetzungen Digitale Nachhaltigkeit 10 Beitrag Zur Nachhaltigen Entwicklung Farbig.svg|100px]]
| '''10. Contributing to sustainable development:''' Digitally sustainable goods and their communities should contribute to [[sustainable development]] in the classical sense. In other words, digitally sustainable programs and data should have a positive [[ecology|ecological]], [[sustainability#social_sustainability|social]], or [[sustainability#economic_sustainability|economic]] impact. At the same time, digitally sustainable goods must use resources from a sustainable background in their production and application. For example, the production of digital goods should be done by workers with [[fair trade|fair remuneration]] and electricity from [[renewable energy|renewable energy sources]] should be used.
|-
|}
== References ==
=== Digital sustainability in academia ===
Since 2004, the definition by Marcus Dapp has been further developed and taught in a lecture of the same name at [[ETH Zurich]].<ref>http://www.vvz.ethz.ch/Vorlesungsverzeichnis/lerneinheit.view?semkez=2018W&lerneinheitId=125702 Digital Sustainability in the Knowledge Society</ref> The student organizations ''TheAlternative'' and ''SUBDiN'' ([[University of Basel]]) also describe this new sustainability approach in detail.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thealternative.ch/|title=TheAlternative|website=www.thealternative.ch}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.subdin.ch/|title=SUBDiN - Studentische Union Basel für Digitale Nachhaltigkeit|website=www.subdin.ch}}</ref> The first historical text that explained the concept in writing was a competition entry for the anniversary publication "Essays 2030" of ETH Zurich, titled "ETH Zurich - A Pioneer in Digital Sustainability".<ref>{{cite web |title=ETH - Competition Visions ETH 2030 - Online Version |url=http://www.essays2030.ethz.ch/onlineversion/index |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715164505/http://www.essays2030.ethz.ch/onlineversion/index |archive-date=2015-07-15}}</ref> A more recent contribution describes digital sustainability in the context of Open Data and Open-Source Software.<ref>{{cite web |title=Open Government Data and Free Software – Cornerstones of a Digital Sustainability Agenda {{!}} The 2013 Open Reader |url=http://books.buchundnetz.com/the2013openreader/chapter/open-government-data-and-free-software-cornerstones-of-a-digital-sustaina |access-date=2015-07-19 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Since 2014,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unibe.ch/aktuell/medien/media_relations/archiv/news/2014/nachhaltige_entwicklung_goes_digital/index_ger.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010234658/https://www.unibe.ch/aktuell/medien/media_relations/archiv/news/2014/nachhaltige_entwicklung_goes_digital/index_ger.html |archive-date=2020-10-10 |language=de-DE |title=Official media release of the University of Bern on the establishment of the Research Center for Digital Sustainability }}</ref> the [[University of Bern]] has had the Research Center for Digital Sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.unibe.ch/index_ger.html |title=Forschungsstelle Digitale Nachhaltigkeit |language=de-DE |date=2020-03-15 |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref> The center is led by Matthias Stürmer<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.unibe.ch/ueber_uns/personen/dr_stuermer_matthias/index_ger.html |title=Dr. Matthias Stürmer |language=de-DE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121234450/https://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.unibe.ch/ueber_uns/personen/dr_stuermer_matthias/index_ger.html |archive-date=2019-11-21}}</ref> and employs around 20 staff members.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.unibe.ch/ueber_uns/team/index_ger.html |title=Research Center for Digital Sustainability. Team |date=2019-11-18 |access-date=2021-08-26 |language=de-DE}}</ref> The research center was established with a start-up funding of CHF 80,000 from CH Open<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ch-open.ch/ |title=CH Open |language=de-DE |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref> at the Institute of Information Systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iwi.unibe.ch/index_eng.html |title= Institute of Information Systems |date=2021-10-05 |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref> Since 2019, the research center has been located at the Institute of Computer Science.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.inf.unibe.ch/index_eng.html |title=Institute of Computer Science |date=2021-03-05 |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref> The research center addresses issues related to [[open-source software]], [[open data]], [[linked data]], [[open government]], [[smart city]], [[blockchain]], [[smart contract]]s, and [[procurement|public procurement]] in [[research]], teaching, and service provision.
=== Open-source software and sustainability ===
Based on the [[sustainability|definition of sustainability]], Thorsten Busch describes in the ''Open Source Yearbook 2008'' the relationship between open-source software and the concept of sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.golem.de/0803/58082.html | title= Open Source und Nachhaltigkeit | last=Busch | first=Thorsten |language=de-DE |date=2008-03-03 | access-date=2024-01-21}}</ref> The extensive literature analysis addresses both the ecological aspects of [[information and communications technology]] and the societal influences of digital, intangible resources. The focus is on the problem of the [[digital divide]], which, according to Busch, could be reduced, for example, by promoting open-source software. Busch uses the term "informational sustainability" coined by [[Volker Grassmuck]] for the same issue as the concept of digital sustainability described here.
== References ==
<references responsive />
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|Sustainability}}
{{Commonscat|Sustainability}}
{{Commonscat|Digital sustainability}}
* [https://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.unibe.ch/index_eng.html Research Center for Digital Sustainability]
[[Category:Computing and society]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Archival science]] |
Solar reforming | {{Short description|Technology for conversion of waste}}
{{Multiple issues|{{cleanup|date=February 2024|reason=inappropriate style}}
{{Essay-like|date=February 2024}}}}
'''Solar reforming''' is the sunlight-driven conversion of diverse carbon waste resources (including solid, liquid, and gaseous waste streams such as [[biomass]], [[plastic]]s, industrial by-products, [[Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric carbon dioxide]], etc.) into sustainable fuels (or energy vectors) and value-added chemicals.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Subhajit |last2=Linley |first2=Stuart |last3=Reisner |first3=Erwin |date=2024-01-30 |title=Solar reforming as an emerging technology for circular chemical industries |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41570-023-00567-x |journal=Nature Reviews Chemistry |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=87–105 |doi=10.1038/s41570-023-00567-x |pmid=38291132 |s2cid=267332161 |issn=2397-3358}}</ref> It encompasses a set of technologies (and processes) operating under ambient and aqueous conditions, utilizing solar spectrum to generate maximum value.<ref name=":0" /> Solar reforming offers an attractive and unifying solution to address the contemporary challenges of [[climate change]] and [[Pollution|environmental pollution]] by creating a sustainable [[Circular economy|circular network]] of waste upcycling, clean fuel (and chemical) generation and the consequent mitigation of [[Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse emissions]] (in alignment with the [[Sustainable Development Goals|United Nations Sustainable Development Goals]]).
== Background ==
The earliest sunlight-driven reforming (now referred to as photoreforming or PC reforming which forms a small sub-section of solar reforming; see ''Definition and classifications'' section) of waste-derived substrates involved the use of [[Titanium dioxide|TiO<sub>2</sub>]] [[semiconductor]] [[Photocatalysis|photocatalyst]] (generally loaded with a hydrogen evolution co-catalyst such as Pt). Kawai and Sakata from the [[Institute for Molecular Science]], Okazaki, [[Japan]] in the 1980s reported that the organics derived from different solid waste matter could be used as [[electron donor]]s to drive the generation of [[Hydrogen economy|hydrogen gas]] over TiO<sub>2</sub> photocatalyst composites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kawai |first1=Tomoji |last2=Sakata |first2=Tadayoshi |date=1980-07-31 |title=Conversion of carbohydrate into hydrogen fuel by a photocatalytic process |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/286474a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=286 |issue=5772 |pages=474–476 |doi=10.1038/286474a0 |bibcode=1980Natur.286..474K |s2cid=4356641 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kawai |first1=Tomoji |last2=Sakata |first2=Tadayoshi |date=January 1981 |title=Photocatalytic hydrogen production from water by the decomposition of poly-vinylchloride, protein, algae, dead insects, and excrement |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1246/cl.1981.81 |journal=Chemistry Letters |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=81–84 |doi=10.1246/cl.1981.81 |issn=0366-7022}}</ref> In 2017, Wakerley, Kuehnel and Reisner at the [[University of Cambridge]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] demonstrated the photocatalytic production of hydrogen using raw [[lignocellulosic biomass]] substrates in the presence of [[Visible spectrum|visible-light]] responsive CdS|CdO<sub>x</sub> [[quantum dot]]s under alkaline conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wakerley |first1=David W. |last2=Kuehnel |first2=Moritz F. |last3=Orchard |first3=Katherine L. |last4=Ly |first4=Khoa H. |last5=Rosser |first5=Timothy E. |last6=Reisner |first6=Erwin |date=2017-03-13 |title=Solar-driven reforming of lignocellulose to H2 with a CdS/CdOx photocatalyst |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nenergy201721 |journal=Nature Energy |language=en |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1038/nenergy.2017.21 |s2cid=100128646 |issn=2058-7546}}</ref> This was followed by the utilization of less-toxic, carbon-based, visible-light absorbing photocatalyst composites (for example [[Carbon nitride|carbon-nitride]] based systems) for biomass and plastics photoreforming to hydrogen and organics by Kasap, Uekert and Reisner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kasap |first1=Hatice |last2=Achilleos |first2=Demetra S. |last3=Huang |first3=Ailun |last4=Reisner |first4=Erwin |date=2018-09-19 |title=Photoreforming of Lignocellulose into H 2 Using Nanoengineered Carbon Nitride under Benign Conditions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.8b07853 |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |language=en |volume=140 |issue=37 |pages=11604–11607 |doi=10.1021/jacs.8b07853 |pmid=30153420 |s2cid=52111870 |issn=0002-7863}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Uekert |first1=Taylor |last2=Kasap |first2=Hatice |last3=Reisner |first3=Erwin |date=2019-09-25 |title=Photoreforming of Nonrecyclable Plastic Waste over a Carbon Nitride/Nickel Phosphide Catalyst |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |language=en |volume=141 |issue=38 |pages=15201–15210 |doi=10.1021/jacs.9b06872 |issn=0002-7863 |pmc=7007225 |pmid=31462034}}</ref> In addition to variations of carbon nitride, other photocatalyst composite systems based on [[Graphite oxide|graphene oxides]], [[MXenes]], [[Coordination polymer|co-ordination polymers]] and [[Metal chalcogenide|metal chalcogenides]] were reported during this period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Jiu |last2=Kumar |first2=Pawan |last3=Zhao |first3=Heng |last4=Kibria |first4=Md Golam |last5=Hu |first5=Jinguang |date=2021 |title=Polymeric carbon nitride-based photocatalysts for photoreforming of biomass derivatives |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D1GC02307A |journal=Green Chemistry |language=en |volume=23 |issue=19 |pages=7435–7457 |doi=10.1039/D1GC02307A |issn=1463-9262 |s2cid=238644248}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Xinxing |last2=Zhao |first2=Heng |last3=Khan |first3=Mohd Adnan |last4=Maity |first4=Partha |last5=Al-Attas |first5=Tareq |last6=Larter |first6=Stephen |last7=Yong |first7=Qiang |last8=Mohammed |first8=Omar F. |last9=Kibria |first9=Md Golam |last10=Hu |first10=Jinguang |date=2020-10-19 |title=Sunlight-Driven Biomass Photorefinery for Coproduction of Sustainable Hydrogen and Value-Added Biochemicals |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c06282 |journal=ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering |language=en |volume=8 |issue=41 |pages=15772–15781 |doi=10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c06282 |issn=2168-0485 |s2cid=225149072}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=Cheng |last2=Xie |first2=Maoliang |last3=Liu |first3=Sicong |last4=Chen |first4=Runlin |last5=Su |first5=Hang |last6=Zhou |first6=Lan |last7=Pang |first7=Yuxia |last8=Lou |first8=Hongming |last9=Qiu |first9=Xueqing |date=2021-09-22 |title=Visible Light-Driven Reforming of Lignocellulose into H 2 by Intrinsic Monolayer Carbon Nitride |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.1c10842 |journal=ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces |language=en |volume=13 |issue=37 |pages=44243–44253 |doi=10.1021/acsami.1c10842 |issn=1944-8244 |pmid=34499461 |s2cid=237472526}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Pichler |first1=Christian M. |last2=Bhattacharjee |first2=Subhajit |last3=Rahaman |first3=Motiar |last4=Uekert |first4=Taylor |last5=Reisner |first5=Erwin |date=2021-08-06 |title=Conversion of Polyethylene Waste into Gaseous Hydrocarbons via Integrated Tandem Chemical–Photo/Electrocatalytic Processes |journal=ACS Catalysis |language=en |volume=11 |issue=15 |pages=9159–9167 |doi=10.1021/acscatal.1c02133 |issn=2155-5435 |pmc=8353629 |pmid=34386271}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guan |first1=Lijiang |last2=Cheng |first2=Guang |last3=Tan |first3=Bien |last4=Jin |first4=Shangbin |date=2021 |title=Covalent triazine frameworks constructed via benzyl halide monomers showing high photocatalytic activity in biomass reforming |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D1CC01102B |journal=Chemical Communications |language=en |volume=57 |issue=42 |pages=5147–5150 |doi=10.1039/D1CC01102B |issn=1359-7345 |pmid=33899846 |s2cid=233400735}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Van-Can |last2=Nimbalkar |first2=Dipak B. |last3=Nam |first3=Le D. |last4=Lee |first4=Yuh-Lang |last5=Teng |first5=Hsisheng |date=2021-05-07 |title=Photocatalytic Cellulose Reforming for H 2 and Formate Production by Using Graphene Oxide-Dot Catalysts |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acscatal.1c00217 |journal=ACS Catalysis |language=en |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=4955–4967 |doi=10.1021/acscatal.1c00217 |issn=2155-5435 |s2cid=233564941}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cao |first1=Bingqian |last2=Wan |first2=Shipeng |last3=Wang |first3=Yanan |last4=Guo |first4=Haiwei |last5=Ou |first5=Man |last6=Zhong |first6=Qin |date=2022-01-01 |title=Highly-efficient visible-light-driven photocatalytic H2 evolution integrated with microplastic degradation over MXene/ZnxCd1-xS photocatalyst |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002197972101167X |journal=Journal of Colloid and Interface Science |volume=605 |pages=311–319 |doi=10.1016/j.jcis.2021.07.113 |issn=0021-9797 |pmid=34332406}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nagakawa |first1=Haruki |last2=Nagata |first2=Morio |date=2021-12-02 |title=Highly Efficient Hydrogen Production in the Photoreforming of Lignocellulosic Biomass Catalyzed by Cu,In-Doped ZnS Derived from ZIF-8 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/admi.202101581 |journal=Advanced Materials Interfaces |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.1002/admi.202101581 |issn=2196-7350 |s2cid=244880250}}</ref> A major limitation of PC reforming is the use of conventional harsh alkaline pre-treatment conditions (pH >13 and high temperatures) for polymeric substrates such as [[Condensation polymer|condensation plastics]], accounting for more than 80% of the operation costs.<ref name=":3" /> This was circumvented with the introduction of a new chemoenzymatic reforming pathway in 2023 by Bhattacharjee, Guo, Reisner and Hollfelder, which employed near-neutral pH, moderate temperatures for pre-treating plastics and nanoplastics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Subhajit |last2=Guo |first2=Chengzhi |last3=Lam |first3=Erwin |last4=Holstein |first4=Josephin M. |last5=Rangel Pereira |first5=Mariana |last6=Pichler |first6=Christian M. |last7=Pornrungroj |first7=Chanon |last8=Rahaman |first8=Motiar |last9=Uekert |first9=Taylor |last10=Hollfelder |first10=Florian |last11=Reisner |first11=Erwin |date=2023-09-20 |title=Chemoenzymatic Photoreforming: A Sustainable Approach for Solar Fuel Generation from Plastic Feedstocks |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |language=en |volume=145 |issue=37 |pages=20355–20364 |doi=10.1021/jacs.3c05486 |issn=0002-7863 |pmc=10515630 |pmid=37671930}}</ref> In 2020, Jiao and Xie reported the photocatalytic conversion of addition plastics such as [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]] to high energy-density to C<sub>2</sub> fuels over a [[Niobium pentoxide|Nb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>]] catalyst under natural conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jiao |first1=Xingchen |last2=Zheng |first2=Kai |last3=Chen |first3=Qingxia |last4=Li |first4=Xiaodong |last5=Li |first5=Yamin |last6=Shao |first6=Weiwei |last7=Xu |first7=Jiaqi |last8=Zhu |first8=Junfa |last9=Pan |first9=Yang |last10=Sun |first10=Yongfu |last11=Xie |first11=Yi |date=September 2020 |title=Photocatalytic Conversion of Waste Plastics into C 2 Fuels under Simulated Natural Environment Conditions |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.201915766 |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |language=en |volume=59 |issue=36 |pages=15497–15501 |doi=10.1002/anie.201915766 |pmid=32003512 |s2cid=210983540 |issn=1433-7851}}</ref>
The photocatalytic process (referred to as PC reforming; see ''Categorization and configurations'' section below) offers a simple, one-pot and facile deployment scope, but has several major limitations, making it challenging for commercial implementation.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Uekert |first1=Taylor |last2=Pichler |first2=Christian M. |last3=Schubert |first3=Teresa |last4=Reisner |first4=Erwin |date=2020-11-30 |title=Solar-driven reforming of solid waste for a sustainable future |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-020-00650-x |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=383–391 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00650-x |bibcode=2020NatSu...4..383U |s2cid=227236618 |issn=2398-9629}}</ref> In 2021, sunlight-driven [[Photoelectrochemical process|photoelectrochemical]] (PEC) systems/technologies operating with no external bias or voltage input were introduced by Bhattacharjee and Reisner at the [[University of Cambridge]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Subhajit |last2=Andrei |first2=Virgil |last3=Pornrungroj |first3=Chanon |last4=Rahaman |first4=Motiar |last5=Pichler |first5=Christian M. |last6=Reisner |first6=Erwin |date=2021-10-27 |title=Reforming of Soluble Biomass and Plastic Derived Waste Using a Bias-Free Cu 30 Pd 70 {{!}}Perovskite{{!}}Pt Photoelectrochemical Device |journal=Advanced Functional Materials |language=en |volume=32 |issue=7 |doi=10.1002/adfm.202109313 |issn=1616-301X|doi-access=free }}</ref> These PEC reforming (see ''Categorization and configurations'' section) systems reformed diverse pre-treated waste streams (such as [[Lignocellulosic biomass|lignocellulose]] and [[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET plastics]]) to selective value-added chemicals with the simultaneous generation of [[green hydrogen]], and achieving areal production rates 100-10000 times higher than conventional photocatalytic processes.<ref name=":4" /> In 2023, Bhattacharjee, Rahaman and Reisner extended the PEC platform to a solar reactor which could reduce [[greenhouse gas]] CO<sub>2</sub> to different energy vectors ([[Carbon monoxide|CO]], [[syngas]], [[formate]] depending on the type of catalyst integrated) and convert waste PET plastics to [[glycolic acid]] at the same time.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Subhajit |last2=Rahaman |first2=Motiar |last3=Andrei |first3=Virgil |last4=Miller |first4=Melanie |last5=Rodríguez-Jiménez |first5=Santiago |last6=Lam |first6=Erwin |last7=Pornrungroj |first7=Chanon |last8=Reisner |first8=Erwin |date=2023-01-09 |title=Photoelectrochemical CO2-to-fuel conversion with simultaneous plastic reforming |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s44160-022-00196-0 |journal=Nature Synthesis |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=182–192 |doi=10.1038/s44160-022-00196-0 |s2cid=255686581 |issn=2731-0582}}</ref> This further inspired the direct capture and conversion of CO<sub>2</sub> to products from [[flue gas]] and air ([[direct air capture]]) in a PEC reforming process (with simultaneous plastic conversion).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kar |first1=Sayan |last2=Rahaman |first2=Motiar |last3=Andrei |first3=Virgil |last4=Bhattacharjee |first4=Subhajit |last5=Roy |first5=Souvik |last6=Reisner |first6=Erwin |date=2023-07-19 |title=Integrated capture and solar-driven utilization of CO2 from flue gas and air |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2023.05.022 |journal=Joule |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=1496–1514 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2023.05.022 |issn=2542-4351}}</ref> Choi and Ryu demonstrated a [[Polyoxometalate|polyoxometallate]]-medated PEC process to achieve biomass conversion with unassisted hydrogen production in 2022.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Choi |first1=Yuri |last2=Mehrotra |first2=Rashmi |last3=Lee |first3=Sang-Hak |last4=Nguyen |first4=Trang Vu Thien |last5=Lee |first5=Inhui |last6=Kim |first6=Jiyeong |last7=Yang |first7=Hwa-Young |last8=Oh |first8=Hyeonmyeong |last9=Kim |first9=Hyunwoo |last10=Lee |first10=Jae-Won |last11=Kim |first11=Yong Hwan |last12=Jang |first12=Sung-Yeon |last13=Jang |first13=Ji-Wook |last14=Ryu |first14=Jungki |date=2022-10-03 |title=Bias-free solar hydrogen production at 19.8 mA cm−2 using perovskite photocathode and lignocellulosic biomass |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=5709 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-33435-1 |pmid=36192405 |pmc=9529942 |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> Similarly, Pan and Chu, in 2023 reported a PEC cell for renewable formate production from sunlight, CO<sub>2</sub> and biomass-derived sugars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=Yuyang |last2=Zhang |first2=Huiyan |last3=Zhang |first3=Bowen |last4=Gong |first4=Feng |last5=Feng |first5=Jianyong |last6=Huang |first6=Huiting |last7=Vanka |first7=Srinivas |last8=Fan |first8=Ronglei |last9=Cao |first9=Qi |last10=Shen |first10=Mingrong |last11=Li |first11=Zhaosheng |last12=Zou |first12=Zhigang |last13=Xiao |first13=Rui |last14=Chu |first14=Sheng |date=2023-02-23 |title=Renewable formate from sunlight, biomass and carbon dioxide in a photoelectrochemical cell |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1013 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-36726-3 |pmid=36823177 |pmc=9950059 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.1013P |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> These developments has led solar reforming (and electroreforming, where renewable electricity drives redox processes; see Caterogization and configurations section) to gradually emerge as an active area of exploration.
== Concept and considerations ==
=== Definition and classifications ===
Solar reforming is the sunlight-driven transformation of waste substrates to valuable products (such as sustainable fuels and chemicals) as defined by scientists Subhajit Bhattacharjee, Stuart Linley and Erwin Reisner in their 2024 [[Nature Reviews Chemistry]] article where they conceptualized and formalized the field by introducing its concepts, classification, configurations and metrics.<ref name=":0" /> It generally operates without external heating and pressure, and also introduces a thermodynamic advantage over traditional [[green hydrogen]] or CO<sub>2</sub> reduction fuel producing methods such as [[water splitting]] or CO<sub>2</sub> splitting, respectively. Depending on solar spectrum utilization, solar reforming can be classified into two categories: “solar catalytic reforming” and “solar thermal reforming”.<ref name=":0" /> Solar catalytic reforming refers to transformation processes primarily driven by [[ultraviolet]] (UV) or [[Visible spectrum|visible light]].<ref name=":0" /> It also includes the subset of ‘photoreforming’ encompassing utilization of high energy [[photon]]s in the UV or near-UV region of the solar spectrum (for example, by semiconductor photocatalysts such as TiO<sub>2</sub>). Solar thermal reforming, on the other hand, exploits the [[infrared]] (IR) region for waste upcycling to generate products of high economic value.<ref name=":0" /> An important aspect of solar reforming is value creation, which means that the overall value creation from product formation must be greater than substrate value destruction.<ref name=":0" /> In terms of deployment architectures, solar catalytic reforming can be further categorized into: photocatalytic reforming (PC reforming), photoelectrochemical reforming (PEC reforming) and photovoltaic-electrochemical reforming (PV-EC reforming).<ref name=":0" />
=== Advantages over conventional waste recycling and upcycling processes ===
Solar reforming offers several advantages over conventional methods of waste management or fuel/chemical production. It offers a less energy-intensive and low carbon alterative to methods of waste reforming such as [[pyrolysis]] and [[gasification]] which require high energy input.<ref name=":0" /> Solar reforming also provides several benefits over traditional green hydrogen production methods such as [[water splitting]] (H<sub>2</sub>O → H<sub>2</sub> + ½O<sub>2</sub>, ΔG° = 237 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>). It offers a thermodynamic advantage over water splitting by circumventing the energetically and kinetically demanding water oxidation half reaction (E⁰ = +1.23 V vs. reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE)) by energetically neutral oxidation of waste-derived organics (C<sub>x</sub>H<sub>y</sub>O<sub>z</sub> + (2''x''−''z'')H<sub>2</sub>O → (2''x''−''z''+''y''/2)H<sub>2</sub> + ''x''CO<sub>2</sub>; ΔG° ~0 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>).<ref name=":0" /> This results in better performance in terms of higher production rates, and also translates to other similar processes which depend on water oxidation as the counter reaction such as CO<sub>2</sub> splitting. Furthermore, concentrated streams of hydrogen produced from solar reforming is safer than [[Oxyhydrogen|explosive mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen]] (from traditional water splitting), that otherwise require additional separation costs.<ref name=":0" /> The added economic advantage of forming two different valuable products (for example, gaseous reductive fuels and liquid oxidative chemicals) simultaneously makes solar reforming suitable for commercial applications.<ref name=":0" />
=== Solar reforming metrics ===
Solar reforming encompasses a range of technological processes and configurations and therefore, suitable performance metrics can evaluate the commercial viability. In [[artificial photosynthesis]], the most common metric is the solar-to-fuel conversion efficiency (η<sub>STF</sub>) as shown below, where ‘r’ is the product formation rate, ‘ΔG’ is the [[Gibbs free energy]] change during the process, ‘A’ is the sunlight irradiation area and ‘P’ is the total light intensity flux.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> The η<sub>STF</sub> can be adopted as a metric for solar reforming but with certain considerations. Since the ΔG values for solar reforming processes are very low (ΔG ~0 kJ mol<sup>‒1</sup>), this makes the η<sub>STF</sub> per definition close to zero, despite the high production rates and [[quantum yield]]s. However, replacing the ΔG for product formation (during solar reforming) with that of product utilisation (|ΔG<sub>use</sub>|; such as [[combustion]] of the hydrogen fuel generated) can give a better representation of the process efficiency.<ref name=":0" />
<math>\eta_{\mathrm{STF}}=\frac{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{SR}}\left(\mathrm{mol} \cdot \mathrm{s}^{-1}\right) \times \Delta \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{SR}}\left(\mathrm{J} \cdot \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)}{\mathrm{P}_{\text {total }}\left(\mathrm{W} \cdot \mathrm{m}^{-2}\right) \times \mathrm{A}\left(\mathrm{m}^2\right)}</math>
Since solar reforming is highly dependent on the light harvester and its area of [[photon]] collection, a more technologically relevant metric is the areal production rate (r<sub>areal</sub>) as shown, where ‘n’ is the [[Mole (unit)|moles]] of product formed, ‘A’ is the sunlight irradiation area and ‘t’ is the time.<ref name=":0" />
<math>\mathrm{r}_{\text {areal}}=\frac{\mathrm{n}_{\text {product}}(\mathrm{mol})}{\mathrm{A}\left(\mathrm{m}^2\right) \times \mathrm{t}(\mathrm{h})}</math>
Although r<sub>areal</sub> is a more consistent metric for solar reforming, it neglects some key parameters such as type of waste utilized, pre-treatment costs, product value, scaling, other process and separation costs, deployment variables, etc.<ref name=":0" /> Therefore, a more adaptable and robust metric is the solar-to-value creation rate (''r''<sub>STV</sub>) which can encompass all these factors and provide a more holistic and practical picture from the economic or commercial point of view.<ref name=":0" /> The simplified equation for ''r''<sub>STV</sub> is shown below, where ''C<sub>i</sub>'' and ''C<sub>k</sub>'' are the costs of the product ‘i’ and substrate ‘k’, respectively. ‘''C<sub>p</sub>''’ is the pre-treatment cost for the waste substrate ‘k’, and ‘''n<sub>i</sub>''’ and ‘''n<sub>k</sub>''’ are amounts (in moles) of the product ‘i’ formed and substrate ‘k’ consumed during solar reforming, respectively. Note that the metric is adaptable and can be expanded to include other relevant parameters as applicable.<ref name=":0" />
<math>r_{\mathrm{STV}}= \frac{ {\textstyle \sum_{i=1}^M \displaystyle C_i ($mol^{-1})\times n_i(mol)} - {\textstyle \sum_{k=1}^N \displaystyle \bigl(C_k+C_p\bigr) ($mol^{-1})\times n_k (mol)}}{A (m^2)\times t(h)}{}</math>
=== Categorization and configurations ===
Solar reforming depends on the properties of the light absorber and the catalysts involved, and their selection, screening and integration to generate maximum value. The design and deployment of solar reforming technologies dictates the efficiency, scale and target substrates/products. In this context, solar reforming (more specifically, solar catalytic reforming) can be classified into three architectures:<ref name=":0" />
* Photocatalytic (PC) reforming - PC reforming is a one-pot process involving homogeneous or heterogenous [[Photocatalysis|photocatalyst]] suspensions (or immobilized photocatalysts on sheets<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Uekert |first1=Taylor |last2=Bajada |first2=Mark A. |last3=Schubert |first3=Teresa |last4=Pichler |first4=Christian M. |last5=Reisner |first5=Erwin |date=2021-10-05 |title=Scalable Photocatalyst Panels for Photoreforming of Plastic, Biomass and Mixed Waste in Flow |url=https://chemistry-europe.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cssc.202002580 |journal=ChemSusChem |language=en |volume=14 |issue=19 |pages=4190–4197 |bibcode=2021ChSCh..14.4190U |doi=10.1002/cssc.202002580 |issn=1864-5631 |pmid=33156562 |s2cid=226271147}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Andrei |first1=Virgil |last2=Wang |first2=Qian |last3=Uekert |first3=Taylor |last4=Bhattacharjee |first4=Subhajit |last5=Reisner |first5=Erwin |date=2022-12-06 |title=Solar Panel Technologies for Light-to-Chemical Conversion |journal=Accounts of Chemical Research |language=en |volume=55 |issue=23 |pages=3376–3386 |doi=10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00477 |issn=0001-4842 |pmc=9730848 |pmid=36395337}}</ref> or floating materials<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Linley |first1=Stuart |last2=Reisner |first2=Erwin |date=2023-05-12 |title=Floating Carbon Nitride Composites for Practical Solar Reforming of Pre-Treated Wastes to Hydrogen Gas |journal=Advanced Science |language=en |volume=10 |issue=21 |pages=e2207314 |doi=10.1002/advs.202207314 |issn=2198-3844 |pmc=10375181 |pmid=37171802}}</ref> for easy recovery), which, under sunlight irradiation generate charge carriers ([[electron-hole pairs]]) to catalyze redox reactions (UV or near-UV based photoreforming systems generally also come under PC reforming). Despite the low cost and simplicity of PC reforming, there are major drawbacks of this approach which includes low product formation rates, poor selectivity of oxidation products or overoxidation to release CO<sub>2</sub>, challenging catalyst/process optimization and harsh pre-treatment conditions.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Djurišić |first1=Aleksandra B. |last2=He |first2=Yanling |last3=Ng |first3=Alan M. C. |date=2020-03-01 |title=Visible-light photocatalysts: Prospects and challenges |journal=APL Materials |volume=8 |issue=3 |page=030903 |doi=10.1063/1.5140497 |bibcode=2020APLM....8c0903D |issn=2166-532X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kou |first1=Jiahui |last2=Lu |first2=Chunhua |last3=Wang |first3=Jian |last4=Chen |first4=Yukai |last5=Xu |first5=Zhongzi |last6=Varma |first6=Rajender S. |date=2017-02-08 |title=Selectivity Enhancement in Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Transformations |journal=Chemical Reviews |language=en |volume=117 |issue=3 |pages=1445–1514 |doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00396 |pmid=28093903 |issn=0009-2665|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Photoelectrochemical (PEC) reforming - PEC reforming involves the use of PEC systems/assemblies which consist of separated (photo)electrodes generally connected using a wire and submerged in solution ([[electrolyte]]).<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> A photoelectrode consists of a light-absorber and additional charge transport and [[Catalysis|catalyst]] layers to facilitate the redox processes. While conventional PEC systems typically require a bias or voltage input in addition to the energy obtained from incident light irradiation, PEC reforming ideally operates with a single light absorber without any external bias or voltage (that is, completely driven by sunlight).<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":0" /> PEC reforming can already produce clean fuels and valuable chemicals with high selectivity and achieve production rates which are 2-4 orders of magnitude higher than conventional PC processes.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> The spatial separation between the redox processes offered by PEC systems allows flexibility in the screening and integration of light-absorbers and catalysts, and also better product separation.<ref name=":5" /> They can also benefit from better spectral utilization such as using [[Concentrated solar power|solar concentrators]] or [[Thermoelectric generator|thermoelectric modules]] to harvest heat, thereby improving reaction kinetics and performance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Qian |last2=Pornrungroj |first2=Chanon |last3=Linley |first3=Stuart |last4=Reisner |first4=Erwin |date=2021-11-19 |title=Strategies to improve light utilization in solar fuel synthesis |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-021-00919-1 |journal=Nature Energy |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=13–24 |doi=10.1038/s41560-021-00919-1 |s2cid=256726357 |issn=2058-7546}}</ref> The versatility and high performance of these new PEC arrangements, therefore has wide scope of further exploitation and research.
* PV-EC reforming and extension to ‘electroreforming’ systems - PV-EC reforming refers to the use of electricity generated from [[Photovoltaics|photovoltaic]] panels (and therefore driven by sunlight) to drive electrochemical ([[electrolysis]]) reactions for waste reforming.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobsson |first1=T. Jesper |last2=Fjällström |first2=Viktor |last3=Edoff |first3=Marika |last4=Edvinsson |first4=Tomas |date=2014-06-19 |title=Sustainable solar hydrogen production: from photoelectrochemical cells to PV-electrolyzers and back again |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2014/ee/c4ee00754a |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |language=en |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=2056–2070 |doi=10.1039/C4EE00754A |issn=1754-5706}}</ref> The concept of PV-EC reforming can be further extended to ‘electroreforming’ where renewable electricity from sources other than the sun (for example, wind, hydro, nuclear, among others) is used to power the electrochemical reactions achieving valuable fuel and chemical production from waste feedstocks. While traditionally most electrolysers, including commercial ones focus on [[water splitting]] to produce hydrogen, new electrochemical systems, catalysts and concepts have emerged which have started to look into waste substrates for utilisation as sustainable feedstocks.<ref name=":2"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Hua |last2=Ren |first2=Yue |last3=Li |first3=Zhenhua |last4=Xu |first4=Ming |last5=Wang |first5=Ye |last6=Ge |first6=Ruixiang |last7=Kong |first7=Xianggui |last8=Zheng |first8=Lirong |last9=Duan |first9=Haohong |date=2021-08-17 |title=Electrocatalytic upcycling of polyethylene terephthalate to commodity chemicals and H2 fuel |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=4679 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-25048-x |pmid=34404779 |pmc=8371182 |issn=2041-1723}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Jianying |last2=Li |first2=Xin |last3=Wang |first3=Maolin |last4=Zhang |first4=Ting |last5=Chai |first5=Xinyu |last6=Lu |first6=Junlin |last7=Wang |first7=Tianfu |last8=Zhao |first8=Yixin |last9=Ma |first9=Ding |date=2022-06-03 |title=Electrocatalytic Valorization of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) Plastic and CO 2 for Simultaneous Production of Formic Acid |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acscatal.2c01128 |journal=ACS Catalysis |language=en |volume=12 |issue=11 |pages=6722–6728 |doi=10.1021/acscatal.2c01128 |s2cid=249026599 |issn=2155-5435}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Hu |last2=Lu |first2=Dan |last3=Wang |first3=Jiarui |last4=Tu |first4=Wenguang |last5=Wu |first5=Dan |last6=Koh |first6=See Wee |last7=Gao |first7=Pingqi |last8=Xu |first8=Zhichuan J. |last9=Deng |first9=Sili |last10=Zhou |first10=Yan |last11=You |first11=Bo |last12=Li |first12=Hong |date=2021-03-31 |title=Raw biomass electroreforming coupled to green hydrogen generation |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=2008 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-22250-9 |pmid=33790295 |pmc=8012647 |issn=2041-1723}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pichler |first1=Christian M. |last2=Bhattacharjee |first2=Subhajit |last3=Lam |first3=Erwin |last4=Su |first4=Lin |last5=Collauto |first5=Alberto |last6=Roessler |first6=Maxie M. |last7=Cobb |first7=Samuel J. |last8=Badiani |first8=Vivek M. |last9=Rahaman |first9=Motiar |last10=Reisner |first10=Erwin |date=2022-11-04 |title=Bio-Electrocatalytic Conversion of Food Waste to Ethylene via Succinic Acid as the Central Intermediate |journal=ACS Catalysis |language=en |volume=12 |issue=21 |pages=13360–13371 |doi=10.1021/acscatal.2c02689 |issn=2155-5435 |pmc=9638992 |pmid=36366764}}</ref>
== Introduction of 'Photon Economy' ==
An important concept introduced in the context of solar reforming is the ‘photon economy’, which, as defined by Bhattacharjee, Linley and Reisner, is the maximum utilization of all incident photons for maximizing product formation and value creation.<ref name=":0" /> An ideal solar reforming process is one where the light absorber can absorb incident [[Ultraviolet|UV]] and [[Visible spectrum|visible light]] photons with maximum [[quantum yield]], generating high charge carrier concentration to drive redox half reactions at maximum rate. On the other hand, the residual, non-absorbed low-energy [[Infrared|IR]] photons may be used for boosting reaction kinetics, waste pre-treatment or other means of value creation (for example, [[desalination]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pornrungroj |first1=Chanon |last2=Mohamad Annuar |first2=Ariffin Bin |last3=Wang |first3=Qian |last4=Rahaman |first4=Motiar |last5=Bhattacharjee |first5=Subhajit |last6=Andrei |first6=Virgil |last7=Reisner |first7=Erwin |date=2023-11-13 |title=Hybrid photothermal–photocatalyst sheets for solar-driven overall water splitting coupled to water purification |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s44221-023-00139-9 |journal=Nature Water |language=en |volume=1 |issue=11 |pages=952–960 |doi=10.1038/s44221-023-00139-9 |issn=2731-6084}}</ref> etc.). Therefore, proper light and thermal management through various means (such as using solar concentrators, thermoelectric modules, among others) is encouraged to have both an [[Atom economy|atom economical]] and photon economical approach to extract maximum value from solar reforming processes.
== Reception and media ==
The technological advancements in solar reforming garnered widespread interest in recent years. The works from scientists at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] on PC reforming of raw lignocellulosic biomass or pre-treated polyester plastics to produce hydrogen and organics attracted attention of several stakeholders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scientists harness solar power to produce clean hydrogen from biomass |url=http://www.biofueldaily.com/reports/Scientists_harness_solar_power_to_produce_clean_hydrogen_from_biomass_999.html |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Bio Fuel Daily}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-12-22 |title=Covid: PPE 'could be recycled' with help of sunlight |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-55396511 |access-date=2024-02-13 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scientists harness solar power to produce clean hydrogen from biomass |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/713884 |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=EurekAlert! |language=en}}</ref> The recent technological breakthrough leading to the development of high-performing solar powered reactors (PEC reforming) for the simultaneous upcycling of greenhouse gas CO<sub>2</sub> and waste plastics to sustainable products received widespread acclaim and was highlighted in several prominent national and international media outlets.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-03-14 |title=Could waste plastic become a useful fuel source? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-64703976 |access-date=2024-02-13 |work=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Theil |first=Michele |date=2023-01-23 |title=Scientists have found a way to convert plastics and CO2 into sustainable fuels using solar power |url=https://www.bigissue.com/news/environment/scientists-break-through-process-convert-plastics-greenhouse-gases-sustainable-fuels/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=The Big Issue |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Plastic waste and CO2 converted into hydrogen and feedstock chemical using sunlight |url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/plastic-waste-and-co2-converted-into-hydrogen-and-feedstock-chemical-using-sunlight/4017613.article |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Chemistry World |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-10 |title=Solar reactor converts both CO2 and plastic waste into useful products |url=https://newatlas.com/environment/solar-reactor-co2-plastic-waste-useful-products/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=New Atlas |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-09 |title=Solar-powered system converts plastic and greenhouse gases into sustainable fuels |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/solar-powered-system-converts-plastic-and-greenhouse-gases-into-sustainable-fuels |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=University of Cambridge |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Solar-powered system converts plastic and greenhouse gases into sustainable fuels |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/01/230109112706.htm |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Solar Powered Machine Turns CO2 and Waste Plastic Into Valuable Fuel |url=https://futurism.com/solar-machine-co2-plastic-fuel |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Futurism}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Converting plastics and greenhouse gases into sustainable energy {{!}} Technology |url=https://www.labroots.com/trending/technology/24402/converting-plastics-greenhouse-gases-sustainable-energy |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Labroots}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=محمود |first=عبد الحكيم |title=ابتكار نظام ثنائي يعمل بالطاقة الشمسية يحول البلاستيك وغازات الاحتباس الحراري إلى وقود مستدام |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/science/2023/1/26/%d8%a7%d8%a8%d8%aa%d9%83%d8%a7%d8%b1-%d9%86%d8%b8%d8%a7%d9%85-%d8%ab%d9%86%d8%a7%d8%a6%d9%8a-%d9%8a%d8%b9%d9%85%d9%84-%d8%a8%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b7%d8%a7%d9%82%d8%a9 |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=الجزيرة نت |language=ar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Patel |first=Prachi |date=2023-01-12 |title=Solar powered reactor converts plastic and CO2 into fuel |url=https://www.anthropocenemagazine.org/2023/01/sunlight-converts-plastic-and-carbon-dioxide-into-useful-chemicals/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-24 |title=BREAKTHROUGH! Indian researchers at Cambridge university offer solution to global warming and plastic pollution |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/world/breakthrough-indian-researchers-at-cambridge-university-offer-solution-to-global-warming-and-plastic-pollution-article-97282783 |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Video {{!}} The Importance Of Solving The Biggest Environmental Challenges Through Research & Technology |url=https://www.ndtv.com/video/news/banega-swasth-india/the-importance-of-solving-the-biggest-environmental-challenges-through-research-technology-689126 |access-date=2024-02-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhatia |first=Anisha |date=2023-03-17 |title=Two Indian Scientists On The Importance Of Solving The Biggest Environmental Challenges Through Research And Technology |url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/two-indian-scientists-on-the-importance-of-solving-the-biggest-environmental-challenges-through-research-and-technology-74812/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-09 |title=Scientists use 'miracle material' to convert plastic waste into sustainable fuel |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/tech/solar-power-energy-perovskite-plastic-waste-b2258781.html |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=In Breakthrough, 2 Indian Scientists Offer Answers To These Global Issues |url=https://www.ndtv.com/science/in-breakthrough-2-indian-scientists-offer-answers-to-these-global-issues-3719985 |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> Solar reforming processes primarily developed in Cambridge were also selected as “one of the eleven great ideas from British universities that could change the world” by Sunday Times (April 2020 edition)<ref>{{Cite news |last=Forster |first=Rosie Kinchen and Katherine |date=2024-02-13 |title=Reasons to be cheerful: 11 great ideas from British universities that could change the world |newspaper=[[The Times]] |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/reasons-to-be-cheerful-11-great-ideas-from-british-universities-that-could-change-the-world-32msbbdlz |access-date=2024-02-13 |language=en |issn=0140-0460}}</ref> and featured in the UK Prime Minister’s Speech on Net Zero, “''Or the researchers at Cambridge who pioneered a new way to turn sunlight into fuel''”<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-20 |title=PM speech on Net Zero: 20 September 2023 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-speech-on-net-zero-20-september-2023 |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> (indicating solar reforming which was a major subset of the broader research activities at Cambridge).
== Outlook and future scope ==
Solar reforming is currently in the development phase and the scalable deployment of a particular solar reforming technology (PC, PEC or PV-EC) would depend on a variety of factors. These factors include deployment location and sunlight variability/intermittency, characteristics of the chosen waste stream, viable pre-treatment methods, target products, nature of the catalysts and their lifetime, fuel/chemical storage requirements, land use versus open water sources, capital and operational costs, production and solar-to-value creation rates, and governmental policies and incentives, among others.<ref name=":0" /> Solar reforming may not be only limited to the conventional chemical pathways discussed, and may also include other relevant industrial processes such as light-driven organic transformations, flow photochemistry, integration with industrial electrolysis, among others.<ref name=":0" /> The products from conventional solar reforming such as [[green hydrogen]] or other platform chemicals have a broad value-chain. It is also now understood that sustainable fuel/chemical producing technologies of the future will rely on biomass, plastics and CO<sub>2</sub> as key carbon feedstocks to replace [[fossil fuel]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-10-09 |title=Roadmap Chemie 2050 |url=https://www.vci.de/services/publikationen/broschueren-faltblaetter/vci-dechema-futurecamp-studie-roadmap-2050-treibhausgasneutralitaet-chemieindustrie-deutschland-langfassung.jsp |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=VCI Online |language=German}}</ref> Therefore, with sunlight being abundant and the cheapest source of energy, solar reforming is well-positioned to drive [[decarbonization]] and facilitate the transition from a linear to [[circular economy]] in the coming decades.<ref name=":0" />
== See also ==
* [[Artificial photosynthesis]]
* [[Circular economy]]
* [[Conference of the parties]]
* [[Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide]]
* [[Electrochemistry]]
* [[Hydrogen economy]]
* [[Net zero emissions]]
* [[Photocatalysis]]
* [[Photoelectrochemistry]]
* [[Solar fuel]]
== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable energy]]
[[Category:Energy]]
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Science and technology]]
[[Category:University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Solar energy]]
[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Materials science]]
[[Category:Chemical industry]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Green chemistry]] |
Digital Cleanup Day | {{Short description|Annual environmental awareness event}}{{Infobox organization
| name = Digital Cleanup Day
| formation = 2020
| logo = Digital Cleanup Day 2024.png
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| founders = Kevin Guerin
| type = Collective of associations: Institut du numérique responsable, World Cleanup Day France, [[Let's Do It! World]]
| purpose = Raising awareness of the environmental impact of digital technology through action
| headquarters = Roosikrantsi 3, Tallinn, Estonia
| region = Worldwide (more than 170 countries and territories)
| methods = Mobilizing businesses, local authorities, associations, schools, citizens, and individuals to organize Digital Cleanups every March to clean up their data, repair their digital equipment, or collect digital WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment)
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = Heidi Solba
| website = {{URL|https://www.digitalcleanupday.org/}}
}}
The '''Digital Cleanup Day''', is an annual event to raise global awareness about the environmental impact of the digital industry. This initiative encourages people to take concrete action by cleaning up their [[digital data]] and/or giving a second life to their unused computer equipment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=When Is Your Digital Cleanup Day? |url=https://www.cmswire.com/digital-experience/making-digital-waste-visible/ |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=CMSWire.com |language=en}}</ref> It takes place every third Saturday in March.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Digital Cleanup Day – International day of digital cleanup – Data – Reuse – Recycling |url=https://cyberworldcleanupday.fr/welcome.html |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=www.CyberWorldCleanUpDay.fr}}</ref>
== History ==
In 2019, drawing inspiration from the [[World Cleanup Day]], computer scientist Kévin Guerin came up with the idea of a digital version, specifically focused on the [[Cyberspace]] and comparable to [[Black Friday (shopping)|Black Friday]]/[[Cyber Monday]] – the Cyber World CleanUp Day. Guerin proposed a partnership between World Cleanup Day France, providing communication and mobilization expertise, and the think tank Institute of Sustainable IT (ISIT), providing the technical expertise for a more environmentally responsible digital world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-04 |title=Interview Kévin Guérin – Cyber World CleanUp Day |url=https://institutnr.org/interview-cyber-worldcleanup-day |access-date=2024-03-04 |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2021-03-14 |title=Pollution numérique : l'heure du grand nettoyage de printemps ! |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceinter/podcasts/social-lab/pollution-numerique-l-heure-du-grand-nettoyage-de-printemps-6847252 |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=France Inter |language=fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
The event was launched in France in 2020. The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] provided the opportunity to convey eight easy recipes for a CyberCleanUp, focused on data cleaning, to the World Cleanup Day community, who were accustomed to cleaning up nature and were now confined to their homes. The idea spread from France<ref>{{cite web |date=15 March 2021 |title=Emission de gaz à effet de serre : grand nettoyage numérique de printemps dans le Gard |url=https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/occitanie/gard/emission-de-gaz-a-effet-de-serre-le-grand-nettoyage-numerique-de-printemps-est-necessaire-1998787.html |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=France 3 Occitanie |language=fr-FR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nettoyage de printemps des données numériques à Saint-Alban |url=https://www.ladepeche.fr/2021/03/12/nettoyage-de-printemps-des-donnees-numeriques-9422434.php |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=ladepeche.fr |language=fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Agde : "Digital Cleanup Day" le 18 mars à la MAG – Hérault Tribune |url=https://www.herault-tribune.com/articles/agde-digital-cleanup-day-le-18-mars-a-la-mag/,%20https://www.herault-tribune.com/articles/agde-digital-cleanup-day-le-18-mars-a-la-mag/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.herault-tribune.com |language=fr-FR}}{{Dead link|date=February 2024|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2022-03-07 |title=À Quimper, le Centre des abeilles soucieux de l'empreinte environnementale du numérique |url=https://www.letelegramme.fr/finistere/quimper/a-quimper-le-centre-des-abeilles-soucieux-de-l-empreinte-environnementale-du-numerique-07-03-2022-12934938.php |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Le Telegramme |language=fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> to other countries, like Italy<ref>{{cite web |date=2023-03-18 |title=Anche un'email inquina: proviamo a ridurre l'impatto ecologico dei nostri rifiuti digitali |url=https://www.repubblica.it/green-and-blue/2023/03/18/news/digital_cleanup_day_impatto_rifuti_digitali-392571705/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=la Repubblica |language=it}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> and Switzerland,<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2022 |title=Serge Dal Busco: "En matière de durabilité numérique, l'Etat doit montrer l'exemple" |url=https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve/serge-dal-busco-matiere-durabilite-numerique-letat-montrer-lexemple |newspaper=Le Temps}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Journée genevoise "D-Tox, je nettoie mes données" le 17 mars |url=https://www.geneve.ch/fr/actualites/journee-genevoise-nettoie-donnees-17-mars |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=www.geneve.ch |language=fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Poland,<ref>{{cite web |title=Planet Heroes – The first eco crowdfunding platform |url=https://planetheroes.pl/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=planetheroes.pl |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Netherlands,<ref>{{cite web |date=18 March 2023 |title=Digitaal ontspullen goed voor milieu maar blijft druppel op gloeiende plaat {{!}} Commentaar |url=https://www.leidschdagblad.nl/cnt/dmf20230317_64335984 |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=Leidsch Dagblad |language=nl-BE}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dataverbruik belangrijk aandeel in CO2-uitstoot bedrijven – Vroege Vogels – BNNVARA |url=https://www.bnnvara.nl/vroegevogels/artikelen/dataverbruik-belangrijk-aandeel-in-co2-uitstoot-bedrijven |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=Vroege Vogels |language=nl}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Digital Cleanup Day: 4 redenen waarom jouw bedrijf een digitale schoonmaak nodig heeft |url=https://www.deondernemer.nl/innovatie/cybersecurity/digital-cleanup-day-digitale-schoonmaak~4428782 |access-date=2023-11-05 |work=[[de Ondernemer]] |language=nl}}</ref> Germany,<ref>{{cite web |date=2023-03-17 |title=Digital Cleanup Day: Überflüssige Mails, Daten und Apps – Onlineportal von IT Management |url=https://www.it-daily.net/it-management/digitalisierung/digital-cleanup-day-ueberfluessige-mails-daten-und-apps |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=www.it-daily.net |language=de-DE}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=e.V |first=Bitkom |date=17 March 2023 |title=Digital Cleanup Day: 73 Prozent löschen überflüssige Mails, Daten und Apps für mehr Klimaschutz {{!}} Presseinformation {{!}} Bitkom e.V. |url=https://www.bitkom.org/Presse/Presseinformation/Digital-Cleanup-Day-Daten_loeschen-fuer-Klimaschutz |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.bitkom.org |language=de}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=GmbH |first=vivanty Media |date=2023-03-17 |title=Digital Cleanup Day: Bitkom gibt 5 Tipps zum digitalen Aufräumen |url=https://www.infosat.de/digitale-welt/digital-cleanup-day-bitkom-gibt-5-tipps-zum-digitalen-aufr-umen |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=INFOSAT – Alles aus der digitalen Welt |language=de}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Brazil,<ref>{{cite web |last=Redação |date=2023-03-17 |title=Even an email pollutes: let's try to reduce the ecological impact of our digital waste |url=https://aracajuagoranoticias.com.br/rss-268/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327085053/https://aracajuagoranoticias.com.br/rss-268/ |archive-date=2023-03-27 |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=A.A.N |language=pt-BR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> USA,<ref>{{cite web |last=Dame |first=Marketing Communications: Web {{!}} University of Notre |date=18 March 2023 |title=Digital Cleanup Day {{!}} Office of Sustainability {{!}} University of Notre Dame |url=https://green.nd.edu/events/2023/03/18/digital-cleanup-day/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Office of Sustainability |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Rhodes |first=Phil |title=March 18 is Digital Cleanup Day – apparently |url=https://www.redsharknews.com/march-18-is-digital-cleanup-day-apparently |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.redsharknews.com |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Sandle |first=Dr Tim |date=2023-03-15 |title=Cleaning up digital data for the environment and business efficiency |url=https://www.digitaljournal.com/tech-science/cleaning-up-digital-data-for-the-environment-and-business-efficiency/article |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Digital Journal |language=en-US}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> UK,<ref>{{cite web |date=18 March 2022 |title=Digital Cleanup Day: Our plans |url=https://www.nexerdigital.com/news-and-thoughts/digital-cleanup-day/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.nexerdigital.com |language=en-gb}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mill |first=The Skill |date=2022-03-15 |title=Digital Cleanup Day – 19 March 2022 |url=https://www.theskillmill.org/post/digital-cleanup-day-19-march-2022 |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=theskillmill |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Israel,<ref>{{cite web |last=Cohen |first=Doron Ben |date=2022-03-19 |title=How to celebrate Digital Cleanup Day, March 19th 2022 {{!}} Atera's Blog |url=https://www.atera.com/blog/how-to-celebrate-digital-cleanup-day-march-19th-2022/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Atera – RMM software {{!}} PSA & Remote Access for IT Pros |language=en-US}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Croatia,<ref>{{cite web |title=Association Calls on Croatians to Join Digital Cleanup Day |url=https://total-croatia-news.com/lifestyle/association-calls-on-croatians-to-join-digital-cleanup-day/ |access-date=2024-03-02 |website=www.total-croatia-news.com |language=en-gb}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 April 2022 |title=DIGITAL CLEANUP DAY |url=https://yerun.eu/2022/04/education-for-sustainability-at-uniri/ |website=yerun.eu}}</ref> Tunesia,<ref>{{cite web |last=Belhassen |first=Samir |date=2022-03-19 |title=ESET : Un nettoyage de printemps pas comme les autres... Le Cyber World Clean Up Day nous y invite {{!}} iT-News |url=https://www.it-news.tn/2022/03/19/eset-un-nettoyage-de-printemps-pas-comme-les-autres-le-cyber-world-clean-up-day-nous-y-invite/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |language=fr-FR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Senegal,<ref>{{cite web |last=admin4life |date=2022-03-19 |title=On relève le défi du Cyber World CleanUp Day 2022! |url=https://www.it4life.org/tech4good/participation-cwcud-2022/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=IT4LIFE |language=fr-FR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Belgium,<ref>{{cite web |last=Geraldine |date=2022-03-23 |title=Cyber World Cleanup Day : FormaForm s'engage et agit sur la pollution numérique |url=https://www.formaform.be/cyber-world-cleanup-day-formaform-sengage-et-agit-sur-la-pollution-numerique/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=FormaForm |language=fr-BE}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Philippines<ref>{{cite web |last=Team |first=The Good News Pilipinas |date=2022-10-25 |title=6 Ways To Do Digital CleanUp |url=https://www.goodnewspilipinas.com/6-ways-to-do-digital-cleanup/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Good News Pilipinas |language=en-US}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> and Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web |date=2022-04-10 |title=Digital Clean Day 2022 : Clean Your Cloud And Take Out Your Digital Trash! {{!}} CHANGEMAKR.ASIA |url=https://changemakr.asia/call-to-action-clean-your-cloud-and-take-out-your-digital-trash/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=changemakr.asia |language=en-US}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Alone in 2023 Digital Cleanup Day has taken place in 122 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-26 |title=Digital Cleanup Day : Bilan de la 4ème édition |url=https://institutnr.org/digital-cleanup-day-2023-bilan |access-date=2024-03-04 |language=fr-FR}}</ref>
In 2021 the global civic organization [[Let's Do It! World]] (LDIW), which is an accredited member of the [[United Nations Environment Programme]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Bluebob |date=2020-09-16 |title=Cyber World CleanUp Day : le grand ménage des données digitales ! - |url=https://www.filgoodnews.com/cyber-world-cleanup-day-le-grand-menage-des-donnees/ |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=FilGoodNews |language=fr-FR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> included this project in its annual plans and set the third Saturday of March as the annual date. In 2023 the Cyber World Cleanup Day changed its name to Digital Cleanup Day.<ref>{{cite web |author=nrj.fr |title=Cyber World CleanUp Day 2022: nettoyons ensemble nos données numériques ! |url=https://www.nrj.fr/actus/cyber-world-cleanup-day-2022-nettoyons-ensemble-nos-donnees-numeriques-71356546}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=PARIS : Votre entreprise souffre-t-elle d'un excès de données ? » La lettre économique et politique de PACA |url=http://www.presseagence.fr/lettre-economique-politique-paca/2022/03/07/paris-votre-entreprise-souffre-t-elle-dun-exces-de-donnees/ |access-date=2023-03-17 |language=fr-FR}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
== Environmental impacts ==
Initially, it was thought that the digital age would benefit the environment by reducing paper consumption. However, the carbon footprint of the digital industry has increased as digital consumption grows exponentially.<ref>{{cite web |title=L'impact du numérique sur l'environnement... – Paris Côte d'Azur |url=https://pariscotedazur.fr/archives/article/6703 |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=pariscotedazur.fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
The French Environment and Energy Management Agency (ADEME) estimated in its study ''The hidden face of digital'' published in 2019, that the digital sector was responsible for 4% of total [[Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions]], a figure that could double by 2025 with the significant increase in digital use.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-09-19 |title=Une journée pour nettoyer ses données numériques |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2020/09/19/une-journee-pour-nettoyer-ses-donnees-numeriques_6052811_3244.html |access-date=2023-03-22 |work=Le Monde.fr |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Douville |first=Thibault |date=2020 |title=L'émergence des cyber-risques |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-archives-de-philosophie-du-droit-2020-1-page-289.htm?ref=doi |journal=Archives de Philosophie du Droit |language=French |edition=2020/1, Tome 62 |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=289–298 |doi=10.3917/apd.621.0304 |s2cid=238147043}}</ref> According to the ''Global Energy & CO2 Status Report 2019'' by the [[International Energy Agency]] the internet and its supporting systems produce 900 million tons of CO2 every year, which is more than the annual emissions of the whole of Germany. The internet might consume 20% of the world's total energy by 2030.<ref>IEA (2019), Global Energy & CO2 Status Report 2019, IEA, Paris <nowiki>https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-co2-status-report-2019</nowiki>, Licence: CC BY 4.0</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web |last=e.V |first=Brandenburg 21 |date=23 February 2023 |title=Brandenburg 21 e.V. – Jetzt planen: Am 18. März ist Digital Cleanup Day |url=https://www.nachhaltig-in-brandenburg.de/news/1/807932/nachrichten/www.nachhaltig-in-brandenburg.de/news/1/807932/nachrichten/jetzt-planen-am-18.-m%C3%A4rz-ist-digital-cleanup-day.html |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=www.nachhaltig-in-brandenburg.de |language=de}}</ref>
"Deleting an email is like turning the water off while you brush your teeth", as Caroline Donnelly from [[Computer Weekly]] puts it.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Digital Cleanup Day: It's time to take out the digital trash – Ahead in the Clouds |url=https://www.computerweekly.com/blog/Ahead-in-the-Clouds/Digital-Cleanup-Day-Its-time-to-take-out-the-digital-trash |access-date=2023-03-18 |website=www.computerweekly.com}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> However, online videos account for the largest share of global data streams, namely 80%.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Efoui-Hess |first=Maxime |title=Climate Crisis: The Unsustainable Use of Online Video |url=https://theshiftproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/2019-02.pdf |access-date=2024-03-05 |page=4}}</ref> All data on the Internet, even when it is not being used, must be kept available 24/7 by [[Data center|data centers]] all over the world and therefore consumes energy and cooling water even when inactive.<ref name=":1" />
The main objective of the Digital Cleanup Day is to limit the environmental impacts caused by the increasing use of digital technologies. It encourages all actors in the area to delete unnecessary computer files, emails, unused applications, old conversation histories on social networks and to give a second life to digital equipment by opting for repair or reuse.<ref>{{cite web |date=14 March 2021 |title=Le Cyber World CleanUp Day: une journée des bonnes pratiques numériques |url=https://www.linfodurable.fr/technomedias/le-cyber-world-cleanup-day-une-journee-des-bonnes-pratiques-numeriques-24486 |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=www.linfodurable.fr |language=fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Diminuer notre empreinte numérique |url=https://www.larochelle.fr/action-municipale/ville-durable/demarche-et-strategie-sur-le-territoire/diminuer-notre-empreinte-numerique |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=www.larochelle.fr}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
== National initiatives independent of the global project ==
=== Estonia ===
* Telia Estonia's Digital Cleanup Day since 2019<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-03-26|date=2020-07-05|language=en|title=TalTech signed up for the nationwide Digital Cleanup Day {{!}} TalTech|url=https://taltech.ee/en/news/taltech-signed-nationwide-digital-cleanup-day|website=taltech.ee}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-02 |title=Dozens of terabytes of digital waste deleted during Telia Digital Cleanup Day 2024 |url=https://www.baltictimes.com/dozens_of_terabytes_of_digital_waste_deleted_during_telia_digital_cleanup_day_2024/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=www.baltictimes.com}}</ref>
=== USA ===
* every 2nd Monday in February since 2000 National Clean Out Your Computer Day<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-03-26|date=2020-02-11|first=Theresa|language=en-US|last=Carper|title=National Clean Out Your Computer Day – February 8|url=https://nationaltoday.com/national-clean-out-your-computer-day/|website=National Today}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Clean Out Your Computer Day – Fun Holiday |url=https://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/fun/clean-out-your-computer-day |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=www.timeanddate.com |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
=== Canada ===
* every 3rd Monday of October since 2010 National Clean Out Your Virtual Desktop Day<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Clean Out Your Virtual Desktop Day – Fun Holiday |url=https://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/fun/national-clean-out-your-virtual-desktop-day |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=www.timeanddate.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pittman |first=Cody |date=2020-10-17 |title=National Clean Your Virtual Desktop Day |url=https://nationaltoday.com/clean-virtual-desktop-day/ |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=National Today |language=en-US}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology
}}
* [[Let's Do It! World]]
* [[World Cleanup Day]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* [https://www.digitalcleanupday.org/ Digital Cleanup Day]
* [https://isit-europe.org/ European Institutes for Sustainable IT (ISIT)]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Digital Cleanup Day}}
[[Category:International environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Ecology organizations]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 2020]]
[[Category:March observances]]
[[Category:Energy conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainability]] |
Dashboard of Sustainability | {{Short description|MDG / Sustainabilty software}}
[[Image:Ppi fut.gif|thumb|right|300px|''Dashboard of Sustainability'' screenshot: A number of indicators in the outer circle are combined to three sub-themes; the sub-themes are then condensed to a Policy Performance Index, PPI]]
The '''''Dashboard of Sustainability''''' is a free-of-charge, non-commercial software package configured to convey the complex relationships among economic, social, and environmental issues.
The software is designed to help developing countries achieve the [[Millennium Development Goals]] and work towards [[sustainable development]]. The software package was developed by members of the Consultative Group on Sustainable Development Indicators (CGSDI),<ref>Consultative Group on Sustainable Development Indicators. (2006) ''[http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/dashboard.asp Dashboard of Sustainability.]''; see also ''[http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/history.asp CGSDI history] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106123832/http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/history.asp |date=2007-01-06 }}'' and ''[http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/members.asp CGSDI members] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224102435/http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/members.asp |date=2007-02-24 }}'', all obtained Apr. 11, 2007.</ref> and has been applied to quite a number of indicator sets, inter alia to the Millennium Development Goals indicators and the United Nations [[Commission on Sustainable Development]] indicators.
In 2002, Dashboard of Sustainability researchers Jochen Jesinghaus and Peter Hardi presented the Dashboard of Sustainability at the [[Earth Summit 2002|Johannesburg Summit]]<ref>IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB) ''[http://www.iisd.ca/2002/wssd/enbots/aug30.html ENB on the side, Aug. 30, 2002]'' obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> and the 2002 [[World Social Forum]] in [[Porto Alegre]].<ref>Ranjit Devraj (TerraViva), ''[http://ipsnews.net/terraviva/05_dashboard.shtml Internet Dashboard Device for Navigating Development] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070411090712/http://www.ipsnews.net/terraviva/05_dashboard.shtml |date=2007-04-11 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> It was also included in the resources for the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] World Forum on Key Indicators.<ref>OECD (2004), ''[http://www.oecd.org/document/2/0,2340,en_21571361_31834434_33637186_1_1_1_1,00.html European Union 2002, Dashboard of Sustainability]'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>
In January 2006, the Millennium Project utilized the Dashboard of Sustainability to conclude in their "State of the Future" report that global prospects for improving the overall health, wealth, and sustainability of humanity are improving, but slowly.<ref>Glenn, Jerome C.; Gordon, Theodore J. (Jan. 1, 2006) [[The Futurist (magazine)|The Futurist]]. ''[http://www.wfs.org/futcontjf06.htm Update on the State of the Future: environmental sustainability, global partnerships against terror, technology, and drug availability figure in humanity's future..] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061130001803/http://www.wfs.org/futcontjf06.htm |date=2006-11-30 }}'' Volume 40; Issue 1, Pg. 20. obtained Nov. 11, 2006.</ref> In February 2006, it was proposed that the Dashboard of Sustainability be utilized to combine and represent two or more of the following five frameworks presently used for developing sustainability indicators: domain-based, goal-based, issue-based, sectoral, and causal frameworks.<ref>Olalla-Tárraga, Miguel Ángel (Feb. 1, 2006). ''International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology''. ''[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/sapi/ijsd/2006/00000013/00000001/art00001 A conceptual framework to assess sustainability in urban ecological systems.]'' Volume 13; Issue 1, Pg. 1. obtained Nov. 11, 2006.</ref>
[[Image:DoSscreenshot.jpg|275px|thumb|{{center|MDG Dashboard screenshot showing gender equality map of Africa}}]]
== Known applications (external links) ==
''Translating a spreadsheet into a dashboard is relatively straightforward, see ''[http://www.jj2007.eu/dc/DbManual.doc The Manual]'', and numerous indicator sets have been translated into the dashboard format. While many of them are not publicly available, the following applications have been put online by their authors.''
=== Applications with global scope ===
Millennium Development Goals Indicators Dashboard<ref>European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), available as ''[https://archive.today/20130701105929/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/mdg_unsd/?Lg=enCp=1Cu=54Cl=52Tu=15Tl=1Cm=1Ci=4Lm=0 Africa only browser version]'' or ''[http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/ full download version for Windows] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130701110136/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/ |date=2013-07-01 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> - see screenshot to the right and the [http://www.jj2007.eu/mdg_unsd/index.htm online demo]
Sustainable Development Indicators Dashboard (UN CSD set)<ref>European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC) ''[http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/envind/dashbrds.htm CSD dashboard] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508004640/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/envind/dashbrds.htm |date=2015-05-08 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>
UNESCO/SCOPE Policy brief on Sustainable Development
<ref>UNESCO, Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment, ''[http://www.unesco.org/mab/publications/pdf/PolicyBriefsNo1.pdf Indicators of sustainable development: reliable tools for decision making]'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>
Maternal and Neonatal Program Effort index (MNPI) <ref>Constella Futures, ''[https://archive.today/20130701104028/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/mnpi_cf/index.htm?Lg=enCp=1Cu=27Cl=27Tu=1Tl=6Cm=1Ci=42Lm=0 JRC browser version]'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>
=== Applications with national scope ===
* '''Australia''': National Land & Water Resources Audit,<ref>Natural Heritage Trust, ''[http://www.nlwra.gov.au/downloads/final_reports/CAUsf_Report_Card_body.pdf Report Card Review and Concept Development, July 2004, p. 138-140] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009234444/http://www.nlwra.gov.au/downloads/final_reports/CAUsf_Report_Card_body.pdf |date=2006-10-09 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Sydney Regional Innovation Dashboard<ref>M. Cristina Martinez-Fernandez, Tavis Potts, Marc Rerceretnam, Merete Bjorkli, ''[http://aegis.uws.edu.au/innovationedges/images/innovedges_booklet_nocover.pdf Innovation at the Edges: The role of Innovation Drivers in South West Sydney] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070902043228/http://aegis.uws.edu.au/innovationedges/images/innovedges_booklet_nocover.pdf |date=2007-09-02 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>
* '''Azores''' regional dashboard<ref>Governo Regional dos Açores, ''[http://sram.azores.gov.pt/predsa/livro/perspectivas_sustentabilidade.zip Perspectivas para a sustentabilidade na região autónoma dos Açores] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724081510/http://sram.azores.gov.pt/predsa/livro/perspectivas_sustentabilidade.zip |date=2011-07-24 }}'', 45 MB zip archive obtained Apr. 11, 2007; ''[http://sram.azores.gov.pt/predsa/downloads/pdf/indices.pdf shorter summary (page 7)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029083917/http://sram.azores.gov.pt/predsa/downloads/pdf/indices.pdf |date=2007-10-29 }}''</ref>
* '''Brazil''': National multiannual plan (Plano Plurianual, PPA),<ref>Ministério de Planejamento, Secretaria de Planejamento e Investimentos Estratégicos: "[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070825130248/http://www.planejamento.gov.br/arquivos_down/spi/Planejamento_territorial/Modelo_Avalia_Sustentabilidade.pdf Estudo da Dimensão Territorial do PPA, Modelo de Avaliação de Sustentabilidade]", Brasilia Dezembro 2006; see also Hans Michael van Bellen: "[http://www.scielo.br/pdf/asoc/v7n1/23537.pdf Desenvolvimento Sustentável, Uma Descrição das Principais Ferramentas de Avaliação]", Ambiente & Sociedade – Vol. VII nº. 1 jan./jun. 2004, both obtained 23 May 2007</ref> Rural sustainability,<ref>Alexandre Gervásio de Sousa; Alethéia Ferreira da Cruz; Francis Lee Ribeiro: Aplicação do Dashboard of Sustainability na Avaliação da Sustentabilidade do Desenvolvimento Rural Local; Universidade Federal De Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brasil, in: XLIV Congresso da Sociedade Brasileira de Economia e Sociologia e Rural; Questões Agrárias, Educação no Campo e Desenvolvimento, Julho, 2006 – "[http://www.sober.org.br/palestra/anais_sober_final_4_16.pdf Livro de Resumos]", obtained 22 May 2007</ref> Lages,<ref>Luciana Borba Benetti: "[http://www.tede.ufsc.br/teses/PGEA0261.pdf Avaliação do Índice de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (IDS) do Município de Lages/SC Através do Método do Painel de Sustentabilidade]"</ref> Mato Grosso<ref>Indicadores de Desenvolvimento Sustentável: "[http://www.sema.mt.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2434&Itemid=777 Metodologia de Cálculo]", obtained 18 January 2015</ref>
* '''Greece''' regional dashboard<ref>Despina Kallidromitou, Yiannis Smirlis, Marc Bonazountas (NTUA 2004), ''[http://www.ath.aegean.gr/srcosmos/showpub.aspx?aa=4202 Assessing Regional Sustainability in Greece] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060226113307/http://www.ath.aegean.gr/srcosmos/showpub.aspx?aa=4202 |date=2006-02-26 }}'', obtained April 11, 2007; see also ''[http://www.oikologos.gr/News2006/0287.html this report in Greek] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810142043/http://www.oikologos.gr/News2006/0287.html |date=2007-08-10 }}'', obtained 30 May 2007</ref>
* '''India/West Bengal''' Monitoring of Public Health Progress<ref>Technical Assistance Support Team Health Systems Development Initiative (DHFW, GoWB, 2008), ''[http://mohfw.nic.in/NRHM/GOA%20Workshop/PDFs/04-06-08_pdf/West%20Bengal%20-%20Monitoring%204%20Jun%202008.pdf]'', obtained September 29, 2010</ref>
* '''Italy''': Sicily waste management, agriculture indicators,<ref>Antonella Trisorio (INEA 2004): ''[http://www.toulouse.inra.fr/lerna/projet/rappsost_ing.pdf Measuring Sustainability: Indicators for Italian Agriculture] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710112453/http://www.toulouse.inra.fr/lerna/projet/rappsost_ing.pdf |date=2007-07-10 }}''</ref> Bienno,<ref>Certificazione EMAS Comune di Bienno, ''[http://www.sigeambiente.it/progetti/emasbienno/progetti.php Progetto Dashboard]'', obtained Oct. 4, 2010</ref> Bologna’s Ecological Footprint,<ref>Provincia di Bologna, ''[http://www.provincia.bologna.it/ambiente/dashboard.htm Pannello di controllo della sostenibilità]'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Ecosistema Urbano,<ref>Ambiente Italia, ''[http://www.ambienteitalia.it/chisiamo_engl/pdf/Ecosistema_2005_EN.pdf Ecosistema Urbano] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928071505/http://www.ambienteitalia.it/chisiamo_engl/pdf/Ecosistema_2005_EN.pdf |date=2007-09-28 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Padua,<ref>Antonio Scipioni, Anna Mazzi, Francesca Arena, Laura Fornasiero, ''[http://www.iccr-international.org/regionet/docs/ws3-mazzi.pdf Aggregated indexes to measure urban sustainability. The experience of Padua Municipality: a Quality of Life Observatory] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055932/http://www.iccr-international.org/regionet/docs/ws3-mazzi.pdf |date=2007-09-28 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Liguria,<ref>Andrea Picollo, Regione Liguria, ''[http://www.ics.trieste.it/Documents/Downloads/df3281.pdf Sediment Quality evaluation TRIAD Approach using Dashboard software] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716143602/http://www.ics.trieste.it/Documents/Downloads/df3281.pdf |date=2007-07-16 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Regional wellbeing indices,<ref>Dott. Bruno Ricca, Dott. Antonino Genovesi, Prof. Mario Monastero (Univ. di Messina), ''[http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/envind/ricca.pdf XXII Conferenza italiana di scienze regionali: La misurazione del benessere tra crescita e sviluppo: il caso delle regioni italiane]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> Varese PTCP<ref>Provincia di Varese: "[http://www.provincia.va.it/ente_data/conferenzacomuni.nsf/67add6fbe88db610c1256dab00332d27/8d891064208d7a03c12571a00045cb89/$FILE/Valutazione.pdf Piano Territoriale di Coordinamento Provinciale, Valutazione del PTCP] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927214442/http://www.provincia.va.it/ente_data/conferenzacomuni.nsf/67add6fbe88db610c1256dab00332d27/8d891064208d7a03c12571a00045cb89/$FILE/Valutazione.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}", 2006, obtained 23 May 2007</ref>
* '''Estonian''' National Strategy on Sustainable Development<ref>Keskkonnaministeerium, ''[http://www.envir.ee/166310 Sustainable Estonia 21] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070502114648/http://www.envir.ee/166310 |date=2007-05-02 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref> and Estonian regional dashboards<ref>Keskkonnaministeerium, ''[http://www.stat.ee/index.aw/section=44536/set_lang_id=1 Jätkusuutlikkuse näidikulaud] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061129194244/http://www.stat.ee/index.aw/section=44536/set_lang_id=1 |date=2006-11-29 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007 (available in Estonian and English)</ref>
* '''Switzerland''' Regional Dashboard<ref>Vicente Carabias-Hütter, David Kümin & Dominik Siegrist, ''[http://www.wsl.ch/mmv-3/call/MMV3_proceedings.pdf Fostering Sustainable Regional Development p. 138-140] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926223416/http://www.wsl.ch/mmv-3/call/MMV3_proceedings.pdf |date=2007-09-26 }}'', obtained Apr. 11, 2007</ref>
* '''Tanzania Districts Dashboard'''<ref>REPOA on behalf of the Research and Analysis Working Group, Ministry of Planning, Economy and Empowerment, The United Republic of Tanzania, ''[http://www.repoa.or.tz/research_analysis_working_group/publications.php Poverty and Human Development Report 2005], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509231733/http://www.repoa.or.tz/research_analysis_working_group/publications.php |date=2007-05-09 }}''; as Dashboard downloadable ''[http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/tza_dist/index.htm here] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710231347/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dc/tza_dist/index.htm |date=2014-07-10 }}'', both obtained May 25, 2007</ref>
* Sustainable Development in the '''United States''': An Experimental Set of Indicators<ref>U.S. Interagency Working Group on Sustainable Development Indicators, Washington, D.C. ''[http://www.sdi.gov/lpBin22/lpext.dll/Folder1/Infobase7/@J@/cd/@J@/d9/@J@/10a/@#JD_SDI2001-Chapter2-1 The Sustainability Dashboard] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930161313/http://www.sdi.gov/lpBin22/lpext.dll/Folder1/Infobase7/@J@/cd/@J@/d9/@J@/10a/@#JD_SDI2001-Chapter2-1 |date=2007-09-30 }}'', September 2001, obtained Apr. 11, 2007; see also ''[http://www.sdi.gov/lpBin22/lpext.dll/Folder1/Infobase7/@J@/cd/@#JD_SDI2001-TableofContents Table of contents] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216071027/http://www.sdi.gov/lpBin22/lpext.dll/Folder1/Infobase7/@J@/cd/@#JD_SDI2001-TableofContents |date=2007-02-16 }}''</ref>
==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150508004640/http://esl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/envind/dashbrds.htm Dashboard of Sustainability]: a free, non-commercial software which allows to present complex relationships between economic, social and environmental issues in a highly communicative format aimed at decision-makers and citizens interested in Sustainable Development.
*[http://www.jj2007.eu/MdgDashboard.htm MDG Dashboard: Millennium Development Indicators]: download page for the latest version of the software, updated in September 2014 (note that running the executable requires a Virtual Machine with a 32-bit Windows client).
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Science software for Windows]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental science software]] |
Category:Fair trade | {{Cat main|Fair trade}}
{{commonscat}}
Articles relating to [[fair trade]], an institutional arrangement designed to help producers in [[developing country|developing countries]] achieve better trading conditions. Members of the fair trade movement advocate the payment of higher prices to exporters, as well as improved social and [[environmental law|environmental standards]]. The movement focuses in particular on commodities, or products which are typically exported from developing countries to [[developed country|developed countries]], but also consumed in domestic markets, most notably [[handicrafts]], [[Economics of coffee|coffee]], [[Cocoa bean#Production|cocoa]], [[wine]], [[sugar]], fresh [[fruit]], [[chocolate]], [[flower]]s and [[gold]].
[[Category:Economic globalization]]
[[Category:Economy and the environment]]
[[Category:Ethical consumerism]]
[[Category:Food industry]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[Category:Social economy]]
[[Category:Social movements]]
[[Category:Sustainable business]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Trade policy]] |
Sustainable development in Scotland | {{Lead too short|date=December 2020}}
[[File:Sustainable development.svg|right|thumb|alt=Three intersecting circles representing economy, society and environment showing how sustainability involves cooperation at the point where they all intersect.| Definitions of sustainability often refer to the "three pillars" of social, environmental and economic sustainability.<ref name=Adams2006>Adams, W.M. (2006). [http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_future_of_sustanability.pdf "The Future of Sustainability: Re-thinking Environment and Development in the Twenty-first Century."] Report of the IUCN Renowned Thinkers Meeting, 29–31 January 2006. Retrieved on: 2009-02-16.</ref>]]
'''Sustainable development in Scotland ''' has a number of distinct strands. The idea of sustainable development was used by the [[Brundtland Commission]] which defined it as [[Economic development|development]] that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."<ref>United Nations. 1987.[https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm "Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development."] General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987. Retrieved: 2007-04-12</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Smith | first = Charles | author-link = Charles Emrys Smith |author2=Rees, Gareth | title = Economic Development, 2nd edition | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1998 | location = Basingstoke | isbn = 0-333-72228-0 }}</ref> At the [[2005 World Summit]] it was noted that this requires the reconciliation of [[Natural environment|environmental]], [[society|social]] and [[economic]] demands - the "three pillars" of sustainability.<ref>[[United Nations General Assembly]] (2005). [http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/487/60/PDF/N0548760.pdf?OpenElement 2005 World Summit Outcome] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090807193112/http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/487/60/PDF/N0548760.pdf?OpenElement |date=2009-08-07 }}, Resolution A/60/1, adopted by the General Assembly on 15 September 2005. Retrieved on: 2009-02-17.</ref> These general aims are being addressed in a diversity of ways by the public, private, voluntary and community sectors in Scotland.
== Sustainable communities ==
Scotland's first dedicated programme for sustainable communities was delivered by Forward Scotland between 1997 and 1999 as part of a UK wide initiative led by Encams. Partnerships with a number of local authorities were developed and dedicated officers recruited to work with communities. This programme piloted the Community Eco-cal a forerunner of ecological footprinting. This programme was evaluated by Professor Michael Carley, Heriot-Watt University and the lessons learned informed a successor programme, 2000–2002, where community groups themselves were the focus. This produced the very first handbook for sustainable communities and a series of highly successful community projects. During this time the first community grants programme for sustainable communities was launched funded by the New Opportunities Fund (now the Big Lottery Fund). This programme funded some pioneering projects in areas such as community renewables, local food, community waste management and the first ecological footprinting projects in Scotland.
[[File:PA120016.JPG|thumb|Eco-house at [[Findhorn Ecovillage]]]]
In April 2007 plans were announced for [[Biggar, South Lanarkshire|Biggar]] to become the first 'carbon-neutral' town in [[Scotland]].<ref name=Scot04>Johnston, Ian (20 April 2007). [http://news.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=607152007 "Biggar and better as Lanarkshire town bids to be Scotland's first carbon-neutral community"] Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''. Retrieved on 27 April 2007.</ref> In the same month [[Findhorn Ecovillage]] confirmed that its [[ecological footprint]] is the lowest ever recorded in the industrialised world.<ref name=Scot04/> In January 2008 [[HICEC]] published a report to "review the opportunities and actions needed to support an island community to become carbon-neutral".<ref>[http://www.hie.co.uk/establishing-a-carbon-neutral-island.html "Establishing a carbon-neutral island"]. HIE. Retrieved 10 February 2008. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305191036/http://www.hie.co.uk/establishing-a-carbon-neutral-island.html |date=March 5, 2008 }}</ref> Following this, in June 2008 it was announced that [[Stirling]] was aiming to become Britain's first carbon-neutral city, hosting the [http://www.goingcarbonneutralstirling.org.uk/ Going Carbon Neutral Stirling] project.<ref>[http://www.heraldscotland.com/stirling-bids-to-be-first-carbon-neutral-city-1.882498 "Stirling bids to be first carbon-neutral city"] (13 June 2008) Glasgow. ''The Herald''. Retrieved 6 April 2010.</ref>
[[Community Energy Scotland]] is a charity that provides free advice, grant funding and finance for [[renewable energy]] projects developed by community groups in Scotland. The main aim of the company is to enable all communities to generate and use renewable energy for their long term and collective benefit.<ref name=HICEC>HICEC. (2006) ''Highlands and Islands Community Energy Company Annual Review''. Inverness. [http://www.hie.co.uk/HICEC/HICEC-Annual_review.pdf]</ref> In March 2010 the local [[development trust]] on the island of [[Tiree]] commissioned a 950 kW community-owned wind turbine project, the fourth such large-scale project in Scotland.<ref>[http://www.tireerenewableenergy.co.uk/ "Tiree renewable energy"]. tireerenewableenergy.co.uk. Retrieved 22 August 2010. The first three projects were on [[Gigha]] and [[Westray]] and at [[Findhorn Ecovillage]].</ref>
[[Transition Towns|Transition Town projects]] aim to raise awareness of sustainable living and build local [[ecological resilience]]. Examples in Scotland include [[Forres]], [[Portobello, Edinburgh|Portobello]], [[West Kilbride]] and [[Hawick]].<ref>[http://www.transitionscotland.org/where-transition-happening-scotland "Where Transition is happening"]. transitionscotland.org. Retrieved 17 August 2010.</ref>
In August 2010 the historian [[James Hunter (historian)|James Hunter]] stated that the transfer of ownership into community control had brought about "a spectacular reversal of [[Gigha|Gigha's]] slide towards complete population collapse" and suggested that the UK Government should learn lessons from this and other community buy-outs in places such as [[Assynt]], [[Eigg]], and [[Knoydart]] to inform their [[Big Society]] plans.<ref>"Ross, David (20 August 2010) "Cameron should visit Gigha to see the Big Society in action, says historian". Glasgow: ''The Herald''.</ref> These successes notwithstanding, civil servants have been criticised for impeding community buy-outs of land via the [[Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003]]. For example, the proposed community purchase of the former [[RAF Machrihanish]] base was thwarted due to technical problems with the application despite 97.4% local support in a referendum.<ref>Ross, David (1 September 2010). "'Bias' thwarts community bids to buy land claims capaigner". Glasgow: ''The Herald''.</ref>
==Public sector==
===Government policy===
The first serious policy was written in 1998 in anticipation of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, by the Secretary of State's Advisory Group for Sustainable Development. This was followed by strategy that focussed on Waste, Energy and Travel in 2002 and Choosing our Future in 2005, which was written in association with the UK shared framework for sustainable development. In 2007 the Scottish National Party took office in a minority government pursuing 5 strategic objectives that encompass sustainable development but do not specifically reference it. Instead the government has adopted sustainable economic growth as its principal target.
In June 2007 [[John Swinney]], the new Cabinet Secretary for Finance and Sustainable Growth in the [[Scottish Government]], announced plans for a Climate Change Bill that would include an intention to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050.<ref>Schofield, Kevin (22 June 2007). [http://www.theherald.co.uk/politics/news/display.var.1490712.0.0.php "Scotland could be ‘world leader’ in fighting climate change".] Glasgow. ''The Herald''. Retrieved on 31 August 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926225455/http://www.theherald.co.uk/politics/news/display.var.1490712.0.0.php |date=September 26, 2007 }}</ref>
In August 2007 the Scottish Government announced the creation of a [[Saltire Prize]] for innovation in industry, which will reward excellence in developing new renewable energy technologies.<ref>[http://www.hi-energy.org.uk/Default.aspx.LocID-%20%20%2006gnew02i%20%20%20.RefLocID-06g008001.Lang-EN.htm "Green energy excellence to be rewarded": John Swinney announces Saltire Prize] Hi-Energy (15 August 2007) Press release. Retrieved on 29 August 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927004915/http://www.hi-energy.org.uk/Default.aspx.LocID-%20%20%2006gnew02i%20%20%20.RefLocID-06g008001.Lang-EN.htm |date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref> In contrast the UK government's stance the Scottish Government have ruled out both new [[nuclear power]] stations in Scotland and the burial of nuclear waste.<ref>[http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/10/Nuclear "The Scottish Government's response to the UK Consultation on the Future of Nuclear Power."] (9 October 2007)The Scottish Government. Retrieved 22 January 2008.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/6237080.stm "Nuclear waste burials ruled out"] bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 22 January 2008.</ref>
The passage of the [[Climate change in Scotland#Mitigation|Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009]] has a created and informed a wide variety of initiatives. The Climate Change Delivery Plan sets out what needs to be done to achieve emissions reductions to meet the statutory targets that are included in the Act. The Climate Change Adaptation Framework, published in December 2009 aims to build resilience and capacity for change. Other public sector initiatives include:
* The Renewable Energy Framework, the Renewables Action Plan, and the Renewable Heat Action Plan
* The [[Flood Risk Management (Scotland) Act 2009]]
* Scotland's Climate Change Declaration
* The Rural Land Use Study
* The Scottish Climate Change Impact Partnership
===Scottish Sustainable Development Forum===
The Scottish Sustainable Development Forum (SSDF) is a group the focussed on promoting debate and action on sustainable development issues in Scotland. Forum membership is open to any individual who wishes to make Scotland more sustainable.<ref>[http://www.ssdforum.org.uk/ "About Us"] Scottish Sustainable Development Forum. Retrieved 22 January 2008.</ref>
===Public bodies===
In January 2010 it emerged that [[Scottish Environment Protection Agency|SEPA]], the government body responsible for protecting the environment had failed to reach its carbon emissions targets. Its aim is to cut {{CO2}} emissions from business activities by 25% by 2012 compared with 2006 but a report showed that they had risen by 10% in the past year.<ref>Fyall, Jenny (29 January 2010) '' 'Green police' fail to hit own targets".''The Scotsman''. Edinburgh.</ref>
==Energy production and distribution==
{{Main|Renewable energy in Scotland}}
[[File:Windmills and Ailsa Craig aka Paddy's Milestone rotated.jpg|thumb|right|Wind, wave and tide make up more than 80% of Scotland's renewable energy potential.]]
The natural resource base for [[renewable energy|renewables]] is extraordinary by [[Renewable energy in the European Union|European]], and even global standards. In addition to an existing installed capacity{{Ref label|A|a|none}} of 1.3 [[watt|Gigawatts]] (GW) of [[hydroelectricity|hydro-electric]] schemes, Scotland has an estimated potential of 36.5 GW of [[wind power|wind]] and 7.5 GW of [[tidal power]], 25% of the estimated total capacity for the [[European Union]] and up to 14 GW of [[wave power]] potential, 10% of EU capacity.<ref name=Pow>RSPB Scotland, WWF Scotland and FOE Scotland (February 2006) ''The Power of Scotland: Cutting Carbon with Scotland's Renewable Energy''. RSPB et al.</ref><ref name=SER/> The renewable electricity generating capacity may be 60 GW or more, considerably greater than the existing capacity from all Scottish fuel sources of 10.3 GW.<ref name=Pow/><ref name=SRF4>Scottish Renewables (January 2006) ''Market and Planning Report''. Issue No 4.</ref>
Much of this potential remains untapped, but continuing improvements in engineering are enabling more of the [[renewable resource]]s to be utilised. Fears regarding "[[peak oil]]" and [[climate change]] have driven the subject high up the political agenda and are also encouraging the use of various [[biofuel]]s. Although the finances of many projects remain either speculative or dependent on [[subsidy|subsidies]], it is probable that there has been a significant, and in all likelihood long-term change, in the underpinning economics.<ref name=Monbiot>Monbiot, George (2006) ''Heat: How to Stop the Planet Burning''. London. Allen Lane.</ref>
In addition to planned increases in both large-scale generating capacity and microsystems using renewable sources, various related schemes to reduce [[greenhouse gas|carbon emissions]] are being researched.<ref name=BPPH>{{cite web|url=http://www.peterheadhydrogenpower.com/|title=Peterhead hydrogen project|publisher=[[BP]]|access-date=2007-02-02}}</ref> Although there is significant support from the public, private and community-led sectors, concerns about the effect of the technologies on the natural environment have been expressed. There is also an emerging political debate about the relationship between the siting, and the ownership and control of these widely distributed resources.<ref>HICEC. (2006) [http://www.hie.co.uk/HICEC/HICEC-Annual_review.pdf ''Highlands and Islands Community Energy Company Annual Review'']. (PDF). Inverness. Retrieved on 31 August 2007.</ref>
{{renewable energy sources}}
===Wind power===
{{Main|Wind power in Scotland}}
Wind power in Scotland is an area of considerable activity, with 1550 MW of installed capacity as at October 2008.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/south_of_scotland/7695508.stm Turbines achieve energy landmark]</ref> [[Wind power]] is the fastest growing of the renewable energy technologies in Scotland and the world's largest [[wind turbine]] generator (5 MW) is currently undergoing testing in the North Sea, 15 miles off the east coast. There are numerous large wind farms as well as a number, both planned and operating, which are in community ownership. The siting of turbines is sometimes an issue, but surveys have shown high levels of community acceptance for wind power in Scotland. There is further potential for expansion, especially offshore, given the high average wind speeds.
In May 2008 Scottish and Southern Energy confirmed it was proceeding with the Greater Gabbard wind farm, located off the south coast of England. However, they sold their stake in this project, expected to become the largest wind farm in the world, to [[npower (UK)|Npower]] some six months later.<ref>[http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/story?id=52579 "Greater Gabbard Wind Project Gets Go-ahead "] (27 May 2008) Renewable Energy World.com. Retrieved 9 November 2008.</ref><ref>Rutherford, Hamish (4 November 2008) "SSE sells half of giant wind farm project to Npower for £308m." Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''.</ref>
===Lower carbon power stations===
In May 2007 Scottish Power announced that Alstom Power and Doosan Babcock had been commissioned to design plans for "clean coal" technology at [[Longannet]] and [[Cockenzie power station|Cockenzie]] power stations. This would have become the largest project of its kind in Europe<ref>Dalton, Alistair (18 May 2007). [http://news.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id=771022007 " 'Dinosaur' power stations in line for £1bn green revamp"]. Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''. Retrieved on 31 August 2007.</ref> but it was cancelled in 2011 after the Westminster Government withdrew funding.<ref>Currie, Brian (19 Oct 2011) "Scots £1bn climate change plant is axed". Glasgow. ''The Herald''.</ref> [[Scottish Power]] have also announced that they wished to reduce carbon emissions by using biomass products such as willow or cereals at Longannet and Cockenzie. This could save up to 300,000 tonnes (330,000 tons) of carbon emissions per annum. However, the challenge of replacing large-scale power production with renewables was highlighted by the fact that to replace 5% of the fuel from these plants, fully 12% of Scotland's agricultural land would be required.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/6905893.stm "Crop energy power plan unveiled".] BBC online (July 19, 2007). Retrieved on 27 July 2007.</ref>
===Carbon sequestration===
The [[British Geological Survey]] estimate that potentially 755 billion tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> could be stored in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s in the [[North Sea]] (Scotland's annual CO<sub>2</sub> output is circa 50 million tonnes). The process also aids the recovery of oil and gas as it increases pressure in the oil field. The [[Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom)|DTI]] estimate that as much as 2 billion additional barrels of oil could be recovered as a result of CO<sub>2</sub> injection.<ref name=SER>''A Scottish Energy Review''. (November 2005) Scottish National Party Framework Paper. Edinburgh.</ref>
Although this process could reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from conventional power plants by as much as 80–90%, if combined with increased oil recovery the net savings in carbon emissions may be much less as the total volume of oil and gas used from that field would increase.<ref name=Monbiot />
===Electricity distribution===
However, controversy has arisen about [[Ofgem]]'s proposed plans to increase transmission charges for distant electrical generation. This was widely seen as placing renewable energy production in Scotland at a considerable disadvantage. Jason Ormiston, the chief executive of [[Scottish Renewables]] was quoted as saying "At a time when the UK government's chief scientific adviser has said that climate change is the greatest threat to humanity, here we have the industry regulator penalising renewable electricity generators for generating where the resource is greatest."<ref>Johnston, Ian (27 July 2007). [http://news.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id=1170522007 " 'Mad' fines of £200,000 jeopardise Scots green energy sector"]. Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''. Retrieved on 27 July 2007.</ref> The issue was highlighted the following month when leaked Department of Trade and Industry documents indicated that, despite Scottish successes, under current policies Britain would miss the EU's 2020 target of 20% energy from renewables by a considerable margin.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/13/renewableenergy.energy "Revealed: cover-up plan on energy target".] London. ''Guardian Unlimited'' (13 August 2007). Retrieved on 13 August 2007.</ref> In the same month a report by [[Xero Energy Limited]] into these 'use of system' transmission charges across Europe indicated that the UK system creates costs that are up to thirty times higher in Scotland than elsewhere in Europe and that charges for the [[List of islands of Scotland|islands]] are "almost certainly higher than any other European country". [[Rob Gibson]] an [[Member of the Scottish Parliament|MSP]] for the Highlands and Islands described the charges as "a tax on geography", and Elaine Hanton of [[Highlands and Islands Enterprise|HIE]] claimed the report raised "serious concerns".<ref>Ross, John (14 September 2007) "Green energy in Highlands being hampered by 'tax on geography' ". Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''.</ref><ref>Scott, N.C. (August 2007) [http://www.hie.co.uk/HIE-economic-reports-2007/EU-practices-grid-connection.pdf ''European practices with grid connection, reinforcement, constraint and charging of renewable energy projects''] (pdf) Inverness. HIE/Xero Energy. Retrieved on 13 September 2007.</ref>
Discussions between the Scottish and Norwegian governments aimed at creating a sub-sea grid to take renewable energy from Scotland to the European mainland are planned for early 2008.<ref>"Salmond plans Norwegian energy link up" (29 October 2007) ''The Scotsman''. Edinburgh.</ref>
===Hydrogen economy===
An innovative approach was proposed by [[BP]] in partnership with [[Scottish and Southern Energy]] for the creation of a hydrogen-based power station at [[Peterhead]]. The project would have taken natural gas extracted from the [[North Sea oil|North Sea]], [[cracking (chemistry)|crack]] the gas to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide, and burn the hydrogen as the fuel source to create electricity in a 475 MW power station. The CO<sub>2</sub> would then have been returned to the Miller field reservoir more than {{convert|4|km|mi|0}} under the seabed in a process called [[carbon sequestration]] (see above). The scheme was expected to be in production by 2009 at a projected cost of $600 million, although it fell through as it failed to gain sufficient support from the UK government to enable this to occur. Had it been completed, the plant would have been the first industrial-scale, hydrogen power station in the world.<ref name=BPPH /><ref>There are ongoing attempts to keep the project alive—see for example Perry, David (25 May 2007) "Last-ditch fight on to save green gas project". Aberdeen. ''Press and Journal''.</ref>
In October 2007 a joint venture was announced by the PURE Energy Centre and the Hjaltland Housing Association to create two “unplugged” hydrogen houses on a remote site in Eshaness, [[Northmavine]], in [[Shetland]]. The installation will involve two combined heat and power systems, wind turbines and a hydrogen fuel cell to heat the houses at times when the wind is not blowing. There is also the possibility of a hydrogen refuelling station
at the site for hydrogen-powered cars. A spokesman for PURE said “Forty per cent of the world-wide population lives with no access to
electricity and heat. The CHP scheme will provide these populations with such access. There will be no impact on the environment whatsoever. This is totally clean energy."<ref>[http://www.hie.co.uk/HICEC/HICEC-News-Oct07.pdf "‘Unplugged Houses’ at Northmavine"] (pdf) (October 2007) ''Community Energy News No 6''. Dingwall. HICEC. Retrieved 18 October 2007.</ref>
==Housing==
[[File:Expohouses.jpg|thumb|Eco-houses at the Inverness expo]]
"Tygh-Na-Cladach" (English: the house by the shore") in Dunoon is the UK's first "affordable" [[passivhaus]], designed by Gokay Deveci of [[Robert Gordon University]] for Fyne Homes.<ref>[http://www.sphc.co.uk/bethania-social-housing-dunoon-passive-design "Tygh-Na-Cladach - the first Passive House in Scotland is UK's first 'Affordable Housing' Passivhaus"]. Scottish Passivhaus Centre. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</ref> For the month of August 2010 Scotland's first green housing expo opened in [[Inverness]]. The event showcased 52 new designs.<ref>[http://www.scotlandshousingexpo.com/ "Welcome to Scotland's Housing Expo!"]. scotlandshousingexpo.com. Retrieved 17 August 2010.</ref>
==Waste treatment==
[[Moray]] Council has announced an 800 kW [[landfill gas]] project near [[Spey Bay]]. Contractors Renewable Power Systems expect the facility to come into production in 2008.<ref>Paterson, Lorna (28 September 2007) "Landfill site's waste gases set to provide enough power for around 1,600 homes." Aberdeen. ''The Press and Journal''.</ref> There are as yet no plans for [[Plasma arc waste disposal]] in Scotland although a plant is under construction at [[Swindon]] in England.<ref>[http://www.advancedplasmapower.com/swindon-gasplasma-plant.aspx "Swindon Gasplasma® plant"]. Advanced Plasma Power. Retrieved 23 July 2011.</ref>
In 2013 [[Baron Wallace of Tankerness]] sided with liquidators [[KPMG]] who are arguing UK insolvency law has precedence over Scottish environmental regulations. Wallace's position, taken "on behalf of the UK Government" is that the liquidators have the power to abandon environmental clean-up costs after the company with the responsibility for them has gone bust. KPMG estimates the liquidation of Scottish Coal will leave up to £30 million that would be paid to creditor [[Lloyds Banking Group|Lloyds Bank]] rather go towards the restoration of disused mines in [[Ayrshire]] and [[Lanarkshire]]. Opponents of KPMG include the [[Scottish Government]], the [[Scottish Environment Protection Agency]], [[South Lanarkshire Council]] and [[East Ayrshire Council]].<ref>Vass, Stephen (11 August 2013) "Scots rules attacked by UK Government in clean-up battle over open-cast mines". Glasgow. ''The Herald''.</ref>
==Agriculture and food==
In November 2008, Keenan Recycling completed a £3.2 million plant at [[New Deer]] for the production of organic fertilisers. Capable of producing 20,000 tonnes per annum the operators hope to capitalise on the soaring price of compound fertilisers, which tripled in the previous 18 months.<ref>Buglass, Dan (4 November 2008) "Green fertiliser plant 'will help cut production costs'." Edinburgh. ''The Scotsman''.</ref>
==Transport==
[[File:CairngormsEV.jpg|thumb|Electric Vauxhall run by the Cairngorms National Park Authority]]
Designated [[recharging point]]s to run electric vehicles have been installed at the [[Cairngorms]] National Park Authority offices at [[Grantown]] and at the [[Aviemore]] offices of local charity, the Badenoch and Strathspey Community Transport Company. In 2010 the government body that manages and promotes sustainable transport in Scotland announced that, despite a goal of reducing carbon emissions for travel by staff by 8% over a two-year period, that they had risen by 3%. Transport Scotland has now set a new target of cutting their travel emissions by 12% over the next three years.<ref>Henderson, Damien (28 July 2010) "Red-faced for missing green target". Glasgow. ''The Herald''.</ref>
In 2011 [[Caledonian MacBrayne]] announced they were developing engineering concept designs for the world's first sea going RORO passenger hybrid (battery/diesel-electric) ferry. The ferries are designed for use on short crossing routes and use battery banks supplying a minimum of 20% of the energy consumed on board.<ref>[http://www.cmassets.co.uk/en/our-work/events.html "Hybrid ferries: the opportunity for Scotland"]. Caledonian Maritime Assets Limited. Retrieved 27 Nov 2011.</ref> [[MV Hallaig|MV ''Hallaig'']] was launched in December 2012 at [[Ferguson Shipbuilders|Ferguson's yard]] in [[Port Glasgow]] by Deputy First Minister [[Nicola Sturgeon]].<ref name="ek"/> The Scottish Government invested more than £20 million in the project<ref name="ek"/> and
''Hallaig'' is the first of two vehicle roll-on roll-off hybrid-powered ferries. She has a low-carbon system of diesel electric and lithium ion battery power.<ref name="ek">{{cite news| url=http://www.eastkilbridenews.co.uk/lanarkshire-news/scottish-news/2012/12/17/hybrid-ferry-hallaig-to-be-launched-68653-32440969/| title=Hybrid ferry Hallaig to be launched| publisher=East Kilbride News| date=17 December 2012| access-date=13 January 2013}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Community Energy Scotland]]
*[[EMEC]]
*[[Findhorn Ecovillage]]
*[[HICEC]]
*[[Renewable energy in Scotland]]
*[[Scoraig]]
*[[Centre for Alternative Technology]]
*[[Sustainable development]]
==References==
<references/>
==External links==
*[http://siser.eps.hw.ac.uk/ Scottish Institute for Solar Energy Research (SISER)]
*[http://www.bodhi-eco-project.org.uk/ Bodhi Eco-project]
*[http://www.sci-scotland.org.uk/ Sustainable Communities Initiatives]
*[http://www.ssdforum.org.uk/ SSDF]
*[http://www.forward-scotland.org.uk/ Forward Scotland]
*[http://www.sustainablescotland.com/ sustainablescotland.com]
{{Scottish Energy}}
{{Sustainability}}
[[Category:Sustainability in Scotland]]
[[Category:Renewable energy in Scotland]]
[[Category:Sustainable development|Scotland]] |
Clean growth | '''Clean growth''' is goal 7 of the UN's sustainability goals, first published in 2009.<ref name="auto3">{{cite web|url=https://unctad.org/en/docs/ditcted20092_en.pdf |title=Trade and Environment Review |publisher=unctad.org |date=2010 |accessdate=2020-03-11}}</ref> Clean growth refers to economic growth that is energy efficient, uses sustainable agricultural practices, and uses renewable energy technologies according to the ‘Poles’ outlined in the UN's [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref name="auto3"/> In other words, it is economic growth tied to conscious and sustainable principles with the aim of reducing, minimising, or eliminating altogether (where possible) the potential negative side effects that economic and income growth can have on the environment.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/statements/mr-liu/2017/11/hl-symposium-global-energy.html|title=High-Level Symposium "Global Energy Interconnection: Advancing the Sustainable Development Goals" | Under-Secretary-General Liu Zhenmin - United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|website=www.un.org}}</ref>
In accordance with these standards, governments and institutions around the world are developing policies and putting pressure on industries, businesses, and consumers to work towards economic growth that is both sustainable and clean, but doing so without compromising an individual nation's healthy income growth. The purpose of 'clean growth' is to improve the overall standard of living and quality of life of people around the world by developing policies that ensure increased positive impacts and decreased negative effects resulting from increased economic growth around the globe. The term serves to marry two concepts often held in opposite regard: economic growth and sustainability; and do so in a way that ensures neither is compromised.<ref name="auto3"/><ref name="auto"/>
[[Nicolas Sarkozy]] outlined the term well when he advocated for the need to consider the environment and economic growth in tandem, as not being contradictory but complementary: <blockquote>"Our first goal is to find the way to achieve "clean" growth and I want to defend this idea here today. We haven't got to choose between saving the planet and growth. We need to have growth and save the planet. So we need a growth that consumes less energy and fewer raw materials. A new economy must be invented."<ref>[http://www.ambafrance-us.org/news/statmnts/2007/62unga_sarkozy_speech_climate_change092407.asp speech] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120184856/http://www.ambafrance-us.org/news/statmnts/2007/62unga_sarkozy_speech_climate_change092407.asp |date=2008-01-20 }}, UN assembly, sept. 2007</ref>
</blockquote> Not only does he outline the term clearly, but he also suggests that clean growth is a new way of approaching economic growth that requires both strategic resource and economic management as well as innovative technologies. The transition into clean growth economies, considering current technology trends and consumer preferences, could be very seamless as well.
The term ‘clean growth’ has been used as a means of redefining the value of economic growth and development. Sheer increases in income, as represented by GDP growth, have proven to be insufficient in measuring overall quality of life; and while economic growth is a good thing, the speed at which growth occurs has, historically, taken precedence over the quality of economic development. This focus on speed and quantity of growth has resulted in numerous negative side effects, particularly: pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and [[resource depletion]]. Today, with the consequences felt, sustainability has taken a priority.<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr=710&menu=1515|title=Promoting poles of clean growth to foster the transition to a more sustainable economy .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>
Governments and international organisations alike are developing policies to ensure cleaner and more [[sustainable growth]] for the future. A statement made by the UN's Under-Secretary General, Liu Zhenmin, regarding clean growth: “The technology for worldwide energy connectivity is there. The barriers are institutional, not technological.” The UN representative, further reinforces the current economic climate which is already both innovative and geared towards clean growth and positive environmental impact; Zhenmin points out, however, that policies on a global level, as well as on a national and corporate level need to be redefined and geared toward fostering clean economic growth. Institutions are slow to change and if they do not change appropriately, can remain a hindrance against and inevitably slow the transition to clean growth and sustainability worldwide.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/sustainable/clean-energy-for-global-goals.html|title=Shift to clean, affordable energy critical to attaining Global Goals – UN officials|date=November 2, 2017|website=UN DESA | United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs}}</ref> Liu called for a change in mindset, stressing that "decisive progress can only be made through partnerships that mobilise and share knowledge, expertise, technology and financial resources are indispensable to success."<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto2"/><ref name="auto"/>
[[Efficient energy use|Energy Efficiency]]<ref name="auto2"/>
Energy and, in particular, renewable energy are key to clean growth. According to the UN Under-Secretary General, “Without increased access to modern energy, energy efficiency and renewable energy, there will be no progress on climate action."<ref name="auto1"/> Energy is the engine to a thriving economy, between life essentials such as cooking food or providing heating in homes and buildings, to industrial machines and transportation modes — economies today depend completely on energy. In terms of economic growth, energy is essential, but energy can also be one of the most detrimental factors to the environment, which is why clean energy is so central to clean growth around the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Efficient_energy_use&oldid=944697150|title=Efficient energy use|date=March 9, 2020|via=Wikipedia}}</ref><ref name="auto"/>
[[Sustainable agriculture]]<ref name="auto2"/>
Sustainable agriculture is fundamental. Food security and basic needs must be met in order for a society to survive and be able to thrive. Agriculture provides food and food products, as well as textiles. These products fulfil the basic needs of society and in many cases is that which the nation's economy is based. Sustainable agriculture suggests farming in ways that meet societal needs without compromising the needs of future generations. Agriculture, despite being essential, can be very detrimental to the environment; through overcropping (depleting nutrients in the soil), overgrazing, de-foresting (cutting down trees for farming land and for lumber), depletion of water resources, and pesticide use which pollutes the surrounding soil and water. Thus, sustainable agriculture is when a society manages its land and resources in a way that meets current societal and economic needs yet does not compromise future societal and economic needs. It is an essential aspect of clean growth.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_agriculture&oldid=944048049|title=Sustainable agriculture|date=March 5, 2020|via=Wikipedia}}</ref><ref name="auto"/>
[[Renewable energy|Renewable energy technologies]]<ref name="auto2"/>
Renewable energy is energy that is achieved through renewable sources such as sun, wind, and rain; as opposed to energy derived from oil or natural gas, which are non-renewable and can be depleted if overused. Transitioning to renewable energy solves two problems: the problem of depleting non-renewable resources and the problem of pollution as an offshoot of using non-renewable sources.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renewable_energy&oldid=944728535|title=Renewable energy|date=March 9, 2020|via=Wikipedia}}</ref><ref name="auto"/>
The ‘clean growth’ concept is changing the way governments, institutions, industries, businesses, and people around the world perceive economic growth and the way they approach it. Clean growth is seen as a very positive and valuable approach to economic development that encourages, promotes, and fosters a sustainable and clean future without undermining the need for and value of overall economic growth and development.
[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg7 Clean Growth Progress Report 2019]
According to the United Nation's Report of the Secretary General, the 2019 progress toward Goal 7, clean growth initiative, was as follows:
<blockquote>
*"The global electrification rate rose from 83 per cent in 2010 to 87 per cent in 2015, with the increase accelerating to reach 89 per cent in 2017. However, some 840 million people around the world are still without access to electricity.
*"The global share of the population with access to [[clean cooking]] fuels and technologies reached 61 per cent in 2017, up from 57 per cent in 2010. Despite this progress, close to 3 billion people still rely primarily on inefficient and polluting cooking systems.
*"The renewable energy share of total final energy consumption gradually increased from 16.6 per cent in 2010 to 17.5 per cent in 2016, though much faster change is required to meet climate goals. Even though the absolute level of renewable energy consumption has grown by more than 18 per cent since 2010, only since 2012 has the growth of renewables outpaced the growth of total energy consumption. E/2019/68 14/39 19-07404
*"Global primary energy intensity (ratio of energy used per unit of GDP) improved from 5.9 in 2010 to 5.1 in 2016, a rate of improvement of 2.3 per cent, which is still short of the 2.7 per cent annual rate needed to reach target 3 of Sustainable Development Goal 7."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg7|title=Goal 7 .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref> </blockquote>
==See also==
*[[Green economy]]
== References ==
<references/>
== Articles ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110202195148/http://cleantechgrowth.org/ Articles on CleanTech Growth]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Economic growth]] |
Development-supported agriculture | {{Short description|Nascent movement in real estate development}}
{{Cleanup bare URLs|date=September 2022}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2019}}
'''Development-supported agriculture''' is a nascent movement in real estate development that preserves and invests in agricultural land use. As farmland is lost due to the challenging economics of farming and the pressures of the real estate industry,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Satterthwaite|first1=David|last2=McGranahan|first2=Gordon|last3=Tacoli|first3=Cecilia|date=2010-09-27|title=Urbanization and its implications for food and farming |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=365|issue=1554|pages=2809–2820|doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0136 |pmc=2935117|pmid=20713386}}</ref> DSA attempts to reconcile the need for development with the need to preserve agricultural land. The overall goal of DSA is to incubate small-scale organic farms that co-exist with residential land development, providing benefits to farmers, residents, the local community, and the environment.
A related term, ''agricultural urbanism'', refers to agricultural operations located in proximity to and integrated with urban areas. The term of agricultural urbanism was coined by Mark Holland and Janine de la Salle, and is based on their book by the same name, published by Green Frigate Press in 2010 (De la Salle and Holland et al.). The term and concept of Agricultural Urbanism was originally developed in British Columbia in 2008 during a planning process for a development project called Southlands in South Delta, Metro Vancouver and was introduced to planner, real estate developer, and founder of the New Urbanism movement, Andres Duany, as part of the preparation for a design charrette which Duany and his team were involved in.
Two academics who authored a chapter (Patrick Condon from UBC and Kent Mulnix from Kwantlen Polytechnic) posited the original idea of using development to support agriculture by using mechanisms such as transferring density rights from agricultural land onto adjacent areas and preserving the agricultural land through covenants while harvesting the development land value in the adjacent area that received the transferred development rights.
Andres Duany has been a significant proponent of the idea as well as the author of a similar stream of thought called Agrarian Urbanism. Duany's adoption of the concept has given it a higher profile,<ref>{{cite web|last=Hawley|first=Steve|title=Agricultural Urbanism:Transects and Food Planning|url=http://www.houstontomorrow.org/initiatives/story/agricultural-urbanism/|publisher=HoustonTomorrow|accessdate=20 March 2012}}</ref>
== Background ==
The term ''development-supported agriculture'' (DSA) was coined to describe the Harvest project. A variety of individuals collaborated on the project, including planner Duane Verner, developer Nathan Wieler, members of Piedmont Biofuels, participants in the Sustainable Agriculture program at Central Carolina Community College, and others. The group set out to determine the best usage for an existing farm that was being sold by the owner, a career farmer named Paul McCoy. It became clear that the group had an opportunity to create a unique residential community where farmers and residents have a symbiotic relationship. This relationship would benefit all involved, while also improving the general state of residential development and helping to reduce the ecological destruction associated with typical residential development models. Reynolds & Jewell Landscape Architecture was retained to design the master plan for the community, and the team grew to include experienced organic farmers, experts on native plants, and others. As of July 2008, the developer is actively implementing the master plan, and response to the concept has been overwhelmingly positive.
==DSA and CSA==
Development-supported agriculture has its roots in the [[community-supported agriculture]] (CSA) movement. However, whereas CSA typically focuses on establishing a direct business relationship between consumers and farmers, DSA builds on a [[barter]] approach first and foremost, while also ensuring that products from DSA farms are integrated into the local economy. On a more general level, DSA is a response to concerns about the urbanization of agricultural land and an attempt to preserve existing farms. Another goal of DSA is to establish a new generation of farmers by using the revenue from real estate development to establish small-scale organic farms that are protected in perpetuity by conservation easements and property covenants.
== Five points of DSA ==
Development-supported agriculture is based on the concept of a master-planned residential development with farming as the central amenity. This model provides residents with the benefits of, and the opportunity to experience, small-scale organic farming. Property owners have the option of participating in the farming or leasing their land to a farmer; in either case, the farmland is protected from development. Homesites are restricted to certain areas and continuous areas of open space are maintained across multiple properties.
In the spirit of [[Le Corbusier| Le Corbusier's]] "Five Points of a New Architecture," DSA focuses on five core principles:
# Preservation of farmland through limited development and continuity of previous farming uses.
# Agreements between developers and farmers (development provides farm infrastructure, farmers provide farm products to residents and the local community).
# Low-impact development techniques, sustainable architecture, and careful ecological/environmental planning.
# Establishment of wildlife corridors and animal habitats, promotion of native plant species, and protection of water quality.
# Utilization of an open-source development model that provides a framework for master-planned farm communities and integrated local food systems.
== Examples ==
=== Developments in the urban-rural fringe ===
====Harvest, North Carolina====
Harvest<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wieler.com/communities/harvest/overview/|title = WIELER / Communities / Harvest / Harvest: A Farm Community}}</ref> is a {{convert|200|acre|km2|adj=on}} development introduced in 2008, sited in the [[New Hope River Valley]] in [[Chatham County, North Carolina]]. The development consists of 20 individual properties with an organic farm as the literal and metaphorical center of the community. A farmbelt easement protects farmland and preserves rural views.
According to Paul McCoy, the previous owner of the land, the Harvest property had been used for farming since the American Revolution. During the middle of the 20th century, the primary use of the farm was for growing tobacco. In the late 20th century, the farm was used to grow a typical rotation of tobacco, corn, and soybeans. In 2008, the developer of Harvest began transitioning the farm from conventional operations to organic certification. The change from commercial (i.e. using pesticides) to organic farming will help protect the water quality of nearby Jordan Lake and the Haw River.
====Serenbe, Georgia====
Another example of an urban-rural fringe project that fits into the DSA framework is [[Serenbe]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://serenbe.com/community |title=Archived copy |access-date=2021-11-09 |archive-date=2021-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109092825/https://serenbe.com/community |url-status=dead }}</ref> This community is located on one of the last undeveloped parcels of land in the [[Atlanta]] area. The founders of Serenbe realized that their largely untouched {{convert|900|acre|km2}} presented a window of opportunity for creating a unique type of residential development. A {{convert|25|acre|m2|adj=on}} organic farm is located at Serenbe that provides organic produce throughout Atlanta and The Chattahoochee Hill Country. The {{convert|900|acre|km2}} of Serenbe lie in the heart of {{convert|40000|acre|km2}} protected with a master plan that calls for 80% green space. Building sites are limited to 220 structures, including live/work spaces and commercial buildings.
====Middle Green Valley, Solano County, CA====
One of the largest and most recent examples of development-supported agriculture is in Middle Green Valley in southwestern Solano County, California.
The City of Fairfield to the south, and unincorporated Solano County to the north, have continued to entitle subdivisions while Green Valley has remained largely undeveloped agricultural land and open space. Like many places at the edge of suburban boundaries, there has been a longstanding conflict between the open space desired by neighbors and development rights desired by landowners. The landowners in this part of Green Valley have been under pressure to preserve the rural culture, even as the basic economics of agriculture have eroded the financial viability of their lands. Usually, the only viable choice was to develop their property to realize economic benefit. Many of the landowners, some whose families have cultivated the land for over 150 years, wished to realize the development value while at the same time maintain the integrity of the open space, agricultural productivity and the farming legacy.
In 2010, at significant cost and with no guarantee of success, the Solano County Board of Supervisors – with meaningful participation from landowners AND neighborhood groups – approved a Specific Plan for Middle Green Valley. The final plan includes more than 1,400 acres of protected agricultural and open space and a small village of about 400 clustered homes that are shielded from the main views from Green Valley Road. Over 15 different land owners covering almost 200 acres signed the Master Development Agreement putting this plan into place.<ref>[http://www.solanocounty.com/depts/rm/documents/eir/middle_green_valley_specific_plan.asp Solano County - Middle Green Valley Specific Plan]</ref>
Preserving the rural beauty and cultural legacy of the Green Valley area is the guiding vision in crafting a long term, equitable, and sustainable development plan. The Specific Plan celebrates and perpetuates the tradition of the working landscapes that characterize this part of Solano County for over 150 years. A core component is the promotion of [[sustainable food systems|sustainable food]] and agriculture systems as a means to connect agricultural lands, the built and natural environments, community health and natural resource stewardship.
=====The Green Valley Agricultural Conservancy=====
To provide assurances for the long-term preservation and management of the open space, the Middle Green Valley Specific Plan envisioned the creation of a non-profit Conservancy (the GVAC) to oversee the ±1,490 acres of productive agricultural land, pastures, and natural areas. The Conservancy has three primary areas of responsibility:
* Assisting and encouraging the farms in Green Valley;
* Overseeing the management, stewardship, enhancement, restoration and access easements for conservation lands; and
* Managing and developing a design review process for the community
One of the first tangible initiatives by the Conservancy to promote and support local farmers and artisans has been the creation of Totally Local - a new Certified Farmers' Market (CFM) - that was started in July 2011. The Green Valley Farmers' Market provides a community gathering place to share a cup of coffee, meet the local farmers, taste some great local food, and simply have some conversation with neighbors. The Conservancy's goal is not to compete with, but rather complement the already established food stands and local artisans in the region to help provide a stable platform for featuring LOCAL agricultural and artisan products.
====Other====
*Prairie Crossing, Illinois<ref name="Building Communities with Farms" />
*Bundoran Farm, Virginia<ref name="Building Communities with Farms" />
*South Village, Vermont<ref name="Building Communities with Farms" />
*Fort Collins, Colorado<ref name="Bucking Horse">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drhorton.com/colorado/northern-colorado/fort-collins|title=New Homes in Fort Collins, Colorado | D.R. Horton|website=DR Horton: America's Largest Homebuilder}}</ref>
*Hidden Springs, Idaho<ref name="Building Communities with Farms">{{cite web|url=https://www.farmlandinfo.org/building-communities-farms-insights-developers-architects-and-farmers-integrating-agriculture-and|title=Building Communities with Farms: Insights from developers, architects and farmers on integrating agriculture and development|last=Ranney|first=Vicky, Keith Kirley, Michael Sands|publisher=Liberty Prairie Foundation|accessdate=20 March 2012}}</ref>
=== Urban agricultural developments ===
East Lake Commons<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.villagehabitat.com/project_menu/east_lake/east_lake.htm |title=East lake |access-date=2008-06-13 |archive-date=2008-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617221316/http://www.villagehabitat.com/project_menu/east_lake/east_lake.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> is a {{convert|20|acre|m2|adj=on}} cohousing community planned by Village Habitat Design located {{convert|4|mi|km}} from downtown Atlanta.
Southeast False Creek and Olympic Village<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://vancouver.ca/olympicvillage/|title = Olympic Village}}</ref> is an {{convert|80|acre|m2|adj=on}} sustainable development project near downtown [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] that includes an urban agriculture component.
=== Future possibilities: vertical farming===
[[Vertical farming]], also known as skyfarming, is a conceptual form of agriculture done in urban high-rises. In these high-rises, food such as fruit, vegetables, fish, and livestock can be raised by using greenhouse growing methods and recycled resources year-round, allowing cities of the future to become self-sufficient. The concept of the vertical farm remains mostly hypothetical; however, many people believe that this type of development will become necessary as a result of increased [[urban density]] and rising energy costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2018/08/14/vertical-farming-future|title=Vertical Farming for the Future|website=www.usda.gov|language=en|access-date=2019-04-02}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Civic agriculture]]
* [[Community-supported agriculture]]
* [[Green belt]]
* [[Preservation development]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* [http://wieler.com/communities/harvest/ Harvest]
* [http://www.biofuels.coop/ Piedmont Biofuels]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229171033/http://www.prairiecrossing.com/libertyprairiefoundation/index.php Liberty Prairie Foundation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120223231933/http://prairiecrossing.com/libertyprairiefoundation/LPF-Publication9-10.pdf ''Building Communities with Farms'']
* [http://www.verticalfarm.com/ Vertical Farm]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070811101105/http://www.sagecenter.org/new-ruralism.pdf ''A Call for New Ruralism'']
* [http://www.lyleestill.com ''Small is Possible''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610235823/http://www.lyleestill.com/ |date=2010-06-10 }} by Lyle Estill
* [http://www.dailyrepublic.com/archives/supervisors-ok-eir-for-middle-green-valley-plan/ "Solano County Approves Green Valley Plan"]
* [http://www.gvagconservancy.org/ Green Valley Agricultural Conservancy]
* [http://www.dailyrepublic.com/news/first-ever-green-valley-farmers-market-held/ "First Ever Green Valley Farmers' Market a Hit"]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Organic farming]] |
Strategic sustainable investing | {{Short description|Investment strategy}}
'''Strategic sustainable investing''' ('''SSI''') is an [[investment strategy]] that recognizes and rewards leading companies that are moving society towards [[sustainability]]. SSI relies on a consensus-based scientific definition of [[sustainability]], and the assumption that ‘''[[Backcasting]] from Principles of Sustainability''’,<ref>Holmberg, J and Robèrt, K-H “Backcasting from non-overlapping sustainability principles – a framework for strategic planning”, International .Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 7:1–18. 2000</ref> whereby a vision of a sustainable future is set as the reference point for developing strategic actions, is the preferred approach to strategically move a company towards sustainability. It was developed by researchers at the [[Blekinge Institute of Technology]] in Sweden.
==The strategic sustainable investment system==
SSI outlines that the financial investment will offer a competitive risk-adjusted return, while providing investment capital to companies that are actively attempting to become more sustainable. It implies lower exposure to sustainability-related risks and it considers financial metrics together with [[environmental, social, and corporate governance|environmental, social, and governance]] (ESG) aspects, as well as strategy analyses to educate investment decision-making.<ref name="SSI">[http://bth.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A829533&dswid=1448 Blandford, Nick, Timothy Nash and André Winter “Strategic Sustainable Investing: Recognizing Value in Transitional Leadership.” Master's thesis, Blekinge Institute of Technology, 2008]</ref>
Characteristics of SSI:<br />
• Lower sustainability risk exposure <br />
• A definition of sustainability based on scientific consensus<ref name= "tools and concepts">[https://archive.today/20130201194739/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VFX-44KVV9J-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=214b19c668891d8b85307af38cb9017c Robèrt, K.-H. “Tools and concepts for sustainable development, how do they relate to a framework for sustainable development, and to each other?” Journal of Cleaner Production 8: 243–254. 2000]</ref> <br />
• Primarily driven by movement towards sustainability<br />
• Considers financial, ESG, and strategy analysis
SSI operates by prioritizing investment capital allocation to companies that are taking the lead in shifting away from unsustainable behaviour towards new ways of doing business. This capital allocation will provide an incentive for companies to move forward in a sustainable direction. This movement is reported in [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) and other extra-financial reports, but is also recorded in traditional areas of a firm's financial [[balance sheets]].
By incorporating sustainability investment and returns into traditional financial reporting, a clearer picture of the bottom-line impact of a company's actions towards sustainability is made available. In this positive reinforcing loop, greater investor returns and [http://plilend.com/ increased movement towards sustainability] are generated with every cycle.
[[Image:Economic analysis chart of movement towards sustainability.jpg|350px]]<br />''[[Causal loop diagram]] illustrating the strategic sustainable investment''<ref name="SSI"/>
[[Institutional investor]]s, such as mutual and pension funds, take a longer-term position on investments and are thus ideally suited to incorporate SSI strategies.
==Theory background==
The theoretical foundation of SSI is strongly linked to ''strategic sustainable development'', made popular by [[The Natural Step]] and its founder Dr. [[Karl-Henrik Robèrt]].
This strategy resembles [[socially responsible investing]] (SRI), a growing practice amongst ethical investors. Nevertheless, SSI recognizes the gaps<ref>[http://www.responsibleinvesting.org/database/dokuman/SRI%20Report%2010-04_word.pdf Hawken, P. “How the SRI industry has failed to respond to people who want to invest with conscience and what can be done to change it.” Natural Capital Institute. 2004]</ref> of SRI pointed by several academics and practitioners and presents some alternatives.
''Main differences between traditional investment strategies, SRI and SSI:''<ref name="SSI"/>
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
!
! '''Traditional'''
! '''SRI'''
! '''SSI'''
|-
|'''Sustainability definition'''
| sustainability is not considered
| Lack of clear definition
| A definition based on scientific consensus<ref name= "tools and concepts"/>
|-
|'''Primary driver'''
| Maximize Return on Investment
| Ethical values
| Movement towards sustainability
|-
|'''Analysis performed'''
| Financial analysis
| ESG analysis<br /> Financial analysis
| ESG analysis<br /> Financial analysis<br /> Strategy analysis
|-
|'''Sustainability risk exposure'''
| Higher exposure
| Variable exposure
| Lower exposure
|}
==SSI analysis tool==
In order to evolve current SRI and traditional investment practices into Strategic Sustainable Investment, two gaps must be considered:
a. The recognition of companies with true leading strategies for a sustainable future<br />
b. A robust and well defined link must be made between movement towards sustainability and higher investment returns
The SSI analysis tool addresses the first gap by measuring a company's strategy for addressing sustainability. It allows investors to recognize which companies are leading the transition in a new direction, and which are most likely to be strong performers in tomorrow's market.
This tool is divided in two main parts: the emerging sustainability issue (esi) chart and the strategy analysis component:
===ESI chart===
[[Image:ESI Chart.jpg|right|thumb|250px|ESI Chart Sample<ref name="SSI"/>]]
The Sectoral Emerging Sustainability Issue (ESI) chart is used to identify which aspects of a determined market sector will become a socio-environmental problem. In the common sense, an issue is called ‘emergent’ when it gets media exposure. Instead, the Tool relies on scientific [[The Natural Step#System conditions of sustainability|Principles of sustainability]]<ref>Holmberg, J., and K.-H. Robèrt “The Rationale behind the System Conditions”. Department of Physical Resource Theory, Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, 1997</ref><ref>Holmberg, J., K-H. Robèrt, and K-E. Eriksson “Socio-ecological principles for sustainability”. Getting down to earth — Practical applications of ecological economics. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1996</ref> to identify what is emergent.
It exposes which Sustainability Issues present high risks for companies within that sector in the short-term; as well as which Issues will be emerging in the medium and long-terms. Due to differences within a sector, the Sectoral ESI Chart should be made as specific as needed, being flexible to account for various geographical locations and sub-sector subtleties.
The process of composing an ESI chart follows:
Once a sector is selected for an ESI analysis, a list of relevant sustainability issues is assembled. This baseline analysis will result in a list of issues outlining the subject sector's strengths and concerns that impact society and the environment. Next, prioritization colours are assigned to each sustainability issue: red for very high priority; orange for high priority; yellow for medium priority, and green for low priority according to its assessment in each of three categories: urgency, severity, and systematic contribution.
''Urgency'' assesses the time frame pressing each Issue. The ''severity'' assesses the seriousness of the Issue, in terms of its potential consequences for the environment, society, and companies within that sector. The ''systematic contribution'' is used to gauge the sector's contribution to the overall Issue.
[[Image:ESI WF.jpg|none|350px]]<br />''To fill out the Chart, Researchers follow this process flow.''<ref name="SSI"/>
===Strategy analysis component===
====Strategic plan====
The Strategic Plan element assesses the subject company's planned goals in relation to the emerging sustainability issue (ESI). The qualitative description includes, but is not limited to, information regarding: public commitments planned operational and business initiatives, political action/ lobbying, and third party partnerships (with NGOs, consultative firms etc.). There is also a comment on the subject company's core business in relation to the ESI; as this will assist in determining the subject company's exposure to the emerging risk.
====Strategic actions====
The strategic actions element looks at assessing the subject company's recent actions taken in relation to the emerging sustainability issue (ESI), thus determining whether the subject company is ‘walking the talk’ in comparison to the vision and goals outlined.
The subject company's actions are seen through the lens of [[strategic sustainable development]], and thus three questions are emphasized as a mental guideline:
a. Does this action provide a competitive return on investment (ROI)?<br />
b. Is this action taking the subject company in the right direction?<br />
c. Is this action a versatile platform?
====Strategy analysis graph====
The strategy analysis graph shows the subject company's planned path for dealing with the ESI, tangible progress made, and if existent, government regulations. The trajectory of the subject company's planned path reveals the extent of their future risk exposure. This graph is placed in the center of the strategy analysis page.
[[Image:Strategy Analysis Graph.jpg|none|thumb|300px|Sample of strategy analysis graph<ref name="SSI"/>]]
====Assurance assessment====
The assurance assessment provides an overall impression of the validity of the information gathered. This assessment may be applied if the data is verified by an external third party, or if discrepancy is evident between different sources of information used on the report.
==External links==
* [http://www.bth.se/msls Blekinge Tekniska Hogsköla – Home of Masters in Strategic Leadership towards Sustainability Programme]
[[Strategic Sustainable Development]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Investment management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable business]]
[[Category:Corporate social responsibility]]
[[Category:Finance theories]] |
Sustainability measurement | {{Short description|Quantitative basis for the informed management of sustainability}}
[[File:Deforestation in Borneo.jpg|thumb|Trees being felled in [[Kalimantan]], the [[Indonesia]]n part of Borneo, in 2013, to make way for a new coal mining project]]
'''Sustainability measurement''' is a set of frameworks or indicators to measure how [[Sustainability|sustainable]] something is. This includes processes, products, services and businesses. Sustainability is difficult to quantify. It may even be impossible to measure.<ref name=":5" /> To measure sustainability, the indicators consider environmental, social and economic domains. The metrics are still evolving. They include [[Ecological indicator|indicators]], benchmarks and audits. They include [[sustainability standards and certification]] systems like [[Fairtrade]] and [[Organic certification|Organic]]. They also involve indices and accounting. And they can include assessment, appraisal<ref>Dalal-Clayton, Barry and Sadler, Barry 2009. ''Sustainability Appraisal: A Sourcebook and Reference Guide to International Experience''. London: Earthscan. {{ISBN|978-1-84407-357-3}}.{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref> and other reporting systems. These metrics are used over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales.<ref>Hak, T. et al. 2007. ''Sustainability Indicators'', SCOPE 67. Island Press, London. [https://books.google.com/books?id=W4o-qunretMC&dq=Hak,+T.+et+al.+2007.+Sustainability+Indicators,+SCOPE+67.+Island+Press,+London.&pg=PR5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218143417/http://books.google.com/books?hl=en|date=2011-12-18}}</ref><ref name=":5">Bell, Simon and Morse, Stephen 2008. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6DOC13cd9c0C Sustainability Indicators]. Measuring the Immeasurable?'' 2nd edn. London: Earthscan. {{ISBN|978-1-84407-299-6}}.</ref> Sustainability measures include corporate [[sustainability reporting]], [[Triple bottom line|Triple Bottom Line accounting]]. They include estimates of the quality of sustainability governance for individual countries. These use the [[Environmental Sustainability Index]] and [[Environmental Performance Index]]. Some methods let us track [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wackernagel |first1=Mathis |last2=Lin |first2=David |last3=Evans |first3=Mikel |last4=Hanscom |first4=Laurel |last5=Raven |first5=Peter |date=2019 |title=Defying the Footprint Oracle: Implications of Country Resource Trends |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=2164 |doi=10.3390/su11072164 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable Development visualized |url=https://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/sustainableDevelopment?cn=all&type=earth&yr=2018 |access-date=24 March 2022 |website=Sustainability concepts}}</ref> These include the UN [[Human Development Index]] and [[Ecological footprint|ecological footprints]].
Two related concepts to understand if the mode of life of humanity is sustainable, are [[planetary boundaries]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Steffen|first1=Will|date=13 Feb 2015|title=Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet|journal=Science|volume=347|issue=6223|page=1259855|doi=10.1126/science.1259855|pmid=25592418|doi-access=free|s2cid=206561765|hdl=1885/13126|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and [[ecological footprint]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Ecological Footprints|url=https://www.gdrc.org/sustdev/concepts/06-footprints.html|access-date=19 April 2020|website=Sustainability concepts|archive-date=8 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808050255/https://www.gdrc.org/sustdev/concepts/06-footprints.html|url-status=live}}</ref> If the boundaries are not crossed and the ecological footprint is not exceeding the [[carrying capacity]] of the [[biosphere]], the mode of life is regarded as sustainable.
A set of well defined and harmonized indicators can help to make sustainability tangible. Those indicators are expected to be identified and adjusted through empirical observations (trial and error).<ref>{{cite journal | year = 2006 | title = An adaptive learning process for developing and applying sustainability indicators with local communities | url = http://km.fao.org/uploads/media/An%20adaptative%20learning%20process%20for%20developing%20and%20applying%20sustainability%20indicators%20with%20local%20communities.pdf | journal = Ecological Economics | volume = 59 | issue = 4| pages = 406–418 | doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.11.008 | last1 = Reed | first1 = Mark S. | access-date = 18 February 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110726045818/http://km.fao.org/uploads/media/An%20adaptative%20learning%20process%20for%20developing%20and%20applying%20sustainability%20indicators%20with%20local%20communities.pdf | archive-date = 26 July 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The most common critiques are related to issues like data quality, comparability, objective function and the necessary resources.<ref>{{cite web|title=Annette Lang, Ist Nachhaltigkeit messbar?, Uni Hannover, 2003|url=http://www.nse-netz.de/downloads/nachh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110802135133/http://www.nse-netz.de/downloads/nachh.pdf|archive-date=2 August 2011|access-date=28 September 2011|language=de}}</ref> However a more general criticism is coming from the project management community: "How can a sustainable development be achieved at global level if we cannot monitor it in any single project?".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.grida.no/publications/et/ep4/page/2653.aspx |title=Do global targets matter?, The Environment Times, Poverty Times #4, UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2010 |publisher=Grida.no |access-date=28 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629043039/http://www.grida.no/publications/et/ep4/page/2653.aspx |archive-date=29 June 2011 }}</ref>
== Sustainability need and framework ==
Sustainable development has become the primary yardstick of improvement for industries and is being integrated into effective government and business strategies. The needs for sustainability measurement include improvement in the operations, benchmarking performances, tracking progress, and evaluating process, among others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Martins|first1=António A.|last2=Mata|first2=Teresa M.|last3=Costa|first3=Carlos A. V.|last4=Sikdar|first4=Subhas K.|date=2007-05-01|title=Framework for Sustainability Metrics|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research|volume=46|issue=10|pages=2962–2973|doi=10.1021/ie060692l|issn=0888-5885}}</ref> For the purposes of building sustainability indicators, frameworks can be developed and the steps are as follows:<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-10/documents/framework-for-sustainability-indicators-at-epa.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2019-03-18 |archive-date=2017-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619214353/https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-10/documents/framework-for-sustainability-indicators-at-epa.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
#'''Defining the system'''- A proper and definite system is defined. A proper system boundary is drawn for further analysis.
#'''Elements of the system'''- The whole input, output of materials, emissions, energy and other auxiliary elements are properly analysed. The working conditions, process parameters and characteristics are defined in this step.
#'''Indicators selection'''- The indicators is selected of which measurement has to be done. This forms the metric for this system whose analysis is done in the further steps.
#'''Assessment and Measurement'''- Proper assessing tools are used and tests or experiments are performed for the pre-defined indicators to give a value for the indicators measurement.
#'''Analysis and reviewing the results'''- Once the results have been obtained, proper analysis and interpretation is done and tools are used to improve and revise the processes present in the system.
==Sustainability indicators and their function==
{{See also|Sustainability metrics and indices}}
The principal objective of sustainability indicators is to inform public policy-making as part of the process of [[sustainability governance]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://sapiens.revues.org/index166.html |last=Boulanger |first=P. M. |title=Sustainable development indicators: a scientific challenge, a democratic issue |journal=S.A.P.I.EN.S |volume=1 |issue=1 |date=2008-11-26 |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2011-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109125624/http://sapiens.revues.org/index166.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Sustainability indicators can provide information on any aspect of the interplay between the environment and socio-economic activities.<ref>Hak, T., Moldan, B. & Dahl, A.L. 2007. SCOPE 67. ''Sustainability indicators''. Island Press, London.</ref> Building strategic indicator sets generally deals with just a few simple questions: what is happening? (descriptive indicators), does it matter and are we reaching targets? (performance indicators), are we improving? (efficiency indicators), are measures working? (policy effectiveness indicators), and are we generally better off? (total welfare indicators).
The [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] and the [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] established the [[Committee on Sustainability Assessment]] (COSA) in 2006 to evaluate sustainability initiatives operating in agriculture and develop indicators for their measurable social, economic and environmental objectives.<ref>{{cite report | vauthors=Giovannucci D, Potts J | year=2007 | publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development | url=https://www.iisd.org/pdf/2007/cosa.pdf | title=The COSA Project | access-date=2020-02-28 | archive-date=2017-01-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102174641/https://www.iisd.org/pdf/2007/cosa.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref>
One popular general framework used by The [[European Environment Agency]] uses a slight modification of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] [[DPSIR]] system.<ref>Stanners, D. et al. 2007. ''Frameworks for environmental assessment and indicators at the EEA.'' In: Hak, T., Moldan, B. & Dahl, A.L. 2007. SCOPE 67. ''Sustainability indicators''. Island Press, London.</ref> This breaks up environmental impact into five stages. Social and economic developments (consumption and production) ''(D)rive'' or initiate environmental ''(P)ressures'' which, in turn, produces a change in the ''(S)tate'' of the environment which leads to ''(I)mpacts'' of various kinds. Societal ''(R)esponses'' (policy guided by sustainability indicators) can be introduced at any stage of this sequence of events.
===Politics===
{{See also|Environmental politics|Environmental governance}}
A study concluded that social indicators and, therefore, sustainable development indicators, are scientific constructs whose principal objective is to inform public policy-making.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Paul-Marie Boulanger |url=http://sapiens.revues.org/index166.html |title=Sustainable development indicators: a scientific challenge, a democratic issue |journal=S.A.P.I.EN.S |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=2008 |access-date=28 September 2011}}</ref> The [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] has similarly developed a political policy framework, linked to a sustainability index for establishing measurable entities and metrics. The framework consists of six core areas:
# International trade and investment
# Economic policy
# Climate change and energy
# Measurement and assessment
# Natural resource management
# Communication technologies.
The [[United Nations Global Compact]] Cities Programme has defined sustainable political development in a way that broadens the usual definition beyond states and governance. The political is defined as the domain of practices and meanings associated with basic issues of social power as they pertain to the organisation, authorisation, legitimation and regulation of a social life held in common. This definition is in accord with the view that political change is important for responding to economic, ecological and cultural challenges. It also means that the politics of economic change can be addressed. They have listed seven subdomains of the domain of politics:<ref name="citiesprogramme.com">http://citiesprogramme.com/archives/resource/circles-of-sustainability-urban-profile-process {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112175841/http://citiesprogramme.com/archives/resource/circles-of-sustainability-urban-profile-process|date=12 November 2013}} {{Cite journal|author1=Liam Magee|author2=Andy Scerri|author3=Paul James|author4=James A. Thom|author5=Lin Padgham|author6=Sarah Hickmott|author7=Hepu Deng|author8=Felicity Cahill|year=2013|title=Reframing social sustainability reporting: Towards an engaged approach|url=https://www.academia.edu/4362669|journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability|volume=15|pages=225–243|doi=10.1007/s10668-012-9384-2|s2cid=153452740}}</ref>
#Organization and governance
#Law and justice
#Communication and critique
#Representation and negotiation
#Security and accord
#Dialogue and reconciliation
#Ethics and accountability
==Metrics at the global scale==
{{See also|Sustainability metrics and indices}}
There are numerous indicators which could be used as basis for sustainability measurement. Few commonly used indicators are:
[[Environmental sustainability]] indicators:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dong |first1=Yan |last2=Hauschild |first2=Michael Z. |title=Indicators for Environmental Sustainability |journal=Procedia CIRP |date=2017 |volume=61 |pages=697–702 |doi=10.1016/j.procir.2016.11.173 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*[[Global warming potential]]
* Acidification potential
*[[Ozone depletion potential]]
*[[Aerosol Optical Depth|Aerosol optical depth]]
* Eutrophication potential
* Ionization radiation potential
* Photochemical ozone potential
*[[Waste treatment]]
* Freshwater use
* Energy resources use
* Level of Biodiversity<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Simon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWKsBwAAQBAJ&dq=sustainability+indicators&pg=PA23 |title=Sustainability Indicators: Measuring the Immeasurable? |last2=Morse |first2=Stephen |date=2012-05-04 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-55602-9 |language=en}}</ref>
Economic indicators:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tisdell |first1=Clem |title=Economic indicators to assess the sustainability of conservation farming projects: An evaluation |journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment |date=May 1996 |volume=57 |issue=2–3 |pages=117–131 |doi=10.1016/0167-8809(96)01017-1 }}</ref><ref name="Labuschagne et al 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Labuschagne |first1=Carin |last2=Brent |first2=Alan C. |last3=van Erck |first3=Ron P.G. |title=Assessing the sustainability performances of industries |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=March 2005 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=373–385 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2003.10.007 |hdl=2263/4325 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
*[[Gross domestic product]]
*[[Balance of trade|Trade balance]]
* Local government income
* Profit, value and tax
*[[Investment]]s
Social indicators:<ref name="Labuschagne et al 2005" />
* Employment generated
*[[Equity (finance)|Equity]]
* Health and safety
*[[Education]]
* Housing/living conditions
*[[Community cohesion]]
*[[Social security]]
Due to the large numbers of various indicators that could be used for sustainability measurement, proper assessment and monitoring is required.<ref name="Labuschagne et al 2005"/> In order to organize the chaos and disorder in selecting the metrics, specific organizations have been set up which groups the metrics under different categories and defines proper methodology to implement it for measurement. They provide modelling techniques and indexes to compare the measurement and have methods to convert the scientific measurement results into easy to understand terms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr=2013&menu=35|title=Indicators and a Monitoring Framework for the Sustainable Development Goals .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|access-date=2019-02-27|archive-date=2019-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190816061311/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr=2013&menu=35|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== United Nations indicators ===
The United Nations has developed extensive sustainability measurement tools in relation to sustainable development <ref>[https://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205004433/http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm|date=2009-02-05}} United Nations sustainable development indicators</ref> as well as a [[System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting]].<ref>[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/seea.asp] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331084549/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envAccounting/seea.asp|date=2014-03-31}}, [[International Standard Industrial Classification]] UN System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting</ref>
[[File:United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development.jpg|thumb|United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development|alt=|320x320px]]
The UN [[Commission on Sustainable Development]] (CSD) has published a list of 140 indicators which covers environmental, social, economical and institutional aspects of sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pvsustain.org/dmdocuments/Class%203%20Singh%20Sustainable%20Assessment.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2019-03-18 |archive-date=2020-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922054303/http://www.pvsustain.org/dmdocuments/Class%203%20Singh%20Sustainable%20Assessment.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.===
In the last couple of decades, there has arisen a crowded toolbox of quantitative methods used to assess sustainability — including measures of resource use like [[life cycle assessment]], measures of consumption like the [[ecological footprint]] and measurements of quality of environmental governance like the [[Environmental Performance Index]]. The following is a list of quantitative "tools" used by sustainability scientists - the different categories are for convenience only as defining criteria will intergrade. It would be too difficult to list all those methods available at different levels of the organization so those listed here are at the global level only.
* [[Benchmark (surveying)|Benchmarks]]
: A benchmark is a point of reference for a measurement. Once a benchmark is established it is possible to assess trends and measure progress. Baseline global data on a range of sustainability [[parameter]]s is available in the [[list of global sustainability statistics]].
* [[Index (economics)|Indices]]
: A sustainability index is an aggregate sustainability indicator that combines multiple sources of data. There is a ''Consultative Group on Sustainable Development Indices''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iisd.org |title=Consultative Group on Sustainable Development Indices |publisher=[[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] |access-date=2008-06-18 |archive-date=2019-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012193436/http://www.iisd.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
:[[Air quality index]]
:[[Child Development Index]]
:[[Corruption Perceptions Index]]
:[[Democracy Index]]
:[[Environmental Performance Index]]
:[[Energy]] Sustainability Index
:[[Education Index]]
:[[Environmental Sustainability Index]]
:[[Environmental Vulnerability Index]]
{{Col-3}}
:[[GDP per capita]]
: [[Gini coefficient]]
: [[Gender Parity Index]]
: [[Gender-related Development Index]]
: [[Gender Empowerment Measure]]
: [[Gross national happiness]]
:[[Genuine Progress Indicator]]
::(formerly [[Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare]])
: Green Score City Index<ref>{{cite web |url=https://greenscore.eco/greenscore_city_index.html |title=Green Score City Index |publisher=GreenScore.eco |access-date=2022-03-21}} The Green Score City Index: development and application at a municipal scale</ref>
:[[Gross National Product]]
{{Col-3}}
:[[Happy Planet Index]]
:[[Human Development Index]] (see [[List of countries by HDI]])
:[[Legatum Prosperity Index]]
:[[Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare]]
:[[Life Expectancy Index]]
:[[Sustainable Governance Indicators]]. The Status Index <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sgi-network.org/ |title=SGI – Sustainable Governance Indicators 2011 |publisher=Sgi-network.org |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2011-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719090733/http://www.sgi-network.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ranks 30 OECD countries in terms of sustainable reform performance
:[[Sustainable Society Index]]
:[[SDEWES Centre#SDEWES Index|SDEWES Index]]
:Water Poverty Index <ref>[http://www.ceh.ac.uk/sections/ph/documents/narf_054.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051216114337/http://www.ceh.ac.uk/sections/ph/documents/narf_054.pdf |date=2005-12-16 }} Sullivan, C.A. et al. (eds) 2003. The water poverty index: development and application at the community scale. ''Natural Resources Forum'' 27: 189-199.</ref>
{{Col-end}}
* [[Performance metric|Metrics]]
:Many environmental problems ultimately relate to the human effect on those global [[biogeochemical cycle]]s that are critical to life. Over the last decade monitoring these cycles have become a more urgent target for research:
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
::* [[water cycle]]
::* [[carbon cycle]]
::* [[phosphorus cycle]]
{{Col-2}}
::* [[nitrogen cycle]]
::* [[sulphur cycle]]
::* [[oxygen cycle]]
{{Col-end}}
* [[Audit]]ing
:Sustainability auditing and reporting are used to evaluate the sustainability performance of a company, organization, or other entity using various performance indicators.<ref>Hill, J. 1992. ''Towards Good Environmental Practice''. The Institute of Business Ethics, London.</ref> Popular auditing procedures available at the global level include:
:* [[ISO 14000]]
:* [[ISO 14031]]
:* [[The Natural Step]]
:* [[Triple Bottom Line]] Accounting
:* [[input-output analysis]] can be used for any level of organization with a financial budget. It relates environmental impact to expenditure by calculating the [[resource intensity]] of goods and services.
* [[Report]]ing
**[[Global Reporting Initiative]] modelling and monitoring procedures.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalreporting.org/Home |title=Global Reporting Initiative |publisher=Global Reporting Initiative |access-date=2008-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616060215/http://www.globalreporting.org/Home |archive-date=2008-06-16 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epeat.net/Docs/GRI_guidelines.pdf |title=Global Reporting Initiative Guidelines 2002 |access-date=2008-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217063729/http://www.epeat.net/Docs/GRI_guidelines.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.enviroreporting.com/detail_page.phtml?page=resource2 |title=International Corporate Sustainability Reporting |access-date=2008-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121060925/http://www.enviroreporting.com/detail_page.phtml?page=resource2 |archive-date=2007-11-21 }}</ref> Many of these are currently in their developing phase.
** [[State of the Environment]] reporting provides general background information on the environment and is progressively including more indicators.
**European sustainability <ref>[[Eurostat]]. (2007). "Measuring progress towards a more sustainable Europe. 2007 monitoring report of the EU sustainable development strategy."[http://passthrough.fw-notify.net/download/360813/http://ec.europa.eu/sustainable/docs/estat_2007_sds_en.pdf]{{Dead link|date=November 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} Retrieved on 2009-04-14.</ref>
* [[Accounting]]
:Some accounting methods attempt to include environmental costs rather than treating them as [[Externality|externalities]]
:* [[Green accounting]]
:* Sustainable value
:* Sustainability economics <ref>[http://www.sustainabilityeconomics.de/publications_vjh.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205215734/http://www.sustainabilityeconomics.de/publications_vjh.html|date=2008-02-05}}|Publications on sustainability measurement used in sustainability economics</ref>
==== Life cycle analysis ====
A [[Life-cycle assessment|life cycle analysis]] is often conducted when assessing the sustainability of a product or prototype.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Mestre|first1=Ana|last2=Cooper|first2=Tim|date=2017|title=Circular Product Design. A Multiple Loops Life Cycle Design Approach for the Circular Economy|journal=Design Journal|volume=20|pages=S1620–S1635|doi=10.1080/14606925.2017.1352686|doi-access=free}}</ref> The decision to choose materials is heavily weighted on its longevity, renewability, and efficiency. These factors ensure that researchers are conscious of community values that align with positive environmental, social, and economic impacts.<ref name=":6" />
===Resource metrics===
Part of this process can relate to resource use such as [[energy accounting]] or to economic metrics or [[price system]] values as compared to [[non-market economics]] potential, for understanding resource use.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Net_energy_analysis |title=Net energy analysis |publisher=Eoearth.org |date=2010-07-23 |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2013-04-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429194936/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Net_energy_analysis |url-status=live }}</ref>
An important task for resource theory ([[energy economics]]) is to develop methods to optimize resource conversion processes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/environ/m3/s3/05account.shtml |title=Environmental Decision Making, Science, and Technology |publisher=Telstar.ote.cmu.edu |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105164509/http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/environ/m3/s3/05account.shtml |archive-date=2010-01-05 }}</ref> These systems are described and analyzed by means of the methods of mathematics and the natural sciences.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://exergy.se/goran/thesis/ |title=Exergy - A Useful Concept.Intro |publisher=Exergy.se |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2012-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716183551/http://exergy.se/goran/thesis/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Human factors, however, have dominated the development of our perspective of the relationship between nature and society since at least the [[Industrial Revolution]], and in particular, have influenced how we describe and measure the economic impacts of changes in resource quality. A balanced view of these issues requires an understanding of the physical framework in which all human ideas, institutions, and aspirations must operate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_and_economic_myths_(historical) |title=Energy and economic myths (historical) |publisher=Eoearth.org |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2013-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606180734/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_and_economic_myths_(historical) |url-status=live }}</ref>[[Image:Oil imports.PNG|thumb|300px|Oil imports by country]]
=== Energy returned on energy invested ===
{{Main|Energy returned on energy invested}}
When oil production first began in the mid-nineteenth century, the largest oil fields recovered fifty barrels of oil for every barrel used in the extraction, transportation, and refining. This ratio is often referred to as the Energy Return on Energy Investment (EROI or [[EROEI]]). Currently, between one and five barrels of oil are recovered for each barrel-equivalent of energy used in the recovery process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tripathi|first1=Vinay S.|last2=Brandt|first2=Adam R.|date=2017-02-08|title=Estimating decades-long trends in petroleum field energy return on investment (EROI) with an engineering-based model|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=12|issue=2|pages=e0171083|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0171083|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5298284|pmid=28178318|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1271083T|doi-access=free}}</ref> As the EROEI drops to one, or equivalently the [[net energy gain]] falls to zero, the oil production is no longer a net energy source.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Michaux|first=Simon|title=Appendix D -ERoEI Comparison of Energy Resources |website=Academia |url=https://www.academia.edu/36305455|language=en |access-date=2019-02-25|archive-date=2019-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212132224/https://www.academia.edu/36305455|url-status=live}}</ref> This happens long before the resource is physically exhausted.
Note that it is important to understand the distinction between a barrel of oil, which is a measure of oil, and a [[barrel of oil equivalent]] (BOE), which is a measure of energy. Many sources of energy, such as fission, solar, wind, and coal, are not subject to the same near-term supply restrictions that oil is. Accordingly, even an oil source with an EROEI of 0.5 can be usefully exploited if the energy required to produce that oil comes from a cheap and plentiful energy source. Availability of cheap, but hard to transport, natural gas in some oil fields has led to using [[natural gas]] to fuel [[enhanced oil recovery]]. Similarly, natural gas in huge amounts is used to power most [[Athabasca Tar Sands]] plants. Cheap natural gas has also led to [[ethanol fuel]] produced with a net EROEI of less than 1, although figures in this area are controversial because methods to measure EROEI are in debate.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}
===Growth-based economic models===
Insofar as [[economic growth]] is driven by oil consumption growth, post-peak societies must adapt. [[M. King Hubbert]] believed:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/wwf1976/ |title=Exponential Growth as a Transient Phenomenon in Human History |publisher=Hubbertpeak.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2019-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629214750/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/wwf1976/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{cquote|Our principal constraints are cultural. During the last two centuries we have known nothing but exponential growth and in parallel we have evolved what amounts to an exponential-growth culture, a culture so heavily dependent upon the continuance of exponential growth for its stability that it is incapable of reckoning with problems of nongrowth.}}
Some economists describe the problem as [[uneconomic growth]] or a [[false economy]]. At the political right, [[Fred Ikle]] has warned about "conservatives addicted to the Utopia of Perpetual Growth".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dieoff.org/page68.htm |title=Our Perpetual Growth Utopia |publisher=Dieoff.org |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2019-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428120557/http://dieoff.org/page68.htm }}</ref> Brief oil interruptions in 1973 and 1979 markedly slowed – but did not stop – the growth of world [[GDP]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2006/pdf/050206.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2009-02-05 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171058/http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2006/pdf/050206.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
Between 1950 and 1984, as the [[Green Revolution]] transformed [[agriculture]] around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by [[fossil fuels]] in the form of [[fertilizers]] (natural gas), [[pesticides]] (oil), and [[hydrocarbon]] fueled [[irrigation]].<ref>[http://wolf.readinglitho.co.uk/mainpages/agriculture.html How peak oil could lead to starvation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818060558/http://wolf.readinglitho.co.uk/mainpages/agriculture.html |date=2007-08-18 }}</ref>
David Pimentel, professor of ecology and [[agriculture]] at [[Cornell University]], and [[Mario Giampietro]], senior researcher at the National Research Institute on Food and Nutrition (INRAN), place in their study ''Food, Land, Population and the U.S. Economy'' the maximum [[U.S. population]] for a [[sustainability|sustainable economy]] at 200 million. To achieve a sustainable economy [[world population]] will have to be reduced by two-thirds, says the study.<ref>{{cite web |last=Taggart |first=Adam |url=http://www.energybulletin.net/281.html |title=Eating Fossil Fuels |publisher=EnergyBulletin.net |date=2003-10-02 |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611071544/http://www.energybulletin.net/281.html |archive-date=2007-06-11 }}</ref> Without population reduction, this study predicts an agricultural crisis beginning in 2020, becoming critical c. 2050. The [[Peak oil|peaking of global oil]] along with the decline in regional [[natural gas]] production may precipitate this agricultural crisis sooner than generally expected. [[Dale Allen Pfeiffer]] claims that coming decades could see spiraling [[food prices]] without relief and massive [[starvation]] on a global level such as never experienced before.<ref>[http://www.soilassociation.org/peakoil Peak Oil: the threat to our food security] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714220834/http://www.soilassociation.org/peakoil |date=July 14, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=The Oil Drum: Europe |url=http://europe.theoildrum.com/node/2225 |title=Agriculture Meets Peak Oil |publisher=Europe.theoildrum.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2015-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229201243/http://europe.theoildrum.com/node/2225 |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Hubbert peaks ===
[[File:Hubbert peak oil plot.svg|thumb|350x350px|Hubbert Peak vs Oil Production]]
There is an active debate about most suitable sustainability indicator's use and by adopting a thermodynamic approach through the concept of "[[exergy]]" and Hubbert peaks, it is possible to incorporate all into a single measure of [[resource depletion]].The exergy analysis of minerals could constitute a universal and transparent tool for the management of the earth's physical stock.<ref>{{cite conference |first1=Alicia |last1=Valero |first2=Antonio |last2=Valero |first3=Gavin M |last3=Mudd |year=2009 |title=Exergy – A Useful Indicator for the Sustainability of Mineral Resources and Mining |conference=Proceedings of SDIMI Conference |location=Gold Coast, QLD |pages=329–38 |isbn=978-1-921522-01-7 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268002763 }}</ref><ref name="Labuschagne et al 2005"/>
[[Hubbert peak theory|Hubbert peak]] can be used as a metric for sustainability and depletion of non-renewable resources. It can be used as reference for many metrics for non-renewable resources such as:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brecha |first1=Robert |title=Ten Reasons to Take Peak Oil Seriously |journal=Sustainability |date=12 February 2013 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=664–694 |doi=10.3390/su5020664 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
# Stagnating supplies
# Rising prices
# Individual country peaks
# Decreasing discoveries
# Finding and development costs
# Spare capacity
# Export capabilities of producing countries
# System inertia and timing
# Reserves-to-production ratio
# Past history of depletion and optimism
Although [[Hubbert peak theory]] receives most attention in relation to [[peak oil|peak oil production]], it has also been applied to other natural resources.
===Natural gas===
{{Main|Peak gas}}
Doug Reynolds predicted in 2005 that the North American peak would occur in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |first=Bill |last=White |url=http://dwb.adn.com/money/industries/oil/v-printer/story/7296501p-7208184c.html |title=State's consultant says nation is primed for using Alaska gas |date=December 17, 2005 |newspaper=Anchorage Daily News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221153321/http://dwb.adn.com/money/industries/oil/v-printer/story/7296501p-7208184c.html |archive-date=February 21, 2009 }}</ref> Bentley (p. 189) predicted a world "decline in conventional gas production from about 2020".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Viewpoint - Global oil & gas depletion: an overview |first=R.W. |last=Bentley |journal=Energy Policy |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=189–205 |year=2002 |url=http://www.oilcrisis.com/bentley/depletionOverview.pdf |doi=10.1016/S0301-4215(01)00144-6 |access-date=2009-02-05 |archive-date=2008-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527233844/http://www.oilcrisis.com/bentley/depletionOverview.pdf }}</ref>
===Coal===
{{Main|Peak coal}}
Peak coal is significantly further out than peak oil, but we can observe the example of [[Anthracite coal|anthracite]] in the US, a high grade coal whose production peaked in the 1920s. Anthracite was studied by Hubbert, and matches a curve closely.<ref>[http://www.geo.umn.edu/courses/3005/resource.html GEO 3005: Earth Resources] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725085800/http://www.geo.umn.edu/courses/3005/resource.html |date=July 25, 2008 }}</ref> Pennsylvania's coal production also matches Hubbert's curve closely, but this does not mean that coal in Pennsylvania is exhausted—far from it. If production in Pennsylvania returned at its all-time high, there are reserves for 190 years. Hubbert had recoverable [[Coal#World coal reserves|coal reserves worldwide]] at 2500 × 10<sup>9</sup> metric tons and peaking around 2150(depending on usage).
More recent estimates suggest an earlier peak. ''Coal: Resources and Future Production'' (PDF 630KB <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.energywatchgroup.org/files/Coalreport.pdf |title=Startseite |publisher=Energy Watch Group |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911224731/http://www.energywatchgroup.org/files/Coalreport.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-11 }}</ref>), published on April 5, 2007 by the Energy Watch Group (EWG), which reports to the German Parliament, found that global coal production could peak in as few as 15 years.<ref name="Httpwwwenergybulletinnethtml">{{cite web |last=Hamilton |first=Rosie |url=http://www.energybulletin.net/29919.html |title=Peak coal: sooner than you think |publisher=Energybulletin.net |date=2007-05-21 |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080522155229/http://www.energybulletin.net/29919.html |archive-date=2008-05-22 }}</ref> Reporting on this Richard Heinberg also notes that the date of peak annual energetic extraction from coal will likely come earlier than the date of peak in quantity of coal (tons per year) extracted as the most energy-dense types of coal have been mined most extensively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.richardheinberg.com/museletter/179 |title=Museletter |publisher=Richard Heinberg |date=December 2009 |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2012-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806223305/http://richardheinberg.com/museletter/179 |url-status=live }}</ref> A second study,
''The Future of Coal'' by B. Kavalov and S. D. Peteves of the Institute for Energy (IFE), prepared for European Commission Joint Research Centre, reaches similar conclusions and states that
""coal might not be so abundant, widely available and reliable as an energy source in the future".<ref name="Httpwwwenergybulletinnethtml" />
Work by [[David Rutledge (engineer)|David Rutledge]] of [[Caltech]] predicts that the total of world coal production will amount to only about 450 [[gigatonne]]s.<ref name=NS>"Coal: Bleak outlook for the black stuff", by David Strahan, [[New Scientist]], [https://www.newscientist.com/channel/earth/mg19726391.800-coal-bleak-outlook-for-the-black-stuff.html Jan. 19, 2008, pp. 38-41].
</ref> This
implies that coal is running out faster than usually assumed.
Finally, insofar as global [[peak oil]] and peak in natural gas are expected anywhere from imminently to within decades at most, any increase in coal production (mining) per annum to compensate for declines in oil or NG production, would necessarily translate to an earlier date of peak as compared with peak coal under a scenario in which annual production remains constant.
===Fissionable materials===
{{Main|Peak uranium}}
In a paper in 1956,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/1956/1956.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527233843/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/1956/1956.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-27 }}</ref> after a review of US fissionable reserves, Hubbert notes of nuclear power:
{{cquote|There is promise, however, provided mankind can solve its international problems and not destroy itself with nuclear weapons, and provided world population (which is now expanding at such a rate as to double in less than a century) can somehow be brought under control, that we may at last have found an energy supply adequate for our needs for at least the next few centuries of the "foreseeable future."}}
Technologies such as the [[thorium fuel cycle]], [[nuclear reprocessing|reprocessing]] and [[Fast breeder reactor|fast breeders]] can, in theory, considerably extend the life of [[uranium]] reserves. [[Roscoe Bartlett]] claims <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bartlett.house.gov/uploadedfiles/5-2-06%20Oil%20Speech.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025195932/http://www.bartlett.house.gov/uploadedfiles/5-2-06%20Oil%20Speech.pdf |archive-date=2006-10-25 }}</ref>
{{cquote|Our current throwaway nuclear cycle uses up the world reserve of low-cost uranium in about 20 years.}}
Caltech physics professor [[David Goodstein]] has stated<ref>{{cite web|last=Jones|first=Tony|title=Professor Goodstein discusses lowering oil reserves|url=http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2004/s1249211.htm|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=14 April 2013|date=23 November 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509063107/http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2004/s1249211.htm|archive-date=2013-05-09}}</ref> that
{{cquote|... you would have to build 10,000 of the largest power plants that are feasible by engineering standards in order to replace the 10 terawatts of fossil fuel we're burning today ... that's a staggering amount and if you did that, the known reserves of uranium would last for 10 to 20 years at that burn rate. So, it's at best a bridging technology ... You can use the rest of the uranium to breed plutonium 239 then we'd have at least 100 times as much fuel to use. But that means you're making plutonium, which is an extremely dangerous thing to do in the dangerous world that we live in.}}
===Metals===
{{Main|Peak copper}}
Hubbert applied his theory to "rock containing an abnormally high concentration of a given metal"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/wwf1976 |title=Exponential Growth as a Transient Phenomenon in Human History |publisher=Hubbertpeak.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2013-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712115025/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/wwf1976/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and reasoned that the peak production for metals such as [[copper]], [[tin]], [[lead]], [[zinc]] and others would occur in the time frame of decades and [[iron]] in the time frame of two centuries like coal. The price of copper rose 500% between 2003 and 2007<ref>[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2008-coppe.pdf http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2008-coppe.pdf Copper Statistics and Information, 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123150944/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2008-coppe.pdf |date=2017-11-23 }}. [[USGS]]</ref> was by some attributed to [[peak copper]].<ref name=Leonard2006>{{cite web
|url=http://www.salon.com/tech/htww/2006/03/02/peak_copper/index.html
|title=Peak copper?
|publisher=Salon - How the World Works
|author=Andrew Leonard
|date=2006-03-02
|access-date=2008-03-23
|archive-date=2008-03-07
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307042349/http://www.salon.com/tech/htww/2006/03/02/peak_copper/index.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Silver Seek LLC |url=http://news.silverseek.com/CharlestonVoice/1135873932.php |title=Peak Copper Means Peak Silver - SilverSeek.com |publisher=News.silverseek.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104020042/http://news.silverseek.com/CharlestonVoice/1135873932.php |archive-date=2013-11-04 }}</ref> Copper prices later fell, along with many other commodities and stock prices, as demand shrank from fear of a [[Late 2000s recession|global recession]].<ref>[http://uk.reuters.com/article/oilRpt/idUKN2747917920090129 COMMODITIES-Demand fears hit oil, metals prices] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920185939/https://uk.reuters.com/article/oilRpt/idUKN2747917920090129 |date=2020-09-20 }}, Jan 29, 2009.</ref> [[Lithium]] availability is a concern for a fleet of [[Li-ion battery]] using cars but a paper published in 1996 estimated that world reserves are adequate for at least 50 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Will |first1=Fritz G. |title=Impact of lithium abundance and cost on electric vehicle battery applications |journal=Journal of Power Sources |date=November 1996 |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=23–26 |doi=10.1016/S0378-7753(96)02437-8 |id={{INIST|2530187}} |bibcode=1996JPS....63...23W }}</ref> A similar prediction <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_roads/documents/page/dft_roads_024056-01.hcsp |title=Department for Transport - Inside Government - GOV.UK |publisher=Dft.gov.uk |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2006-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427154306/http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_roads/documents/page/dft_roads_024056-01.hcsp |url-status=live }}</ref> for [[platinum]] use in fuel cells notes that the metal could be easily recycled.
===Phosphorus===
[[Phosphorus]] supplies are essential to farming and depletion of reserves is estimated at somewhere from 60 to 130 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apda.pt/apda_resources/APDA.Biblioteca/eureau%5Cposition%20papers%5Cthe%20reuse%20of%20phosphorus.pdf |title=APDA |publisher=Apda.pt |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2006-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061006120520/http://www.apda.pt/apda_resources/APDA.Biblioteca/eureau%5Cposition%20papers%5Cthe%20reuse%20of%20phosphorus.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Individual countries supplies vary widely; without a recycling initiative America's supply <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/phosphate_rock/phospmcs06.pdf|title=Phosphate Rock Statistics and Information|access-date=2009-02-05|archive-date=2009-03-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320104612/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/phosphate_rock/phospmcs06.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> is estimated around 30 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecosanres.org/PDF%20files/Fact_sheets/ESR4lowres.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060805112847/http://ecosanres.org/PDF%20files/Fact_sheets/ESR4lowres.pdf |archive-date=2006-08-05 }}</ref> Phosphorus supplies affect total agricultural output which in turn limits alternative fuels such as biodiesel and ethanol.
===Peak water===
{{Main|Peak water}}
Hubbert's original analysis did not apply to renewable resources. However [[over-exploitation]] often results in a Hubbert peak nonetheless. A modified Hubbert curve applies to any resource that can be harvested faster than it can be replaced.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch01.pdf
|title = The World's Water 2008-2009, Ch 1.
|publisher = [[Pacific Institute]]
|author = Meena Palaniappan and Peter H. Gleick
|year = 2008
|access-date = 2009-01-31
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090320104604/http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch01.pdf
|archive-date = 2009-03-20
}}</ref>
For example, a reserve such as the [[Ogallala Aquifer]] can be mined at a rate that far exceeds replenishment. This turns much of the world's underground water <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/6worllarg2.html |title=WorldŐs largest acquifer going dry |publisher=Uswaternews.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209034549/http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/6worllarg2.html |archive-date=2012-12-09 }}</ref> and lakes <ref>[http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2005/Update47_data.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720005108/http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2005/Update47_data.htm|date=July 20, 2008}}</ref> into finite resources with peak usage debates similar to oil. These debates usually center around agriculture and suburban water usage but generation of electricity <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/water_resource.htm]{{dead link|date=July 2013}}</ref> from nuclear energy or coal and tar sands mining mentioned above is also water resource intensive. The term [[fossil water]] is sometimes used to describe aquifers whose water is not being recharged.
===Renewable resources===
*Fisheries: At least one researcher has attempted to perform Hubbert linearization ([[Hubbert curve]]) on the [[whaling]] industry, as well as charting the transparently dependent price of caviar on sturgeon depletion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aspoitalia.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=34&Itemid=39 |title=How General is the Hubbert Curve? |publisher=Aspoitalia.net |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2007-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929002232/http://www.aspoitalia.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=34&Itemid=39 |url-status=live }}</ref> Another example is the [[cod]] of the North Sea.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hubbertpeak.com/laherrere/multihub.htm |title=Laherrere: Multi-Hubbert Modeling |publisher=Hubbertpeak.com |access-date=2013-07-23 |archive-date=2013-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028052636/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/laherrere/multihub.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The comparison of the cases of fisheries and of mineral extraction tells us that the human pressure on the environment is causing a wide range of resources to go through a depletion cycle which follows a Hubbert curve.
== Sustainability gaps ==
Sustainability measurements and indicators are part of an ever-evolving and changing process and has various gaps to be filled to achieve an integrated framework and model. The following are some of the breaks in continuity:
* '''Global indicators'''- Due to differences in social, economical, and environmental conditions of countries, each country has its own indicators and indexes to measure sustainability, which can lead to improper and varying interpretation at the global level. Hence, there common indexes and measuring parameters would allow comparisons among countries.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> In agriculture, comparable indicators are already in use. Coffee and cocoa studies in twelve countries<ref>{{cite report | vauthors=Allen S, Bennett M, Garcia C, Giovannucci D, Ingersoll C, Kraft K, Potts J, Rue C | veditors=Everage L, Ingersoll C, Mullan J, Salinas L, Childs A | date=2014-01-31 | df=ymd | publisher=Committee on Sustainability Assessment | url=https://thecosa.org/the-cosa-measuring-sustainability-report-2/ | title=The COSA Measuring Sustainability Report | access-date=2020-02-28 | archive-date=2020-02-28 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228201904/https://thecosa.org/the-cosa-measuring-sustainability-report-2/ | url-status=live }}</ref> using common indicators are among the first to report insights from comparing across countries.
* '''Policymaking'''- After the indicators are defined and analysis is done for the measurements from the indicators, proper policymaking methodology can be set up to improve the results achieved. Policymaking would implement changes in the particular inventory list used for measuring, which could lead to better results.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />
* '''Development of individual indicators'''- Value-based indicators can be developed to measure the efforts by every human being part of the ecosystem. This can affect policymaking, as policy is most effective when there is public participation.<ref name=":0" />
* '''Data collection'''- Due to a number of factors including inappropriate methodology applied to data collection, dynamics of change in data, lack of adequate time and improper framework in analysis of data, measurements can quickly become outdated, inaccurate, and unpresentable. Data collections built up from the grass-roots level allow context-appropriate frameworks and regulations associated with it. A hierarchy of data collection starts from local zones to state level, to national level and finally contributing to the global level measurements. Data collected can be made easy to understand so that it could be correctly interpreted and presented through graphs, charts, and analysis bars.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" />
* '''Integration across academic disciplines'''- Sustainability involves the whole ecosystem and is intended to have a holistic approach. For this purpose measurements intend to involve data and knowledge from all academic backgrounds. Moreover, these disciplines and insights are intended to align with the societal actions.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.04.032 |title=Achievements and gaps in indicators for sustainability |journal=Ecological Indicators |volume=17 |pages=14–19 |year=2012 |last1=Dahl |first1=Arthur Lyon }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/sd.349 |title=Bridging the gaps between theory and practice: A service niche approach to urban sustainability indicators |journal=Sustainable Development |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=329–340 |year=2008 |last1=Keirstead |first1=James |last2=Leach |first2=Matt }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.12.020 |pmid=19500899 |title=Bridging the gaps for global sustainable development: A quantitative analysis |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=90 |issue=12 |pages=3700–3707 |year=2009 |last1=Udo |first1=Victor E. |last2=Jansson |first2=Peter Mark |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2007.08.016|pmid=17997188|title=Mind the sustainability gap|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|volume=22|issue=12|pages=621–624|year=2007|last1=Fischer|first1=Joern|last2=Manning|first2=Adrian D.|last3=Steffen|first3=Will|last4=Rose|first4=Deborah B.|last5=Daniell|first5=Katherine|last6=Felton|first6=Adam|last7=Garnett|first7=Stephen|last8=Gilna|first8=Ben|last9=Heinsohn|first9=Rob|last10=Lindenmayer|first10=David B.|last11=MacDonald|first11=Ben|last12=Mills|first12=Frank|last13=Newell|first13=Barry|last14=Reid|first14=Julian|last15=Robin|first15=Libby|last16=Sherren|first16=Kate|last17=Wade|first17=Alan}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00279-2 |title=Estimating sustainability gaps: Methods and preliminary applications for the UK and the Netherlands |journal=Ecological Economics |volume=37 |pages=5–22 |year=2001 |last1=Ekins |first1=Paul |last2=Simon |first2=Sandrine |url=http://oro.open.ac.uk/39/1/Simon_Sustainability_Gap.pdf |access-date=2019-07-09 |archive-date=2020-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925135243/http://oro.open.ac.uk/39/1/Simon_Sustainability_Gap.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Balanced scorecard]]
* [[Carbon accounting]]
* [[Corporate social responsibility]]
* [[Embodied energy]]
* [[Environmental audits]]
* [[Glossary of environmental science]]
* [[Green accounting]]
* [[Helix of sustainability]]
* [[List of sustainability topics]]
* [[Outline of sustainability]]
* [[Social accounting]]
* [[Sustainability science]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==External links==
* [http://biblio.repec.org/entry/tbc.html Curated bibliography] at [[Research papers in economics|IDEAS/RePEc]]
{{Sustainability}}
{{Social accountability}}
[[Category:Sustainability metrics and indices|*]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Development economics]]
[[Category:Economic data]]
[[Category:Environmental statistics]] |
Manu Learning Centre | {{Multiple issues|
{{notability|Companies|date=August 2012}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2012}}
}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Fundo Mascoitania Reserve
| iucn_category =
| photo =
| photo_caption =
| location = [[Manú Province]], [[Madre de Dios Region]], [[Peru]]
| nearest_city = [[Cusco]]
| coordinates = {{coord|12|47|22|S|71|23|32|W|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| area = 643 ha<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Villacampa|first1=Jaime Ortega|last2=Whitworth|first2=Andrew|last3=Burdekin|first3=Oliver|title=Osteocephalus mimeticus (Melin, 1941) (Amphibia: Anura: Hylidae): New locality, range extension and notes on distribution|journal=Check List|date=2013|volume=9|issue=5|pages=1126–1128|doi=10.15560/9.5.1126 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
| established = September 26, 2002
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body =
}}
The '''Manú Learning Centre''' ('''MLC''') is located within the [[Fundo Mascoitania Reserve]], a 643 hectare private [[nature reserve]], encompassed within the cultural zone of the [[Manú National Park|Manú Biosphere Reserve]], a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage site]] and one of the largest protected areas in [[Peru]]. It is home to a variety of [[tropical rainforest|rainforest types]] including lowland Andean, pre-montane, bamboo and high terrace forests. This geographical complexity creates habitats for a diversity of [[Rainforest#Flora and fauna|flora and fauna]]. The MLC is operated by the [[#CREES|CREES]] group, a non-profit and business collaboration working towards sustainability for the Manú Region.<ref name=UNEP>{{cite web | url = http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/pdf/Manu.pdf | title = Manu National Park | accessdate = 2009-03-19 | last = UNEP | date = 2008-09-20 | publisher = http://www.unep-wcmc.org | pages = 1–8 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090114222734/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/pdf/Manu.pdf | archive-date = 2009-01-14 | url-status = dead }}</ref> The MLC serves local schools and communities as well as international researchers and [[Volunteering|volunteer]]s. It has hosted workshops for the [[Organization for Tropical Studies]], and on behalf of the Manú National Park Guards, as well as research projects from the [[University of Oxford]], [[Aberdeen University|Aberdeen]], and [[Glasgow University]] in addition to the [[School of Oriental and African Studies|SOAS]]. The MLC has also worked alongside schools from the UK including [[Southbank International School]] and [[Tonbridge School]].
==History==
The MLC was built in 2004 on an abandoned [[hacienda]], the first to be developed in the region. The initial concept was to demonstrate that it was possible to use novel land use techniques to rehabilitate large areas of degraded land and to empower and educate local communities throughout this process. There is a large body of work that had been completed at the MLC incorporating aspects of [[biology]], [[geography]], [[zoology]], [[anthropology]], [[tropical agriculture]], [[politics]], and [[art]]. Specific projects have focused on [[reforestation]], mammal behaviour patterns, [[ecological footprint|human impact studies]], environmental management, monitoring of the [[blue headed macaw]] ([[CITES|CITES Red listed]]), [[Agricultural soil science#Soil Preservation|soil & agricultural sustainability]], [[forest dynamics]], carbon offsetting, and the legitimacy of local power structures to name a handful.
In 2017 a new species of frog, [[Ameerega shihuemoy]] was described from the research station, where it was found occurring in SLR (selectively logged rainforest) habitat at the back of the reserve.
==CREES==
CREES (Conservation, Research & Education towards Environmental Sustainability) was established in 2003 prior to the construction of the MLC and the creation of Fundo Mascoitania. It is the only organisation to be in operation within the Manú region of Peru who regularly consults with local populations about their development priorities and leads the consequential local development projects.
==Access==
[[Image:Alto Madre from MLC.jpg|thumb|300px|The Alto Madre de Dios River from the Fundo Mascoitania Reserve]]The MLC is accessible from [[Cusco]] by road until Atalaya and then by [[Launch(boat)|lancha]] until the port at the MLC. During the [[dry season]] boats may not be able to navigate the river from Atalaya in which case transport is needed up until the Aguanos settlement on the opposite side of the [[Madre de Dios River|Alto Madre de Dios River]]. Crossing is then possible by raft or by lancha.
==Biodiversity and wildlife==
[[Image:Tropical Tree frog MLC.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Dendropsophus leucophyllatus]] frog found in Fundo Mascoitania Reserve]]
'''[[Clay lick#Clay licks|Macaw Collpa]]'''
The MLC reserve attracts an array of parrots and macaws thanks to the spectacular clay mineral lick, or [[Clay lick#Clay licks|Collpa]] carved out by the Alto Madre de Dios river. This collpa is the only one of its type in the zone, and is visited daily by hundreds of colourful and noisy parrots and macaws, the most notable of these being the Blue Headed Macaw. These in turn draw raptors such as the ornate hawk eagle and crested eagle.
'''Mammal Collpa'''
The MLC boasts two large mammal collpas which attracts smaller mammals as well as large groups of white-lipped peccary and their natural Jaguar predators.
'''Wildlife Monitoring Array'''
The MLC's wildlife monitoring array was established in 2005. The array comprises a 1 km<sup>2</sup> monitoring grid mapped using GPS. It provides a quantified area in which researchers can complete research on plants, animals and birds.
==Species lists and forest types==
* List of mammal species catalogued within the MLC (by order, family, genus and species definitions)[https://web.archive.org/web/20100712225130/http://www.crees-expeditions.com/mlc_mammals2.htm]
* Lists of the birds catalogued within the MLC Reserve and the common plant species in forest types can be found on this link [https://web.archive.org/web/20091110004944/http://www.crees-expeditions.com/mlc_biodiversity.htm].
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* {{official}}
{{Portal|Ecology|Peru}}
{{authority control}}
[[Category:Biological research institutes]]
[[Category:Research institutes in Peru]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Rainforests]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Madre de Dios Region]]
[[es:Amazonía Peruana]] |
Sustainability reporting | {{Short description|Reporting about ESG sustainability}}
'''Sustainability reporting''' refers to the disclosure, whether voluntary, solicited, or required, of non-financial performance information to outsiders of the organization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Erkens |first1=Michael |last2=Paugam |first2=Luc |last3=Stolowy |first3=Hervé |date=2015-11-18 |title=Non-financial information: State of the art and research perspectives based on a bibliometric study |url=https://doi.org/10.3917/cca.213.0015 |journal=Comptabilité Contrôle Audit |volume=Tome 21 |issue=3 |pages=15–92 |doi=10.3917/cca.213.0015 |s2cid=143001861 |issn=1262-2788}}</ref> Generally speaking, sustainability reporting deals with information concerning environmental, social, economic and governance issues in the broadest sense. These are the criteria gathered under the acronym ESG ([[Environmental, social and corporate governance]]).
The introduction of these non-financial information in published reports is seen as a step forward in corporate communication and considered as an effective way to increase corporate engagement and transparency.<ref>Moravcikova, K., Stefanikova, L., & Rypakova, M. (2015). CSR reporting as an important tool of CSR communication. ''Procedia Economics and Finance, 26'', 332–338.</ref>
Sustainability reports help companies build consumer confidence and improve corporate reputations through social responsibility programs and transparent [[risk management]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=SemiColonWeb |title=Sustainability Reporting |url=https://ccc.bc.edu/content/ccc/research/corporate-citizenship-news-and-topics/sustainability-reporting.html |access-date=2022-03-25 |website=BC CCC |language=en}}</ref> This communication aims at giving stakeholders broader access to relevant information outside the financial sphere that also influences the company's performance.<ref>Arvidsson, S. (2019). ''Challenges in Managing Sustainable Business : Reporting, Taxation, Ethics and Governance''. London : Palgrave Macmillan.</ref>
In the [[European Union|EU]], the mandatory practice of sustainability reporting for certain companies is regulated by the [[Non-Financial Reporting Directive]] (NFRD),<ref name=":23">{{CELEX|32014L0095|text=Directive 2014/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014 amending Directive 2013/34/EU as regards disclosure of non-financial and diversity information by certain large undertakings and groups}}</ref> recently revised and renamed [[Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive]] (CSRD).<ref>{{CELEX|52021PC0189|text=Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL amending Directive 2013/34/EU, Directive 2004/109/EC, Directive 2006/43/EC and Regulation (EU) No 537/2014, as regards corporate sustainability reporting}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CSRD: A Look at the New ESG Reporting Requirements |url=https://www.mhc.ie/latest/insights/csrd-a-look-at-the-new-esg-reporting-requirements |website=mhc.ie |publisher=Mason Hayes & Curran |access-date=21 November 2023}}</ref> An increasing number of organizations are providing frameworks for sustainability reporting and are issuing [[Sustainability standards and certification|standards]] or similar initiatives to guide companies in this exercise.
There is a wide range of terminology used to qualify this same concept of sustainability reporting: non-financial reporting, extra-financial reporting, social reporting, [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] reporting or even socio-environmental reporting.
== History ==
Corporate sustainability reporting has a history going back to environmental reporting.
This practice is rooted in the multidimensional concept of [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] and in the stakeholders' vision of corporate governance in Europe, which insists on the importance of understanding the company as an entity with relationships with its environment. According to [[R. Edward Freeman|Freeman]]'s theory,<ref>Freeman, R.E. (1984) ''Strategic Management : a Stakeholder Approach''. Boston : Pitman.</ref> the company's shareholders are no longer the only ones to be considered, but also its employees, customers, suppliers, local communities, governments: the society in the broadest sense.
With the emergence of this approach, the first response of many companies has been to expand the communication of their achievements in terms of social responsibility.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Quynh Lien |first=Duong |date=2005-01-02 |title=La responsabilité sociale de l'entreprise, pourquoi et comment ça se parle? |url=https://journals.openedition.org/communicationorganisation/3269 |journal=Communication et organisation. Revue scientifique francophone en Communication organisationnelle |language=fr |issue=26 |pages=26–43 |doi=10.4000/communicationorganisation.3269 |issn=1168-5549|doi-access=free }}</ref> Information disclosed by companies themselves are the first indicators that can be received by the public in order to verify whether the decisions taken meet the announced commitments, as well as its own interests.<ref name=":0" />
The obligation of accountability is therefore often assimilated to reporting and is addressed, in the first place, to the company's stakeholders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boyer-Allirol |first=Béatrice |date=2013-12-28 |title=Faut-il mieux réglementer le reporting extrafinancier ? |url=http://rfg.revuesonline.com/article.jsp?articleId=19126 |journal=Revue française de gestion |volume=39 |issue=237 |pages=73–95 |doi=10.3166/rfg.237.73-95}}</ref> This means that both shareholders and society in general are concerned, while also taking future generations into account.<ref>Ceccarelli, A., Gendron, C. & Morin-Esteves, C. (2016). ''Les rapports de développement durable: Dialogues autour de la définition et de la mesure de la performance extra financière des entreprises'' [Congrés]. RIODD, Saint-Étienne. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01349994/document</ref>
Recently, there has been a growing interest in communications relating to the extra-financial aspects of organizations: [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] performance is now one of the factors considered in investment decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Durand |first1=Rodolphe |last2=Paugam |first2=Luc |last3=Stolowy |first3=Hervé |date=2019-05-09 |title=Do investors actually value sustainability indices? Replication, development, and new evidence on CSR visibility |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.3035 |journal=Strategic Management Journal |volume=40 |issue=9 |pages=1471–1490 |doi=10.1002/smj.3035 |s2cid=169265967 |issn=0143-2095}}</ref> The practice of sustainability reporting has existed in a scattered way since the 1980s but has really expanded over the last twenty years.
This is notably due to the global awareness of the ecological crisis and the common interest in [[sustainable development]], but also to the numerous corporate governance scandals of large companies ([[Enron scandal]], [[Parmalat|Parmalat Financial Fraud]]…) over the last two decades or the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2008|financial crisis of 2008]].
In addition to eroding stakeholder trust, these circumstances have increased their activism for broader transparency and ensuring better information from companies.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Aluchna |first1=Maria |title=Non-financial Reporting. Conceptual Framework, Regulation and Practice |date=2019 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00440-8_14 |work=Corporate Social Responsibility in Poland: Strategies, Opportunities and Challenges |pages=213–236 |editor-last=Długopolska-Mikonowicz |editor-first=Aneta |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-00440-8_14 |isbn=978-3-030-00440-8 |access-date=2022-03-25 |last2=Roszkowska-Menkes |first2=Maria |series=CSR, Sustainability, Ethics & Governance |s2cid=169696670 |editor2-last=Przytuła |editor2-first=Sylwia |editor3-last=Stehr |editor3-first=Christopher}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Amran |first1=Azlan |last2=Keat Ooi |first2=Say |date=2014-06-03 |title=Sustainability reporting: meeting stakeholder demands |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/sd-03-2014-0035 |journal=Strategic Direction |volume=30 |issue=7 |pages=38–41 |doi=10.1108/sd-03-2014-0035 |issn=0258-0543}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Uyar |first=Ali |date=2016-04-15 |title=Evolution of Corporate Reporting and Emerging Trends |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcaf.22157 |journal=Journal of Corporate Accounting & Finance |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=27–30 |doi=10.1002/jcaf.22157 |issn=1044-8136}}</ref>
In this context, the need for sustainability reporting has gradually emerged. It was carried out by companies initially on a voluntary basis, with the aim of mitigating some of the skepticism of users of financial reports and restoring the trust of stakeholders by expressing a willingness to behave responsibly.<ref name=":12">Persais E. (2003). Le rapport de développement durable (ou stakeholders’ report) : un outil pour une gouvernance sociétale de l’entreprise ? ''Développement durable et entreprise, Actes de la Journée AIMS, ESSCA.''</ref><ref name=":3" />
The publication of non-financial reports thus began in an ad hoc and rather anecdotal manner, confined to a few subjects deemed worthy of interest by the companies themselves. A copy effect, combined with latent pressure from stakeholders, subsequently contributed to the acceptance and renewal of this approach,<ref name=":12"/> which gradually became more structured. Today, these reports are common: 93% of the world's two hundred and fifty largest companies publish them annually.<ref name=":42">KPMG. (2020). The time has come : the KPMG Survey of Sustainability Reporting 2020. https://assets.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2020/11/the-time- has-come.pdf</ref> Indeed, [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] and its concrete implementation are increasingly valued by public opinion.<ref>Lafont, A., Pouget, J. & Rodhain, A. (2017). RSE et réseau des parties prenantes : une norme informationnelle peut-elle émerger ?. ''Revue de l’organisation responsable, 12''(2), 41- 55</ref>
This interest has led to the emergence of reference frameworks, guidelines, standards and regulations in this area. In addition to helping and guiding companies, this range of resources has also allowed for a certain standardization of both the information disclosed and the method of communication.
The objectives of developing guidelines are to provide companies with a concrete methodology and to make the published data understandable, credible and comparable for their users.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Capron |first1=Michel |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3917/dec.capro.2016.01 |title=La responsabilité sociale d'entreprise |last2=Quairel-Lanoizelée |first2=Françoise |date=2016-08-25 |publisher=La Découverte |isbn=978-2-7071-9064-2 |series=Repères|doi=10.3917/dec.capro.2016.01 }}</ref> Reporting guidelines are issued either by private non-governmental organizations (whose adoption by companies is therefore voluntary), or more recently by governments on the basis of mandatory standards. Indeed, for some companies, this disclosure has been made mandatory (''see next section''). In line with these developments, some consulting firms have started [[Environmental, social and corporate governance|ESG]] advisory services and help companies to draft their sustainability reports.
There are a variety of reasons that companies choose to produce these reports, but at their core they are intended to be "''vessels of transparency and accountability''" Often, they are also intended to improve internal processes, engage stakeholders and persuade investors.<ref>Rosie Bristow for the Guardian Professional Network (18 April 2011). "Online discussion: sustainability reporting | Guardian Sustainable Business". theguardian.com.</ref>
Improved disclosure of non-financial information can have other benefits for reporting companies. In particular, the adoption of sustainability reporting has been found to have a positive impact on company performance and value. [[OECD]] suggests that companies showing sustainable performance on [[Environmental, social and corporate governance|ESG criteria]] and communicating effectively about them seem to enjoy better financial performance.<ref>{{Cite book |first=OECD |last=Publishing |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1010678849 |title=Annual Report on the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises 2011 : a New Agenda for the Future. |date=2012 |publisher=Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) |isbn=978-92-64-11994-9 |oclc=1010678849}}</ref><ref>Baron, R. (2014). The evolution of corporate reporting for integrated performance, background paper for the 30th Round Table on Sustainable Development. https://www.oecd.org/sd-roundtable/papersandpublications/The%20Evolution%20of%20Corporate%20Reporting%20for%20Integrated%20Performance.pdf</ref> These companies generally benefit from a more diversified investor base, for example through their inclusion in actively managed investment portfolios or sustainability indices.<ref>{{CELEX|52019XC0620(01)|text=Communication from the Commission — Guidelines on non-financial reporting: Supplement on reporting climate-related information}}</ref> In addition, companies that effectively communicate their non-financial engagements and have a high performance in this area are more likely to attract and retain talents thanks to their greater social credibility, as this stimulates employees' motivation and meets their values.<ref>Henisz W., Koller T., Nuttall R. (2019) Five Ways that ESG creates value. McKinsey Quarterly. https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/five-ways-that-esg-creates-value</ref>
As a matter of law, in the United States, the [[Materiality (auditing)|materiality principle]] controls whether a publicly traded corporation must disclose certain information, that is: "''a fact is material if there is a substantial likelihood that the fact would have been viewed by a reasonable investor as having significantly altered the ‘total mix’ of information available''."<ref>{{Citation |title=TSC Industries, Inc. v. Northway, Inc. |date=2022-03-10 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TSC_Industries,_Inc._v._Northway,_Inc.&oldid=1076296267 |work=Wikipedia |language=en |access-date=2022-03-25}}</ref>
In this case, some authors have examined and applied several factors (including the percentages of managed investment assets that are screened for [[Environmental, social and corporate governance|ESG criteria]], plus the fact that over 90% of large publicly traded companies publish [[Environmental, social and corporate governance|ESG]] data) and concluded that [[Environmental, social and corporate governance|ESG]] data qualifies as being material.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sulkowski |first1=Adam J. |last2=Waddock |first2=Sandra |date=2014-06-18 |title=Beyond Sustainability Reporting: Integrated Reporting is Practiced, Required & More Would Be Better |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2456328 |language=en |location=Rochester, NY |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2456328|ssrn=2456328 }}</ref> It has also been suggested that other organizations that issue securities may also be well-advised to also engage in sustainability reporting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sulkowski |first=Adam J. |date=2016 |title=City Sustainability Reporting: An Emerging and Desirable Legal Necessity |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2789829 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2789829 |s2cid=156369524 |issn=1556-5068}}</ref>
The topic of sustainability reporting has become a recurring theme in recent years and the practice has been increasingly professionalized. However, the framework surrounding such reporting is in constant evolution and companies are increasingly challenged by the form, content and process of their sustainability reporting.
While this requirement presents multiple opportunities for firms, investors, consumers and all stakeholders, it also creates a number of challenges. Indeed, for sustainability statements to be relevant and useful, the information disclosed must not only be realistic and reliable, but also verifiable and comparable.
Increasingly, governments are introducing regulations to ensure that companies disclose NFR information.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Turzo |first1=Teresa |last2=Marzi |first2=Giacomo |last3=Favino |first3=Christian |last4=Terzani |first4=Simone |date=2022-04-15 |title=Non-financial reporting research and practice: Lessons from the last decade |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652622007867 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=345 |pages=131154 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131154 |s2cid=247177501 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref> In Australia, companies must disclose information on their environmental performance under the Corporations Act 2001 and the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Act 2007. In China, companies must disclose social responsibility information while those listed on the Shanghai and Shenzhen Stock Exchanges must include their corporate social responsibility performance in their annual reports. In South Africa, companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange must publish an integrated report for all financial years ending on or after March 1, 2010. In North America, the Securities and Exchange Commission requires Canadian and US companies to disclose non-financial information in their annual reports. Finally, the European Union Directive 95/2014/EU introduced mandatory NFR practices for large European companies.
As governments and financial regulators continue to issue and update reporting requirements, companies are increasingly obligated to disclose their non-financial information. The increased focus on NFI reporting has been driven, in part, by the rise in ESG investing. ESG investing is a form of investing that focuses on companies with strong ESG practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumay |first=John |date=2016-01-01 |editor-last=Stefano Zambon |editor-first=Dr |title=A critical reflection on the future of intellectual capital: from reporting to disclosure |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/JIC-08-2015-0072 |journal=Journal of Intellectual Capital |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=168–184 |doi=10.1108/JIC-08-2015-0072 |s2cid=156017095 |issn=1469-1930}}</ref>
The [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] - International Standards of Accounting and Reporting (UNCTAD-ISAR) founded the African Regional Partnership for Sustainability and SDG Reporting in 2022. The collaboration has 53 members as of March 2023, including national corporate social responsibility networks and/or ministries from 27 African nations.<ref name=":176">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230088-finance-in-africa |title=Finance in Africa: Uncertain times, resilient banks: African finance at a crossroads |date=2023-09-27 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5598-7 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=African Regional Partnership meeting on sustainability and SDG reporting {{!}} UNCTAD |url=https://unctad.org/isar/meeting/african-regional-partnership-meeting-sustainability-and-sdg-reporting |access-date=2023-10-31 |website=unctad.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=UNCTAD ANNUAL REPORT 2022 |url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/osg2023d1_en.pdf}}</ref>
== Legal Framework ==
=== European Union ===
In Europe, the legislative framework for sustainability reporting practices is based on Directive 2014/95/EU (Non-Financial Reporting Directive or NFRD), which provides a uniform regulatory framework for non-financial information for EU Member States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alonso Carrillo |first1=María Inmaculada |last2=Priego De La Cruz |first2=Alba María |last3=Nuñez Chicharro |first3=Montserrat |date=2019-11-18 |title=The Impact of Corporate Governance on Corruption Disclosure in European Listed Firms through the Implementation of Directive 2014/95/EU |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=11 |issue=22 |pages=6479 |doi=10.3390/su11226479 |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free |hdl=10272/17589 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This Directive applies to large public interest undertakings with more than 500 employees on average during the financial year, both single undertaking and consolidated groups. Companies falling within the scope of the Directive must also have a balance sheet total exceeding EUR 20 million and/or a turnover exceeding EUR 40 million, where applicable, on a consolidated basis.<ref>Directive 2013/34/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 on the annual financial statements, consolidated financial statements and related reports of certain types of undertakings, amending Directive 2006/43/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Directives 78/660/EEC and 83/349/EEC</ref> By 2021, approximately 11,600 companies in Europe were in its scope of application.
Directive 2014/95/EU of the [[European Parliament]] and of the [[European Council|Council]] of 22 October 2014 amends Directive 2013/34/EU in relation to the disclosure of non-financial and diversity information by certain large undertakings and groups. Two articles (19a and 29a) are inserted into Directive 2013/34/EU, now requiring, for the first time, certain companies to disclose information on how they operate and manage social and environmental challenges. This updated directive applies to all Member States of the [[European Union]]. They must bring into force the laws, regulations and administrative provisions needed to comply with the Directive.<ref name=":23"/>
A revision process of Directive 2014/95/EU was initiated in January 2020 with the aim of improving the quality and reliability of non-financial reporting <ref name=":5">Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions The European Green Deal COM/2019/640 final. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2019%3A640%3AFIN</ref> and reducing the administrative burden on companies in terms of reporting.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-04-09 |title=Reporting non financier des grandes entreprises : révision de la directive (consultation publique) |url=https://www.citepa.org/fr/2020_04_b01/ |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=Citepa |language=fr-FR}}</ref> A broad public consultation was then organised from February to June 2020 to gather input and opinions from various stakeholders regarding the review of the Directive's provisions. The outcome of this consultation is the [[European Commission]]'s proposal on 21 April 2021 to revise the NFRD by introducing the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD).<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Progress on the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive |url=https://www.mhc.ie/latest/insights/progress-on-the-corporate-sustainability-reporting-directive |website=mhc.ie |publisher=Mason Hayes & Curran |access-date=28 November 2023}}</ref>
New EU legislation came into force in December 2023 to introduce changes to the monetary criteria by which company and group sizes are defined in the EU to address the impact of inflation. The changes reduce the number of companies which are subject to the CSRD. <ref>{{cite web |title=The Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive Explained |url=https://www.mhc.ie/hubs/legislation/the-corporate-sustainability-reporting-directive |website=Mason Hayes Curran |access-date=29 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
==== Content/Scope of application ====
Companies that fall within the scope of the EU Directive 2014/95/EU on non-financial reporting, the main [[European Union|EU]]-wide initiative in this area, must publish information on the following areas:
* Environmental protection
* Social responsibility and treatment of employees
* Respect for human rights
* The fight against corruption and bribery
* Diversity on company boards (in terms of age, gender, education and professional experience).
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Category
!Subcategory
|-
|Environment
|
* Climate change
* Use of natural resources
* Polluting discharges
* Waste
* Biodiversity and ecosystem conservation
|-
|Employee and social matters
|
* Employees and workforce
* Social matters
|-
|Human rights
|
* General human rights reporting criteria
* Human rights in supply chains
* High risk areas for civil and political rights
* Impacts on indigenous and local communities
* Conflict resources
* Data protection
|-
|Anti-Corruption
|
* Anti-Corruption
* Whistleblowing channels
|-
|General positive impacts
|
* General and sectorial positive impacts by products/sources of opportunity
|}
<ref>An analysis of the sustainability reports of 1 000 companies pursuant to the EU NonFinancial Reporting Directive, The Alliance for Corporate Transparency (2019)</ref>
For each category, the company is also required to briefly describe the group's business model, describe the policies that are applied in these areas, provide the results of these policies, establish the risks related to these areas and finally establish the non-financial KPIs ([[Performance indicator|Key Performance Indicators]]) of these areas. The information should also be published with the objective to understand the development, performance, position and ultimately the impact of the firm's activities.<ref name=":23"/> Under this directive, companies have however no obligation as to how and where they publish this information.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carini |first1=Cristian |last2=Rocca |first2=Laura |last3=Veneziani |first3=Monica |last4=Teodori |first4=Claudio |date=2017-07-12 |title=The Regulation of Sustainability Information–The Contribution of Directive 2014/95 |url=https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/201707.0025/v1|journal=Preprints |language=en |doi=10.20944/preprints201707.0025.v1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They can therefore base themselves on various international or local frameworks depending on their preferences and needs.<ref name=":62">{{CELEX|52017XC0705(01)|text=Communication from the Commission — Guidelines on non-financial reporting (methodology for reporting non-financial information)}}</ref>
In practice, most companies comply with the requirement to describe in detail the policies they apply, particularly in the social and environmental fields.<ref name=":7">European Reporting Lab, EFRAG, (2021). Current non-financial reporting formats and practices. https://www.efrag.org/Assets/Download?assetUrl=%2Fsites%2Fwebpublishing%2FSiteAssets%2FEFRAG%2520PTF-NFRS_A6_FINAL.pdf</ref> Due diligence policies and procedures relating to human rights and corruption also appear regularly in organisations' reports, but to a lesser extent than social and environmental policies. The reasons for this divergence in the importance an organisation places on certain areas rather than others stem notably from differences in the maturity of the organisation, the evolution of the areas and their relevance to companies over time, and the place of these areas in relation to a company's [[supply chain]]. The presentation of policies, [[Performance indicator|KPIs]] and risks remains a highly disparate practice.<ref name=":7" />
== Initiatives ==
Organizations can improve their sustainability performance by measuring ([[EthicalQuote|EthicalQuote (CEQ)]]), monitoring and reporting on it, helping them have a positive impact on society, the economy, and a sustainable future. When it comes to reporting, companies have a certain amount of freedom in the drafting of their statements, given the absence of any binding law on this subject.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Michalczuk |first1=Grażyna |last2=Konarzewska |first2=Urszula |date=2018 |title=The use of GRI standards in reporting on actions being taken by companies for sustainable development |url=https://repozytorium.uwb.edu.pl/jspui/handle/11320/7530 |journal=Optimum. Economic Studies |volume=4 |language=en |issue=94 |pages=72–86 |doi=10.15290/oes.2018.04.94.07 |issn=1506-7637|doi-access=free }}</ref>
However, various initiatives (national, European or international) are developing standardized methodologies to help companies build their sustainability reports <ref name=":8" /> which, according to the European Directive 2014/95/UE, have to be cited by the companies using them.<ref name=":23"/> Some of these are mentioned in the same Directive <ref name=":23" /> and in the Commission's Communication COM (2017) 215/1 setting out guidelines on non-financial information.<ref name=":62"/>
The key drivers for the quality of sustainability reports are the guidelines of the [[Global Reporting Initiative]] (GRI),<ref>{{Cite web |title=GRI - Standards development |url=https://www.globalreporting.org/standards/standards-development/ |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=www.globalreporting.org |language=en}}</ref> because it is the most widely used benchmark by companies worldwide given its reliability.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":4">KPMG. (2020). The time has come : the KPMG Survey of Sustainability Reporting 2020. https://assets.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2020/11/the-time- has-come.pdf</ref><ref name=":93">{{Cite journal |last1=Tsagas |first1=Georgina |last2=Villiers |first2=Charlotte |date=2020-07-01 |title=Why "Less is More" in Non-Financial Reporting Initiatives: Concrete Steps Towards Supporting Sustainability |journal=Accounting, Economics, and Law: A Convivium |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |doi=10.1515/ael-2018-0045 |s2cid=219742131 |issn=2152-2820|doi-access=free }}</ref> It provides opportunities for comparison of information related to the economic, environmental, and social impact of undertakings internationally.<ref name=":4" /> In addition, the [https://sdgcompass.org/ SDG Compass] has been created by [[Global Reporting Initiative|GRI]], the [[United Nations Global Compact|UN Global Compact]] and the [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]] (WBCSD) with the aim of linking the [[Global Reporting Initiative|GRI]] standards to the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref name=":8" /> This document provides guidance on how to report the company’s contribution to the [[Sustainable Development Goals|SDGs]] by leveraging the [[Global Reporting Initiative|GRI]] standards.<ref>SDG Compass Guide (2015). Retrieved 7 March 2022, from https://sdgcompass.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/019104_SDG_Compass_Guide_2015.pdf</ref>
A series of other initiatives exist among which we can mention the most prominent ones on the sustainability and [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] reporting scene:<ref name=":93"/><ref name=":102">Tschopp, D., & Huefner, R. J. (2015). Comparing the Evolution of CSR Reporting to that of Financial Reporting. Journal of Business Ethics, 127(3), 565–577</ref>
* The [https://www.integratedreporting.org/the-iirc-2/structure-of-the-iirc/council/ International Integrated Reporting Council] (IIRC): guide the relevant integration of financial and non-financial information in company’s reports.<ref name=":93"/>
* [https://www.accountability.org/standards/aa1000-accountability-principles/ Account Ability's AA1000 Series]: establishes the basic principles to be addressed in a non-financial report without guiding the impact measurement.<ref name=":102"/>
* [[United Nations]] (UN) [https://www.unglobalcompact.org/participation/report/cop Global Compact's Communication on Progress (COP)]: establishes 10 core principles (on human rights, labor/environmental standards and anti-corruption) on which companies measure their performance.<ref name=":102" />
* [[OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises|Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Guidelines]] (OECD): international standards set by governments for responsible business by multinationals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Guidelines - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |url=http://mneguidelines.oecd.org/guidelines/ |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=mneguidelines.oecd.org}}</ref>
* [https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/introduction-to-international-labour-standards/conventions-and-recommendations/lang--en/index.htm International Labour Organization Conventions] (ILO): concerning right at work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Conventions and Recommendations |url=https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/introduction-to-international-labour-standards/conventions-and-recommendations/lang--en/index.htm |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=www.ilo.org |language=en}}</ref>
* [[International Organization for Standardization]] Standards (ISO): providing non-binding international norms standards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ISO - À propos de l'ISO |url=https://www.iso.org/fr/about-us.html |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISO |language=fr}}</ref>
* The NFRD and the Guidelines Communication of the Commission.<ref name=":93"/>
* The [[Eco-Management and Audit Scheme]] (EMAS): created by the European Commission, it helps companies to improve their environmental efficiency.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EMAS – Environment - European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/emas/index_en.htm |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref>
== Criticism ==
Despite its purpose of having a positive impact on society, sustainability reporting is the subject of various criticisms.
First, while companies can refer to the reporting framework that best fits their industry and organization,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stolowy |first1=Hervé |last2=Paugam |first2=Luc |date=2018-07-29 |title=The expansion of non-financial reporting: an exploratory study |journal=Accounting and Business Research |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=525–548 |doi=10.1080/00014788.2018.1470141 |s2cid=158316417 |issn=0001-4788|doi-access=free }}</ref> this freedom implies a lack of standardization that hinders the effectiveness of the sustainability reporting concept. In fact, the multiplication of reporting frameworks makes published information more difficult to interpret in the markets, taking sustainability reporting away from its main objective of transparency and comparison between firms’ performance.<ref name=":93"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=La Torre |first1=Matteo |last2=Sabelfeld |first2=Svetlana |last3=Blomkvist |first3=Marita |last4=Dumay |first4=John |date=2020-01-01 |title=Rebuilding trust: sustainability and non-financial reporting and the European Union regulation |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/MEDAR-06-2020-0914 |journal=Meditari Accountancy Research |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=701–725 |doi=10.1108/MEDAR-06-2020-0914 |s2cid=225376264 |issn=2049-372X}}</ref>
One solution to this issue of comparability of non-financial information is proposed by the [[European Commission]] through the creation of European standards built by [[European Financial Reporting Advisory Group|EFRAG]], in the context of the new CSRD. According to the EU, by putting forward a unique standard, this will reduce the costs of disclosure for companies and improve the way investors and stakeholders compare and use the information disclosed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press corner |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=European Commission - European Commission |language=en}}</ref>
Another point of criticism concerns the reasons why companies embark on this process. Indeed, as public opinion increasingly values these initiatives, companies tend to perceive [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] more as a competitive advantage putting aside ethical reasons.<ref>Lafont, A., Pouget, J. & Rodhain, A. (2017). RSE et réseau des parties prenantes : une norme informationnelle peut-elle émerger ?. ''Revue de l’organisation responsable, 12''(2), 41- 55.</ref> Some opportunistic companies can therefore contribute to discrediting the effort by prioritizing their own interests over transparency objectives.<ref name=":12"/><ref>Amran, A. & Ooi, S.K. (2014). Sustainability Reporting : Meeting Stakeholder Demands. Strategic Direction, 30(7), 38-41.</ref> Other firms may go even further by manipulating their sustainability reports in order to present a more attractive corporate image, either by hiding negative information or by over-disclosing positive information regarding environmental data, which may distort reality. Such behaviour can be associated with the practice known as [[greenwashing]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=de Freitas Netto |first1=Sebastião Vieira |last2=Sobral |first2=Marcos Felipe Falcão |last3=Ribeiro |first3=Ana Regina Bezerra |last4=Soares |first4=Gleibson Robert da Luz |date=2020-02-11 |title=Concepts and forms of greenwashing: a systematic review |journal=Environmental Sciences Europe |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=19 |doi=10.1186/s12302-020-0300-3 |s2cid=211108362 |issn=2190-4715|doi-access=free }}</ref>
This tendency towards [[greenwashing]] may also stem from the wide range of private initiatives that can be chosen by companies to report on sustainability. Indeed, a large part of these initiatives are taken by private non-governmental organisations ([[Global Reporting Initiative|GRI]], [https://www.integratedreporting.org/the-iirc-2/structure-of-the-iirc/council/ IIRC], [[Sustainability Accounting Standards Board|SASB]], [[Carbon Disclosure Project|CDP]]...) and it is only recently that some governments or supranational institutions, such as the [[European Commission]], are developing mandatory standards (NFRD/CSRD and the Communication on the Commission's guidelines, [[Eco-Management and Audit Scheme|EMAS]], ...). Companies can therefore choose the initiative that best suits their objectives, whether they are set out of conviction or for performance reasons. Finally, some doubts are raised as to the real capacity of private sector initiatives to generate radical environmental and social changes necessary for the future of society and to ensure a real legitimacy of the firm's intentions. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karassin |first1=Orr |last2=Perez |first2=Oren |date=2018 |title=Shifting Between Public and Private: The Reconfiguration of Global Environmental Regulation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/indjglolegstu.25.1.0097 |journal=Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=97–129 |doi=10.2979/indjglolegstu.25.1.0097 |jstor=10.2979/indjglolegstu.25.1.0097 |issn=1080-0727}}</ref>
Another alleged pitfall of this practice is that, for the companies that are legally obliged to report in Europe, there are currently no harmonized control rules at the [[European Union|EU]] level. For most of the Member States implementing this directive, the national designed control stops at the simple verification of the production of these sustainability data. As for sanctions in case of non-compliance with the legal obligation to publish information, they are not prescribed at the European level either. This constitutes a disincentive to introduce strong supervision at national level, and to respect it for companies.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Testarmata |first1=Silvia |title=Harmonization of Non-financial Reporting Regulation in Europe: A Study of the Transposition of the Directive 2014/95/EU |date=2020 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31193-3_4 |work=Accountability, Ethics and Sustainability of Organizations: New Theories, Strategies and Tools for Survival and Growth |pages=67–88 |editor-last=Brunelli |editor-first=Sandro |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-31193-3_4 |isbn=978-3-030-31193-3 |access-date=2022-03-24 |last2=Ciaburri |first2=Mirella |last3=Fortuna |first3=Fabio |last4=Sergiacomi |first4=Silvia |series=Accounting, Finance, Sustainability, Governance & Fraud: Theory and Application |editor2-last=Di Carlo |editor2-first=Emiliano |s2cid=213907066}}</ref>
=== Epistemological considerations ===
The difficulty of adapting traditional reporting to the complexity of non-financial information is an additional criticism that can be made of this concept. Indeed, while financial reporting is by nature quantifiable, easy to verify and reliable, non-financial information is struggling to gain legitimacy in the eyes of stakeholders.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Baret |first1=Pierre |last2=Helfrich |first2=Vincent |date=2019-06-01 |title=The "trilemma" of non-financial reporting and its pitfalls |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10997-018-9430-z |journal=Journal of Management and Governance |language=en |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=485–511 |doi=10.1007/s10997-018-9430-z |s2cid=158095401 |issn=1572-963X}}</ref> To remedy this, some companies are using existing financial reporting tools to build new ones adapted to ethical imperatives.<ref>Baret, P., & Helfrich, V. (2016). Vers un reporting RSE structuré et fiabilisé à l’image du reporting financier. In P. Baret & F. Romestant (Eds.), 10 cas de RSE: Etudes de cas de responsabilité sociétale des entreprises. Paris: Dunod.</ref> However, these initiatives are undertaken by companies that demonstrate a certain maturity in terms of [[corporate social responsibility]] and can be overwhelming for smaller companies such as [[Small and medium-sized enterprises|SMEs]]. In this respect, sustainability reporting is divided into three categories:<ref name=":11" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Category
!Pros
!Cons
|-
|Idealistic reporting
|
* The complexity of [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] is fully captured through standardization tools
* Provide legitimacy
|
* Little interaction between the company's global strategy and its [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] strategy
|-
|Lay reporting
|
* Helps to educate the company's internal stakeholders
* Adapted for small structures
|
* Not efficient to ensure comparability because of the lack of structure
|-
|Technical reporting
|
* Tailored to fulfill legal requirements (2014/95/EU Directive)
|
* Lack of internal and external dialogue
|}
Moreover, despite attempts by the most motivated and capable companies to make their sustainability reporting as legitimate as the financial one, the qualitative dimensions inherent to it and its predominantly narrative nature persist and make performance assessment difficult.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rutherford |first=Brian A. |date=2003 |title=Obfuscation, textual complexity and the role of regulated narrative accounting disclosure in corporate governance |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1023647615279 |journal=Journal of Management and Governance |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=187–210 |doi=10.1023/a:1023647615279 |s2cid=152731981 |issn=1385-3457}}</ref> According to Baret and Helfrich (2019),<ref name=":11" /> indicators such as the statement of the company's values or the company vision are simply not measurable or standardizable, while others can be quantified only if the company has a high implementation capacity (for instance the capacity to conduct surveys on a population, ... etc). From this stems that the selection and presentation of important information to be disclosed is often a matter of managerial discretion, generating the risk of manipulation bias in narrative disclosure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leung |first1=Sidney |last2=Parker |first2=Lee |last3=Courtis |first3=John |date=2015 |title=Impression management through minimal narrative disclosure in annual reports |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bar.2015.04.002 |journal=The British Accounting Review |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=275–289 |doi=10.1016/j.bar.2015.04.002 |issn=0890-8389}}</ref>
Quantitative measures such as [[Performance indicator|KPIs]] therefore have a critical role in supporting the quality of narratives.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Bini |first1=Laura |last2=Giunta |first2=Francesco |last3=Miccini |first3=Rebecca |last4=Simoni |first4=Lorenzo |date=2021-11-18 |title=Corporate governance quality and non-financial KPI disclosure comparability: UK evidence |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10997-021-09608-3 |journal=Journal of Management and Governance |volume=27 |pages=43–74 |language=en |doi=10.1007/s10997-021-09608-3 |s2cid=244411233 |issn=1385-3457}}</ref> However, the ability of companies to measure quantitatively their impact depends not only on the availability of objective indicators but also on the control they have over what they measure (for instance, indicators related to suppliers).<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Keeble |first=Justin J. |date=2003 |title=Using Indicators to Measure Sustainability Performance at a Corporate and Project Level. |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/A:1023343614973 |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=149–158 |doi=10.1023/A:1023343614973|s2cid=152914849 }}</ref> In addition, many researches raise concerns about the actual reliability of non-financial [[Performance indicator|KPIs]], particularly those related to employee performance, community, environment and innovation. What particularly stands out is that the non-comparability of the measures or formats used compromises the consistent use of quantitative indicators. <ref name=":1" /> This trend can be observed as much in the different existing ways of measuring the same data, as in the diversity of indicators that one company can choose to illustrate social or environmental disclosures, for example, compared to another.
Finally, while various indicators are necessary for a company to report on the evolution of its sustainable performance, recognized standards (e.g., [[Global Reporting Initiative|GRI]]) can be a good reference for firms.<ref name=":2" /> Nevertheless, according to some authors, it remains important for businesses to develop their own indicators adapted to their specific characteristics in order to ensure a proper sustainable reporting.<ref name=":2" />
==See also==
*[[Balanced scorecard]]
*[[Carbon accounting]]
*[[Context-Based Sustainability]]
*[[Integrated reporting|Integrated Reporting]]
*[[Islamic Reporting Initiative]]
*''[[Journal of Accountancy]]''
*[[Life cycle thinking]]
*[[Sustainability accounting]]
*[[Sustainable finance]]
*[[Sustainability metrics and indices]]
*[[World Resources Institute]]
== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{Reflist|30em}}
=== Further reading ===
* Schaltegger, S.; Bennett, M. & Burritt, R., eds. (2006). ''Sustainability Accounting and Reporting.'' Dordrecht: Springer.
==External links==
* [http://gomarketwise.com/glossary/ GoMarketWise Glossary] – definitions of terms concerning sustainability reporting
*[http://integratedreporting.org/the-iirc-2/ The International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC)] – a global coalition of regulators, investors, companies, standard setters, the accounting profession and NGOs. The coalition is promoting communication about value creation as the next step in the evolution of corporate reporting.
{{Sustainability}}
{{Social accountability}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainability Reporting}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Computational sustainability | {{Computational_sustainability_sidebar|image=[[File:Ecology Society Economy diagram Environment background.jpg|Ecology Society Economy diagram]]}}
'''Computational sustainability''' is an emerging field that attempts to balance societal, economic, and environmental resources for the future well-being of humanity using methods from [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], and [[information science]] fields.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.computational-sustainability.org/|title=www.computational-sustainability.org|website=www.computational-sustainability.org|access-date=2016-03-25}}</ref><ref name="GomesCACM">{{Cite journal |last1=Gomes |first1=Carla |last2=Dietterich |first2=Thomas |last3=Barrett |first3=Christopher |last4=Conrad |first4=Jon |last5=Dilkina |first5=Bistra |last6=Ermon |first6=Stefano |last7=Fang |first7=Fei |last8=Farnsworth |first8=Andrew |last9=Fern |first9=Alan |last10=Fern |first10=Xiaoli |last11=Fink |first11=Daniel |last12=Fisher |first12=Douglas |last13=Flecker |first13=Alexander |last14=Freund |first14=Daniel |last15=Fuller |first15=Angela |date=2019-08-21 |title=Computational sustainability: computing for a better world and a sustainable future |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=56–65 |doi=10.1145/3339399 |issn=0001-0782|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Sustainability]] in this context refers to the world's ability to sustain biological, social, and environmental systems in the long term.
Using the power of computers to process large quantities of information, decision making algorithms allocate resources based on real-time information.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frenkel |first1=Karen A. |title=Computer Science meets environmental science |journal=Communications of the ACM |date=1 September 2009 |volume=52 |issue=9 |page=23 |doi=10.1145/1562164.1562174 |doi-access= }}</ref> Applications advanced by this field are widespread across various areas. For example, artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques are created to promote long-term [[Conservation biology|biodiversity conservation]] and species protection.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> [[Smart grid]]s implement renewable resources and storage capabilities to control the production and expenditure of energy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.compsust.net/|title=CompSustNet: Home|website=www.compsust.net|access-date=2016-03-25}}</ref> [[Intelligent transportation system]] technologies can analyze road conditions and relay information to drivers so they can make smarter, more environmentally-beneficial decisions based on real-time traffic information.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Guerrero-ibanez|first1=J. A.|last2=Zeadally|first2=S.|last3=Contreras-Castillo|first3=J.|date=2015-12-01|title=Integration challenges of intelligent transportation systems with connected vehicle, cloud computing, and internet of things technologies|journal=IEEE Wireless Communications|volume=22|issue=6|pages=122–128|doi=10.1109/MWC.2015.7368833|s2cid=23948355 |issn=1536-1284}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barth |first1=Matthew J. |last2=Wu |first2=Guoyuan |last3=Boriboonsomsin |first3=Kanok |date=2015-09-01 |title=Intelligent Transportation Systems and Greenhouse Gas Reductions |journal=Current Sustainable/Renewable Energy Reports |language=en |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=90–97 |doi=10.1007/s40518-015-0032-y |issn=2196-3010|doi-access=free }}</ref>
== History and motivations ==
The field of computational sustainability has been motivated by [[Our Common Future]], a 1987 report from the [[Brundtland Commission|World Commission on Environment and Development]] about the future of humanity.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2021 |title=Reflections on sustainability |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-021-00821-4.pdf |journal=Nature Sustainability, Editorial |volume=4}}</ref> More recently, computational sustainability research has also been driven by [[Sustainable Development Goals|the United Nation's sustainable development goals]], a set of 17 goals for the sustainability of human economic, social, and environmental well-being world-wide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE 17 GOALS {{!}} Sustainable Development |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> Researchers in computational sustainability have primarily focused on addressing problems in areas related to the environment (e.g., [[biodiversity]] conservation), [[sustainable energy]] infrastructure and [[natural resource]]s, and societal aspects (e.g., [[Global Hunger Index|global hunger]] crises).<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Artificial intelligence and big data can help preserve wildlife |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/02/220208105313.htm |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=University |first=Oregon State |title=Wildlife migration routes for multiple species can link conservation reserves at lower cost |url=https://phys.org/news/2016-10-wildlife-migration-routes-multiple-species.html |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Hahn |first1=Nathan R. |last2=Bombaci |first2=Sara P. |last3=Wittemyer |first3=George |date=2022-03-21 |title=Identifying conservation technology needs, barriers, and opportunities |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=4802 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-08330-w |pmid=35314713 |pmc=8938523 |issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free }}</ref> The computational aspects of computational sustainability leverage techniques from mathematics and computer science, in the areas of [[artificial intelligence]], [[machine learning]], [[algorithm]]s, [[game theory]], [[mechanism design]], [[information science]], [[Mathematical optimization|optimization]] (including [[combinatorial optimization]]), [[dynamical system]]s, and [[multi-agent system]]s.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Silvestro |first1=Daniele |last2=Goria |first2=Stefano |last3=Sterner |first3=Thomas |last4=Antonelli |first4=Alexandre |date=2022-03-24 |title=Improving biodiversity protection through artificial intelligence |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=5 |issue=5 |language=en |pages=415–424 |doi=10.1038/s41893-022-00851-6 |pmid=35614933 |pmc=7612764 |issn=2398-9629|doi-access=free }}</ref>
While the formal emergence of computational sustainability is often traced back to the years 2008 and 2009, marked by the initiation of an [[NSF Grant|NSF]]-funded award, and specific conferences and workshops, the exploration of computational methods to tackle environmental and societal sustainability issues predates this period. The use of statistical and mathematical models for sustainability-related problems has a long history, paralleling the evolution of computing technology itself. A notable example is the early attempts at climate modeling, which were constrained by the limited computing resources available at the time, necessitating simplified models.
In the realm of artificial intelligence, particularly within machine learning, the 1990s saw research efforts addressing [[ecological modeling]] and [[wastewater management]], among other sustainability issues. This work continued into the 2000s, supported by groups like the "Machine Learning for the Environment" working group established by the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis in 2006. Research on optimization to aid sustainability challenges, such as designing wildlife reserves, can be traced back to the 1980s.
The early 2000s also witnessed a growing concern over the environmental impact of computing technology itself, with green information and communications technology (ICT) gaining attention among [[Information and communications technology|ICT companies]]. This interest extended beyond the immediate environmental effects of computing to consider second-order and higher-order impacts, such as the potential of ICT to reduce the carbon footprint of air travel through online conferencing or to optimize delivery routes to lower CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. International policy efforts, particularly by the [[OECD|Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development]] (OECD), have since focused on a framework recognizing these multi-tiered effects of ICT, a focus that continues today.
Before the OECD's 2008 conference, mathematicians proposed using their expertise to combat climate change, signaling a growing recognition of the research community's role in sustainability. This period also saw the establishment of the [[Institute for Computational Sustainability]] in 2008 and the launch of the International Conference on Computational Sustainability in 2009, pivotal moments that significantly advanced the field. The inclusion of sustainability themes in major AI conferences further integrated sustainability into the broader computing and scientific discourse.
The field of computational sustainability has continued to expand, with significant initiatives like the Sustainability-focused Expeditions in Computing award to the [[University of Minnesota]] in 2010, aiming to advance climate understanding through data mining and visualization. The establishment of sustainability-related tracks and awards at various conferences, along with targeted funding by organizations like the NSF, underscores the growing importance of computing in addressing sustainability challenges.
== Sustainability areas ==
=== Balancing environmental and socioeconomic needs ===
=== Policy planning ===
=== Human health ===
=== Biodiversity and conservation ===
=== United Nations' Sustainability Development Goals ===
The United Nations lists seventeen different Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to protect the planet, all of which are important in different ways. Sustainable Development Goal 14 emphasizes protecting life under water. Sustainable Development Goal 15 references protecting life on land. While technology has historically favored profitable sectors, its potential to revolutionize environmental sustainability, particularly in wildlife conservation, remains largely untapped. By examining challenges, contributions, and potential contributions presented by technological advancements in achieving Sustainable Development Goals 14 and 15, computational innovations can be harnessed to protect life under water and on land.
The application of machine learning techniques to address challenges in [[Fire prevention|fire prediction]] and [[fire protection|management]] in Alaska's [[boreal forest]]s. Studies have underscored the importance of adapting existing fire management strategies to the evolving fire landscape, especially considering the impact of climate change on fire frequencies. By incorporating diverse variables such as [[topography]], vegetation, and [[meteorological]] factors, the research aligns with the computational sustainability paradigm, which seeks to leverage computational models for sustainable environmental practices.
There is one novel machine learning framework for fire prediction, which represents a significant contribution to computational sustainability in the field of environmental monitoring. The model, centered on the identification of specific ignitions likely to lead to large fires, provides a more straightforward and interpretable alternative to existing, more complex prediction models. The emphasis on two key variables, [[Vapour-pressure deficit|vapour pressure deficit]] (VPD) and spruce fraction, reflects the paper's commitment to practical and actionable computational approaches in environmental assessment. The assessment of how active fire management influences fire regimes highlights the role of human intervention in shaping environmental outcomes, illustrating the potential of computational sustainability for informed decision-making in environmental monitoring and assessment.
=== Environmental monitoring and assessment ===
=== Species distribution modeling ===
Computational sustainability researchers have advanced techniques to combat the [[biodiversity loss]] facing the world during the current [[Holocene extinction|sixth extinction]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-02-14 |title=The Sixth Extinction by Elizabeth Kolbert – review |url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/feb/14/sixth-extinction-unnatural-history-kolbert-review |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> Researchers have created computational methods for geospatially mapping the distribution, [[Animal migration|migration patterns]], and [[wildlife corridor]]s of species, which enable scientists to quantify conservation efforts and recommend effective policies.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Stoudt |first1=Sara |last2=Goldstein |first2=Benjamin R. |last3=de Valpine |first3=Perry |date=2022-04-19 |title=Identifying engaging bird species and traits with community science observations |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=119 |issue=16 |pages=e2110156119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2110156119|pmid=35412904 |pmc=9169790 |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":4" />
=== Renewable and sustainable energy and materials ===
Using "affordable and clean energy" is one of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) worldwide (Gomes et al., 2019).
The Sun, as the only planet-hosting star in the solar system, can provide [[sustainable energy|clean]] and [[renewable energy]] to meet the demands of increasing populations. Unlike [[fossil fuel]]s, the Sun does not generate pollutants or [[greenhouse gas]]es. Therefore, relying on [[solar energy]] can reduce [[carbon footprint]]s, which abates [[global warming]] and ecosystem destruction. The Sun will live for approximately 5 billion years more, which serves as a long-term and stable energy source. If humans can extract and convert energy efficiently, both the environment and the economy can benefit, contributing to sustainability.
However, [[renewable energy]], including [[Wind power|wind]] and solar energy, is non-dispatchable. Humans cannot control these energy sources or predict energy production in advance. If using renewable energies, scientists need to seek different sources for compensation, which usually links back to fossil fuels that are considered unsustainable. Alternatively, people can store the energy from these renewable sources for the difference, which can be expensive.
Scientists should consider different factors when designing the storage system, including [[frequency regulation]], energy shifting, peak shifting, and [[backup power]] (Gomes et al., 2019). Deciding whether to utilize diverse energy sources or store energy to prepare for unexpected situations will be hard for scientists. The approaches for each strategy are complicated. Scientists have turned this scenario into an optimization problem that involves the three "broad sustainability themes"—simulation, machine learning, and [[citizen science]] (Gomes et al., 2019).
Climate change and renewable energy interrelate with each other. Renewable energy sources such as the Sun and wind highly depend on the climate. On a cloudy day, people will acquire less solar energy due to shielding. The [[UV index]] will also impact solar energy production. Reversely, using renewable energy on large scales benefits the environment, reducing global warming and extreme weather. Therefore, constructing an accurate climate model and predicting the weather for renewable energy production becomes essential.
In Jones' article, he explores the usage of artificial intelligence (AI) in simulating the climate (2018). The major problems of using computers for climate modeling arise from a lack of details and slow simulation. Different computing approaches can also result in different and inaccurate results. For example, one model predicts that the temperature can increase more than three times than the other model if the carbon dioxide level doubles in the atmosphere. Therefore, scientists incorporate machine learning frameworks into the existing climate models. This combination enables the computer to efficiently discern more unnoticeable details than traditional computers, even with slight uncertainties and deviations, to give accurate simulations and predictions (Jones, 2018). Simultaneously, machine learning techniques, including normalizing flows, can infer long-term patterns and behaviors from data from a short period.
People can take advantage of running small-scale simulations that are more efficient for predictions, especially with characteristic models. For instance, the information on how clouds evolve in a few miles region over a short period will be sufficient for "Cloud Brain", a [[deep learning]] code to infer climate change due to increasing carbon dioxide emissions. Then, the framework can figure out the climate model on a large scale and over long periods. This model is more efficient than traditional high-resolution simulations yet gives similar and realistic results (Jones, 2018). Normalizing flows also performed similar functions as the "Cloud Brain". After inputting initial and final conditions into the [[neural network (machine learning)|neural network]], the algorithm can figure out a chain of transformations. The given conditions generally come from a short period, while the chain can be universal for long-term scenarios to infer and predict.
However, developing these machine learning techniques to predict the physical world is still challenging. Machine learning functions "intuitively" and may not follow the rules in the world. When predicting and establishing the climate model, AI cannot consider different factors in physics, including [[gravity]] and [[temperature gradient]], for efficiency. Lack of rules in the framework can lead to unrealistic results. These frameworks can be inflexible and do not adapt to a new and diverse environment. "Cloud Brain" cannot accurately predict when the temperature is high (Jones, 2018). Like the "[[Black box|black-box]] function" in SMART-Invest (Gomes et al., 2019), these machine-learning techniques obtain little transparency. People struggle to recognize and comprehend the models (Jones, 2018). In normalizing flows, learning the exact bijective transformations takes extra effort, and few packages have the functions to express each transformation explicitly. Some particular transformations can disobey the physics laws, but scientists have no way to identify and fix the issue. Therefore, training the model comprehensively with appropriate supervision of physics laws becomes necessary. However, [[heliophysics]] can be complex, and scientists are uncertain about the nuclear fusion process inside the Sun. In such cases, no physics equation is established to describe the energy conversion process, which affects the amount of solar energy humans can extract. Without a "rulebook", machine learning is the optimal approach to figure out the pattern and correlation (Jones, 2018). When implementing normalizing flows in solar energy and heliophysics, some [[Degrees of freedom|degree of freedom]] needs to be allowed for the neural network to discover patterns in the unknown solar physics regimes.
=== Agriculture ===
== Spatial planning ==
[[Spatial planning]] refers to the methods and approaches used by the public sector to influence the distribution of people and activities in spaces of various scales. It encompasses a broad spectrum of activities related to the use and management of land and public spaces, aiming to ensure sustainable development and to improve the built and natural environments.
Spatial planning covers a wide range of concerns including urban, suburban, and rural development, land use, transportation systems, infrastructure planning, and environmental protection. It aims to coordinate the various aspects of policy and regulation over land use, housing, public amenities, and transport infrastructure, ensuring that these elements work together to promote economic development, environmental sustainability, and quality of life for communities in all types of areas.
This term is often used in a European context and can be seen as an integrated approach that looks beyond traditional urban planning to address the needs and development strategies of a wider range of environments. It involves strategic decision-making to guide the future development and spatial organization of land use in a way that is efficient, sustainable, and equitable.
=== Urban planning ===
=== Transportation ===
[[Intelligent transportation system]]s (ITS) seek to improve safety and travel times while minimizing [[greenhouse gas emissions]] for all travelers, though focusing mainly on drivers. ITS has two systems: one for data collection/relaying, and another for data processing. [[Data collection]] can be achieved with video cameras over busy areas, sensors that detect various pieces from location of certain vehicles to infrastructure that is breaking down, and even drivers who notice an accident and use a [[mobile app]], like [[Waze]], to report its whereabouts.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Transportation Systems: Monitoring, Control, and Security|last1=Timotheou|first1=Stelios|last2=Panayiotou|first2=Christos G.|last3=Polycarpou|first3=Marios M.|date=2015-01-01|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=9783662441596|editor-last=Kyriakides|editor-first=Elias|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|pages=125–166|language=en|editor-last2=Polycarpou|editor-first2=Marios|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-44160-2_5}}</ref>
Advanced public transportation systems (APTS) aim to make [[public transport]]ation more efficient and convenient for its riders. [[E-commerce payment system|Electronic payment method]]s allow users to add money to their [[smart card]]s at stations and online. APTS relay information to transit facilities about current vehicle locations to give riders expected wait times on screens at stations and directly to customers' smart phones Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS) collect information using cameras and other sensors that gather information regarding how congested roads are. [[Ramp meter]]s regulate the number of cars entering highways to limit backups. Traffic signals use algorithms to optimize travel times depending on the number of cars on the road. Electronic highway signs relay information regarding travel times, detours, and accidents that may affect drivers ability to reach their destination.<ref name=":2" />
With the rise of consumer connectivity, less infrastructure is needed for these ITS to make informed decisions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thinkwithgoogle.com/articles/shift-to-constant-connectivity.html|title=The Shift to Constant Connectivity|website=Think with Google|access-date=2016-03-31}}</ref> [[Google Maps]] uses smartphone crowdsourcing to get information about real-time traffic conditions allowing motorists to make decisions based on toll roads, travel times, and overall distance traveled.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncta.com/platform/broadband-internet/how-google-tracks-traffic/|title=How Google Tracks Traffic|website=www.ncta.com|access-date=2016-03-31}}</ref> Cars communicate with their manufacturers to remotely install software updates when new features are added or bugs are being patched.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/cars/wireless-updates-to-core-automotive-functions-could-spell-privacy-troubles/|title=Your next car will update itself while you sleep, and maybe watch you too|website=Digital Trends|language=en-US|access-date=2016-03-31|date=2016-01-27}}</ref> [[Tesla Motors]] even uses these updates to increase their cars efficiency and performance.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/11378880/Tesla-software-update-did-your-car-just-get-faster.html|title=Tesla software update: did your car just get faster?|website=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=2016-03-31|date=2015-01-30|last1=Sparkes|first1=Matthew}}</ref> These connections give ITS a means to accurately collect information and even relay that information to drivers with no other infrastructure needed.
Future ITS systems will aid in car communication with not just the infrastructure, but with other cars as well.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
=== Utilities ===
The [[electrical grid]] was designed to send consumers electricity from [[Electric generator|electricity generators]] for a monthly fee based on usage. Homeowners are installing [[solar panel]]s and large batteries to store the power created by these panels. A [[smart grid]] is being created to accommodate the new energy sources. Rather than just electricity being sent to a household to be consumed by the various appliances in the home, electricity can flow in either direction. Additional sensors along the grid will improve information collection and decreased downtime during power outages. These sensors can also relay information directly to consumers about how much energy they're using and what the costs will be.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ucsusa.org/publications/catalyst/fa14-solar-power-on-the-rise.html#.VwbE4hMrKu4|title=Solar Power on the Rise|website=Union of Concerned Scientists|access-date=2016-04-07}}</ref>
== Computational synergies ==
=== Active information gathering ===
Another way that computational strategies are used is in active information gathering. The use of technology to measure tons of information and sort through them is a powerful tool in many fields of study. For example, [[NASA]] uses satellites to get SAR ([[synthetic aperture radar]]) data in order to map the surface of the earth. They are able to perform active data collection of visible, near-infrared, and short-wave-infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum using their satellites. These findings can help to identify deforestation and rising sea levels and help predict future changes to different ecosystems based on the wavelengths and polarization of the radar. NASA has made this data publicly available beginning with the European Space Agency's (ESA) Sentinel-1a in 2014.<ref> https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/backgrounders/what-is-sar</ref>
=== Sequential decision making ===
=== Stochastic optimization ===
=== Uncertainty ===
=== Probabilistic graphical models ===
=== Ensemble methods ===
=== Spatiotemporal modeling ===
=== Remote sensing ===
=== Information retrieval ===
=== Vision and learning ===
[[Computer vision]] and [[machine learning]] play a crucial role in advancing computational sustainability, offering innovative solutions to complex environmental challenges. By harnessing the power of these technologies, researchers and practitioners are able to analyze vast amounts of data, extract meaningful patterns, and develop sustainable strategies for managing natural resources and ecosystems.
== Applications ==
=== Wildlife conservation ===
Computer vision is used to monitor and track [[endangered species]], such as tracking the movements of animals in their natural habitats or identifying individual animals for population studies. For example, camera traps equipped with computer vision algorithms can automatically detect and identify species, allowing researchers to study their behaviors without disturbing them. Machine learning algorithms can analyze these data to understand animal behavior, habitat preferences, and population dynamics, aiding in conservation efforts. This is helpful in assessing the effectiveness of conservation measures and identify areas in need of protection.
=== Environmental monitoring ===
[[Remote sensing]] technologies combined with machine learning can monitor air and water quality, detecting pollutants and assessing environmental health. For example, satellite imagery can be used to monitor [[algal bloom]]s in water bodies, which can be harmful to aquatic life and human health. Computer vision techniques can analyze satellite imagery to detect [[deforestation]] and illegal logging activities. By identifying areas at risk, conservationists and authorities can take action to protect forests and biodiversity.
=== Sustainable agriculture ===
Computer vision is used to monitor crop health, detecting diseases and nutrient deficiencies early. For example, drones equipped with [[multispectral camera]]s can capture images of crops, which are then analyzed using machine learning algorithms to identify health issues. Machine learning algorithms can analyze data from sensors and drones to optimize resource allocation in agriculture. By providing insights into soil health, moisture levels, and crop growth, these algorithms help farmers make informed decisions to improve productivity and sustainability.
=== Climate change mitigation ===
Machine learning models can analyze historical climate data to predict future climate patterns. This information is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change, such as planning for extreme weather events and sea level rise. Computer vision techniques can be used to monitor [[renewable energy]] sources, such as solar panels and wind turbines. By analyzing data on energy production and environmental conditions, these techniques help optimize the use of renewable energy and reduce reliance on [[fossil fuel]]s.
== Significance ==
=== Data-driven decision making ===
Computer vision and machine learning enable data-driven decision-making in sustainability efforts. By analyzing large datasets, researchers can identify trends, predict outcomes, and make informed choices to conserve natural resources and protect the environment.
=== Efficiency and accuracy ===
These technologies improve the efficiency and accuracy of environmental monitoring and management. They can process data faster and more accurately than traditional methods, enabling timely interventions to prevent environmental degradation.
=== Conservation impact ===
By enabling more precise monitoring and analysis, computer vision and machine learning enhance conservation efforts, helping to protect endangered species, preserve [[biodiversity]], and mitigate the effects of climate change.
=== Sustainable development ===
Insights from computer vision and machine learning contribute to the development of sustainable practices in agriculture, forestry, and other industries. By optimizing resource use and minimizing environmental impact, these technologies support long-term sustainability.
== Crowdsourced data ==
== Agent-based modeling ==
== Constraint-based reasoning ==
== Game theory and mechanism design ==
== Databases ==
== Mobile apps ==
== See also ==
* [[Carla Gomes]], pioneer of computational sustainability
* [[Environmental informatics]]
* [[eBird]]
* [[Green computing]]
* [[Institute for Computational Sustainability]] (ICS)
* [[The Nature Conservancy]]
* [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]]
* [[United States Geological Survey]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
{{wikibooks|Artificial Intelligence for Computational Sustainability: A Lab Companion}}
* [http://www.computational-sustainability.org/ Computational Sustainability]
* [http://www.cis.cornell.edu/ics Institute for Computational Sustainability (ICS)]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Computational science]]
[[Category:Computational fields of study]]
[[Category:Environmental technology]] |
Sustainable redevelopment | '''Sustainable redevelopment''' is the [[doctrine]] within which a state, organization, or individual can work to recreate a [[Socio-economic status|socio-economic position]] attained prior to a deconstructive event while upholding sustainable and environmental practices. The doctrine is based on [[economics]] within [[environmentalism]]. Typically, by providing more upfront capital, one can create a system that is less energy intensive, less wasteful, and generally less expensive to maintain in the long run.<ref name="DFD">{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd/dsd_index.shtml |title=Division for Sustainable Development :: About |author=United Nations |date= |publisher= |accessdate=6 July 2010|author-link=United Nations }}</ref> By redeveloping sustainably, long term [[energy conservation|energy efficiencies]] can be realized, coupled with highly reduced [[greenhouse gas emissions]].
Within the ideals of [[nation-building]], sustainable redevelopment can take up a greater significance. Post-[[disaster]] countries are in a unique situation to deal with these systems of ideals. Within this context, the idea behind initiating post-trauma sustainable redevelopment is that the underlying [[infrastructure]] is destroyed or damaged, therefore the situation is ideal for realizing the opportunities inherent to the situation.
==Background==
[[Sustainable development]] and [[redevelopment]] are closely linked, and several organizations have been implicitly involved with sustainable development. This type of development, in contrast to redevelopment, is not different other than the application to a specified problem. Sustainable development, is a form of development that coexists with existing forms of development.
While the systems for recreation on a small/local level are not universally widespread, there are several institutions which engage in sustainable development, that can theoretically be carried over to redevelopment. The [[Kyoto Protocol]]'s 12th Article<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_development_mechanism/items/2718.php |title=Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) |author= |date= |publisher= |accessdate=6 July 2010}}</ref> speaks to "flexible mechanisms". These mechanisms allow countries which have ratified the Kyoto Protocol to lower their overall emissions through the most economical means, respective, of course, to that country. Theoretically, these mechanisms could be directed towards post-traumatic redevelopment.
==UN==
The United Nations Division for Sustainable Development "provides [[leadership]] and is an authoritative source of expertise within the United Nations system on sustainable development".<ref name="DFD"/> The Division for Sustainable Development has been essential in the creation of such policies as [[Agenda 21]], and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.<ref name="DFD"/>
The [[United Nations]] declares that "Sustainable reconstruction management provides numerous environmental, safety and financial benefits."<ref name="DFD"/>
==World Bank==
The [[World Bank]] has been working on sustainable development projects through one of their internal groups, the Sustainable Development Network. These two groups work together to provide key sectors for sustainable development: "[[agriculture]] and [[rural development]], [[energy]], [[transport]], [[water]], [[Natural environment|environment]], [[urban development]], [[Social change|social development]], [[oil]], [[Natural gas|gas]], [[mining]], and [[chemical]]s, [[Information technology|information]] and [[Communication technology|communication]] technologies, and sub-national activities".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTSDNET /0,,contentMDK:22113416~menuPK:64885073~pagePK:64885161~piPK:64884432~theSitePK:5929282,00.html |title=Sustainable Development – About Sustainable Development |author= |date= |publisher= |accessdate=6 July 2010}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
==The Natural Hazards Institute==
The Natural Hazards Research and Application Information Center of the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]] produced a work catalyzing the process for post-disaster sustainable redevelopment. In their book, “Holistic Disaster Recovery”, is spelled out the “Six Principles of [[Sustainability]]”
==The Six Principles of Sustainability==
1. Maintain and, if possible, enhance, its residents [[quality of life]].
2. Enhance local economic vitality.
3. Ensure social and [[intergenerational equity]].
4. Maintain and, if possible, enhance, environmental quality.
5. Incorporate disaster resilience and [[Disaster mitigation|mitigation]].
6. Use a consensus-building, participatory process when making
decisions <ref>Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center. ''Holistic Disaster Recovery, Ideas for Building Local Sustainability After a Natural Disaster''. University of Colorado, 2001. Web. 19 March 2010</ref>
==References==
<references>
</references>
*(2)Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme and SKAT, 2007 (pg 3)
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Redevelopment]] |
Sustainable regional development | {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
'''Sustainable regional development''' is the application of [[sustainable development]] at a [[regional]], rather than local, national or global level. It differs to [[regional development]] per se, as the latter is a term used more generally to describe economic development that emphasises the alleviation of regional disparities. While regional development has an economic and equity emphasis, sustainable regional development seeks to incorporate ecological concerns.
Sustainable regional development has particular currency in Australia, where the [[Institute for Sustainable Regional Development]] has been established (1997) for the purpose of developing integrated, multi- and inter-disciplinary strategies for environmental and socio-economic change in regional Australia.<ref>Institute for Sustainable Regional Development: [http://www.isrd.cqu.edu.au/FCWViewer/view.do?page=1191 About Us]</ref>
==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]
[[Category:Sustainability by subject|Regional]] |
Ecological goods and services | {{Short description|Economic benefits associated with ecosystems}}
'''Ecological goods and services''' ('''EG&S''') are the economical benefits ([[goods and services]]) arising from the [[ecology|ecological]] functions of [[ecosystems]]. Such benefits accrue to all [[Organism|living organisms]], including animals and plants, rather than to humans alone. However, there is a growing recognition of the importance to society that ecological goods and services provide for health, social, cultural, and economic needs.
==Introduction==
Examples of ecological goods include [[Air pollution|clean air]], and abundant [[fresh water]]. Examples of ecological services include purification of air and water, maintenance of biodiversity, decomposition of wastes, soil and vegetation generation and renewal, pollination of crops and natural vegetation, [[groundwater recharge]] through wetlands, [[Biological dispersal|seed dispersal]], [[greenhouse gas]] mitigation, and aesthetically pleasing landscapes. The products and processes of ecological goods and services are complex and occur over long periods of time. They are a sub-category of [[public goods]].
The concern over ecological goods and services arises because we are losing them at an unsustainable rate, and therefore [[land use]] managers must devise a host of tools to encourage the provision of more ecological goods and services. Rural and suburban settings are especially important, as lands that are developed and converted from their natural state lose their ecological functions. Therefore, ecological goods and services provided by privately held lands become increasingly important.
==Markets==
A market may be created wherein ecological goods and services are demanded by society and supplied by public and private landowners. Some believe that [[public land]]s alone are not adequate to supply this market, and that privately held lands are needed to close this gap. What has emerged is the notion that rural landowners who provide ecological goods and services to society through good stewardship practices on their land should be duly compensated. The main tool to accomplish this to date has been to pay farmers directly to set-aside portions of their land that would otherwise be in production. This exemplifies a shift in thinking from the "polluter pays" to the "beneficiary pays".
Financial incentives to landowners is one approach, but provision of EG&S can also be achieved through regulation, stewardship incentives under existing programs such Environmental Farm Plans, [[market-based instruments]], and tax rebates.
==Biodiversity and EGS==
According to the [[Millennium Ecosystem Assessment]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx |title=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |website=www.maweb.org |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423003943/http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx |archive-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> project, [[biodiversity]] is a necessary underlying component of ecological goods and services. Biodiversity supports ecological goods and services such as [[biological control]] and [[Genetics|genetic]] resources.<ref>[[Robert Costanza|Costanza, R.]], d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O'Neill, R., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P. & van den Belt, M. (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' '''387''':253-260</ref> However, biodiversity is also sometimes referred to as an actual ecological good or service which can be confusing.
==Policy tools==
The following policy tools can be used to ensure production of ecological goods and services:<ref>[[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Quebec)|Agriculture, Pêcheries et Alimentation]], Quebec. (2005). Remuneration for ecological goods and services produced by agriculture: Elements for a Quebec analysis.{{Clarify|date=January 2012}}</ref> (in French)
*Regulations
*Cross compliance programs
*Environmental marketing schemes (e.g. [[ecolabel|eco-labeling]])
*Voluntary participation programs
*Market based approaches (e.g. offset credits{{Clarify|date=January 2012}})
*One time direct payments
*Ongoing direct payments
==See also==
* [[Ecosystem services]]
* [[Ecosystem valuation]]
* [[Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems|Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS)]]
==References==
<references/>
==External links==
* [http://www.diversitas-international.org/core_ecoserv.html Diversitas], [[Diversitas]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150813135309/http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx Millennium Ecosystem Assessment]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060526042209/http://www.whc.org/NationalSurveyonEcologicalGoodsandServices.htm National Survey on Ecological Goods and Services]
* [http://www.carboncreditreview.com Carbon Credit News and Reviews]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090204054347/http://www.cohabnet.org/ COHAB Initiative, ecosystems and human well-being]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]] |
Land recycling | {{Short description|Reuse of abandoned buildings or sites}}
[[File:Marlbrook Landfill Site - Remediation in progress. - geograph.org.uk - 1120733.jpg|thumb|Remediation process in Marlbrook at a former landfill site]]
'''Land recycling''' is the [[reuse]] of abandoned, vacant, or underused properties for [[redevelopment]] or repurposing.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Land recycling and densification — European Environment Agency|url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/land-recycling-and-densification|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.eea.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>
Land recycling aims to ensure the reuse of [[developed land]] as part of: new developments; [[decontamination|cleaning up]] contaminated properties; reuse and/or making use of used land surrounded by development or nearby infrastructure. End-uses from land recycling may include: [[mixed-use development|mixed-use]], residential, commercial, or industrial developments; and/or [[Public space|public open space]] such as [[urban open space]] used by [[urban park]]s, [[community garden]]s; or larger [[open space reserve]]s such as [[regional park]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-09/documents/anat_bf_redev_101106.pdf|title=Anatomy of Brownfields Redevelopment|publisher=EPA|year=2015|pages=1}}</ref>
Since many abandoned and underutilized properties lie within economically distressed and disadvantaged communities, land recycling often benefits and stimulates re-investment in historically under-served areas. However, due to the previous use of these sites, there can be many health hazards when dealing with the land, such as metals, plastics, asbestos, glass shards, gas generation, and radioactive substances.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/181922310|title=Recycling derelict land|date=1991|others=George Fleming, Institution of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford|isbn=0-7277-1318-3|location=London|pages=16|oclc=181922310}}</ref> Such environmentally distressed properties, with site clean-up and mitigation considerations, are commonly referred to as [[brownfield]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OLEM|date=2014-01-08|title=Overview of EPA's Brownfields Program|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref>
== Types ==
=== Adaptive building ===
The most common form of land recycling is the [[redevelopment]] of abandoned or unused building properties.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/adaptive-reuse-repurposing-old-buildings-178242|title=Transforming Old Buildings for New Uses|last=Craven|first=Jackie |website=ThoughtCo|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> Adaptive building is the development of an old abandoned building to repurpose it into a new building design and/or new purpose. Saving the old buildings and [[reuse|reusing]] the materials within the buildings is considered more [[environmentally sustainable]] than building all new structure with new materials.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Conejos|first1=Sheila|last2=Langston|first2=Craig|last3=Smith|first3=Jim|date=2015-01-01|title=Enhancing sustainability through designing for adaptive reuse from the outset: A comparison of adaptSTAR and Adaptive Reuse Potential (ARP) models|journal=Facilities|volume=33|issue=9/10|pages=531–552|doi=10.1108/F-02-2013-0011|issn=0263-2772}}</ref> This repurposing of materials in the existing adaption or to a different building site could include wood, metals, roofing, brick, etc. and would provide products for new projects to prevent excessive waste. Site disruptions are also decreased due to less destruction and building.
The adaptive process also provides a more sustainable way to promote environmentally friendly infrastructure.<ref name=":9" /> It also reduces the amount of pollutants that can contaminate the soil and water around the abandoned building.<ref name=":8" /> This can be particularly beneficial when repurposing buildings which are near schools, residential neighborhoods, or other workplaces by mitigating occupational hazards from such contaminants commonly found in construction.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saleh, Tarek M.|title=Building green via design for deconstruction and adaptive reuse|date=2009|publisher=University of Florida|oclc=665095445}}</ref> This is considered more economically friendly, when accounting for direct and indirect cost savings to the construction company and to the building owner.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Laefer Debra F.|author-link1=Debra Laefer|last2=Manke Jonathan P.|date=2008-03-01|title=Building Reuse Assessment for Sustainable Urban Reconstruction|journal=Journal of Construction Engineering and Management|volume=134|issue=3|pages=217–227|doi=10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2008)134:3(217)|hdl=10197/2278|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The cost of producing new materials and the services that come with manufacturing these products are much more costly than repurposing existing buildings.
=== Brownfield redevelopment ===
The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] classifies a [[Brownfield land|brownfield]] as "A brownfield is a property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant."<ref>{{Cite web|title=EPA Brownfields|date=14 November 2013|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields}}</ref> Currently in the United States there are more than 450,000 brownfields, which when improved have been shown to improve the surrounding environmental stress.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program|title=Overview of EPA's Brownfields Program|last=US EPA|first=OLEM|date=2014-01-08|website=US EPA|language=en|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> Funding for these hazardous sites may be obtained through the EPA's Brownfields and Land Revitalization Program which empowers municipalities, landholders, and land developers to safely clean up and repurpose the land.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EPA Brownfields and Land Revitalization Program|date=8 January 2014|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program}}</ref>
=== Non-infrastructure redevelopment ===
Land recycling can also include those spaces that are not within [[urbanization|urbanized]] environments are involve a building. Agricultural reuse is a very important part of land reuse where an existing field might have been abandoned due to nutrient depletion, and can be developed into something else.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hou|first1=Deyi|last2=Ding|first2=Zhenyu|last3=Li|first3=Guanghe|last4=Wu|first4=Longhua|last5=Hu|first5=Pengjie|last6=Guo|first6=Guanlin|last7=Wang|first7=Xingrun|last8=Ma|first8=Yan|last9=O'Connor|first9=David|last10=Wang|first10=Xianghui|date=2018|title=A Sustainability Assessment Framework for Agricultural Land Remediation in China|journal=Land Degradation & Development|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|pages=1005–1018|doi=10.1002/ldr.2748|s2cid=134241797 |issn=1099-145X|doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition to this the redevelopment of underutilized land into parks, community gardens and open space reservoirs are also prominent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nycgovparks.org/about/history/community-gardens/movement|title=History of the Community Garden Movement : NYC Parks|website=www.nycgovparks.org|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref>
=== Other terms ===
[[File:Baulücke in Köln-Weidenpesch (9506).jpg|thumb|Example of a potential site for urban infill development]]
Other commonly used terms can relate to or serve as synonyms of land recycling:
* '''[[Infill|Infill development]]''': development that takes place within existing communities, making maximum use of the existing [[infrastructure]] instead of building on previously undeveloped land;
* '''[[Sustainable development]]''': Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs; and
* '''[[Brownfield land|Brownfield development]]''': development of [[real property]] for which its reuse may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a [[Dangerous goods|hazardous substance]], pollutant or contaminant.
==Benefits==
===Social and economic revitalization===
Land recycling helps clean up and revitalize inner cities by returning abandoned, idle, or underused sites to productive use, bolstering [[community spirit]], creating jobs and boosting local tax-revenues.
The re-use of land revitalizes communities and renews economic activity, particularly in under-served urban areas. Abandoned, idled, and vacant properties often lie in former industrial and commercial areas, typically in urban and historically disadvantaged areas.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|last=Geltman|first=Elizabeth Glass|title=Recycling land : understanding the legal landscape of brownfield development|publisher=Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press|year=2000|isbn=9786612765605|location=Ann Arbor|pages=1–11}}</ref> These sites can be community eyesores, negatively impacting social and economic development, and often human and [[environmental health]].<ref name=":17" /> The failure to redevelop brownfields in particular translates into potentially more exposure to toxins and the loss of economic and housing benefits that can come from appropriate redevelopment.
By putting these properties to new and productive use, land recycling encourages growth of [[business]]es and services in such areas, helping to break up concentrations of [[poverty]], creating jobs, and stimulating additional private investment and local tax-revenue.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|title=3. Benefits of Land Recycling {{!}} CCLR - Center for Creative Land Recycling|url=https://www.cclr.org/3-benefits-land-recycling|access-date=2021-04-01|website=www.cclr.org}}</ref> An abandoned, well-situated, factory site can be cleaned up and redeveloped into a much-needed mixed-use development with a grocery store, senior housing, and access to public transportation.<ref name=":18" /> The addition of neighborhood-serving retail, [[affordable housing]], or a clean public park in a disadvantaged community can boost local spirit and improve overall quality of life.
=== Alternative to sprawl ===
Land recycling increases density in urban areas, by reducing [[urban sprawl]] and unplanned, low-density, [[automobile]]-dependent developments.
Sprawl development scatters housing, public transit, jobs and other amenities farther apart, demanding more frequent use of cars for travel.<ref name=":18" /> The increase in miles travelled by vehicles causes a range of health and environmental problems, including air pollution, increased greenhouse gas emissions, a larger occurrence of traffic jams, and asthma.<ref name=":18" /> This results in a lower quality of life for residents, ever-increasing commute times, and the health implications of smog.
By moving new jobs, economic opportunities and community amenities farther from established populations, sprawl development can cripple once-thriving cities. This trend takes a toll on the socio-economic health of urban communities as growth retreats from the urban center.
Rather than take advantage of existing infrastructure such as roads, public transit, and public works, building sprawl projects abandons these resources and demands further consumption of land and resources.
Land recycling offers an alternative to sprawl development. It reuses vital infrastructure and public resources and creates compact, full-service neighborhoods that reduce vehicle use and carbon dependence.<ref name=":18" /> Rebuilding in urban neighborhoods generates reinvestment in vibrant economic and cultural centers, rather than drawing away much-needed resources{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}. As daily commute times decrease due to proximity to urban centres, quality of life can also be increased.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clark|first1=Ben|last2=Chatterjee|first2=Kiron|last3=Martin|first3=Adam|last4=Davis|first4=Adrian|date=2020-12-01|title=How commuting affects subjective wellbeing|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-019-09983-9|journal=Transportation|language=en|volume=47|issue=6|pages=2777–2805|doi=10.1007/s11116-019-09983-9|s2cid=159234013|issn=1572-9435|doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Directing development to urban cores===
Redirecting population growth and growth of businesses to already urbanized areas can help in the fostering of sustainable communities, as buildings are already near existing infrastructure and amenities, not requiring new infrastructure to be built as would be the case in greenfield development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=3. Benefits of Land Recycling {{!}} CCLR - Center for Creative Land Recycling|url=https://www.cclr.org/3-benefits-land-recycling|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.cclr.org}}</ref> Applying sustainable principles to land use and growth management requires that growth be redirected from scattered fringe areas back to our urban cores, where people, services and infrastructure already exist. Building up urban areas positively increases population density, providing the critical mass to support local services from coffee shops to grocery stores, public transit to libraries and symphony halls{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}. Land recycling can also assist in the creation of affordable housing, as it increases housing stocks due to its use of land previously unused for residential purposes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=An introduction to brownfield: the land that's ripe for recycling|url=https://www.cpre.org.uk/explainer/an-introduction-to-brownfield/|access-date=2021-09-22|website=CPRE|language=en-GB}}</ref>
===Addressing climate change===
Land recycling effectively curbs [[greenhouse gas|greenhouse-gas]] emissions by encouraging smart, compact growth that reduces [[vehicle dependence]]. Redevelopment within an urban core reduces commuting distances and therefore average vehicle miles traveled (VMTs) by creating residential, office, and other amenities within close proximity.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title= Encyclopedia of World Climatology|publisher=Springer-Verlag |chapter=Intergovernmental Panel in Climate Change (IPCC)|series=Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series |date=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3266-8_109 |last1=Oliver |first1=John E. |page=429 |isbn=978-1-4020-3264-6 }}</ref><ref name=":12" /> Since transportation alone accounts for a third of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted in the United States, land recycling offers a key tool in any fight against climate change.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /> A recent Urban Land Institute study found that compact urban developments reduce the number of vehicle miles traveled (VMTs) by 20 to 40 percent<ref name=":12">Urban Land Institute. Growing Cooler: The Evidence of Urban Development and Climate Change. Available at {{cite web|url=http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/gcindex.html|title=Smart Growth America: Growing Cooler|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224212241/http://smartgrowthamerica.org/gcindex.html|archive-date=2010-12-24|access-date=2014-04-01}}</ref> because users are closer to amenities and can more easily rely on public transportation. Smart urban planning is therefore crucial to maximizing energy savings and overall reduction of greenhouse gases.
=== Leaders in Energy and Environmental Design Certification ===
[[File:LEED Gold 2016 plaque, Serrano 55 Madrid (cropped).jpg|thumb|174x174px|LEED Gold Plaque in a Certified Building]]
{{As of | 2009}} the green movement has started to emphasize the [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] (LEED) Green Building Rating System, a certification system that rewards the design, construction and operation of high-performance green buildings.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgbc.org/help/what-leed|title=What is LEED? {{!}} U.S. Green Building Council|website=www.usgbc.org|language=en|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> LEED certification signifies incorporation of smart building design and technology to reduce energy use and minimize waste. However, even if a building is energy-efficient, the energy required to travel to and from a LEED certified site may well exceed the energy saved through energy-efficient features. LEED certified buildings and other developments best benefit climate change when they reuse infill sites and access existing resources.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/leadership-in-energy-and-environmental-design|title=Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref>
LEED Certification can also benefit the occupant of the reused building. As sustainability becomes more prioritized within the building movement, having a LEED certified building becomes more desirable This certification may persuade public opinion and encourage more of the population to seek services by a company that prioritizes sustainability.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" /> In addition to this, some governmental bodies provide monetary benefits for prioritizing a sustainable cite such as tax breaks and stipends.
== Sustainability ==
[[Sustainability]] involves meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
By encouraging the recycling rather than the consumption of land, land recycling promotes [[smart growth]] and responsible, sustainable patterns of development. A 2001 study by George Washington University shows that for every acre of brownfield redeveloped, {{convert|4.5|acre|m2}} of undeveloped land is conserved.
[http://www.gwu.edu/~eem/Brownfields/project_report/chapters-html.htm#chapter5 Public Policies and Private Decisions Affecting the Redevelopment of Brownfields: An Analysis of Critical Factors, Relative Weights and Areal Differentials].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eem.seas.gwu.edu/|title=Environmental & Energy Management {{!}} The George Washington University|website=eem.seas.gwu.edu|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> As most brownfields and other abandoned sites are typically situated in urban areas, they tap into existing nearby infrastructure, limiting the need to build new roads, gridlines, and amenities, thereby reducing further [[land consumption]].<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":16">Brownfield Redevelopment: Stakeholders Report That EPA's Program Helps to Redevelop Sites, but Additional Measures Could Complement Agency Efforts
GAO-05-94; December 2, 2004</ref> Each infill development prevents sprawl into open space, forests and agricultural land, preserving acres of undeveloped land.
=== Sustainable Land Remediation and Planning ===
[[File:Zetor industrial brownfield before demolition 30.jpg|thumb|ZETOR building before demolition]]
Land development is an aspect of land recycling which involves [[urbanization]] and development of land, by reusing previously abandoned and unused land in commercial areas of larger cities.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cclr.org/3-benefits-land-recycling|title=3. Benefits of Land Recycling {{!}} CCLR - Center for Creative Land Recycling|website=www.cclr.org|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> [[Sustainable remediation|Sustainable Remediation]] is an aspect of land development where there is an increased focus the costs and benefits of certain aspects of land recycling.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Forbes|first1=Rose|last2=Favara|first2=Paul|last3=Lovenburg|first3=John|last4=Downey|first4=Doug|last5=de Groot|first5=Pat|date=2009|title=Sustainable Remediation|journal=The Military Engineer|volume=101|issue=659|pages=69–70|jstor=44530662|issn=0026-3982}}</ref> It aims to look at land remediation holistically considering not just the current environmental implications but also the long term social and economic implications.<ref name=":3" /> Co-design, is much more intentional and focuses on a multitude solutions by completing cost-benefit analyses, engaging in more inclusive conversations with stakeholders along with environmental impacts like energy and resources which may be consumed during land recycling projects.<ref name=":3" /> The Society of American Military Engineers have focused on using policy implemented by the American department of defense to ensure more sustainable practices.<ref name=":3" /> Looking more specifically some efforts being implemented by the S.A.M.E include composition of a sustainability remediation tool which allows for estimates of specific technologies to be considered when analyzing land remediation.<ref name=":3" /> Planning and design for land development and transformation by using co-design has resulted in better shared information on systems.<ref name=":3" /> These have worked well on sustainable land development as well as improved communication and handling of barriers, ultimately creating a better integrated program on a global scale.
It has been used in cities in Australia as part of global urban research programs to create land remediation solutions.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Webb|first1=Robert|last2=Bai|first2=Xuemei|last3=Smith|first3=Mark Stafford|last4=Costanza|first4=Robert|last5=Griggs|first5=David|last6=Moglia|first6=Magnus|last7=Neuman|first7=Michael|last8=Newman|first8=Peter|last9=Newton|first9=Peter|last10=Norman|first10=Barbara|last11=Ryan|first11=Chris|date=February 2018|title=Sustainable urban systems: Co-design and framing for transformation|journal=Ambio|language=en|volume=47|issue=1|pages=57–77|doi=10.1007/s13280-017-0934-6|issn=0044-7447|pmc=5709263|pmid=28766172}}</ref> The overall process involves four phases which included co-design which resulted in outcomes for policy and practice, research and knowledge and solution development.<ref name=":4" /> In this case, the sustainable remediation framework was created and used to create better co-design processes starting small scale locally and extending out to global scales.<ref name=":4" /> The process was split into three components starting with assisting in creating urban goals on each level of the scale which align with world views and influence, the policies which are in place and finally, to local technology and knowledge.<ref name=":4" /> Then shifting to look at how the urban goals affect urban systems like finances, environmental, and social capital as well as more physical systems like energy and water.<ref name=":4" /> Allowing better understanding of the costs and benefits of different land remediation goals. Then the process then looks more long term and focuses on the outcomes over time to understand the overarching effects of the implemented land remediation goals.<ref name=":4" /> Finally, the process looks at the major parts of the framework which need to be improved or need more focus.<ref name=":4" />
[[File:2018 HLPF conference on sustainable development.jpg|thumb|Striving for sustainable development goals to create more sustainable cities]]
A push for sustainable land remediation can be seen all over the world, when looking at urban planning and can also be connected to large public health scares or changes in social norms.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Douglas|first=Ian|date=2019-01-02|title=50 years change in urban land use and ecological planning globally in the era of design with nature|journal=Ecosystem Health and Sustainability|volume=5|issue=1|pages=185–198|doi=10.1080/20964129.2019.1656111|issn=2096-4129|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the UK after cholera outbreaks in the 19th century, people started to pay more attention to the way homes were being built and where they were being built.<ref name=":5" /> Now as urbanization has increased, the push is for using land which has already been partially or completely developed and transforming it into something different. The inclusion of garden cities, which are cities built with the intention of avoiding disrupting previously present natural ecosystems.<ref name=":5" /> An example is the [[Hampstead Garden Suburb]] which began formulating plans that focused on preservation of natural beauty in the area by avoiding the removal of plant life that was already there and working to build around it.<ref name=":5" /> This also spread to other countries in Europe with Germany building its first garden city in 1909 and [[Canberra]] in Australia where the main goal was to reestablish and maintain forest cover around the city.<ref name=":5" /> Later, Design with Nature written by [[Ian McHarg]], influenced a lot of the sustainable development goals which were implemented all over the world.<ref name=":5" />
In the US, a city beautification movement started in the early 20th century, many cities were redeveloped as part of the movement but Chicago was the most influenced.<ref name=":5" /> As the city was being physical improved they found that there was a need for more focus on development and its social implications.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> As time went on there were also more conversations about the influence that people have on their environment with more literature about the effects of environmental degradation became more mainstream.<ref name=":5" /> This allowed more intersectional land development goals to be implemented when looking at the different needs of people in different countries.<ref name=":5" />
==Challenges==
While land recycling has great economic and environmental benefits, without the right tools, skills, and knowledge, reusing land can produce certain challenges. Obstacles to redevelopment may include lack of funding and increased scrutiny. These can particularly impede projects on brownfields, which carry the stigma of contamination.
===Market factors===
Because idled and underused infill sites are often located in distressed urban areas concerns arise about crime, safety, and access to quality education and services.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OLEM|date=2020-09-25|title=Brownfields and Public Health|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/brownfields-and-public-health|access-date=2021-09-27|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref> These and other market factors frequently pull development to open land near traditionally desirable communities and away from urban infill sites.
====Greenfields competition====
Brownfields and infill sites must compete with attractive, undeveloped suburban and rural land, also called [[greenfield land]]. When considering the real or perceived risks and costs of land recycling, a greenfield development may seem more economically sensible as the immediate costs are typically less than developing on an infill or brownfield site.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=De Sousa|first=Christopher|date=November 2000|title=Brownfield Redevelopment versus Greenfield Development: A Private Sector Perspective on the Costs and Risks Associated with Brownfield Redevelopment in the Greater Toronto Area|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09640560020001719|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|language=en|volume=43|issue=6|pages=831–853|doi=10.1080/09640560020001719|s2cid=216141628 |issn=0964-0568}}</ref> However, it is important to consider the long-term economic gain of land recycling and the added social and environmental rewards of sustainable development.
===Brownfields===
As defined by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|US Environmental Protection Agency]], a [[brownfield]] site is “real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant”. In other words, brownfield sites comprise abandoned, idled, or underused industrial and commercial facilities where expansion or redevelopment is complicated by real or perceived environmental contamination.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OLEM|date=2014-01-08|title=Overview of EPA's Brownfields Program|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program|access-date=2021-04-01|website=US EPA|language=en}}</ref>
==== Brownfield Remediation ====
Due to differences in regulation, production techniques, and heavy industrial use in the past, it is difficult to attract those willing to tackle the uncertainty and obstacles associated with potential clean up.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trouw|first1=Michael|last2=Weiler|first2=Stephan|last3=Silverstein|first3=Jesse|date=2020-03-06|title=Brownfield Development: Uncertainty, Asymmetric Information, and Risk Premia|journal=Sustainability|volume=12|issue=5|pages=2046|doi=10.3390/su12052046|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref> Sites that are contaminated can cause public health risks, including physical risks like uncovered holes, unsafe structures, and sharp objects. Past industrial activities can leave behind chemical contamination, and people may become exposed to these chemicals when entering the properties.<ref>{{Cite web|date=June 2005|title=Public Health and BrownfieldsIn Wisconsin|url=https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/publications/p4/p44980.pdf}}</ref> Sites that have high levels of land contamination have a high cost of remediation. [[Nature-based solutions]] is an idea being talked about to produce a more environmental space. Nature-based solutions can be looked at as policies and approaches to environmental issues that are in benefit to human health and biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Song|first1=Yinan|last2=Kirkwood|first2=Niall|last3=Maksimović|first3=Čedo|last4=Zheng|first4=Xiaodi|last5=O'Connor|first5=David|last6=Jin|first6=Yuanliang|last7=Hou|first7=Deyi|date=2019-05-01|title=Nature based solutions for contaminated land remediation and brownfield redevelopment in cities: A review|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969719303985|journal=Science of the Total Environment|language=en|volume=663|pages=568–579|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.347|pmid=30726765|bibcode=2019ScTEn.663..568S|s2cid=73433276|issn=0048-9697}}</ref> An example would include developing a permeable green area, from these brownfield sites. [[Phytoremediation]] is another environmentally friendly approach for brownfield remediation.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/phytoremediation|title=Phytoremediation - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> Phytoremediation programs reduce contaminants in the soil, water and air through planting different types of plants. Important metals that are harmful to human health, such as [[selenium]], [[zinc]], [[nickel]] and iron, are removed from contaminated soil through this process. These procedures are inexpensive because the plants rely on sunlight and the recycled nutrients in the ground. Although, phytoremediation cannot be used the same way in every destination due to different types of plants being nurtured differently in different types of environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Westphal|first1=Lynne M.|last2=Isebrands|first2=J. G.|date=2001|title=Phytoremediation of Chicago's brownfields: consideration of ecological approaches and social issues.|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/12487|journal=In: Brownfields 2001 Proceedings; Chicago, II.|language=en}}</ref> It depends on the soil, where the plant is placed, if it is getting enough nutrients to thrive, etc. The plants end up being so greatly polluted from heavy metals that they need to be disposed of. Thermal treatment is used as a disposal option. Thermal treatment implicates the combustion of the waste materials through machines that produce high enough temperatures, which decomposes the organic molecules within the plant. This treatment is typically used in the residential and industrial scale, making it useful for brownfield sites.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kovacs|first1=Helga|last2=Szemmelveisz|first2=Katalin|date=2017-01-01|title=Disposal options for polluted plants grown on heavy metal contaminated brownfield lands – A review|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653516312747|journal=Chemosphere|language=en|volume=166|pages=8–20|doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.09.076|pmid=27681256|bibcode=2017Chmsp.166....8K|issn=0045-6535}}</ref>
====Uncertainty and costs====
Assessing whether or not a site is contaminated can be a costly process that deters land reuse.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|title=Brownfields|url=https://www.reading.ac.uk/PeBBu/scope_definition/themes/04_brownfields.htm|access-date=2021-09-26|website=www.reading.ac.uk}}</ref> Potential purchasers are often unwilling or unable to risk an investment in a site assessment for a property that may require cleanup they cannot afford. Even if a site has been purchased, concerns over cleanup costs may further stall redevelopment. Uncertainty over time, cost or a high price for cleanup leaves many brownfield sites in development limbo.
====Project financing====
Obtaining private front-end financing for brownfield cleanup can be a difficult process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wolf|first=Michael Allan|date=1997–1998|title=Dangerous Crossing: State Brownfields Recycling and Federal Enterprise Zoning|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/frdmev9&id=503&div=&collection=|journal=Fordham Environmental Law Journal|volume=9|pages=495}}</ref> Since financing is more readily available for development on greenfields, infill and brownfield sites are often passed over.
==== Environmental Justice ====
The concern for contamination of new occupants of a redeveloped brownfield is a concern. Communities of color and low income are disproportionately affected by pollution and brownfield sites offer a higher risk to the communities surrounding them.<ref name=":19" /> Many suggest that brownfield programs are a good alternative to the Superfund Act, but the standards of cleanup need to be highly considered in order to avoid future contamination.
===Environmental-liability risks===
Although recent changes in some country's federal laws provide some liability relief to new purchasers of contaminated properties, the law remains very complex and many state laws still have strict liability covering real property. Thus, in many cases, any current or past property owner can potentially be legally and financially liable regardless of who is responsible for contamination. This liability web continues to throw a chill on many brownfield projects even in the presence of regulatory reforms designed to encourage redevelopment. A common belief among many brownfield owners is that it is less risky and cheaper to abandon or “mothball” a facility than to conduct a site assessment that could trigger large cleanup costs and potential liability.
====Regulatory requirements====
The potentially complex process of successfully redeveloping an infill site, particularly a brownfield, can challenge land recycling interest and proposals. Understanding and complying with federal, state, and local legal and regulatory requirements can be daunting for some property owners and developers. Guidance from legal specialists and environmental cleanup consultants is often needed to design, develop, and guide a project through the process of regulatory requirements and permitting approvals.
=== Gentrification ===
Because most communities with underutilized buildings are those in poverty, an existing company coming in and investing in reimagining it can raise a concern of [[gentrification]]. The new building can lead to wealthier people coming in and causing displacement of existing residents.<ref>{{Cite book|last=(U.S.)|first=National Environmental Justice Advisory Council|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/677017471|title=Unintended impacts of redevelopment and revitalization efforts in five environmental justice communities|date=2006|publisher=[National Environmental Justice Advisory Council]|pages=16|oclc=677017471}}</ref> Depending on the building occupancy, such as a new apartment complex charging a higher rent, this can drive for higher priced services to come in and eventually push out existing residents who can no longer afford to live in the area.
== Implementations ==
=== Land Recycling in the EU ===
An in-depth examination of land recycling in different countries shows many different perspectives on implementations of land recycling.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trefzer|first1=Annette|last2=Jackson|first2=Jeffrey T.|last3=McKee|first3=Kathryn|last4=Dellinger|first4=Kirsten|date=2014|title=Introduction: The Global South and/in the Global North: Interdisciplinary Investigations|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/585671|journal=The Global South|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=1–15|doi=10.2979/globalsouth.8.2.1|s2cid=141973073|issn=1932-8656}}</ref> The general European focus looked at land use in the [[European Union|EU]] and the importance of reducing new land use as well as reducing addition of [[impervious surface]] which disrupts natural ecosystems.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/land-recycling-in-europe|title=Land recycling in Europe|website=European Environment Agency|language=en|access-date=2020-02-28}}</ref> Beginning with research, a database maintained by the [[Copernicus Programme]] is used in the EU to monitor land use changes, its main components are Corine Land Cover (CLC) and Urban Atlas (UA).<ref name=":0" /> Each of these has its own indicators for measuring increasing land use and increasing urbanization, for Corine Land Cover the flows of land recycling are split based on previously developed and undeveloped land because they each have different potential to produce green urban infrastructure.<ref name=":0" /> For the Urban Atlas database, the focus is the same but more geographically and theme specific accuracy so it used to test more of the land recycling indicators.<ref name=":0" /> The indicators were tested in all the countries in Europe from 1990 to 2002 in three sections, the tests were used to compare projections and determine the meaningfulness of land recycling using data from the CLC and UA datasets.<ref name=":0" /> The results of the data analysis showed little to no trends in land recycling and more variation in between the different European countries.<ref name=":0" /> The approach of the EU then focused more on the large scale environmental impacts of land recycling by quantification and identification of places where land use could be improved.<ref name=":0" />
=== Land Recycling in Germany ===
On a smaller scale, Germany focused on limiting the amount of [[land conversion]] specifically for settling and traffic to 30 ha per day starting in 2002 as a part of the National Sustainability Strategy.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Dillmann|first1=Oliver|last2=Beckmann|first2=Volker|date=2018-12-12|title=Do Administrative Incentives for the Containment of Cities Work? An Analysis of the Accelerated Procedure for Binding Land-Use Plans for Inner Urban Development in Germany|journal=Sustainability|volume=10|issue=12|pages=4745|doi=10.3390/su10124745|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref> They also incentivized urban development and improvement by making it easier for contractors to obtain permits to develop urban areas.<ref name=":1" /> Studies were done to see the effectiveness of the implementation of this policy by looking at [[Stralsund]].<ref name=":1" /> The city was chosen for its ability to be developed as a mostly rural part of [[Germany]] as well as for its appeal for not only younger families looking for in expensive places to settle but also for companies looking for places to develop.<ref name=":1" /> The land development of Stralsund was then monitored from 1992 to 2018, the focus of development started with industrialization of the outskirts of the town, then brownfield transformation and finally, residential development.<ref name=":1" /> Cost benefit also played a big role in the conversion of pieces of land which hadn't been in use for a long period of time like, a military property.<ref name=":1" /> As development continued, there was also compensation for interference with ecosystems and natural spaces by addition of green spaces and by planting trees.<ref name=":1" /> When comparing both the old land use plan and the new land use plan, they found that the cost of the new had the potential to save 55% of costs, but ultimately there wasn't much change between the results of the old and the new land use plans.<ref name=":1" /> The application of an accelerated inner urban development plan was neither advantageous nor non-advantageous, for Stralsund, Germany, because of the previous structure of the policy.<ref name=":1" /> The country of Germany also had goals to reach [[land degradation]] neutrality by 2030 by reaching its sustainable development goals specifically based on soil improvement.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=Rong|last2=Wang|first2=Rongyu|last3=Sedlin|first3=Thomas|date=2014-05-28|title=Land-Development Offset Policies in the Quest for Sustainability: What Can China Learn from Germany?|journal=Sustainability|volume=6|issue=6|pages=3400–3430|doi=10.3390/su6063400|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free|hdl=10535/9521|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wunder|first1=Stephanie|last2=Bodle|first2=Ralph|date=February 2019|title=Achieving land degradation neutrality in Germany: Implementation process and design of a land use change based indicator|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=92|pages=46–55|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2018.09.022|s2cid=159012665|issn=1462-9011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/topics/soil-agriculture/land-use-reduction/brownfield-redevelopment-inner-urban-development|title=Brownfield redevelopment and inner urban development|last=Stallmann|first=Martin|date=2014-02-13|website=Umweltbundesamt|language=en|access-date=2020-02-28}}</ref>
Germany has focused a lot on brownfield development as much of Europe with that including not just contaminated land but also land which was previously developed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ganser|first1=Robin|last2=Williams|first2=Katie|date=2007-04-13|title=Brownfield Development: Are We Using the Right Targets? Evidence from England and Germany|journal=European Planning Studies|volume=15|issue=5|pages=603–622|doi=10.1080/09654310600852654|s2cid=154584830|issn=0965-4313}}</ref> The push for target amounts of recycled land stems from status quo influence with other countries development of brownfield mitigation work. In [[Leipzig|Leipzig, Germany]] improvement of land and community quality was done by creating more urban forestry.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Rink|first1=Dieter|last2=Arndt|first2=Thomas|date=2016|title=Investigating perception of green structure configuration for afforestation in urban brownfield development by visual methods—A case study in Leipzig, Germany|journal=Urban Forestry & Urban Greening|volume=15|pages=65–74|doi=10.1016/j.ufug.2015.11.010|issn=1618-8667}}</ref> With increased research of the people's response to the improved brownfields generally quality of life was improved.<ref name=":6" /> Some research shows that the greenspaces though positive needed to be made more usable for improvement of quality of life.<ref name=":6" /> Mainly stakeholders have a say in the way greenspace is allocated in Germany, so there is more of a push to ensure policy matches with what is beneficial for the people who would be using greenspaces not just in Germany but in other European countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Altherr|first1=Wendy|last2=Blumer|first2=Daniel|last3=Oldörp|first3=Heike|last4=Nagel|first4=Peter|date=2007|title=How do stakeholders and legislation influence the allocation of green space on brownfield redevelopment projects? Five case studies from Switzerland, Germany and the UK|journal=Business Strategy and the Environment|volume=16|issue=7|pages=512–522|doi=10.1002/bse.595|issn=0964-4733}}</ref>
=== Land Recycling Programs in the United States ===
==== Pennsylvania ====
In Pennsylvania a land recycling program was established to promote the voluntary clean up and reuse of contaminated sites. This program was established in 1995 and is also known as the Voluntary Cleanup Program.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Land Recycling Program|url=https://www.dep.pa.gov:443/Business/Land/LandRecycling/Pages/default.aspx|access-date=2021-09-22|website=Department of Environmental Protection|language=en-US}}</ref> This program aims to set four main standards, the first is to set structured standards. This allows for public knowledge of the cost of cleaning up a site, and ensures the protection of the present and future use of the site. The second standard is granted liability relief. The third standard promotes transparency by giving specific time frames for clean ups and routine reporting of what is being done on the site. Lastly, the fourth standard for this land recycling program is providing financial assistance for cleanups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dep.pa.gov:443/Business/Land/LandRecycling/Pages/default.aspx|title=Land Recycling Program|website=Department of Environmental Protection|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-27}}</ref>
==== Examples ====
===== Ghirardelli Square =====
[[Ghirardelli Square]] is in [[San Francisco|San Francisco, California]] and is the center of many examples of land recycling and building reuse. Designed by [[Lawrence Halprin]] and [[William Wurster]] opening in 1964, this was one of the first examples of major land recycling in the United States. Surrounding this square is many buildings and waterfront properties that were originally used for production of local goods as well as transportation through the bay. No longer needed for their original uses, these buildings have been transformed and retrofitted to accommodate the needs of the community and attract tourism.<ref>{{Citation|title=Adaptive reuse|date=2020-02-27|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adaptive_reuse&oldid=942880590|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref>
The inclusion of new retail spaces, offices, and residential properties in these existing abandoned buildings not only put to use otherwise empty spaces but also prevent the erection of new structures and therefore use less materials, energy, and land. In addition to this, Ghirardelli Square also shows the change of building use to reflect the needs of the residents. Churches specifically have changed from predominantly Christian to other religious uses or convert into secular uses such as housing and businesses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghirardelli_Square|title=Ghirardelli Square|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>{{Circular reference|date=October 2020}}
===== Foundation Hotel =====
The Foundation Hotel in [[Detroit|Detroit, Michigan]] is an [[Adaptive reuse]] project designed by local firm McIntosh Poris Associates (MPA) with collaboration with Simone Deary Design group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.architecturalrecord.com/articles/13279-detroit-foundation-hotel-by-mcintosh-poris-associates?v=preview|title=Detroit Foundation Hotel by McIntosh Poris Associates|website=www.architecturalrecord.com|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> This project actually combined two adjacent buildings that were not in use. The main building was built in 1929 and originally housed the city's oldest fire department. The additional building was once home to Pontchartrain Wine Cellars.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.curbed.com/2017/11/2/16598172/adaptive-reuse-architecture-united-states|title=9 projects that reimagine old buildings, from factories to firehouses|last=Barber|first=Megan|date=2017-11-02|website=Curbed|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> In 2013 the fire department moved out and the building was left unoccupied for over a year until bought by Aparium Hotel Group.
This project focused on the new needs of the community while still preserving the aesthetic and incorporated [[Historic preservation]] in their work. This is significant because as stated above, gentrification can be a major negative effect during land recycling and the attempt to maintain the existing exterior of the building counteracts this.
===== Wonder Bread Factory =====
[[Washington, D.C.]]’s [[Wonder Bread]] Factory sat in Shaw neighborhood from early 1913 to the mid-1980s in full production. After the company moved out of the space the building was abandoned and vacant for almost 20 years until Douglas Development, founded by [[Douglas Jemal]], bought it in 1997. The building sat vacant for another 15 years until it was redeveloped and converted it into offices in 2013.<ref name=":7" />
This building also pulled on [[Historic preservation]] by minimizing the level of exterior renovation as much as possible while still creating a new use for a space that was highly needed in the community. This building is 98,000 square feet and is now [[Loft]] styles offices available to the public.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://douglasdevelopment.com/properties/wonder-bread-factory/|title=Wonder Bread Factory {{!}} Douglas Development|website=douglasdevelopment.com|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref>
== See also ==
*[[Bioremediation]]
*[[Environmental design]]
*[[Green development]]
*[[Green infrastructure]]
*[[Green urbanism]]
*[[Land banking]]
*[[Land development]]
*[[Land reclamation]]
*[[Land rehabilitation]]
*[[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]]
*[[New Urbanism]]
*[[Superfund]]
*[[Sustainable architecture]]
*[[Sustainable city]]
*[[Sustainable design]]
*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Urban planning]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://www.cclr.org Center for Creative Land Recycling]
* {{cite book
|editor-last=Fleming
|editor-first=George
|title= Recycling derelict land
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IEKC60pckAQC
|access-date= 2009-11-08
|year= 1991
|publisher= Thomas Telford
|isbn= 978-0-7277-1318-6
}}
{{recycling|state=expanded}}
[[Category:Land use]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:New Urbanism]]
[[Category:Urban studies and planning terminology]]
[[Category:Environmental issues with soil]]
[[Category:Redevelopment]]
[[Category:Recycling]] |
Systemic development | '''Systemic development''' is a process of thinking about development which uses a [[systems thinking]] approach to create a solution to a social, environmental, and economic stress which the world is suffering from.
== Overview ==
[[File:Sustainable development.svg|thumb|Development can be a combination of multiple disciplines. Sustainable development focuses on a balance of environmental, economic, and social.]]
The core approach of systemic development is a process for thinking holistically while addressing complex issues and progressing towards a mutual goal with high participation rates.<ref name=":3" /> The process encompasses comprehension of current activities and future needs from a holistic perspective. For success, it is essential that the process moves from an integrated assessment to a sustainable assessment. The perspective must consider the many facets of the current and proposed development including the economic, social, environmental, political and ecological aspects. The idea behind a systemic development approach can be applied to many disciplines, similar to [[sustainable development]]. Systemic development is practice rather than [[sustainability]], which is an end state.<ref name=":0" />
== History ==
[[Systems theory|General Systems Theory]] (GST) laid the foundation to systemic thinking. [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy|Ludwig Von Bertalanffy]] was known as the founder of the original principles of GST.<ref name=":3">Cruz, Ivonne, Andri Stahel, and Manfred Max-Neef. "Towards a Systemic Development Approach: Building on the Human-Scale Development Paradigm." ''Ecological Economics'' 68.7 (2009): 2021-030. ''Elsevier''. Web. 20 Apr. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.02.004 .</ref> Prior to 1968, when GST was introduced in Bertalanffy’s book, ''General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications'', the traditional approach to development used linear thinking or cause-and-effect thinking. GST was influenced by many different types of theories such as “Chaos theory, complexity theory, catastrophe theory, cybernetics, fuzzy set theory, and learning matrices” <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Spruill|first=Nina|last2=Kenney|first2=Con|last3=Kaplan|first3=Laura|date=2001-03-01|title=Community Development and Systems Thinking: Theory and Practice|journal=National Civic Review|language=en|volume=90|issue=1|pages=105–116|doi=10.1002/ncr.90110|issn=1542-7811}}</ref> In 1990, [[Peter Senge]], author of ''[[The Fifth Discipline]]'', wove systemic thinking approach into development.<ref name=":0" />
== Concepts ==
The integration of ontology, methodology, epistemology, and axiology has formed an outline for GST. Together, these concepts and philosophies contribute to the theory of systemic development.<ref>Sedlacko, Michal, Andre Martinuzzi, Inge Røpke, Nuno Videira, and Paula Antunes. "Participatory Systems Mapping for Sustainable Consumption: Discussion of a Method Promoting Systemic Insights." ''Ecological Economics'' 106 (2014): 33-43. ''Elsevier''. Web. 05 Mar. 2017. http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0921800914002043/1-s2.0-S0921800914002043-main.pdf?_tid=9d75173e-4500-11e7-b416-00000aacb361&acdnat=1496125640_f44c0f82766115a9b6be398ef056d52f .</ref>
=== Ontological ===
[[Ontology]] is the most basic fundamental tool. In a systemic development approach, the first step is to define the boundaries, thresholds, and stakeholders.<ref name=":1">Sala, Serenella, Biagio Ciuffo, and Peter Nijkamp. "A Systemic Framework for Sustainability Assessment." ''Ecological Economics'' 119 (2015): 314-25. ''Elsevier''. Web. 05 Mar. 2017. http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0921800915003821/1-s2.0-S0921800915003821-main.pdf?_tid=24da3502-4500-11e7-951c-00000aacb35d&acdnat=1496125438_401becd0b4afcc87524ef4bc3b8de9af .</ref> Understanding what is, is crucial to understand the layers of complexity of the development needs.
=== Methodological ===
[[Methodology]] in systemic development must consider all variables, values, and sustainability principles, and aim to ensure that no elements have been neglected. It is important to ensure completeness, comprehensiveness, and transparency of the assessment.<ref name=":1" /> Mutual feedback and interactions between stakeholders should be modeled and assessed using carefully designed specific methodologies.
=== Epistemological ===
[[Epistemology]] stresses how dialogue and communication by the stakeholders are the key tools to systemic development. This is when the verification and confirmation of the facets of the development process are discovered. Insight from each stakeholder is important to enhance and broaden the perspective of all involved. It is essential to take these viewpoints into consideration because they influence the process, the trends, the drivers of change, and the interactions between the parts.<ref name=":1" /> It is during this phase that learning is accomplished.
=== Axiological ===
Axiologology emphasizes the ethical and aesthetic responsibility during the development process. It is important because the solution manifested by the systemic development process needs to represent the values of the represented stakeholders.
==Framework ==
=== Holistic Thinking ===
To successfully achieve development through a [[systems approach]], holistic thinking is necessary. A holistic approach to a system thinks about each variable, the space between the variables and what defines the variable. “It’s the sum of the interaction of its parts”<ref name=":3" /> In this process each individual must learn from each other to understand the whole system in a [[multidimensional]] way to find a solution. To think about development with a systemic lens, one needs to be able to see the whole instead of parts and understand the relationship between the parts, the way the parts move, what drives the behavior of the parts, what influences the flow or direction, and to understand why there are no more or no fewer parts.<ref name=":2">Flander, Katleen De, and Jeb Brugmann. "Pressure-Point Strategy: Leverages for Urban Systemic Transformation." ''Sustainability'' 9.1 (2017): 99. ''Sustainability''. Web. 15 May 2017. http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/9/1/99 .</ref> The many factors that make up the whole can be a complex system.
=== Stakeholders ===
Including many diverse stakeholders helps each individual to grow their own perspective, gain an understanding of others and to increase their creativity. Systemic involvement must strive for a [[Transdisciplinarity|transdisciplinary]] approach instead of a [[Multidisciplinary approach|multidisciplinary]] or [[interdisciplinary]] approach to achieve successful development.<ref name=":1" /> Transdisciplinary allows for the integration of methodologies and epistemologies through collaboration of the different stakeholders. Including more perspectives in the loop will increase the chance of a successful solution.
=== Communication and Learning ===
The foundation of systemic development, systems thinking, when applied, creates knowledge which leads to expanded knowledge, which leads to success.<ref name=":0" /> Dialog is an essential tool for sharing knowledge and translating it into action. Communication can provide feedback and insight about “system, culture, practices, and artifacts and about the objectives and values of the project sponsor, client, and other stakeholders.”<ref name=":0" /> Learning happens during the dialog process as each stakeholder comes to observe other stakeholder’s values and ideas about what successful development would encompass.
''The Fifth Element'', by Peter Senge, emphasizes the importance of learning to improve lives using systems thinking. Individuals who acquire information, knowledge, and skills from other stakeholders and the environment tend to experience a change in their own lives and livelihood.<ref name=":3" /> They themselves then become the agents of change by sharing their knowledge with others.<ref>Work Bank. Knowledge for Development. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p, 4.</ref>
=== Complex loop ===
A feedback loop, closed loop, or systems complex model is a tool to help cope with complexity<ref name=":1" /> and understand the system as a whole. The tool will help to visualize the direction, velocity, delay time, long term and short term effects, and to help see the dynamic process. Feedback is necessary to learn about each other, including objectives and values of stakeholders and officials. A systemic approach to development is change oriented. The approach must encourage humans to communicate through interpersonal interactions, address the values of each stakeholder, and take part in developing and understanding the complex loop.<ref name=":2" />
== Goals ==
[[File:Systems_thinking_about_the_society.svg|thumb|Parts, society, needs, means, individuals, and bigger picture are pieces of the puzzle that must be accounted for to make systemic development successful.]]
Systemic development is based on the principle that one must understand the complexity of the whole system to develop a solution. This can be accomplished by learning different elements in the system and applying them to their existing knowledge. We must learn about the past suggested solutions, the balance of the system, influx of the system, the challenges within the system, the best timing for each element, learning about uncertainty of cause-and-effect, the best leverage points in the system, the system does not work unless every piece is functioning at its prime, and there is no one individual at fault if everyone is working together.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Systemic development : local solutions in a global environment|author=Sheffield, Jim|last2=Emergence.|first2=Institute for the Study of Coherence and|last3=N.Z.)|first3=ANZSYS Conference (13th : 2007 : Auckland|date=2009|publisher=Isce Publishing|isbn=9780981703275|oclc=314017669}}</ref>
The goal of systemic development is to have community participants shift from being reactors to viewing themselves “as active participants in shaping their reality [to move] from reacting to the present to creating the future”<ref name=":1" />
The non-linear processes must coincide, be fluid and strive to benefit all parties involved.
==See also==
* [[Soft systems methodology]]
* [[Systems philosophy]]
* [[Sustainable Development]]
* [[Community Development]]
* [[Social Systems Theory]]
* [[Developmental Systems Theory]]
* [[Economic Development]]
* [[Ecology Systems Theory]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Systemic Development}}
[[Category:Systems thinking]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Harmony with nature | The term "Harmony with Nature" refers to a principle of amicable and holistic co-existence between [[Human|humanity]] and [[nature]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dancer |first=Helen |date=2021-01-02 |title=Harmony with Nature: towards a new deep legal pluralism |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/07329113.2020.1845503 |journal=The Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=21–41 |doi=10.1080/07329113.2020.1845503 |s2cid=229424714 |issn=0732-9113|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is used in several contexts, most prominently in relation to [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Zu |first=Liangrong |title=Sustainable Development: Harmony with Nature |date=2022 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91117-1_17 |work=Responsible and Sustainable Business: The Taoism's Perspective |pages=263–275 |editor-last=Zu |editor-first=Liangrong |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-91117-1_17 |isbn=978-3-030-91117-1 |s2cid=246915866 |access-date=2022-10-19}}</ref> and the [[rights of nature]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Putzer |first1=Alex |last2=Lambooy |first2=Tineke |last3=Jeurissen |first3=Ronald |last4=Kim |first4=Eunsu |date=2022-06-13 |title=Putting the rights of nature on the map. A quantitative analysis of rights of nature initiatives across the world |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2022.2079432 |journal=Journal of Maps |volume=18 |pages=89–96 |doi=10.1080/17445647.2022.2079432|s2cid=249692556 |hdl=11382/550531 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> both aimed at addressing [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic environmental crises]]. In 2009, the [[United Nations]] created a program of the same name.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Harmony With Nature - UN Docs |url=http://www.harmonywithnatureun.org/unDocs/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=www.harmonywithnatureun.org}}</ref> Following support from the [[Politics of Bolivia|Bolivian Government]], the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] approved further resolutions on the topic.<ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Rights of Mother Earth « Bolivia UN |url=http://boliviaun.net/cms/?cat=136 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812002048/http://boliviaun.net/cms/?cat=136 |archive-date=2011-08-12 |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Boliviaun.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Initiatives of the President of the 65th Session - General Assembly of the United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/president/65/initiatives/HarmonywithNature.html |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Un.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2009-12-22 |title=The United Nations approved the resolution "Harmony with Nature" proposed by Bolivia « Mother Earth |url=http://motherearthrights.org/2009/12/22/the-united-nations-approved-the-resolution-%E2%80%9Charmony-with-nature%E2%80%9D-proposed-by-bolivia/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320012142/http://motherearthrights.org/2009/12/22/the-united-nations-approved-the-resolution-%E2%80%9Charmony-with-nature%E2%80%9D-proposed-by-bolivia/ |archive-date=2012-03-20 |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Motherearthrights.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2010-12-23 |title=UN Approves Two More Resolutions by Bolivia / ONU aprueba dos resoluciones más propuestas por Bolivia « Bolivia UN |url=http://boliviaun.net/cms/?p=1975 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113003059/http://boliviaun.net/cms/?p=1975 |archive-date=2011-11-13 |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Boliviaun.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2011-04-20 |title=UN General Assembly Debates Harmony With Nature « Bolivia UN |url=http://boliviaun.net/cms/?p=2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830040423/http://boliviaun.net/cms/?p=2016 |archive-date=2011-08-30 |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Boliviaun.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2011-04-20 |title=Speech by Bolivia at UN Dialogue on Harmony with Nature « World People's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth |url=http://pwccc.wordpress.com/2011/04/20/speech-by-bolivia-at-un-dialogue-on-harmony-with-nature/ |accessdate=2011-10-15 |publisher=Pwccc.wordpress.com}}</ref> Events like the [[United Nations Earth Summit 2012]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthsummit2012.org/ |title=Earth Summit 2012 |publisher=[[Earth Summit 2012]] |date= |accessdate=2011-10-15}}</ref> have provided a platform for exchange between different stakeholders. Below is the text of the proposal.
==Text of the proposal==
{{Cleanup|section|reason=This section needs to be summarized to be in conformity with wikipedia editing policies. Long, verbatim-copied texts may be placed in Wikisource instead, when their copyright allows for it.|date=June 2022}}
'''Preliminary Proposal of the Plurinational State of Bolivia for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20)'''
The achievement of [[sustainable development]] in the 21st Century requires a Social and Ecological Contract among human beings and our Mother Earth that brings together and builds upon the progress made in the [[World Charter for Nature]] (1982),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm |title=A/RES/37/7. World Charter for Nature |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=2011-10-15}}</ref> the [[Rio Declaration]] (1992),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_sids/sids_pdfs/BPOA.pdf|title=Report of the Global Conference on the sustainable Development of small island developing States|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-11-05}}</ref> the [[Earth Charter]] (2000),<ref>{{cite web |author=ECI Sec 3 |url=http://www.earthcharterinaction.org/content/pages/Read-the-Charter.html |title=Read the Charter |publisher=Earthcharterinaction.org |date= |accessdate=2011-10-15 |archive-date=2010-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100426121433/http://www.earthcharterinaction.org/content/pages/Read-the-Charter.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the [[World People’s Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth|World People's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth]] (2010).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwccc.wordpress.com/ |title=World People's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth |publisher=Pwccc.wordpress.com |date= |accessdate=2011-10-15}}</ref>
It would include the following premises:
'''I. WE ARE BREAKING THE BALANCE OF THE EARTH SYSTEM'''
1. Twenty years after the "Rio Declaration," it is necessary to update its First Principle such that it would state: "Human beings and nature are at the center of concerns for sustainable development." It is essential to get beyond this [[anthropocentric]] vision. Not only do human beings "have the right to a healthy life," but so too does nature, which is the basis of survival for all species including humans.
2. Nature is not just a set of resources that can be exploited, modified, altered, privatized, commercialized and transformed without any consequences. Earth is the only home we have. The Earth does not belong to us; we belong to the Earth.
3. The Earth is a living system. It is an indivisible, interdependent and interrelated community {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} human beings, nature, the atmosphere, the [[hydrosphere]], and the [[geosphere]]. Any substantive alteration of one of its components can affect other areas and the entire system. The Earth is the source of life. It is a system that coordinates physical, chemical, biological and ecological elements in a manner that makes life possible. Through the term ''[[wikt:Mother Earth|Mother Earth]]'', we express this relationship of belonging to a system and respect for our home.
4. Human activity is altering the dynamics and functioning of the Earth system to a degree never before seen. We have exceeded the limits of our system. We have broken harmony with nature. We are living through a series of rising crises that could cause the collapse of the system. It is essential to restore, affirm and guarantee the existence, integrity, interrelation, interaction and regeneration of the Earth system as a whole and of all of its components.
'''II. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY'''
5. In this century, the two central challenges of sustainable development are to overcome poverty and inequality, and to reestablish balance within the Earth system. Both objectives are intrinsically linked, and one cannot be achieved without the other.
6. It is essential to recognize and affirm that growth has limits. The pursuit of unending development on a finite planet is unsustainable and impossible. It is unsustainable and impossible. The limit to development is defined by the regenerative capacity of the Earth's vital cycles. When growth begins to break that balance, as we see with global warming, we can no longer speak of it as development, but rather, the deterioration and destruction of our home. A certain level of growth and industrialization is needed to satisfy basic needs and guarantee the human rights of a population, but this level of "necessary development" is not about permanent growth, but rather, balance among humans and with nature.
7. Sustainable development seeks to [[eradicate poverty]] in order to live well, not generate wealthy people who live at the expense of the poor. The goal is the satisfaction of basic human needs in order to allow for the development of human capabilities and human happiness, strengthening community among human beings and with Mother Earth. In a world in which 1% of the population controls 50% of the wealth of the planet, it will not be possible to eradicate poverty or restore harmony with nature.
8. To end poverty and achieve an equitable distribution of well being, the basic resources and firms should be in the hands of the public sector and society. Only a society that controls its principal sources of income can aspire to a just distribution of the benefits needed to eliminate poverty.
9. The so-called "developed" countries must reduce their levels of over-consumption to reestablish harmony among human beings and with nature, allowing for the sustainable development of all developing countries. The [[ecological footprint]] of the developed countries is between 3 and 5 times larger than the average ecological footprint that the Earth system can sustain without an impact on its vital cycles.
10. The developing countries should follow new paradigms different from those used by developed countries in order to attend to the basic needs of their populations and reestablish harmony with nature. It is not sustainable or viable for all countries to follow the example of developed countries without causing our system to collapse.
11. Sustainable development cannot happen only at the national level. The well being of a country is only sustainable if it contributes to the well being of the entire system. The pillar of sustainable development can only be achieved from a global perspective. The so-called developed countries are still far from reaching sustainable development.
'''III. TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT'''
12. In an interdependent and interconnected system like that of Earth, we cannot recognize the rights of the human part of the system without affecting the rest of the system. To reestablish balance with nature, we must acknowledge its intrinsic value and clearly establish the obligations of humans toward nature, and also recognize that nature has rights that should be respected, promoted, and defended. Just as human beings have rights, the Mother Earth also has the right to exist, the right to maintain its vital cycles, the right to regeneration, the right to be free from structural alteration, and the right to relate to the other parts of the Earth system. Without respecting and guaranteeing the rights of nature, it is not possible to guarantee human rights and achieve sustainable development.
13. We have to end the system of consumption, waste and luxury. Millions of people are dying of hunger in the poorest parts of the globe, while in the richest areas, millions of dollars are spent to combat obesity. We must change the unsustainable patterns of consumption, production, and waste through public policy, regulations, and the conscious and active participation of society. This includes promoting ethics that value human beings for what they are, not what they have.
14. To guarantee the human right to water, education, health, communication, transportation, energy and sanitation, above all in the very poor and marginalized sectors, the provision of these services must be essentially public and based on efficient social management, not private business.
15. States should ensure the right of their populations to proper nutrition by strengthening food sovereignty policies that promote: a) food production by farmers, indigenous peoples and small agricultural producers; b) access to land, water, seeds, credit and other resources for family and community producers; c) the development of social and public enterprises for food production, distribution, and sale that prevent hoarding and contribute to the stability of food prices in domestic markets, thus halting speculative practices and the destruction of local production; d) the right of citizens to define what goods they wish to consume, the origins of those goods and how they are produced; e) consumption of what is necessary and the prioritization of local production; f) practices that contribute to reestablishing harmony with nature, avoiding greater desertification, deforestation, and destruction of biological diversity; g) the promotion of the use of indigenous seeds and traditional knowledge. Food production and commercialization must be socially regulated and cannot be left to free market forces.
16. Without water, there is no life. Humans and all living things have the [[right to water]], but water also has rights. All States and peoples worldwide should work together in solidarity to ensure that loss of vegetation, deforestation, the pollution of the atmosphere and contamination are prevented from continuing to alter the hydrological cycle. These cause [[desertification]], lack of food, temperature increase, [[sea level rise]], migrations, [[acid rain]], and physical-chemical changes that can cause ecosystems to die.
17. Forests are essential to the balance and integrity of planet Earth and a key element in the proper functioning of its ecosystems and the broader system of which we are a part. Thus we cannot consider them as simple providers of goods and services for human beings. The protection, preservation and recuperation of forests is required to reestablish the balance of the Earth system. Forests are not plantations that can be reduced to their capacity to capture carbon and provide environmental services. The maintenance of native forests and woodlands is essential for the water cycle, the atmosphere, biodiversity, the prevention of flooding, and the preservation of ecosystems. Forests are also home to indigenous peoples and communities. The preservation of forests should be pursued through integral and participatory management plans financed with public funding from developed countries.
18. It is essential to guarantee a real and effective reduction of [[greenhouse gases]], particularly on the part of the developed countries historically responsible for climate change, in order to stabilize the increase in temperature to 1 °C during this century. We must therefore strengthen the [[Kyoto Protocol]], not replace it with a more flexible voluntary agreement in which each country does what it chooses. It is necessary to eliminate carbon market mechanisms and offsets so that real domestic reductions are made within the countries with said obligations.
19. All forms of violence against women are incompatible with sustainable development, including violence done to women in militarily occupied territories and domestic or sexual violence that treats women as objects.
20. In order for sustainable development to exist, is essential to guarantee the full application of the [[United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples]].
21. Under the framework of common but differentiated responsibilities established in the 1992 Rio Declaration, the so-called developed countries must assume and pay their historical [[ecological debt]] for having contributed the most to the deterioration of the Earth system. The payment of this ecological debt to developing countries and the sectors most affected among their own populations consists of the transfer financial resources from public sources and also the effective transfer of appropriate technologies required by developing countries.
22. The resources developed countries dedicate to their defense, security and war budgets should be used to address the effects of climate change and the imbalance with nature. It is inexcusable that 1.5 trillion dollars in public funding are used on these budgets, while, to address the impacts of climate change in developing countries, they want to dedicate just 100 billion dollars from public and private funds as well as market sources by 2020.
23. To address the challenge of achieving sustainable development in the so-called developing countries, a [[financial transaction tax]] should be created to help build a Sustainable Development Fund that would be managed by developing countries.
24. Sustainable development requires a new international financial architecture to replace the [[World Bank]] and the [[IMF]] with entities that are democratic and transparent, that refrain from imposing conditions or structural adjustments, are controlled by the developing countries, and are based on the principles of solidarity and complementarity rather than commercialization and privatization.
25. It is essential to promote the exchange of scientific and technical knowledge and to remove intellectual property barriers to allow a true transfer of environmentally friendly technologies from developed countries to developing countries. An effective Technology Transfer Mechanism should be created based on the need for socially, culturally, and ecologically appropriate technologies in the countries of the South. This mechanism should not be a showcase for the sale of technologies by rich countries.
26. [[Intellectual property rights]] over genes, microorganisms and other forms of life are a threat to [[food sovereignty]], [[biodiversity]], access to medicine and other basic elements of the survival of low-income populations. All forms of [[intellectual property over life]] should be abolished.
27. [[Gross Domestic Product]] is not an adequate means of measuring the development and well being of a society. Thus it is necessary to create indicators for measuring the environmental destruction caused by certain economic activities in order to advance toward sustainable development in harmony with nature, integrating social and environmental aspects that are not aimed at the commercialization of nature and its functions.
28. Respect for the [[sovereignty of States]] is essential in the management and protection of nature under the framework of cooperation among States.
29. There is no single solution for all peoples. Human beings are diverse. Our peoples have their own unique cultures and identities. To destroy a culture is to threaten the identity of an entire people. Capitalism attempts to homogenize us all to convert us into consumers. There has not been, nor will there ever be, a single model for life that can save the world. We live and act in a pluralistic world, and a pluralistic world should respect diversity, which is itself synonymous with life. Respect for peaceful and harmonious complementarity among the diverse cultures and economies, without exploitation or discrimination against any single one, is essential for saving the planet, humanity, and life.
30. Peace is essential for sustainable development. There is no worse aggression against humanity and Mother Earth than war and violence. War destroys life. Nobody and nothing is safe from war. Those that fight suffer, as do those that are forced to go without bread in order to feed the war. Wars squander life and natural resources.
31. An International Tribunal of [[Environmental justice|Environmental]] and [[Climate Justice]] must be established to judge and sanction crimes against nature that transcend national borders, violating the rights of nature and affecting humanity.
32. The problems affecting humanity and nature are global in nature, and to address them requires the exercise of global democracy through the development of mechanisms of consultation and decision-making such as referendums, plebiscites, or popular consultations so that the citizens of the world as a whole may speak.
33. Sustainable development is incompatible with all forms of imperialism and [[neocolonialism]]. It is essential to end the imposition of conditionalities, military interventions, coups and different forms of blackmail in order to stop imperialism and neocolonialism.
34. The collective global response needed to confront the crisis we face requires structural changes. We must change the system, not the climate or the Earth system. In the hands of capitalism, everything is converted into merchandise: water, earth genomes, ancestral cultures, justice, ethics, life. It is essential to develop a pluralistic system based on the culture of life and harmony among human beings and with nature; a system that promotes sustainable development in the framework of solidarity, complementarity, equity, social and economic justice, social participation, respect for diversity, and peace.
'''IV. DANGEROUS AND FALSE SOLUTIONS'''
35. Not all that glitters is gold. Not all that is labeled "green" is environmentally friendly. We must use the precautionary principle and deeply analyze the different "green" alternatives that are presented before proceeding with their experimentation and implementation.
36. Nature cannot be subject to manipulation by new technologies without consequences in the future. History shows us that many dangerous technologies have been released in the market before their environmental or health impacts are known, or before their social and economic impacts on poor people and developing countries are understood. This is currently the case with genetically modified organisms, agrochemicals, biofuels, nanotechnology, and synthetic biology. These technologies should be avoided.
37. [[Climate engineering|Geoengineering]] and all forms of artificial manipulation of the climate should be prohibited, for they bring the enormous risk of further destabilizing the climate, biodiversity and nature.
38. It is necessary to create public and multilateral mechanisms within the United Nations to evaluate in an independent manner and without conflict of interest the potential environmental, health, social, and economic impacts of new technologies before they are spread. This mechanism must involve transparency and social participation by potentially affected groups.
39. The current ecological and climate crisis has put in jeopardy all of life on planet Earth, and thus it requires deep solutions based on the real causes of the climate crisis. It cannot be reduced to a simple market failure, which is a reductionist and narrow view.
40. The solution is not to put a price on nature. Nature is not a form of capital. The green economy should not distort the fundamental principles of sustainable development. It is wrong to say that we only value that which has a price, an owner, and brings profits. The market mechanisms that permit exchange among human beings and nations have proven incapable of contributing to an equitable distribution of wealth. To use an approach based on market principles and private appropriation to try to resolve the problem of inequality – itself a product of capitalism – is like trying to put out a fire with gasoline.
41. It is wrong to fragment nature into "environmental services" with a monetary value for market exchange. It is wrong to put a price on the capacity of forests to act as [[carbon sinks]], and worse to promote their commercialization as does [[REDD]] (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation). The market for carbon credits based on forests will lead to: a) noncompliance with effective emission reduction commitments by developed countries; b) the bulk of resources being appropriated by intermediaries and financial entities and rarely benefiting countries, indigenous peoples and forests themselves; c) the generation of speculative bubbles based on the sale and purchase of said certificates; and d) the establishment of new property rights over the capacity of forests to capture carbon dioxide, which will clash with the sovereign rights of States and the indigenous peoples that live in forests. To promote market mechanisms based on the economic needs of developing countries is a new form of neocolonialism.
42. [[“Green” capitalism|"Green" capitalism]] will bring about natural resource grabbing, displacing humanity and nature from the essential elements needed for their survival. The drive for profit, instead of reestablishing harmony within the system, will provoke even greater imbalances, [[wealth condensation|concentrations of wealth]], and speculative processes.
'''V. GLOBAL GOVERNMENT AND SOCIAL PARTICIPATION'''
43. It is necessary to establish a United Nations organization to promote sustainable development in harmony with nature. This organization should articulate and unite the different authorities involved in order to avoid overlapping efforts and achieve effective coordination. Developing countries should have majority representation in said organization, and its functioning should be democratic, transparent, and accountable.
44. This organization should articulate all of the conventions regarding nature without leaving aside issues central to the United Nations, such as water.
45. Social participation is essential in this new organization. Workers, women, farmers, indigenous peoples, young people, scientists, and all sectors of society should be represented. The private sector cannot have the same amount of influence as the social sectors, given that, by definition, its goal is to create profit rather than social wellbeing. Effective mechanisms for interaction among all social actors are required.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/index.php?page=view&nr=212&type=12&menu=23&template=435 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402182458/http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/index.php?page=view&nr=212&type=12&menu=23&template=435 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-04-02 |title=Rio+20 - United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development |publisher=Uncsd2012.org |date=2011-04-20 |accessdate=2011-10-15}} </ref>
==See also==
* [[Rights of nature]]
* [[Naturales quaestiones#Subject|Naturales quaestiones]]
* [[Sumak Kawsay]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Rights of nature law}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:United Nations documents]]
[[Category:Sustainability in South America]]
[[Category:Rights of nature]] |
The Hartwell Paper | {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
The '''Hartwell Paper''' called for a reorientation of [[Politics of climate change|climate policy]] after the perceived failure in [[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2009 of the UNFCCC climate conference in Copenhagen]]. It was a response to the [[United Nations]]' [[Kyoto Protocol]], a previous international agreement meant to reduce [[greenhouse gas emissions]]. The paper was published in May 2010 by the [[London School of Economics]] in cooperation with the [[University of Oxford]]. The authors are 14 natural and social scientists from Asia, Europe and North America, including [[Mike Hulme]], [[Roger A. Pielke (Jr)]], [[Nico Stehr]] and [[Steve Rayner]], who met under the [[Chatham House Rule]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/27939/1/HartwellPaper_English_version.pdf|title=The Hartwell Paper}}</ref>
The authors saw the [[Great Recession|2009 economic crisis]] as an opportunity to re-evaluate global priorities. They argued that "decarbonisation will only be achieved successfully as a benefit contingent upon other goals which are politically attractive and relentlessly pragmatic."
[[File:Hartwell House, Bucks.jpg| thumb | right | 200px | [[Hartwell House, Buckinghamshire|Hartwell House]], where the meetings took place.]]
They emphasize [[human dignity]] as a necessary guiding principle for climate [[Politics of climate change|policy]]: "To reframe the climate issue around matters of human dignity is not just noble or necessary. It is also likely to be more effective than the approach of framing around human sinfulness – which has failed and will continue to fail."<ref>[http://www.europeanbusinessreview.com/?p=2303 EU Climate Policy after the Crash of 09.] The European Business Review, September 2010 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325063036/http://www.europeanbusinessreview.com/?p=2303 |date=25 March 2014 }}</ref>
This principle of human dignity is expanded to three main objectives:
* 1. Energy access for all – the paper advocates taking investments in the innovations of renewable energy to decrease energy costs and to make them more affordable to society. Only this diversification of energy could extend the access to energy, especially in undeveloped countries.<ref name=":0" />
* 2. Development that does not interfere with essential Earth systems.
* 3. Societies well equipped to withstand climate-related dangers.
Their ultimate goal is "to develop non-carbon energy supplies at unsubsidised costs less than those using [[fossil fuels]]."<ref name=":0">[http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/mackinderProgramme/theHartwellPaper The Hartwell Paper.] [[London School of Economics]], May 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=16099521 Oblique strategies], [[The Economist]], 11 May 2010</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8673828.stm After the crash – a new direction for climate policy.] BBC News, 11 May 2010</ref>
The Hartwell Paper recommends that they are to achieve this goal by introducing low [[carbon]] [[Carbon tax|taxes]]. However, this money is able to be used to develop a {{CO2}} free energy supply.<ref name=":0" />
== Kyoto and Climate Change Misconceptions ==
"The previous 'Kyoto' model has dangerously narrowed the option space for thinking seriously and realistically about energy and environmental policies. The Hartwell Paper wishes to contribute to a new pragmatism in the policy discourse surrounding climate change. To this end, we gathered at Hartwell House in Buckinghamshire in February 2010 and this paper is the base of our work".
The Hartwell Paper argues that, although we should attempt to reduce climate change, we must also prepare to adapt if necessary. According to the authors, the Kyoto principles implied that adaptation to the environment should be seen as a failure to halt climate change. Those at the Hartwell meeting proposed that these strategies; mitigation, and adaptation, should both be employed. This is to keep in mind the dignity of those who would be most affected while simultaneously slowing global warming.
The following are climate myths presented in the paper:
* '''Climate change is a problem that must be solved''' – "Rather than being a discrete problem to be solved. Climate change is better understood as a persistent condition that must be coped with and can only be partially managed more – or less – well. It is just one part of a larger complex of such conditions encompassing population, technology, wealth disparities, resource use, etc."<ref name=":1" />
* '''The "deficit model" of science''' – The idea that the lack of information hinders the making of environmental progress. Once the science is understood by all, an agreement can be reached. The Hartwell authors call this a myth, saying that it doesn't address the varying political and religious ideologies that can result in differing interpretations of scientific data. "In turn, this error has led to the common and flawed assumption that the solutions to climate change should be 'science driven' as if a shared understanding of science will lead to a political consensus."<ref name=":1" />
== Key Features of Hartwell Plan ==
The authors propose a holistic model of environmental practice. They believe there has been too much emphasis placed on carbon dioxide as if it is our only problematic emission. They state that while the {{CO2}} reduction is central to the plan, smaller changes in a variety of practices and industries are also important.
* Diversification and moving away from fossil fuels
* Eradication of "Black Carbon" – Black Carbon is simply soot, which can come from burning wood or coal within the home. This has an environmental effect far greater (per ton) than simple {{CO2}}. According to the authors, this is an important step to take, as it should be much easier than phasing out gasoline.
* Reduce Tropospheric Ozone
* Protect Tropical Forests
* The "Kaya Identity" – these are four primary factors when it comes to a region's environmental footprint. They are population, wealth, energy intensity, and carbon intensity. Nations face different environmental issues, and the solution for one is not the solution for all.
== Reception and Criticism ==
The Hartwell Paper has received both praise and criticism. According to The Economist, the Hartwell approach to decarbonisation has been a source of controversy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/16099521|title=Oblique strategies|date=11 May 2010|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=4 December 2017|issn=0013-0613}}</ref> Because large, rapidly industrializing nations are driven by fossil fuels, the authors claim that slowing this process just isn't politically feasible. ''The Economist'' article argues that Hartwell's "oblique strategies" may be more difficult to turn into policy than a more direct attack on carbon dioxide emissions.
==See also==
*[[Hartwell House, Buckinghamshire]]
*[[Kyoto Protocol]]
*[[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/mackinderProgramme/theHartwellPaper/ Official Homepage]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hartwell Paper, The}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Economics and climate change]] |
Saltire Prize | {{Short description|Scottish technology prize for wave and tidal energy}}
{{distinguish|text=awards presented by the [[Saltire Society]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}{{En-GB|date=February 2024}}
The '''Saltire Prize''', named after the [[flag of Scotland]], was a national award for advances in the commercial development of [[marine energy]].
Announced in 2014, to be considered for the £10 million award, teams had to demonstrate, in [[Scottish waters]], a commercially viable [[Wave energy|wave]] or [[tidal stream energy]] technology "that achieves the greatest volume of electrical output over the set minimum hurdle of 100 GWh over a continuous 2-year period using only the power of the sea."
The Saltire Prize was open to any individual, team or organisation from across the world who believed they had wave or tidal energy technology capable of fulfilling the challenge. Applications could be submitted between March 2010 and January 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saltireprize.com/challenge |title=The Challenge | publisher=saltireprize.com |accessdate=27 October 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224031443/http://www.saltireprize.com/challenge |archivedate=24 December 2014}}</ref>
The funding was later allocated to the '''Saltire Tidal Energy Challenge Fund''' as there were no eligible entries for the original prize.
==Additional prizes==
* The '''Saltire Prize Lecture''' — delivered at the Scottish Renewables Marine Conference every September, it focused on the challenges in converting our world lead in wave and tidal energy to an industry of commercial scale, and in securing the economic, environmental and social benefits that this industry can bring. The lecture was designed to promote knowledge exchange between academics, industry, financiers and government.
* The '''Saltire Prize Medal''' — created to recognise outstanding contributions to the development of marine renewable energy. The Medal was awarded every March at the Scottish Renewables Annual Conference, Exhibition and Dinner.
* The '''Junior Saltire Prize''' — launched in 2011, this was aimed at primary and secondary school pupils and was designed to help raise awareness of the opportunities that Scotland has to exploit its marine renewables potential. It was sponsored by Skills Development Scotland and awards are presented to teams in three age groups: Primary 5-7 (age 8-12), Secondary 1-3 (age 11-15), and Secondary 4-6 (age 14-18).
* A '''Saltire Prize-sponsored doctorate''' — in collaboration with the Energy Technology Partnership (ETP). This was announced in August 2012. The research would consider how marine energy projects can be designed to maximise economic energy production while protecting the environment.
* '''Power of the Sea''' — a one-off junior photography competition sponsored by the Saltire Prize, aimed at raising awareness of the natural environment and its potential for marine energy. In December 2012, four young photographers from Scottish primary schools were selected by renowned Scottish photographer, David Eustace, as the national winners.
The Junior Saltire Prize and the sponsored doctorate were discontinued in 2016, having cost £60,000 and £48,418 respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Green |first=Chris |date=2018-05-08 |title=Lost at sea: Scottish taxpayers foot bill for unclaimed Saltire Prize |url=https://inews.co.uk/news/scotland/lost-at-sea-taxpayers-saltire-prize-decade-later-152258 |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=inews.co.uk |language=en}}</ref>
=== Saltire Prize Medal ===
In 2011 the inaugural Saltire Prize Medal was awarded to [[Stephen Salter|Professor Stephen Salter]], who led the team which designed the [[Salter's Duck]] device in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-12831298 |title=Inventor of 'Duck' technology wins Saltire Prize medal |work=BBC News |date=23 March 2011 |accessdate=22 September 2014}}</ref> [[Richard Yemm]], inventor of the [[Pelamis Wave Energy Converter]], was awarded the medal in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-17526389 |title=Saltire Prize medal for inventor of Pelamis wave 'sea snake' |publisher=BBC News |date=28 March 2012 |accessdate=22 September 2014}}</ref> Professor [[Peter Fraenkel (marine engineer)|Peter Fraenkel]], MBE, a pioneer for the development of marine turbines, won the 2013 medal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saltireprize.com/news-events/saltire-prize-medal-2013|title=Saltire Prize Medal 2013|date=18 March 2013|accessdate=23 December 2014}}</ref> The 2014 medal went to Allan Thomson, founder of [[Aquamarine Power]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saltireprize.com/news-events/saltire-prize-medal-2014-winner|title=Saltire Prize Medal 2014 Winner!|date=19 March 2014|accessdate=23 December 2014}}</ref> No further medals have been awarded.
==History==
When it was first announced in 2008 by then First Minister of Scotland [[Alex Salmond]] it was the world's largest ever single prize for innovation in marine renewable energy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2008/04/02151533 |title=World to compete for Saltire Prize| publisher=[[Scottish Government]] |date=4 April 2008 |accessdate=22 September 2014}}</ref> The prize was overseen by the Challenge Committee. Saltire Prize policy was the responsibility of the Offshore Renewables Policy Team in the Scottish Government's Energy and Climate Change Directorate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saltireprize.com/about-us |title=About us| publisher=saltireprize.com |accessdate=22 September 2014}}</ref>
When it launched, the criteria included:<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Saltire Prize Competition Guidelines |url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/318534/0101611.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203110610/http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/318534/0101611.pdf |archive-date=2013-02-03 |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Scottish Government}}</ref>
* Open to any individual, team, or organsisation, from anywhere in the world, however projects had to be located in Scottish waters.
* Using the energy from waves and/or tidal streams to provide electrical output. Tidal barrages, offshore wind, osmotic power, ocean thermal energy conversion, and marine biomass were all excluded.
* Individual devices or arrays of multiple devices (comprising one or more technology) could be used, provided they were part of a discrete project with a single electricity connection point.
Registration was open between June 2012 and January 2015. The winner would be whoever generated the most electricity within a continuous 2-year period before the deadline of June 2017, subject to a minimum hurdle of 100 GW. The winner was to be announced in July 2017.<ref name=":0" />
=== Competitors ===
There were five entrants for the Saltire Prize, in a phase of the contest that ran until 2017, two wave energy and three tidal-stream:<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-19393023 |title=Renewables firms to compete for £10m Saltire Prize |work=[[BBC News]] |date=28 August 2012 |accessdate=22 September 2014}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Energy |first=Marine |date=2015-03-02 |title=Saltire Prize to remain unclaimed |url=https://www.offshore-energy.biz/saltire-prize-to-remain-unclaimed/ |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Offshore Energy |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=2018-02-03 |title=Whatever happened to the Saltire Prize? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-business-42832168 |access-date=2024-02-10 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>
* [[Pelamis Wave Power]], although the company went into administration in November 2014.
* [[Aquamarine Power]] secured a 40 MW lease off the north-west coast of [[Isle of Lewis|Lewis]] for their Oyster wave energy device, although this company also went into administration in 2015 before deploying any devices there.
* [[Scottish Power|ScottishPower Renewables]] planned to deploy a 95 MW tidal array at the Ness of Duncansby site, in the [[Pentland Firth]], however this project never progressed.
* West Islay Tidal was a proposed 30 MW project by DP Energy in the [[Sound of Islay]], but again this project never progressed.
* The [[MeyGen]] tidal array developed by Atlantis Resources (now [[SIMEC Atlantis Energy]]) successfully installed phase 1a comprising four 1.5 MW turbines by February 2017 and was operational by April 2018.<ref>{{cite news |last=White |first=Matthew |date=2008-04-12 |title=Meygen Starts 25 year operations phase |url=http://www.4coffshore.com/windfarms/meygen-starts-25-years-operations-phase-nid7458.html |work=4c Offshore}}</ref>
By March 2015, it was clear that the prize was not going to be claimed,<ref name=":1" /> however the Saltire Prize Challenge Committee considered other options to drive innovation in the wave and tidal power sectors in Scotland.<ref name=":2" /> In February 2015, the Saltire Tidal Energy Challenge Fund was announced.<ref name=":3">{{Cite magazine |last=Ibbetson |first=Connor |date=2019-02-12 |title=Scottish Government eyes new tidal power schemes |url=https://www.newcivilengineer.com/latest/scottish-government-eyes-new-tidal-power-schemes-12-02-2019/ |access-date=2024-02-10 |magazine=New Civil Engineer |language=en}}</ref>
== Saltire Tidal Energy Challenge Fund ==
The '''Saltire Tidal Energy Challenge Fund''' was set up in February 2015 to provide support to the Scottish tidal power sector, complementing the funding for [[Wave Energy Scotland]]. The fund was to support capital cost of developing innovations to reduce the cost of tidal energy, for projects to be deployed in Scotland before March 2020. These had to demonstrate value and the potential for positive social and economic benefit to Scotland.<ref name=":3" />
In August 2019, Orbital Marine Power was the first recipient of the fund, and awarded £3.4 million towards developing the [[Orbital O2]] turbine.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2019-08-26 |title=Orbital Lands £3.4M Saltire Prize |url=https://www.offshore-energy.biz/orbital-lands-3-4m-saltire-prize/ |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Offshore Energy |language=}}</ref>
In March 2020, [[SIMEC Atlantis Energy]] was awarded £1.5 million towards developing a sub-sea hub to connect multiple turbines at the [[MeyGen]] project.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McPhee |first=David |date=2020-03-25 |title=Simec Atlantis Energy wins £1.5m Scot Gov grant for Meygen project |url=https://www.energyvoice.com/renewables-energy-transition/230572/simec-atlantis-energy-wins-1-5m-scot-gov-grant-for-meygen-project/ |url-access=registration |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Energy Voice |language=en-US}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[List of engineering awards]]
* [[Crown Estate]]
* [[Marine Scotland]]
* [[Renewables Obligation]]
* [[Scottish Adjacent Waters Boundaries Order 1999]]
* [[Tidal stream generator]]
* [[Wave farm]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141018053308/http://www.saltireprize.com/ Official website]
{{Sustainable development in Scotland}}
[[Category:2007 establishments in Scotland]]
[[Category:2007 in science]]
[[Category:Awards established in 2007]]
[[Category:British science and technology awards]]
[[Category:Business and industry awards]]
[[Category:Electrical engineering awards]]
[[Category:Renewable energy in Scotland]]
[[Category:Renewable energy technology]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Scotland]]
[[Category:Scottish awards]]
[[Category:Scottish coast]]
[[Category:Scottish Government]]
[[Category:Sustainability in Scotland]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Tidal power]]
[[Category:Wave power]] |
Centre for Appropriate Rural Technology | {{primary sources|date=July 2012}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Centre for Appropriate Rural Technology
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| purpose = Research and application of sustainable village
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| location = Sicambeni Village, Port St Johns, [[OR Tambo District Municipality]], [[Eastern Cape]], [[South Africa]]
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The '''Centre for Appropriate Rural Technology''' (CART) is a community-driven [[sustainable development]] project located in the [[Eastern Cape]] of [[South Africa]]. It functions as a life skills centre in the heart of Sicambeni Village, a rural village near Port St Johns.
==Background==
[[Image:theview.jpg|right|500px]]
The Eastern Cape is South Africa’s poorest region and has for many years been a victim of massive skill loss due to the [[rural exodus|migration]] of workers to the larger cities in seek of work. Invariably these migrants find themselves living in the already overcrowded [[Township (South Africa)]] compounding South Africa’s desperate slum culture.
Having accrued 15 years of experience working in several African Countries, building communities with the homeless, CART was formed as a centre to tackle poverty in a more holistic way. CART aims to give the local population the skills and technology to allow them to live self-sustainably without the need to seek work outside of their own villages, ultimately allowing the migrants to return to their homelands.
==Goals==
[[Image:AllofCART.jpg|right|500px]]
CART’s primary goal is to complete the self sustainable model, serving as the epicentre to the surrounding village of over four hundred families. Technology developed here is being taught to and implemented within the community to produce a fully sustainable village. CART ensures that any technology implemented can be replicated in other rural environments, allowing this sustainable village to become a living example to other communities around South Africa and Globally.
CART operates numerous other initiatives, including innovative farming techniques, to provide much needed nutritional enrichment and a HIV support group offering nutritional, physical and spiritual healing.
==Technologies==
[[Image:Aeratedbed.JPG|right|200 px]]
[[Image:Lotsofbricks.JPG|right|200 px]]
One of the primary goals of CART is to experiment with and implement technologies that can be used sustainably in a rural environment. This includes effective water, waste, energy and building systems.
===Aerated beds===
[[Image:Brickpit.JPG|right|200 px]]
[[Image:Education centre.JPG|right|200 px]]
The aerated, raised beds can be implemented anywhere but are ideally suited to areas that have high [[clay]] content in the soil structure. Though clay-rich soil is ideal for keeping nutrients in the soil, it can also retain too much water. The raised structure design allows better [[drainage]], minimizes the threat of [[root rot]], and enables rooting vegetables (carrots, beets, onions, etc.) to grow significantly larger than when planted in the ground. The structure's unique shape also makes monitoring the fertility easier and the overall planting surface is greatly improved.
The garden resembles a [[compost heap]] with green matter placed on the very bottom of the structure, which is made from lengths of thin poles (latte). Decomposed material (wood chips, leaves, etc.) is layered on top of the green matter, followed by a mix of soil and compost. Seedlings are planted and mulched on top of the bed while herbs are planted on the sides, creating a network of strong roots to help contain the soil in the garden structure.
===Brick machine===
[[Image:Thedam.JPG|right|200 px]]
A hand-operated mechanical press creates stabilised bricks. Clay based soil mixed with five percent cement is used to form the base of the bricks.
===Dams===
[[Image:Biodigester.JPG|right|200 px]]
[[Image:Insidethatchedroof.JPG|right|200 px]]
Water management problems mean that only one crop per year is grown. Sometime the community has little choice but to drink from [[water contamination|contaminated rivers]]. The project aims to improve on this by using year round planting and more effective water management techniques.
===Biodigester===
[[Image:Small Garden Prototype Complete.png|right|200 px]]
[[Image:Sustainable.jpg|right|200 px]]
One of the most common problems facing rural communities around the world is that of waste disposal. The incorrect disposal of animal and human waste can lead to the poisoning of waterways, render land un-farmable and cause numerous fatal diseases such as [[Cholera]], [[Typhoid]] and [[Diphtheria]]. CART needed a way to not only dispose of its waste but also to find a way of actually making this waste useful. After much research it was decided that a [[Biodigester]] could provide the solution to this problem, however no design existed that could be cheaply replicated in rural areas – so CART made one. Conventional Biodigesters cost in the region of US$30,000, CART’s costs about US$500.
The simple design consists of a hole 7m x 1.5m x 1.5m into which a reinforced PVC cylindrical black bag is placed. At one end is the ‘inlet’ situated at the bottom of the bag, a pipe from the toilet block brings all human waste into the bag together with a hatch for animal and kitchen waste. Two outlet pipes are situated at the other end of the bag, one at the top for gas removal the other is 1/3 of the way up for liquid removal. The design incorporates a black colour so as to attract solar heat to accelerate decomposition. The placement of the outlet pipe is important as it is necessary to maintain 1/3 liquids : 2/3 gas.
Due to the sealed nature of the bag all this waste begins to decompose anaerobically releasing [[methane]] gas, water and sludge waste whilst also killing harmful [[pathogens]] such as [[E-Coli]]. The methane gas is released and captured using the valve at the top of the outlet end of the bag, this gas can be used for cooking, lighting and heating (although CART currently intend to use the gas solely for cooking.) The water is released through the outlet pipe, this water is known as ‘High nutrient’ or ‘Black’ water. Less than 10% of the products are solids and therefore only need removing from the bag every few years, these solids can be used as a high nutrient fertiliser for fruit trees or for plants where the fertiliser does not come into direct contact with the crop. The black water is mixed with grey waters, such as shower or washing water (N.B CART only uses organic, [[bio-degradable]] washing products to ensure no toxins are introduced to the cycle.) This water is filtered through sand and charcoal and used to irrigate the food gardens. Excess water, together with runoff from the gardens is collected in the Dam, from which it can be used to water gardens in the dry season or filtered further making it safe for drinking (see [[water cycle]]).
===Indoor gardens===
The indoor garden is a conceptual design for a compact, portable garden that can be put in almost any living space. Ideally, the garden would be put under a south-facing window (in the northern hemisphere), and would provide enough food to sustain a family.
==See also==
*[[Appropriate technology]]
*[[Centre for Alternative Technology]]
*[[Sicambeni Rural University]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cartsa.co.za Centre for Appropriate Rural Technology]
[[Category:Appropriate technology organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in South Africa]]
[[Category:Non-profit organisations based in South Africa]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Appropriate technology advocates]]
[[Category:OR Tambo District Municipality]] |
Scottish government economy directorates | {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2017}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2016}}
The '''Scottish government economy directorates''' were a set of [[:wikt:directorate|directorates]] within the [[Scottish government]], the executive arm of the devolved government of [[Scotland]]. The directorates were headed by Dr [[Andrew Goudie (economist)|Andrew Goudie]], who also acted as the chief economic adviser to the Scottish government (Goudie retired in 2011 and joined [[University of Strathclyde|Strathclyde University]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-14268157|title=Andrew Goudie to take up Strathclyde University role|work=BBC News|date=24 July 2011|access-date=2016-05-18}}</ref>). The directorates were responsible for transport, [[sustainable development]] and planning. In 2010, the transport directorate merged with [[Transport Scotland]], an [[List of Scottish Executive agencies|Executive Agency]] of the [[Scottish Government]] and accountable to [[Scottish Ministers]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.audit-scotland.gov.uk/docs/central/2010/fa_0910_transport_scotland.pdf|title=Report on the 2009/10 audit to Transport Scotland and the Auditor General for Scotland |last=|first=|date=November 2010|website=Audit Scotland|publisher=Transport Scotland|access-date=18 May 2016}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Scottish Government Departments}}
[[Category:Defunct departments of the Scottish Government|Economy]]
[[Category:Subnational economy ministries]]
[[Category:Economy of Scotland]]
[[Category:Transport in Scotland]]
[[Category:Town and country planning in Scotland]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environment of Scotland]]
{{Scotland-gov-stub}}
{{economy-stub}}
{{UK-transport-stub}}
{{planning-stub}} |
Circles of Sustainability | {{Short description|Method for assessing sustainability}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
[[File:Circles of Sustainability image (assessment - Melbourne 2011).jpg|thumb|A Circles of Sustainability representation – in this case for [[Melbourne]] in 2011.]]
[[File:Johannesburg Profile, Level 2, 2013.jpg|thumb|Johannesburg Profile, Level 2, 2013]]
[[File:Sao Paulo Profile, Level 1, 2012.jpg|thumb|São Paulo Profile, Level 1, 2012]]
[[File:Delhi Profile, Level 1, 2012.jpg|thumb|Delhi Profile, Level 1, 2012]]
[[File:Hyderabad Urban Profile, Level 1, 2012.jpg|thumb|Hyderabad Urban Profile, Level 1, 2012]]
[[File:Port Moresby Profile, Level 2, 2013.jpg|thumb|Port Moresby Profile, Level 2, 2013]]
[[File:Tehran Profile, Level 1, 2012.jpg|thumb|Tehran Profile, Level 1, 2012]]
'''Circles of Sustainability''' is a method for understanding and assessing [[sustainability]], and for [[project management]] directed towards socially sustainable outcomes.<ref>{{Cite book | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= with Magee | first2= Liam | last3= Scerri | first3= Andy | last4= Steger | first4= Manfred B. | title= Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability | url= https://www.academia.edu/9294719 | year= 2015 | publisher= Routledge | location= London| isbn= 9781315765747 }}</ref> It is intended to handle 'seemingly intractable problems'<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citiesprogramme.com/cities |title=CITIES - The Cities Programme |work=citiesprogramme.com |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818002423/http://citiesprogramme.com/cities |archive-date=18 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> such as outlined in [[sustainable development]] debates. The method is mostly used for cities and urban settlements.
The style of the charts themselves could be described as a mixture of [[radar chart]] and [[bar chart]].
==Outline==
Circles of Sustainability, and its treatment of the social domains of ecology, economics, politics and culture, provides the empirical dimension of an approach called '[[engaged theory]]'. Developing Circles of Sustainability is part of larger project called 'Circles of Social Life', using the same four-domain model to analyze questions of resilience, adaptation, security, reconciliation. It is also being used in relation to thematics such as 'Circles of Child Wellbeing' (with World Vision).
As evidenced by [[Rio+20]] and the [[UN Habitat]] [[World Urban Forum]] in Napoli (2012) and Medellin (2014), [[sustainability assessment]] is on the global agenda.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhabitat.org/categories.asp?catid=672|access-date=September 9, 2012|title=UN-HABITAT.:. World Urban Forum 6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120911065400/http://www.unhabitat.org/categories.asp?catid=672#|archive-date=11 September 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> However, the more complex the problems, the less useful current sustainability assessment tools seem to be for assessing across different domains: economics, ecology, politics and culture.<ref>Liam Magee, Paul James, Andy Scerri, 'Measuring Social Sustainability: A Community-Centred Approach', Applied Research in the Quality of Life, vol. 7, no. 3., 2012, pp. 239–61.</ref> For example, the [[Triple Bottom Line]] approach tends to take the economy as its primary point of focus with the domain of the environmental as the key externality. Secondly, the one-dimensional quantitative basis of many such methods means that they have limited purchase on complex qualitative issues. Thirdly, the size, scope and sheer number of indicators included within many such methods means that they are often unwieldy and resist effective implementation. Fourthly, the restricted focus of current indicator sets means that they do not work across different organizational and social settings—corporations and other institutions, cities, and communities.<ref>Liam Magee, Andy Scerri, Paul James, Lin Padgham, James Thom, Hepu Deng, Sarah Hickmott, and Felicity Cahill, 'Reframing Sustainability Reporting: Towards an Engaged Approach', Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 1, 2013, pp. 225–43.</ref> Most indicator approaches, such as the [[Global Reporting Initiative]] or ISO14031, have been limited to large corporate organizations with easily definable legal and economic boundaries. Circles of Sustainability was developed to respond to those limitations.
==History==
The method began with a fundamental dissatisfaction with current approaches to [[sustainability]] and [[sustainable development]], which tended to treat economics as the core domain and ecology as an externality. Two concurrent developments provided impetus: a major project in Porto Alegre, and a United Nations' paper called ''Accounting for Sustainability'', Briefing Paper, No. 1, 2008. The researchers developed a method and an integrated set of tools for assessing and monitoring issues of sustainability while providing guidance for project development.<ref>Stephanie McCarthy, Paul James and Carolines Bayliss, eds, ''Sustainable Cities, Vol. 1'', United Nations Global Compact, Cities Programme, New York and Melbourne, 2010, 134pp.</ref> The method was then further refined through projects in Melbourne and Milwaukee, and through an ARC-funded cross-disciplinary project<ref>'Semantic Technologies to Help Machines Understand Us: Fuji Xerox leads RMIT to $1.4m Grant for Real-Time Green Reports', ''IT Business'', 30 October 2009.
Mary-Lou Considine, 'UN-RMIT Relationship Tackles Problems in the Pacific', ''Ecos Magazine'', August–September 2009, p. 150.</ref> that partnered with various organizations including Microsoft Australia, Fuji Xerox Australia, the City of Melbourne, World Vision, UN-Habitat and most crucially Metropolis.<ref>Andy Scerri and Paul James, 'Communities of Citizens and "Indicators" of Sustainability', ''Community Development Journal'', vol. 45, no. 2, 2010, pp. 219–36.
Andy Scerri and Paul James, 'Accounting for Sustainability: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research in Developing 'Indicators' of Sustainability', ''International Journal of Social Research Methodology'', vol. 13, no. 1, 2010, pp. 41–53.
Paul James and Andy Scerri, 'Auditing Cities through Circles of Sustainability', Mark Amen, Noah J. Toly, Patricia L. Carney and Klaus Segbers, eds, ''Cities and Global Governance'', Ashgate, Farnham, 2011, pp. 111–36.
Andy Scerri, 'Ends in View: The capabilities approach in ecological/sustainability economics', Ecological Economics 77, 2012, pp. 7–10.</ref> In Canada, the ''Green Score City Index''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://greenscore.ca/greenscore-city-index.html |title=GreenScore City Index |work=greenscore.ca |year=2014 |access-date=April 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904070553/http://greenscore.ca/greenscore-city-index.html |archive-date=4 September 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> was inspired by studying the UN Circles of Sustainability. However, unlike this system, the Canadian index data-sets are focused on measuring the physical footprints of human activity and greenspace footprints which are less subjectivity than cultural and economic<ref>'Subjectivity in Economics', ''SSRN'', June 1, 2012. Matthew T. Clements, 'Abstract: Economics cannot claim to be absolutely objective...',''St. Edward's University'',</ref> indicators.
==Use of the method==
The method is used by a number of cities across the world, and was at different times central to the work of a series of global organizations including the [[United Nations Global Compact]] Cities Programme, The World Association of Major Metropolises,<ref>The methodology was used by Metropolis for Commission 2, 2012, Managing Urban Growth. This Commission, which met across the period 2009–2011, was asked to make recommendations for use by Metropolis's 120 member cities on the theme of managing growth. The Commission Report using the 'Circles of Sustainability' methodology was published on the web in three languages—English, French and Spanish—and is used by member cities as a guide to practice. (See http://www.metropolis.org/publications/commissions {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819002102/http://www.metropolis.org/publications/commissions# |date=19 August 2012 }})</ref> and [[World Vision]] to support their engagement in cities. Cities that have used the Circles method in different ways to manage major projects or to provide feedback on their sustainability profiles include the following: Berlin, Broadmeadows, Christchurch, Hobart, Hyderabad, Johannesburg, Maryborough, Melbourne, New Delhi, Punta Arenas, São Paulo, and Tehran. It is a method for understanding [[urban politics]] and [[urban planning]], as well as for conducting [[sustainability]] analysis and profiling [[sustainable development]].
===Global Compact Cities Programme===
The methodology was made available by [[UN Global Compact]] Cities Programme from 2009 to 2014 for its engagement with its more than 80 Signatory Cities. In particular, some of the 14 Innovating Cities in the programme have influenced the development of the Circles of Sustainability method through their management of major projects, some with intensity and others as a background feature. They use a cross-sectoral and holistic approach for developing a response to self-defined problems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citiesprogramme.com/cities |title=CITIES – The Cities Programme |work=citiesprogramme.com |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818002423/http://citiesprogramme.com/cities |archive-date=18 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
====Porto Alegre, Vila Chocolatão project====
The Vila Chocolatão project refers to the 2011 resettlement of approximately 1,000 residents of the inner-city Vila Chocolatão [[slum]] in [[Porto Alegre]], Brazil. The resettlement project of Vila Chocolatão commenced in 2000 in response to an imminent eviction of the community, with community members seeking resources and support to resettle through the city of Porto Alegre's renown [[participatory budgeting]] system. The lengthy preparation to resettle was led by a local cross-sectoral network group, the Vila Chocolatão Sustainability Network. The group was initially instigated by the Regional Court, TRF4 and consisted of the Vila Chocolatão Residents Association, local government departments, federal agencies, non-government organisations and the corporate sector. The project was supported by the City of Porto Alegre through the municipality's Local Solidarity Governance Scheme. In 2006, the Vila Chocolatao resettlement project was recognised as a pilot project for the then new Cities Programme model with City Hall assembling a Critical Reference Group to identify critical issues and joint solutions to those issues involved in the resettlement.
This long-standing collaborative project has been successful in rehousing a whole community of slum dwellers, it has also effected a restructuring of how the city approaches slums. The project ensured sustainability was built into the relocation through changes such as setting up of recycling depots next to existing slums and developing a formal recycling sorting facility in the new site, Residencial Nova Chocolatão, linked to the garbage-collection process of the city (an example of linking the sub-domains of 'emission and waste' and 'organization and governance'); and establishing a fully resourced early childhood centre in the new community. The Vila Chocolatão Sustainability Network group continues to meet and work with the community post the resettlement. This network-led model is now being utilized by the City of Porto Alegre with other informal settlements.
====Milwaukee, water sustainability project====
In 2009, [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], wanted to address the issue of water quality in the city.<ref>''Milwaukee Business Journal'', 29 April 2009; John Schmid, ''Milwaukee Journal Sentinel'', 27 April 2009.</ref> The Circles of Sustainability methodology became the basis for an integrated city project. In the period of the application of the method (2009–present) there has been a rediscovery of the value of water from an industry and broader community perspective.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citiesprogramme.com/cities/americas/usa/milwaukee |title=Milwaukee – The Cities Programme |work=citiesprogramme.com |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907233043/http://citiesprogramme.com/cities/americas/usa/milwaukee |archive-date=7 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In 2011, Milwaukee won the United States Water Prize given by the Clean Water America Alliance,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.idealist.org/en/nonprofit/0d706279ecf446afa7869d47b06e82b1-clean-water-america-alliance-washington | title=Clean Water America Alliance }}</ref> as well as a prize from IBM Better Cities program worth $500,000. The community has also attracted some leading water treatment innovators and is establishing a graduate School of Freshwater Sciences at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thewatercouncil.com/temp2/un-global-compact/ |title=UN Global Compact | Milwaukee Water Council |work=thewatercouncil.com |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815005612/http://www.thewatercouncil.com/temp2/un-global-compact/# |archive-date=15 August 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
===Metropolis (World Association of the Major Metropolises)===
The methodology was first used by Metropolis for ''Commission 2, 2012, Managing Urban Growth''. This commission, which met across the period 2009–2011, was asked to make recommendations for use by Metropolis's 120 member cities on the theme of managing [[urban growth|growth]]. The Commission Report using the Circles of Sustainability methodology was published on the web in three languages—English, French and Spanish—and is used by member cities as a guide to practice.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metropolis.org/publications/commissions |title=Publications / Commissions | Metropolis |work=metropolis.org |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819002102/http://www.metropolis.org/publications/commissions# |archive-date=19 August 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
In 2011, the research team were invited by Metropolis to work with the Victorian Government and the Cities Programme on one of their major initiatives. The methodology was central to the approach used by the 'Integrated Strategic Planning and Public-Private Partnerships Initiative' organized by Metropolis, 2012–2013 for Indian, Brazilian and Iranian cities. A workshop was held in New Delhi, 26–27 July 2012, and senior planners from New Delhi, Hyderabad and Kolkata used the two of the assessment tools in the Circles of Sustainability toolbox to map the sustainability of their cities as part of developing their urban-regional plans. Other cities to use the same tools have been Tehran (in relation to their mega-projects plan) and São Paulo (in relation to their macro-metropolitan plan).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metropolis.org/news/metropolis-initiative-integrated--1 |title=Metropolis Initiative "Integrated Strategic Planning and Public Private Partnerships" meets in New Delhi | Metropolis |work=metropolis.org |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006063749/http://www.metropolis.org/news/metropolis-initiative-integrated--1 |archive-date=6 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
From 2012 to 2014, the Cities Programme and Metropolis worked together to refine the 'Circles of Sustainability' method for use with their respective member cities. After the Cities Programme changed direction, a Metropolis Taskforce was charged with further developing the method. The method became central to work until the COVID period made international travel more difficult.
===''The Economist''===
In 2011, ''The Economist'' invited [[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]] (Director of the [[United Nations Global Compact]] Cities Programme) and Chetan Vedya (Director, National Institute of Urban Affairs, India) into a debate around the question of urban sustainability and metropolitan growth. It led to over 200 letters to the editor in direct response as well as numerous linked citations on other websites.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.economist.com/debate/overview/192 |title=Economist Debates: Cities |work=economist.com |year=2012 |access-date=September 8, 2012}}</ref>
===World Vision===
In 2011, recognising how much the two processes of urbanization and globalization were changing the landscape of poverty, [[World Vision]] decided to shift its orientation towards urban settings. Previously 80 per cent of its projects had been in small rural communities. The Circles of Sustainability method now underpins that reorientation and pilot studies are being conducted in India, South Africa, Lebanon, Indonesia and elsewhere, to refine the methodology for aid delivery in complex urban settings.
==Domains and subdomains==
The Circles of Sustainability approach is explicitly critical of other domain models such as the [[triple bottom line]] that treat economics as if it is outside the social, or that treat the environment as an externality. It uses a four-domain model – economics, ecology, politics and culture. In each of these domains there are 7 subdomains.
===Economics===
The economic domain is defined as the practices and meanings associated with the production, use, and management of resources, where the concept of 'resources' is used in the broadest sense of that word.
# Production and resourcing
# Exchange and transfer
# Accounting and regulation
# Consumption and use
# Labour and welfare
# Technology and infrastructure
# Wealth and distribution
===Ecology===
The ecological domain is defined as the practices and meanings that occur across the intersection between the social and the natural realms, focusing on the important dimension of human engagement with and within nature, but also including the built-environment.
# Materials and energy
# Water and air
# Flora and fauna
# Habitat and settlements
# Built-form and transport
# Embodiment and sustenance
# Emission and waste
'''Environmental'''
Environmental variables measure how optimally was natural resources used, in its complete cycle. The cycle starts from identifying of source, procurement/ extraction from raw source, processing to obtain required material, production of production and waste discharge during the entire process.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Borah |first=Michael |date=2018-05-13 |title=Sustainability measure: What is it and how do we measure it? |url=https://mikehumanbydesign.medium.com/sustainability-measure-what-is-it-and-how-do-we-measure-it-ccc5231d284e |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=Medium |language=en}}</ref>
# Sulphur dioxide concentration
# Concentration of nitrogen oxides
# Selected priority pollutants
# Excessive nutrients
# Electricity consumption
===Politics===
The political is defined as the practices and meanings associated with basic issues of social power, such as organization, authorization, legitimation and regulation. The parameters of this area extend beyond the conventional sense of politics to include not only issues of public and private governance but more broadly social relations in general.
# Organization and governance
# Law and justice
# Communication and critique
# Representation and negotiation
# Security and accord
# Dialogue and reconciliation
# Ethics and accountability
===Culture===
The cultural domain is defined as the practices, discourses, and material expressions, which, over time, express continuities and discontinuities of social meaning.
# Identity and engagement
# Creativity and recreation
# Memory and projection
# Belief and ideas
# Gender and generations
# Enquiry and learning
# Wellbeing and health
==See also==
* [[Engaged theory]]
* [[Sustainability]]
** [[Applied sustainability]]
** [[Social sustainability]]
** [[Sustainable development]]
*** [[Ecologically sustainable development]]
*** ''[[Sustainable Development Goals]]''
* [[Urban design]]
* [[Urban planning]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
==References==
* Borah, Michael (13 May 2018). "Sustainability measure: What is it and how do we measure it?". ''Medium''. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
* {{Cite book | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= with Magee | first2= Liam | last3= Scerri | first3= Andy | last4= Steger | first4= Manfred B. | title= Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability | url= https://www.academia.edu/9294719 | year= 2015 | publisher= Routledge | location= London| isbn= 9781315765747 }}
* {{Cite book | year=2013 | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink1= Paul James (academic) | last2= Holden | first2=Meg | last3= Lewin | first3= Mary | last4= Neilson | first4= Lyndsay | last5= Oakley | first5= Christine | last6= Truter | first6= Art | last7= Wilmoth | first7= David | chapter= Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban Growth | title= Institutional and Social Innovation for Sustainable Urban Development | editor= Harald Mieg and Klaus Töpfer | url=https://www.academia.edu/7207756 | publisher= Routledge}}
* {{Cite journal | year=2013 |author1=Liam Magee |author2=Andy Scerri |author3=Paul James |author4=James A. Thom |author5=Lin Padgham |author6=Sarah Hickmott |author7=Hepu Deng |author8=Felicity Cahill | title= Reframing social sustainability reporting: Towards an engaged approach | url= https://www.academia.edu/4362669 | journal= Environment, Development and Sustainability
}}
* {{Cite journal | year = 2012 |author1=Magee, Liam |author2=Scerri, Andy | title= From Issues to Indicators: A Response to Grosskurth and Rotmans | journal= Local Environment | volume= 17 | issue= 8 | pages= 915–933 | doi=10.1080/13549839.2012.714755|s2cid=153340355 }}
* {{Cite journal | year=2010 | last1= Scerri | first1= Andy | last2= James | first2= Paul | authorlink2= Paul James (academic) | title= Accounting for sustainability: Combining qualitative and quantitative research in developing 'indicators' of sustainability | url= https://www.academia.edu/3230887 | journal= International Journal of Social Research Methodology | volume= 13 | issue= 1 | pages= 41–53 | doi=10.1080/13645570902864145| s2cid= 145391691 }}
==External links==
* [http://circlesofsustainability.com circlesofsustainability.com] Circles of Sustainability website
* [https://greenscore.eco/city-index-scoreboard.html GreenScore.eco] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316005511/https://greenscore.eco/city-index-scoreboard.html |date=16 March 2022 }} Green Score City Index website
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]
[[Category:Impact assessment]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:United Nations Environment Programme]]
[[Category:Environmental impact assessment]]
[[Category:Sustainability metrics and indices]] |
Ecoweek | {{Short description|Greek brandname}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Advert|date=November 2022}}
{{COI|date=November 2022}}
}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = ECOWEEK
| image = Ecoweek logo.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| type = Environment and Sustainability.
| founded_date = Established 2005.
| location = [[Aegina]], [[Greece]] (Based also in [[Athens]], [[Jerusalem]], and [[Thessaloniki]]).
| area_served = Europe, Middle East and International.
| focus = Environmental awareness, Sustainable design, [[Green Buildings]], [[Sustainability]], [[Placemaking]], [[Urban Intervention]].
| method = Design Workshops, hands-on, [[placemaking]], design build, education, training, cooperation, empowerment.
| Associates = In 17 countries
| Members = In 56 countries
| homepage =
| footnotes = ECOWEEK over the years has developed programs in [[Cyprus]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[India]], [[Italy]], [[Israel]], [[Netherlands]], [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]], [[Turkey]], [[United Kingdom]] and [[West Bank]].
}}
'''ECOWEEK''' ''Εβδομάδα Οικολογίας'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]) and ''אקוויק שנה הרגלים שנה אקלים'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) is a private, non-profit initiative to change people's habits. Its mission is to raise awareness about the environment, [[climate change]] and to promote the principles of [[sustainability]].
ECOWEEK organizes platforms of activity towards empowerment, networking, education, and training of young professionals and students. They include [[architects]], [[designers]], [[engineers]], [[landscape architects]], [[industrial designers]], [[visual communication]] designers. Through workshops and other activities, they engage in innovative, sustainable, urban, and public interventions and [[placemaking]], in cooperation with local authorities, organizations, academic and research institutions, and leaders.
== Mission ==
ECOWEEK's mission is to raise environmental and [[climate change]] awareness and to promote the principles of [[sustainability]].
== History ==
ECOWEEK was first established in [[Aegina|Aegina, Greece]] in 2005, as a community event – ''Ecological Week in Aegina'' – to raise environmental awareness of the local community of 14,000. At the time [[Aegina]] was challenged by unresolved waste management,<ref>Ζουμπουλάκης, Γ. (7-08-2005). ''Χωρίς νερό αλλά με σκουπίδια - Αίγινα''. ΤΟ ΒΗΜΑ - http://www.tovima.gr/relatedarticles/article/?aid=167683</ref> illegal burning of waste, inexistent waste recycling program, water shortages,<ref>Χριστοδουλίδου, Π. (9-08-2005). ''Άρχισε ξανά η μεταφορά νερού στην Αίγινα''. ΤΟ ΕΘΝΟΣ - http://www.ethnos.gr/article.asp?catid=22733&subid=2&pubid=11058</ref> energy shortages, and a partially unregulated, speculative construction market for [[Summer house|summer houses]]. These factors put pressure on protected areas to be developed and constructed.<ref>Petropoulos, Thracy. (1-06-2007). ''Concrete plans unsettled''. ATHENS NEWS - http://www.aeginagreece.com/main/aegina_eco/cementfactory.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214629/http://www.aeginagreece.com/main/aegina_eco/cementfactory.htm |date=2016-03-03 }}</ref> Summer home construction also contributed to the illegal disposal of [[construction waste]] in natural preserves and increased prussure on the capacity of the existing infrastructure of the island.
In 2007, responding to an increase demand for environmental awareness beyond Aegina, ECOWEEK co-organized activity throughout Greece, and initiated free-admission screenings of award-winning documentary on climate change by Davis Guggenheim, ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]'' with [[Al Gore]], in schools, army bases, and public fora in [[Athens]], [[Thessaloniki]], [[Patras]], [[Lamia (city)|Lamia]], [[Corfu]], and [[Crete]]. Within this activity, in June 2007, ECOWEEK held a public free-admission keynote lecture and slide show on climate change with Al Gore<ref>Πολιτισμός. (22-5-2007). ''Ο Αλ Γκορ στο Μέγαρο Μουσικής''. ΤΟ ΕΘΝΟΣ - http://www.ethnos.gr/article.asp?catid=22784&subid=2&pubid=110309</ref> at the [[Athens Concert Hall]]. In 2007 ECOWEEK was also established in [[Jerusalem|Jerusalem, Israel]] and in 2008 ECOWEEK initiated the first Ecological Week in [[Larnaca]], [[Cyprus]], in cooperation with the Municipality of Larnaka, involving schools, universities, professional organizations, and the general public.
== Programs ==
Since 2005, ECOWEEK developed its outreach activity towards raising awareness to a variety of population groups, age-groups and interests. For example, from children activity, cleaning of beaches, lottery of composters and solar chargers, to academic and colloquial lectures, site visits, design workshops, and film screenings.
Since 2008, ECOWEEK activities focus more on sustainable design and ecological building, social design, and [[placemaking]]. Its activity involved primarily one-week-long design workshops and international conferences for young and established professionals – primarily architects, designers, landscape architects and engineers. ECOWEEK has developed and expanded its activity through close collaboration with cultural institutions, such as the [[American Institute of Architects]] Continental Europe, the [[British Council]], [[Goethe Institute]], academic institutions, municipalities and governments. ECOWEEK has initiated and organized activities in [[Agios Nikolaos, Crete|Ag. Nikolaos]] ([[Crete]]), [[Athens]], [[Bethany (biblical village)|Azaryia]] ([[Bethany (biblical village)|Bethany]]), [[Belgrade]], [[Bucharest]], [[Cairns]], [[Copenhagen]], [[Istanbul]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Kraków]], [[London]], [[Milan]]o, [[Mumbai]], [[Sarajevo]], [[Tel Aviv]], [[Thessaloniki]], [[Tilburg]], [[Pristina|Prishtina]], and [[Rome]].
In 2017 ECOWEEK published its first book titled [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweekbook ECOWEEK Book#1: 50 Voices for Sustainability], featuring fifty articles by leading architects, designers, professionals, academics and environmentalists from around the world. Among them are award-winning architects [[Kengo Kuma]], [[Bjarke Ingels|BIG]], [[MVRDV]], [[Françoise-Hélène Jourda|Francoise-Helene Jourda]], [[Diébédo Francis Kéré|Diebedo Francis Kere]], [[Michael Sorkin]], Prof. David Orr and Antarctica explorer [[Robert Swan]]. The same year ECOWEEK also issued [https://issuu.com/ecoweek/docs/ecoweek_catalogue_2016 ECOWEEK: The Workshops] a publication with a collection of ideas and projects from the ECOWEEK workshops (2009-2016).
In 2021 ECOWEEK published its second book titled [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweekbook ECOWEEK Book#2: 15 Paths to Sustainability: from Innovation to Social Design], featuring articles by leading architects and designers on sustainable design, innovation, circular design, social and participatory design, and public participation. The same year ECOWEEK also issued [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweekbook ECOWEEK Workshops (2009-2021)] a publication with a collection of ideas and projects from the ECOWEEK workshops in 17 countries.
== Hassan Fathy ==
In 1989 ECOWEEK co-founder architect [[Elias Messinas]] met the late Egyptian architect [[Hassan Fathy]] – author of Architecture for the Poor – in [[Cairo]]. In that meeting, Fathy conveyed to Elias how problems in Egypt – among them is housing for the poor – could be solved. Among others Fathy challenged Messinas when he emphasized the need for young professionals to be more aware of their own community; and instead of imitating architecture in international magazines, to reach out, learn about and be creative while benefiting with their work their own community.
Inspired by Fathy, ECOWEEK workshops have gradually developed a more hands-on approach that links between academia and the community, and between professionals and students since 2010. Aiming to both empower and train young professionals to address urban public space, placemaking, urban communities through interventions in design and hands-on workshops in urban public context, ECOWEEK and its partners have developed a model of close collaboration with local authorities, local organizations and leaders. Through this collaboration, the ECOWEEK workshops are assigned projects that are real, support them with professional consultants and see that some of the projects are implemented. Students' ideas are heard and cities, neighborhoods and communities benefit from the innovative and creative ideas of students and the professional guidance of the workshop leaders. The ECOWEEK workshops have developed sustainable proposals for Copenhagen,<ref>''Oxgren, Dorthe. (15-05-2013).'' Studerende skal gore Nordvest gronnere. NORREBRO NORVEST BLADET p.6 - http://www.e-pages.dk/bgmonline_nv/310/</ref> Thessaloniki,<ref>(11-5-2011). ''Ecoweek Proposals for Thessaloniki''. in DETAIL Online - http://www.detail-online.com/architecture/topics/ecoweek-proposals-for-thessaloniki-007305.html</ref> Rome,<ref>Palumbo, Marialuisa. (28-11-2012). ''Form of Energy #16''. in DOMUSWEB - http://www.domusweb.it/it/architettura/2012/11/28/forms-of-energy-16.html</ref> Belgrade,<ref>Uzelac Fillipendin, Mirjana. (04-2013). ''ECOWEEK 2012 in Belgrade Event''. ARCHINTENTION - {{cite web |url=http://ambijenti.rs/wp-content/uploads/ambijent-upload-desktop/ambijenti/ArchIntetntion%20ECOWEEK%20BG%202012%20html/ |title=ArchIntention - Belgrade ECOWEEK 2012 |accessdate=2013-05-24 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606225958/http://ambijenti.rs/wp-content/uploads/ambijent-upload-desktop/ambijenti/ArchIntetntion%20ECOWEEK%20BG%202012%20html/ |archivedate=2013-06-06 }}</ref> Kraków,<ref>(05-2012). ''Strzelnica na nowo'' SZTUKA ARCHITECTURY - http://www.sztuka-architektury.pl/index.php?ID_PAGE=35275</ref> Jerusalem,<ref>Meyer, Ulf. (15-03-2012). ''Jerusalem soll gruner weden''. JUDISCHE ALLGEMEINE - http://www.juedische-allgemeine.de/article/view/id/12556/highlight/ulf&meyer</ref> and Azaryia,<ref>Udasin, Sharon. (24-04-2013). ''Ecological corridors vital to pilgrimage routes''. JERUSALEM POST - http://www.jpost.com/Enviro-Tech/Ecological-corridors-vital-to-pilgrimage-routes-310977</ref> and [[placamaking]] interventions at the Neot Shoshanim community center in [[Holon]].<ref>(8-10-2019). ''A Small Group of students makes BIG transformations at Ecoweek 2019 in Israel''. in DETAIL Online - https://www.detail-online.com/article/a-small-group-of-students-makes-big-transformations-at-ecoweek-2019-in-israel-34779/</ref>
== The GREENHOUSE ==
[[File:Ecoweek greenhouse.jpg|thumb|right]]
Aiming to establish a permanent platform and not just one-week-long activity, ECOWEEK established the GREENHOUSE in 2011 in Athens, Greece. The GREENHOUSE is a platform for innovation and entrepreneurship for society and the environment, engaging young architects, designers, landscape architects and students in real design assignments for real non-profit organizations and local authorities. The GREENHOUSE teams, under the guidance of experienced professionals, have developed sustainable solutions for schools, community centers, [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ghath2017 welfare institutions] and the urban public space in Athens and Thessaloniki in Greece and Holon,<ref>(20-05-2013). ''סטודנטים של המכון הטכומוגי מציגים פרוייקטים ירוקים בקהילה''. HOLON MUNICIPALITY - http://www.holon.muni.il/Lists/List6/DispForm.aspx?ID=1109</ref> Bat Yam and Jaffa in Israel.
== Online Challenge ==
Answering the [[COVID-19]] challenge of travel restrictions and confinement, and seeing the opportunity to raise the environmental agenda through virtual platforms, ECOWEEK has initiated a series of online challenge events, to engage young professionals and students worldwide. The first such event took place in [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweek2020 May 2020] attracting more than 350 participants from 20 countries. The second took place in [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweek15 October 2020]. More online events took place in Rome [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweek21rome] and Greece [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/ecoweekaegina2021] in 2021.
== References ==
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{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* {{Official website|http://www.ecoweek.org/}}
[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in Greece]]
[[Category:Architectural design]]
[[Category:Architectural education]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in Greece]]
[[Category:Climate change organizations]] |
Sust'n'Able | {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox organization
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| homepage = {{official |http://www.woodcraft.org.uk}}
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}}
'''Sust 'n' Able''' is the [[Woodcraft Folk]]'s programme of education for [[sustainable development]].
The project was the theme of the Woodcraft Folk's 2001 international camp in [[Nottinghamshire]] where 4,000 young people attended. The camp focused on sustainable development education and ran activates for children from five to twenty five around the themes.
At the camp a simulation game took place called 'World on a Tight Rope'. The game ran for the duration of the camp and involved people working for credits to create a more sustainable world. The simulation included two 'Earth Summits' held at the camp to come up with a declaration to the world's leaders at the [[World Summit on Sustainable Development]] (WSSD). The Earth Summit had "action stations" where people debated the issues to be included in the declaration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sust'n'Able |url=http://sustnable.woodcraft.org.uk/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030603084410/http://sustnable.woodcraft.org.uk/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2003-06-03 |website=International Camp |publisher=Woodcraft Folk}}</ref>
==The declaration and delegation==
The Declaration created as part of the simulation game was presented by a delegation of 11 young people. The delegation attended the [[United Nations]]' [[World Summit on Sustainable Development]] including both the civil society and the official political areas of the summit. The group worked with the [[International Falcon Movement - Socialist Education International]] delegation attending the summit.
Delegations from Woodcraft Folk attend all the [[Commission on Sustainable Development]] meetings in [[New York City]] which are follow-up meetings to the annual WSSD, with thematic cycles changing every two years.
==External links==
* {{official | url = http://www.woodcraft.org.uk |Woodcraft Folk Official website}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sust'N'Able}}
[[Category:The Woodcraft Folk]]
[[Category:Co-operatives in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:2001 establishments in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability in the United Kingdom]] |
Energy for Sustainable Development | {{Italic title}}
'''''Energy for Sustainable Development''''' is a [[peer-reviewed]] [[academic journal]] covering research on [[energy]]-related aspects of [[sustainable development]]. It is published by [[Elsevier]] and the [[editor-in-chief]] is Daniel B. Jones. According to the ''[[Journal Citation Reports]]'', the journal has a 2018 [[impact factor]] of 3.307, and a five-year impact factor (from 2018 backwards) of 3.691.<ref>{{cite web |title=Journal Metrics |url=https://www.journals.elsevier.com/energy-for-sustainable-development/ |website=Energy for Sustainable Development |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |accessdate=2 December 2019}}</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* {{Official website|http://www.journals.elsevier.com/energy-for-sustainable-development/}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Elsevier academic journals]]
[[Category:Academic journals established in 1993]]
[[Category:English-language journals]]
[[Category:Energy and fuel journals]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
{{energy-journal-stub}}
{{environment-journal-stub}} |
Green consumption | '''Green consumption''' is related to [[sustainable development]] or [[sustainable consumer behaviour]]. It is a form of [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] that safeguards the [[Environmental movement|environment]] for the present and for future generations. It ascribes to consumers responsibility or co-responsibility for addressing environmental problems through the adoption of [[environmentally friendly]] behaviors, such as the use of [[organic products]], clean and [[renewable energy]], and the choice of goods produced by companies with zero, or almost zero, impact ([[zero waste]], [[zero-emissions vehicle]], [[zero-energy building]], etc.).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Connolly |first1=John |last2=Prothero |first2=Andrea |title=Green Consumption: Life-politics, risk and contradictions |journal=Journal of Consumer Culture |date=March 2008 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=117–145 |doi=10.1177/1469540507086422 |s2cid=146265463 }}</ref>
In [[Western societies]], green consumption emerged during the 1960s and the early 1970s, with the increased awareness of the necessity to [[environmental protection|protect the environment]] and people's health from the effects caused by [[Industrial waste|industrial pollutants]] and by economic and population growth. In the 1980s, the first American [[green brand|"green" brands]] began to appear and exploded on the American market. During the 1990s, green products grew slowly, remaining a niche phenomenon. American interest in green products started to increase again in the early 2000s and have continued to grow.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=Rebecca |title=The taste for green: The possibilities and dynamics of status differentiation through 'green' consumption |journal=Poetics |date=June 2013 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=294–322 |doi=10.1016/j.poetic.2013.03.003 }}</ref>
== Origin and development ==
After the [[1973 oil crisis|oil crisis of 1973]], people in western countries began to consider the use of [[green energy]] as an alternative to [[fossil fuel]]s. Now green consumption is considered a basic point of environmental reform and it is also guaranteed by supra-national organizations like the [[European Union]]. Some [[Sociology|sociologists]]{{who|date=March 2022}} argue that increasing [[globalization]] led people to feel more interconnected with others and the environment, which led to an increasing awareness of global [[environmental problems]], especially in western countries.
The main forums in which the issue has been discussed, and which have provided guidelines to orient national governments are: [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment|Stockholm 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment]]; [[International Union for Conservation of Nature#The World Conservation Strategy 1975–1985|IUCN 1980 World Conservation Strategy]]; [[Brundtland Commission|World Commission on Environment and Development in 1983 and 1987 Brundtland Report]]; Italy 1993 National Plan for Sustainable Development; Aalborg 1994, 1st European Conference on Sustainable Cities; [[Lisbon]] 1996, 2nd European Conference on Sustainable Cities; [[Hanover|Hannover]] 2000, 3rd Conference on Sustainable Cities; [[European Union]] in 2001, VI Environmental Action Plan 2002/2010; Aalborg +10; and the [[Aalborg]] Commitments in 2004.
== Pro-environmental behavior ==
Green [[Consumer behaviour|consumer behavior]] is a form of pro-environmental behavior, a form of consumption that harms the [[Natural environment|environment]] as little as possible or even benefits the environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steg |first1=Linda |last2=Vlek |first2=Charles |title=Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review and research agenda |journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology |date=September 2009 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=309–317 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.10.004 |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/168780972/1_s2.0_S0272494408000959_main.pdf |hdl=11370/7581b727-854c-41c2-a8af-e055e6224240 |s2cid=9264684 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Research provides [[Empirical evidence|empirical support]] to the claim that green or pro-environmental consumer behavior is composed of:<ref name="Ertz et al 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Ertz |first1=Myriam |last2=Karakas |first2=Fahri |last3=Sarigöllü |first3=Emine |title=Exploring pro-environmental behaviors of consumers: An analysis of contextual factors, attitude, and behaviors |journal=Journal of Business Research |date=October 2016 |volume=69 |issue=10 |pages=3971–3980 |doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.06.010 |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/59480/1/Manuscript.pdf }}</ref>
* "Private-sphere behavior" — the purchase, use, and disposal of personal and household products that have environmental impact,<ref name=Stern2000>{{cite journal |last1=Stern |first1=Paul C. |title=New Environmental Theories: Toward a Coherent Theory of Environmentally Significant Behavior |journal=Journal of Social Issues |date=January 2000 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=407–424 |doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00175 |s2cid=5018908 }}</ref> such as [[Car|automobiles]], public transportation, or recycling<ref name="Ertz et al 2016"/>
* "Public-sphere behavior" — behavior that affects the environment directly through committed environmental activism or indirectly by influencing public policies,<ref name=Stern2000/> such as active involvement in environmental organizations and demonstrations (direct impact) or petitioning on [[environmental issues]] (indirect impact)<ref name="Ertz et al 2016"/>
Contextual factors like monetary incentives, costs, regulations, and public policy norms, as well as subjectively perceived factors such as perceived resources available<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olli |first1=Eero |last2=Grendstad |first2=Gunnar |last3=Wollebaek |first3=Dag |title=Correlates of Environmental Behaviors: Bringing Back Social Context |journal=Environment and Behavior |date=March 2001 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=181–208 |doi=10.1177/0013916501332002 |s2cid=38386910 }}</ref> influence consumer pro-environmental behavior and thus green consumption through the mediating effect of attitudes.<ref name="Ertz et al 2016"/> It is through attitude that subjectively perceived contextual factors such as the extent to which consumers perceive having more or less time, money, and power available, modulate pro-environmental behavior in general, and green consumption in particular.
== Green consumer behavior ==
Green consumer behavior has the following characteristics:
* "purchase choice, product use and post-use, household management, collective, and consumer activism behaviors, reflecting some degree of environmental-related motivation";<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peattie |first1=Ken |title=Green Consumption: Behavior and Norms |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |date=21 November 2010 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=195–228 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-032609-094328 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* "purchase and use of products with lower [[Natural environment|environmental]] impacts, such as biodegradable products, recycled or reduced packaging, and low energy usage";<ref name="Costa Pinto et al 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Costa Pinto |first1=Diego |last2=Herter |first2=Márcia M. |last3=Rossi |first3=Patricia |last4=Borges |first4=Adilson |title=Going green for self or for others? Gender and identity salience effects on sustainable consumption: Gender, identities and sustainable consumption |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |date=September 2014 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=540–549 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12114 }}</ref>
* use of [[organic product]]s, made with processes that provide [[energy saving]]s, then by the action of [[recycling]].
A green consumer is "one who purchase products and services perceived to have a positive (or less negative) influence on the environment…"<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haws |first1=Kelly L. |last2=Winterich |first2=Karen Page |last3=Naylor |first3=Rebecca Walker |title=Seeing the world through GREEN-tinted glasses: Green consumption values and responses to environmentally friendly products |journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology |date=July 2014 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=336–354 |doi=10.1016/j.jcps.2013.11.002 |s2cid=154557555 }}</ref>
Green consumers act ethically, motivated not only by their personal needs, but also by the respect and preservation of the welfare of entire society, because they take into account the environmental consequences (costs and benefits) of their private consumption. Green consumers are more conscientious in their use of assets, for example by using their goods without wasting resources.
However the Eurobarometer's survey of consumers’ behavior (2013) showed that consumers seem not to place importance on adopting a set of new behaviors that are more environmentally-friendly. That report{{cn|date=March 2022}} stated that even though a very high proportion of citizens buy [[green products]] (80%), more than half are classified as occasional maintenance{{clarify|reason=what does that mean?|date=March 2022}} (54%), and only a quarter are regular buyer of green products (26%).
This suggests that most people do not behave like green consumers continuously, probably because of social and economic constraints, such as the fact that green products can be more expensive than non-green ones, or because it is not always easy to find green goods for each category, and green retailers are not so widespread. Some researchers{{who|date=March 2022}} find that personal values are influential determinants of consumption and that pro-environmental behavior might serve as a signal of [[personality]] dimension{{clarify|reason=what is personality dimension?|date=March 2022}}. There are two types of consumers:
# prevention-type consumers, who feel a moral duty towards a greener lifestyle
# promotion-type, who are more focused on their aspirations and their dreams and don't strongly feel the pressure to quickly adjust their behavior in the direction of becoming more environmentally-friendly<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miniero |first1=Giulia |last2=Codini |first2=Anna |last3=Bonera |first3=Michelle |last4=Corvi |first4=Elisabetta |last5=Bertoli |first5=Giuseppe |title=Being green: from attitude to actual consumption: Being green |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |date=September 2014 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=521–528 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12128 |s2cid=143158022 }}</ref>
Another researcher finds an effect of gender and [[social identity]] on green consumption: {{clarify|reason=missing end-quote|date=March 2022}}"female declared higher levels of sustainable consumption compared with male participants; however when social identity is salient, male increased their [[sustainable consumption]] intentions to the same level as female.<ref name="Costa Pinto et al 2014"/> In this research are identified two kind of people, that have more:
# self-transcendent values, like women, that are more willing to engage in [[sustainable consumption]]
# self-enhanced values, like men, that are less interested in green behavior{{clarify|reason=confusing as-written|date=March 2022}}
Sustainable consumption is, for men, a way to reinforce their social image, showing to others that they care about environment, whereas for women sustainable consumption is intrinsically important. The evidence is that green consumers are mainly female, aged between 30 and 44 years old, well educated, in a household with a high annual income.<ref name="Costa Pinto et al 2014"/>
== Principal areas of developed green consumption ==
=== Green energy ===
[[Green energy]] includes natural energetic processes that can be harnessed with little pollution.
=== Green food ===
Demand for less environmentally-damaging food production leads people to buy more [[organic food|organic]] and [[local food|local]] food.
[[Organic food]] is produced through agriculture that does not use artificial chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and animals reared in more natural conditions, without the routine use of drugs, antibiotics, and dewormers common in intensive livestock farming.
Consumers can also choose to buy local food in order to reduce the social and environmental impacts of "food miles" – the distance food travels between being produced and being consumed. This behavior can create a new sense of connection with the land, through a concern for the authenticity and provenience of the food eaten, operating as a social as much as a technological innovation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seyfang |first1=Gill |title=Growing sustainable consumption communities: The case of local organic food networks |journal=International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy |date=May 2007 |volume=27 |issue=3/4 |pages=120–134 |doi=10.1108/01443330710741066 }}</ref> Taste, health, and safety concerns can be other reasons behind this consumption practices.
=== Green fashion ===
{{Main|Sustainable fashion}}
: Ethical clothing refers to clothing that takes into consideration the impact of production and trade on the [[Natural environment|environment]] and on the people behind the clothes we wear. Eco clothing refers to all clothing that has been manufactured using environmentally friendly processes. It includes organic textiles and sustainable materials such as [[hemp]] and non-textiles such as [[bamboo]] or [[recycled plastic]] bottles. It also includes recycled products (clothes made from recycled clothing including vintage, textile and other materials and can also be termed re-used) and is not necessarily made from organic fibers. Organic clothing means clothes that have been made with a minimum use of chemicals and with minimum damage to the environment and fair-trade is intended to achieve better prices, decent working conditions, local sustainability and fair terms for farmers and workers in the developing world.<ref name="Cervellon et al 2010">{{cite web |last1=Cervellon |first1=Marie-Cécile |last2=Hjerth |first2=Helena |last3=Ricard |first3=Sandrine |last4=Carey |first4=Lindsey |title=Green in fashion? An exploratory study of national differences in consumers concern for eco-fashion |date=2010 |url=https://www.compromisorse.com/upload/estudios/000/114/GreenFashion.pdf }}</ref>
Three reasons that motivate the purchase of organic cloths are:
* Environmentally-friendly protection;
* Health impact;
* Ethical concerns.
The textile and [[clothing industry]] generates much pollution and consumes many [[resource]]s. Improper use and disposal of clothing products make the problems much more severe.
Consumers who are concerned about these (environmental) issues, are best motivated to change their behaviors via [[philanthropic]] or environmental-friendly actions that adapt with their financial and sustainability interests.
An intuitive and sustainable strategy is clothing reuse. [[Textile recycling]] is a method of reprocessing used clothing, fibrous material, and clothing scraps from the manufacturing process. This can reduce manufacturing pollution and [[resource consumption]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Zhi-Hua |last2=Li |first2=Qing |last3=Chen |first3=Xian-Juan |last4=Wang |first4=Yan-Feng |title=Sustainable Rent-Based Closed-Loop Supply Chain for Fashion Products |journal=Sustainability |date=16 October 2014 |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=7063–7088 |doi=10.3390/su6107063 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Consumers may pay attention to the origin and the materials of the clothes they buy and whether they are harmful to the environment.<ref>Cotton incorporated: http://www.cottoninc.com/corporate/Market-Data/SupplyChainInsights/consumer-perspectives-on-green-apparel/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314185235/http://www.cottoninc.com/corporate/Market-Data/SupplyChainInsights/consumer-perspectives-on-green-apparel/ |date=2015-03-14 }}{{rs|date=July 2021}}</ref>
Consumers often have a lack of information of [[green fashion]] or are unaware of the existence of green fashion alternatives to traditional adult fashion.
{{or|date=July 2021}}
== See also==
{{Portal|Ecology|Environment}}
* [[Cultured meat]]
* [[Eco-capitalism]]
* [[Environmental vegetarianism]]
* [[Ethical consumerism]]
* [[Green infrastructure]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Banbury |first1=Catherine |last2=Stinerock |first2=Robert |last3=Subrahmanyan |first3=Saroja |title=Sustainable consumption: Introspecting across multiple lived cultures |journal=Journal of Business Research |date=April 2012 |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=497–503 |doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.02.028 }}
* A. Bayley, T. Strange,2008, Sustainable development. Linking economy, society, environment, OECD INSIGHT
* {{cite journal |last1=Miniero |first1=Giulia |last2=Codini |first2=Anna |last3=Bonera |first3=Michelle |last4=Corvi |first4=Elisabetta |last5=Bertoli |first5=Giuseppe |title=Being green: from attitude to actual consumption: Being green |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |date=September 2014 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=521–528 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12128 |s2cid=143158022 }}
* G. Bologna, Natura in bancarotta: verso le nuove regole dell’economia nell’era dell’Antropocene, http://www.greenreport.it/rubriche/natura-in-bancarotta-verso-nuove-regole-delleconomia-nellera-dellantropocene/#prettyPhoto[videospot]/0/
* {{cite journal |last1=Costa Pinto |first1=Diego |last2=Herter |first2=Márcia M. |last3=Rossi |first3=Patricia |last4=Borges |first4=Adilson |title=Going green for self or for others? Gender and identity salience effects on sustainable consumption: Gender, identities and sustainable consumption |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |date=September 2014 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=540–549 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12114 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calef |first1=David |last2=Goble |first2=Robert |title=The allure of technology: How France and California promoted electric and hybrid vehicles to reduce urban air pollution |journal=Policy Sciences |date=1 March 2007 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–34 |doi=10.1007/s11077-006-9022-7 |s2cid=154438981 |hdl=10.1007/s11077-006-9022-7 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Connolly |first1=John |last2=Prothero |first2=Andrea |title=Green Consumption: Life-politics, risk and contradictions |journal=Journal of Consumer Culture |date=March 2008 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=117–145 |doi=10.1177/1469540507086422 |s2cid=146265463 }}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1109/ICRTIT.2014.6996212 |chapter=Efficient energy consumption in green cloud |title=2014 International Conference on Recent Trends in Information Technology |year=2014 |last1=Valliyammai c |last2=Uma s |last3=Dhivya Bharathi k |last4=Surya p |pages=1–4 |s2cid=16191822 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=A. Greening |first1=Lorna |last2=Greene |first2=David L. |last3=Difiglio |first3=Carmen |title=Energy efficiency and consumption — the rebound effect — a survey |journal=Energy Policy |date=June 2000 |volume=28 |issue=6–7 |pages=389–401 |doi=10.1016/S0301-4215(00)00021-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=Rebecca |title=The taste for green: The possibilities and dynamics of status differentiation through 'green' consumption |journal=Poetics |date=June 2013 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=294–322 |doi=10.1016/j.poetic.2013.03.003 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ertz |first1=Myriam |last2=Karakas |first2=Fahri |last3=Sarigöllü |first3=Emine |title=Exploring pro-environmental behaviors of consumers: An analysis of contextual factors, attitude, and behaviors |journal=Journal of Business Research |date=October 2016 |volume=69 |issue=10 |pages=3971–3980 |doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.06.010 |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/59480/1/Manuscript.pdf }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Farbotko |first1=Carol |last2=Head |first2=Lesley |title=Gifts, sustainable consumption and giving up green anxieties at Christmas |journal=Geoforum |date=December 2013 |volume=50 |pages=88–96 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.08.004 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/smhpapers/1102 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goworek |first1=Helen |title=Social and environmental sustainability in the clothing industry: a case study of a fair trade retailer |journal=Social Responsibility Journal |date=8 March 2011 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=74–86 |doi=10.1108/17471111111114558 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Haws |first1=Kelly L. |last2=Winterich |first2=Karen Page |last3=Naylor |first3=Rebecca Walker |title=Seeing the world through GREEN-tinted glasses: Green consumption values and responses to environmentally friendly products |journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology |date=July 2014 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=336–354 |doi=10.1016/j.jcps.2013.11.002 |s2cid=154557555 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Heiskanen |first1=Eva |last2=Pantzar |first2=Mika |title=Toward Sustainable Consumption: Two New Perspectives |journal=Journal of Consumer Policy |date=1 December 1997 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=409–442 |doi=10.1023/A:1006862631698 |s2cid=153749071 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Jim |first1=C. Y. |title=Sustainable urban greening strategies for compact cities in developing and developed economies |journal=Urban Ecosystems |date=1 December 2013 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=741–761 |doi=10.1007/s11252-012-0268-x |s2cid=16554727 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Saxena |first1=Ravindra P. |last2=Khandelwal |first2=Pradeep K. |title=Greening of industries for sustainable growth: An exploratory study on durable, non‐durable and services industries |journal=International Journal of Social Economics |date=29 June 2012 |volume=39 |issue=8 |pages=551–586 |doi=10.1108/03068291211238437 }}
* {{cite news |title=Green: The Latest Fashion in Building for 2008 |url=https://www.buildings.com/articles/34628/green-latest-fashion-building-2008 |work=Buildings }}
* A. Magnani, 2014, Moda green più competitiva, nòva, IL SOLE 24ORE
* {{cite book |last1=Micheletti |first1=Michele |title=Political Virtue and Shopping: Individuals, Consumerism, and Collective Action |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4039-7376-4 |doi=10.1057/9781403973764 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Moisander |first1=Johanna |last2=Pesonen |first2=Sinikka |title=Narratives of sustainable ways of living: constructing the self and the other as a green consumer |journal=Management Decision |date=May 2002 |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=329–342 |doi=10.1108/00251740210426321 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Spaargaren |first1=G |last2=Mol |first2=A |title=Greening global consumption: Redefining politics and authority |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=August 2008 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=350–359 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.04.010 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Olli |first1=Eero |last2=Grendstad |first2=Gunnar |last3=Wollebaek |first3=Dag |title=Correlates of Environmental Behaviors: Bringing Back Social Context |journal=Environment and Behavior |date=March 2001 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=181–208 |doi=10.1177/0013916501332002 |s2cid=38386910 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Peattie |first1=Ken |title=Green Consumption: Behavior and Norms |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |date=21 November 2010 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=195–228 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-032609-094328 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |title=The Greening of Wal-Mart - Jonathan Rowe |date=April 2011 |url=https://jonathanrowe.org/the-greening-of-wal-mart }}
* R. Sassatelli, 2007, Consumer culture. History, theory and politics, SAGE Publications
* {{cite journal |last1=Seyfang |first1=Gill |title=Growing sustainable consumption communities: The case of local organic food networks |journal=International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy |date=May 2007 |volume=27 |issue=3/4 |pages=120–134 |doi=10.1108/01443330710741066 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Steg |first1=Linda |last2=Vlek |first2=Charles |title=Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review and research agenda |journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology |date=September 2009 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=309–317 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.10.004 |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/168780972/1_s2.0_S0272494408000959_main.pdf |hdl=11370/7581b727-854c-41c2-a8af-e055e6224240 |s2cid=9264684 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Thongplew |first1=Natapol |last2=van Koppen |first2=C.S.A. (Kris) |last3=Spaargaren |first3=Gert |title=Companies contributing to the greening of consumption: findings from the dairy and appliance industries in Thailand |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=July 2014 |volume=75 |pages=96–105 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.03.076 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barendregt |first1=Bart |last2=Jaffe |first2=Rivke |title=Green Consumption: The Global Rise of Eco-Chic |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-85785-798-9 |doi=10.4324/9781003085508 |s2cid=241764140 }}
== External links ==
* [http://webecoist.momtastic.com/2008/09/15/going-green-smart-consumption-25-tip/ Going Green: Smart Consumption (24 Tips)]
{{Sustainability}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Consumption]]
[[Category:Ethical consumerism]] |
Sustainable markets | {{Short description|Sustainable exchange of goods and services}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{essay-like|date=June 2015}}
{{tone|date=June 2015}}
}}
'''Sustainable markets''' are defined as systems or institutions where the exchange of goods and services occurs with a [[sustainable]], ethical, and [[Environmentalism|environmentalist]] mindset. Sustainable markets differ from traditional economic markets as they aim to diminish the effects of [[natural resource]] [[Environmental degradation|degradation]], [[environmental pollution]], and [[Occupational safety and health|promote safe labor]] practices.<ref name=":0">Skoll Foundation (2015) ‘Sustainable Markets page’ http://www.skollfoundation.org/issue/sustainable-markets/</ref>
== Transition to sustainable markets ==
In order to transition to sustainable markets, the use of [[market governance mechanism]]s (MGMs) to change the behavior of economic actors has been considered. Examples of sustainable market MGMs include [[Fair trade certification|fair trade certifications]], sustainable production reporting, [[Carbon tax|carbon taxes]], pollution control subsidies,<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OP|date=2014-04-20|title=Economic Incentives|url=https://www.epa.gov/environmental-economics/economic-incentives|access-date=2022-01-04|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref> and payments for [[ecosystem services]].
== History ==
In the past, the sustainable market discussion was limited only to theorizing how to best reach sustainability goals like [[carbon neutrality]]. However, in 2022 [[California]] governor Gavin Newsom signed The California Climate Commitment which promised to make California Carbon Neutral by 2045.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-16 |title=Governor Newsom Signs Sweeping Climate Measures, Ushering in New Era of World-Leading Climate Action |url=https://www.gov.ca.gov/2022/09/16/governor-newsom-signs-sweeping-climate-measures-ushering-in-new-era-of-world-leading-climate-action/ |access-date=2022-10-12 |website=California Governor |language=en}}</ref> Over the next two decades, the [[Climate commitment|Climate Commitment]] aims to:
* Create 4 million new jobs
* Cut air pollution by 60%
* Reduce state oil consumption by 91%
* Save California $23 billion by avoiding the damages of pollution
* Reduce fossil fuel use in buildings and transportation by 92%
* Cut refinery pollution by 94%
However, much of the world has dealt with issues in implementing these goals as of 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ro |first=Christine |title=Second Year Of Stalled Progress On The Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/christinero/2022/09/27/second-year-of-stalled-progress-on-the-sustainable-development-goals/ |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>
== Debates ==
As more legislation such as the California Climate Commitment becomes commonplace, there are also questions of whether it is ethical to impose market restrictions on developing countries. Many developing countries experience greater negative impacts from climate change<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change and the Developing World: A Disproportionate Impact |url=https://www.usglc.org/blog/climate-change-and-the-developing-world-a-disproportionate-impact/ |access-date=2022-10-12 |website=USGLC |language=en-US}}</ref> but are also more harshly impacted by economic restrictions. Furthermore, there are unresolved debates over how much regulation or [[economic interventionism|government intervention]] is appropriate in order to govern sustainable markets, including the use of [[Ecotax|ecotaxes]].
Broader questions remain over the ability of sustainable markets to fully account for environmental costs, such as pollution and [[ecosystem collapse]]. Debates about the main focus of economic models, such as [[GDP]] or social [[well-being]], also exist. There have been suggestions that a move away from a GDP focus is required for environmental prosperity.
== Organizations ==
A number of organizations are working in the sustainable markets field.
* The [[International Institute for Environment and Development]]'s Sustainable Markets Group develops research and analysis towards sustainable markets and the debates and innovations shaping markets.<ref>International Institute for Environment and Development (2015) http://www.iied.org/group/sustainable-markets</ref> This research also includes a database of market governance mechanisms.
* The U.S-based [[Skoll Foundation]] runs a program on sustainable markets which focuses on areas such as responsible supply chains, access to finance for sustainable small and medium enterprises, and work on environmental standards and certification.<ref name=":0" />
* The [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] runs the Sustainable Markets and Responsible Trade initiative.<ref>International Institute for Sustainable Development (2013) ‘Sustainable Markets and Responsible Trade’ https://www.iisd.org/markets/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401033500/https://www.iisd.org/markets/ |date=2015-04-01 }}</ref> This focuses on the sustainability of international trade, the design, and implementation of supply chains.
* The Mistra Center for Sustainable Markets (Misum), based at [[Stockholm School of Economics]], aims to provide policy research and advice to Swedish and international actors. Misum is a cross-disciplinary and multi-stakeholder knowledge center dedicated to sustainability and sustainable markets and contains three research platforms: Sustainability in Financial Markets, Sustainability in Production, and Consumption & Sustainable Socio-Economic Development.<ref>Mistra Center for Sustainable Markets (2015) http://www.hhs.se/misum</ref>
{{Sustainability}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Sustainable business|Markets]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]] |
Environmental impact assessment | {{abbreviations|date=October 2016}}
{{short description|Assessment of the environmental consequences of a decision before action}}
{{Environmental law}}
'''Environmental Impact assessment''' ('''EIA''') is the assessment of the [[environmental impact|environmental consequences]] of a plan, policy, program, or actual projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. In this context, the term "environmental impact assessment" is usually used when applied to actual projects by individuals or companies and the term "[[strategic environmental assessment]]" (SEA) applies to policies, plans and programmes most often proposed by organs of state.<ref>MacKinnon, A. J., Duinker, P. N., Walker, T. R. (2018). The Application of Science in Environmental Impact Assessment. Routledge.</ref><ref>Eccleston, Charles H. (2011). [https://www.amazon.com/Environmental-Impact-Assessment-Professional-Practices/dp/1439828733/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1486945778&sr=8-2&keywords=charles+eccleston Environmental Impact Assessment: A Guide to Best Professional Practices]. Chapter 5. {{ISBN|978-1439828731}}</ref> It is a tool of [[Environmental management system|environmental management]] forming a part of project approval and decision-making.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the City|last=Caves|first=R. W.|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|pages=227}}</ref> Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of [[Administrative law|administrative procedure]] regarding public participation and documentation of decision making, and may be subject to judicial review.
The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-makers consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The [[International Association for Impact Assessment]] (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the [[Biophysics|biophysical]], social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iaia.org/pdf/IAIAMemberDocuments/Publications/Guidelines_Principles/Principles%20of%20IA.PDF |title=Principle of Environmental Impact Assessment Best Practice |publisher=[[International Association for Impact Assessment]] |date=1999 |url-status=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507084339/http://www.iaia.org/publicdocuments/special-publications/Principles%20of%20IA_web.pdf |archivedate=May 7, 2012|access-date=September 15, 2020}}</ref> EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision-makers to [[environmental full-cost accounting|account for environmental values]] in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed [[environmental studies]] and public comments on the potential environmental impacts.<ref>Holder, J., (2004), Environmental Assessment: The Regulation of Decision Making, Oxford University Press, New York; For a comparative discussion of the elements of various domestic EIA systems, see Christopher Wood Environmental Impact Assessment: A Comparative Review (2 ed, Prentice Hall, Harlow, 2002).</ref>
{{TOC limit|4}}
== History ==
Environmental Impact Assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing [[environmental awareness]].<ref>''See,'' for example, [[Environmental movement in the United States]].</ref> An EIA is prepared to estimate the effects of a proposed development or construction project. EIA provides technical evaluations that are intended to contribute to more objective decision making. In the United States, EIA obtained formal status in 1969, with the enactment of the [[National Environmental Policy Act]] (NEPA). EIAs have been used increasingly around the world. The number of environmental assessments filed every year "has vastly overtaken the number of more rigorous [[Environmental Impact Statement]]s (EIS)."{{sfn|Clark|Canter|1997|p=199}} An environmental assessment is a "mini-Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) designed to provide sufficient information to allow the agency to decide whether the preparation of a full-blown Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is necessary."{{sfn|Rychlak|Case|2010|p=111-120}}{{sfn|Kershner|2011}}
== Methods ==
General and industry specific assessment methods are available including:
* ''Industrial products'' – Product environmental [[life cycle analysis]] (LCA) is used for identifying and measuring the impact of industrial products on the environment. These EIAs consider activities related to extraction of raw materials, ancillary materials, equipment; production, use, disposal and ancillary equipment.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1470160X04000160 |last1=Daniel |first1=Stavros E |last2=Tsoulfas |first2=Giannis T |last3=Pappis |first3=Costas P |last4=Rachaniotis |first4=Nikos P |title=Aggregating and evaluating the results of different Environmental Impact Assessment methods|journal=Ecological Indicators|volume=4|issue=2|year=2004|pages=125–138|doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2004.01.003}}</ref>
* ''Genetically modified plants'' – Specific methods available to perform EIAs of [[genetically modified organisms]] include GMP-RAM and INOVA.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195925509000444|author1=Hitzschky, K. |author2=Silviera, J.|year=2009|title=A proposed impact assessment method for genetically modified plants (As-GMP method)|journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review|volume=29|issue=6|pages=348–368|doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2009.02.006}}</ref>
* ''[[Fuzzy logic]]'' – EIA methods need measurement data to estimate values of impact indicators. However, many of the environment impacts cannot be quantified, e.g. landscape quality, lifestyle quality and [[social acceptance]]. Instead, information from similar EIAs, expert judgment and community sentiment are employed. Approximate reasoning methods known as fuzzy logic can be used.<ref>Peche, R., & Rodriguez, E., (2009) Environmental impact Assessment procedure: A new approach based on Fuzzy logic Environmental Impact Assessment review 29:275–283</ref> A fuzzy arithmetic approach has also been proposed<ref>Duarte O. (2000) Técnicas Difusas en la Evaluación de Impacto Ambiental. Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad de Granada</ref> and implemented using a software tool (TDEIA).<ref>ARAI Research Group, Granada, Spain. [http://arai.ugr.es/eiadifusa/ "Environmental Impact Assessment at University of Granada."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025165732/http://arai.ugr.es/eiadifusa/ |date=2014-10-25 }}</ref>
== Follow-up ==
At the end of the project, an audit evaluates the accuracy of the EIA by comparing actual to predicted impacts. The objective is to make future EIAs more valid and effective. Two primary considerations are:
* ''Scientific'' – to examine the accuracy of predictions and explain errors{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
* ''Management'' – to assess the success of mitigation in reducing impacts{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Audits can be performed either as a rigorous assessment of the [[null hypothesis]] or with a simpler approach comparing what actually occurred against the predictions in the EIA document.<ref>Wilson, L., (1998), A Practical Method for Environmental Impact Assessment Audits Environ Impact Assess Rev 18: 59–71</ref>
After an EIA, the [[Precautionary principle|precautionary]] and [[polluter pays principle]]s may be applied to decide whether to reject, modify or require [[strict liability]] or [[insurance]] coverage to a project, based on predicted harms.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
The [[Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol]] is a sector-specific method for checking the quality of Environmental and Social assessments and management plans.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
== Around the world ==
=== Australia ===
The history of EIA in Australia could be linked to the enactment of the [[National Environmental Policy Act|U.S. National Environment Policy Act]] (NEPA) in 1970, which made the preparation of environmental impact statements a requirement. In Australia, one might say that the EIA procedures were introduced at a State Level prior to that of the Commonwealth (Federal), with a majority of the states having divergent views to the Commonwealth. One of the pioneering states was New South Wales, whose State Pollution Control Commission issued EIA guidelines in 1974. At a Commonwealth (i.e. Federal) level, this was followed by passing of the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 (Cth) in 1974. The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) (EPBC Act) superseded the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 (Cth) and is the current central piece for EIA in Australia on a Commonwealth (i.e. Federal) level. An important point to note is that this federal legislation does not override the validity of the States or Territories environmental and development assessments and approvals; rather the EPBC Act runs as a parallel to the State/Territory Systems.<ref name="Elliott">Elliott, M. & Thomas, I. (2009), "Environment Impact Assessment in Australia: Theory and Practice, 5th Edn, Federation Press, Sydney"</ref> Overlap between federal and state requirements is addressed via bilateral agreements or one-off accreditation of state processes, as provided for in the EPBC Act.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
==== The Commonwealth Level ====
The EPBC Act provides a legal framework to protect and manage nationally and internationally important flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places. It defines this as matters of "national environmental significance". The following are the nine matters of such significance:<ref name="department" />
* World Heritage properties;
* National Heritage places;
* Wetlands of international importance (listed under the Ramsar Convention);
* Listed threatened species and ecological communities;
* Migratory species protected under international agreements;
* Commonwealth marine areas;
* the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]];
* Nuclear actions (including uranium mining); and
* Water resources, in relation with coal seam gas development and large coal mining development.
In addition to this, the EPBC Act aims at providing a streamlined national assessment and approval process for activities. These activities could be by the Commonwealth, or its agents, anywhere in the world or activities on Commonwealth land; and activities that are listed as having a 'significant impact' on matters of 'national environment significance'.<ref name="department">{{citation|publisher=The Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|location=Australia|title=The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/|access-date=9 September 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007230525/http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/|archive-date=7 October 2013}}</ref>
The EPBC Act comes into play when a person (a proponent) wants an action (often called "a proposal" or "a project") assessed for environmental impacts under the EPBC Act, he or she must refer the project to the Department of the Environment and Energy (Commonwealth). This referral is then released to the public and the relevant state, territory and Commonwealth ministers, for comment on whether the project is likely to have a significant impact on matters of national environmental significance.<ref name="department" /> The Department of the Environment and Energy assess the process and makes recommendation to the minister or the delegate for the feasibility. The final discretion on the decision remains of the minister, which is not solely based on matters of national environmental significance but also on the consideration of social and economic impact of the project.<ref name="department" />
The Australian Government Minister for the Environment and Energy cannot intervene in a proposal if it has no significant impact on one of the eight matters of national environmental significance, regardless of any other undesirable environmental impacts.<ref name="department" /> This is primarily due to the division of powers between the states and the Federal government, and the Australian Government environment minister not being able to overturn a state decision.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
There are strict civil and criminal penalties for the breach of EPBC Act. Depending on the kind of breach, civil penalty (maximum) may go up to $550,000 for an individual and $5.5 million for a body corporate, or for criminal penalty (maximum) of seven years imprisonment and/or penalty of $46,200.<ref name="department" />
==== The State and Territory Level ====
===== Australian Capital Territory (ACT) =====
EIA provisions within Ministerial Authorities in the ACT are found in the Chapters 7 and 8 of the ''Planning and Development Act 2007'' (ACT). EIA in ACT was previously administered with the help of Part 4 of the Land (Planning and Environment) Act 1991 (Land Act) and Territory Plan (plan for land-use).<ref name="Elliott" />
Note that some EIA may occur in the ACT on Commonwealth land under the EPBC Act (Cth). Further provisions of the ''Australian Capital Territory (Planning and Land Management) Act 1988'' (Cth) may also be applicable particularly to national land and "designated areas".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
===== New South Wales (NSW) =====
In New South Wales, the ''Environment Planning and Assessment Act 1979'' (EP&A Act) establishes two pathways for EIA. The first is under Division 5.2 of the EP&A Act, which provides for EIA of 'State Significant Infrastructure' projects (from June 2011, this Part replaced the previous Part 3A, which previously covered EIA of major projects). The second is under Part 4 of the EP&A Act dealing with development assessments for local, regional, and State Significant Developments (other than State Significant Infrastructure).<ref name="Elliott" />
===== Northern Territory (NT) =====
The EIA process in Northern Territory is chiefly administered under the Environmental Assessment Act (EAA).<ref>The Northern Territory Government, viewed 10 September 2010,</ref> Although EAA is the primary tool for EIA in Northern Territory, there are further provisions for proposals in the Inquiries Act 1985 (NT).<ref name="Elliott" />
=====Queensland (QLD)=====
There are four main EIA processes in Queensland.<ref name=Defenders>The Environment Defenders, viewed 10 September 2010, [http://www.edo.org.au/edoqld/edoqld/factsheets/factsheet11%2009.07.pdf EDO factsheet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716023121/http://www.edo.org.au/edoqld/edoqld/factsheets/factsheet11%2009.07.pdf |date=2011-07-16 }}</ref> Firstly, under the Integrated Planning Act 1997 (IPA) for development projects other than mining. Secondly, under the Chapter 3 of the ''Environmental Protection Act 1994'' (Qld) (EP Act) for some mining and petroleum activities. Thirdly, under the ''State Development and Public Works Organisation Act 1971'' (Qld) (State Development Act) for 'significant projects'. Finally, under the ''Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999'' (Cth) for 'controlled actions'.<ref name="Defenders" />
'''South Australia (SA)'''
The local governing tool for EIA in South Australia is the ''Development Act 1993'' (SA). There are three levels of assessment possible under the Act in the form of an environment impact statement (EIS), a public environmental report (PER) or a Development Report (DR).<ref name="Elliott" />
=====Tasmania (TAS)=====
In Tasmania, an integrated system of legislation is used to govern development and approval process, this system is a mixture of the ''Environmental Management and Pollution Control Act 1994'' (Tas) (EMPC Act), ''Land Use Planning and Approvals Act 1993'' (Tas) (LUPA Act), ''State Policies and Projects Act 1993'' (Tas) (SPPA), and ''Resource Management and Planning Appeals Tribunal Act 1993'' (Tas).<ref name="Elliott" />
=====Victoria (VIC)=====
The EIA process in Victoria is intertwined with the ''[[Environment Effects Act 1978]]'' (Vic) and the Ministerial Guidelines for Assessment of Environmental Effects (made under the s 10 of the EE Act).<ref>The Law Handbook, viewed 9 September 2010,</ref>
=====Western Australia (WA)=====
Part 4 of the ''Environmental Protection Act 1986'' (WA) provides the legislative framework for the EIA process in Western Australia.<ref>The Government of Western Australia, viewed 9 September 2010,</ref> The EPA Act oversees the planning and development proposals and assesses their likely impacts on the environment.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
===Canada===
In ''Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transportation)'',{{harv|SCC|1992}} [[Gérard La Forest|La Forest J]] of the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] described environmental impact assessment in terms of the proper scope of federal jurisdiction with respect to environments matters,{{quotation|"Environmental impact assessment is, in its simplest form, a planning tool that is now generally regarded as an integral component of sound decision-making."{{sfn|SCC|1992}}}}
[[Gérard La Forest|Supreme Court Justice La Forest]] cited {{harv|Cotton|Emond|1981|p=245}}, "The basic concepts behind environmental assessment are simply stated: (1) early identification and evaluation of all potential environmental consequences of a proposed undertaking; (2) decision making that both guarantees the adequacy of this process and reconciles, to the greatest extent possible, the proponent's development desires with environmental protection and preservation."<ref name="Cotton1981">{{cite book|first1=Roger |last1=Cotton|first2=D. Paul |last2=Emond|title=Environmental Impact Assessment|editor=John Swaigen|series=Environmental Rights in Canada|location=Toronto, Ontario|publisher=Butterworths|year=1981 }}</ref>
La Forest referred to {{harv|Jeffery|1989|loc= 1.2,1.4}} and {{harv|Emond|1978|p=5}} who described "...environmental assessments as a planning tool with both an information-gathering and a decision-making component" that provide "...an objective basis for granting or denying approval for a proposed development."<ref name="Jeffrey1989">{{cite book|last=Jeffery |first=Michael I.|title=Environmental Approvals in Canada|location=Toronto, Ontario|publisher=Butterworths|year=1989 }}</ref><ref name="Emond1978">{{cite book|last=Emond |first=D. P.|title=Environmental Assessment Law in Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/environmentalass0000emon |url-access=registration |location=Toronto, Ontario|publisher=Emond‑Montgomery Ltd.|year=1978 |isbn=9780920722008}}</ref>
Justice La Forest addressed his concerns about the implications of Bill C-45 regarding public navigation rights on lakes and rivers that would contradict previous cases.{{harv|La Forest|1973|pp=178–80}}<ref name="LaForest1973">{{cite book|last=La Forest |first=Gérard V.|title=Water Law in Canada|location=Ottawa|publisher=Information Canada|year=1973 }}</ref>
The ''[[Canadian Environmental Assessment Act|Canadian Environmental Assessment Act 2012]]'' (CEAA 2012)<ref name="CanLII18july2012">{{cite CanLII|url=http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2012/2012-07-18/html/sor-dors147-eng.html|title=Regulations|date=18 July 2012|author=Gazette}}</ref> "and its regulations establish the legislative basis for the federal practice of environmental assessment in most regions of Canada."<ref name="canliiCEAAlatest">{{cite CanLII|url=http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/sc-2012-c-19-s-52/latest/sc-2012-c-19-s-52.html|title=Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, 2012|publisher=GC|year=2012|number=SC 2012, c 19, s 52}}</ref><ref name="canliiCEAA2012">{{cite CanLII|url=http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=B053F859-1#ceaa01}}</ref><ref name="CEAA2012">{{cite web |publisher=Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency|series=Basics of Environmental Assessment|title=What is the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, 2012? |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/impact-assessment-agency/services/environmental-assessments/basics-environmental-assessment.html |year=2012 |last=CEAA }}</ref> CEAA 2012 came into force July 6, 2012 and replaces the former ''Canadian Environmental Assessment Act'' (1995). EA is defined as a planning tool to identify, understand, assess and mitigate, where possible, the environmental effects of a project.
{{Quote box
| quote =
"The purposes of this Act are:
(a) to protect the components of the environment that are within the legislative authority of Parliament from significant adverse environmental effects caused by a designated project;
(b) to ensure that designated projects that require the exercise of a power or performance of a duty or function by a federal authority under any Act of Parliament other than this Act to be carried out, are considered in a careful and precautionary manner to avoid significant adverse environmental effects;
(c) to promote cooperation and coordinated action between federal and provincial governments with respect to environmental assessments;
(d) to promote communication and cooperation with aboriginal peoples with respect to environmental assessments;
(e) to ensure that opportunities are provided for meaningful public participation during an environmental assessment;
(f) to ensure that an environmental assessment is completed in a timely manner;
(g) to ensure that projects, as defined in section 66, that are to be carried out on federal lands, or those that are outside Canada and that are to be carried out or financially supported by a federal authority, are considered in a careful and precautionary manner to avoid significant adverse environmental effects;
(h) to encourage federal authorities to take actions that promote sustainable development in order to achieve or maintain a healthy environment and a healthy economy; and
(i) to encourage the study of the cumulative effects of physical activities in a region and the consideration of those study results in environmental assessments."{{sfn|CEAA|2012}}
|source = [[Canadian Environmental Assessment Act]] |width = 85% |align = center }}
====Opposition====
Environmental Lawyer Dianne Saxe argued that the CEAA 2012 "allows the federal government to create mandatory timelines for assessments of even the largest and most important projects, regardless of public opposition."<ref name="Saxe9aug2012">{{cite web|url=http://envirolaw.com/short-federal-environmental-assessments/|series=Environmental Law and Litigation|first=Dianne|last=Saxe|title=Federal environmental assessments will be rushed|date=9 August 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124010723/http://envirolaw.com/short-federal-environmental-assessments/|archive-date=24 November 2012}}</ref>
{{Quote box
|quote ="Now that federal environmental assessments are gone, the federal government will only assess very large, very important projects. But it's going to do them in a hurry."
|source = Dianne Saxe<ref name="Saxe9aug2012" />
|width = 50%
|align = right}}On 3 August 2012 the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency designated nine projects:
* [[Enbridge]] [[Northern Gateway Pipeline]] Joint Review Panel (JRP) 18 months;
* [[Marathon Platinum Group]] Metals and Copper Mine Project (JRP):<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/050/details-eng.cfm?evaluation=54755|title=Marathon Platinum Group Metals and Copper Mine Project|first=Canadian Environmental Assessment|last=Agency|website=www.ceaa.gc.ca|date=19 July 2010}}</ref> 13 months;
* [[Site C dam|Site C]] Clean Energy Project (JRP) 8.5 months; Deep Geologic Repository Project (JRP) 17 months;
* [[Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines|Enbridge Northern Gateway Project]] (JRP) 18 months;
* Jackpine Mine Expansion Project (JRP) 11.5 months;
* [[Pierre River Mine]] Project:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/050/details-eng.cfm?evaluation=59539|title=Pierre River Mine Project|first=Canadian Environmental Assessment|last=Agency|website=www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca|date=13 December 2010}}</ref> 8 months;
* [[New Prosperity]] Gold-Copper Mine Project (JRP) 7.5 months;
* Frontier Oil Sands Mine Project (JRP)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/050/details-eng.cfm?evaluation=65505|title=Frontier Oil Sands Mine Project|first=Canadian Environmental Assessment|last=Agency|website=www.ceaa.gc.ca|date=19 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://majorprojects.alberta.ca/details/Frontier-Oil-Sands-Mine|title=Frontier Oil Sands Mine|first=Government of|last=Alberta|website=majorprojects.alberta.ca|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308221345/http://majorprojects.alberta.ca/details/Frontier-Oil-Sands-Mine|archive-date=2017-03-08}}</ref> 8.5 months;
* [[EnCana]]/[[Cenovus]] Shallow Gas Infill Project (JRP) 5 months.{{sfn|Saxe|2012}}
Saxe compares these timelines with environmental assessments for the [[Mackenzie Valley Pipeline]]. [[Thomas R. Berger]], [[Royal Commissioner]] of the [[Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry]] (9 May 1977), worked extremely hard to ensure that [[industrial development]] on [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal people]]'s land resulted in benefits to those [[indigenous people]].<ref name="archives.cbc.ca1">{{Cite episode|title=The Berger Report is released|url=http://archives.cbc.ca/society/native_issues/topics/295-1552/|access-date=9 December 2011|series=As It Happens|credits=Host:[[Allan McFee]]|network=[[CBC Radio]]|station=[[CBC Radio 1]]|location=[[Toronto]]|airdate=9 May 1977|transcript=transcript|transcript-url=http://ms.radio-canada.ca/archives_new/2002/en/wma/berger19770509er1.wma|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130116013223/http://archives.cbc.ca/society/native_issues/topics/295-1552/|archive-date=16 January 2013}}</ref>
On 22 April 2013, NDP MP [[Megan Leslie]] issued a statement claiming that the [[Harper government]]'s recent changes to "fish habitat protection, the ''[[Navigable Waters Protection Act]]'' and the ''Canadian Environmental Assessment Act''", along with gutting existing laws and making cuts to science and research, "will be disastrous, not only for the environment but also for Canadians' health and economic prosperity."<ref name="NDP22apr2013">{{cite news|date=22 April 2013|title=Statement by Official Opposition Environment critic Megan Leslie on Earth Day|url=https://www.ndp.ca/news/statement-official-opposition-environment-critic-megan-leslie-earth-day|publisher=NDP|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621121734/http://www.ndp.ca/news/statement-official-opposition-environment-critic-megan-leslie-earth-day|archive-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> On 26 September 2012, Leslie argued that with the changes to the ''Canadian Environmental Assessment Act'' that came into effect 6 July 2012, "[[Exploration geophysics|seismic testing]], dams, wind farms and power plants" no longer required any federal environmental assessment. She also claimed that because the CEAA 2012—which she claimed was rushed through Parliament—dismantled the CEAA 1995, the Oshawa ethanol plant project would no longer have a full federal environmental assessment.<ref name="Leslie26sep2012">{{cite parl|date=26 September 2012|title=Question period|location=Ottawa, ON|author=Megan Leslie|url=http://openparliament.ca/debates/2012/9/26/megan-leslie-1/|publisher=Open Parliament}}</ref> Mr. Peter Kent (Minister of the Environment) explained that the CEAA 2012 "provides for the Government of Canada and the Environmental Assessment Agency to focus on the large and most significant projects that are being proposed across the country." The 2,000 to 3,000-plus smaller screenings that were in effect under CEAA 1995 became the "responsibility of lower levels of government but are still subject to the same strict federal [[environmental law]]s."<ref name="Leslie26sep2012" /> Anne Minh-Thu Quach, MP for Beauharnois—Salaberry, QC, argued that the mammoth budget bill dismantled 50 years of environmental protection without consulting Canadians about the "colossal changes they are making to environmental assessments." She claimed that the federal government is entering into "limited consultations, by invitation only, months after the damage was done."<ref name="Leslie26sep2012" />
===China===
The Environmental Impact Assessment Law (EIA Law) requires that an environmental impact assessment be completed prior to project construction. However, if a developer completely ignores this requirement and builds a project without submitting an environmental impact statement, the only penalty is that the environmental protection bureau (EPB) may require the developer to do a make-up environmental assessment. If the developer does not complete this make-up assessment within the designated time, only then is the EPB authorized to fine the developer. Even so, the possible fine is capped at a maximum of about US$25,000, a fraction of the overall cost of most major projects. The lack of more stringent enforcement mechanisms has resulted in a significant percentage of projects not completing legally required environmental impact assessments prior to construction.<ref>{{cite web| last=Wang| first=Alex| title=Environmental protection in China: the role of law| date=2007-02-05| url=http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/745-Environmental-protection-in-China-the-role-of-law| url-status=live| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516123917/http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/745-Environmental-protection-in-China-the-role-of-law| archive-date=2012-05-16}}</ref>
China's [[State Environmental Protection Administration]] (SEPA) used the legislation to halt 30 projects in 2004, including three hydro-power plants under the [[Three Gorges]] Project Company. Although one month later (Note as a point of reference, that the typical EIA for a major project in the USA takes one to two years.), most of the 30 halted projects resumed their construction, reportedly having passed the environmental assessment, the fact that these key projects' construction was ever suspended was notable.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
A joint investigation by SEPA and the Ministry of Land and Resources in 2004 showed that 30–40% of the mining [[construction project]]s went through the procedure of environment impact assessment as required, while in some areas only 6–7% did so. This partly explains why China has witnessed so many mining accidents in recent years.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
SEPA alone cannot guarantee the full enforcement of environmental laws and regulations, observed Professor [[Wang Canfa]], director of the centre to help environmental victims at [[China University of Political Science and Law]]. In fact, according to Wang, the rate of China's environmental laws and regulations that are actually enforced is estimated at barely 10%.<ref>{{cite web
|last = Gu
|first = Lin
|title = China Improves Enforcement of Environmental Laws
|publisher = China Features
|date = 2005-09-29
|url = http://www.chinese-embassy.org.uk/eng/zt/Features/t214565.htm
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070204023542/http://www.chinese-embassy.org.uk/eng/zt/Features/t214565.htm
|archive-date = 2007-02-04
}}</ref>
=== Egypt ===
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
EIA is implemented in Egypt under the umbrella of the Ministry of state for environmental affairs. The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) is responsible for the EIA services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Environment - EEAA > Services > EIA |url=https://www.eeaa.gov.eg/en-us/services/eia.aspx |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=www.eeaa.gov.eg}}</ref>
In June 1997, the responsibility of Egypt's first full-time Minister of State for Environmental Affairs was assigned as stated in the Presidential Decree no.275/1997. From thereon, the new ministry has focused, in close collaboration with the national and international development partners, on defining environmental policies, setting priorities and implementing initiatives within a context of sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Environment - EEAA > Services > EIA |url=https://www.eeaa.gov.eg/en-us/services/eia.aspx |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=www.eeaa.gov.eg}}</ref>
According to the Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) was restructured with the new mandate to substitute the institution initially established in 1982. At the central level, EEAA represents the executive arm of the Ministry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Environment - EEAA > Services > EIA |url=https://www.eeaa.gov.eg/en-us/services/eia.aspx |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=www.eeaa.gov.eg}}</ref>
The purpose of EIA is to ensure the protection and conservation of the environment and natural resources including human health aspects against uncontrolled development. The long-term objective is to ensure a sustainable economic development that meets present needs without compromising future generations ability to meet their own needs. EIA is an important tool in the integrated environmental management approach.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Environment - EEAA > Services > EIA |url=https://www.eeaa.gov.eg/en-us/services/eia.aspx |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=www.eeaa.gov.eg}}</ref>
EIA must be performed for new establishments or projects and for expansions or renovations of existing establishments according to the Law for the Environment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/English/main/about.asp |title=About MSEA |publisher=EEAA |access-date=2013-01-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101221459/http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/english/main/about.asp |archive-date=2013-01-01 }}</ref>
===EU===
A wide range of instruments exist in the [[Environmental policy of the European Union]]. Among them the [[European Union]] has established a mix of mandatory and discretionary procedures to assess environmental impacts.<ref name="watson">{{cite web
|last=Watson
|first=Michael
|title=Environmental Impact Assessment and European Community Law
|publisher=XIV International Conference "Danube-River of Cooperation"
|date=November 13–15, 2003
|url=http://www.members.tripod.com/~danubedita/library/2003watson2.htm
|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070328084514/http://www.members.tripod.com/~danubedita/library/2003watson2.htm
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=March 28, 2007
}}</ref> [[European Union Directive|Directive]] (85/337/EEC) on Environmental Impact Assessments (known as the ''EIA Directive'')<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31985L0337:EN:HTML|title=EUR-Lex - 31985L0337 – EN|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref> was first introduced in 1985, amended in 1997, amended again in 2003 following EU signature of the 1998 [[Aarhus Convention]], and once more in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Impact Assessment - EIA - Environment - European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/eia/eia-legalcontext.htm |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref>
The initial Directive of 1985 and its three amendments have been codified in Directive 2011/92/EU of 13 December 2011.<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:026:0001:0021:EN:PDF DIRECTIVE 2011/92/EU OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 13 December 2011 on the assessment of the effects of some public and private projects on the environment] from [http://eur-lex.europa.eu Eur-Lex] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907140138/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/ |date=2017-09-07 }}</ref>
In 2001, the issue was enlarged to include the assessment of plans and programmes by the so-called ''[[Strategic Environmental Assessment|Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)]] Directive'' (2001/42/EC), which was amended by Directive 2014/52/EU of 16 April 2014.<ref>[https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32014L0052 Directive 2014/52/EU amending Directive 2011/92/EU on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment], 16 April 2014</ref><ref name="watson" /> Under the EU directive, a compliant EIA must provide certain information in seven key areas:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32001L0042:EN:HTML|title=EUR-Lex – 32001L0042 – EN|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref>
# Description of the project
#* Description of actual project and site description
#* Break the project down into its key components, i.e. construction, operations, decommissioning
#* For each component list all of the sources of environmental disturbance
#* For each component all the inputs and outputs must be listed, e.g., [[air pollution]], noise, [[hydrology]]
# Alternatives that have been considered
#* Examine alternatives that have been considered
#* Example: in a [[biomass]] power station, will the fuel be sourced locally or nationally?
# Description of the environment
#* List of all aspects of the environment that may be affected by the development
#* Example: populations, [[fauna]], flora, air, soil, water, humans, landscape, cultural heritage
#* This section is best carried out with the help of local experts, e.g. the [[RSPB]] in the UK
# Description of the significant effects on the environment
#* The word significant is crucial here as the definition can vary
#* 'Significant' must be defined
#* The most frequent method used here is use of the [[Leopold matrix]]
#* The matrix is a tool used in the systematic examination of potential interactions
#* Example: in a windfarm development a significant impact may be collisions with birds
# Mitigation
#* This is where EIA is most useful
#* Once section 4 is complete, it is obvious where impacts are greatest
#* Using this information in ways to avoid negative impacts should be developed
#* Best working with the developer with this section as they know the project best
#* Using the windfarm example again, construction might take place outside of bird nesting seasons, or removal of hardstanding on a potentially contaminated land site might take place outside of the [[rainy season]].
# Non-technical summary (EIS)
#* The EIA is in the public domain and be used in the decision-making process
#* It is important that the information is available to the public
#* This section is a summary that does not include jargon or complicated diagrams
#* It should be understood by the informed lay-person
# Lack of know-how/technical difficulties
#* This section is to advise any areas of weakness in knowledge
#* It can be used to focus areas of future research
#* Some developers see the EIA as a starting block for poor environmental management
In 2021, ESG reporting requirements changed in the EU and UK. The EU started enforcing the Sustainable Finance Disclosures Regulation (SFDR), which was created with the purpose of unifying climate risk disclosures across the private sector by 2023. It also requires businesses to report on "principal adverse impacts" for society and the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Survey: 9 in 10 investors do not trust corporate ESG claims|url=https://www.edie.net/news/7/Survey--9-in-10-investors-do-not-trust-corporate-ESG-claims/|access-date=2021-08-18|website=edie.net|language=en}}</ref>
====Annexed projects====
All projects are either classified as Annex 1 or Annex 2 projects. Those lying in Annex 1 are large scale developments such as motorways, chemical works, bridges, power stations, etc. These always require an EIA under the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (85,337,EEC as amended). Annex 2 projects are smaller in scale than those referred to in Annex 1. Member States must determine whether these project shall be made subject to an assessment subject to a set of criteria set out in Annex 3 of codified Directive 2011/92/EU.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
====The Netherlands====
EIA was [[Transposition (law)|implemented]] in [[Dutch Law|Dutch legislation]] on September 1, 1987. The categories of projects which require an EIA are summarised in Dutch legislation, the Wet milieubeheer. The use of thresholds for activities makes sure that EIA is obligatory for those activities that may have considerable impacts on the environment.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
For projects and plans which fit these criteria, an EIA report is required. The EIA report defines a.o. the proposed initiative, it makes clear the impact of that initiative on the environment and compares this with the impact of possible alternatives with less a negative impact.<ref>[http://docs1.eia.nl/cms/engelse_c-d-lijsten.pdf List of criteria for EIA/SEA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724151830/http://docs1.eia.nl/cms/engelse_c-d-lijsten.pdf |date=2011-07-24 }}</ref>
====United Kingdom====
The EU Directives concerning environmental impact assessment are implemented in [[England]] through the Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations 2017, which also apply to projects serving national defence purposes in [[Northern Ireland]], Scotland and [[Wales]].<ref>UK Government, [https://www.gov.uk/guidance/environmental-impact-assessment Environmental Impact Assessment], updated 15 March 2019, accessed 22 October 2019</ref>
===Hong Kong===
EIA in Hong Kong is regulated by the ''Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance 1997'', which became effective in 1998.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
The original proposal to construct the [[Lok Ma Chau Spur Line]] overground across the [[Long Valley, Hong Kong|Long Valley]] failed to get through EIA, and the [[Kowloon–Canton Railway Corporation]] had to change its plan and build the railway underground. In April 2011, the EIA of the Hong Kong section of the [[Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge]] was found to have breached the ordinance, and was declared unlawful. The appeal by the government was allowed in September 2011. However, it was estimated that this EIA court case had increased the construction cost of the Hong Kong section of the bridge by HK$6.5 billion in money-of-the-day prices.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201110/26/P201110260238.htm |title=LCQ1: Judicial review case regarding the Environmental Impact Assessment reports of the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge |date=October 26, 2011 |work=Press Releases |publisher=www.info.gov.hk |access-date=October 27, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119072107/http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201110/26/P201110260238.htm |archive-date=January 19, 2012 }}</ref>
=== Iraq ===
The Ministry of Environment (MOE) of the [[federal government of Iraq]] is in charge of issuing environmental compliance certificates based on an EIA report prepared by professional consultant and thoroughly reviewed by the MOE. Any project or activity prior to its establishment or even already existing project has to be approved and obtain such certificate from the MOE. Projects are classified into 3 categories; “A”, “B” and “C”. EIA reporting is usually obligatory for those projects and activities falling under categories “A” (large-scale) and “B” (small-scale) that may have considerable impacts on environment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/eia/documents/WG14_MOS3_nov2010/Diagram_EIA_process_in_Iraq.pdf|title=EIA process in Iraq|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831221814/https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/eia/documents/WG14_MOS3_nov2010/Diagram_EIA_process_in_Iraq.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-31}}</ref>
Examples of “A” category activities include dams and reservoirs, forestry production projects, industrial plants, irrigation, drainage and flood control, land clearance and leveling, port and harbor development, river basin development, thermal power and hydro-power development, manufacture, transportation and use of pesticides or other hazardous materials, hazardous waste management and disposal... etc. Examples of “B” category activities include agro-industries, electrical transmission, renewable energy, rural electrification, tourism, rehabilitation or maintenance of highway or rural roads, rehabilitation or modification of existing industrial facilities... etc. Preparation of an EIA report is usually exempt for projects falling under category “C” which may have low to no impact on environment, such as small fish breeding ponds, institutional development, most human resources projects...etc.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
The main environmental legislation in Iraq is: Law No.64 for cities and land use (1965), Law No.21 for noise prevention (1966), Law No.25 for system of rivers and other water resources protection (1967), Law No.99 for ionized radiation (1980), Law No.89 for public health (drinking water provision, sanitation and [[environmental monitoring]] (1981), Law No.79 for protection and improvement of environment (1986), Environmental criteria for agricultural, industrial and public service projects (1990), Law No.3 for protection and improvement of environment (1997), Law No.2 for water systems protection (2001), Law No.44 for creation of Ministry of Environment instead of the council of protection and improvement of environment (2003), Law No.27 for environmental protection and improvement (2009),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/irq100188E.pdf|title=Law No.27 of 2009 for protection and improvement of environment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901160232/http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/irq100188E.pdf|archive-date=2017-09-01}}</ref> Law No.4 for protection of ambient air system (2012).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Meanwhile, Environmental Protection and Improvement Board in the regional government of Kurdistan in the northern Iraq (Erbil, Duhok, Sulaimany and Garmyan) is responsible of issuing Environmental compliance certificate, the board was established according to law No.3 Environmental protection and improvement board in Iraqi Kurdistan Region (2010).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.natureiraq.org/uploads/5/2/9/9/52997379/english.pdf|title=Environmental Legislation guides in Kurdistan Region-Iraq|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110130412/http://www.natureiraq.org/uploads/5/2/9/9/52997379/english.pdf|archive-date=2017-01-10}}</ref> The board is responsible of issuing such certificate for all projects and activities except of petroleum operation which EIA process is organized and implemented by the Ministry of Natural Resources of Kurdistan Regional government.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mnr.krg.org/images/pdfs/MNR%20-%20EIA%20Instructions%20Draft%20for%20consultation%20-%201%20December%202013.pdf|title=INSTRUCTIONS (NO. 1) OF 2013 ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF PETROLEUM OPERATIONS}}</ref> The same Iraqi environmental legislation mentioned is adopted but the procedure for EIA in Iraqi-Kurdistan region government may differ from the one in the Federal government of Iraq.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
=== India ===
The [[Ministry of Environment and Forests (India)|Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change]] (MoEFCC) of India has been in a great effort in Environmental Impact Assessment in India. The main laws in action are the Water Act(1974), the Indian [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972|Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972)]], the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) and the Environment (Protection) Act (1986), Biological Diversity Act(2002).<ref>Shibani Ghosh, [http://www.nujslawreview.org/pdf/articles/2013_3/03shibanighosh.pdf "Demystifying the Environmental Clearance Process in India"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221023322/http://nujslawreview.org/pdf/articles/2013_3/03shibanighosh.pdf |date=2015-02-21 }}, ''NUJS LAW REVIEW'', January 2, 2015</ref> The responsible body for this is the Central Pollution Control Board.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies need a significant amount of primary and secondary environmental data. Primary data are those collected in the field to define the status of the environment (like air quality data, water quality data etc.). Secondary data are those collected over the years that can be used to understand the existing environmental scenario of the study area. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies are conducted over a short period of time and therefore the understanding of the environmental trends, based on a few months of primary data, has limitations. Ideally, the primary data must be considered along with the secondary data for complete understanding of the existing environmental status of the area. In many EIA studies, the secondary data needs could be as high as 80% of the total data requirement. EIC is the repository of one-stop secondary data source for environmental impact assessment in India.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) experience in India indicates that the lack of timely availability of reliable and authentic environmental data has been a major bottleneck in achieving the full benefits of EIA. The environment being a multi-disciplinary subject, a multitude of agencies are involved in collection of environmental data. However, no single organization in India tracks available data from these agencies and makes it available in one place in a form required by environmental impact assessment practitioners. Further, environmental data is not available in enhanced forms that improve the quality of the EIA. This makes it harder and more time-consuming to generate environmental impact assessments and receive timely environmental clearances from regulators. With this background, the Environmental Information Centre (EIC) has been set up to serve as a professionally managed clearinghouse of environmental information that can be used by MoEF, project proponents, consultants, NGOs and other stakeholders involved in the process of environmental impact assessment in India. EIC caters to the need of creating and disseminating of organized environmental data for various developmental initiatives all over the country.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
EIC stores data in GIS format and makes it available to all environmental impact assessment studies and to EIA stakeholders.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
In 2020, the Government of India proposed a new EIA 2020 Draft, which was widely criticized for heavily diluting the EIA.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why EIA 2020 is a sure-shot recipe for more environmental disasters |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/trends/expert-columns-2/why-eia-2020-is-a-sure-shot-recipe-for-more-environmental-disasters-5534021.html |website=Money Control |access-date=15 July 2020}}</ref> Many Environmental groups started a campaign demanding the withdrawal of the Draft, in face of these campaigns, the Government of India resorted to banning/blocking the websites of these groups.<ref>{{cite web |title=Environmental Websites Leading The Movement Against India's Controversial New Proposal Are Blocked |url=https://www.vice.com/en_in/article/v7gzxb/environmental-websites-leading-the-movement-against-indias-controversial-eia-notification-2020-are-blocked |website=Vice India |date=14 July 2020 |publisher=Vice |access-date=15 July 2020}}</ref>
===Malaysia===
In Malaysia, Section 34A, Environmental Quality Act, 1974<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doe.gov.my/portal/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Appendix_1.pdf |title=Environmental quality act, 1974 (amendment, 1985) section 34A |access-date=2011-02-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721014734/http://www.doe.gov.my/portal/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Appendix_1.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-21 }}</ref> requires developments that have significant impact to the environment are required to conduct the Environmental impact assessment.<ref>LAWS OF MALAYSIA
ACT A636
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (AMENDMENT) ACT 1985</ref>
=== Nepal ===
In Nepal, EIA has been integrated in major development projects since the early 1980s. In the planning history of Nepal, the sixth plan (1980–85), for the first time, recognized the need for EIA with the establishment of Environmental Impact Study Project (EISP) under the Department of Soil Conservation in 1982 to develop necessary instruments for integration of EIA in infrastructure development projects. However, the government of Nepal enunciated environment conservation-related policies in the seventh plan (NPC, 1985–1990). To enforce this policy and make necessary arrangements, a series of guidelines were developed, thereby incorporating the elements of environmental factors right from the project formulation stage of the development plans
and projects and to avoid or minimize adverse effects on the ecological system. In addition, it has also emphasized that EIAs of industry, tourism, water resources, transportation, urbanization, agriculture, forest and other developmental projects be conducted.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
In Nepal, the government's Environmental Impact Assessment Guideline of 1993 inspired the enactment of the Environment Protection Act (EPA) of 1997 and the Environment Protection Rules (EPR) of 1997 (EPA and EPR have been enforced since 24 and 26 June 1997 respectively in Nepal) to internalizing the environmental assessment system. The process institutionalized the EIA process in development proposals and enactment, which makes the integration of IEE and EIA legally binding to the prescribed projects. The projects, requiring EIA or IEE, are included in Schedules 1 and 2 of the EPR, 1997 (GoN/MoLJPA 1997).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
=== New Zealand ===
In New Zealand, EIA is usually referred to as ''Assessment of Environmental Effects'' (AEE). The first use of EIA's dates back to a Cabinet minute passed in 1974 called Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures. This had no legal force and only related to the activities of government departments. When the [[Resource Management Act 1991|Resource Management Act]]<nowiki> was passed in 1991, an EIA was required as part of a resource consent application. Section 88 of the Act specifies that the AEE must include "such detail as corresponds with the scale and significance of the effects that the activity may have on the environment". While there is no duty to consult any person when making a resource consent application (Sections 36A and Schedule 4), proof of consultation is almost certain required by local councils when they decide whether or not to publicly notify the consent application under Section 93.</nowiki><ref>{{Cite web |title=Assessing the Application and Assessment of Environmental Effects {{!}} Quality Planning |url=https://www.qualityplanning.org.nz/node/564 |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=www.qualityplanning.org.nz}}</ref><nowiki></nowiki>
=== Pakistan ===
The [[Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency]] is an [[Cabinet Secretariat (Pakistan)|executive]] agency of the [[Government of Pakistan]] managed by the [[Ministry of Climate Change (Pakistan)|Ministry of Climate Change]]. The agency is charged with protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Parliament. The Directorate of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) is tasked with implementing the Pakistan Environment Protection Act (PEPA) - 1997, specifically Section 12 and Review of IEE/EIA Regulations 2000. This Directorate comprises two sections namely EIA or Monitoring and Environment Engineering And Technology Transfer. All public and private sector developmental projects that fall under any of the Schedules of Regulations have to obtain environmental approval in respect of their projects. The EIA/Monitoring Section also conducts post-environmental approval monitoring to ascertain the compliance status of the Environment Management Plan (EMP).<ref>{{cite web |title=DIRECTORATE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT / MONITORING |url=https://environment.gov.pk/Detail/YTU5ZmVjNWItZmRkNS00YjdjLTk1ZTctNmFkOWM2ZmRhMDli |website=Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref>
=== Russian Federation ===
{{As of|2004}}, the state authority responsible for conducting the State EIA in Russia has been split between two Federal bodies: 1) Federal service for monitoring the use of natural resources – a part of the Russian Ministry for Natural Resources and Environment and 2) Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Nuclear Control. The two main pieces of environmental legislation in Russia are the Federal Law 'On Ecological Expertise', 1995 and the 'Regulations on Assessment of Impact from Intended Business and Other Activity on Environment in the Russian Federation', 2000.<ref>Department of Environmental Protection, Russia</ref>
;Federal Service for monitoring the use of natural resources
In 2006, the parliament committee on ecology in conjunction with the Ministry for Natural Resources and Environment, created a working group to prepare a number of amendments to existing legislation to cover such topics as stringent project documentation for building of potentially environmentally damaging objects as well as building of projects on the territory of protected areas. There has been some success in this area, as evidenced from abandonment of plans to construct a gas pipe-line through the only remaining habitat of the critically [[Endangered species|endangered]] [[Amur leopard]] in the [[Russian Far East]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
;Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Nuclear Control
The government's decision to hand over control over several important procedures, including state EIA in the field of all types of energy projects, to the Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Nuclear Control has caused major controversy and elicited criticism from environmental groups, which have blamed the government for giving nuclear power industry control over the state EIA.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
The main problem concerning State EIA in Russia is the clear differentiation of jurisdiction between the two above-mentioned Federal bodies.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}
=== Sri Lanka ===
The National Environmental Act, 1998 requires environmental impact assessment for large scale projects in sensitive areas. It is enforced by the Central Environmental Authority.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Central Environmental Authority|title=Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Procedure in Sri Lanka|url=http://www.cea.lk/web/index.php/en/environmental-impact-assessment-eia-procedure-in-sri-lanka|website=Central Environmental Authority|access-date=1 November 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103215340/http://www.cea.lk/web/index.php/en/environmental-impact-assessment-eia-procedure-in-sri-lanka|archive-date=3 November 2016}}</ref>
=== Ukraine ===
The new law of Ukraine on evaluation of impact on surroundings prescribes the requirements of environmental safety, rational use of national resources, minimizing of harmful impact on surroundings in the process of making managerial decisions about planned activity. The designing of the conclusion of evaluation of impact is a result of its conducting. The key moment of the law on evaluation of impact on surroundings is a substitution of conclusion of state environmental expertise on the conclusion of evaluation of impact on surroundings. Business entity is forbidden to conduct or to start its planned activity without the conclusion of impact on surroundings.<ref>{{cite web|last1=MCL LLC|title=Evaluation of impact on surroundings|url=http://www.mcl.kiev.ua/en/evaluation-of-impact-on-surroundings-2/|website=MCL LLC|publisher=Eric Firado|access-date=1 November 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201043929/http://www.mcl.kiev.ua/en/evaluation-of-impact-on-surroundings-2/|archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref>
=== United States ===
{{Main|National Environmental Policy Act}}
The [[National Environmental Policy Act]] of 1969 (NEPA), enacted in 1970, established a policy of environmental impact assessment for federal agency actions, federally funded activities or federally permitted/licensed activities that in the U. S. is termed "environmental review" or simply "the NEPA process."<ref>United States. National Environmental Policy Act, [http://www.usinfo.org/enus/government/branches/nepaeqia.htm P.L. 91-190] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516090600/http://www.usinfo.org/enus/government/branches/nepaeqia.htm |date=2013-05-16 }}, {{USStat|83|852|1969}}, {{USC|42|4321}} ''et seq.'' Approved January 1, 1970.</ref> The law also created the [[Council on Environmental Quality]], which promulgated regulations to codify the law's requirements.<ref>U.S. Council on Environmental Quality. "NEPA and Agency Planning." ''Code of Federal Regulations,'' {{USCFR|40|1501}}.</ref> Under [[United States environmental law]] an Environmental Assessment (EA) is compiled to determine the need for an ''[[Environmental Impact Statement]]'' (EIS). Federal or federalized actions expected to subject or be subject to significant environmental impacts will publish a Notice of Intent to Prepare an EIS as soon as significance is known. Certain actions of [[federal government of the United States|federal]] [[government agency|agencies]] must be preceded by the NEPA process. Contrary to a widespread misconception, NEPA does not prohibit the federal government or its licensees/permittees from harming the environment, nor does it specify any penalty if an environmental impact assessment turns out to be inaccurate, intentionally or otherwise. NEPA requires that plausible statements as to the prospective impacts be disclosed in advance. The purpose of NEPA process is to ensure that the decision maker is fully informed of the environmental aspects and consequences prior to making the final decision.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
==== Environmental assessment ====
An '''environmental assessment''' (EA) is an environmental analysis prepared pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act to determine whether a federal action would significantly affect the environment and thus require a more detailed ''Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)''. The certified release of an Environmental Assessment results in either a ''Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI)'' or an [[Environmental Impact Statement|EIS]].<ref>Eccleston, Charles H. and J. Peyton Doub (2010). [https://www.amazon.com/Preparing-NEPA-Environmental-Assessments-Professional/dp/1439808821/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&qid=1486949351&sr=8-3&keywords=charles+eccleston Preparing NEPA Environmental Assessments: A User's Guide to Best Professional Practices]. {{ISBN|978-1439808825}}.</ref>
The [[Council on Environmental Quality]] (CEQ), which oversees the administration of NEPA, issued regulations for implementing the NEPA in 1979. Eccleston reports that the NEPA regulations barely mention preparation of EAs. This is because the EA was originally intended to be a simple document used in relatively rare instances where an agency was not sure if the potential significance of an action would be sufficient to trigger preparation of an EIS. But today, because EISs are so much longer and complicated to prepare, federal agencies are going to great effort to avoid preparing EISs by using EAs, even in cases where the use of EAs may be inappropriate. The ratio of EAs that are being issued compared to EISs is about 100 to 1.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eccleston |first1=Charles |last2=Doub |first2=J. Peyton |year=2012 |title=Preparing NEPA Environmental Assessments: A User's Guide to Best Professional Practices |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781439808825}}</ref>
In July 2020, President [[Donald Trump]] moved to significantly weaken NEPA. CEQ published a final rule which limits the duration of EAs to 1 year and EISs to 2 years. The rule also exempts a number of projects from review entirely and prevents the consideration of cumulative environmental impacts, including those caused by climate change. The rule went into effect on September 14, 2020 and is the first update to the CEQ regulations since their promulgation in 1978.<ref>CEQ (2020-07-16). "Update to the Regulations Implementing the Procedural Provisions of the National Environmental Policy Act; Final rule." ''Federal Register,'' {{USFR|85|43304}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/15/climate/trump-environment-nepa.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |title=Trump Weakens Major Conservation Law to Speed Construction Permits |date=2020-07-15 |first=Lisa |last=Friedman}}</ref>
===== Content =====
The Environmental Assessment is a concise public document prepared by the federal action agency that serves to:
# briefly provide sufficient evidence and analysis for determining whether to prepare an EIS or a Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI)
# Demonstrate compliance with the act when no EIS is required
# facilitate the preparation of an EIS when a FONSI cannot be demonstrated
The Environmental Assessment includes a brief discussion of the purpose and need of the proposal and of its alternatives as required by NEPA 102(2)(E), and of the human environmental impacts resulting from and occurring to the proposed actions and alternatives considered practicable, plus a listing of studies conducted and agencies and stakeholders consulted to reach these conclusions. The action agency must approve an EA before it is made available to the public. The EA is made public through notices of availability by local, state, or regional clearing houses, often triggered by the purchase of a public notice advertisement in a newspaper of general circulation in the proposed activity area.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
===== Structure =====
The structure of a generic Environmental Assessment is as follows:
# Summary
# Introduction
#* Background
#* Purpose and Need for Action
#* Proposed Action
#* Decision Framework
#* Public Involvement
#* Issues
# Alternatives, including the Proposed Action
#* Alternatives
#* Mitigation Common to All Alternatives
#* Comparison of Alternatives
# Environmental Consequences
# Consultation and Coordination
===== Procedure =====
The EA becomes a draft public document when notice of it is published, usually in a newspaper of general circulation in the area affected by the proposal. There is a 15-day review period required for an Environmental Assessment (30 days if exceptional circumstances) while the document is made available for public commentary, and a similar time for any objection to improper process. Commenting on the Draft EA is typically done in writing or email, submitted to the lead action agency as published in the notice of availability. An EA does not require a public hearing for verbal comments. Following the mandated public comment period, the lead action agency responds to any comments, and certifies either a FONSI or a Notice of Intent (NOI) to prepare an EIS in its public environmental review record. The preparation of an EIS then generates a similar but more lengthy, involved and expensive process.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
==== Environmental impact statement ====
{{main|Environmental impact statement}}
The adequacy of an environmental impact statement (EIS) can be challenged in [[United States federal courts|federal court]]. Major proposed projects have been blocked because of an agency's failure to prepare an acceptable EIS. One prominent example was the [[Westway (New York)|Westway]] landfill and highway development in and along the [[Hudson River]] in [[New York, New York|New York City]].<ref>[http://www.elr.info/litigation/vol13/13.20326.htm ''Sierra Club v. United States Army Corps of Engineers,''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040328074514/http://www.elr.info/litigation/vol13/13.20326.htm |date=2004-03-28 }}
701 F.2d 1011, 18 ERC 1748. (2d Cir., 02/25/1983)</ref> Another prominent case involved the [[Sierra Club]] suing the [[Nevada Department of Transportation]] over its denial of the club's request to issue a supplemental EIS addressing air emissions of [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulate matter]] and hazardous [[air pollutants]] in the case of widening [[U.S. Route 95 in Nevada|U.S. Route 95]] through [[Las Vegas]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Ritter |first=John |title=Lawsuit pits risks and roads |publisher=USA Today |date=2003-06-03 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-03-06-vegas-highway-usat_x.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629064153/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-03-06-vegas-highway-usat_x.htm |archive-date=2011-06-29 }}</ref> The case reached the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]], which led to construction on the highway being halted until the court's final decision. The case was settled prior to the court's final decision.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Several [[State governments of the United States|state governments]] that have adopted "little NEPAs," [[state law]]s imposing EIS requirements for particular state actions. Some of those state laws such as the [[California Environmental Quality Act]] refer to the required environmental impact study as an '''environmental impact report'''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sprlaw.com/pdf/spr_little_nepa_ali_aba_0605.pdf |title=Sive, D. & Chertok, M., "Little NEPAs" and Environmental Impact Assessment Procedures |access-date=2013-01-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004091103/http://www.sprlaw.com/pdf/spr_little_nepa_ali_aba_0605.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-04 }}</ref>
This variety of state requirements produces voluminous data not just upon impacts of individual projects, but also in insufficiently researched scientific domains. For example, in a seemingly routine ''Environmental Impact Report'' for the city of [[Monterey, California]], information came to light that led to the official federal endangered species listing of [[Hickman's potentilla]], a rare coastal [[wildflower]].<ref>C.M. Hogan, G. Deghi, M. Papineau et al., ''Environmental Impact Report for the Pebble Beach Properties project by Del Monte Forest'', Earth Metrics Inc. Prepared for the city of Monterey and State of California Clearinghouse (1992)</ref><ref>U.S. [[Federal Register]]: August 2, 1995 (Volume 60, Number 148, Pages 39326-39337)</ref>
== Transboundary application ==
Environmental threats do not respect national borders. International pollution can have detrimental effects on the atmosphere, oceans, rivers, [[aquifer]]s, farmland, the weather and biodiversity. Global climate change is transnational. Specific pollution threats include [[acid rain]], [[radioactive contamination]], [[Space debris|debris in outer space]], [[Stratosphere|stratospheric]] [[ozone depletion]] and toxic [[oil spill]]s. The [[Chernobyl disaster]], precipitated by a [[Nuclear and radiation accidents|nuclear accident]] on April 26, 1986, is a stark reminder of the devastating effects of transboundary nuclear pollution.<ref>Sands, P., (1989), The Environment, Community and International Law, Harvard International Law Lournal, 393, p402</ref>
Environmental protection is inherently a cross-border issue and has led to the creation of transnational regulation via multilateral and bilateral treaties. The [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] (UNCHE or Stockholm Conference) held in [[Stockholm]] in 1972 and the [[Earth Summit|United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development]] (UNCED or Rio Summit, Rio Conference, or Earth Summit) held in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in 1992 were key in the creation of about 1,000 international instruments that include at least some provisions related to the environment and its protection.<ref>Weiss, E., (1999), Understanding Compliance with International Environmental Agreements: The Bakers Dozen Myths, Univ Richmond L.R. 32, 1555</ref>
The [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|United Nations Economic Commission for Europe's]] [[Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context]] (Espoo Convention) was negotiated to provide an international legal framework for transboundary EIA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unece.org/env/eia/welcome.html |title=Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo, 1991) |publisher=Unece.org |access-date=2013-01-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126142541/http://www.unece.org/env/eia/welcome.html |archive-date=2013-01-26 }}</ref>
However, as there is no universal legislature or administration with a comprehensive mandate, most international treaties exist parallel to one another and are further developed without the benefit of consideration being given to potential conflicts with other agreements. There is also the issue of international enforcement.<ref>Wolfrum, R., & Matz, N., (2003), Conflicts in International Environmental Law, Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches Öffentliches Recht und Völkerrech</ref> This has led to duplications and failures, in part due to an inability to enforce agreements. An example is the failure of many international fisheries regimes to restrict harvesting practises.<ref>Young, O., (1999), The Effectiveness of International Environmental Regimes, [[MIT Press]]</ref>
== Criticism ==
According to Jay ''et al.'', EIA is used as a decision-aiding tool rather than decision-making tool. There is growing dissent about them as their influence on decisions is limited. Improved training for practitioners, guidance on bestpractice and continuing research have all been proposed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jay |first1=S. |last2=Jones |first2=C. |last3=Slinn |first3=P. |last4=Wood |first4=C. |year=2007 |title=Environmental Impact Assessment: Retrospect and Prospect |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |publisher=Elsevier |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=289–300 |doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2006.12.001}}</ref>
EIAs have been criticized for excessively limiting their scope in space and time. No accepted procedure exists for determining such boundaries. The boundary refers to 'the spatial and temporal boundary of the proposal's effects'. This boundary is determined by the applicant and the lead assessor, but in practice, almost all EIAs address only direct and immediate on-site effects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lenzen |first1=M. |last2=Murray |first2=S. |last3=Korte |first3=B. |last4=Dey |first4=C. |year=2003 |title=Environmental impact assessment including indirect effects—a case study using input-output analysis |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |publisher=Elsevier |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=263–282 |doi=10.1016/S0195-9255(02)00104-X}}</ref>
Development causes both direct and indirect effects. Consumption of goods and services, production, use and disposal of building materials and machinery, additional land use for activities of manufacturing and services, mining and refining, etc., all have environmental impacts. The indirect effects of development can be much higher than the direct effects examined by an EIA. Proposals such as [[airports]] or [[shipyards]] cause wide-ranging national and international effects, which should be covered in EIAs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shepherd |first1=A. |last2=Ortolano |first2=L. |year=1996 |title=Strategic environmental assessment for sustainable urban development |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |publisher=Elsevier |volume=16 |issue=4–6 |pages=321–335 |doi=10.1016/S0195-9255(96)00071-6}}</ref>
Broadening the scope of EIA can benefit the conservation of threatened species. Instead of concentrating on the project site, some EIAs employed a [[habitat]]-based approach that focused on much broader relationships among humans and the environment. As a result, alternatives that reduce the negative effects to the population of whole species, rather than local subpopulations, can be assessed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fernandes |first1=João P. |year=2000 |title=EIA procedure, Landscape ecology and conservation management—Evaluation of alternatives in a highway EIA process |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |publisher=Elsevier |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=665–680 |doi=10.1016/S0195-9255(00)00060-3}}</ref>
Thissen and Agusdinata<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thissen |first1=WIH |last2=Agusdinata |first2=DB |year=2008 |title=Handling deep uncertainties in impact assessment|journal=In Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference of the IAIA May 5–9, 2008, Perth, Australia. |publisher=IAIA }}</ref> have argued that little attention is given to the systematic identification and assessment of uncertainties in environmental studies which is critical in situations where uncertainty cannot be easily reduced by doing more research. In line with this, Maier et al.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maier |first1=HR |last2=Ascough |first2=JC |last3=Wattenbach |first3=M |last4=Renschler |first4=CS |last5=Labiosa |first5=WB |year=2008 |title=Uncertainty in Environmental Decision Making: Issues, Challenges and Future Directions |journal=Publications from USDA-ARS/UNL Faculty. Paper 399.|publisher=USDA-ARS/UNL Faculty }}</ref> have concluded on the need to consider uncertainty at all stages of the decision-making process. In such a way decisions can be made with confidence or known uncertainty. These proposals are justified on data that shows that environmental assessments fail to predict accurately the impacts observed. Tenney et al.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Tenney |first1=A |last2=Kværner |first2=J |last3=Gjerstad |first3=KI |year=2006 |title=Uncertainty in environmental impact assessment predictions: the need for better communication and more transparency|journal=Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal|volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=45–56|doi=10.3152/147154606781765345|doi-access=free }}</ref> and Wood et al.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=C |last2=Dipper |first2=B |last3= Jones |first3=C |year=2000 |title=Auditing the assessments of the environmental impacts of planning projects|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=23–47|doi=10.1080/09640560010757|s2cid=134202298 }}</ref> have reported evidence of the intrinsic uncertainty attached to EIAs predictions from a number of case studies worldwide. The gathered evidence consisted of comparisons between predictions in EIAs and the impacts measured during, or following project implementation. In explaining this trend, Tenney et al.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> have highlighted major causes such as project changes, modelling errors, errors in data and assumptions taken and bias introduced by people in the projects analyzed. Some approaches to deal with uncertainty in EIA have been reviewed in.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cardenas |first1=IC |last2=Halman |first2=JIM |year=2016 |title=Coping with uncertainty in environmental impact assessments: Open techniques|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195925516300610 |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review|volume=60 |pages=24–39|doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2016.02.006}}</ref>
There has also been criticism on the EIAs in the United States not addressing [[environmental justice]] concerns sufficiently. Yakuba writes "However, environmental history provides evidence that political process and special interests govern the attainment of the EJ goal by way of inadequate adherence to the NEPA provisions. Public participation (PP) is a principal requirement for achieving environmental justice and constitutes a pivotal determinant of EIA outcome."<ref>Yakuba, O. (2018). Delivering Environmental Justice through Environmental Impact Assessment in the United States: The Challenge of Public Participation. ''MDPI''.</ref>
Most recent analyses indicated that the persistent problem may have its roots in socio-cultural settings, and environment-nurturing cultural value should be regarded as one among major progressive cultures, and its implementation will need to engage the corporate sector.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Vuong, Q.-H.|date=2021|title=The semiconducting principle of monetary and environmental values exchange |url=https://reunido.uniovi.es/index.php/EBL/article/view/15872|journal=Economics and Business Letters|volume=10|issue=3|pages=284–290|doi=10.17811/ebl.10.3.2021.284-290|s2cid=239719169|doi-access=free}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{colbegin}}
* {{Annotated link |Economic impact analysis}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental good}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental impact design}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental indicator}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental policy of the European Union}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental, social and corporate governance}}
* {{Annotated link |Equator Principles}}
* {{Annotated link |Global environmental analysis}}
* {{Annotated link |Healthy development measurement tool}}
* {{Annotated link |Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol}}
* {{Annotated link |Leopold matrix}}
* {{Annotated link |List of international environmental agreements}}
* {{Annotated link |Natural landscape}}
* {{Annotated link |Phase I environmental site assessment}}
* {{Annotated link |Risk assessment}}
* {{Annotated link |Social impact assessment}}
* {{Annotated link |Strategic environmental assessment}}
* {{Annotated link |Sustainability appraisal}}
* {{Annotated link |True cost accounting}}
* {{Annotated link |United Nations Environment Programme}}
{{colend}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
===Sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|title=Environmental Policy and NEPA: Past, Present and Future|publisher=St. Lucie Press|year=1997|location=Boca Raton, Florida|editor1-first=Ray|editor1-last=Clark|editor2-first=Larry|editor2-last=Canter}}
* {{cite book|title=Environmental Law: Oceana's Legal Almanac Series|last2=Case|first2=David W.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|location=New York|pages=111–120|first1=Ronald J.|last1=Rychlak}}
* {{cite web|url=http://HistoryLink.org|title=NEPA, the National Environmental Policy Act|last=Kershner|first=Jim|date=27 August 2011|number=9903}}
* {{cite CanLII|litigants=Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transport)|link=|year=1992|court=scc|num=110|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=[1992] 1 SCR 3|date=23 January 1992|courtname=Supreme Court of Canada|juris=Canada|last=SCC}}
{{Refend}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=notes}}
== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* Carroll, B. and Turpin T. (2009). ''Environmental impact assessment handbook,'' 2nd ed. [http://www.thomastelford.com/ Thomas Telford Ltd], {{ISBN|978-0-7277-3509-6}}
* Fischer, T. B. (ed., 2016). Environmental Assessment. Critical Concepts of the Built Environment, Routledge, New York. {{ISBN|978-1-138-77776-7}}
* Glasson, J; Therivel, R; Chadwick A. (2005). ''Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment''. London: Routledge
* Hanna, K. (2009). ''Environmental Impact Assessment: Practice and Participation,'' 2nd ed. Oxford
* Petts, J. (ed.), ''Handbook of Environmental Impact Assessment,'' Vols 1 & 2. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. {{ISBN|0-632-04772-0}}
* {{Cite journal|last2 = Hilty|first2 = L. M.|year = 2008|title = Impact assessment and policy learning in the European Commission|journal = Environmental Impact Assessment Review|volume = 28|issue = 2–3|pages = 90|doi = 10.1016/j.eiar.2007.05.001|last1 = Ruddy|first1 = T. F.}}
{{Refend}}
== External links ==
* [http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eia/home.htm European Commission - EIA website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120119193844/http://www.sustainabilitya-test.net/ European Commission-funded project on Impact Assessment Tools]
* [http://www.isa.org.usyd.edu.au/research/eia.shtml Environmental Impact Assessment at the University of Sydney]
* [http://www.iaia.org/ International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA)]
* [http://www.eia.nl Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170827122218/http://eia.unu.edu/ UNU Open Educational Resource on EIA: A Course Module, Wiki and Instructional Guide]
* [https://www.elaw.org/elm ELM EIA Law Matrix ~ Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide]
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Positive Development | ‘Net positive’, from '''Positive Development''' (PD) theory, is a paradigm in [[sustainable development]] and design. PD theory (taught and published from 2003)<ref name=":0">Birkeland, J. (2003) ‘Retrofitting: Beyond Zero Waste’, in ''KLM-UC International Conference Proceedings'', University of Canberra, ACT, Australia; Birkeland, J. (2004) ‘Building Assessment Systems: Reversing Environmental Impacts’, Nature and Society Forum, ACT, Australia, http://www.naf.org.au/naf-forum/birkeland (accessed 2005); Birkeland, J. (2005) ‘Reversing Negative Impacts by Design’, in ''Sustainability for the ACT: the Future’s in our Hands'', Office of Sustainability, ACT, Australia.</ref> was first detailed in ''Positive Development'' (2008).<ref name=":1">Birkeland, J. (2008) ''Positive Development: From Vicious Circles to Virtuous Cycles through Built Environment Design’'', Earthscan, London. (A two volume book updating net positive theory is forthcoming.)</ref> A net positive system/structure would ‘give back to nature and society more than it takes’ over its life cycle.<ref name=":2">Eco-positive impacts of development must keep pace with human consumption (or [[ecological footprint]]) and offset past losses of nature, as defined in ''Positive Development'' ''(Ibid)'' p. 6.</ref> In contrast, [[sustainable development]] - in the real-world context of [[population growth]], [[biodiversity loss]], cumulative [[pollution]], [[wealth disparities]] and [[social inequities]] - closes off future options. To reverse direction, development must, among other sustainability criteria, increase nature beyond pre-human conditions.<ref name=":3">A [[sustainable building]] should aim to be better for nature/society than no building at all, as well as increase nature beyond native conditions. A rule of reason would be applied as to whether the baseline is [[pre-industrial]] or pre-historic, depending on the location and circumstances.</ref> PD develops the tools to enable net positive design and development.
== Net Positive Sustainability ==
According to PD, the original precepts of [[sustainability]] ([[nature preservation]] and equity among current/future generations)<ref name=":4">These principles are common to most early definitions of sustainability and were endorsed at a national level as early as 1969 in the preamble to the [[National Environmental Policy Act]] (NEPA) in the United States. Among the first international documents to define sustainability was the IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1980) ''World Conservation Strategy'', re-published in 1991 as ''Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living'', The World Conservation Union, United Nations Environment Program and World Wide Fund for Nature, Earthscan, London, UK. Here it meant improving life quality within the earth’s ecological carrying capacity. See also COAG (1992) The National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development (NSESD), Council of Australian Governments, Canberra, Australia. For historical context, see Commoner, B. (1971) ''The Closing Circle: Nature, Man And Technology'', Knopf, New York and Porritt, J. (1985) ''Seeing Green: The Politics of Ecology Explained'', Blackwell Publishers, UK.</ref> require increasing future options.<ref name=":5">Social options do not mean more consumer products but rather substantive and positive life choices which requires increasing the ecological base and public estate.</ref> This, in turn, requires that development increase the life support system (nature).<ref name=":6">The idea that sustainability requires maintaining or increasing future option was discussed in Birkeland, J. (1993) ''Planning for a Sustainable Society: Institutional Reform and Social Transformation'', University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania. See also Norton, B.G. (2005) ''Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management'', University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois for a comprehensive discussion on this point.</ref> [[Green design]] always aimed for [[ecological restoration]], social regeneration and economic revitalization.<ref name=":7">For a typology of green building design, see Birkeland, J. (2013) ‘Business Opportunities through Positive Development’, in ''A New Dynamic: Effective Business in a Circular Economy'', in K. Webster, J. Bleriot, and C. Johnston (Eds), Ellen MacArthur Foundation Publishing, Isle of Wight, UK, pp. 87-110.</ref> However, these essentially ‘add value’ relative to ''current'' sites, buildings or practices.<ref name=":8">For a discussion of contemporary sustainable building design approaches, see Hes, D. and du Plessus, D. (2015) ''Designing for Hope: Pathways to Regenerative Sustainability'', Taylor & Francis, New York. USA.</ref> They do not increase nature in absolute terms. Positive development is defined as structures that increase universal life quality and future options by expanding the ‘ecological base’ (ecosystems, ecological [[carrying capacity]], biodiversity) and the ‘public estate’ (universal access to means of survival/wellbeing and [[social capital]]).<ref name=":9">Birkeland, J. (2007) ‘GEN 4: ‘Positive Development’, ''BEDP (Built Environment Design Professions) Environmental Design Guide of the Australian Institute of Architects'', ACT, Australia. http://www.environmentdesignguide.com.au/ Assessed June 2008.</ref>
== Terminology Clarification ==
The term net positive<ref name=":10">The term also appears as ‘net-positive’ or ‘netpositive’. A special issue was dedicated to net-positive design. See Cole, R. (2015) ‘Net-zero and Net-positive Design: a question of value’, in ''Building Research & Information'' 43(1), pp. 1-6.</ref> is increasingly used by green designers, developers and businesses.<ref name=":11">For example, see Forum for the Future, WWF, and The Climate Group (2015) ''Net Positive: A New Way of Doing Business''. Available at http://www.theclimategroup.org/what-we-do/publications/net-positive-a-new-way-of-doing-business/ Accessed June 2015.</ref> However, in context, it usually means just ‘giving back’ - that is, without fixed baselines<ref name=":12">Benchmarks are relative to the present, so eco-restoration is seen by some as net positive, yet this does not account for past biodiversity losses and increased human consumption.</ref> - by optimizing material resources, energy and stakeholder benefits, etc. This was the aim of 20th Century green building design.<ref name=":13">There are a wide range of 20th Century green design books, including: Papanek, V. (1971) ''Design for the Real World: human ecology and social change'', Pantheon Books, New York; Johnson, R. (1979) ''The Green City'', MacMillan: S. Melbourne, Australia; Todd, N. and J. Todd (1994) ''From Eco-Cities to Living Machines'', N. Atlantic Books, Berkeley, CA.; Vale, B. and R. Vale (1975) ''The Autonomous House: Design and Planning for self-''sufficiency, Thames and Hudson Ltd, London; Wann, D. (1996) ''Deep Design: Pathways to a Liveable Future'', Island Press, Washington, DC.; Lyle, J.T. (1994) ''Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development'', Wiley & Sons, New York; van der Ryn, S, and Cowan, D. (1996) ''Ecological Design'', Island Press, Washington, DC. Mackenzie, D. (1991), ''Green Design: Design for the Environment'', Lawrence King, London; Girardet, H. (1992), ''The Gaia Atlas of Cities: New Directions for Sustainable Urban Living'', Gaia books Ltd, London; and Yeang, K. (1999) ''The Green Skyscraper: The Basis for Designing Sustainable Intensive Buildings'', Prestel Verlag, Munich, Germany [Yeang has written numerous books on green design].</ref> Although [[environmental ethics]] and social justice remain central concerns in PD,<ref name=":14">Social factors have always been a part of sustainable design paradigms, but the focus is generally on the (psychological, social, physiological, experiential, etc.) needs of building users, and less on using a building project to solve social inequities in the wider community.</ref> therefore, ‘eco-positive’ is increasingly used to underscore the ecological dimension. The term ‘net’ also causes some confusion.<ref name=":15">See for example, Baggs, D. (2015) Buildings Alone will Never be Regenerative, in ''Sourceable - Industry News and Analysis'' https://sourceable.net/buildings-alone-will-never-be-regenerative/ June 29. Accessed July 2015. This claims net positive design only concerns resource balances and does not use a life cycle perspective, but this has no basis in PD literature.</ref> In PD, ‘net’ means public benefits ''beyond'' neutral impacts - not just reducing the total negative impacts to zero by, for example, making tradeoffs.<ref name=":16">For an overview of [[zero-energy building]], see Kibert, C.J. and Fard, M.M. (2012) Differentiating among Low-energy, Low-carbon and Net Zero-energy Building Strategies for Policy Formulation, ''Building Research & Information'', 40(5), pp. 625-637.</ref>
== Theory Origins ==
PD theory built on eco-philosophies that emerged in the 1980s.<ref name=":17">See for example, Merchant, C. (1980) ''The Death of Nature: Women, ecology, and the scientific revolution'', HarperCollins, New York; Warren, K. (1997), ''Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana; Naess, A. (1989) ''Ecology, community, and lifestyle'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, UK; Warren, K. and Wells-Howe, B. (1994) ''Ecological Feminism'', Routledge, New York; Salleh, A. (1997) ''Ecofeminism as Politics: Nature, Marx and the Postmodern'', Zed Books, London; Shiva, V. (1988) ''Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development'', Zed Books, London.</ref> Calling for social transformation, they deconstructed the hierarchical cultures, dualistic thought patterns and linear-reductionist analyses of modernity. PD added a positive/negative overlay to explain why these theories did not contemplate increasing nature to offset consumption. Later, sustainability was absorbed into the dominant paradigm (DP) which assumed that current institutions could resolve the problems they fostered.<ref name=":18">See WCED (1987) ''Our Common Future'', Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. This seminal report couched sustainability within the dominant economic and policy making frameworks and did not engage with the sustainability literature critical of the dominant paradigm.</ref> According to PD, existing institutional and physical structures reduce future options and are thus terminal.<ref name=":19">''Planning for Sustainability, Ibid.'' Birkeland, J. (2008) ''Positive Development, Ibid.''</ref> The hypothesis was that, by converting negative systems into positive ones, genuinely sustainable planning, decision and design frameworks would materialize.
=== Design-decision Distinction ===
The distinction between decision-making and design is central to PD.<ref name=":20">See Birkeland, J. (2012) ‘Design blindness in Sustainable Development: From Closed to Open Systems Design Thinking’, in ''The Journal of Urban Design'', 17(2), pp. 163-187.</ref> Decision-making processes/tools divide, compare and choose. They use bounded or ‘closed system’ thinking which excludes considerations that are difficult to quantify. Essentially, decision methods simplify issues and options to facilitate finding the best path from the present position or desired future. Back-casting and scenario planning, while powerful tools, presume the future can be predicted and selected.<ref name=":21">''Positive Development, Ibid,'' pp. 165-179</ref> Such methods decide now how future citizens must live. They also reduce future options by narrowing resources, adaptability, space and biodiversity over time. Sustainability therefore requires rethinking decision-making and design tools from first principles.
=== Decision-making (reducing costs) ===
The reduction of the ecological base and public estate continues, PD argues, because new sustainability goals were spliced onto the old (anti-ecological) closed system models, methods and metrics of the DP.<ref name=":22">''Positive Development, Ibid.''</ref> Given escalating [[consumption (economics)|human consumption]], even global [[depopulation]] and [[ecological regeneration]] would not counterbalance total negative resource flows and ecological impacts. PD maintains that closed system models created and institutionalized zero-sum decision and measurement frameworks such as [[cost-benefit]]/[[risk-benefit]] analyses.<ref name=":23">''Positive Development, Ibid,'' pp. 117-130.</ref> It identifies and ‘reverses’ over a hundred systemic biases in governance, planning, decision and design frameworks by converting them into open system and design-based frameworks to facilitate eco-positive planning and design.<ref name=":24">Birkeland, J. (2014) ‘Positive Development and Assessment’, in ''Smart and Sustainable Built Environments'', 3(1), pp. 4-22; Birkeland, J. (2015) ‘Planning for Positive Development’, in J. Byrne, J. Dodson and N. Sipe (Eds), ''Australian Environmental Planning: Challenges and Future Prospects'', Routledge, pp. 246-257.</ref>
=== Design (multiplying benefits) ===
Whereas the internal logic of decision frameworks (choosing) tend to diminish ecosystems and land eco-productivity, eco-logical design (creating) can multiply functions and public benefits synergistically. Eco-positive design involves open systems thinking (i.e. with transparent/permeable boundaries). For example, building rating tools are based on limits or thresholds (borders) and do not contemplate net public gains. Perhaps because of the deeply-embedded historic elevation of rationalist decision-making over design, green building design templates and rating tools are decision-based. Being reductionist, they encourage tradeoffs between costs and benefits or nature and society in physical development. Hence, they tend to reduce adaptability, diversity and reversibility.<ref name=":25">There are many critiques of green building rating tools. Brandon, P.S., and Lombardi, P.L. (2011) ''Evaluating Sustainable Development in the Built Environment'' (2nd ed.) Chichester, West Sussex, Ames, Iowa, Wiley-Blackwell; Gu, Z., Wennersten, R., and Assefa, G. (2006) ‘Analysis of the Most Widely Used Building Environmental Assessment Methods’, ''Environmental Sciences,'' 3(3), pp. 175-192; Birkeland, J. (2004) ‘Building Assessment Systems: Reversing Environmental Impacts’, Nature and Society Forum, ACT, Australia http://www.naf.org.au/naf-forum/birkeland (accessed 2005).</ref>
== Governance ==
Decision systems in governance (i.e. legislative, executive and judicial) resolve conflict by allocating rights and resources - not by increasing the ecological base and/or public estate. Hence PD suggests different frameworks for environmental governance.<ref name=":26">Birkeland, J. (1996) ‘The Case for a New Public Forum’, in Furnass, B., Whyte, J., Harris, J., and Baker, A. (Eds), ''Survival, Health and Wellbeing into the 21st Century'', Nature and Society Forum, pp. 111-114. Birkeland, J. (1995) ‘Ethics-Based Planning’, ''Australian Planner'' 33(1), pp. 47-49.</ref> These include a modified constitution with a new decision sphere to deal with the unique ethical dimensions of biophysical development, planning and design.<ref name=":27">Birkeland, J. (1993) ‘Towards a New System of Environmental Governance’, in ''The Environmentalist'', 13(1), pp. 19-32; Birkeland, J. (1993) ''Planning for a Sustainable Society, Ibid''; Birkeland, J. (2008) ''Positive Development, Ibid,'' pp. 220-233.</ref> Given real-world political barriers to change, PD also suggests default strategies to enable incremental reform by changing institutions from within. PD contends that gaps can be avoided in new governance and planning systems by simply reversing each ecologically terminal convention into eco-positive ones.
== Planning ==
SMARTmode (systems mapping and redesign thinking) is a PD planning process<ref name=":28">''Positive Development, Ibid,'' pp. 251-173.</ref> that includes two dozen environment gap analyses to highlight sustainability issues that are almost never assessed in planning or design.<ref>Birkeland, J. (2015) ‘Planning for Positive Development’, in J. Byrne, J. Dodson and N. Sipe (Eds), ''Australian Environmental Planning: Challenges and Future Prospects'', Routledge, pp. 246-257.</ref> Some of these are forensic ‘flows analyses’ that identify (local/regional) social and ecological deficits that developments could ameliorate by design. They can be undertaken scientifically using emerging multi-dimensional digital mapping tools,<ref>Jackson, D. and Simpson, R., eds. (2012) ''D_City: Digital Earth, Virtual Nations, Data Cities'', D_City, Sydney, Australia.</ref> more pragmatically by design teams,<ref>Birkeland, J. (1996) ‘Improving the Design Review Process’, ''CIB Commission Conference Proceedings'', RMIT, Melbourne, pp. 150-155; Birkeland, J. (2014) ‘Systems and Social Change for Sustainable and Resilient Cities’, L. Pearson, P. Newton and P. Roberts (Eds), ''Resilient Sustainable Cities'', Routledge, UK, pp. 66-82.</ref> or more subjectively in community ‘charrettes’ (aka working bees) for workshopping planning criteria and design briefs.<ref>Sarkissian, W. (2002) ‘Pros and cons of design charrettes’, in J. Birkeland (Ed) ''Design for Sustainability: A Sourcebook of Integrated Eco-logical Solutions'', Earthscan, London, p. 113.</ref> Until planners perform these analyses routinely, therefore, they can serve as design thinking exercises, guidelines and/or criteria.
== Design ==
While improved systems of governance, decision-making and planning can assist, biophysical sustainability is ultimately a design problem. To compensate for past system design errors, fundamental reforms of design methods and processes are required. PD proposes means to reduce material flows without tradeoffs by, for example, creating mutual gains and ‘low-impact luxury’ environments.<ref>Aesthetics or design quality does not equal high production costs, whereas high-tech equipment usually has high [[embodied energy]].</ref> PD contends that eco-positive design is already possible, partly through the integration of natural systems with building structures, spaces and surfaces (e.g. ‘[[living machines]]’,<ref>Todd, N.J. and Todd J. (1994) ''From Eco-Cities to Living Machines'', Atlantic Books, Berkeley, California; J. Todd (2002) ‘Living Technologies’, in Birkeland J. (Ed) ''Design for Sustainability: A sourcebook of Integrated Eco-logical Solutions'', Earthscan, London, pp. 114-117.</ref> [[mycology]],<ref>Stamets, P. (2005) ''Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World'', Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA.</ref> ‘algaetecture’<ref>Algae Industry Magazine (2011), Algaeindustry.com. Accessed August 2011.</ref>). PD contributes other design concepts (e.g. ‘design for eco-services’,<ref>Birkeland, J. (2009) ‘Design for Eco-services’, Part A - Environmental Services, ''Environment Design Guide 77'', and Part B - Building Services, ''Environmental Design Guide 78'', Canberra, Architects Institute of Australia, Canberra, Architects Institute of Australia, pp. 1-13 and pp. 1-9.</ref> ‘green scaffolding’<ref>Birkeland, J. (2014) ‘Resilient and Sustainable Buildings’, Pearson, L., Newton P., and Roberts P. (Eds), ''Resilient Sustainable Cities'', Routledge, UK, pp. 146-159.</ref> ‘green space walls’,<ref>Birkeland, J. (2008) ‘Space Frame Walls: Facilitating Positive Development’, in ''Proceedings of the 2008 World Sustainable Building Conference''. Melbourne, Australia, September 22–25. See also www.sustainability.org.au.</ref> ‘solar core’ and ‘piggyback roof,<ref>Paten C., Birkeland, J. and Pears A. (2005) ‘Greening the Built Environment’, in Hargroves, C. and Smith, M.H. (Eds) ''The Natural Advantage of Nations'', London, Earthscan, pp. 367-8</ref> ‘playgardens’<ref>Birkeland, J. (2002) Playgardens and Community in ''Design for Sustainability; a Sourcebook of Eco-logical Solutions,'' Earthscan, London, pp. 109-112; Birkeland, J. (1994) ‘Ecofeminist Playgardens’, International Play Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 49-59.</ref>).Digital sustainability can stimulate empirical advances in entrepreneurship, innovation and strategy and has the potential to have a positive impact on society.
=== Design for Eco-services ===
The term ‘[[ecosystem service]]s’ generally applies only to human benefits, which are usually valued by units (e.g. money, carbon or energy.<ref>Costanza, R. et al. (1997) ‘The Value of the World’sEcosystem Services and Natural Capital’, ''Nature'', vol 387, pp. 253–260; Heal, G. (2000) ''Nature and the Marketplace: Capturing the Value of Ecosystem Services'', Island Press, Washington, DC; Folke, C. Jansson, Å., Larsson, J. and Costanza, R. (1997) ‘Ecosystem Appropriation by Cities, Ambio Vol 26, pp. 167-172; Daily, G. and K. Ellison (2002) ''The New Economy of Nature'', Island Press, Washington, DC.</ref> PD uses the term ‘eco-services’ to include not only nature's instrumental (pragmatic) values like ecosystem goods and services, but its intrinsic (priceless) and ‘biophilic’ values.<ref>Wilson, E.O. (1993) ''The Biophilia Hypothesis'', in S. Kellert (Ed) Island Press, Washington DC.</ref> PD considers the value of nature to be ‘infinite’ as it is not only the basis of the economy, but essential to human existence itself. To counteract the ecological footprint of existing development,<ref>Wackernagel, M. and Rees W. E. (1996) ''Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing the Human Impact on the Earth'', New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia.</ref> ‘surplus’ natural and social capital<ref>Surplus in PD means ‘giving back more than it takes’ from a life cycle and whole system perspective, not sending energy or water back to the grid or mains.</ref> - assessed from fixed biophysical baselines - must be created both off-site and on-site by design.
=== Carbon-neutral Design ===
Net positive energy is barred by the laws of physics. Moreover, calculations of ‘net energy’ seldom include the embodied energy - let alone ecological impacts incurred during resource extraction, production and transportation. With substantial passive solar design and renewable energy, buildings can send unused energy back to the grid, but it might be used for unsustainable purposes elsewhere. Nonetheless, a building could sequester more carbon than it emits over its life cycle with substantial building-integrated vegetation, using PD design principles. A case study (conducted by a cross-disciplinary team) showed this would within under twelve years, well under its life span.<ref>Renger, C., Birkeland, J. and Midmore, D. (2015) ‘Net Positive Building Carbon Sequestration: A Case Study in Brisbane’, in ''Building Research and Information: Special issue'' on net positive design 43(1), pp. 11-24. See also Birkeland, J.L. (2008) ‘Space Frame Walls: Facilitating Positive Development’, in ''Proceedings of the 2008 World Sustainable Building Conference''. Melbourne, Australia, September 22–25, http://trove.nla.gov.au/ accessed June 2009.</ref>
=== Design Reporting ===
The PD eco-positive design reporting process (EDR)<ref>Birkeland, J. (1996) ‘Improving the Design Review Process’, ''CIB Commission Conference Proceedings'', RMIT, Melbourne, pp. 150-155; Birkeland, J. (2014) ‘Systems and Social Change for Sustainable and resilient Cities’, L. Pearson, P. Newton and P. Roberts (Eds), ''Resilient Sustainable Cities'', Routledge, UK, pp. 66-82.</ref> aims to avoid many shortcomings of decision-based approaches to design.<ref>Birkeland, J. (2008) ''Positive Development'', ''Ibid,'' pp. 83-96. Rating tools often give credits for things that have financial gains like energy and water savings or worker health and productivity but do not increase the ecology, let alone offset biodiversity impacts. They do not credit actual net positive impacts.</ref> In contrast to green building rating tools, the EDR aims to uncover opportunities to create net public gains. Design teams answer questions based on PD design criteria<ref>''Positive Development'', ''Ibid,'' pp. 257-258.</ref> and SMARTmode analyses.<ref>Birkeland, J. (2015) ‘Planning for Positive Development’, in J. Byrne, J. Dodson and N. Sipe (Eds), ''Australian Environmental Planning: Challenges and Future Prospects'', Routledge, pp. 246-257; ''Positive Development'', ''Ibid,'' pp. 251-273.</ref> This forces education, collaboration and ‘frontloading’ design (i.e. investing more in preliminary design stages).<ref>See Weizacker, E. van, Lovins, A. and Lovins, H. (1997) ''Factor 4: Doubling Wealth – Halving Resource Use'', Earthscan, London, UK. Hawken, P., Lovins, A and Lovins, H. (1999) ''Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution'', Earthscan, London, UK. It is a widely cited claim that design is only about one percent of the total cost of the building, yet can save fifty to ninety percent of the total operating cost of a building.</ref> Exposing the research and reasoning behind decision and design concepts facilitates input from community, assessors and independent experts, and should therefore occur be undertaken in development project. Being affordable and flexible, it is also easily adapted to developing nations.<ref>An example EDR process was created for Bogota based on a study of cultural, economic, social, ecological and other special needs. This is not yet published.</ref>
=== Design Strategies ===
Eco-positive retrofitting is a priority PD strategy.<ref>Birkeland, J. (2009) ‘Eco-Retrofitting with Building Integrated Living’, in ''Smart and Sustainable Built Environment Conference Proceedings''. Delft, Netherlands. www.sasbe2009.com/ accessed May 2011; ''Positive Development'', ''Ibid,'' pp. 23-41.</ref> Due to the massive ongoing impacts of buildings, biophysical sustainability is impossible without retrofitting cities.<ref>UNEP (2013) ''Buildings and Climate Change: Summary for Decision Makers'', United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi (by United Nations organizations and national building institutes). UN-HABITAT (2011) ''Cities and Climate Change: Global Report on Human Settlements''. http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS2011_Full.pdf/ accessed July 2012</ref> Replacing buildings with greener ones costs too much in materials, money, energy and time, as new buildings represent only 1-3% of the building stock. It is now accepted that retrofitting can be profitable in resource, energy, health savings and worker productivity.<ref>Romm, J. (1999) ''Cool Companies: How the Best Businesses Boost Profits and Productivity by Cutting Greenhouse Emissions'', Island Press, Washington, DC.; EPA (1998) Market Values for Home Energy Efficiency (study by Nevin and Watson for the USA Environmental Protection Agency), Washington DC.</ref> It can happen quickly and simultaneously, or when buildings are repurposed or refurbished anyway. Green buildings may last a hundred years but few are designed for upgrading/adaptability, so they will soon need retrofitting to a higher standard.
== Design Assessment ==
Most rating tools prioritize resource efficiency and treat ‘reductions in negative impacts’ as if positive. Their baselines and benchmarks preclude net-positive impacts. Some provisions consider respective rights/responsibilities, but not broader ethical issues like improving human-nature relationships, reducing total resource flows or increasing social capital in the vicinity. Also, innovation is often valued for its own sake, not outcomes, and eco-efficiency saves owners money anyway. PD's ‘hierarchy of eco-innovation’ analysis instead prioritizes positive system-wide outcomes and net public benefits.<ref>The PD ‘hierarchy of eco-innovation’ is summarized in Birkeland, J. (2008) ''Positive Development'', ''Ibid,'' pp. 240-242.</ref> Being non-numerical, it allows self-assessment during design when scientific data is unavailable, time and ego has vested or irreversible decisions are made.
=== PD Starfish ===
The PD ‘starfish’ design and rating tool enables quantification while assisting designers to consider more dimensions of sustainability.<ref>Birkeland, J. (2010) ‘Starfish Tool for Net Positive Design’, Presentation at ''Positive Communities'', DEEDI (Queensland Government), Brisbane; Birkeland, J. (2012) ‘Design blindness in Sustainable Development: From Closed to Open Systems Design Thinking’, in ''The Journal of Urban Design'', 17(2), 163-187. (Note the tool is elaborated in a forthcoming book).</ref> It is a modified radar diagram with added layers and satellite diagrams.<ref>Radar diagrams are standard spreadsheet tools.</ref> Since most [[life-cycle assessment]] tools estimate impacts between ‘-1’ (bad) to ‘0’ (best) or zero impact, eco-positive public benefits are excluded. Unlike rating tools, benchmarks for different sustainability factors are based on fixed biophysical conditions - not typical buildings, sites or practices.<ref>Jackson, D and R. Simpson (2012) ''D_City: Digital Earth/Virtual Nations/Data Cities - Connecting Global Futures for Environmental Planning'', D. Jackson and R. Simpson, E-book, http://dcitynetwork.net/manifesto/; Birkeland, J. (2012) ‘The Eco-Positive Design Tool’, in ''Solar Progress'', Journal of the Australian Solar Energy Society.</ref> The starfish uses one scale to assess impacts in relation to fixed benchmarks (from ‘-1’ to ‘+1’) and a linear scale on another layer for scoring/comparison purposes.
== References ==
<references group="https://uci.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CDL_IRV_INST/u4evf/cdi_proquest_journals_2560018488" />
== External links ==
* [https://sourceable.net/buildings-alone-will-never-be-regenerative/ https://sourceable.net/buildings-alone-will-never-be-regenerative]
* http://www.naf.org.au/naf-forum/birkeland
* http://www.environmentdesignguide.com.au/
* http://www.theclimategroup.org/what-we-do/publications/net-positive-a-new-way-of-doing-business/
* https://sourceable.net/buildings-alone-will-never-be-regenerative/
* http://trove.nla.gov.au/
* http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS2011_Full.pdf/
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Resource justice | '''Resource justice''' (also referred to as "'''resource equity'''" or "'''resource governance'''") is a term in [[environmentalism]] and in [[environmental ethics]]. It combines elements of [[distributive justice]] and [[environmental justice]] and is based on the observation that many countries rich in [[natural resource]]s such as [[mineral]]s and other [[raw material]]s nevertheless experience high levels of poverty. This [[resource curse]] is one of the main ethical reasons to demand resource justice, that is, a globally fair distribution of all natural resources.
== Factors leading to resource injustice ==
[[File:GINI index World Bank up to 2018.png|alt=|thumb|500x500px|Countries' income inequality according to their [[Gini coefficient]] as of 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?view=map|access-date=2020-07-23|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>]]
The term resource justice as a subcategory of distributive justice was first developed following the repeated observation that natural resources that, supposedly, are a blessing for local populations, turn out to be a curse. This can manifest itself in a number of ways – and for a number of reasons, some of which occur in isolation but more often arise together. Some examples are:
* [[Surface mining|Mining]] or [[Oil well|oil drilling]] result in severe damage to the environment, for example through [[oil spill]]s, [[environmental degradation]], or [[Pollution|contamination]].
* The extraction of resources leads to extreme forms of [[exploitation of labour]] and / or creates very [[Work accident|hazardous working conditions]].
* Resources are being controlled by a small elite that makes or embezzles all the profits. This often goes along with [[corruption]].
* People are forced off their land to make place for resource extraction or for large [[Monoculture|monocultural]] plantations.
* Resources in the developing world are being extracted by companies from industrialised countries, with most of the profits going to the latter.
* Companies extract genetic material, which is then commercially farmed or bred – and often [[Biological patent|patented]].
== Approaches towards greater resource justice ==
[[Capacity building]] and external support in order to empower "communities affected by oil, gas, and mining operations" so that they themselves are able to determine how local resources are being used.<ref>[http://www.oxfamamerica.org/take-action/campaign/natural-resource-justice/ Natural Resource Justice], [[Oxfam]]</ref><ref>[https://namati.org/lawyers-for-resource-justice/ Lawyers for Resource Justice]</ref> In addition, mechanisms have to be developed to make sure that finite resources are distributed in an equitable way so that poor nations' right to development is not denied.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_l9U7olOSA0C Wolfgang Sachs, Tilman Santarius, Fair Future: Limited Resources and Global Justice]</ref>
The memorandum Resource Politics for a Fair Future, published by the [[Heinrich Böll Foundation]] lists three criteria for a "fair and sustainable Resource Politics", namely:
* to "secure the rights of people and nature over markets and profits" and empower them to demand their rights;
* to return the "control over natural resources, financial capital and technologies (...) into the hands of the people;
* to "transform production, consumption and livelihoods" in ways that enable people to live in a world of global equity.<ref>[https://www.boell.de/sites/default/files/resource-politics_for-a-fair_future.pdf Resource Politics for a Fair Future, p.12-13], PDF, Berlin 2014</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Climate justice]]
* [[Distributive justice]]
* [[Environmental ethics]]
* [[Environmental racism]]
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== Further reading ==
* Wolfgang Sachs, Tilman Santarius, Fair Future: Limited Resources and Global Justice, Zed Books, London & New York, 2007
* [[Heinrich Böll Foundation]], [https://www.boell.de/sites/default/files/resource-politics_for-a-fair_future.pdf Resource Politics for a Fair Future], PDF, Berlin 2014
== External links ==
* [https://www.boell.de/en/memorandum-resource-politics-fair-future Dossier – Resource Politics for a Fair Future], Heinrich Böll Foundation
{{Types of justice}}
[[Category:Environmental justice|.]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Resource economics]]
[[Category:Resource extraction]]
[[Category:Social justice]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Value (ethics)]] |
Social metabolism | {{Short description|Study of materials and energy flows between nature and society}}
{{Ecological economics|Concepts}}
'''Social metabolism''' or '''socioeconomic metabolism''' is the set of [[Stock and flow|flow]]s of [[material flow|material]]s and [[energy flow (ecology)|energy]] that occur between [[nature]] and [[society]], between different societies, and within societies. These human-controlled material and energy flows are a basic feature of all societies but their magnitude and diversity largely depend on specific [[culture]]s, or sociometabolic regimes.<ref name= "Metabolism">{{cite book |last1= Manuel |last2= Toledo |first2= Víctor M. |year= 2014|title= The Social Metabolism: A Socio-Ecological Theory of Historical Change|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JwzvAwAAQBAJ| publisher= Springer |isbn= 978-3-319-06357-7 }}
</ref><ref name= "metabolismo">{{in lang|es}}[http://www.scielo.org.mx/pdf/rz/v34n136/v34n136a4.pdf El metabolismo social: una nueva teoría socioecológica.] Relaciones. 2013.</ref>
Social or socioeconomic metabolism is also described as "the [[self-replication|self-reproduction]] and evolution of the [[biophysical]] structures of human society. It comprises those biophysical transformation processes, distribution processes, and flows, which are controlled by humans for their purposes. The biophysical structures of society (‘in use stocks’) and socioeconomic metabolism together form the biophysical basis of society."<ref name="Pauliuk Hertwich 2015 pp. 83–93">{{cite journal | last1=Pauliuk | first1=Stefan | last2=Hertwich | first2=Edgar G. | title=Socioeconomic metabolism as paradigm for studying the biophysical basis of human societies | journal=Ecological Economics | volume=119 | year=2015 | issn=0921-8009 | doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.08.012 | pages=83–93}}</ref>
Social metabolic processes begin with the [[human]] ''appropriation'' of materials and energy from nature. These can be ''transformed'' and ''circulated'' to be ''[[resource consumption|consumed]]'' and ''excreted'' finally back to nature itself. Each of these processes has a different [[environmental impact]] depending on how it is performed, the amount of materials and energy involved in the process, the area where it occurs, the time available or nature's regenerative capacity.<ref name= "Metabolism"/><ref name= "metabolismo"/>
Social metabolism represents an extension of the metabolism concept from biological organisms like human bodies to the biophysical basis of society. In [[Capitalism|capitalist]] societies, humans build and operate [[mining|mine]]s and [[farming|farms]], [[oil refineries]] and [[power station]]s, [[factories]] and [[infrastructure]] to [[energy supply|supply the energy]] and material flows needed for the physical reproduction of a specific culture. In-use stocks, which comprise [[building]]s, [[vehicle]]s, appliances, infrastructure, etc., are built up and maintained by the different industrial processes that are part of social metabolism. These stocks then provide services to people in the form of shelter, [[transportation]], or [[communication]]. [[Karl Marx]] understood these aspects of the specifically [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] to be [[Alienated labor|alienated]], as they reflect a [[Marx's theory of alienation|socially and economically mediated]] form of social metabolism, reducing the amount of energy regenerated for both the human beings involved and their natural environment, only to displace it to the interests of capital. [[John Bellamy Foster]] has thus developed the concept of [[metabolic rift]] to develop Marx's understanding of the deleterious effect of capitalism on [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]].
Society and its metabolism together form an [[Autopoiesis|autopoietic]] system, a complex system that reproduces itself. Neither culture nor social metabolism can reproduce themselves in isolation. Humans need food and shelter, which is delivered by social metabolism, and the latter needs humans to operate it.
Social or socioeconomic metabolism stipulates that human society and its interaction with nature form a [[complex system|complex]] self-reproducing system, and it can therefore be seen as [[paradigm]] for studying the biophysical basis of human societies under the aspect of self-reproduction. "A common paradigm can facilitate model combination and integration, which can lead to more robust and comprehensive interdisciplinary assessments of sustainable development strategies. ... The use of social or socioeconomic metabolism as paradigm can help to justify alternative economic concepts."<ref name="Pauliuk Hertwich 2015 pp. 83–93"/>
== Origins of the concept ==
The concept of social metabolism emerged in the [[19th century|nineteenth century]], which was a time of scientific integration and reciprocity among naturalists and social scholars. The evolutionary perspective, particularly [[analogical reasoning]], provided crossties between natural and social sciences.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last1=González de Molina |first1=Manuel |title=Social Metabolism: Origins, History, Approaches, and Main Publications |date=2014 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06358-4_3 |work=The Social Metabolism: A Socio-Ecological Theory of Historical Change |pages=43–58 |editor-last=González de Molina |editor-first=Manuel |access-date=2023-03-12 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-06358-4_3 |isbn=978-3-319-06358-4 |last2=Toledo |first2=Víctor M. |series=Environmental History |volume=3 |editor2-last=Toledo |editor2-first=Víctor M.}}</ref>
It was only in the late 1970s that the [[Human exceptionalism|human exceptionalism paradigm]] was rigorously questioned, leading to the birth of [[environmental sociology]].<ref name=":0" />
== Social metabolism as a proxy for human development<ref>{{Citation |last1=Fischer-Kowalski |first1=Marina |title=Social metabolism: a metric for biophysical growth and degrowth |date=September 2015 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781783471416.00009 |work=Handbook of Ecological Economics |pages=100–138 |access-date=2023-04-26 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |last2=Haberl |first2=Helmut|doi=10.4337/9781783471416.00009 |isbn=9781783471416 }}</ref> ==
The concept of social metabolism has been used in historical research as a framework to describe the development of human societies over time. Particularly important in this field is the work done by the German historian [[Rolf Peter Sieferle|Rolf Sieferle]] on the socio-ecological patterns of societies. Focusing on the energy dimension of social metabolism (i.e. the energetic metabolism), Sieferle suggested that it is possible to classify different "socio-ecological patterns", or regimes, of human societies over time, according to the main source of energy and the dominant energy conversion technology that these use. Sieferle identified three main regimes that characterised human history: hunting-gathering, agrarian and industrial. The hunting-gathering regime relied on "passive solar energy utilization", as in this configuration humans relied mainly on products of recent photosynthesis, namely plants and animals for food and firewood for heat. This resulted in highly nomadic societies and low population density. Eventually, the [[Neolithic Revolution|Neolithic revolution]] allowed societies to switch to an agrarian regime based on "active solar energy utilization". Humans started to modify their environment more systematically through deforestation in order maximise the exploitation of land and sun for farming to produce food for humans and for livestock. This led to sedentary societies, increased human labour burden and to higher population growth, which in turn boosted the development of more structured social hierarchies and dynamics. Finally, the invention of the [[steam engine]] in the 16th century triggered the emergence of the industrial regime, that relies on fossil fuels as its main energy source. This led to the industrial socio-ecological pattern that regulates human society as we now it today.
Following Sieferle's footsteps, other social scientists eventually tried to reconstruct human history through social metabolism, also through quantitative analyses and indicators. Among them it is worth mentioning the [[Primary energy|Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES)]], the Domestic Energy Consumption (DEC), the [[Primary production|Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production (HANPP)]] and others.
Using energetic metabolism as a proxy for human development has important implications not only for historical analysis, but also for the elaboration of future scenarios. According to many studies, [[peak fossil fuel (disambiguation)|peak fossil fuel]] (i.e. the maximum rate of fossil fuels extraction on a global scale) has already been reached or is likely to be reached soon. Understanding what will be the next main energy source and conversion technology of human societies in the future has important policy and societal implications.
== Accounting Methods ==
Studies of social metabolism can be carried out at different levels of system aggregation, see [[material flow analysis]]. In material flow accounting, for example, the [[Factor of production|inputs]] and [[Output (economics)|outputs]] of materials and energy of a particular [[State (polity)|state]] or region, as well as [[import]]s and [[export]]s, are analysed. Such studies are facilitated by the ease of [[access to information]] about [[commercial transaction]]s.<ref>{{cite book |year= 2000|title= The Weight of Nations: Material Outflows from Industrial Economies |url= http://pdf.wri.org/weight_of_nations.pdf |publisher= World Resources Institute |isbn=978-1-56973-439-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Carpintero Redondo |first= Óscar |year= 2005|title= El metabolismo de la economía española: recursos naturales y huella ecológica (1955-2000) |url= http://www.fcmanrique.org/recursos/publicacion/elmetabolismo.pdf|language= Spanish|publisher= Fundación César Manrique |isbn=978-84-88550-60-6 }}</ref>
There are different schools of thought concerning social metabolism, each with its own accounting method. The two that can be identified have their roots in two different schools of research, the Material and Energy Flow Analyses ([[MEFA]]) which is related to the "Vienna School", not to be confused with the [[Austrian School]], and the Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis of Societal and Ecosystem Metabolism ([[MuSIASEM]]), which finds its roots in the "Barcelona school", connected to the [[Autonomous University of Barcelona]]. The scholar who laid the foundations for MEFA is [[Marina Fischer-Kowalski]], while MuSIASEM developed around [[Mario Giampietro]] and [[Kozo Mayumi]].<ref name="GerberScheidel">{{cite journal |last1=Gerber |first1=Julien-François |last2=Scheidel |first2=Arnim |title=In Search of Substantive Economics: Comparing Today's Two Major Socio-metabolic Approaches to the Economy – MEFA and MuSIASEM |journal=Ecological Economics |date=February 2018 |volume=144 |pages=186–194 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.08.012|url=https://pure.eur.nl/en/publications/d2dc7644-4614-4ca6-a8e0-a8c876cfce1a }}</ref>
While MEFA, primarily focusses its research on [[national economies]] across time and space, MuSIASEM primarily focusses its research on contemporary economies, herein they focus on specific [[subsectors]] of the economy.<ref name="GerberScheidel"/>{{rp|190}} This brings with it some [[methodological]] differences as well, in the MEFA school of thought, researchers have been more geared toward [[standardizing]] [[data collection]] as much as possible, which would result in an easier comparison between a wide range of cases and data. On the other hand, in the MuSIASEM school, scholars have been more reluctant to do this, they prefer to have a tailor-made form of accounting for every case, operating within a predetermined '[[grammar]]'.<ref name="GerberScheidel"/>{{rp|191}}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Business and economics|Communism|Society|Ecology|Environment}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Anthropogenic metabolism]]
* [[Balance of nature]]
* [[Carbon rift]]
* [[Circular economy]]
* [[Degrowth]]
* [[Dematerialization (economics)]]
* [[Ecological economics]]
* [[Ecological footprint]]
* [[Energy crisis]]
* [[Energy economics]]
* [[Energy returned on energy invested]]
* [[Ecological civilization]]
* [[Earth jurisprudence]]
* [[Scale (analytical tool)]]
* [[Global hectare]]
* [[Industrial metabolism]]
* [[Land (economics)]]
* [[Material flow analysis]]
* [[Metabolic rift]]
* [[MuSIASEM]]
* [[Natural resource economics]]
* [[Urban metabolism]]
* [[Water footprint]]
}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Cultural economics]]
[[Category:Ecological economics]]
[[Category:Degrowth]]
[[Category:Social ecology]]
[[Category:Economic theories]]
[[Category:Economics and climate change]]
[[Category:Energy economics]]
[[Category:Environmental economics]]
[[Category:Interdisciplinary subfields of sociology]]
[[Category:Marxist terminology]]
[[Category:Political economy]]
[[Category:Resource extraction]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Development aid | {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{short description|Financial aid given to support the development of developing countries}}
[[File:Development-assistance-as-share-of-government-expense.png|thumb|right|300px|In some countries there is more development aid than government spending. (Image from World in Data)]]
'''Development aid''' is a type of [[aid|foreign/international/overseas aid]] given by governments and other agencies to support the economic, environmental, social, and political [[International development|development]] of [[developing countries]].<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2009/wp09118.pdf|title=Development Aid and Economic Growth: A Positive Long-Run Relation|access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> Closely related concepts include: '''developmental aid''', '''development assistance''', '''[[official development assistance]]''', '''development policy''', '''development cooperation''' and '''technical assistance'''. It is distinguished from [[humanitarian aid]] by aiming at a sustained improvement in the conditions in a developing country, rather than short-term relief. Development aid is thus widely seen as a major way to meet [[Sustainable Development Goal 1]] (end poverty in all its forms everywhere) for the developing nations.
Aid may be '''bilateral''': given from one country directly to another; or it may be '''multilateral''': given by the donor country to an international organisation such as the [[World Bank]] or the United Nations Agencies ([[UNDP]], [[UNICEF]], [[UNAIDS]], etc.) which then distributes it among the developing countries. The proportion is currently about 70% bilateral 30% multilateral.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Total flows by donor (ODA+OOF+Private) [DAC1]|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TABLE1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611033345/http://stats.oecd.org:80/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TABLE1 |archive-date=11 June 2009 |access-date=|website=OECD}}</ref>
About 80% of the aid measured by the [[OECD]] comes from government sources as [[official development assistance]] (ODA). The remaining 20% or so comes from individuals, businesses, [[Foundation (nonprofit)|charitable foundations]] or [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] (e.g., [[Oxfam]]).<ref name=":23">OECD, DAC1 Official and Private Flows (''op. cit.''). The calculation is Net Private Grants / ODA.</ref> Most development aid comes from the Western industrialised countries but some poorer countries also contribute aid.
Development aid is not usually understood as including [[remittance]]s received from migrants working or living in [[diaspora]]—even though these form a significant amount of international transfer—as the recipients of remittances are usually individuals and families rather than formal projects and programmes. Some governments also include military assistance in the notion of "foreign aid", although the international community does not usually regard military aid as development aid.
{{TOC limit|3}}
== Related terms ==
There are various terms that are interchangeable with "development aid" in some contexts but possess significantly different meanings in others.
; [[Aid]]: is a more general concept which can include [[humanitarian aid]] (emergency relief) and other voluntary transfers not specifically aimed at development. Other expressions that relate to aid in general include "foreign aid", "international aid", and "overseas aid".
; Developmental aid: is an expression sometimes used to indicate aid that is more genuinely or effectively oriented to development than what is commonly regarded as development aid.<ref name=Foot02/>
; Development assistance: is a synonym of "development aid" often used in international forums such as the UN and the OECD. '''[[official development assistance]]''' ('''ODA''') is aid given by OECD-member governments that specifically targets the economic development and welfare of countries with the lowest per capita incomes.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Official Development Assistance (ODA)|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/official-development-assistance.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422122947/http://www.oecd.org:80/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/official-development-assistance.htm |archive-date=22 April 2019 |access-date=26 January 2021|website=OECD}}</ref> It includes humanitarian aid as well as development aid in the strict sense.
; Development cooperation: despite apparently suggesting a potentially wide range of co-ordinated action, has often been used synonymously with "development aid".<ref name=Foot01/> In the early 21st century, "development cooperation" has become a key term in a discourse associated with the Global Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation. In this context it encompasses activities that may not be directly related to aid, such as domestic and global policy changes, co-ordination with profit-making and civil society entities, and exchanges between less-developed countries.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=1 December 2016|title=Nairobi outcome document|url=https://www.effectivecooperation.org/system/files/2020-05/Nairobi-Outcome-Document-English.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424043257/https://www.effectivecooperation.org/system/files/2020-05/Nairobi-Outcome-Document-English.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2021 |access-date=16 January 2021|website=Global Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation}}</ref>
== Types of development aid by source, channel and recipient ==
=== Non-ODA development aid ===
Analyses of development aid often focus on ODA, as ODA is measured systematically and appears to cover most of what people regard as development aid. However, there are some significant categories of development aid that fall outside ODA, notably: private aid, remittances, aid to less-poor countries and aid from other donor states.
==== Private development aid ====
A distinction is often made between development aid that is '''governmental''' ("official") on the one hand, and '''private''' (originating from individuals, businesses and the investments of [[Foundation (nonprofit)|charitable foundations]], and often channeled through religious organisations and other [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]]) on the other. Official aid may be government-to-government, or it may be channeled through intermediary bodies such as [[United Nations System|UN agencies]], [[international financial institutions]], NGOs or other contractors. NGOs thus commonly handle both official and private aid. Of aid reported to the OECD, about 80% is official and 20% private.<ref name=":23" />
==== Remittances ====
[[Remittances]]—money sent home by foreign workers—might be considered a form of development aid, although it is not usually regarded as such. [[World Bank]] estimates for remittance flows to "developing countries" in 2016 totalled $422 billion,<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=April 2018|title=Migration and Remittances: Recent Developments and Outlook|url=http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/805161524552566695/pdf/125632-WP-PUBLIC-MigrationandDevelopmentBrief.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200829144249/http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/805161524552566695/pdf/125632-WP-PUBLIC-MigrationandDevelopmentBrief.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2020 |access-date=5 February 2021|website=World Bank}}</ref> which was far greater than total ODA. The exact nature and effects of remittance money remain contested.<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2003/wp03189.pdf Are Immigrant Remittance Flows a Source of Capital for Development? - WP/03/189<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The [[International Monetary Fund]] has reported that private remittances may have a negative impact on economic growth, as they are often used for private consumption of individuals and families, not for economic development of the region or country.<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.cfm?sk=16801.0 Are Immigrant Remittance Flows a Source of Capital for Development<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
==== Aid to less-poor countries ====
ODA only includes aid to countries which are on the [http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/daclist.htm DAC List of ODA Recipients] which includes most countries classified by the World Bank as of low and middle income.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=DAC List of ODA Recipients|url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/daclist.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424061342/http://www.oecd.org:80/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/daclist.htm |archive-date=24 April 2017 |access-date=8 February 2021|website=OECD}}</ref>
==== Weakly-concessional loans ====
Loans from one state to another may be counted as ODA only if their terms are substantially more favourable than market terms. The exact rules for this have varied from time to time. Less-concessional loans therefore would not be counted as ODA but might be considered as including an element of development aid.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Official development assistance – definition and coverage|url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719055510/http://www.oecd.org:80/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm |archive-date=19 July 2016 |access-date=8 February 2021|website=OECD}}</ref>
==== Aid from other donor states ====
Some states provide development aid without reporting to the OECD using standard definitions, categories and systems. Notable examples are China and India. For 2018, the OECD estimated that, while total ODA was about $150 billion,<ref name=":25" /> an additional six to seven billion dollars of ODA-like development aid was given by ten other states.<ref name=":26" /> (These amounts include aid that is humanitarian in character as well as purely developmental aid.)
==== TOSSD ====
Recognizing that ODA does not capture all the expenditures that promote development, the OECD in 2014 started establishing a wider statistical framework called TOSSD (Total Official Support for Sustainable Development) that would count spending on "international public goods". In March 2022, TOSSD was adopted as a data source for indicator 17.3.1 of the SDGs global indicator framework to measure development support. The TOSSD data for 2020 shows more than USD 355 billion disbursed to support for sustainable development, from almost 100 provider countries and institutions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Total Official Support for Sustainable Development (TOSSD)|url=https://www.tossd.org/}}</ref> The [[Commitment to Development Index]] published annually by the [[Center for Global Development]] is another attempt to look at broader donor country policies toward the developing world. These types of activity could be formulated and understood as a kind of development aid although commonly they are not.
=== Bilateral v multilateral ===
Official aid may be '''bilateral''': given from one country directly to another; or it may be '''multilateral''': given by the donor country to pooled funds administered by an international organisation such as the [[World Bank]] or a UN Agency ([[UNDP]], [[UNICEF]], [[UNAIDS]], etc.) which then uses its funds for work in developing countries. To qualify as multilateral, the funding must lose its identity as originating from a particular source.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gulrajani|first=Nilima|title=Bilateral versus multilateral aid channels: Strategic choices for donors|publisher=Overseas Development Institute|date=March 2016|isbn=|location=|pages=7}}</ref> The proportion of multilateral aid in ODA was 28% in 2019.<ref name=":24" />
=== Trilateral ===
Trilateral development cooperation (also called triangular development cooperation) is a type of development cooperation, wherein OECD DAC member states or multilateral institutions provide development assistance to emergent development actors, with the aim of assisting them in carrying out development projects in other developing countries.<ref>United Nations Economic and Social Council (2008), page 8. Trends in South-South and Triangular Development Cooperation. url: http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/pdfs/south-south_cooperation.pdf.</ref>
The purpose of trilateral development cooperation is to combine the strengths of both OECD DAC member states and the new development actors in delivering more effective aid to recipient countries.<ref>OECD (2016), page 9. Dispelling the myths of triangular co-operation - Evidence from the 2015 OECD survey on triangular co-operation. url: https://www.oecd.org/dac/dacglobal- relations/OECD_Triangular_co-operation_survey_report_2016.pdf.</ref> The OECD DAC member states and multilateral institutions participate in trilateral development cooperation with the aimed goal of increasing aid effectiveness and efficiency, phasing out bilateral aid, transferring good practices, and capacity building.<ref>Ashoff, Guido (2010). Triangular Cooperation: Opportunities, risks, and conditions for effectiveness. Tech. rep. January 2010, pp. 22–24. url: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/8917388a-5ef3-5a1c-9412-6aacae567900/content</ref>
==History==
===Britain's development funding for its colonies===
The concept of development aid goes back to the [[British Empire|colonial era]] at the turn of the twentieth century, in particular to the British policy of colonial development that emerged during that period. The traditional government policy had tended to favor [[laissez-faire]] style economics, with the free market for capital and goods dictating the economic role that colonies played in the [[British Empire]].
[[Image:British Political Personalities 1936-1945 CH4432.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne|Lord Moyne]], as [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] presided over a Development Committee for the colonies. He is pictured entertaining [[Jamaica]]n recruits for the [[RAF]].]]
Changes in attitudes towards the moral purpose of the Empire, and the role that government could play in the promotion of welfare slowly led to a more proactive policy of economic and developmental assistance towards poor colonies. The first challenge to Britain was the [[economic crisis]] that occurred after [[World War I]]. Prior to the passage of the 1929 Colonial Development Act, the doctrine that governed Britain (and other European colonizers) with their territories was that of financial self-sufficiency. What this simply meant was that the colonies were responsible for themselves.<ref>Joseph Hodge, Gerald Hodl, & Martin Kopf (edi) Developing Africa: Concepts and Practices in Twentieth-Century Colonialism, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2014, p.12.</ref>
Britain was not going to use the money that belongs to the [[metropole]] to pay for things in the colonies. The colonies did not only have to pay for infrastructural development but they also were responsible for the salaries of British officials that worked in the colonies. The colonies generated the revenues to pay for these through different forms of taxations. The standard taxation was the import and export taxes. Goods going out of the colonies were taxed and those coming in were also taxed. These generated significant revenues. Apart from these taxes, the colonizers introduced two other forms of taxes: hut tax and labor tax. The hut tax is akin to a property tax today. Every grown up adult male had their own hut. Each of these had to pay a tax. Labor tax was the work that the people had to do without any remunerations or with meager stipends.<ref>Bekeh Utietiang, Planning Development: International Experts, Agricultural Policy, and the Modernization of Nigeria, 1945-1967 (Ph.D Thesis), West Virginia University, Morgantown, 2014, p. 38.</ref> As the [[Financial crisis|economic crisis]] widened and had significant impact on the colonies, revenues generated from taxes continued to decline, having a significant impact on the colonies. While this was going on, Britain experienced major unemployment rates. The parliament began to discuss ways in which they could deal with Britain's unemployment rates and at the same time respond to some of the urgent needs of the colonies.<ref>[[Stephen Constantine (historian)|Stephen Constantine]], ''The Making of British Colonial Development Policy, 1914-1940'', London: Frank Cass, 1984, p.183.</ref> This process culminated in the passage of the Colonial Development Act in 1929, which established a Colonial Development Advisory Committee under the authority of the [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]], then [[Sidney Webb, 1st Baron Passfield|Lord Passfield]]. Its initial annual budget of £1 million was spent on schemes designed to develop the [[infrastructure]] of [[transport]], [[electrical power]] and [[water supply]] in colonies and [[dominion]]s abroad for the furtherance of imperial trade.<ref name="Kanbur">{{Citation | last1 = Kanbur | first1 = Ravi | author-link1 = Ravi Kanbur | contribution = The economics of international aid | editor-last1 = Kolm | editor-first1 = Serge-Christophe | editor-last2 = Ythier | editor-first2 = Jean Mercier | editor-link1 = Serge-Christophe Kolm | title = Handbook of the economics of giving, altruism and reciprocity: foundations, volume 1 | publisher = Elsevier | location = Amsterdam London | year = 2006 | isbn = 9780444506979 | postscript = .}}</ref> The 1929 Act, though meager in the resources it made available for development, was a significant Act because it opened the door for Britain to make future investments in the colonies. It was a major shift in colonial development. The doctrine of financial self-sufficiency was abandoned and Britain could now use metropolitan funds to develop the colonies.
By the late 1930s, especially after the [[British West Indian labour unrest of 1934–1939]], it was clear that this initial scheme was far too limited in scope. A [[Royal Commission]] under [[Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne|Lord Moyne]] was sent to investigate the living conditions in the [[British West Indies]] and it published its [[Report of West India Royal Commission (Moyne Report)|Report]] in 1940 which exposed the horrendous living conditions there.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fraser|first=Cary|title=The Twilight of Colonial Rule in the British West Indies: Nationalist Assertion vs. Imperial Hubris in the 1930s|journal=Journal of Caribbean History|year=1996|volume=30|issue=1/2|page=2|url=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/45526514}}{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Basdeo|first=Sahadeo|title=Walter Citrine and the British Caribbean Worker's Movement during the Commission Hearing|journal=Journal of Caribbean History|year=1983|volume=18|issue=2|page=46|url=http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/results?sid=2784e56a-6ebf-4f20-9439-1158ddf4d76c%40sessionmgr4&vid=11&hid=28&bquery=(AU+(basdeo))+AND+(citrine)&bdata=JmRiPWFobCZkYj1oaWEmdHlwZT0xJnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
Amidst increasing criticism of Britain's colonial policies from abroad and at home,<ref>{{cite book|last=Thomas|title=The Trinidad Labour Riots of 1937|page=229}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Kelvin|title=Race and Class Struggles in a Colonial State|year=1994|publisher=University of Calgary Press|location=Calgary|page=186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iWAYAAAAYAAJ|isbn=9781895176438}}</ref> the commission was a performance to showcase Britain's "benevolent" attitude towards its colonial subjects.<ref name=Thomas267>{{cite book|editor-last=Thomas|editor-first=Roy Darrow|title=The Trinidad Labour Riots of 1937|year=1987|publisher=University of West Indies Press|location=St. Augustine|page=267|isbn=9789766200022|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Re3TAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> The commission's recommendations urged health and education initiatives along with increased sugar subsidies to stave off a complete and total economic meltdown.<ref>{{cite book|last=Parker|page=23}}</ref> The [[Colonial Office]], eager to prevent instability while the country was at [[World War II|war]], began funneling large sums of cash into the region.<ref name=Thomas283>{{cite book|title=The Trinidad Labour Riots of 1937|last=Thomas|pages=283}}</ref>
The Colonial Development and Welfare Act was passed in 1940 to organize and allocate a sum of £5 million per year to the [[British West Indies]] for the purpose of long-term development. Some £10 million in loans was cancelled in the same Act.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bolland|title=The Politics of Labour in the British Caribbean|page=383}}</ref> The Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1945 increased the level of aid to £120m over a twenty-year period. Further Acts followed in 1948, 1959 and 1963, dramatically increasing the scope of monetary assistance, favourable [[interest rate|interest-free]] [[loan]]s and development assistance programs.
===Postwar expansion===
[[File:Marshall Plan poster.JPG|thumb|A poster promoting the [[Marshall Plan]] in Europe, the first large scale development program. It was designed to boost European economies shattered by [[World War II|war]] and prevent the growth of [[communism|communist]] influence.]]
{{Image frame
| caption=Chart: Annual levels of ODA<ref>Although ODA was only officially instituted in 1969, the OECD provides data for ODA equivalent aid going back to 1960.</ref> from USA and all other OECD-DAC donors<br />Constant (2018) prices<br />Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat]
| align=right
| content = {{Graph:Chart
| width = 200
| height = 150
| type = stackedarea
| yAxisTitle = US$ billions
| x = 1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
|xAxisAngle = -90
| y1 = 18.4,20.3,19.6,18.4,18.8,19.5,20.3,23.1,22.8,25.0,25.2,27.0,27.6,28.2,31.5,33.3,31.9,33.5,37.2,41.8,42.5,45.1,47.8,48.1,52.2,52.6,54.3,54.3,58.6,61.5,61.1,64.7,65.7,62.2,62.8,59.0,56.2,55.4,59.0,59.4,61.7,62.2,65.6,66.0,67.4,87.4,87.1,80.9,88.3,87.7,93.8,91.9,88.1,94.4,95.0,105.8,117.8,117.8,116.3,117.0
| y2 = 18.3,19.9,21.5,23.0,22.8,25.0,23.1,19.3,21.6,18.1,16.1,15.1,18.4,11.7,14.8,15.4,15.3,15.5,17.5,13.3,18.6,13.8,18.4,17.5,18.2,19.0,19.0,17.6,19.0,13.8,19.8,18.9,19.2,16.2,15.6,11.3,14.1,10.2,12.9,13.2,14.1,15.8,18.1,21.8,25.7,35.3,28.8,26.0,31.0,33.5,34.1,34.8,33.8,33.9,35.3,32.7,35.9,35.6,33.8,32.4
|legend=Legend
|y2title=USA
|y1title=All other donors
}}
}}
The beginning of modern development aid is rooted in the context of Post-[[World War II]] and the [[Cold War]]. Launched as a large-scale aid program by the United States in 1948, the European Recovery Program, or [[Marshall Plan]], was concerned with strengthening the ties to the [[West Europe]]an states to contain the influence of the [[USSR]]. Implemented by the [[Economic Cooperation Administration]] (ECA), the Marshall Plan also expanded its reconstruction finance to strategic parts of the Middle East and Asia.<ref name="Httpwwwusaidgovabout_usaidusaidhisthtml">{{cite web |url=http://www.usaid.gov/about_usaid/usaidhist.html |title=USAID: USAID History |publisher=Usaid.gov |access-date=12 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009131110/http://www.usaid.gov/about_usaid/usaidhist.html |archive-date=9 October 2011 }}</ref>
Although Marshall aid was initially offered to Europe in general, the Soviet Union forbade its neighbouring states from accepting it. This has been described as "the moment of truth" in the post-[[World War II]] division of Europe.<ref name="bideleaux">Bideleux, Robert and Ian Jeffries, ''A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change'', Routledge, 1998, {{ISBN|0-415-16111-8}}</ref> The Soviet Union provided aid to countries in the communist bloc; for instance, on Poland's abstention from the Marshall Plan, [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] promised a $450 million credit and 200,000 tons of grain.<ref>{{cite news|date=9 February 1948|title=Carnations|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,855998,00.html|url-status=live|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114182613/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,855998,00.html|archive-date=14 January 2009}}</ref>
In January 1949 the inaugural address of U.S. president [[Harry Truman]] announced an extension of aid to "underdeveloped areas" in the form of technical assistance.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Truman|first=Harry S.|title=Inaugural address of Harry S. Truman|url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/truman.asp|url-status=live|access-date=2 March 2021|website=The Avalon Project|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081027211730/http://avalon.law.yale.edu:80/20th_century/truman.asp |archive-date=27 October 2008 }}</ref> While the main theme of the speech was strengthening the free world against communism, in his [[Point Four Program|fourth point]] Truman also appealed to the motives of compassion and pride in civilization. "For the first time in history, humanity possesses the knowledge and skill to relieve the suffering of these people."<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres53.html Transcript of the speech]</ref> The United Nations followed up the US initiative later that year by setting up an Extended Programme of Technical Assistance (EPTA) to help pool international donor funds for technical assistance and distribute them through UN agencies.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web|title=United Nations. Extended Programme of Technical Assistance - UNESCO Archives AtoM catalogue|url=https://atom.archives.unesco.org/united-nations-extended-programme-of-technical-assistance|access-date=6 March 2021|website=atom.archives.unesco.org}}</ref> EPTA was a precursor of [[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]].<ref name=":27" />
U.S. aid for development in the 1950s came to include grants and concessional loans as well as technical assistance. This development aid was administered alongside military aid within the framework of the [[Mutual Security Act]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haviland|first=H. Field|date=September 1958|title=Foreign Aid and the Policy Process: 1957|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/foreign-aid-and-the-policy-process-1957/0AF9B1AF4123FFF21DF8E06791A51269|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=52|issue=3|pages=689–724|doi=10.2307/1951900|jstor=1951900|s2cid=144564474 |issn=1537-5943}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morgner|first=Aurelius|date=1967|title=The American Foreign Aid Program: Costs, Accomplishments, Alternatives?|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1405813|journal=The Review of Politics|volume=29|issue=1|pages=65–75|doi=10.1017/S0034670500023731|jstor=1405813|s2cid=145492668 |issn=0034-6705}}</ref> But for most of the decade there was no major multilateral body to provide concessional loans. An initiative to create such a body under the UN met with resistance from the U.S. on the grounds that it was premature. Accordingly, when the UN's "Special Fund" was created at the end of 1958, its remit was only for technical assistance not loans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Manzer|first=Ronald A.|date=1964|title=The United Nations Special Fund|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2705530|journal=International Organization|volume=18|issue=4|pages=766–789|doi=10.1017/S0020818300025315|jstor=2705530|s2cid=153645652 |issn=0020-8183}}</ref> (The Special Fund was differentiated from EPTA by assisting public infrastructure rather than industrial projects.)
In 1959, a significant annual amendment to the Mutual Security Act declared that it was "a primary objective of the United States" to assist "the peoples of other lands who are striving to establish and develop politically independent and economically viable units".<ref name=":28">{{Cite web|title=Public Law 86-108, July 24,1959|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-73/pdf/STATUTE-73-Pg246.pdf#page=1|url-status=live|access-date=9 March 2021|website=www.govinfo.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712130032/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-73/pdf/STATUTE-73-Pg246.pdf |archive-date=12 July 2020 }}</ref> This shifted the emphasis of U.S. economic aid away from immediate Cold War security needs, towards supporting the process of dismantling the empires of the UK, France and other European colonial powers. The amendment also made clear that Congress expected those industrialized nations which had been helped by U.S. aid to rebuild after the war would now share more of the burden of helping less-developed countries.<ref name=":28" />
Following on, the U.S. encouraged the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) to set up a Development Assistance Group (DAG) composed of the main donor states, in order to help coordinate their aid. This was done in January 1960. The following year the DAG adopted a "Resolution of the common aid effort", vowing to increase the volume of aid, and to share the task equitably. Shortly after this, the OEEC was succeeded by the [[OECD]], expanding its scope from Europe to the world, and embracing a particular concern with less-developed countries. The DAG became the [[Development Assistance Committee]] (DAC).<ref name=":29">{{Cite web|last=Führer|first=Helmut|date=1994|title=The story of Official Development Assistance|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/1896816.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=9 March 2021|website=[[OECD]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526011653/http://www.oecd.org/dac/1896816.pdf |archive-date=26 May 2013 }}</ref>
1960 also saw the creation of a multilateral institution to provide soft loans for development finance. The [[International Development Association]] (IDA) was created as part of the World Bank (over which the U.S. and other Western countries exerted more influence than they did over the UN).<ref>{{Cite web|title=History|url=https://ida.worldbank.org/about/history|url-status=live|access-date=6 March 2021|website=[[International Development Association]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422003753/http://ida.worldbank.org:80/about/history |archive-date=22 April 2016 }}</ref>
In 1961 several Western states established government departments or agencies to administer aid, including [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]] in the United States.<ref name=":29" />
In 1960 the USA was providing half of all aid counted by the OECD. This proportion increased to 56% by 1965, but from 1965 to 1973 (the year of the [[1973 oil crisis|oil price crisis]]), the volume of U.S. aid generally declined in real terms (though it increased in nominal terms, due to inflation). The other OECD-DAC members meanwhile generally increased their aid, so that the total volume of OECD aid was fairly constant up to 1973.<ref>See chart on the right. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat].</ref>
=== After the Cold War ===
The quantity of ODA dropped sharply in the seven or eight years after the fall of the Berlin wall (1999-2007).<ref name=":30">{{Cite web|last1=Severino|first1=Jean-Michel|last2=Olivier|first2=Ray|date=1999|title=The End of ODA: Death and Rebirth of a Global Public Policy|url=http://www.cosv.org/download/centrodocumentazione/End_of_ODA_FINAL.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=15 April 2021|website=Center for Global Development|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416032310/http://www.cosv.org/download/centrodocumentazione/End_of_ODA_FINAL.pdf |archive-date=16 April 2021 }}</ref>
The turn of the 21st century saw a significant proliferation and diversification in aid donors and non-governmental actors. The traditional donors in the DAC have been joined by [[emerging economies]] (China, India, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Brazil, Venezuela, etc.), some of which are still receiving aid from Western countries. Many of these new donors do not feel compelled to conform to traditional donors' norms.<ref>Park, K., "New Development Partners and a Global Development Partnership". In Kharas, H., Makino, K., Jung, W. ''Catalizing Development'', Brooking Institution Press, Washington D.C. 2011.</ref> Generally demanding [[conditionality]] in return for assistance, which means tying aid to the procurement of goods and services, they are challenging traditional development aid standards.<ref>Kragelund, P. "The Potential Role of Non-Traditional Donors' Aid in Africa", International Center for Trade and Sustainable Development, 2010.</ref>
Multinational corporations, philanthropists, international NGOs and civil society have matured into major players as well. Even though the rise of new development partners had the positive effect of bringing an increased variety of financing, know-how and skills to the development community, at the same time it has shaken up the existing aid system.<ref name=":30" />
== Extent of development aid ==
{{Development economics sidebar}}
Most development aid is counted as part of the official development assistance (ODA) reported by governments to the OECD. The total amount of ODA in 2018 was about $150 billion.<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Development aid drops in 2018, especially to neediest countries|url=http://www.oecd.org/development/development-aid-drops-in-2018-especially-to-neediest-countries.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410230451/http://www.oecd.org/development/development-aid-drops-in-2018-especially-to-neediest-countries.htm |archive-date=10 April 2019 |access-date=29 January 2021|website=OECD}}</ref> For the same year, the OECD estimated that six to seven billion dollars of aid was given by ten other states, including China and India.<ref name=":26">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Other official providers not reporting to the OECD|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/18b00a44-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/18b00a44-en#chapter-d1e45724|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210025747/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/18b00a44-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/18b00a44-en |archive-date=10 February 2021 |access-date=29 January 2021|website=OECD}}</ref> However, these amounts include aid that is humanitarian in character as well as purely developmental aid. The proportion of development aid within ODA was about 80%.<ref name=":23" />
=== Top recipient countries ===
{{Main list|List of countries by Official Development Assistance received
}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Official development assistance|ODA]] received, total for nine years, 2010-2018<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stats.oecd.org/qwids/#?x=2&y=6&f=3:51,4:1,1:2,5:3,7:1&q=3:51+4:1+1:2+5:3+7:1+2:1,262,263,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,189,25,27,28,31,29,30,287,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,89,40,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,166,59,273,62,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,90,274,91,92,93,95,96,97,98,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,63,130,131,132,133,135,136,137,138,139,141,144,159,160,161,162,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,154,155,156,157,275,158,163,164,165,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,190,134,191,192,193,216,217,218,220,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,195,196,233,197,238,198,200,234,235,201,202,271,203,204,208,205,237,236,270,267,265,266,272,209,210,211,212,213,215,G1+6:2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019 |title=QWIDS Query Wizard for International Development Statistics |website=OECD |access-date=29 January 2021}}</ref>
|-
! Country !! [[US$]], billions
|-
| {{flag|Afghanistan}}|| 37.6
|-
| {{flag|India}}||18.1
|-
| {{flag|Ethiopia}}||17.6
|-
| {{flag|Vietnam}}||17.4
|-
| {{flag|Pakistan}}||15.8
|-
| {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}||15.6
|-
| {{flag|Iraq}}||14.7
|-
| {{flag|Tanzania}}||14.3
|-
| {{flag|Kenya}}||13.9
|-
| {{flag|Syria}}||13.3
|}
=== Top donor countries ===
{{Main list|List of development aid country donors
}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Total [[Official development assistance|ODA]] disbursed in decade 2010-2019<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stats.oecd.org/qwids/#?x=1&y=6&f=4:1,2:1,3:51,5:3,7:1&q=4:1+2:1+3:51+5:3+7:1+1:2,3,4,5,6,58,7,8,9,10,11,59,60,12,13,14,61,15,16,17,18,62,19,63,75,20,21,22,23,24,36,G2+6:2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019 (current US$) |title=QWIDS Query Wizard for International Development Statistics|website=OECD |access-date=29 January 2021}}</ref>
|-
! Country !! [[US$]], billions
|-
| {{flag|United States}}||323
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}||188
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}||171
|-
| {{flag|France}}||115
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}||107
|-
| {{flag|Sweden}}||56
|-
| {{flag|Netherlands}}||56
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}||47
|-
| {{flag|Norway}}||46
|-
| {{flag|Italy}}||42
|}
The OECD also lists countries by the amount of ODA they give ''as a percentage of their [[gross national income]]''. The top 10 DAC countries in 2020 were as follows. Six countries met the longstanding UN target for an ODA/GNI ratio of 0.7% in 2020:<ref name="OECD-2020">{{cite web|title=Development co-operation during the COVID-19 pandemic: An analysis of 2020 figures and 2021 trends to watch|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org//sites/e4b3142a-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/5e331623-en&_csp_=b14d4f60505d057b456dd1730d8fcea3&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=chapter#annex-d1e2951|publisher=OECD|access-date=12 June 2021|date=16 June 2021}}</ref>
# {{flag|Sweden}} – 1.14%
# {{flag|Norway}} – 1.11%
# {{flag|Luxembourg}} – 1.02%
# {{flag|Denmark}} and {{flag|Germany}} – 0.73%
# {{flag|United Kingdom}} – 0.7%
# {{flag|Netherlands}} – 0.59%
# {{flag|France}} – 0.53%
# {{flag|Switzerland}} – 0.48%
# {{flag|Belgium}} and {{flag|Finland}} – 0.47%
# {{flag|Canada}}, {{flag|Ireland}} and {{flag|Japan}}– 0.31%
[[European Union]] countries that are members of the [[Development Assistance Committee]] gave 0.42% of GNI (excluding the US$19.4 billion given by EU Institutions).<ref name="OECD-2020" />
===By type of project===
<gallery widths="320px" heights="200px">
File:Total official flows for infrastructure, by recipient, OWID.svg|Total official development assistance (ODA) and other official flows from all donors in support of infrastructure in 2017
File:Total official flows commitments for Aid for Trade, by recipient, OWID.svg|Total official flows commitments for aid for trade in 2017
File:Total official financial flows for water supply and sanitation, by recipient, OWID.svg|Total water and sanitation-related Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements that are included in the government budget in 2015
File:Total official development assistance for biodiversity, by recipient, OWID.svg|Total official development assistance (ODA) transferred for use in biodiversity conservation and protection efforts 2017
File:Total official development assistance for biodiversity, by donor, OWID.svg|Total official development assistance for biodiversity, by donor in 2017
File:Total official flows commitments for Aid for Trade, by donor, OWID.svg|Total official flows commitments for Aid for Trade, by donor in 2015
</gallery>
== Debated effectiveness and impacts ==
[[File:Urban blight at the Michenzani housing project, Zanzibar town, Tanzania.JPG|thumb|The 1968 [[Michenzani]] apartment blocks in [[Zanzibar]] were part of East German development assistance and brought a Soviet-style of living to rural Africa. The apartments were unpopular and only 1,102 out of the 9,992 planned buildings were built (see [[Ng'ambo]]). Still used today, they stand as a failed relic of donor-driven (supply-driven) development aid.]]
{{See also|Aid effectiveness|Aid#Criticism}}
There are many debates about the effectiveness and possible unfavourable impacts of development aid.
Dissident economists such as [[Peter Thomas Bauer|Peter Bauer]] and [[Milton Friedman]] argued in the 1960s that aid is ineffective:<ref>{{Cite web|title=The sad loss of Lord Bauer|url=http://www.la-articles.org.uk/bauer.htm}}</ref>
{{Blockquote | an excellent method for transferring money from poor people in rich countries to rich people in poor countries. | Peter Bauer}}
In economics, there are two competing positions on aid. A view pro aid, supported by [[Jeffrey Sachs]] and the United Nations, which argues that foreign aid will give the big push to break the low-income [[poverty trap]] poorer countries are trapped in. From this perspective, aid serves to finance "the core inputs to development – teachers, health centers, roads, wells, medicine, to name a few". (United Nations 2004).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Qian|first=Nancy|date=3 August 2015|title=Making Progress on Foreign Aid|journal=Annual Review of Economics|language=en|volume=7|pages=277–308|doi=10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115553|s2cid=33135898}}</ref> And a view that is skeptic about the impacts of aid, supported by William Easterly, that points out that aid has not proven to work after 40 years of large investments in Africa.<ref name=":0" />
===Reducing recipient government accountability and national democracy===
Foreign aid may hinder the development of democracy in recipient states, by reducing governments' need to raise taxes from citizens, thus making those governments more autonomous and less sensitive to citizen demands, while citizens, on their part, have less necessity to make demands on the government.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clark|first1=William Roberts|last2=Golder|first2=Matt|last3=Golder|first3=Sona N.|date=October 2017|title=The British Academy Brian Barry Prize Essay: An Exit, Voice and Loyalty Model of Politics|journal=British Journal of Political Science|language=en|volume=47|issue=4|pages=719–748|doi=10.1017/S0007123416000442|issn=0007-1234|doi-access=free}}</ref> Although international aid has done far-reaching things with respect to increasing access to improved medical care, [[Sdg 4|improving education]], and decreasing poverty and hunger, only in 1997 did the [[World Bank]] began to rethink its aid policy structure and begin using parts of it specifically for building up the state capability of the aid-receiving nations.<ref>World Bank. 1997. World Development Report 1997 : The State in a Changing World. New York: Oxford University Press. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/5980 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.</ref> In 2004, the USA set up the [[Millennium Challenge Corporation]], to provide development aid in a way that fostered recipient country ownership, and only to countries with good systems of governance.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=About the MCA|url=https://www.cgdev.org/page/about-mca|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412102344/http://www.cgdev.org/page/about-mca |archive-date=12 April 2013 |access-date=|website=Center for Global Development}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=About MC|url=https://www.mcc.gov/about|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607051615/http://www.mcc.gov/about/ |archive-date=7 June 2007 |access-date=30 January 2021|website=Millennium Challenge Corporation}}</ref>
=== Corruption ===
{{Main|Political corruption|Aid#Support of corrupt state structures}}
Foreign aid encourages [[rent-seeking]], which is when government officials and leaders use their position and authority to increase their personal wealth without creating additional wealth, at the expense of the citizens.<ref name=":42" /> Most African leaders and officials are able to amass huge sums of personal wealth for themselves from the foreign aid received—they enrich themselves and do not use the aid provided for its intended purpose.<ref name=":42" />
It has been argued{{By whom|date=September 2010}} that much government-to-government aid was ineffective because it was merely a way to support strategically important leaders (Alesino and Dollar, 2000). A good example of this is the former dictator of [[Zaire]], [[Mobuto Sese Seko]], who lost support from the West after the Cold War had ended. Mobuto, at the time of his death, had a sufficient personal fortune (particularly in Swiss banks) to pay off the entire external debt of Zaire.<ref name="brookings.edu" />
=== Promoting neopatrimonialism and poor governance ===
American political scientist and professor [[Nicolas van de Walle]] has also argued that despite more than two decades of donor-supported reform in Africa, the continent continues to be plagued by economic crises due to the combination of state generated factors and to the counter productivity of international development aid to Africa. Van de Walle first attributes the failure to implement economic policy reform to factors within the African state:
# Neopatrimonial tendencies of state elites that serve to preserve and centralize power, maintain limited access orders, and create political obstacles to reform.
# Ideological obstacles that have been biased by two decades of failed economic policy reform and in turn, create a hostile environment for reform.
# Low [[state capacity]] that reinforces and that in turn, is reinforced by the neopatrimonial tendencies of the state.
Van de Walle later argues that these state generated factors that have obstructed the effective implementation of economic policy reform are further exacerbated by foreign aid. Aid, therefore, makes policy reform less likely, rather than more likely. Van de Walle posits that international aid has sustained economic stagnation in Africa by:
# Pacifying Africa's neopatrimonial tendencies, thereby lessening the incentives for state elites to undertake reform and preserving the status quo.
# Sustaining poorly managed bureaucratic structures and policies that would be otherwise rectified by market forces.
# Allowing state capacities to deteriorate through externalizing many state functions and responsibilities.
In order for aid to be productive and for economic policy reform to be successfully implemented in Africa, the relationship between donors and governments must change. Van de Walle argues that aid must be made more conditional and selective to incentivize states to take on reform and to generate the much needed accountability and capacity in African governments.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Van de Walle|first=Nicolas|title=Democratic Reform in Africa: The Quality of Progress|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.|year=2004|isbn=1588262464|editor-last=Gyimah-Boadi|editor-first=Emmanuel|location=1800 30th Street, Boulder, Colorado 80301|pages=29–63|chapter=Economic Reform: Patterns and Constraints}}</ref>
Additionally, information asymmetries often hinder the appropriate allocation of aid; Blum et al. (2016) note that both South Sudan and Liberia struggle tremendously with paying employees and controlling the flow of money - South Sudan had a significant number of ghosts on its payroll, while Liberia's Civil Service Agency could not adequately pay civil servants because there was minimal communication from the Ministries of Health and Education regarding their respective payrolls.<ref>Blum, Jurgen, [[Fotini Christia]], and Daniel Rogger. 2016. "Public Service Reform in Post-Conflict Societies". World Bank: Fragile and Conflict State Impact Evaluation Research Program paper.
</ref>
Besides some instances that only the president (and/or his close entourage) receives the money resulting from development aid, the money obtained is often badly spent as well. For example, in Chad, the [http://www.esso.com/Chad-English/PA/Files/suppvol1ch1.pdf Chad Export Project], an oil production project supported by the World Bank, was set up. The earnings of this project (6.5 million dollars per year and rising) were used to obtain arms. The government defended this purchase by stating that "development was not possible without safety". However, the [[Military of Chad]] is notorious for severe misconduct against the population (abuse, rape, claiming of supplies and cars) and did not even defend the population in distress (e.g. in the [[War in Darfur|Darfur conflict]]). In 2008, the World Bank retreated from the project that thus increased environmental pollution and human suffering.<ref name="Tsjaad by Dorrit van Dalen">Tsjaad by Dorrit van Dalen</ref>
The [https://www.cgdev.org/ Center for Global Development] have published a review<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moss, Petterson and van de Walle|date=January 2006|title=An Aid-Institutions Paradox? A Review Essay on Aid Dependency and State Building in Sub-Saharan Africa|url=http://www.cgdev.org|journal=Center for Global Development|volume=Working Paper Number 74}}</ref> essay of the existing literature studying the relationship between Aid and public institutions. In this review, they concluded that a large and sustained Aid can have a negative effect in the development of good public institutions in low income countries. They also mention some of the arguments exhibited in this article as possible mechanism for this negative effect, for instance, they considered the [[Dutch Disease]], the discourage of revenue collections and the effect on the state capacity among others.
=== Effects of development aid in Africa ===
[[Dambisa Moyo]] argues that aid does not lead to development, but rather creates problems including corruption, dependency, limitations on exports and [[Dutch disease]], which negatively affect the economic growth and development of most African countries and other poor countries across the globe.<ref name=":42">Moyo, D. (2009). ''Dead aid: Why aid is not working and how there is a better way for Africa''. Macmillan.</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite web|url=https://web2.uconn.edu/ahking/Why%20Foreign%20Aid%20Is%20Hurting%20...pdf|title=Why Foreign Aid Is Hurting Africa|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123002232/http://web2.uconn.edu/ahking/Why%20Foreign%20Aid%20Is%20Hurting%20...pdf|archive-date=23 November 2015|access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> Moyo devotes a section of her book, ''Dead Aid'' to rethinking the aid dependency model. She cautions that although "weaning governments off aid won't be easy",<ref>{{cite web|last=Dambisa|first=Moyo|title=Dambisa Moyo on why aid has been a disaster for Africa|website=[[YouTube]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dyf2Cf5GkTY |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422195930/http://www.youtube.com//watch?v=dyf2Cf5GkTY |archive-date=22 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> it is necessary. Primary among her prescriptions is a "capital solution" where African countries must enter the bond market to raise their capital for development, the interconnectedness that globalization has provided, will turn other "pools of money toward African markets in form of mutual funds, hedge funds, pension schemes" etc.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moyo|first=Dambisa|title=Dead Aid: Why Aid Is Not Working and How There Is a Better Way for Africa.|publisher=Douglas & Mcintyre|year=2009|pages=79}}</ref>
Other research has shown that development aid has a strong and favorable effect on economic growth and development through promoting investments in infrastructure and human capital.<ref name=":19" /> According to a study conducted among 36 sub-saharan African countries in 2013, 27 out of these 36 countries have experienced strong and favorable effects of aid on GDP and investments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Juselius|first1=Katarina|last2=Møller|first2=Niels Framroze|last3=Tarp|first3=Finn|date=2013|title=The Long-Run Impact of Foreign Aid in 36 African Countries: Insights from Multivariate Time Series Analysis*: Long-run impact of foreign aid in African countries|journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics|language=en|volume=76|issue=2|pages=153–184|doi=10.1111/obes.12012|hdl-access=free|hdl=10.1111/obes.12012|s2cid=53685791|url=http://www.wider.unu.edu/sites/default/files/wp2011-051.pdf }}</ref> Another study showed that aid per capita supports economic growth for low income African countries such as Tanzania, Mozambique and Ethiopia, while aid per capita does not have a significant effect on the economic growth of middle income African countries such as Botswana and Morocco.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Jin-Sang|last2=Alemu|first2=Aye Mengistu|date=27 November 2015|title=Foreign aid on economic growth in Africa: A comparison of low and middle-income countries|journal=South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences|language=en|volume=18|issue=4|pages=449–462|doi=10.4102/sajems.v18i4.737|issn=2222-3436|doi-access=free}}</ref> Aid is most beneficial to low income countries because such countries use aid received for to provide education and healthcare for citizens, which eventually improves economic growth in the long run.<ref name=":20" />
=== Effects depend on geography ===
[[Jeffery Sachs]] and his collaborators argue that in order for foreign aid to be successful, policy makers should "pay more attention to the developmental barriers associated with geography specifically, poor health, low agricultural productivity, and high transportation costs".<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|title=The Geography of Poverty and Wealth|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-geography-of-poverty-and-wealth/|access-date=30 January 2021|website=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund are two organizations that Sachs argues are currently instrumental in advising and directing foreign aid; however, he argues that these two organizations focus too much on "institutional reforms".<ref name=":10" /> Foreign aid is especially multifaceted in countries within Sub-Saharan Africa due to geographic barriers. Most macro foreign aid efforts fail to recognize these issues and, as Sachs argues, cause insufficient international aid and policy improvement. Sachs argues that unless foreign aid provides mechanisms that overcome geographic barriers, pandemics such as HIV and AIDS that cause traumatic casualties within regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa will continue to cause millions of fatalities.<ref name=":10" />
=== Death of local industries ===
Foreign aid kills local industries in developing countries.<ref name=":72">{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/dougbandow/2011/02/22/foreign-aid-or-foreign-hindrance/|title=Foreign Aid, Or Foreign Hindrance|last=Bandow|first=Doug|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=5 April 2019}}</ref> Foreign aid in the form of food aid that is given to poor countries or underdeveloped countries is responsible for the death of local farm industries in poor countries.<ref name=":72" /> Local farmers end up going out of business because they cannot compete with the abundance of cheap imported aid food, that is brought into poor countries as a response to humanitarian crisis and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cei.org/blog/foreign-aid-kills|title=Foreign Aid Kills|last1=NW|first1=1310 L. Street|last2=Washington|first2=7th Floor|date=16 August 2007|website=Competitive Enterprise Institute|language=en|access-date=2 January 2020|last3=Fax: 202-331-0640|first3=DC 20005 Phone: 202-331-1010}}</ref> Large inflows of money that come into developing countries, from the developed world, in a foreign aid, increases the price of locally produced goods and products.<ref name=":62" /> Due to their high prices, export of local goods reduces.<ref name=":62" /> As a result, local industries and producers are forced to go out of business.
=== Neocolonialism ===
[[Neocolonialism]] is where a state is "in theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside".<ref name=":82">Nkrumah, K. (1966). Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism. 1965. Introduction. ''New York: International''. <br /></ref> The political and economic affairs of a state under neocolonialism, is directly controlled by external powers and nations from the Global North, who offer aid or assistance to countries in the Global South or developing countries.<ref name=":82" /> Neocolonialism is the new face of colonialism, which is made possible by foreign aid.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://affinitymagazine.us/2016/11/27/neocolonialism-the-new-face-of-imperialism-and-why-it-shouldve-gone-for-a-nicer-one/|title=Neocolonialism: The New Face Of Imperialism (And Why It Should've Gone For A Nicer One)|date=27 November 2016|website=Affinity Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=5 April 2019}}</ref><ref>Markovits, D., Strange, A., & Tingley, D. (2017). Foreign Aid and the Status Quo: Evidence from Pre-Marshall Plan Aid. p.5 ''Harvard School of Government''.</ref> Donor countries offer foreign aid to poor countries while bargaining for economic influence of the poor or receiving countries, and policy standards that allow donor countries to control economic systems of poor countries, for the benefit of the donor countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Asongu|first1=Simplice A.|last2=Nwachukwu|first2=Jacinta C.|date=2 January 2016|title=Foreign aid and governance in Africa|journal=International Review of Applied Economics|volume=30|issue=1|pages=69–88|doi=10.1080/02692171.2015.1074164|s2cid=53065201|issn=0269-2171|url=http://www.afridev.org/RePEc/agd/agd-wpaper/Foreign-aid-and-governance-in-Africa.pdf}}</ref>
Foreign aid creates a system of dependency where developing or poor countries become heavily dependent on western or developed countries for economic growth and development.<ref>Vengroff, R. (1975). Neo-colonialism and policy outputs in Africa. ''Comparative Political Studies'', ''8''(2), 234-250.<br /></ref> As less developed countries become dependent on developed countries, the poor countries are easily exploited by the developed countries such that the developed world are able to directly control the economic activities of poor countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327847826|title=Is Foreign Aid a facilitator of Neo-Colonialism in Africa?}}</ref>
=== Aid dependency ===
Aid dependence is defined as the "situation in which a country cannot perform many of the core functions of government, such as operations and maintenance, or the delivery of basic public services, without foreign aid funding and expertise".<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|url=https://deborahbrautigam.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/2000-aid-dependence-and-governance.pdf|title=Aid Dependenceand Governance|access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> Aid has made many African countries and other poor regions incapable of achieving economic growth and development without foreign assistance. Most African economies have become dependent on aid and this is because foreign aid has become a significant norm of systems of international relations between high and low income countries across the globe.<ref name=":21" />
Foreign aid makes African countries dependent on aid because it is regarded by policy makers as regular income, thus they do not have any incentive to make policies and decisions that will enable their countries to independently finance their economic growth and development.<ref name=":42" /> Additionally, aid does not incentivize the government to tax citizens, due to the constant inflow of foreign aid, and as a result, the citizens do not have any obligation to demand the provision of goods and services geared towards development.<ref name=":42" />
=== Econometric studies ===
Many [[econometric]] studies in recent years have supported the view that development aid has no clear average effect on the speed with which countries develop. Negative side effects of aid can include an unbalanced [[Currency appreciation and depreciation|appreciation]] of the recipient's currency (known as [[Dutch Disease]]), increasing corruption, and adverse political effects such as postponements of necessary economic and democratic reforms.<ref name="brookings.edu">[http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/0317_aid_governance_kaufmann.aspx Aid Effectiveness and Governance: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009071531/http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/0317_aid_governance_kaufmann.aspx |date=9 October 2009 }}</ref><ref name=":52">Rahnama, M. & Fawaz, F. & Gittings, K. (2017). The effects of foreign aid on economic growth in developing countries. ''The Journal of Developing Areas'' 51(3), 153-171. Tennessee State University College of Business.</ref>
Other econometric studies suggest that development aid effectively reduces poverty in developing countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=poverty reduction|first=foreign aid|title=Foreign aid and poverty reduction|journal=Cogent Social Sciences |date=January 2019 |volume=5 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/23311886.2019.1625741|s2cid=189994202|doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Promoting or easing conflict ===
Furthermore, the effect of Aid on conflict intensity and onset have been proved to have different impacts in different countries and situations. For instance, for the case of Colombia Dube and Naidu (2015)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dube and Naidu|date=6 January 2015|title=Bases, Bullets, and Ballots: The Effect of US Military Aid on Political Conflict in Colombia|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume= 77| issue = 1|pages=249–267|doi=10.1086/679021|s2cid=220454361|url=http://www.cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/1423498}}</ref> showed that Aid from the US seems to have been diverted to paramilitary groups, increasing political violence. Moreover, Nunn and Qian (2014)<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Nunn and Qian|date=June 2014|title=US Food Aid and Civil Conflict|jstor=42920861|journal=American Economic Review|volume=1630-1666|issue=6|pages=1630–1666|doi=10.1257/aer.104.6.1630|s2cid=12935268 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:30410811}}</ref> have found that an increase in U.S. food aid increases conflict intensity; they claim that the main mechanism driving this result is predation of the aid by the rebel groups. In fact, they note that aid can have the unintentional consequence of actually improving rebel groups' ability to continue conflict, as vehicles and communications equipment usually accompany the aid that is stolen.<ref name=":2" /> These tools improve the ability of rebel groups to organize and give them assets to trade for arms, possibly increasing the length of the fighting. Finally, Crost, Felter and Johnston (2014)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Crost, Felter and Johnston|date=June 2014|title=Aid Under Fire: Development Projects and Civil Conflict|journal=American Economic Review|volume=1833–1856|issue=6|pages=1833–1856|doi=10.1257/aer.104.6.1833}}</ref> have showed that a development program in the Philippines have had the unintended effect of increasing conflict because of a strategic retaliation from the rebel group, on where they tried to prevent that the development program increases support to the government.
=== Imposition of inappropriate strategies and technologies ===
According to [[James Ferguson (anthropologist)|James Ferguson]], these issues might be caused by deficient diagnostics of the development agencies. In his book [[The Anti-Politics Machine]], Ferguson uses the example of the [[Thaba-Tseka District|Thaba-Tseka]] project in [[Lesotho]] to illustrate how a bad diagnostic on the economic activity of the population and the desire to stay away from local politics, caused a livestock project to fail.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ferguson|first=James|date=1994|title=The anti-politics machine: 'development' and bureaucratic power in Lesotho|url=http://www.colorado.edu/geography/class_homepages/geog_3682_f08/Articles/Ferguson%20-%20The%20Anti%20Politics%20Machine.pdf|journal=The Ecologist|volume=24|issue=5|access-date=12 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129094236/http://www.colorado.edu/geography/class_homepages/geog_3682_f08/Articles/Ferguson%20-%20The%20Anti%20Politics%20Machine.pdf|archive-date=29 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
According to Martijn Nitzsche, another problem is the way on how development projects are sometimes constructed and how they are maintained by the local population. Often, projects are made with technology that is hard to understand and too difficult to repair, resulting in unavoidable failure over time. Also, in some cases the local population is not very interested in seeing the project to succeed and may revert to disassembling it to retain valuable source materials. Finally, villagers do not always maintain a project as they believe the original development workers or others in the surroundings will repair it when it fails (which is not always so).<ref name="momentum-media.nl">{{Cite web |url=http://www.momentum-media.nl/files/_articles/31/Gestrand_Ontwikkelingswerk.pdf |title=''Kijk Magazine''; October 2008, Gestrand Ontwikkelingswerk |access-date=22 April 2009 |archive-date=24 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724161438/http://www.momentum-media.nl/files/_articles/31/Gestrand_Ontwikkelingswerk.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
A common criticism in recent years is that rich countries have put so many conditions on aid that it has reduced aid effectiveness. In the example of [[tied aid]], donor countries often require the recipient to purchase goods and services from the donor, even if these are cheaper elsewhere. Other conditions include opening up the country to foreign investment, even if it might not be ready to do so.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.globalissues.org/TradeRelated/Debt/USAid.asp|title=US and Foreign Aid Assistance|publisher=Global Issues|year=2007|access-date=21 February 2008}}</ref>
== Other criticisms of development aid ==
[[File:Cartoon, Warren Buffett wants African children to have more Coke - and healthier teeth.gif|thumb|Warren Buffett is considered one of the world's leading philanthropists, yet he is also the biggest investor in Coca-Cola, which aggressively seeks to expand into poorer countries. This cartoon, from an organization critical of the true motives of international aid, calls attention to what it perceives as a contradiction.]]Besides questions of effects and effectiveness, other criticisms have been made of development aid.
=== Inappropriate behaviour by aid workers ===
Development aid is often provided by means of supporting local development aid projects. In these projects, it sometimes occurs that no strict code of conduct is in force. In some projects, the development aid workers do not respect the local [[code of conduct]]. For example, the local [[dress code]] as well as [[Human communication|social interaction]]. In developing countries, these matters are regarded highly important and not respecting it may cause severe offense, and thus significant problems and delay of the projects.
=== Tied aid ===
There is also much debate about evaluating the quality of development aid, rather than simply the quantity. For instance, [[tied aid]] is often criticized, as the aid given must be spent in the donor country or in a group of selected countries. According to a 1991 report for the OECD, tied aid can increase development aid project costs by up to 20 or 30 percent.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=Jepma|first=Catrinus J.|date=1991|title=The tying of aid|url=http://www.oecd.org/dev/pgd/29412505.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413105346/https://www.oecd.org/dev/pgd/29412505.pdf |archive-date=13 April 2016 |access-date=26 January 2021|website=OECD}}</ref>
=== Contradictions between aid and other donor policies ===
There is also criticism because donors may give with one hand, through large amounts of development aid, yet take away with the other, through strict trade or migration policies, or by getting a foothold for foreign corporations. The [[Commitment to Development Index]] measures the overall policies of donors and evaluates the quality of their development aid, instead of just comparing the quantity of [[official development assistance]] given.
At the development level, anthropologist and researcher [[Jason Hickel]] has challenged the narrative that the rich countries of the OECD help the poor countries develop their economies and eradicate poverty. Hickel states that the rich countries "aren't developing poor countries; poor countries are developing rich ones."<ref>{{cite web|last=Hickel|first=Jason|date=14 January 2017|title=Aid in Reverse: How Poor Countries Develop Rich Countries|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2017/jan/14/aid-in-reverse-how-poor-countries-develop-rich-countries|work=The Guardian}}</ref>
=== Imposition of Western values and agendas ===
Another criticism has been that Western countries often project their own needs and solutions onto other societies and cultures. In response, western help in some cases has become more 'endogenous', which means that needs as well as solutions are being devised in accordance with local cultures.<ref>[http://commons.globalintegrity.org/2008/12/future-of-anti-corruption-movement.html The Future of The Anti-Corruption Movement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409153824/http://commons.globalintegrity.org/2008/12/future-of-anti-corruption-movement.html|date=9 April 2009}}, Nathaniel Heller, Global Integrity</ref> For example, sometimes projects are set up which wish to make several [[ethnic group]]s cooperate. While this is a noble goal, most of these projects fail because of this intent.<ref name="Tsjaad by Dorrit van Dalen" /> Additionally, although the goal in utility to provide a larger social benefit may be justified as worthy, a more ethically sourced incentive would be projects not looking for an opportunity to impose a social hierarchy through cooperation, but more-so for the sake of truly assisting recipients. The intent of cooperation is not necessarily a reason for failure, but the very nature of different aspirations towards defining virtues which exist in direct context with respective societies. In this way a disconnect may be perceived among those imposing their virtues onto ethnic groups interpreting them.
=== Political bias in aid allocation ===
The practice of extending aid to politically aligned parties in recipient nations continues today; Faye and Niehaus (2012) are able to establish a causal relationship between politics and aid in recipient nations.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Faye|first1=Michael|last2=Niehaus|first2=Paul|date=1 December 2012|title=Political Aid Cycles|url=http://www.aeaweb.org/aer/data/dec2012/20100239_app.pdf|journal=American Economic Review|language=en|volume=102|issue=7|pages=3516–3530|doi=10.1257/AER.102.7.3516|issn=0002-8282|s2cid=154408829}}</ref> In their analysis of the competitive 2006 Palestinian elections, they note that USAID provided funding for development programs in Palestine to support the Palestinian Authority, the US backed entity running for reelection. Faye and Niehaus discovered that the greater the degree of alignment the recipient party has with the donor entity, the more aid it receives on average during an election year.<ref name=":1" /> In an analysis of the 3 biggest donor nations (Japan, France, and the US), Alesina and Dollar (2000) discovered that each has its own distortions to the aid it gives out.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Alesina|first1=Alberto|last2=Dollar|first2=David|date=2000|title=Who Gives Foreign Aid to Whom and Why?|url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4553020|journal=Journal of Economic Growth|volume=5|issue=1|pages=33–63|doi=10.1023/A:1009874203400|jstor=40216022|s2cid=154808291}}</ref> Japan appears to prioritize giving aid nations that exercise similar voting preferences in the United Nations, France mostly sends aid to its former colonies, and the U.S. disproportionately provides aid to Israel and Egypt.<ref name=":3" /> These allocations are often powerful tools for maintaining the strategic interests of the donor country in the recipient country.
== Proposed good practices ==
The following proposals have been made about good practice in development aid.
For aid to work well, donors need to invest heavily in staff who maintain sustained relationships with counterparts in recipient countries, in order to deal intelligently and flexibly with the complex difficulties involved.<ref name=":22">[http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/news/putting-relationships-first-for-aid-effectiveness 'Putting Relationships First for Aid Effectiveness'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604103939/http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/news/putting-relationships-first-for-aid-effectiveness|date=4 June 2011}} Evidence Submission to the APPG Inquiry on Aid Effectiveness, Institute of Development Studies (IDS)</ref>
Public accountability of aid is important, both for the sake of democratic citizenship in recipient countries, and for realistic and sustainable attitudes to aid in donor countries.<ref name=":22" />
== Types of development aid by activity and aim ==
The OECD classifies ODA development aid by sector, the main sectors being: education, health (including population policies, water supply and sanitation), government & civil society, economic infrastructure (including transport and energy), and production (including agriculture). Additionally, there are "cross-cutting" aims; for instance, environmental protection, gender equality, urban and rural development concerns.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Aid (ODA) by sector and donor [DAC5]|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?datasetcode=TABLE5|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611033350/http://stats.oecd.org:80/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TABLE5 |archive-date=11 June 2009 |access-date=6 February 2021|website=OECD}}</ref>
Some governments include military assistance in the notion of "foreign aid", although the international community does not usually regard military aid as development aid.
=== Aid for gender equality ===
Starting at the beginning of the UN Decade for Women in 1975, the [[women in development]] (WID) approach to international development began to inform the provision of development aid.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Charlesworth|first=Hillary|title=Not Waving But Drowning Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United nations|journal=Harvard Human Rights Journal|volume=18|pages=2}}</ref> Some academics criticized the WID approach for relying on integrating women into existing development aid paradigms instead of promulgating specific aid to encourage gender equality.<ref name=":4" /> The [[gender and development]] approach was created in response, to discuss international development in terms of societal gender roles and to challenge these gender roles within development policy.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Debusscher|first=Petra|title=Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?|journal=Latin American Perspectives|volume=39|pages=182}}</ref> Women in Development predominated as the approach to gender in development aid through the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=Robert|last2=Swiss|first2=Liam|date=September 2014|title=Gendered Leadership: The Effects of Female Development Agency Leaders on Foreign Aid Spending|journal=Sociological Forum|volume=29|issue=3|pages=574|doi=10.1111/socf.12104}}</ref> Starting in the early 1990s Gender and Development's influence encouraged [[gender mainstreaming]] within international development aid.<ref name=":11"/>
The [[World Conference on Women, 1995]] promulgated gender mainstreaming on all policy levels for the [[United Nations]].<ref>Charlesworth, Hilary. [https://harvardhrj.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2020/06/18HHRJ1-Charlesworth.pdf "Not Waving But Drowning Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United Nations"]. ''Harvard Human Rights Journal''. 18: 3.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/gopher-data/conf/fwcw/off/a--20.en|title=Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women}}</ref> Gender Mainstreaming has been adopted by nearly all units of the UN with the UN Economic and Social Council adopting a definition which indicated an "ultimate goal ... to achieve gender equality".<ref>Charlesworth, Hillary. "Not Waving But Drowning Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United nations". ''Harvard Human Rights Journal''. 18: 4-5.</ref> The UN included promoting gender equality and empowering women as one of eight [[Millennium Development Goals]] for developing countries.
The EU integrated women in development thinking into its aid policy starting with the Lomé Convention in 1984.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last1=Debusscher|first1=Petra|last2=Hulse|first2=Merran|s2cid=145495201|title=Including Women's Voices? Gender Mainstreaming in EU and SADC Development Strategies for Southern Africa|journal=Journal of Southern African Studies|volume=40|issue=3|pages=561–562|doi=10.1080/03057070.2014.909255|year=2014|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8707481|hdl=1854/LU-8707481|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 1992 the EU's Latin American and Asian development policy first clearly said that development programs should not have detrimental effects on the position and role of women.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Debusscher|first=Petra|title=Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?|journal=Latin American Perspectives|volume=39|pages=181|doi=10.1177/0094582x12458423|s2cid=146621788}}</ref> Since then the EU has continued the policy of including gender equality within development aid and programs.<ref name=":5" /> Within the EU gender equality is increasingly introduced in programmatic ways.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Debusscher|first=Petra|title=Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?|journal=Latin American Perspectives|volume=39|pages=187–189|doi=10.1177/0094582x12458423|s2cid=146621788}}</ref> The bulk of the EU's aid for gender equality seeks to increase women's access to education, employment and reproductive health services. However, some areas of gender inequality are targeted according to region, such as land reform and counteracting the effects of gangs on women in Latin America.<ref name=":6" />
[[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]] first established a women in development office in 1974 and in 1996 promulgated its Gender Plan of Action to further integrate gender equality into aid programs.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/GenderEqualityPolicy_0.pdf|title=Gender Equality and Female Empowerment Policy|publisher=USAID}}</ref> In 2012 USAID released a Gender Equality and Female Empowerment Policy to guide its aid programs in making gender equality a central goal.<ref name=":7" /> USAID saw increased solicitations from aid programs which integrated gender equality from 1995 to 2010.<ref name=":7" /> As part of their increased aid provision, USAID developed PROMOTE to target gender inequality in Afghanistan with $216 million in aid coming directly from USAID and $200 million coming from other donors.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/promote/|title=Promote|publisher=USAID|access-date=27 May 2017|archive-date=1 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601103611/https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/promote/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Many NGOs have also incorporated gender equality into their programs. Within the Netherlands, NGOs including Oxfam Netherlands Organization for Development Assistance, the Humanist Institute for Cooperation with Developing Countries, Interchurch Organization for Development Cooperation, and Catholic Organization for Relief and Development Aid have included certain targets for their aid programs with regards to gender equality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Eerdewijk|first=Anouka|title=The Micropolitics of Evaporation: Gender Mainstreaming Instruments in Practice|journal=Journal of International Development|volume=26|issue=3|pages=348–349|doi=10.1002/jid.2951|year=2014}}</ref> NGOs which receive aid dollars through the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Norway)|Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] or which partner with the Norwegian government on aid projects must "demonstrate that they take women and gender equality seriously".<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Østebo|first1=Marit|last2=Haukanes|first2=Haldis|last3=Blystad|first3=Astrid|title=Strong State Policies on Gender and Aid: Threats and Opportunities for Norwegian Faith-Based Organisations|journal=Forum for Development Studies|volume=40|issue=2|pages=194}}</ref> In response to this requirement organizations like the Norwegian Christian charity Digni have initiated projects which target gender equality.<ref name=":8" />
[[Private foundation]]s provide the majority of their gender related aid to health programs and have relatively neglected other areas of gender inequality.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|title=Non-traditional aid and gender equity evidence from million dollar donations|last=Okonkwo|first=Osili, Una|date=2013|publisher=WIDER|isbn=9789292306533|pages=4–5|oclc=931344632}}</ref> Foundations, such as the [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation|Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation]], have partnered with governmental aid organizations to provide funds for gender equality, but increasingly aid is provided through partnerships with local organizations and NGOS.<ref name=":9" /> Corporations also participate in providing gender equality aid through their [[Corporate social responsibility|Corporate Social Responsibility]] programs. [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] helped to create the [[Girl Effect]] to provide aid programs targeted towards adolescent girls.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Non-traditional aid and gender equity evidence from million dollar donations|last=Okonkwo|first=Osili, Una|date=2013|publisher=WIDER|isbn=9789292306533|pages=6|oclc=931344632}}</ref> Using publicly available data Una Osili an economist at the [[Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis|Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis]] found that between 2000 and 2010 $1.15 billion in private aid grants over $1 million from the United States targeted gender equality.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Non-traditional aid and gender equity evidence from million dollar donations|last=Okonkwo|first=Osili, Una|date=2013|publisher=WIDER|isbn=9789292306533|pages=8|oclc=931344632}}</ref>
The [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] provides detailed analysis of the extent of aid for gender equality. OECD member countries tag their aid programs with gender markers when a program is designed to advanced gender equality.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Non-traditional aid and gender equity evidence from million dollar donations|last=Okonkwo|first=Osili, Una|date=2013|publisher=WIDER|isbn=9789292306533|pages=3|oclc=931344632}}</ref> In 2019-20 OECD DAC members committed almost $56.5 billion to aid for gender equality, with $6.3 billion of that committed to programs where gender equality is a principal programmatic goal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/development/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-topics/development-finance-for-gender-equality-and-women-s-empowerment.htm|title=Gender-related aid data at a glance|publisher=OECD}}</ref>
==== Effectiveness of aid for gender equality ====
Three main measures of [[gender inequality]] are used in calculating gender equality and testing programs for the purposes of development aid. In the 1995 Human Development Report the [[United Nations Development Programme|United Nations Development Program]] introduced the [[Gender Development Index]] and [[Gender Empowerment Measure]].<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://editorialexpress.com/cgi-bin/conference/download.cgi?db_name=IAFFE2016&paper_id=66&file_type=slides|title=Does Foreign Aid Improve Gender Performance of Recipient Countries? Results from Structural Equation Analysis|access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> The Gender Empowerment Measure is calculated based on three measures, proportion of women in national parliaments, percentage of women in economic decision making positions and female share of income. The Gender Development Index uses the Human Development Index and corrects its results in life expectancy, income, and education for gender imbalances.<ref name=":11"/> Due to criticisms of these two indexes the United Nations Development Program in its 2010 Human Development Report introduced the [[Gender Inequality Index]]. The Gender Inequality Index uses more metrics and attempts to show the losses from gender inequality.<ref name=":11"/>
Even with these indexes, Ranjula Swain of the [[Stockholm School of Economics]] and Supriya Garikipati of the [[University of Liverpool]] found that, compared to the effectiveness of health, economic, and education targeted aid, foreign aid for gender equality remains understudied.<ref name=":11"/> Swain and Garikipati found in an analysis of Gender Equality Aid that on a country and region-wide level gender equality aid was not significant in its effect. Swain and Garikipati blame this on the relative lack of aid with gender equality as a primary motivation.<ref name=":11"/>
In 2005, the Interagency Gender Working Group of the [[World Health Organization]] released the "So What? Report" on the effectiveness of gender mainstreaming in NGO reproductive health programs. The report found these programs effective, but had trouble finding clear gender outcomes because most programs did not measure this data.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gender-equity-rights/knowledge/so-what-report.pdf|title=A Summary of the "So What?" Report|publisher=WHO}}</ref> When gender outcomes were measured, the report found positive programmatic effects, but the report did not look at whether these results were from increased access to services or increasing gender equality.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Ravindran|first1=TKS|last2=Kelkar-Khambete|first2=A.|title=Gender Mainstreaming in Health: Looking Back, Looking Forward|journal=Global Public Health|volume=3|pages=127–129|doi=10.1080/17441690801900761|pmid=19288347|year=2008|s2cid=5215387}}</ref>
Even when gender equality is identified as a goal of aid, other factors will often be the primary focus of the aid.<ref name=":11" /> In some instances the nature of aid's gender equality component can fail to be implemented at the level of individual projects when it is a secondary aspect of a project.<ref>Charlesworth, Hilary. "Not Waving But Drowning Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United Nations". ''Harvard Human Rights Journal''. 18: 12.</ref> Gender equality is often put forward as a policy goal for the organization but program staff have differing commitment and training with regards to this goal.<ref name=":14">Van Eerdewijk, Anouka. "The Micropolitics of Evaporation: Gender Mainstreaming Instruments in Practice". Journal of International Development. 26: 353.</ref> When gender equality is a secondary aspect, development aid which has funds required to impact gender equality can be used to meet quotas of women receiving aid, without effecting the changes in gender roles that Gender Mainstreaming was meant to promote.<ref name=":14" /> Programs can also fail to provide lasting effects, with local organizations removing gender equality aspects of programs after international aid dollars are no longer funding them.<ref name=":13" />
Robert C. Jones of [[McGill University]] and Liam Swiss of [[Memorial University of Newfoundland|Memorial University]] argue that women leaders of governmental aid organizations and NGOs are more effective at Gender Mainstreaming than their male counterparts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Robert|last2=Swiss|first2=Liam|title=Gendered Leadership: The Effects of Female Development Agency Leaders on Foreign Aid Spending|journal=Sociological Forum|volume=29|issue=3}}</ref> They found in a literature review that NGOs headed by women were more likely to have Gender Mainstreaming programs and that women were often the heads of Gender Mainstreaming programs within organizations.<ref>Jones, Robert; Swiss, Liam (September 2014). "Gendered Leadership: The Effects of Female Development Agency Leaders on Foreign Aid Spending". ''Sociological Forum''. '''29''' (3): 578.</ref> By breaking down gender equality programs into two categories, gender mainstreamed programs and gender-focused programs which do not mainstream gender, Jones and Swiss found that female leaders of governmental aid organizations provided more financial support to gender mainstreamed programs and slightly more support to gender aware programs overall.<ref>Jones, Robert; Swiss, Liam (September 2014). "Gendered Leadership: The Effects of Female Development Agency Leaders on Foreign Aid Spending". ''Sociological Forum''. '''29''' (3): 582-583.</ref>
==== Criticism of aid for gender equality ====
Petra Debusscher of [[Ghent University]] has criticized EU aid agencies for following an "integrationist approach" to gender mainstreaming, where gender mainstreaming is used to achieve existing policy goals, as opposed to a "transformative approach" which seeks to change policy priorities and programs fundamentally to achieve gender equality.<ref name=":15" /> She finds that this approach more closely follows a Women in Development model than a Gender and Development one. Debussher criticized the EU's development policy in Latin America for focusing too much attention on gender inequality as a problem to be solved for women.<ref name=":16">Debusscher, Petra. "Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?". ''Latin American Perspectives''. '''39''': 190.</ref> She found that the language used represented more of a Woman in Development approach than a Gender and Development Approach.<ref>Debusscher, Petra. "Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?". ''Latin American Perspectives''. '''39''': 192-194.</ref> She notes that men's role in domestic violence is insufficiently brought forward, with program and policy instead targeting removing women from victimhood.<ref name=":16" /> Rather than discussing the role of men and women relative to each other, women are discussed as needing to "catch up with an implicit male norm".<ref name=":16" /> Debussher also criticized EU's development aid to [[Southern Africa]] as too narrow in its scope and too reliant on integrating women and gender into existing aid paradigms.<ref name=":17">Debusscher, Petra; Hulse, Merran. "Including Women's Voices? Gender Mainstreaming in EU and SADC Development Strategies for Southern Africa". ''Journal of Southern African Studies''. '''40''' (3): 571-572.</ref> Debusscher notes that women's organizations in the region are often concerned with different social constructions of gender, as opposed to the economic growth structure favored by the EU.<ref>Debusscher, Petra; Hulse, Merran. "Including Women's Voices? Gender Mainstreaming in EU and SADC Development Strategies for Southern Africa". ''Journal of Southern African Studies''. '''40''' (3): 566-567.</ref> For EU development aid to Europe and surrounding countries, Debsusscher argued that programs to encourage education of women were designed primarily to encourage overall economic growth, not to target familial and social inequalities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Debusscher|first=Petra|s2cid=143826318|date=1 October 2012|title=Mainstreaming Gender in European Union Development Policy in the European Neighborhood|journal=Journal of Women, Politics & Policy|volume=33|issue=4|pages=333|doi=10.1080/1554477X.2012.722427|issn=1554-477X}}</ref>
Some criticism of gender equality development aid discusses a lack of voices of women's organizations in developing aid programs. Debusscher argued that feminist and women's organizations were not represented enough in EU aid.<ref>Debusscher, Petra. "Gender Mainstreaming in European Union Development Policy Towards Latin America: Transforming Gender Relations or Confirming Hierarchies?". ''Latin American Perspectives''. '''39''': 191-192.
</ref> and that while feminist and women's organizations were represented in implementing policy programs they were not sufficiently involved in their development in EU aid to [[Southern Africa]].<ref name=":17" /> Similarly, Jones and Swiss argue that more women need to be in leadership positions of aid organizations and that these organizations need to be "demasculinized" in order to better gender mainstream.<ref>Jones, Robert; Swiss, Liam (September 2014). "Gendered Leadership: The Effects of Female Development Agency Leaders on Foreign Aid Spending". ''Sociological Forum''. '''29''' (3): 583-584.</ref> T.K.S. Ravindran and A. Kelkar-Khambete criticized the Millennium Development Goals for insufficiently integrating gender into all development goals, instead creating its own development goal, as limiting the level of aid provided to promote gender equality.<ref>Ravindran, TKS; Kelkar-Khambete, A. "Gender Mainstreaming in Health: Looking Back, Looking Forward". ''Global Public Health''. '''3''': 139.</ref>
== National development aid programs ==
{{Further|List of development aid agencies}}
* [[Australian Agency for International Development]]
* [[Aid for Trade]]
* [[China foreign aid]]
* [[Department for International Development]] (United Kingdom)
* [[International economic cooperation policy of Japan]]
* [[Saudi foreign assistance]]
* [[Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency]]
* [[United States foreign aid]]
* [[United Arab Emirates foreign aid]]
*[[Deutsche Gesellschaft für internationale Zusammenarbeit]]
==See also==
{{Portal|Society}}
* [[International development]]
* [[Development economics]]
* ''[[Global South Development Magazine]]''
'''Effectiveness and anti-corruption measures:'''
* [[Conditionality]]
* [[Aid effectiveness]]
* [[Tied aid]]
* [[International Health Partnership]]
'''General:'''
* [[Development economics]]
* [[Development studies]]
'''Tools and stories:'''
* [[File:Wikibooks-logo.svg|14px|Wikibooks]] ''[[B:Development Cooperation Handbook|Development Cooperation Handbook]]''
==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=Foot01>See, for example, {{cite report |author=Mariella Di Ciommo |date=2014 |title=Development cooperation for the future:The increasing role of emerging providers |url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Development-cooperation-for-the-future1.pdf |publisher=Development Initiatives |access-date=16 January 2021}}</ref>
<ref name=Foot02>See, for example, {{cite report |author=Camelia Minoiu and Sanjay G. Reddy |date=2009 |title=Development Aid and Economic Growth: A Positive Long-Run Relation |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2009/wp09118.pdf |publisher=IMF |access-date=16 January 2021}}</ref>
}}
==Further reading==
* Georgeou, Nichole, ''Neoliberalism, Development, and Aid Volunteering'', New York: Routledge, 2012. {{ISBN|9780415809153}}.
* Gilbert Rist, ''The History of Development: From Western Origins to Global Faith'', Zed Books, New Exp. Edition, 2002, {{ISBN|1-84277-181-7}}
* Perspectives on European Development Co-operation by O. Stokke
* European development cooperation and the poor by A. Cox, J. Healy and T. Voipio {{ISBN|0-333-74476-4}}
* Rethinking Poverty: Comparative perspectives from below. by W. Pansters, G. Dijkstra, E. Snel {{ISBN|90-232-3598-3}}
* European aid for poverty reduction in Tanzania by T. Voipio London, [[Overseas Development Institute]], {{ISBN|0-85003-415-9}}
* The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It by Paul Collier
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120513022729/http://upers.kuleuven.be/en/titel/9789058679024 ''How Do We Help? The Free Market in Development Aid''] by Patrick Develtere, 2012, Leuven University Press, {{ISBN|978-90-5867-902-4}}
==External links==
* [http://www.openaidregister.org/ Open Aid Register]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140116104608/http://www.openaidsearch.org/ IATI search engine (Beta). Find any development aid activity around the world. Using the IATI registry as access point.]
* {{curlie|Society/Philanthropy/International_Aid_and_Development|Aid and Development}}
* [http://www.aiddata.org/ AidData: Tracking Development Finance]
* [http://www.openaiddata.org/ Open Aid Data] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606214917/http://www.openaiddata.org/ |date=6 June 2014 }} Provides detailed developing aid finance data from around the world.
* [http://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/cid/about-cid Center for International Development] at Harvard University
* [http://www.odi.org.uk/work/programmes/aid-public-expenditure/default.asp The Centre for Aid and Public Expenditure, Overseas Development Institute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414160517/http://www.odi.org.uk/work/programmes/aid-public-expenditure/default.asp |date=14 April 2011 }}
* [http://www.cgdev.org/Publications/MillionsSaved/ Millions Saved] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011090756/http://www.cgdev.org/Publications/millionssaved/ |date=11 October 2008 }} A compilation of case studies of successful foreign assistance by the [http://www.cgdev.org/ Center for Global Development].
* [http://www.die-gdi.de/ German Development Institute] - the German think tank of development aid
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100919071431/http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/browse-by-subject/all-subjects/aid Work on Development Aid by the Institute of Development Studies (IDS)]
;Articles
* Abhijit Baerjee [https://web.archive.org/web/20070704000147/http://bostonreview.net/BR31.4/banerjee.html "Making Aid Work"]. Boston Review, March/April 2007.
* ''[http://www.kakanien.ac.at/beitr/fallstudie/TNarozhna1.pdf Failed Expectations, Or What Is Behind the Marshall Plan for Post-Socialist Reconstruction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102121528/http://www.kakanien.ac.at/beitr/fallstudie/TNarozhna1.pdf |date=2 November 2012 }}'', by Tanya Narozhna
* Håkan Malmqvist (February 2000), "[https://web.archive.org/web/20050408215759/http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No46/Develop.html Development Aid, Humanitarian Assistance and Emergency Relief]", Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Monograph No 46, Sweden
* Andrew Rogerson with Adrian Hewitt and David Waldenberg (2004), "[http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=1375&title=international-aid-system-2005-2010-forces-against-change The International Aid System 2005–2010 Forces For and Against Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100224214354/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=1375&title=international-aid-system-2005-2010-forces-against-change |date=2010-02-24 }}", [[Overseas Development Institute]] Working Paper 235
* "[https://web.archive.org/web/20100113103123/http://saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197906/arab.aid-an.introduction.htm Arab Aid]" from ''Saudi Aramco World'' (1979)
;Videos
* [[File:Ardhanarishwara-TheVrindaProject-Logo.jpg|14px]] ⇒ [https://www.youtube.com/eugadproject The Vrinda Project Channel] - videos on the work in progress for the achievement of the MDGs connected to the Wikibook [[File:Wikibooks-logo.svg|14px|Wikibooks]] ⇒ [[B:Development Cooperation Handbook|Development Cooperation Handbook]]
* [[B:Development Cooperation Handbook/Stories|Development Cooperation Stories]]
* [[B:Development Cooperation Handbook/Testimonials|Development Cooperation Testimonials]]
{{Globalization}}
{{Diplomacy}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Development Aid}}
[[Category:Aid]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Ecologically sustainable development | '''Ecologically sustainable development''' is the environmental component of [[sustainable development]]. It can be achieved partially through the use of the [[precautionary principle]]; if there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent [[environmental degradation]].
Also important is the principle of [[intergenerational equity]]; the present generation should ensure that the health, diversity and productivity of the environment is maintained or enhanced for the benefit of [[future generations]]. In order for this movement to flourish, environmental factors should be more heavily weighed in the valuation of assets and services to provide more incentive for the conservation of [[Biodiversity|biological diversity]] and ecological integrity.
== Biodiversity Considerations ==
When trying to integrate ecologically sustainable developments into a region, it is important to take [[biodiversity]] into consideration before moving forward with developments. Specifically, how a [[sustainable development]] impacts the biodiversity of its area and how they can be used to facilitate biodiversity. Recognizing and conserving biodiversity is essential for maintaining the [[Resilience (engineering and construction)|resilience]] and functionality of ecosystems which humans greatly depend.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aronson |first=Myla FJ |last2=Lepczyk |first2=Christopher A |last3=Evans |first3=Karl L |last4=Goddard |first4=Mark A |last5=Lerman |first5=Susannah B |last6=MacIvor |first6=J Scott |last7=Nilon |first7=Charles H |last8=Vargo |first8=Timothy |date=May 2017 |title=Biodiversity in the city: key challenges for urban green space management |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.1480 |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=189–196 |doi=10.1002/fee.1480 |issn=1540-9295}}</ref>
Although [[urbanization]] can have negative effects on certain flora and fauna species, if urban planning is carried out in a way that does consider biodiversity, some urban areas can provide habitats and foster biodiversity which can be facilitated with the help of ecologically sustainable developments.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Lopez |first=C. X. Garzon |last2=Savickytė |first2=Gabija |date=2023-07-01 |title=Biodiversity in cities: the impact of biodiversity data across spatial scales on diversity estimates |url=https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/foecol-2023-0012 |journal=Folia Oecologica |language=en |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=134–146 |doi=10.2478/foecol-2023-0012}}</ref> Cities provide important habitats for many types of [[Plant|plants]] and [[Fungus|fungi]] and can also act as a refuge for certain animal species as well. This can be assisted even more with the use of ecologically sustainable developments which play a large role in being able to provide habitats for those species.<ref name=":0" /> In addition to sustainable developments in cities, green areas, such as parks and open spaces, or [[Wildlife corridor|green corridors]], provide species with food and breeding habitats.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Beninde |first=Joscha |last2=Veith |first2=Michael |last3=Hochkirch |first3=Axel |date=June 2015 |editor-last=Haddad |editor-first=Nick |title=Biodiversity in cities needs space: a meta‐analysis of factors determining intra‐urban biodiversity variation |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.12427 |journal=Ecology Letters |language=en |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=581–592 |doi=10.1111/ele.12427 |issn=1461-023X}}</ref> Specifically increasing the size of green areas and developing a network of green corridors is a successful way to maintain high levels of urban biodiversity.<ref name=":2" /> An additional aspect that can be influenced by ecologically sustainable developments and is connected to green areas are [[Urban forest|urban forests]]. Urban forests have often been included in cities whether through landscapes, parks, or street trees and can affect the biodiversity of a city.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Pregitzer |first=Clara C. |last2=Charlop‐Powers |first2=Sarah |last3=Bibbo |first3=Silvia |last4=Forgione |first4=Helen M. |last5=Gunther |first5=Bram |last6=Hallett |first6=Richard A. |last7=Bradford |first7=Mark A. |date=January 2019 |title=A city‐scale assessment reveals that native forest types and overstory species dominate New York City forests |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.1819 |journal=Ecological Applications |language=en |volume=29 |issue=1 |doi=10.1002/eap.1819 |issn=1051-0761}}</ref>Depending on the type of urban forest and the way it is managed, urban forests can provide a space where native tree species are able to thrive and provide strong biodiveristy efforts for the city it is in.<ref name=":4" />
A feature that can be included in an ecological sustainable development is a [[green roof]]. The incorporation of a green roof on a sustainable development can facilitate urban biodiversity from different types of vegetation that can be installed on a green roof, thus increasing the overall biodiversity of an area. The installation of green roofs can also help improve biodiversity specifically for species that need extra assistance and are not as migratory as other species.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Sushinsky |first=Jessica R. |last2=Rhodes |first2=Jonathan R. |last3=Possingham |first3=Hugh P. |last4=Gill |first4=Tony K. |last5=Fuller |first5=Richard A. |date=February 2013 |title=How should we grow cities to minimize their biodiversity impacts? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12055 |journal=Global Change Biology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=401–410 |doi=10.1111/gcb.12055 |issn=1354-1013}}</ref> They can provide species a safe, natural, undisturbed habitat, depending on the setup and conditions of the green roof/space, where they can develop and grow.<ref name=":1" />
The density and compactness of a city can also affect the biodiversity conditions which influences the types and number of ecologically sustainable developments that should be implemented to meet the goal of increasing biodiversity. It has been studied that if high density urban areas are well managed, they can preserve large intact green spaces and create a more ecologically heterogeneous area that has the ability to support both urban-adapted and urban sensitive species.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Sushinsky |first=Jessica R. |last2=Rhodes |first2=Jonathan R. |last3=Possingham |first3=Hugh P. |last4=Gill |first4=Tony K. |last5=Fuller |first5=Richard A. |date=February 2013 |title=How should we grow cities to minimize their biodiversity impacts? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12055 |journal=Global Change Biology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=401–410 |doi=10.1111/gcb.12055 |issn=1354-1013}}</ref> However, there is a specific critical threshold that most cities have where if residential density reaches that point, all species would decline as there would not be enough vegetation to maintain them.<ref name=":3" />
Overall, strategic urban planning with the implementation of ecologically sustainable development and the preservation of green areas and a network of corridors between these areas should be utilized in order to have an efficient use of land.<ref name=":2" /> This thus reduces the impact of humans on the city's biodiversity and allows for opportunities for people to interact with the local biodiversity.
__TOC__
==Political considerations==
Effective political support is necessary for ecologically sustainable development. The mobilization of governments can be translated into action plans that are crucial to [[Sustainable development#Politics|sustainable development]]. Development efforts can be influenced by patterns of family arrangements, work attitudes, [[Morality|social morality]]—particularly interpersonal responsibilities, hierarchy of authority, quality of scientific education and implementation, and degree of domestic stability—especially, freedom from [[social conflict]].<ref>Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. "Globalization and Sustainable Development: False Twins?." New Global Studies 7.3: 23-56. ISSN (Online) 1940-0004, ISSN (Print) 2194-6566, DOI: 10.1515/ngs-2013-021, November 2013</ref> National policy and development planning requires three conditions to permit ecological [[sustainability]]: action-oriented values to which individuals are committed, political authorities that favour long-term ecological benefits over immediate economic gains, and a policy with a politically competent [[constituency]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Caldwell|first=Lynton K.|title=Political Aspects of Ecologically Sustainable Development|journal=Environmental Conservation|year=1984|volume=11|issue=4|pages=299–308|doi=10.1017/S037689290001465X|s2cid=85770572 }}</ref>
Canada has taken an evidence based approach to sustainability development by using Environmental [[Sustainability measurement|Sustainability Indicators]]<ref>{{cite web |author=Government of Canada |title=Environmental Sustainability Indicators |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators.html |accessdate=24 January 2024}}</ref> as guiding tool for policy development. At the municipal level, many cities also use evidence based indicators<ref>{{cite web |author=City of Surrey |title=Sustainability Charter |url=https://www.surrey.ca/about-surrey/sustainability-energy-services/sustainability-charter |accessdate=24 January 2024}}
</ref> and Ecological Indexes<ref>{{cite web |title=Economic Update, 20 January 2016 |url=https://m.stjohns.ca/sites/default/files/files/publication/2016_Economic%20Update_Jan%20to%20Dec.pdf |accessdate=24 January 2024 |publisher=City of St. Johns}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://greenscore.ca/greenscore-city-index.html|title=Study of 50 Canadian Municipalities|publisher=GreenScore Canada|accessdate=20 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904070553/http://greenscore.ca/greenscore-city-index.html|archive-date=4 September 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> as a tools for [[Policy|policy development]].
==Forums for ecologically sustainable development==
The World Conservation Strategy was published in 1980, becoming one of the most encouraging developments that uses a goal-oriented programme for political change concerning ecological sustainability.<ref>{{cite book|last=Allen|first=Robert P.|title=How to Save the World: Strategy for World Conservation|url=https://archive.org/details/howtosaveworldst0000pres|url-access=registration|year=1980|publisher=Barnes and Noble Books|isbn=978-0-389-20011-6}}</ref> The publication marked a fundamental policy shift for the global [[conservation movement]]. The traditional focus became cure rather than [[Prevention Science|Prevention]], confirming the growing trend on the assimilation of preservation and development aims that are key to an ecologically sustainable society. Specifically, the concentration on [[wildlife conservation]] drifted into a concern for wider strains degrading the natural environment.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McCormick|first=John|title=The Origins of the World Conservation Strategy|journal=Environmental Review|year=1986|volume=10|issue=3|pages=177–187|doi=10.2307/3984544 |jstor=3984544|s2cid=156040310 }}</ref>
It promotes the principles of sustainable development and addresses the environmental concerns introduced by [[economic development]] decisions with a format that targets a wide audience. There are three chief conservation objectives:
#Maintaining essential [[biogeochemical cycle]]s and life-support systems
#Preserving [[genetic diversity]]
#Establishing a sustainable use of [[species]] and [[ecosystem]]s<ref>{{cite journal|last=Smith|first=Susan L.|title=Ecologically Sustainable Development: Integrating Economics, Ecology, and Law|journal=Willamette Law Review|year=1995|volume=31|issue=2|pages=261–306|url=https://litigation-essentials.lexisnexis.com/webcd/app?action=DocumentDisplay&crawlid=1&doctype=cite&docid=31+Willamette+L.+Rev.+261&srctype=smi&srcid=3B15&key=118207f62b4908b2ee0eb7a21f829a93|accessdate=29 March 2013}}</ref>
Other efforts such as the World Campaign for the Biosphere present environmental obstacles constantly before governmental and scientific authorities. Nicholas Polunin, former president of the Foundation for Environmental Conservation, believed the starting point for the World Campaign effort occurred in 1966 at an [[UNESCO]] conference in Finland.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Polunin|first=Nicholas|title=Our Global Environment and the World Campaign for the Biosphere|journal=Environmental Conservation|year=1982|volume=9|issue=2|pages=115–121|doi=10.1017/S0376892900020002|s2cid=84262473 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/291547/files/S0376892900020002.pdf}}<!--|accessdate=4 April 2013--></ref> The conference examined conditions that hinder ecologically sustainable development such as rapid [[population growth]], proliferation of [[nuclear weapon]]s, and depletion of [[natural resource]]s. Similarly, the [[The Global 2000 Report to the President|Global 2000 Report to the President]], presents environmental prospective conditions that are likely to worsen if public policies, institutions, and rates of technologic advancement do not change. Findings of this type prompted [[environmentalist]]s and the Foundation for Environmental Conservation to initiate the World Campaign project and have included the following suggestions:
:*Publication and broadcast of [[environmental issue]]s
:*Use of traditional [[Media (communication)|communication mediums]] such as posters and automobile stickers
:*Distribution of increasing basic and applied environmental research results
:*Information about [[family planning]] and the necessity to control population growth
:*Designating more area as [[national park]]s or [[wilderness area]]s, including the ocean
:*Organization of local, state, national, and international conferences to discuss environmental issues
:*Encouraging sustainable uses of our natural resources
:*Establishment of [[common law]]s for the Earth and mankind
:*Obtaining support form [[nongovernmental organization]]s and [[institution]]s for the World Campaign
:*Attaining recognition such as "Guardians of the Biosphere Awards," for persons and/or groups that demonstrate actions to preserve the environment<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barman|first=Charles R.|title=The World Campaign for the Biosphere|journal=The American Biology Teacher|volume=46|issue=5|pages=269–271|doi=10.2307/4447840|jstor=4447840|year=1984}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Permaculture]]
*[[Greenhouse debt]]
*[[Sustainability]]
*[[Environmental remediation|Environmental regeneration]]
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
==External links==
* [http://www.environment.gov.au/esd/ Australian Government - Department of Environment and Water Resources]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Greenhouse debt | '''Greenhouse debt''' is the measure to which an individual person, incorporated association, business enterprise, government instrumentality or / [and] (per Neb., USA) geographic community exceeds its permitted [[carbon footprint|greenhouse footprint]] and [[greenhouse gas emissions|emits greenhouse gas]]es that contribute to [[global warming]] and [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mann|first=Roberta|date=2007|title=Another Day Older and Deeper in Debt: How Tax Incentives Encourage Burning Coal and the Consequences for Global Warming|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tranl20&id=113&div=&collection=|journal=Pacific McGeorge Global Business & Development Law Journal|volume=20|pages=111}}</ref>
[[Friends of the Earth]] and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries' past and present policies.<ref>Friends of the Earth International. 2000. ''[http://www.foei.org/en/publications/link/92/e92greenhouse_debt.html Greenhouse debt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612052902/http://www.foei.org/en/publications/link/92/e92greenhouse_debt.html |date=2008-06-12 }}''. ''Link'' (20):</ref> Some governments, at least the Australian [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] leadership, have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning.<ref>Hamilton, Clive. ''[http://www.crikey.com.au/Politics/20071214-Howards-Hidden-Greenhouse-Debt-.html?CurrentDate=14+%2F+01+%2F+2008 We will all pay for Howard's hidden greenhouse debt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605094823/http://www.crikey.com.au/Politics/20071214-Howards-Hidden-Greenhouse-Debt-.html?CurrentDate=14+%2F+01+%2F+2008 |date=2008-06-05 }}'', Crikey, Friday, 14 December 2007: .</ref> The concept, however, makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted [[greenhouse gas|greenhouse]] [[ecological footprint|footprint]], which is not easily defined or estimated.
The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an [[ecological footprint]] analysis, but can be used separately. Taken conjointly with a 'water debt' [[needs assessment|analysis]] and an [[environmental impact assessment|ecological impact assessment]], greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals, organisations, governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia]], [[life]], and [[global warming]].{{cn|date=December 2022}}
Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving [[ecologically sustainable development]] or a [[sustainable retreat]]. Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and [[non-human]] lifeforms.
There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt.{{cn|date=December 2022}}
#''[[Mitigation of global warming|Mitigation]]:'' finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised
#''[[Adaptation]]:'' finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change
#''[[Suffering]]:'' having one's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences
==See also==
*[[Ecological debt]]
*[[Ecological deficit]]
*[[Ecological footprint]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Greenhouse Debt}}
[[Category:Climate change assessment and attribution]]
[[Category:Greenhouse gas emissions]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Micro-sustainability | {{Short description|Individual or small scale sustainability efforts}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2012}}
[[File:Utilizando el contenedor de Ecovidrio.JPG|thumb|A person recycling a glass bottle into a bin.]]
'''Micro-sustainability''' is the portion of [[sustainability]] centered around small scale environmental measures that ultimately affect the environment through a larger cumulative impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ibrahim|first=Mohamed Mohsen|date=2016-11-09|title=EcoBIM for micro-sustainability|journal=Qscience Proceedings|url=https://www.qscience.com/content/papers/10.5339/qproc.2016.qgbc.28|language=en|publisher=Hamad bin Khalifa University Press (HBKU Press)|volume=2016|issue=3|pages=28|doi=10.5339/qproc.2016.qgbc.28}}</ref> Micro-sustainability centers on individual efforts, [[behavior modification]], education and creating attitudinal changes, which result in an environmentally conscious individual.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hobson |first=Kersty |title=Chapter 11 - Sustainable Lifestyles: Rethinking Barriers and Behaviour Change |date=2001-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080439204500148 |work=Exploring Sustainable Consumption |pages=191–209 |editor-last=Cohen |editor-first=Maurie J. |access-date=2023-04-19 |place=Oxford |publisher=Pergamon |language=en |isbn=978-0-08-043920-4 |editor2-last=Murphy |editor2-first=Joseph}}</ref> Micro-sustainability encourages sustainable changes through "change agents"—individuals who foster positive environmental action locally and inside their [[sphere of influence]]. Examples of micro-sustainability include [[recycling]], [[power saving]] by turning off unused lights, programming [[thermostat]]s for efficient [[energy use|use of energy]], reducing [[water usage]], changing commuting habits to use less fossil fuels or modifying buying habits to reduce [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] and waste.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Klug |first1=Katharina |last2=Niemand |first2=Thomas |date=2021-05-15 |title=The lifestyle of sustainability: Testing a behavioral measure of precycling |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652621009197 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=297 |pages=126699 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126699 |s2cid=233619438 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Barr |first1=Stewart |last2=Gilg |first2=Andrew |date=2006-11-01 |title=Sustainable lifestyles: Framing environmental action in and around the home |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016718506000583 |journal=Geoforum |language=en |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=906–920 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.05.002 |issn=0016-7185}}</ref> The emphasis of micro-sustainability is on an individual's actions, rather than organizational or institutional practices at the systemic level.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Young|first1=William|last2=Hwang|first2=Kumju|last3=McDonald|first3=Seonaidh|last4=Oates|first4=Caroline J.|date=2010|title=Sustainable consumption: green consumer behaviour when purchasing products|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sd.394|journal=Sustainable Development|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=20–31|doi=10.1002/sd.394|issn=1099-1719|hdl=10059/1015|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Gilg |first1=Andrew |last2=Barr |first2=Stewart |last3=Ford |first3=Nicholas |date=2005-08-01 |title=Green consumption or sustainable lifestyles? Identifying the sustainable consumer |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016328704001569 |journal=Futures |language=en |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=481–504 |doi=10.1016/j.futures.2004.10.016 |issn=0016-3287}}</ref> These small local level actions have immediate community benefits if undertaken on a widespread scale and if imitated, they can have a cumulative<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-02-03|title=How personal actions can kick-start a sustainability revolution|url=https://grist.org/article/2010-02-01-how-personal-actions-can-kick-start-a-sustainability-revolution/|access-date=2021-08-31|website=Grist|language=en-us}}</ref> broad impact.<ref name=":2" />
==History==
* 1960s - The "[[back-to-the-land movement]]" promoted self-sufficiency and local community growth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.utne.com/environment/back-to-the-land-movement-ze0z1609zfis|title=The "Back to the Land" Movement|last=Daloz|first=Kate|year=2016}}</ref>
* 2007 - The [[transition town]] network was formed to reduce dependency on oil in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name = "Seyfang Transitions">{{Cite journal|title=Growing grassroots innovations: exploring the role of community-based initiatives in governing sustainable energy transitions|journal=Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy|last1=Seyfang|first1=Gill|last2=Haxeltine|first2=Alex|doi=10.1068/c10222|year=2011|volume=30|issue=3|pages=381–400|orig-year=2010|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* 2007 - The [[United Nations]] published ''Sustainable Consumption Patterns'', which outlined small scale sustainability actions.<ref name="UN SC patterns">{{Cite journal|title=Sustainable Consumption and Production: Promoting Climate-Friendly Household Consumption Patterns|journal=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|year=2007}}</ref>
* 2009 - Jesse Stallone coined the term micro and macro sustainability based on the ideas of [[microeconomics]] and [[macroeconomics]].<ref name = "Stallone"/>
==Individual actions==
Micro-sustainability is the result of individuals and communities practicing [[sustainable living]]. Sustainable living is a lifestyle that attempts to conserve natural resources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hagbert |first1=Pernilla |last2=Bradley |first2=Karin |date=2017-09-01 |title=Transitions on the home front: A story of sustainable living beyond eco-efficiency |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |series=Narratives and Storytelling in Energy and Climate Change Research |language=en |volume=31 |pages=240–248 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2017.05.002 |issn=2214-6296|doi-access=free }}</ref> Within an individual household, this can include reducing the [[water footprint]] and [[domestic energy consumption]] of the building.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Waitt |first1=Gordon |last2=Caputi |first2=Peter |last3=Gibson |first3=Chris |last4=Farbotko |first4=Carol |last5=Head |first5=Lesley |last6=Gill |first6=Nick |last7=Stanes |first7=Elyse |date=2012-03-01 |title=Sustainable Household Capability: which households are doing the work of environmental sustainability? |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00049182.2012.649519 |journal=Australian Geographer |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=51–74 |doi=10.1080/00049182.2012.649519 |bibcode=2012AuGeo..43...51W |s2cid=145112743 |issn=0004-9182}}</ref>
===Water footprint===
[[File:World Water Footprint.png|thumb|The Global Water Footprint, averages of how much water is used around the world]]
Like the common concept of the [[carbon footprint]], people can also have a water footprint. [[Water footprint]] helps with determining how much fresh water is used and polluted by a given person.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hogeboom |first=Rick J. |date=2020-03-20 |title=The Water Footprint Concept and Water's Grand Environmental Challenges |journal=One Earth |language=en |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=218–222 |doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2020.02.010 |bibcode=2020OEart...2..218H |s2cid=216486954 |issn=2590-3322|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Kaile |last2=Yang |first2=Shanlin |date=2016-04-01 |title=Understanding household energy consumption behavior: The contribution of energy big data analytics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032115013817 |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=56 |pages=810–819 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.001 |issn=1364-0321}}</ref> With a typical American single-family home using 70 US gallons (260 L) per person per day indoors, [[household appliances]] such as toilets, showers, dishwashers, and washing machines can be upgraded to reduce water usage.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution|last1=Hawken|first1=Paul|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|year=1999|location=New York City|last2=Lovins|first2=Amory|last3=Lovins|first3=L. Hunter}}</ref>
===Energy consumption===
[[File:Energy Star logo.svg|thumb|The Energy Star logo can be found on certified energy-efficient appliances.]]
The residential sector accounts of 21% of total U.S. energy usage, with approximately 40% of the energy used in homes being used for heating. Individuals can reduce their heating loads by improving their [[building insulation]], improving [[building airtightness]] and installing [[smart thermostat]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Use of energy in homes - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)|url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/use-of-energy/homes.php|access-date=2021-08-31|website=www.eia.gov}}</ref> Other measures outside of reducing the heating load include purchasing [[energy-efficient appliances]] and recycling energy intensive materials.<ref name= "UN SC patterns"/>
===Consumer preferences===
As individuals become more aware of environmental problems that exist, their consumption decisions can promote [[Green design|green designs]] and ultimately affect the types of products on the market.<ref name=":6" /><ref name="Bask Mobile Phones">{{Cite journal|title=Consumer Preferences for Sustainability and their Impact on Supply Chain Management: The Case of Mobile Phones|journal=International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management|last1=Bask|first1=Anu|volume=43|last2=Halme|first2=Merja|issue=5/6|doi=10.1108/IJPDLM-03-2012-0081|last3=Kallio|first3=Markku}}</ref> In a study that looked at [[consumer]] preferences for sustainability with respect to [[Mobile phone|mobile phones]], it found that consumers are not only interested in the physical product but also [[raw material]] sourcing and [[End-of-life (product)|end of life]] product disposal.<ref name = "Bask Mobile Phones"/> As a result, the study found that major manufacturers consider sustainability in their marketing and products.<ref name = "Bask Mobile Phones"/>
Other studies have looked at consumer preferences regarding sustainably sourced food. Food sustainability can reduce the use of natural resources and limit waste.<ref name = "Gracia Spain Consumerism"/> These improvements in food sustainability can have larger, global benefits such as reducing [[greenhouse gas emissions]], water usage, and waste.<ref name = "Gracia Spain Consumerism">{{Cite journal|title=Food Sustainability and Waste Reduction in Spain: Consumer Preferences for Local, Suboptimal, And/Or Unwashed Fresh Food Products|journal=Sustainability|last1=Gracia|first1=Azucena|volume=12|last2=Gomez|first2=Miguel|doi=10.3390/su12104148|year=2020|issue=10|page=4148|doi-access=free|hdl=10532/5012|hdl-access=free}}</ref> One study found that consumers who spent more time looking at the sustainability labels were individuals who cared more about sustainably sourced food, and who were more likely to select products with this labeling.<ref name= "Loo Coffee">{{Cite journal|title=Sustainability labels on coffee: Consumer preferences, willingness-to-pay and visual attention to attributes|journal=Ecological Economics|last=Van Loo|first=Ellen J.|volume=118|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.07.011|year=2015|pages=215–225}}</ref> Another study showed that not only does sustainable labeling cause consumers to look at the product for longer, but that the [[consumer choice]]s as a result of that labeling is significant and positive.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Consumer attitudes and preferences towards pangasius and tilapia: The role of sustainability certification and the country of origin|journal=Appetite|last1=Hinkes|first1=Cordula|volume=127|last2=Schulze-Ehlers|first2=Birgit|year=2018|pages=171–181|doi=10.1016/j.appet.2018.05.001|pmid=29733863|s2cid=13687911}}</ref> This means that if consumers value sustainable products that are verified through labeling and are more likely to purchase these products, then food producers and marketers can use this information to provide products that consumer is interested in.<ref name = "Loo Coffee"/> Additionally, if consumers are buying more of a product, they are also incentivizing and rewarding producers that are willing to responsibly source food.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Consumer choices for quality and sustainability labelled seafood products in the UK|journal=Food Policy|last1=Jaffry|first1=Shabbar|volume=29|last2=Pickering|first2=Helen|issue=3|doi=10.1016/j.foodpol.2004.04.001|year=2004|pages=215–228}}</ref>
==Group and community actions==
A [[community]] in the context of micro-sustainability is a group of people in the same geographic location that interact with one another.<ref name = "Haggar Green Communities">{{Cite book|title=Roadmap for Global Sustainability - Rise of the Green Communities|last1=El-Haggar|first1=Salah|publisher=Springer|year=2019|last2=Samaha|first2=Aliaa|series=Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-14584-2|isbn=978-3-030-14583-5|s2cid=182585383|issn=2522-8722}}</ref> These can range from rural communities with low population density to highly dense urban communities.<ref name = "Haggar Green Communities"/> These communities are able to tackle a wider range of initiatives that range in scale from unaligned, independent affairs to organized networks.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/> While small community initiatives can take many forms, they can be generalized as an organized collective bundle of actions stretching several years or decades intended to transform a community into a sustainable state.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/>
===Rural communities===
Although there is no exact population size to define a rural community, they are typically seen as areas with lower population density.<ref name = "Haggar Green Communities"/> Green rural communities are places where people value a supportive social network and a low-impact, ecologically sustainable life.<ref name = "Haggar Green Communities"/> These can be defined as [[transition towns]], [[Low Carbon Communities]], or [[eco-villages]].
===Urban communities===
Urban communities do not necessarily mean a larger population than rural communities, but that they are more densely populated and more influenced by the effects of [[urbanization]].<ref name = "Haggar Green Communities"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |last2=Roser |first2=Max |date=2018-06-13 |title=Urbanization |url=https://ourworldindata.org/urbanization |journal=Our World in Data}}</ref>
Especially with transition towns and low carbon communities, the goal is to see if fundamental changes to society in these niches can lead to a wider acceptance of the innovation.<ref name = "Seyfang Transitions"/> This can occur by replicating, scaling, and translating successful practices.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/> Although the goal is to see if changes on micro scale can ultimately lead to a successful macro-level change, 89% of transition towns were created by individual citizens coming together—not governments or larger organizations.<ref name = "Seyfang Transitions"/>
===Types of work===
Depending on the size, wealth, and organization of a community, a variety of sustainable actions can be achieved. These can be broken down into following categories:
====Land use====
Sustainable land use can be achieved when communities reduce greenhouse gas emissions by limiting development of roads, parking lots, etc., and focus on promoting green building design technologies and green spaces.<ref name = "Dizdaroglu Indicators">{{Cite journal|title=Developing micro-level urban ecosystem indicators for sustainability assessment|journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review|last=Dizdaroglu|first=D.|year=2015|volume=54|pages=119–124|doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2015.06.004|hdl=11693/21092|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
====Transportation====
{{main|Sustainable transport}}{{see|Micromobility}}
The amount of greenhouse gases being released into the atmosphere due to the number of cars on the roads can be minimized by increasing the number of safe bike lanes and pedestrian walkways, and making public transportation easily accessible.<ref name = "Dizdaroglu Indicators"/>
====Green spaces====
[[File:High Point community garden.jpg|thumb|High Point Community Garden in Seattle, Washington]]
Green spaces within a community protect the habitats of the wildlife in the area. These spaces can be gardens, parks, green alleys, [[green roof]]s, and green [[buffer zone]]s.<ref name = "Dizdaroglu Indicators"/> They can exist successfully when a community provides resources such as land, equipment, knowledge and standards regarding care of the green space, and some sort of governance to ensure that the space is well kept.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/>
====Renewable energy and waste management====
Renewable energy can include hydropower, biomass energy, geothermal energy, wind power, and solar energy.<ref name = "Dizdaroglu Indicators"/> Additionally, communities can educate and promote individual sustainable practices mentioned in part 2. This can be in the form of providing information such as directions to resources and household energy performance feedback, monitoring performance like annual surveys of energy usage, or initializing community challenges such as a goal to reach [[carbon neutrality]].<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/> Communities can practice sustainable waste management such as [[incineration]], biological treatment, zero waste, and recycling.<ref name = "Dizdaroglu Indicators"/>
===Methods for success===
The following are themes seen across micro-sustainable groups that have resulted in increased success:
====Community learning====
Effective sustainable intervention occurs in small communities because these spaces allow for greater learning opportunities.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/> One study showed that socialization encouraged learning and innovation which lead to 20% reduction in energy usage sustained over four years.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/> With community gardening, it was found that it transformed an isolated, private task into one that was social, educational, and had a positive impact on the town.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/> They claim that having a group of people in charge of the garden required social interaction and cooperation, and having many members resulted in a collective responsibility that promoted skill sharing and cohesion.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/>
====Goal setting====
Another key factor was the community working together around a clear, well defined goal as group members are willing to participate when they know they are contributing to the good of the community.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/> Towns that would offer similar goals such as a community gardens achieved very different levels of success based on the level of structure, goals, and plans that can unite a community and gain interest.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors"/>
==Criticisms==
There have been concerns about the effectiveness of micro-sustainability. Much of the research into individual and small community practices are only able to analyze a limited amount of data and cannot fully conclude if the small community changes will result in changes at a larger scale.<ref name ="Forrest Success Factors">{{Cite journal|title=Success factors and strategies for sustainability transitions of small-scale communities - Evidence from a cross case analysis|journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions|last1=Forrest|first1=Nigel|volume=17|last2=Wiek|first2=Arnim|doi=10.1016/j.eist.2015.05.005|year=2015|pages=22–40}}</ref> Additionally, due to its complex nature, it is almost impossible to model or keep track of all aspects of sustainability, and studies that do attempt to model this found that successful situations at a micro level will either not work, or will worsen environmental impacts at a larger scale.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Eco-efficiency guiding micro-level actions towards sustainability: Ten basic steps for analysis|journal=Ecological Economics|last1=Huppes|first1=G.|last2=Ishikawa|first2=M.|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.01.007|year=2009|volume=68|issue=6|pages=1687–1700|s2cid=153424574 |url=http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/repository/90001031.pdf}}</ref>
Additionally, some raise questions about the magnitude of change that needs to occur. In the book ''Sustainable Energy - Without the Hot Air'' authored by British physicist and mathematician [[David J.C. MacKay]], MacKay advocates against small changes with respect to sustainability and gives the example that if everyone unplugged their chargers from the outlet, this would save enough energy to power 66,000 homes for one year.<ref name = "Without the hot air">{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Energy - Without the Hot Air|last=MacKay|first=David|publisher=UIT Cambridge|year=2009}}</ref> MacKay warns that these types of statements can be misleading, as 66,000 homes out of approximately 25 million homes participating in this action is a quarter of one percent.<ref name = "Without the hot air"/> In other words, each household is only saving one quarter of one percent by unplugging their phones.<ref name = "Without the hot air"/>
A study that surveyed transition towns across the UK found that 76% of them struggle to grow after initial interest fades.<ref name = "Seyfang Transitions"/> This indicates that scaling up beyond committed environmentalists may not be the best approach.<ref name = "Seyfang Transitions"/>
==Macro-sustainability==
In contrast to micro-sustainability, the remaining large-scale plans for [[sustainability]], are categorized under the term ''macro-sustainability''.<ref name = "Stallone">{{Cite news|url=https://jessestallone.com/2009/12/29/micro-vs-macro-sustainability/|title=Micro vs Macro Sustainability|date=2009-12-29|work=Jesse Stallone|access-date=2018-08-06|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Macro-economics of mineral and water resources.|last = Kisor|first = Kaulir|publisher = Capital Publishing Company|year = 2015|location = India}}</ref> Macro-sustainability is a large systematic addressing of sustainability in most cases by the United Nations, governments, multi-national corporations or smaller companies. They discuss global issues including [[climate change]], and reliance upon fossil fuel hydrocarbon based energy sources. Global organizations like the United Nations have included sustainable development goals (SDGs) to set a standard of 17 goals for countries around the world to take action on climate change and other related issues.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE 17 GOALS {{!}} Sustainable Development |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |access-date=2023-04-19 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> Businesses primarily focus on the return of investment of changes such as their source of energy, consumption patterns or how they transport or manufacture products. Governments confront these larger issues through regulation of natural resources, improved practices, providing subsidies and directly investing in new technologies and renewable energy sources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ba |first1=Yuhao |last2=Galik |first2=Christopher S. |date=2023-03-01 |title=Historical industrial transitions influence local sustainability planning, capability, and performance |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210422422001216 |journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions |language=en |volume=46 |pages=100690 |doi=10.1016/j.eist.2022.100690 |s2cid=255653001 |issn=2210-4224}}</ref>
=== Fashion Industry ===
[[File:Landfill face.JPG|thumb|Landfill, where a majority of discarded clothing ends up]]
The fashion sector is a major contributor to air, land, and water pollution. This industry accounts for 10% of carbon emissions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1147258468|title=Sustainability in the textile and apparel industries : consumerism and fashion sustainability|date=2020|publisher=Springer|others=Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, Miguel Ángel Gardetti|isbn=978-3-030-38532-3|location=Cham|oclc=1147258468}}</ref> In [[textile]] production, there is a high use of chemicals and water, which then find their way back into waterways.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Rafi-Ul-Shan|first1=Piyya Muhammad|last2=Grant|first2=David B.|last3=Perry|first3=Patsy|last4=Ahmed|first4=Shehzad|date=2018-05-14|title=Relationship between sustainability and risk management in fashion supply chains: A systematic literature review|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJRDM-04-2017-0092/full/html|journal=International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management|language=en|volume=46|issue=5|pages=466–486|doi=10.1108/IJRDM-04-2017-0092|issn=0959-0552}}</ref> In the US, over 85% of discarded clothes end up in landfills.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1147258468|title=Sustainability in the textile and apparel industries : consumerism and fashion sustainability|date=2020|publisher=Springer|others=Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, Miguel Ángel Gardetti|isbn=978-3-030-38532-3|location=Cham|oclc=1147258468}}</ref>
The industry's main goal is [[obsolescence]]:<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1041931248|title=Fast fashion, fashion brands and sustainable consumption|date=2019|others=Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu|isbn=978-981-13-1268-7|location=Singapore|oclc=1041931248}}</ref> new trends are constantly being put out to encourage consumption. [[Fast fashion]] has become increasingly popular, as it allows consumers to keep up with and then discard these trends at a low cost.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zamani |first1=Bahareh |last2=Sandin |first2=Gustav |last3=Peters |first3=Greg M. |date=2017-09-20 |title=Life cycle assessment of clothing libraries: can collaborative consumption reduce the environmental impact of fast fashion? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652617312982 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=162 |pages=1368–1375 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.128 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref>
Companies often [[Outsourcing|outsource]] their manufacturing to less developed countries to further reduce costs for consumers, which has led to the exploitation of workers, a complex supply chain, and pollution due to transportation.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Rafi-Ul-Shan|first1=Piyya Muhammad|last2=Grant|first2=David B.|last3=Perry|first3=Patsy|last4=Ahmed|first4=Shehzad|date=2018-05-14|title=Relationship between sustainability and risk management in fashion supply chains: A systematic literature review|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJRDM-04-2017-0092/full/html|journal=International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management|language=en|volume=46|issue=5|pages=466–486|doi=10.1108/IJRDM-04-2017-0092|issn=0959-0552}}</ref> [[Insourcing]] products to their own facilities that they can maintain a strict standard over would lessen these issues.
Textile waste can be reduced by making higher quality garments that are built to last. A general rule of thumb for fast fashion companies is a "10 wash mark", in which clothes are made to last about ten cycles through a washer and dryer.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1041931248|title=Fast fashion, fashion brands and sustainable consumption|date=2019|others=Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu|isbn=978-981-13-1268-7|location=Singapore|oclc=1041931248}}</ref> By extending the practical life of a garment, people can use their clothes for longer periods of time before having to discard them, and thus consume and waste less. Textile waste may also be reduced through [[recycling]] and [[upcycling]] textile initiatives.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956376348|title=Textiles and clothing sustainability : recycled and upcycled textiles and fashion|date=2016|others=Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu|isbn=978-981-10-2146-6|location=Singapore|oclc=956376348}}</ref>
Research and development can also be invested into more eco-friendly dyeing methods. ColorZen, for example, has developed a process of dyeing cotton using 75% less energy and 90% less water.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-06-18|title=Better way to dye|url=https://www.crainsnewyork.com/article/20180618/FEATURES/180619908/better-way-to-dye|access-date=2021-03-01|website=Crain's New York Business|language=en}}</ref>
=== Agricultural Sector ===
The agricultural sector is a major source of [[food waste]], and also contributes to air, land, and water pollution. Food waste is a major component of landfills, which are in turn a major source of [[Methane emissions|methane]] (a major global warming contributor).<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Yevich|first1=Rosemarie|last2=Logan|first2=Jennifer A.|author-link2=Jennifer Logan|date=2003|title=An assessment of biofuel use and burning of agricultural waste in the developing world|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=n/a|doi=10.1029/2002GB001952|bibcode=2003GBioC..17.1095Y|s2cid=15112465 |issn=1944-9224|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Implementing a variety of sustainability measures would allow for the redistribution of edible food that would have otherwise been wasted, the reduction of competition for limited resources, and the reduction of pollution.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last1=Yevich|first1=Rosemarie|last2=Logan|first2=Jennifer A.|date=2003|title=An assessment of biofuel use and burning of agricultural waste in the developing world|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=n/a|doi=10.1029/2002GB001952|bibcode=2003GBioC..17.1095Y|s2cid=15112465 |issn=1944-9224|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[Crop diversification]] and [[crop rotation]] are more sustainable farming practices. They allow for healthier soil, which in turn reduces the need for fertilizers, which then reduces the amount of fertilizer [[Surface runoff|runoff]]. It also helps in reducing the amount of insects and weeds, which would reduce the use of pesticides. Fertilizer runoff and pesticides both have the potential to disrupt and harm ecosystems. Having multiple crops, as opposed to [[monoculture]], reduces the potential of entire crop yields failing- particularly in a time of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roesch-McNally|first1=Gabrielle E.|last2=Arbuckle|first2=J. G.|last3=Tyndall|first3=John C.|date=2018-01-01|title=Barriers to implementing climate resilient agricultural strategies: The case of crop diversification in the U.S. Corn Belt|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378017306702|journal=Global Environmental Change|language=en|volume=48|pages=206–215|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.12.002|s2cid=158821915 |issn=0959-3780}}</ref>
[[File:Pesticide spraying in spring.jpg|thumb|Pesticides being sprayed over crops]]
Alternative forms of [[Pesticide|pesticides]] also contribute to sustainability. Birds, for example, play an important ecological role in the reduction of insect populations; using birds as a natural way of getting rid of insects could decrease the amount of pesticides used.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gale - Institution Finder|url=https://galeapps.gale.com/apps/auth?userGroupName=&origURL=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DAONE%26u%3D%26id%3DGALE%257Ca535300673%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr&prodId=AONE|access-date=2021-03-01|website=galeapps.gale.com}}</ref>
Water usage in agriculture can also be reduced, which would allow for the resource to be redistributed elsewhere. One method of this is [[drip irrigation]], in which water is delivered directly to the roots of crops. This allows for less water to be used, since less water is lost to evaporation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Laib|first1=K.|last2=Hartani|first2=T.|last3=Bouarfa|first3=S.|last4=Kuper|first4=M.|last5=Mailhol|first5=J. C.|date=2018|title=Connecting Drip Irrigation Performance to Farmers' Practices: The Case of Greenhouse Horticulture in the Algerian Sahara|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ird.2228|journal=Irrigation and Drainage|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=392–403|doi=10.1002/ird.2228|s2cid=116781424 |issn=1531-0361}}</ref>
Although some food waste is unavoidable, such as bones or peels, there is a large component of avoidable waste. This is due to issues with over purchasing, poor preparation, and inadequate storage.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal|last1=Yevich|first1=Rosemarie|last2=Logan|first2=Jennifer A.|date=2003|title=An assessment of biofuel use and burning of agricultural waste in the developing world|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=n/a|doi=10.1029/2002GB001952|bibcode=2003GBioC..17.1095Y|s2cid=15112465 |issn=1944-9224|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the US, "10.1 million tons [of food] are left unused on farms and in packing facilities each year."<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=2019-06-26|title=Food and Tech: Solutions to Recover and Redistribute Food Waste|url=https://www.nycfoodpolicy.org/food-and-tech-solutions-to-recover-redistribute-food-waste/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=NYC Food Policy Center|language=en-US}}</ref> Implementing government [[Tax deduction|tax deductions]] may provide an incentive for those in the agricultural sector to donate food that would have otherwise been wasted.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|date=2019-06-26|title=Food and Tech: Solutions to Recover and Redistribute Food Waste|url=https://www.nycfoodpolicy.org/food-and-tech-solutions-to-recover-redistribute-food-waste/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=NYC Food Policy Center|language=en-US}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
===Additional sources===
*{{cite web | url=http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/243 | title=Strategies for Finding and Building Local Support for Your Program: Collected Training Supplements and Materials from the MRC Web Seminar on Microsustainability | publisher=Mentoring Resource Center | date=2007 | access-date=January 12, 2012 | author=MacRae, Patti |author2=Garringer, Michael |display-authors=etal | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720105430/http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/243 | archive-date=July 20, 2012 }}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.skynewswire.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid=12049&keywords=sky|title=Carbon Manna Unlimited announces "The Micro Sustainability Prizes" for Innovations in Markets-based "Micro" Paradigms|publisher=Skynewswire|date=January 18, 2010|access-date=January 12, 2012}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
==External links==
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344022975_Micro-Macro_Measurements_of_Sustainability Micro-macro measurements of sustainability]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental design]] |
Natural resource management | {{Short description|Management of natural resources}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
[[File:Tongass national forest juneau img 7501.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|right|The [[Tongass National Forest]] in [[Alaska]] is managed by the [[United States Forest Service]]]]
'''Natural resource management''' ('''NRM''') is the management of [[natural resource]]s such as [[Land (economics)|land]], [[water]], [[soil]], [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s, with a particular focus on how management affects the [[quality of life]] for both present and [[future generations]] ([[stewardship]]).
Natural resource management deals with managing the way in which people and natural [[landscapes]] interact. It brings together [[natural heritage]] management, land use planning, water management, [[Conservation biology|bio-diversity conservation]], and the future sustainability of industries like [[agriculture]], [[mining]], [[tourism]], [[fisheries]] and [[forestry]]. It recognizes that people and their livelihoods rely on the health and productivity of our landscapes, and their actions as stewards of the land play a critical role in maintaining this health and productivity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Brochure%20-%20Resilient%20landscapes.pdf|title=Resilient landscapes and communities managing natural resources in New South Wales|publisher=Nrc.nsw.gov.au|access-date=27 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208173746/http://www.nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Brochure%20-%20Resilient%20landscapes.pdf|archive-date=8 February 2012}}</ref>
Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of resources and [[ecology]] and the Life-supporting capacity of those resources.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Massey University|url=http://study.massey.ac.nz/massey/students/studymassey/programme.cfm?major_code=2261&prog_code=93013|title=Bachelor of Applied Science (Natural Resource Management)|access-date=27 October 2014}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Environmental management]] is similar to natural resource management. In academic contexts, the [[Rural sociology|sociology of natural resources]] is closely related to, but distinct from, natural resource management.
==History==
[[File:Logo of the United States Bureau of Land Management.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|The [[Bureau of Land Management]] in the United States manages America's [[public land]]s, totaling approximately 264 million acres (1,070,000 km2) or one-eighth of the landmass of the country.]]
The emphasis on a sustainability can be traced back to early attempts to understand the ecological nature of [[North America]]n [[rangeland]]s in the late 19th century, and the [[Conservation movement|resource conservation]] movement of the same time.<ref>Berkeley University of California: Geography: [http://geography.berkeley.edu/programcourses/CoursePagesSP2006/Geog175Rangelands/Geog175syllabus.pdf Geog 175: Topics in the History of Natural Resource Management: Spring 2006: Rangelands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611112307/http://geography.berkeley.edu/ProgramCourses/CoursePagesSP2006/Geog175Rangelands/Geog175syllabus.pdf |date=11 June 2007 }}</ref><ref>San Francisco State University: Department of Geography: GEOG 657/ENVS 657: Natural Resource Management: Biotic Resources: [http://bss.sfsu.edu/holzman/courses/GEOG%20657/env%20history%20lecture.pdf Natural Resource Management and Environmental History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217101744/http://bss.sfsu.edu/holzman/courses/GEOG%20657/env%20history%20lecture.pdf |date=17 December 2008 }}</ref> This type of analysis coalesced in the 20th century with recognition that preservationist [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]] strategies had not been effective in halting the decline of natural resources. A more integrated approach was implemented recognising the intertwined social, cultural, economic and political aspects of resource management.<ref name="Thakadu2005">{{cite journal |last=Thakadu |first=O. T. |year=2005 |title=Success factors in community based natural resources management in northern Botswana: Lessons from practice |journal=Natural Resources Forum |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=199–212 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-8947.2005.00130.x |bibcode=2005NRF....29..199T }}</ref> A more holistic, national and even global form evolved, from the [[Brundtland Commission]] and the advocacy of [[sustainable development]].
In 2005 the government of [[New South Wales]], Australia established a ''Standard for Quality Natural Resource Management'',<ref name="ReferenceA">NSW Government 2005, Standard for Quality Natural Resource Management, NSW Natural Resources Commission, Sydney</ref> to improve the consistency of practice, based on an [[adaptive management]] approach.
In the United States, the most active areas of natural resource management are [[fisheries management]],<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Hubert |editor1-first=Wayne A. |editor2-last=Quist |editor2-first=Michael C. |title=Inland Fisheries Management in North America |date=2010 |publisher=American Fisheries Society |location=Bethesda, MD |isbn=978-1-934874-16-5 |page=736 |edition=Third}}</ref> [[wildlife management]],<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bolen |editor1-first=Eric G. |editor2-last=Robinson |editor2-first=William L. |title=Wildlife Ecology and Management |date=2002 |publisher=Pearson |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |isbn=013066250X |page=634 |edition=5th}}</ref> often associated with [[ecotourism]] and [[rangeland management]], and [[forest management]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bettinger |editor1-first=Pete |editor2-last=Boston |editor2-first=Kevin |editor3-last=Siry |editor3-first=Jacek |editor4-last=Grebner |editor4-first=Donald |title=Forest Management and Planning |date=2017 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=9780128094761 |page=362 |edition=Second}}</ref> In Australia, water sharing, such as the [[Murray Darling Basin|Murray Darling Basin Plan]] and [[catchment management]] are also significant.
==Ownership regimes==
Natural resource management approaches <ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.12.032 | title=Property Rights Regimes and Natural Resources: A Conceptual Analysis Revisited | year=2017 | last1=Sikor | first1=Thomas | last2=He | first2=Jun | last3=Lestrelin | first3=Guillaume | journal=World Development | volume=93 | pages=337–349 | doi-access=free }}</ref> can be categorised according to the kind and right of [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]], natural resources:
* State property: Ownership and control over the use of resources is in hands of the state. Individuals or groups may be able to make use of the resources, but only at the permission of the state. National forest, National parks and military reservations are some US examples.
* Private property: Any property owned by a defined individual or corporate entity. Both the benefit and duties to the resources fall to the owner(s). Private land is the most common example.
* Common property: It is a private property of a group. The group may vary in size, nature and internal structure e.g. indigenous neighbours of village. Some examples of common property are community forests.
* Non-property (open access): There is no definite owner of these properties. Each potential user has equal ability to use it as they wish. These areas are the most exploited. It is said that "Nobody's property is Everybody's property". An example is a lake fishery. [[Common land]] may exist without ownership, in which case in the UK it is vested in a local authority.
* Hybrid: Many ownership regimes governing natural resources will contain parts of more than one of the regimes described above, so natural resource managers need to consider the impact of hybrid regimes. An example of such a hybrid is native vegetation management in NSW, Australia, where legislation recognises a public interest in the preservation of native vegetation, but where most native vegetation exists on private land.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/vegetation/nvact.htm|title=Native Vegetation Act 2003|publisher=NSW Environment & Heritage |date=27 March 2014 |access-date=27 October 2014|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141027171431/http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/vegetation/nvact.htm |archive-date= 27 October 2014 }}</ref>
==Stakeholder analysis==
[[Stakeholder analysis]] originated from business management practices and has been incorporated into [[natural resource]] management in ever growing popularity. Stakeholder analysis in the context of natural resource management identifies distinctive interest groups affected in the utilisation and conservation of natural resources.<ref name="Dandy">Dandy, N. et al. (2009) "Who's in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management", ''Journal of Environmental Management'', vol. 90, pp. 1933–1949</ref>
There is no definitive definition of a stakeholder as illustrated in the table below. Especially in natural resource management as it is difficult to determine who has a stake and this will differ according to each potential stakeholder.<ref name="Billgrena">Billgrena, C., Holme, H. (2008) "Approaching reality: Comparing stakeholder analysis and cultural theory in the context of natural resource management", ''Land Use Policy'', vol. 25, pp. 550–562</ref>
'''Different approaches to who is a stakeholder:'''<ref name="Billgrena" />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Source !! Who is a stakeholder !! Kind of research
|-
| Freeman.<ref>Freeman, E.R. (1999) "The politics of stakeholder theory: some further research directions", Business Ethics Quartley, vol. 4, Issue. 4, pp. 409–421</ref>|| "can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization's objectives" || Business Management
|-
| Bowie<ref>Bowie, N. (1988) The moral obligations of multinational corporations. In: Luper-Foy (Ed.), Problems of International Justice. Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 97–113.</ref> || "without whose support the organization would cease to exist" || Business Management
|-
| Clarkson<ref>Clarkson, M.B.E. (1995) "A stakeholder framework for analyzing and evaluating corporate social performance", Academy of Management Review, vol. 20, Issue. 1, pp. 92–117</ref> || "... persons or groups that have, or claim, ownership, rights, or interests in a corporation and its activities, past, present, or future." || Business Management
|-
| Grimble and Wellard<ref name="GrimbleWellard">Grimble, R., Wellard, K. (1997) "Stakeholder methodologies in natural resource management: a review of principles, contexts, experiences and opportunities". Agricultural Systems, vol. 55, Issue. 2, pp. 173–193</ref> || "...any group of people, organized or unorganized, who share a common interest or stake in a particular issue or system..." || Natural resource management
|-
| Gass et al.<ref>Gass, G., Biggs, S., Kelly, A. (1997) "Stakeholders, science and decision making for poverty-focused rural mechanization research and development", World Development, vol. 25, Issue. 1, pp. 115–126</ref> || "... any individual, group and institution who would potentially be affected, whether positively or negatively, by a specified event, process or change." || Natural resource management
|-
| Buanes et al<ref>Buanes, A., et al. (2004) "In whose interest? An exploratory analysis of stakeholders in Norwegian coastal zone planning", Ocean & Coastal Management, vol. 47, pp. 207–223</ref> || "... any group or individual who may directly or indirectly affect—or be affected—...planning to be at least potential stakeholders." || Natural resource management
|-
| Brugha and Varvasovszky<ref>{{cite journal|title=Stakeholder analysis: a review|first1=Ruairí|last1=Brugha|first2=Zsuzsa|last2=Varvasovszky|journal=Health Policy and Planning|volume=15|issue=3|date=September 2000|pages=239–246|doi= 10.1093/heapol/15.3.239|pmid=11012397|doi-access=free}}</ref> || "... stakeholders (individuals, groups and organizations) who have an interest (stake) and the potential to influence the actions and aims of an organization, project or policy direction." || Health policy
|-
| ODA<ref>{{cite web|author=ODA|date=July 1995|title=Guidance note on how to do stakeholder analysis of aid projects and programmes|publisher=Overseas Development Administration, Social Development Department|access-date=2020-04-29|url= https://sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/ODA%201995%20Guidance%20Note%20on%20how%20to%20do%20a%20Stakeholder%20Analysis.pdf}}</ref> || "... persons, groups or institutions with interests in a project or programme." || Development
|}
Therefore, it is dependent upon the circumstances of the stakeholders involved with natural resource as to which definition and subsequent theory is utilised.
Billgrena and Holme<ref name="Billgrena" /> identified the aims of stakeholder analysis in natural resource management:
*Identify and categorise the stakeholders that may have influence
*Develop an understanding of why changes occur
*Establish who can make changes happen
*How to best manage natural resources
This gives transparency and clarity to policy making allowing stakeholders to recognise conflicts of interest and facilitate resolutions.<ref name="Billgrena" /><ref name="Grimble">{{cite book|author=Grimble, R|date=1998|title=Stakeholder methodologies in natural resource management, Socioeconomic Methodologies|publisher=Chatham: Natural Resources Institute|pages=1–12|url=http://www.nri.org/old/publications/bpg/bpg02.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014}}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
There are numerous stakeholder theories such as Mitchell et al.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mitchell, R. K.|date=1997|title=TOWARD A THEORY OF STAKEHOLDER IDENTIFICATION AND SALIENCE: DEFINING THE PRINCIPLE OF WHO AND WHAT REALLY COUNTS|publisher=Academy of Management Review|volume=22|number=4|pages=853–886|display-authors=etal}}</ref> however Grimble<ref name="Grimble" /> created a framework of stages for a Stakeholder Analysis in natural resource management. Grimble<ref name="Grimble" /> designed this framework to ensure that the analysis is specific to the essential aspects of natural resource management.
'''Stages in Stakeholder analysis:'''<ref name="Grimble" />
# Clarify objectives of the analysis
# Place issues in a systems context
# Identify decision-makers and stakeholders
# Investigate stakeholder interests and agendas
# Investigate patterns of inter-action and dependence (e.g. conflicts and compatibilities, trade-offs and synergies)
'''Application:'''
Grimble and Wellard<ref name="GrimbleWellard" /> established that Stakeholder analysis in natural resource management is most relevant where issued can be characterised as;
* Cross-cutting systems and stakeholder interests
* Multiple uses and users of the resource.
* [[Market failure]]
* Subtractability and temporal trade-offs
* Unclear or [[open-access]] [[property rights]]
* Untraded products and services
* [[Poverty]] and under-representation<ref name="GrimbleWellard" /><ref name="Grimble" />
'''Case studies:'''
In the case of the [[Bwindi Impenetrable National Park]], a comprehensive stakeholder analysis would have been relevant and the Batwa people would have potentially been acknowledged as stakeholders preventing the loss of people's livelihoods and loss of life.<ref name="GrimbleWellard" /><ref name="Grimble" />
[[File:Natural Resource Management in Wales - 5 May 2015.webm|thumb|Short video on Natural Resource Management in Wales by the [[Welsh Government]]]]
In [[Wales]], [[Natural Resources Wales]], a [[Welsh Government]] sponsored body "pursues sustainable management of natural resources" and "applies the principles of sustainable management of natural resources" as stated in the Environment (Wales) Act 2016.<ref name=EnvironmentActSection5>{{cite web
|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/anaw/2016/3/section/5/enacted
|title=Environment (Wales) Act 2016. Part 1, Section 5
|publisher=The National Archives
|access-date=24 August 2017}}</ref>
NRW is responsible for more than 40 different types of regulatory regime across a wide range of activities.
Nepal, Indonesia and Koreas' [[community forestry#5Best Practices|community forestry]] are successful examples of how stakeholder analysis can be incorporated into the management of natural resources. This allowed the stakeholders to identify their needs and level of involvement with the forests.
'''Criticisms:'''
* Natural resource management stakeholder analysis tends to include too many stakeholders which can create problems in of its self as suggested by Clarkson. "Stakeholder theory should not be used to weave a basket big enough to hold the world's misery."<ref>Clarkson, M.B.E. (1994) A risk based model of stakeholder theory. Toronto: Working Paper, University of Toronto, pp.10</ref>
* Starik<ref>Starik, M. (1995) "Should trees have managerial standing? Toward stakeholder status for non-human nature", ''Journal of Business Ethics'', vol. 14, pp. 207–217</ref> proposed that nature needs to be represented as stakeholder. However this has been rejected by many scholars as it would be difficult to find appropriate representation and this representation could also be disputed by other stakeholders causing further issues.<ref name="Billgrena" />
* Stakeholder analysis can be used exploited and abused in order to marginalise other stakeholders.<ref name="Dandy" />
* Identifying the relevant stakeholders for participatory processes is complex as certain stakeholder groups may have been excluded from previous decisions.<ref name="Prell">Prell, C., et al. (2007) Stakeholder Analysis and Social Network Analysis in Natural Resource Management. Leeds: Sustainability Research Institute, University of Leeds, pp. 1-21</ref>
* On-going conflicts and lack of trust between stakeholders can prevent compromise and resolutions.<ref name="Prell" />
'''Alternatives/ Complementary forms of analysis:'''
* [[Social network analysis]]
* [[Common pool resource]]
==Management of the resources==
Natural resource management issues are inherently complex and contentious. First, they involve the ecological cycles, hydrological cycles, climate, animals, plants and geography, etc. All these are dynamic and inter-related. A change in one of them may have far reaching and/or long term impacts which may even be irreversible. Second, in addition to the complexity of the natural systems, managers also have to consider various stakeholders and their interests, policies, politics, geographical boundaries and economic implications. It is impossible to fully satisfy all aspects at the same time. Therefore, between the scientific complexity and the diverse stakeholders, natural resource management is typically contentious.
After the United Nations Conference for the Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/rio1992 | title=United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3-14 June 1992 }}</ref> most nations subscribed to new principles for the integrated management of land, water, and forests. Although program names vary from nation to nation, all express similar aims.
The various approaches applied to natural resource management include:
* Top-down (command and control)
* Community-based natural resource management
* [[Adaptive management]]
* Precautionary approach
* Integrated natural resource management
* [[Ecosystem management]]
=== Community-based natural resource management ===
The '''community-based natural resource management''' ('''CBNRM''') approach combines conservation objectives with the generation of economic benefits for rural communities. The three key assumptions being that: locals are better placed to conserve natural resources, people will conserve a resource only if benefits exceed the costs of conservation, and people will conserve a resource that is linked directly to their quality of life.<ref name="Thakadu2005" /> When a local people's quality of life is enhanced, their efforts and commitment to ensure the future well-being of the resource are also enhanced.<ref>Ostrom, E, Schroeder, L and Wynne, S 1993. Institutional incentives and sustainable development: infrastructure policies in perspective. Westview Press. Oxford, UK. 266 pp.</ref> Regional and community based natural resource management is also based on the principle of [[subsidiarity]].
The United Nations advocates CBNRM in the Convention on Biodiversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification. Unless clearly defined, decentralised NRM can result in an ambiguous socio-legal environment with local communities racing to exploit natural resources while they can, such as the forest communities in central Kalimantan (Indonesia).<ref>Bartley, T Andersson, K, Jager P and Van Laerhoven 2008 The contribution of Institutional Theories for explaining [[Decentralization]] of Natural Resource Governance. Society and Natural Resources, 21:160-174 {{doi|10.1080/08941920701617973}}</ref>
A problem of CBNRM is the difficulty of reconciling and harmonising the objectives of socioeconomic development, biodiversity protection and sustainable resource utilisation.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kellert, S|author2=Mehta, J|author3=Ebbin, S|author4=Litchtenfeld, L.|date=2000|title=Community natural resource management: promise, rhetoric, and reality|publisher=Society and Natural Resources, 13:705-715|url=http://biologicalcapital.com/art/Article-%20Community%20Natural%20Resource%20Management.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014}}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The concept and conflicting interests of CBNRM,<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Brosius, J.|author2=Peter Tsing|author3=Anna Lowenhaupt|author4=Zerner, Charles|date=1998 |title=Representing communities: Histories and politics of community-based natural resource management |journal=Society & Natural Resources|volume=11 |issue=2|pages=157–168|doi=10.1080/08941929809381069|bibcode=1998SNatR..11..157B }}</ref><ref>Twyman, C 2000. Participatory Conservation? Community-based Natural Resource Management in Botswana. The Geographical Journal, Vol 166, No.4, December 2000, pp 323-335 {{doi|10.1111/j.1475-4959.2000.tb00034.x}}</ref> show how the motives behind the participation are differentiated as either people-centred (active or participatory results that are truly empowering)<ref>Measham TG (2007) Building capacity for environmental management: local knowledge and rehabilitation on the Gippsland red gum plains, ''[[Australian Geographer]]'', Vol 38 issue 2, pp 145–159 {{doi|10.1080/00049180701392758}}</ref> or planner-centred (nominal and results in passive recipients). Understanding power relations is crucial to the success of community based NRM. Locals may be reluctant to challenge government recommendations for fear of losing promised benefits.
CBNRM is based particularly on advocacy by nongovernmental organizations working with local groups and communities, on the one hand, and national and transnational organizations, on the other, to build and extend new versions of environmental and social advocacy that link social justice and environmental management agendas<ref>{{cite book|author1=Shackleton, S|author2=Campbell, B|author3=Wollenberg, E|author4=Edmunds, D.|date=March 2002|title=Devolution and community-based natural resource management: creating space for local people to participate and benefit? |publisher=ODI, Natural Resource Perspectives|number=76|url=http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/3646/76-devolution-community-based-natural-resource-management.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014}}</ref> with both direct and indirect benefits observed including a share of revenues, employment, diversification of livelihoods and increased pride and identity. Ecological and societal successes and failures of CBNRM projects have been documented.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=Jeremy S.|last2=Waylen|first2=Kerry A.|last3=Mulder|first3=Monique Borgerhoff|date=2012-12-26|title=How national context, project design, and local community characteristics influence success in community-based conservation projects|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=109|issue=52|pages=21265–21270|doi=10.1073/pnas.1207141110|issn=0027-8424|pmid=23236173|pmc=3535631|bibcode=2012PNAS..10921265B|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Derek E.|last2=Bond|first2=Monica L.|title=Quantifying the ecological success of a community-based wildlife conservation area in Tanzania|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=99|issue=2|pages=459–464|language=en|doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyy014|pmid=29867255|date=2018-04-03|pmc=5965405}}</ref> CBNRM has raised new challenges, as concepts of community, territory, conservation, and indigenous are worked into politically varied plans and programs in disparate sites. Warner and Jones<ref>{{cite book|author1=Warner, M|author2=Jones, P|date=July 1998|title=Assessing the need to manage conflict in community-based natural resource projects|publisher=ODI Natural Resource Perspectives|number=35|url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2117.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014|archive-date=5 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205024159/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2117.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> address strategies for effectively managing conflict in CBNRM.
The capacity of [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous]] communities, led by [[Indigenous Australian traditional custodianship|traditional custodians]], to conserve natural resources has been acknowledged by the Australian Government with the [[Caring for Country]]<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Australian Government|title=Caring for Country Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|url=http://www.nrm.gov.au/nrm/index.html|access-date=27 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928132125/http://www.nrm.gov.au/nrm/index.html|archive-date=28 September 2011}}</ref> Program. Caring for our Country is an Australian Government initiative jointly administered by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry and the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. These Departments share responsibility for delivery of the Australian Government's environment and sustainable agriculture programs, which have traditionally been broadly referred to under the banner of 'natural resource management'. These programs have been delivered regionally, through 56 State government bodies, successfully allowing regional communities to decide the natural resource priorities for their regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/2010%20Progress%20report.pdf|title=PROGRESS TOWARDS HEALTHY RESILIENT LANDSCAPES IMPLEMENTING THE STANDARD, TARGETS AND CATCHMENT ACTION PLANS|publisher=Nrc.nsw.gov.au|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217095859/http://nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/2010%20Progress%20report.pdf|archive-date=17 February 2011|url-status=dead|access-date=27 October 2014}}</ref>
More broadly, a research study based in Tanzania and the Pacific researched what motivates communities to adopt CBNRM's and found that aspects of the specific CBNRM program, of the community that has adopted the program, and of the broader social-ecological context together shape the why CBNRM's are adopted.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Mascia|first1=Michael B.|last2=Mills|first2=Morena|title=When conservation goes viral: The diffusion of innovative biodiversity conservation policies and practices|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=11|issue=3|language=en|doi=10.1111/conl.12442|issn=1755-263X|year=2018|pages=e12442|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018ConL...11E2442M |hdl=10044/1/76315|hdl-access=free}}</ref> However, overall, program adoption seemed to mirror the relative advantage of CBNRM programs to local villagers and villager access to external technical assistance.<ref name=":0" /> There have been socioeconomic critiques of CBNRM in Africa,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bluwstein|first1=Jevgeniy|last2=Moyo|first2=Francis|last3=Kicheleri|first3=Rose Peter|date=2016-07-01|title=Austere Conservation: Understanding Conflicts over Resource Governance in Tanzanian Wildlife Management Areas|url=http://www.conservationandsociety.org/article.asp?issn=0972-4923;year=2016;volume=14;issue=3;spage=218;epage=231;aulast=Bluwstein|journal=Conservation and Society|language=en|volume=14|issue=3|page=218|doi=10.4103/0972-4923.191156|doi-access=free}}</ref> but ecological effectiveness of CBNRM measured by wildlife population densities has been shown repeatedly in Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Derek E.|date=2018-08-10|title=Evaluating conservation effectiveness in a Tanzanian community wildlife management area|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=82|issue=8|pages=1767–1774|language=en|doi=10.1002/jwmg.21549|bibcode=2018JWMan..82.1767L |s2cid=91251633|issn=0022-541X|url=https://scholarsphere.psu.edu/resources/1910e1d7-35d1-4ae3-ae78-48c5c58f99aa }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Derek E|last2=Bond|first2=Monica L|date=2018-02-26|title=Quantifying the ecological success of a community-based wildlife conservation area in Tanzania|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|language=en|volume=99|issue=2|pages=459–464|doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyy014|pmid=29867255|issn=0022-2372|pmc=5965405}}</ref>
Governance is seen as a key consideration for delivering community-based or regional natural resource management. In the State of NSW, the 13 [[Catchment Management Authority (New South Wales)|catchment management authorities]] (CMAs) are overseen by the [http://nrc.nsw.gov.au/ Natural Resources Commission] (NRC), responsible for undertaking audits of the effectiveness of regional natural resource management programs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/viewtop/inforce/act+102+2003+cd+0+N/?autoquery=%28Content%3D%28%28%22natural%22%20OR%20%22resources%22%20OR%20%22commission%22%29%29%29%20AND%20%28%28Type%3D%22act%22%20AND%20Repealed%3D%22N%22%29%20OR%20%28Type%3D%22subordleg%22%20AND%20Repealed%3D%22N%22%29%29&dq=Document%20Types%3D%22Acts,%20Regs%22,%20Any%20Words%3D%22natural%20resources%20commission%22,%20Search%20In%3D%22Text%22&fullquery=%28%28%28%22natural%22%20OR%20%22resources%22%20OR%20%22commission%22%29%29%29|title=NSW Legislation|publisher=Legislation.nsw.gov.au|access-date=27 October 2014}}</ref>
==== Criticisms of Community-Based Natural Resource Management ====
Though presenting a transformative approach to resource management that recognizes and involves local communities rather than displacing them, Community-Based Natural Resource Management strategies have faced scrutiny from both scholars and advocates for indigenous communities. Tania Murray, in her examination of CBNRM in Upland Southeast Asia,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Murray |first=Tania |date=2002 |title=Engaging Simplifications: Community-Based Resource Management, Market Processes and State Agendas in Upland Southeast Asia |journal=World Development |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=265–283|doi=10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00103-6 |hdl=1807/67588 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> discovered certain limitations associated with the strategy, primarily stemming from her observation of an idealistic perspective of the communities held by external entities implementing CBNRM programs.
Murray's findings revealed that, in the Uplands, CBNRM as a legal strategy imposed constraints on the communities. One significant limitation was the necessity for communities to fulfill discriminatory and enforceable prerequisites in order to obtain legal entitlements to resources. Murray contends that such legal practices, grounded in specific distinguishing identities or practices, pose a risk of perpetuating and strengthening discriminatory norms in the region.<ref name=":1" />
Furthermore, adopting a Marxist perspective centered on class struggle, some have criticized CBNRM as an empowerment tool, asserting that its focus on state-community alliances may limit its effectiveness, particularly for communities facing challenges from "vicious states," thereby restricting the empowerment potential of the programs.<ref name=":1" />
=== Gender-based natural resource management ===
Social capital and gender are factors that impact community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), including conservation strategies and collaborations between community members and staff. Through three months of participant observation in a fishing camp in San Evaristo, Mexico, Ben Siegelman learned that the fishermen build trust through jokes and fabrications. He emphasizes social capital as a process because it is built and accumulated through practice of intricate social norms. Siegelman notes that playful joking is connected to masculinity and often excludes women. He stresses that both gender and social capital are performed. Furthermore, in San Evaristo, the gendered network of fishermen is simultaneously a social network. Nearly all fishermen in San Evaristo are men and most families have lived there for generations. Men form intimate relationships by spending 14 hour work days together, while women spend time with the family managing domestic caretaking. Siegelman observes three categories of lies amongst the fishermen: exaggerations, deceptions, and jokes. For example a fisherman may exaggerate his success fishing at a particular spot to mislead friends, place his hand on the scale to turn a larger profit, or make a sexual joke to earn respect. As Siegelman puts it, "lies build trust." Siegelman saw that this division of labor was reproduced, at least in part, to do with the fact that the culture of lying and trust was a masculine activity unique to the fisherman. Similar to the ways in which the culture of lying excluded women from the social sphere of fishing, conservationists were also excluded from this social arrangement and, thus, were not able to obtain the trust needed to do their work of regulating fishing practices. As outsiders, conservationists, even male conservationists, were not able to fit the ideal of masculinity that was considered "trustable" by the fishermen and could convince them to implement or participate in conservation practices. In one instance, the researcher replied jokingly "in the sea" when a fisherman asked where the others were fishing that day. This vague response earned him trust. Women are excluded from this form of social capital because many of the jokes center around "masculine exploits". Siegelman finishes by asking: how can female conservationists act when they are excluded through social capital? What role should men play in this situation?<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegelman|first=Ben |display-authors=etal|date=2019|title="Lies Build Trust": Social capital, masculinity, and community-based resource management in a Mexican fishery.|journal=World Development |volume=123 |page=104601 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.05.031 |s2cid=198667036 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Adaptive Management===
The primary methodological approach adopted by [[Catchment Management Authority (New South Wales)|catchment management authorities]] (CMAs) for regional natural resource management in Australia is [[adaptive management]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
This approach includes recognition that adaption occurs through a process of 'plan-do-review-act'. It also recognises seven key components that should be considered for quality natural resource management practice:
* Determination of scale
* Collection and use of knowledge
* [[Information management]]
* Monitoring and evaluation
* [[Risk management]]
* [[Community engagement]]
* Opportunities for [[collaboration]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
=== Integrated natural resource management ===
Integrated natural resource management (INRM) is the process of managing natural resources in a systematic way, which includes multiple aspects of natural resource use (biophysical, socio-political, and economic) meet production goals of producers and other direct users (e.g., food security, profitability, risk aversion) as well as goals of the wider community (e.g., poverty alleviation, welfare of future generations, environmental conservation). It focuses on sustainability and at the same time tries to incorporate all possible stakeholders from the planning level itself, reducing possible future conflicts. The conceptual basis of INRM has evolved in recent years through the convergence of research in diverse areas such as sustainable land use, participatory planning, integrated watershed management, and adaptive management.<ref name="Conservation Ecology 52: 25">{{cite journal|author1=Lovell, C.|author2=Mandondo A.|author3=Moriarty P.|date=2002|title=The question of scale in integrated natural resource management|journal=Conservation Ecology|volume=5|issue=2|doi=10.5751/ES-00347-050225|hdl=10535/2766|s2cid=38897019 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Holling C.S pages 328">Holling C.S. and Meffe, G. K. 2002 'Command and control and the Pathology of Natural Resource Management. Conservation Biology. vol.10. issue 2. pages 328–337, April 1996</ref> INRM is being used extensively and been successful in regional and community based natural management.<ref name="ReferenceB">ICARDA 2005, Sustainable agricultural development for marginal dry areas, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syria</ref>
==Frameworks and modelling==
There are various frameworks and computer models developed to assist natural resource management.
'''Geographic Information Systems (GIS)'''
[[GIS]] is a powerful analytical tool as it is capable of overlaying datasets to identify links. A bush regeneration scheme can be informed by the overlay of rainfall, cleared land and erosion.<ref>Harding R., 1998, Environmental Decision-Making: The Role of Scientists, Engineers and the Public, Federation Press, Leichhardt. pp366.</ref> In Australia, Metadata Directories such as NDAR provide data on Australian natural resources such as vegetation, fisheries, soils and water.<ref>Hamilton, C and Attwater, R (1996) Usage of, and demand for Environmental Statistics in Australia, in Tracking Progress: Linking Environment and Economy Through Indicators and Accounting Systems Conference Papers, 1996 Australian Academy of Science Fenner Conference on the Environment, Institute of Environmental Studies, UNSW, Sydney, 30 September to 3 October 1996.</ref> These are limited by the potential for subjective input and data manipulation.
'''Natural Resources Management Audit Frameworks'''
The NSW Government in Australia has published an audit framework<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Audit%20framework.pdf|title=Framework for Auditing the Implementation of Catchment Action Plans|publisher=Nrc.nsw.gov.au|access-date=27 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140621122515/http://www.nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Audit%20framework.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2014}}</ref> for natural resource management, to assist the establishment of a performance audit role in the governance of regional natural resource management. This audit framework builds from other established audit methodologies, including [[performance audit]], [[environmental audit]] and [[internal audit]]. Audits undertaken using this framework have provided confidence to stakeholders, identified areas for improvement and described policy expectations for the general public.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Audit%20report%20-%20Murray%202010.pdf|title=MURRAY CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY : Audit Report|publisher=Nrc.nsw.gov.au|access-date=27 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140621120858/http://www.nrc.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/Audit%20report%20-%20Murray%202010.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://riskaudit.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Nature-audit-NZ-Accountants-Journal-March-2010.pdf|title=Nature Audit|publisher=Nrc.nsw.gov.au|access-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227085948/http://riskaudit.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Nature-audit-NZ-Accountants-Journal-March-2010.pdf|archive-date=27 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The Australian Government has established a framework for auditing [[greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse emissions]] and energy reporting, which closely follows Australian Standards for Assurance Engagements.
The Australian Government is also currently preparing an audit framework for auditing water management, focussing on the implementation of the Murray Darling Basin Plan.
==Other elements==
;Biodiversity Conservation
The issue of biodiversity conservation is regarded as an important element in natural resource management. What is biodiversity? Biodiversity is a comprehensive concept, which is a description of the extent of natural diversity. Gaston and Spicer<ref>Gaston, KJ & Spicer, JI 2004, Biodiversity: An Introduction, Blackwell Publishing Company, Malden.</ref> (p. 3) point out that biodiversity is "the variety of life" and relate to different kinds of "biodiversity organization". According to Gray<ref>{{cite book|author=Gray, JS|date=1997|title=Marine biodiversity: patterns, threats and conservation needs|url=http://bolt.lakeheadu.ca/~bpaynewww/CMR/marinebiod.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721172744/http://bolt.lakeheadu.ca/~bpaynewww/CMR/marinebiod.pdf|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> (p. 154), the first widespread use of the definition of biodiversity, was put forward by the United Nations in 1992, involving different aspects of biological diversity.
;Precautionary Biodiversity Management
The "threats" wreaking havoc on biodiversity include; [[habitat fragmentation]], putting a strain on the already stretched biological resources; forest deterioration and deforestation; the invasion of "alien species" and "climate change"<ref>{{cite book|author=Cooney, R|date=2004|title=The Precautionary Principle in Biodiversity Conservation and Natural Resource Management|publisher=IUCN Policy and Global Change Series|number=2|url=http://pprinciple.net/publications/PrecautionaryPrincipleissuespaper.pdf|access-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509063720/http://www.pprinciple.net/publications/PrecautionaryPrincipleissuespaper.pdf|archive-date=9 May 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>( p. 2). Since these threats have received increasing attention from environmentalists and the public, the precautionary management of biodiversity becomes an important part of natural resources management. According to Cooney, there are material measures to carry out precautionary management of biodiversity in natural resource management.
;Concrete "policy tools"
Cooney claims that the policy making is dependent on "evidences", relating to "high standard of proof", the forbidding of special "activities" and "information and monitoring requirements". Before making the policy of precaution, categorical evidence is needed. When the potential menace of "activities" is regarded as a critical and "irreversible" endangerment, these "activities" should be forbidden. For example, since explosives and toxicants will have serious consequences to endanger human and natural environment, the South Africa Marine Living Resources Act promulgated a series of policies on completely forbidding to "catch fish" by using explosives and toxicants.
;Administration and guidelines
According to Cooney, there are four methods to manage the precaution of biodiversity in natural resources management;
# "[[Ecosystem-based management]]" including "more risk-averse and precautionary management", where "given prevailing uncertainty regarding ecosystem structure, function, and inter-specific interactions, precaution demands an ecosystem rather than single-species approach to management".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lackey|first1=Robert|title=Seven pillars of ecosystem management|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning|date=1998|volume=40|issue=1–3|pages=21–30|doi=10.1016/S0169-2046(97)00095-9|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1259923}}</ref>
# "[[Adaptive management]]" is "a management approach that expressly tackles the uncertainty and dynamism of complex systems".
# "[[Environmental impact assessment]]" and exposure ratings decrease the "uncertainties" of precaution, even though it has deficiencies, and
# "Protectionist approaches", which "most frequently links to" biodiversity conservation in natural resources management.
;Land management
In order to have a sustainable environment, understanding and using appropriate management strategies is important. In terms of understanding, Young<ref>Young, A 1998, Land resources: now and for the future, Cambridge University Press, UK</ref> emphasises some important points of land management:
* Comprehending the processes of nature including ecosystem, water, soils
* Using appropriate and adapting management systems in local situations
* Cooperation between scientists who have knowledge and resources and local people who have knowledge and skills
Dale et al. (2000)<ref>Dale, VH, Brown, S, Hawuber, RA, Hobbs, NT, Huntly, Nj Naiman, RJ, Riebsame, WE, Turner, MG & Valone, TJ 2000, "Ecological guidelines for land use and management", in Dale, VH & Hawuber, RA (eds), Applying ecological principles to land management, Springer-Verlag, NY</ref> study has shown that there are five fundamental and helpful ecological principles for the land manager and people who need them. The ecological principles relate to time, place, species, disturbance and the landscape and they interact in many ways. It is suggested that land managers could follow these guidelines:
* Examine impacts of local decisions in a regional context, and the effects on natural resources.
* Plan for long-term change and unexpected events.
* Preserve rare landscape elements and associated species.
* Avoid land uses that deplete natural resources.
* Retain large contiguous or connected areas that contain critical habitats.
* Minimize the introduction and spread of non-native species.
* Avoid or compensate for the effects of development on ecological processes.
* Implement land-use and land-management practices that are compatible with the natural potential of the area.
==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|
* [[Agriculture]]
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Bioregion]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation movement]]
* [[Conservation reliant species]]
* [[Cultural resource management]]
* [[Deep ecology]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Ecosystem management]]
* [[Ecology movement]]
* [[Ecosystem]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Environmental organizations]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Environmental resources management]]
* [[Forestry]]
* [[Global warming]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[Holistic management]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[Natural capital]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Natural heritage]]
* [[Natural resource]]
* [[Nature]]
* [[Recycling]]
* [[Renewable energy]]
* [[Renewable resource]]
* [[Stewardship]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Sustainable management]]
}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Environmental science}}
{{Environmental social science}}
{{Natural resources}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Natural Resource Management}}
[[Category:Natural resource management| ]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental planning]] |
Substitution principle (sustainability) | {{Update|date=August 2023}}
The '''substitution principle''' in [[sustainability]] is the maxim of how processes, services, and products should be replaced with alternatives that result in a lower environmental impact. An example of a strong, hazard-based interpretation of the substitution principle in application regarding [[chemical]]s considers the overall impact: "hazardous chemicals should be substituted by less hazardous alternatives or preferably alternatives that mitigates identifiable hazards impacts".<ref>Greenpeace, (2003, 2005). Safer Chemicals Within Reach: Using the Substitution Principle to drive Green Chemistry. London. p.7 [http://www.cleanproduction.org/library/SafeChem.pdf (PDF)]</ref>
==Overview==
The principle has historically been promoted by [[environmental group]]s. This concept is becoming increasingly mainstream, being a key concept in [[green chemistry]] and a central element of EU [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals|REACH]] regulation.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/reach/reach_intro.htm European Commission website on REACH]</ref> Critics of the principle claim it is very difficult to implement in reality, especially in terms of [[legislation]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}
Nonetheless, the concept is an important one and a key driver behind identifying "Substances of Very High Concern" in REACH and the development of hazardous substance lists such as the [http://www.sinlist.org/ SIN List] and the [http://www.etuc.org/a/6023 ETUC Trade Union Priority List]. EU-funded projects such as SubsPort are under development to aid the identification and development of safer substitutes for hazardous chemicals.<ref>Lissner L, Romano D. Substitution for Hazardous Chemicals on an International Level-The Approach of the European Project "SUBSPORT". New Solut. 2011 Jan 1;21(3):477-97. PubMed {{PMID|22001043}}.</ref>
==See also==
* [[100,000,000 Guinea Pigs]]
* [[Dashboard of Sustainability]]
==References==
<references/>
==External links==
*[https://www.emission-index.com/ Sustainability Data]
*[https://www.cuttingthecarbon.co.uk/ Cutting The Carbon]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Substitution Principle (Sustainability)}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
{{Sustainability-stub}} |
Sustainability and environmental management | {{short description|Managing nature and resources according to sustainability principles}}
{{Main|Sustainability}}
At the global scale '''sustainability and environmental management''' involves managing the [[ocean]]s, [[freshwater]] systems, [[Terrestrial ecoregion|land]] and [[atmosphere]], according to [[sustainability]] principles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economics.noaa.gov/?goal=ecosystems&file=users/|title=The Economics and Social Benefits of NOAA Ecosystems Data and Products Table of Contents Data Users|publisher=NOAA|access-date=2009-10-13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325190416/http://www.economics.noaa.gov/?goal=ecosystems|archive-date=2010-03-25}}</ref><ref>Buchenrieder, G., und A.R. Göltenboth: Sustainable freshwater resource management in the Tropics: The myth of effective indicators, 25th International Conference of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) on “Reshaping Agriculture’s Contributions to Society” in Durban, South Africa, 2003.</ref>
[[Land use]] change is fundamental to the operations of the [[biosphere]] because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to [[urbanisation]], [[agriculture]], [[forest]], [[woodland]], [[grassland]] and [[pasture]] have a marked effect on the global water, carbon and nitrogen [[biogeochemical cycle]]s.<ref name="Krebs 2001 pp. 560–582">Krebs (2001) pp. 560–582.</ref> Management of the [[Earth's atmosphere]] involves assessment of all aspects of the [[carbon cycle]] to identify opportunities to address human-induced [[climate change]] and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on [[biodiversity]] and human communities. [[Ocean circulation]] patterns have a strong influence on [[climate]] and [[weather]] and, in turn, the [[food supply]] of both humans and other organisms.
==Atmosphere==
{{See|Earth's atmosphere|Climate change|}}
In March 2009, at a meeting of the [[Copenhagen Climate Council]], 2,500 climate experts from 80 countries issued a keynote statement that there is now "no excuse" for failing to act on global warming and without strong carbon reduction targets "abrupt or irreversible" shifts in climate may occur that "will be very difficult for contemporary societies to cope with".<ref>University of Copenhagen (March 2009) [http://climatecongress.ku.dk/newsroom/congress_key_messages/ "Key Messages from the Congress"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316181631/http://climatecongress.ku.dk/newsroom/congress_key_messages/ |date=2009-03-16 }} News item on Copenhagen Climate Congress in March 2009. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref><ref>Adams, D. (March 2009) [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/mar/13/stern-attacks-politicians-climate-change "Stern attacks politicians over climate 'devastation'".] ''The Guardian''. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref> Management of the global atmosphere now involves assessment of all aspects of the [[carbon cycle]] to identify opportunities to address human-induced [[climate change]] and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities.
Other human impacts on the atmosphere include the [[air pollution]] in cities, the [[pollutants]] including toxic chemicals like [[nitrogen oxides]], [[Sulfur oxide|sulphur oxides]], [[volatile organic compounds]] and [[Atmospheric particulate matter|airborne particulate matter]] that produce [[photochemical smog]] and [[acid rain]], and the [[chlorofluorocarbon]]s that degrade the [[ozone layer]]. [[human impact on the environment|Anthropogenic]] [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulates]] such as [[sulfate aerosols]] in the atmosphere reduce the direct [[irradiance]] and reflectance ([[albedo]]) of the [[Earth]]'s surface. Known as [[global dimming]] the decrease is estimated to have been about 4% between 1960 and 1990 although the trend has subsequently reversed. Global dimming may have disturbed the global [[water cycle]] by reducing evaporation and rainfall in some areas. It also creates a [[Thermal energy|cooling]] effect and this may have partially masked the effect of [[greenhouse gases]] on [[global warming]].<ref>Hegerl, G.C. et al. (2007). "Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis." [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter9.pdf Chapter 9, "Understanding and Attributing Climate Change."] Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. p. 676. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Full report at: [http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg1.htm] IPCC Report. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref>
==Oceans==
{{See|Coastal management|Overfishing|}}
[[File:Pieni 2 0139.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Display of about ten well-known saltwater fish|A selection of the world's saltwater fish]] [[Ocean]] circulation patterns have a strong influence on [[climate]] and [[weather]] and, in turn, the food supply of both humans and other organisms. Scientists have warned of the possibility, under the influence of climate change, of a sudden alteration in circulation patterns of [[ocean current]]s that could drastically alter the climate in some regions of the globe.<ref>Kerr, R.A. (2004). "A slowing cog in the North Atlantic ocean's climate machine." ''Science'' '''304''': 371–372.[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/304/5669/371a] Retrieved on: 2009-04-19.</ref> Major human environmental impacts occur in the more habitable regions of the ocean fringes – the [[estuaries]], [[coastline]] and [[bay]]s. Eight point five of the world's population – about 600 million people – live in low-lying areas vulnerable to [[sea level rise]]. Trends of concern that require management include: [[over-fishing]] (beyond sustainable levels);<ref>Black, R. (November 2006). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6108414.stm "'Only 50 years left' for sea fish".] BBC News, UK.</ref> [[coral bleaching]] due to [[ocean warming]], and [[ocean acidification]] due to increasing levels of dissolved carbon dioxide;<ref>Harrabin, R. (March 2009). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7936137.stm "'Coral lab' offers acidity insight".] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref> and sea level rise due to climate change. Because of their vastness oceans also act as a convenient [[Marine pollution|dumping ground]] for human waste.<ref>Schukman, D. (March 2009). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7935159.stm "Sea rise 'to exceed expectations'".] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref> Remedial strategies include: more careful waste management, statutory control of overfishing by adoption of [[sustainable fishing]] practices and the use of environmentally sensitive and sustainable [[aquaculture]] and [[fish farming]], reduction of fossil fuel emissions and restoration of coastal and other marine habitats.<ref>Lindenmayer & Burgman (2005).</ref>
==Freshwater==
{{See|Water security|Water scarcity}}
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the [[ocean]]s and only 2.5% [[freshwater]], most of which is locked up in the [[Antarctic ice sheet]]. The remaining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply.<ref name="Atlas">Clarke & King (2006) pp. 20–21.</ref> Awareness of the global importance of preserving [[water]] for [[ecosystem services]] has only recently emerged as: during the 20th century, more than half the world's [[wetlands]] have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. [[Biodiversity]]-rich [[freshwater]] ecosystems are currently declining faster than [[marine (ocean)|marine]] or land [[ecosystem]]s<ref name="water">Hoekstra, A.Y. (2006). [http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report_20_Global_Water_Governance.pdf "The Global Dimension of Water Governance: Nine Reasons for Global Arrangements in Order to Cope with Local Problems."] ''Value of Water Research Report Series'' No. 20 [[UNESCO-IHE]] Institute for Water Education. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref> making them the world's most vulnerable habitats.<ref name=LPR>World Wide Fund for Nature (2008). [http://assets.panda.org/downloads/living_planet_report_2008.pdf ''Living Planet Report 2008'']. Retrieved on: 2009-03-29.</ref> Increasing [[urbanization]] pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe [[water]].<ref name="Atlas"/> In the industrial world [[demand management]] has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry [[Water desalination|desalination]] is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.<ref name="water" />
==Land==
{{See|Land use}}
[[Loss of biodiversity]] originates largely from the habitat loss and fragmentation produced by artificial land development, forestry and agriculture as [[natural capital]] is progressively converted to man-made capital. [[Land-use change]] is fundamental to the operations of the [[biosphere]] because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to [[urbanisation]], [[agriculture]], [[forest]], [[woodland]], [[grassland]] and [[pasture]] have a marked effect on the global water, carbon and nitrogen [[biogeochemical cycle]]s and this can negatively impact both natural and human systems.<ref name="Krebs 2001 pp. 560–582"/> At the local human scale major sustainability benefits accrue from the pursuit of [[green cities]] and [[sustainable gardening|sustainable parks and gardens]].<ref>[http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6220 Organic Gardening Techniques], ''Missouri University Extension''. October 2004. Retrieved June 17, 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.dbrl.org/reference/subject-guides/sustainable-gardening-food-production Sustainable Gardening & Food Production] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621044435/http://dbrl.org/reference/subject-guides/sustainable-gardening-food-production |date=2010-06-21 }}, ''Daniel Boone Regional Library''. Retrieved June 17, 2009</ref>
==Forests==
{{See|Forestry|Ecoforestry}}
[[File:Grib skov.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Beech forest – Grib Skov, Denmark|Beech forest – Grib Skov, Denmark]]
Since the [[Neolithic Revolution]], human consumption has reduced the world's forest cover by about 47%. Present-day forests occupy about a quarter of the world's ice-free land with about half of these occurring in the tropics.<ref>World Resources Institute (1998). ''World Resources 1998–1999.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-521408-0}}.</ref> In temperate and [[boreal forest|boreal]] regions forest area is gradually increasing (with the exception of Siberia), but [[deforestation]] in the tropics is of major concern.<ref>Groombridge & Jenkins (2002).</ref>
Forests moderate the local climate and the global water cycle through their light reflectance ([[albedo]]) and [[evapotranspiration]]. They also conserve [[biodiversity]], protect [[water quality]], preserve soil and [[soil quality]], provide fuel and [[pharmaceuticals]], and purify the air. These free [[ecosystem services]] are not given a market value under most current economic systems, and so forest conservation has little appeal when compared with the economic benefits of [[logging]] and clearance which, through [[soil degradation]] and organic [[decomposition]] returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.<ref name = FAO1>Food and Agriculture Organisation (2006). [http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra2005/en "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005: Progress Towards Sustainable Forest Management."] ''Forestry paper'' 147. Rome: FAO. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17.</ref> The United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) estimates that about 90% of the carbon stored in land vegetation is locked up in trees and that they sequester about 50% more carbon than is present in the atmosphere. Changes in land use currently contribute about 20% of total global carbon emissions (heavily logged Indonesia and Brazil are a major source of emissions).<ref name = FAO1/> [[Climate change]] can be mitigated by [[Carbon sequestration|sequestering carbon]] in [[reafforestation]] schemes, plantations and timber products. Also wood biomass can be utilized as a renewable [[carbon-neutral]] fuel. The FAO has suggested that, over the period 2005–2050, effective use of tree planting could absorb about 10–20% of man-made emissions – so monitoring the condition of the world's forests must be part of a global strategy to mitigate emissions and protect ecosystem services.<ref>IPCC (2006).'' IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Inventories, Vol.4, Agriculture, Forestry, and other Land Uses.'' Japan: Institute for Global Environment Strategies.</ref> However, climate change may preempt this FAO scenario as a study by the [[International Union of Forest Research Organizations]] in 2009 concluded that the stress of a {{convert|2.5|C}} temperature rise above pre-industrial levels could result in the release of vast amounts of carbon<ref>Kinver, M. (April 2009). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8004517.stm "Key role of forests 'may be lost'"] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-04-19.</ref> so the potential of forests to act as carbon "sinks" is "at risk of being lost entirely".<ref>Dold, M. (April 2009). [http://www.iufro.org/news/article/2009/04/17/iufro-press-release/ "New Study Warns Damage to Forests from Climate Change Could Cost the Planet Its Major Keeper of Greenhouse Gases."]. IUFRO News. Retrieved on: 2009-04-20.</ref>
==Cultivated land==
{{Main|Sustainable agriculture}}
[[File:Rice Field.jpg|right|thumb|alt=A farmer working in a rice paddy|A rice paddy. Rice, wheat, corn and potatoes make up more than half the world's food supply]]
Feeding more than seven billion human bodies takes a heavy toll on the Earth's resources. This begins with the appropriation of about 38% of the Earth's land surface<ref>Food and Agriculture Organization (June 2006). [http://faostat.fao.org/Portals/_Faostat/documents/pdf/world.pdf "Food and Agriculture Statistics Global Outlook."] Rome: FAO Statistics Division. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.</ref> and about 20% of its net primary productivity.<ref>Imhoff, M.L. et al. (2004). "Global Patterns in Human Consumption of Net Primary Production." ''Nature'' '''429''': 870–873.</ref> Added to this are the resource-hungry activities of industrial agribusiness – everything from the crop need for irrigation water, synthetic [[fertilizer]]s and [[pesticide]]s to the resource costs of [[food packaging]], [[transport]] (now a major part of global trade) and retail. [[Food]] is essential to life. But the list of environmental costs of [[food production]] is a long one: topsoil depletion, [[erosion]] and conversion to desert from constant tillage of annual crops; overgrazing; [[Soil salinity|salinization]]; [[sodification]]; [[waterlogging (agriculture)|waterlogging]]; high levels of [[fossil fuel]] use; reliance on inorganic fertilisers and synthetic organic [[pesticides]]; reductions in [[genetic diversity]] by the mass use of [[monoculture]]s; water [[resource depletion]]; [[pollution]] of waterbodies by run-off and [[groundwater contamination]]; social problems including the decline of family farms and weakening of [[rural communities]].<ref>Tudge (2004).</ref>
All of these environmental problems associated with [[industrial agriculture]] and [[agribusiness]] are now being addressed through such movements as [[sustainable agriculture]], [[organic farming]] and more sustainable business practices.<ref>[http://www.wbcsd.org/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?MenuID=1 World Business Council for Sustainable Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410074308/http://www.wbcsd.org/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?MenuID=1 |date=2009-04-10 }} This web site has multiple articles on [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development|WBCSD]] contributions to sustainable development. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07.</ref>
==Extinctions==
{{See|Extinction|}}
[[File:ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg|thumb|left|150px|alt=Picture of the now extinct bird the dodo|The extinct [[dodo]] (''Raphus cucullatus'')]]
Although [[biodiversity loss]] can be monitored simply as loss of species, effective conservation demands the protection of species within their natural habitats and ecosystems. Following human migration and population growth, species [[extinctions]] have progressively increased to a rate unprecedented since the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]].{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} Known as the [[Holocene extinction event]] this current human-induced extinction of species ranks as one of the world's six mass [[extinction event]]s. Some scientific estimates indicate that up to half of presently existing species may become extinct by 2100.<ref>Wilson (2002)</ref><ref>Leakey & Lewin (1995)</ref> Current extinction rates are 100 to 1000 times their prehuman levels with more than 10% birds and mammals threatened, about 8% of plants, 5% of fish and more than 20% of freshwater species.<ref>Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, pp. 42–47.</ref>
The 2008 [[IUCN Red List]] warns that long-term droughts and extreme weather put additional stress on key habitats and, for example, lists 1,226 bird species as threatened with extinction, which is one eighth of all bird species.<ref>Kinver, M. (May 2008). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7409034.stm ''Climate 'accelerating bird loss.''] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17/</ref><ref>BBC News (March 2009) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7921936.stm "Climate 'hitting Europe's birds'."] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17.</ref> The [[Red List Index]] also identifies 44 tree species in Central Asia as under threat of extinction due to [[over-exploitation]] and human development and threatening the region's forests which are home to more than 300 wild ancestors of modern domesticated fruit and nut cultivars.<ref>Gill, V.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8036785.stm ''"The wild ancestors of common domestic fruit trees are in danger of becoming extinct, scientists have warned."''] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-05-09.</ref>
==Biological invasions==
{{See|Introduced species}}
[[File:Kudzu on trees in Atlanta, Georgia.jpg|right|thumb|alt=Trees infested with Kudzu (''Pueraria lobata'')|[[Kudzu]] (''Pueraria lobata'') infesting trees in [[Atlanta]], Georgia, USA]]
In many parts of the industrial world land clearing for agriculture has diminished and here the greatest threat to biodiversity, after [[climate change]], has become the destructive effect of [[invasive species]].<ref>Randall (2002).</ref> Increasingly efficient global transport has facilitated the spread of [[organism]]s across the planet. The potential danger of this aspect of [[globalization]] is starkly illustrated through the spread of human diseases like [[HIV]] [[AIDS]], [[mad cow disease]], [[Avian influenza|bird flu]] and [[swine flu]], but invasive plants and animals are also having a devastating impact on native [[biodiversity]]. Non-indigenous organisms can quickly occupy disturbed land and natural areas where, in the absence of their natural [[predator]]s, they are able to thrive.<ref>Krebs (2001) pp. 190–205.</ref> At the global scale this issue is being addressed through the [[Global Invasive Species Information Network]] but there is improved international [[biosecurity]] legislation to minimise the transmission of pathogens and invasive organisms. Also, through [[CITES]] legislation there is control the trade in rare and threatened species. Increasingly at the local level public awareness programs are alerting communities, gardeners, the nursery industry, collectors, and the pet and aquarium industries, to the harmful effects of potentially invasive species.<ref>Blood (2001).</ref>
==Resistance to change==
{{Main|Sustainability and systemic change resistance}}
The [[environmental sustainability]] problem has proven difficult to solve. The modern [[environmental movement]] has attempted to solve the problem in a large variety of ways. But little progress has been made, as shown by severe [[ecological footprint]] overshoot and lack of sufficient progress on the [[climate change]] problem. Something within the human system in preventing change to a sustainable mode of behavior. That system trait is systemic change resistance. Change resistance is also known as organizational resistance, barriers to change, or policy resistance.<ref>John Sterman, "Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, 2000, pp 5-10.</ref>
==See also==
*[[Environmental management]]
*[[Integrated landscape management]]
*[[Natural resource management]]
*[[Planetary management]]
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==Sources==
* Blood, K. (2001). ''Environmental Weeds''. Mt Waverley, Victoria: C.H. Jerram & Associates. {{ISBN|0-9579086-0-1}}. An example of a local guide to invasive plants.
* Clarke, R. & King, J. (2006). ''The Atlas of Water.'' London: [[Earthscan]]. {{ISBN|978-1-84407-133-3}}.
* Groombridge, B. & Jenkins, M.D. (2002). ''World Atlas of Biodiversity''. Berkeley: [[University of California Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-520-23668-4}}.
* Krebs, C.J. (2001). ''Ecology: the Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance''. Sydney: Benjamin Cummings. {{ISBN|0-321-04289-1}}.
* [[Richard Leakey|Leakey, R.]] & Lewin, R. (1995). ''The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind''. New York: Bantam Dell Publishing Group. {{ISBN|0-385-46809-1}}
* Lindenmayer, D. & [[Mark Burgman|Burgman, M.]] (2005). ''Practical Conservation Biology''. Collingwood, Victoria: [[CSIRO Publishing]]. {{ISBN|0-643-09089-4}}.
* E, Huttmanová. The Possibilities of Sustainable Development Evaluation in the European Union Area. [https://ecsdev.org/ojs/index.php/ejsd/article/view/502 European Journal of Sustainable Development] ISSN 2239-5938.
* Randall, R. (2002). ''A Global Compendium of Weeds.'' Meredith, Victoria, Australia: R.G. & F.J. Richardson. {{ISBN|978-0-9587439-8-3}}.
* [[Colin Tudge|Tudge, C.]] (2004). ''So Shall We Reap''. London: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-14-100950-0}}.
* [[E. O. Wilson|Wilson, E.O.]] (2002). ''The Future of Life''. New York: Knopf. {{ISBN|0-679-45078-5}}.
==External links==
*[http://www.environmentalmanagement.aau.dk/ Master education in Environmental Management & Sustainability Science] at [[Aalborg University]] in [[Denmark]]
{{Sustainability}}
[[Category:Sustainability and environmental management| ]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]] |
Sustainability and systemic change resistance | {{essay-like|date=April 2019}}
The environmental '''[[sustainability]]''' problem has proven difficult to solve. The modern [[environmental movement]] has attempted to solve the problem in a large variety of ways. But little progress has been made, as shown by severe [[ecological footprint]] overshoot and lack of sufficient progress on the [[climate change]] problem. Something within the human system is preventing change to a sustainable mode of behavior. That system trait is '''systemic change resistance'''. Change resistance is also known as organizational resistance, barriers to change, or policy resistance.<ref>John Sterman, "Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, 2000, pp 5-10.</ref>
==Overview of resistance to solving the sustainability problem==
While environmentalism had long been a minor force in political change, the movement strengthened significantly in the 1970s with the first [[Earth Day]] in 1970, in which over 20 million people participated, with publication of ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'' in 1972, and with the first [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] in Stockholm in 1972. Early expectations the problem could be solved ran high. 114 out of 132 members of the United Nations attended the Stockholm conference. The conference was widely seen at the time as a harbinger of success:<ref>Environmental Encyclopedia, Second Edition, W. P. Cunningham et al., editors, 1998, page 1054.</ref>
: "Many believe the most important result of the conference was the precedent it set for international cooperation in addressing [[environmental degradation]]. The nations attending agreed they shared responsibility for the quality of the environment, particularly the oceans and the atmosphere, and they signed a declaration of principles, after extensive negotiations, concerning their obligations. The conference also approved an environmental fund and an 'action program,' which involved 200 specific recommendations for addressing such problems as global climate change, [[marine pollution]], population growth, the dumping of toxic wastes, and the preservation of biodiversity. A permanent environment unit was established for coordinating these and other international efforts. [This later became] the United Nations Environmental Program [which was] was formally approved by the General Assembly later that same year and its base established in Nairobi, Kenya. This organization not only coordinated action but monitored research, collecting and disseminating information, and it has played an ongoing role in international negotiations about environmental issues.
:"The conference in Stockholm accomplished almost everything the preparatory committed had planned. It was widely considered successful, and many observers were almost euphoric about the extent of agreement."
However, despite the work of a worldwide [[environmental movement]], many national environmental protection agencies, creation of the [[United Nations Environment Programme]], and many international environmental treaties, the sustainability problem continues to grow worse. The latest [[ecological footprint]] data shows the world's footprint increased from about 50% ''undershoot'' in 1961 to 50% ''overshoot'' in 2007, the last year data is available.<ref>John Talbert et al., The Genuine Progress Indicator 2006, A Tool for Sustainable Development, Redefining Progress, The Nature of Economics, 2006, available at [http://www.rprogress.org/publications/2007/GPI%202006.pdf].</ref>
In 1972 the first edition of ''The Limits to Growth'' analyzed the [[environmental sustainability]] problem using a [[system dynamics]] model. The widely influential book predicted that:<ref>"The Limits to Growth", Meadows et al., 1972, p23.</ref>
:"If the present trends in world population, industrialization, pollution, food production, and [[resource depletion]] continue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next one hundred years. The most probable result will be a rather sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and industrial capacity some time in the 21st century."
Yet thirty-two years later in 2004 the third edition reported that:<ref>"Limits to Growth", Meadows et al., 2004, p xvi.</ref>
:"[The second edition of Limits to Growth] was published in 1992, the year of the global summit on environment and development in Rio de Janeiro. The advent of the summit seemed to prove that global society had decided to deal seriously with the important environmental problems. But we now know that humanity failed to achieve the goals of Rio. The Rio plus 10 conference in Johannesburg in 2002 produced even less; it was almost paralyzed by a variety of ideological and economic disputes, [due to] the efforts of those pursuing their narrow national, corporate, or individual self-interests.
:"...humanity has largely squandered the past 30 years."
Change resistance runs so high that the world's top two greenhouse gas emitters, [[China]] and the [[United States]], have never adopted the [[Kyoto Protocol]] treaty. In the US resistance was so strong that in 1999 the US Senate voted 95 to zero against the treaty by passing the [[Byrd–Hagel Resolution]], despite the fact [[Al Gore]] was vice-president at the time. Not a single senator could be persuaded to support the treaty, which has not been brought back to the floor since.
Due to prolonged change resistance, the climate change problem has escalated to the climate change crisis. [[Greenhouse gas emissions]] are rising much faster than [[IPCC]] models expected: "The growth rate of [fossil fuel] emissions was 3.5% per year for 2000-2007, an almost four fold increase from 0.9% per year in 1990-1999. … This makes current trends in emissions higher than the worst case IPCC-SRES scenario."<ref>"Emissions rising faster this decade than last", CISIRO Media Release, September 25, 2008, available at [http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/global/pdf/Press%20Release_CSIRO_Australia_final.pdf].</ref>
The [[Copenhagen Climate Summit]] of December 2009 ended in failure.<ref name="Hartwell">"The Hartwell Paper", Prins, Gwrn et al., May 2010, available at [http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/27939/1/HartwellPaper_English_version.pdf].</ref> No agreement on binding targets was reached. The [[Cancun climate summit|Cancun Climate Summit]] in December 2010 did not break the deadlock. The best it could do was another non-binding agreement:<ref>Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention, 2010, available at [http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_16/application/pdf/cop16_lca.pdf].</ref>
:"Recognizing that climate change represents an urgent and potentially irreversible threat to human societies and the planet, and thus requires to be urgently addressed by all Parties."
This indicates no progress at all since 1992, when the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] was created at the [[Earth Summit]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]]. The 2010 Cancun agreement was the functional equivalent of what the 1992 agreement said:<ref>''United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change'', United Nations, 1992, p2-4, available at [http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf].</ref>
:"The Parties to this Convention... [acknowledge] that the global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate international response.... [thus the parties recognize] that States should enact effective environmental legislation... [to] protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations of humankind...."
Negotiations have bogged down so pervasively that: "Climate policy is gridlocked, and there's virtually no chance of a breakthrough."<ref>“Disaster at the Top of the World”, Thomas Homer-Dixon, New York Times, August 22, 2010, available at [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/23/opinion/23homer-dixon.html?_r=1&hp=&pagewanted=all].</ref> "Climate policy, as it has been understood and practised by many governments of the world under the Kyoto Protocol approach, has failed to produce any discernible real world reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases in fifteen years."<ref name="Hartwell" />
These events suggest that change resistance to solving the sustainability problem is so high the problem is currently unsolvable.
==The change resistance and proper coupling subproblems==
Understanding change resistance requires seeing it as a distinct and separate part of the sustainability problem. Tanya Markvart's 2009 thesis on ''Understanding Institutional Change and Resistance to Change Towards Sustainability'' stated that:<ref name="Markvart">Tanya I. Markvart, ''Understanding Institutional Change and Resistance to Change Towards Sustainability: An Interdisciplinary Theoretical Framework and Illustrative Application to Provincial-Municipal Aggregates Policy'', 2009, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, pages 4, iii, and 157. Available at [http://www.environment.uwaterloo.ca/research/biosphere/Documents/Markvart_Tanya_000.pdf].</ref>
:"It has also been demonstrated that ecologically destructive and inequitable institutional systems can be highly resilient and resistant to change, even in the face of social-ecological degradation and/or collapse (e.g., Berkes & Folke, 2002; Allison & Hobbs, 2004; Brown, 2005; Runnalls, 2008; Finley, 2009; Walker et al., 2009)."
The thesis focuses specifically on developing "an interdisciplinary theoretical framework for understanding institutional change and resistance to change towards sustainability."
Jack Harich's 2010 paper on ''Change Resistance as the Crux of the Environmental Sustainability Problem'' argues there are two separate problems to solve.<ref name="Harich">Jack Harich, [http://www.thwink.org/sustain/articles/009/ChangeResistanceAsCrux.htm “Change Resistance as the Crux of the Environmental Sustainability Problem”], ''System Dynamics Review'', January 2010.</ref> A [[root cause analysis]] and a [[system dynamics]] model were used to explain how:
:"...difficult social problems [like sustainability must be decomposed] into two sequential subproblems: (1) ''How to overcome change resistance'' and then (2) ''How to achieve proper coupling''. This is the timeless strategy of divide and conquer. By cleaving one big problem into two, the problem becomes an order of magnitude easier to solve, because we can approach the two subproblems differently and much more appropriately. We are no longer unknowingly attempting to solve two very different problems simultaneously."
The paper discussed the two subproblems:
: "''Change resistance'' is the tendency for a system to continue its current behavior, despite the application of force to change that behavior.
: "''Proper coupling'' occurs when the behavior of one system affects the behavior of other systems in a desirable manner, using the appropriate [[feedback loops]], so the systems work together in harmony in accordance with design objectives. … In the environmental sustainability problem the human system has become improperly coupled to the greater system it lives within: the environment.
:"Change resistance versus proper coupling allows a crucial distinction. Society is aware of the proper practices required to live sustainably and the need to do so. But society has a strong aversion to adopting these practices. As a result, problem solvers have created thousands of effective (and often ingenious) proper practices. But they are stymied in their attempts to have them taken up by enough of the system to solve the problem because an 'implicit system goal' is causing insurmountable change resistance. ''Therefore systemic change resistance is the crux of the problem and must be solved first.''"
The proper coupling subproblem is what most people consider as "the" problem to solve. It is called [[Decoupling (organizational studies)|decoupling]] in economic and environmental fields, where the term refers to economic growth without additional environmental degradation. Solving the proper coupling problem is the goal of environmentalism and in particular [[ecological economics]]: "Ecological economics is the study of the interactions and co-evolution in time and space of human economies and the ecosystems in which human economies are embedded."<ref>The New Pelgrave Dictionary of Economics Online, [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_E000221&edition=current&q=ecological%20economics&topicid=&result_number=1/ abstract].</ref>
Change resistance is also called barriers to change. Hoffman and Bazerman, in a chapter on "Understanding and overcoming the organizational and psychological barriers to action", concluded that:<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=zjNmAwAAQBAJ Organizations and the Sustainability Mosaic: Crafting Long-Term Ecological and Societal Solutions]", Sharma, S. et al., (Ed), 2007. Chapter 4, Hoffman, A. J., and Bazerman, M. H., "Changing practice on sustainability: Understanding and overcoming the organizational and psychological barriers to action," p85.</ref>
:"In this chapter, we argue that the change in thinking required of the sustainability agenda will never come to fruition within practical domains unless proper attention is given to the sources of individual and social resistance to such change. The implementation of wise management practices cannot be accomplished without a concurrent set of strategies for surmounting these barriers."
[[John Sterman]], current leader of the system dynamics school of thought, came to the same conclusion:<ref>John Sterman, 2008. "[http://www.precaution.org/lib/mit_students_clueless.081024.pdf Risk Communication on Climate Change: Mental Models and Mass Balance]." ''Science'', October 2008, vol. 322, no. 5901, pp 532-533.</ref>
:"The civil rights movement provides a better analogy for the climate challenge. Then, as now, entrenched special interests vigorously opposed change. … Of course, we need more research and technical innovation—money and genius are always in short supply. But there is no purely technical solution for climate change. For public policy to be grounded in the hard-won results of climate science, we must now turn our attention to the dynamics of social and political change."
These findings indicate there are at least two subproblems to be solved: change resistance and proper coupling. Given the human system's long history of unsuccessful attempts to self-correct to a sustainable mode, it appears that high change resistance is preventing proper coupling. This may be expressed as an emerging principle: systemic change resistance is the crux of the sustainability problem and must be solved first, before the human system can be properly coupled to the greater system it lives within, the environment.
==Systemic versus individual change resistance==
Systemic change resistance differs significantly from individual change resistance. "Systemic means originating from the system in such a manner as to affect the behavior of most or all social agents of certain types, as opposed to originating from individual agents."<ref name="Harich" /> Individual change resistance originates from individual people and organizations. How the two differ may be seen in this passage:<ref>Dent, Eric and Goldberg, Susan. 1999. ''Challenging Resistance to Change'', The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 35, No. 1, 25-41.</ref>
:"The notion of resistance to change is credited to Kurt Lewin. His conceptualization of the phrase, however, is very different from today's usage. [which treats resistance to change as a psychological concept, where resistance or support of change comes from values, habits, mental models, and so on residing within the individual] For Lewin, resistance to change could occur, but that resistance could be anywhere in the system. As Kotter (1995) found, ''it is possible for the resistance to be sited within the individual, but it is much more likely to be found elsewhere in the system. ''
:"Systems of social roles, with their associated patterns of attitudes, expectations, and behavior norms, share with biological systems the characteristic of homeostasis—i.e., tendencies to resist change, to restore the previous state after a disturbance.
:"Lewin had been working on this idea, that the status quo represented an equilibrium between the barriers to change and the forces favoring change, since 1928 as part of his field theory. He believed that some difference in these forces—weakening of the barriers or strengthening of the driving forces—was required to produce the unfreezing that began a change."
If sources of systemic change resistance are present, they are the principal cause of individual change resistance. According to the [[fundamental attribution error]] it is crucial to address systemic change resistance when present and avoid assuming that change resistance can be overcome by bargaining, reasoning, inspirational appeals, and so on. This is because:<ref>John Sterman, "Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, 2000, p28.</ref>
:"A fundamental principle of system dynamics states that the structure of the system gives rise to its behavior. However, people have a strong tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional rather than situational factors, that is, to character and especially character flaws rather than the system in which these people are acting. The tendency to blame the person rather than the system is so strong psychologists call it the 'fundamental attribution error.' "
[[Peter Senge]], a thought leader of [[systems thinking]] for the business world, describes the structural source of systemic change resistance as being due to an "implicit system goal:" <ref>Peter Senge, ''The Fifth Discipline'', 1990, p88.</ref>
:"In general, balancing loops are more difficult to see than reinforcing loops because it often looks like nothing is happening. There's no dramatic growth of sales and marketing expenditures, or nuclear arms, or lily pads. Instead, the balancing process maintains the status quo, even when all participants want change. The feeling, as Lewis Carroll's Queen of Hearts put it, of needing 'all the running you can do to keep in the same place' is a clue that a balancing loop may exist nearby.
:"Leaders who attempt organizational change often find themselves unwittingly caught in balancing processes. To the leaders, it looks as though their efforts are clashing with sudden resistance that seems to come from nowhere. In fact, as my friend found when he tried to reduce burnout, the resistance is a response by the system, trying to maintain an ''implicit system goal''. Until this goal is recognized, the change effort is ''doomed to failure.''"
Senge's insight applies to the sustainability problem. Until the "implicit system goal" causing systemic change resistance is found and resolved, change efforts to solve the proper coupling part of the sustainability problem may be, as Senge argues, "doomed to failure".
==Focus is on proper coupling==
Presently environmentalism is focused on solving the proper coupling subproblem. For example, the following are all proper coupling solutions. They attempt to solve the direct cause of the sustainability problem's symptoms:
* The [[Kyoto Protocol]]
* The [[Waste hierarchy|Three Rs]] of reduce, reuse, recycle
* More use of [[renewable energy]]
* Better [[pollution control]] of many kinds
* Collective management of [[common-pool resources]]
* Certification programs to reduce [[deforestation]] such as [[Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification|PEFC]] and [[Forest Stewardship Council|FSC]]
* [[Contour farming]] to reduce [[soil erosion]]
* The [[green revolution]]
* [[Zero population growth]]
The direct cause of environmental impact is the three factors on the right side of the [[I PAT|I=PAT equation]] where '''I'''mpact equals '''P'''opulation times '''A'''ffluence (consumption per person) times '''T'''echnology (environmental impact per unit of consumption). It is these three factors that solutions like those listed above seek to reduce.
The top environmental organization in the world, the [[United Nations Environmental Programme]] (UNEP), focuses exclusively on proper coupling solutions:<ref>UNEP 2010 Annual Report, p8, Available at [http://www.unep.org/annualreport/2010/pdfs/UNEP-AR-2010-FULL-REPORT.pdf].</ref>
:"2010 marked the beginning of a period of new, strategic and transformational direction for UNEP as it began implementing its Medium Term Strategy (MTS) for 2010-2013 across six areas: Climate change; Disasters and conflicts; [[Ecosystem management]]; Environmental governance; Harmful substances and hazardous waste; [[Resource efficiency]], Sustainable consumption and production."
The six areas are all direct practices to reduce the three factors of the I=PAT equation.
[[Al Gore]]'s 2006 documentary film ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]'' described the climate change problem and the urgency of solving it. The film concluded with Gore saying:
:"Each one of us is a cause of [[global warming]], but each one of us can make choices to change that with the things we buy, the electricity we use, the cars we drive; we can make choices to bring our individual carbon emissions to zero. The solutions are in our hands, we just have to have the determination to make it happen. We have everything that we need to reduce carbon emissions, everything but political will. But in America, the will to act is a renewable resource."
The four solutions Gore mentions are proper coupling practices. There is, however, a hint of acknowledgement that overcoming systemic change resistance is the real challenge, when Gore says "...we just have to have the determination to make it happen. We have everything that we need to reduce carbon emissions, everything but political will."
The twenty-seven solutions that appear during the film's closing credits are mostly proper coupling solutions. The first nine are:<ref>''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]'': Closing Credits, available at [http://www.folklib.net/index/wi/ait_closing_credits.shtml].</ref>
* Go to [http://www.climatecrisis.net www.climatecrisis.net]
* You can reduce your carbon emissions. In fact, you can even reduce your carbon emissions to zero.
* Buy energy efficient appliances & light bulbs.
* Change your [[thermostat]] (and use clock thermostats) to reduce energy for heating & cooling.
* Weatherize your house, increase [[building insulation|insulation]], get an energy audit.
* Recycle.
* If you can, buy a [[hybrid car]].
* When you can, [[walk]] or [[Cycling|ride a bicycle]].
* Where you can, use light rail & [[mass transit]].
Some solutions are attempts to overcome individual change resistance, such as:
* Tell your parents not to ruin the world that you will live in.
* If you are a parent, join with your children to save the world they will live in.
* Vote for leaders who pledge to solve this crisis.
* Write to congress. If they don't listen, run for congress.
* Speak up in your community.
However none of the 27 solutions deal with overcoming systemic change resistance.
==Overcoming systemic change resistance==
Efforts here are sparse because environmentalism is currently not oriented toward treating systemic change resistance as a distinct and separate problem to solve.
On how to specifically overcome the change resistance subproblem, Markvart examined two leading theories that seemed to offer insight into change resistance, [[Panarchy (ecology)|Panarchy]] theory and [[New institutionalism|New Institutionalism]], and concluded that:<ref name="Markvart" />
:"...neither theory devotes significant attention to understanding the dynamics of resilient and resistant but inefficient and/or unproductive institutional and ecological systems. Overall, more research is required...."
Taking a [[root cause analysis]] and [[system dynamics]] modeling approach, Harich carefully defined the three characteristics of a root cause and then found a main systemic root cause for both the change resistance and proper coupling subproblems.<ref name="Harich" /> Several sample solution elements for resolving the root causes were suggested. The point was made that the exact solution policies chosen do not matter nearly as much as finding the correct systemic root causes. Once these are found, how to resolve them is relatively obvious because once a root cause is found by structural modeling, the high leverage point for resolving it follows easily. Solutions may then push on specific structural points in the social system, which due to careful modeling will have fairly predictable effects.
This reaffirms the work of [[Donella Meadows]], as expressed in her classic essay on [[Twelve leverage points|Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System]]. The final page stated that:
:"The higher the leverage point, the more the system will resist changing it."
Here Meadows refers to the leverage point for resolving the proper coupling subproblem rather than the leverage point for overcoming change resistance. This is because the current focus of environmentalism is on proper coupling.
However, if the leverage points associated with the root causes of change resistance exist and can be found, the system will not resist changing them. This is an important principle of social system behavior.
For example, Harich found the main root cause of successful systemic change resistance to be high "deception effectiveness." The source was special interests, particularly large for-profit corporations. The high leverage point was raising "general ability to detect manipulative deception." This can be done with a variety of solution elements, such as "The Truth Test." This effectively increases truth literacy, just as conventional education raises reading and writing [[literacy]]. Few citizens resist literacy education because its benefits have become so obvious.
Promotion of [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) has been used to try to overcome change resistance to solving social problems, including environmental sustainability. This solution strategy has not worked well because it is voluntary and does not resolve root causes. [[Milton Friedman]] explained why CSR fails: "The social responsibility of business is to increase profits."<ref>"The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits", Milton Friedman, September 13, 1970, ''[[The New York Times Magazine]]'', available at [http://www.colorado.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/issues/friedman-soc-resp-business.html].</ref> Business cannot be responsible to society. It can only be responsible to its shareholders.
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== See also ==
* [[The Corporation (2003 film)|''The Corporation'']]
* [http://www.thwink.org/sustain/articles/021_WorldChangeModel/index.htm WorldChange Model]. This adds a change resistance subsystem to the [[World3]] model of [[Limits to Growth]] in order to more correctly analyze and simulate why [[sustainability science]] has so far been unable to solve the [[sustainability]] problem.
{{Sustainability}}
[[Category:Change management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Sustainability standards and certification | {{Short description|Voluntary guidelines to show good practices}}
{{Tone|date=May 2017}}
'''Sustainability standards and certifications''' are [[Voluntary compliance|voluntary]] guidelines used by producers, manufacturers, traders, retailers, and service providers to demonstrate their commitment to good environmental, social, ethical, and food safety practices. There are over 400 such [[technical standard|standards]] across the world.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Market Coverage|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/market-coverage/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-02-10|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives|language=en-CA}}</ref>
The trend started in the late 1980s and 1990s with the introduction of [[Ecolabel]]s and [[technical standard|standards]] for [[organic food]] and other products. Most standards refer to the [[triple bottom line]] of environmental quality, social equity, and economic prosperity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf|title=The Brundtland Report: Our Common Future|last=World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)|date=1987|access-date=July 18, 2019}}</ref> A [[technical standard|standard]] is normally developed by a broad range of stakeholders and experts in a particular sector and includes a set of practices or criteria for how a crop should be sustainably grown or a resource should be ethically harvested.
This might cover, for instance, responsible fishing practices that do not endanger marine biodiversity or respect for human rights, and the payment of fair wages on a coffee or tea plantation. Normally sustainability standards are accompanied by a verification process – often referred to as "[[certification]]" – to evaluate that an enterprise complies with a standard, as well as a traceability process for [https://www.epa.gov/greenerproducts certified products] to be sold along the [[supply chain]], often resulting in a consumer-facing label.
[[Certification]] programs also focus on capacity building and working with partners and other organizations to support smallholders or disadvantaged producers to make the social and environmental improvements needed to meet the [[technical standard|standard]].
The basic premise of sustainability standards is two-fold:
# Weak legislation and strong demand for action: Sustainability standards emerged in areas where weak national and global legislation existed but where the consumer and [[NGO]] movements around the globe demanded action. For example, campaigns by Global Exchange<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030618203029/http://www.globalexchange.org/campaigns/sweatshops/nike/ Global Exchange Campaign - Nike]</ref> and other NGOs against the purchase of goods from "[[sweatshop]]" factories by companies like [[Nike, Inc.]], [[Levi Strauss & Co.]], and other leading brands led to the emergence of social welfare standards like the [[SA8000]] and others.
# Environmental Merits - Leading brands who sold to both consumers and to the [[Business-to-business|B2B]] supply chain, and wished to demonstrate the environmental or organic merits of their products led to the emergence of hundreds of eco-labels, organic and other [[technical standard|standards]].
A leading example of a consumer standard is the [[Fairtrade]] movement, administered by [[FLO International]] and exhibiting huge sales growth around the world for ethically sourced produce.<ref>[http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/jun_2009/global_fairtrade_sales_increase_by_22.aspx Fairtrade Growth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225094221/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/jun_2009/global_fairtrade_sales_increase_by_22.aspx |date=2010-12-25 }}</ref> An example of a [[Business-to-business|B2B]] standard that has grown tremendously in the last few years is the [[Forest Stewardship Council]]’s standard (FSC) for forest products made from sustainably harvested trees.
The line between consumer and B2B sustainability standards is becoming blurred, with leading trade buyers increasingly demanding [[Fair trade certification|Fairtrade certification]], for example, and consumers increasingly recognizing the FSC mark. In recent years{{when|date=April 2022}}, the business-to-business focus of sustainability standards has risen as it has become clear that consumer demand alone cannot drive the transformation of major sectors and industries{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. In [[commodities]] such as [[palm oil industry|palm oil]], [[soy industry|soy]], farmed [[seafood industry|seafood]], and [[sugar industry|sugar]], [[certification]] initiatives are targeting the mainstream adoption of better practices and pre-competitive industry collaboration. Major brands and retailers are also starting to make commitments to [[certification]] in their whole supply chain or product offering, rather than a single product line or ingredient.{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}
The number of Sustainability Standards has continued to grow; currently, there are around 264 active VSS (according to the [[International Trade Centre|International Trade Center]] Standards Map) in 194 countries and 15 sectors,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainability Map|url=https://www.standardsmap.org/standards?q=eyJzZWxlY3RlZENsaWVudCI6Ik5PIEFGRklMSUFUSU9OIn0=|access-date=2021-03-03|website=www.standardsmap.org}}</ref> and about 457 [[ecolabels]] (according to Ecolabel Index) in 199 countries, and 25 industry sectors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ecolabel Index {{!}} Who's deciding what's green?|url=http://www.ecolabelindex.com/|access-date=2021-03-03|website=www.ecolabelindex.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Trade Impact of Voluntary Sustainability Standards: A review of empirical evidence|url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ser-rp-2020d9_en.pdf}}</ref>
== International and private standards supporting sustainability ==
Sustainability standards can be categorized as either [[Technical standard|voluntary consensus standards]] or [[Technical standard|private standards]]. [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) is an example of an [[standards organization]] who develop [[international standards]] following a [[Standardization|voluntary consensus]] process for sustainability under Technical Committee 207, Environmental management and Technical Committee 268, Sustainable cities and communities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Developing sustainably |url=https://www.iso.org/developing-sustainably.html |website=iso.org |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |access-date=20 February 2023}}</ref> These Committees connect with Technical Committee 61, Plastics working on mandates such standards for eliminating plastic pollution.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Birkbeck |first1=Carolyn Deere |last2=Sugathan |first2=Mahesh |last3=Boinnard |first3=Sophie |last4=Grekova |first4=Valeriia |last5=Cleeland |first5=Belinda |title=Standards and Related Initiatives in International Cooperation to End Plastic Pollution: Mapping and State of Play |date=September 2023 |publisher=Forum on Trade, Environment, & the SDGs (TESS) |location=Geneva, Switzerland |pages=https://tessforum.org/latest/standards-and-related-initiatives-in-international-cooperation-to-end-plastic-pollution-mapping-and-state-of-play}}</ref> In September 2023, ISO and the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) signed a Statement of Intent, as a joint commitment to the role of International Standards in addressing sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISO and UNDP announce partnership to enhance sustainability action |url=https://www.iso.org/news/am23/iso-and-undp-announce-partnership-to-enhance-sustainability-action |website=iso.org |publisher=The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) |access-date=10 October 2023}}</ref>
Many of the [[international standards]] developed to help guide sustainability goals and certification schemes originate from the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO).<ref>[//www.fao.org/home/en/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]</ref> The FAO has promulgated several standards for certifying bodies to adhere to. In particular, the FAO has issued guidelines and standards designed to make agriculture, fisheries, and forestry more sustainable.
Some of the sustainability standards were initiated by [[social movements]] in particular countries, such as [[Rainforest Alliance]] in the United States and [[Fairtrade|Fairtrade certification]] in the Netherlands{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. Standards were initiated by individual companies, using [[technical standard|private standards]], such as [[UTZ Certified|Utz Certified]] (Ahold), C.A.F.E. Practices (Starbucks), and Nespresso AAA ([[Nespresso]]).
With the objective of [[Harmonization (standards)|standard harmonization]], some [[technical standard|standards]] were launched by coalitions of private firms (also referred to as [[multistakeholder governance]], development agencies, NGOs, and other stakeholders, such as the [[Marine Stewardship Council]], or MSC standard, developed as a collaboration between [[Unilever]] and the [[World Wildlife Fund]]. For example, the [[Sustainable coffee|Common Code for the Coffee Community]] (4C) was initiated by an alliance of large American coffee roasters, including [[Kraft Foods]], [[Sara Lee Corporation|Sara Lee]], and [[Nestle]], assisted by the German Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development ([[Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit|GIZ]]).
One important facilitator of the development of most global [[technical standard|standards]] was a series of local development projects involving NGOs, coffee roasters, and producers in different developing countries. For example, the Fairtrade [[technical standard|private standard]] was developed based on pilot projects with Mexican farmers. 4C builds on development projects in Peru, Colombia, and Vietnam, involving GIZ, major coffee roasters, and local producers.<ref>[https://ssrn.com/abstract=1668888 Article on the Development of the Common Code for the Coffee Community]</ref>
The most widely established and adopted standards are in agriculture, with 40% of global [[coffee production]] certified to one of the main schemes, and approximately 15–20% of [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]] and [[tea production]] being compliant with major [[international standards]]. Forestry and [[Sustainable seafood|wild seafood]] are also sectors in which standards have been influential, with certified production pushing past 10% of the global share. Cotton, [[palm oil]], [[soy]], [[biofuel]]s and farmed seafood are some of the commodities in which [[certification]] is growing the fastest, due in part to major roundtables that have been set up to bring the whole industry together. More recently, standards have started to emerge for [[mining]] and the [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/metal-extraction#:~:text=Commercial%20extraction%20of%20metals%20from,low%20grade)%20of%20desired%20elements. extraction of metals] – including gold, silver, aluminium, and oil and gas – as well as for cattle, electronics, plastics and tourism.
Evidence suggests that [[Corporate Social Responsibility]] (CSR) adopted willingly by firms can be more effective than government-regulated CSR so global standards by private companies show promise for effective social impact.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Armstrong|first1=J. Scott|last2=Green|first2=Kesten C.|title=Effects of corporate social responsibility and irresponsibility policies|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=66|issue=10|pages=1922–1927|date=2013|url=http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/43007/1/MPRA_paper_43007.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.02.014|citeseerx=10.1.1.663.508|s2cid=145059055}}</ref> Counter-arguments are discussed which express concerns around private sector, corporation-led, [[multistakeholder governance]] who adopt "weak or narrow standards" that "better serve corporate interests than rights holder interests" for self-regulation in the absence of government regulation.<ref>{{cite book |title=Not Fit-for-Purpose The Grand Experiment of Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives in Corporate Accountability, Human Rights and Global Governance |date=July 2020 |publisher=MSI Integrity |location=San Francisco: Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity |url=https://www.msi-integrity.org/not-fit-for-purpose/ }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=Multistakeholderism: a critical look |url=https://www.tni.org/en/publication/multistakeholderism-a-critical-look |website=tni.org |publisher=Transnational Institute}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=Who's Tipping the Scales? |url=http://www.ipes-food.org/pages/tippingthescales |website=ipes-food.org |publisher=IPES-Food}}</ref>
The creation of the [[Ecolabel|ISEAL Alliance]] as a private organization in 2002 was the first collaborative effort amongst a group of sustainability standards organizations to agree to follow common good practices for [[Harmonization (standards)|harmonized standards]] implementation and also to work together to drive up the use of [[technical standards|private standards]] and [[certification]] globally. In 2022, ISEAL reported 42% of their funding came from government grants. With generous
support from organizations such as The [[Walmart]] Foundation, [[Fairtrade]] USA and [[Rainforest Alliance]].<ref>{{cite web |title=ISEAL Annual Report 2022 |url=https://www.isealalliance.org/get-involved/resources/annual-report-2022 |website=isealalliance.org |publisher=ISEAL Alliance |access-date=16 August 2023}}</ref>
== Sustainability standards ==
Numerous sustainability standards have been developed to address issues of environmental quality, [[social equity]], and [[economic prosperity]] in global production and trade practices. Despite similarities in major goals and [[certification]] procedures, there are some significant differences in terms of their historical development, target groups of adopters, geographical diffusion, and emphasis on environmental, social, or economic issues.<ref>[https://ssrn.com/abstract=1678472 Introduction to different standards]</ref>
One of the major differences is based on the level of strictness of the [[technical standard|standard]]. Some standards set the bar high for a sector, promoting strong social and environmental practices and working with the top performers to constantly push up sustainability expectations{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. Other standards are more focused on eliminating the worst practices and operate at more of an entry-level to get a large proportion of an industry working incrementally towards better practices. Often there are strategies between standards to move producers along this performance ladder of sustainability{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. Another important distinction is that some standards can be applied internationally (usually with mechanisms to ensure local relevance and appropriateness), in contrast other standards are developed entirely with a regional or national focus{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.
Additional differences between [[technical standard|standards]] might relate to the [[certification]] process and whether it is conducted by a first, second or third party; the traceability system in place and whether it allows for the segregation or mixing of certified and non-certified materials; and the types of sustainability claims that are made on products.
=== Fairtrade ===
The [[Fairtrade]] label was developed in the late 1980s by a Dutch development agency in collaboration with Mexican farmers{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. The initiative performs development work and promotes its political vision of an alternative economy, seeing its main objective in empowering small producers and providing these with access to and improving their position on global markets{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.
The ''most distinguishing'' feature of the Fairtrade label is the guarantee of a minimum price and a social premium that goes to the cooperative and not to the producers directly. Recently{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}, Fairtrade also adopted environmental objectives as part of their [[certification]] system.
In 2020, [[Fairtrade International]] issued a position statement,<ref>{{cite web |title=Fit for purpose? |url=https://www.fairtrade.net/issue/fit-for-purpose |website=fairtrade.net |publisher=Fairtrade International |date=2020}}</ref> defending their use of [[technical standard|private standards]], in response to a report from The Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity (MSI Integrity).
=== Rainforest Alliance ===
The [[Rainforest Alliance]] was created in the late 1980s from a social movement and is committed to conserving rainforests and their biodiversity. One key element of the standard is the compulsory elaboration and implementation of a detailed plan for the development of a sustainable farm management system to assist wildlife conservation.
Another objective is to improve workers’ welfare by establishing and securing ''sustainable'' livelihoods. Producer prices may carry a premium. Yet instead of guaranteeing a fixed [[floor price]], the standard seeks to improve the economic situation of producers through higher yields and enhanced [[cost efficiency]]{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.
=== UTZ Certified ===
[[UTZ Certified]] (formerly Utz Kapeh) was co-founded by the Dutch coffee roaster Ahold Coffee Company in 1997. It aims to create an open and transparent marketplace for socially and environmentally responsible agricultural products. ''Instruments'' include the UTZ Traceability System and the UTZ Code of Conduct.
The traceability system makes certified products traceable from producer to final buyer and has ''stringent'' chains of custody requirements. The UTZ Code of Conduct emphasizes both environmental practices (e.g. biodiversity conservation, waste handling, and water use) and social benefits (e.g. access to medical care, access to sanitary facilities at work).
=== Organic ===
The [[Organic farming|Organic]] standard was developed in the 1970s and is based on [[IFOAM]] Basic Standards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luttikholt |first=L. W. M. |date=2007-01-01 |title=Principles of organic agriculture as formulated by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements |journal=NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences |language=en |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=347–360 |doi=10.1016/S1573-5214(07)80008-X |s2cid=62898220 |issn=1573-5214|doi-access=free }}</ref> IFOAM stands for International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements and is the leading global umbrella organization for the organic farming movement. The IFOAM Basic Standards provide a framework of minimum requirements, including the omission of agrochemicals such as pesticides and chemical-synthetic fertilizers. The use of animal feeds is also strictly regulated. Genetic engineering and the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are forbidden{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.
=== Sustainable Tourism ===
With increasing awareness, The [[tourism]] industry has a variety of sustainability standards for different subsectors. This includes standards for [[Eco hotel|sustainable hotels]], sustainable tour operators, sustainable events and conferences, sustainable destinations, and so on.
===LEED===
The [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] standards were developed by the US [[Green Building Council]] in an effort to propel green building design in the United States. LEED certification can be attained through "compliance with all environmental laws and regulations, occupancy scenarios, building permanence and pre-rating completion, site boundaries and area-to-site ratios, and obligatory five-year sharing of whole building [[energy use|energy]] and [[water use]] data from the start of occupancy (for new construction) or date of [[certification]] (for existing buildings)".<ref name="test">{{cite web |url=http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=6715 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-12-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205123305/http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=6715 |archive-date=2011-12-05 }}, additional text.</ref>
===Other examples===
Other types of standards include sector-specific schemes such as the [[Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil]] (RSPO); standards for climate and development interventions like the Gold Standard, retailer-led sustainability [[certification]] initiatives such as [[GlobalGAP]];
Corporate own-brand sustainability initiatives such as [[Starbucks#Coffee and Farmer Equity .28C.A.F.E..29 practices|Starbucks' C.A.F.E. Practices]]; and national programs such as the [[Bord Bia|Irish Food Board]]'s 'Origin Green' scheme.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://agritrade.cta.int/Agriculture/Topics/Product-differentiation/Special-report-Implications-of-sustainability-certification-schemes-for-the-ACP| title=Implications of sustainability certification schemes for the ACP| date=16 November 2013| website=Agritrade| archive-date=July 5, 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705030734/http://agritrade.cta.int/Agriculture/Topics/Product-differentiation/Special-report-Implications-of-sustainability-certification-schemes-for-the-ACP}}</ref>
The [[United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards]] (UNFSS) is a joint initiative of FAO, UNEP, ITC, UNCTAD, and UNIDO on Sustainability Standards.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards|url=https://unfss.org|website=UNFSS|publisher=United Nations|access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref> UNFSS is a neutral and credible platform to maximize the potential of Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS) as a means to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through:<ref>{{Cite web|title=About UNFSS|url=https://unfss.org/home/about-unfss/|access-date=2021-03-03|website=UNFSS|language=en-US}}</ref> Facilitating emerging economies' access to lucrative markets, stimulating well-informed dialogue among key stakeholders at the national and international level, and building capacities for producers and SMEs, to enhance opportunities in international trade.
== See also ==
*[[Certification]]
*[[Circles of Sustainability]]
*[[Ecolabel]]
*[[Harmonization (standards)]]
*[[List of sustainability topics]]
*[[International Standard]]
*[[Standards organization]]
*[[Sustainability]]
*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Sustainable sourcing]]
*[[Technical Standard]]
*[[United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Recommended readings ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite journal
|last1=Baue|first1=Bill |year=2023
|title=The Lost Decade: Sustainability Standards Sabotage Sustainability
|journal= r3.0 (Redesign for Resilience & Regeneration)
|url=https://www.r3-0.org/the-lost-decade/ }}
*{{cite book |first1=Emma |last1=Blackmore |first2=James |last2=Keeley |first3=Rhiannon |last3=Pyburn |first4=Ellen |last4=Mangus |first5=Lu |last5=Chen |first6=Qiao |last6=Yuhui |title=Pro-poor certification: Assessing the benefits of sustainability certification for small-scale farmers in Asia |date=March 2012 |publisher=IIED |isbn=978-1-84369-843-2 |url=https://pubs.iied.org/14604IIED/ }}
*{{cite journal
|last1=Brunsson |first1=N. |author1-link=Nils Brunsson |last2=Rasche |first2=A. |last3=Seidl |first3=D. |year=2012
|ssrn=2089976 |title=The Dynamics of Standardisation: Three Perspectives on Standards in Organization Studies
|journal=[[Organization Studies (journal)|Organization Studies]] |volume=33 |number=5–6 |pages=613–633 |doi=10.1177/0170840612450120 |s2cid=45252880 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/73434/1/OS_Standards_Brunsson-Seidl-Rasche.pdf }}
*{{cite journal
|last1=Gilbert |first1=D.U. |last2=Rasche |first2=A. |last3=Waddock |first3=S. |year=2011
|ssrn=1709011
|title=Accountability in a Global Economy: The Emergence of International Accountability Standards
|journal=[[Business Ethics Quarterly]] |volume=21 |number=1 |pages=23–44 |doi=10.5840/beq20112112|s2cid=43387391 }}
*{{cite journal
|last1=Gilbert |first1=D.U. |last2=Rasche |first2=A. |year=2007
|ssrn=1652151
|title=Discourse Ethics and Social Accountability: The Ethics of SA 8000
|journal=Business Ethics Quarterly |volume=17 |number=2 |pages=187–216 |doi=10.5840/beq200717230|s2cid=145330990 }}
*{{cite web |last1=Giovannucci |first1=Daniele |title=Sustainable Coffee Survey of the North American Specialty Coffee Industry |url=http://www3.cec.org/islandora/en/item/1700-sustainable-coffee-survey-north-american-specialty-coffee-industry |date=2001 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Giovannucci |first1=Daniele |last2=Potts |first2=Jason |last3=Killian |first3=B. |last4=Wunderlich |first4=C. |last5=Schuller |first5=S. |last6=Soto |first6=G. |last7=Schroeder |first7=K. |last8=Vagneron |first8=I. |last9=Pinard |first9=F. |title=Seeking Sustainability: COSA preliminary analysis of sustainability initiatives in the coffee sector |date=2008 |url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/eprint/13401 |ssrn=1338582 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Gulbrandsen |first1=Lars H. |title=Accountability Arrangements in Non-State Standards Organizations: Instrumental Design and Imitation |journal=Organization |date=July 2008 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=563–583 |doi=10.1177/1350508408091007 |s2cid=145407056 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Kolk |first1=Ans |title=Corporate Social Responsibility in the Coffee Sector |journal=European Management Journal |date=April 2005 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=228–236 |doi=10.1016/j.emj.2005.02.003 |citeseerx=10.1.1.204.3754 }}
*{{cite journal
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|ssrn=1752655 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.08.029
|title=National Contexts Matter: The Co-Evolution of Sustainability Standards in Global Value Chains
|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]] |year=2012 |volume=83 |pages=197–209 |s2cid=54715286 |url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/86263/1/RA14WP%202012%20EE%20National%20Contexts%20Matter.pdf }}
*{{cite journal
|last1=Manning |first1=S. |last2=von Hagen |first2=O |year=2010
|ssrn=1668888
|title=Linking Local Experiments to Global Standards: How Project Networks Promote Global Institution-Building
|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Management |volume=26 |number=4 |pages=398–416 |doi=10.1016/j.scaman.2010.09.003|s2cid=144234235 |url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/86270/1/RA8WP%202010%20SJM%20Global%20Project%20Networks.pdf }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Muradian |first1=Roldan |last2=Pelupessy |first2=Wim |title=Governing the coffee chain: The role of voluntary regulatory Systems |journal=World Development |date=December 2005 |volume=33 |issue=12 |pages=2029–2044 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.06.007 }}
*{{cite journal
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*{{cite journal
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|title=Collaborative Governance 2.0 |journal=Corporate Governance |volume=10 |number=4 |pages=500–511 |doi=10.1108/14720701011069713|s2cid=154959736 }}
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*{{cite journal
|last1=Reinecke |first1=J. |year=2010 |journal=Organization |volume=17 |number=5 |pages=1–19
|title=Beyond a subjective theory of value and towards a 'fair price': an organizational perspective on Fairtrade minimum price setting |doi=10.1177/1350508410372622|s2cid=145741555 }}
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*{{cite book
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{{Refend}}
== External links ==
*[https://www.fairtrade.net/ Fairtrade International's main website]
*[http://www.fsc.org/ FSC International]
*[https://www.isealalliance.org/ ISEAL Alliance initiative on sustainability standards]
*[http://www.standardsmap.org/ Standards Map from the International Trade Center]
*[http://www.coffeehabitat.com/certification-guide/ Referenced guide to major coffee certifications]
{{Sustainability}}
{{Social accountability}}
[[Category:Environmental standards]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Triple top line | {{confusing|date=June 2015|reason=I'm not sure what this article is talking about? An alternative accounting framework? Something that advocates recycling and sustainability issues? What IS TTL?}}
'''Triple top line''' (abbreviated as '''TTL''' or '''3TL''') is first mentioned by McDonough and Braungart (2002).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McDonough|first1=William|last2=Braungart|first2=Michael|title=Design for the Triple Top Line: New Tools for Sustainable Commerce|journal=Corporate Environmental Strategy|date=2002|volume=9|issue=3|page=251}}</ref> The [[triple bottom line]], an accounting framework coined by [[John Elkington (business author)|John Elkington]] in 1994,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/14301663|title=Triple Bottom Line|date=November 17, 2009|accessdate=14 August 2014|publisher=The Economist}}</ref> focuses on aligning sustainability and the intentions of a business when it comes to profit, whereas triple top line is a focus to align sustainability and business profitability from the inception of a product.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.mcdonough.com/writings/design-triple-top-line/|title=Design for the Triple Top Line (2002) {{!}} William McDonough|work=William McDonough|access-date=2017-10-23|language=en-US}}</ref> The TTL approach is an integral part of the process from the beginning of a product's development through its future development and marketing strategic planning.
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
{{Accounting-stub}} |
Choice editing | '''Choice editing''' refers to the active process of controlling or limiting the choices available to consumers so as to drive to an end goal, specifically by [[ban (law)|banning things]] or imposing [[pigovian tax|punitive taxation]]. The term has gained currency in discussions about [[sustainability]].
==Definition==
The [[Sustainable Development Commission]] defined "choice editing" as "...shifting the field of choice for mainstream consumers: cutting out unnecessarily damaging products and getting real sustainable choices on the shelves."<ref name=SDC2006>{{cite report
|publisher=[[Sustainable Development Commission]]
|url=http://www.sd-commission.org.uk/data/files/publications/Looking_back_SCR.pdf
|title=Looking Back, Looking Forward: Lessons in Choice Editing for Sustainability
|date=May 2006
|page=2
|access-date=2011-06-30
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928155907/http://www.sd-commission.org.uk/data/files/publications/Looking_back_SCR.pdf
|archive-date=2011-09-28
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> The process involves "...[removing] environmentally offensive products from commercial consideration or [making] such products expensive to use."<ref name=Maniates>{{cite web
|url=http://webpub.allegheny.edu/employee/m/mmaniate/choice_editing_Maniates.pdf
|first=Michael
|last=Maniates
|title=Editing out Unsustainable Behavior
|access-date=2011-06-30
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928083942/http://webpub.allegheny.edu/employee/m/mmaniate/choice_editing_Maniates.pdf
|archive-date=2011-09-28
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> Choice editing is a direct control of the impact from consumption and aims to only provide sustainable products in the market. Not only products can be edited out or replaced, but also product components, processes and business models.<ref name=WBCSD>
{{cite report
|publisher=World Business Council for Sustainable Development
|title=Sustainable consumption facts and trends: from a business perspective
|year=2008
}}</ref>
==History==
Choice editing is nothing new. It has been around through standards, [[tax]]es, [[tariff]]s and [[subsidy|subsidies]] that made certain products more desirable for consumers than others. The Sustainable Development Roundtable in 2006 announced that in the past choice editing was a major driver of “green” innovations, which suggests its potential to increase [[sustainable consumption]].<ref name=WorldWatch2010>
{{cite web
|url=http://blogs.worldwatch.org/transformingcultures/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/SOW10-ChoiceEditing.pdf
|title=State of the World: Transforming Cultures from Consumerism to Sustainability
|publisher=The Worldwatch Institute
|year=2010
}}</ref>
==Actors==
Governments and policy makers can edit citizens’ choices through laws, taxes, subsidies and voluntary bans. Businesses can edit choice by removing products from their range that might have negative impact on health or environment. Additionally, they can control their value chain and together with suppliers, processors and retailers develop solutions for more sustainable products and processes. A close collaboration along the value chain is important as the product’s environmental and social performance reflects the whole [[life-cycle assessment]].
Retailers can actively "edit out" choices by not stocking products that they, or the state, consider to have an unacceptable environmental impact, thus being unsustainable options. Moreover, retailers can edit choice by requiring their suppliers to meet certain criteria.<ref name=WBCSD/><ref>{{cite web
|publisher=The Danish Environmental Protection Agency
|title=Choice Editing
|date=20 January 2011
|url=http://www.mst.dk/English/SustainableConsumptionandProductionintheNordicRetailSector/WhatCanRetailersDo/Upstream/ChoiceEditing/
|access-date=30 June 2011
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928023258/http://www.mst.dk/English/SustainableConsumptionandProductionintheNordicRetailSector/WhatCanRetailersDo/Upstream/ChoiceEditing/
|archive-date=28 September 2011
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
==Examples==
; Editing by policy makers - light bulb ban
The [[Australia]]n government phased out [[incandescent light bulb]]s by 2010 as a step towards preventing possible electricity shortages and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. They were replaced by [[compact fluorescent lamp]]s (CFLs) and [[LED lamp]]s. The expected consequences are reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 4 million tons per year from 2012. The [[European Union]] is following Australia’s example by removing all incandescent bulbs by 2012. Many other countries such as [[Canada]], the [[United States]] and [[Indonesia]] will do so as well.<ref name=WorldWatch2010/>
; Banning a product component – Henkel
[[Henkel]] took over the [[Brazil]]ian company Alba in 2006. Some of the company’s adhesive products contained toluene, which was misused by young people for [[Inhalant abuse|glue sniffing]]. After the takeover, Henkel developed a toluene-free formula and by 2007 introduced the toluene-free brand Cascola.
; Editing the supply chain – Adidas
[[Adidas]] supports its suppliers in order to reduce their environmental impact by developing training materials, technical guidelines and workshop tailored to each supplier’s special need.
This way Adidas actively edits the environmental impact of its supply chain.<ref name=WBCSD/>
; Editing processes – Tijin
Tijin is a Japanese company operating in the chemical industry. They edited their business processes by developing a recycling system for polyester. This reduces energy and resource use, {{CO2}} emission and waste. Tijin established a global network with companies that collect polyester garments for recycling and support the expansion of products containing recycled polyester.<ref name=WBCSD/>
; Editing the corporate behavior - Hipp
As assessed by Belz and Peattie (2009), Prof. Dr Claus Hipp's philosophy of appropriate corporate behavior covering market, employees, the state and nature makes his baby foods company highly coveted by consumers. The company's ethics commission believes in economic fair play that can match the consumer's willingness to pay while processing the highest quality of organic raw materials that are sustainably grown. While many manufacturing companies' sustainability goals are towards the nature and the environment, Hipp takes a long-term ambition to survive in nature, as a part of it.<ref>
{{cite book
|first1=Frank-Martin|last1=Belz
|first2=Ken|last2=Peattie
|title=Sustainability Marketing: A Global Perspective
|location=UK|publisher=John Wiley & Sons
|year=2009
}}</ref>
==Controversy==
An often raised ethical question in this matter is, whether consumers should choose freely or not. Should items be simply removed from their choices? Who decides what is removed and why? Some argue that instead of choice editing, labeling should provide information about the social and environmental performance of a product. Based on that, consumers are free to choose between sustainable and unsustainable products themselves.<ref name=Maniates/>
The opposite opinion is held by [[Tim Lang (professor)|Tim Lang]], professor of food policy at [[City University London]] and a prominent figure in Britain's food industry. In an interview with ''[[The Guardian]]'' journalist Leo Hickman, Lang argues that the consumer need not be bothered in the supermarket aisle to agonise over complex issues such as animal welfare, carbon footprints, workers' rights and excessive packaging, often without any meaningful data on the label to inform their decision-making. Lang instead suggested that the manufacturers and retailers should take more responsibility by making most of these decisions on consumer's behalf before the product even reaches the shelves. This would in turn allow the consumer to avoid endorsing products that are damaging to the environment as well as the society.<ref>
{{cite news
|first=L.|last=Hickman
|title=Does the consumer really know?
|work=The Guardian
|date=25 October 2007
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/oct/25/ethicalliving.lifeandhealth1
|access-date=30 June 2011
}}</ref>
Furthermore, there is still no agreement on who defines if a product is sustainable or unsustainable. Therefore, decisions made about the availability of a product can cause conflicts between the different actors like government, policy makers, businesses and consumers as they might have varying views concerning the sustainable or unsustainable nature of a product.<ref name=WBCSD/>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Category:Biodegradable waste management | {{Commons}}
The following page contains articles linked to the management of [[biodegradable waste]]s. Biodegradable wastes are important as when [[landfill]]ed they break down anaerobically to produce [[biogas]]. If uncaptured this escapes into the atmosphere and becomes a contributor to [[global warming]].
[[Category:Biodegradation|Waste management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Waste]]
[[Category:Waste management]] |
Category:Climate change mitigation | {{Commons category|Climate change mitigation}}
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[[Category:Climate change|Mitigation]]
[[Category:Environmental mitigation]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Climate forcing]] |
Category:Industrial ecology | {{Cat main|Industrial ecology}}
[[Category:Environmental engineering]]
[[Category:Industrial engineering]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Economy and the environment]] |
Category:Sustainable technologies | {{commons category}}
This category is for articles relating to [[sustainable technology|sustainable technologies]] including:
* [[Renewable energy]]
* [[Sustainable living]]
* [[Organic agriculture]]
* [[Environmental economics]]
* [[Environmental technology]]
[[Category:Sustainable development|Tech]]
[[Category:Environmental technology]]
{{CatAutoTOC}} |
Category:Waste minimisation | {{Catmore}}
See also [[:Category:Energy conservation]].
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Waste management]]
[[Category:Environmental mitigation]]
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Category:Renewable resources | {{Commons category|Renewable resources}}
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[[Category:Natural resources]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Category:Self-sustainability | {{Cat main|Self-sustainability}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Simple living]]
[[Category:Social movements]]
[[Category:Preparedness]]
[[Category:Individualism]]
[[Category:Economic systems]] |