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[ { "answer": "**TL;DR** - It stemmed from existing social pressures all across Mexico, annexation by the US meant the rest of the South's institutions and the Planters gained super strong influence. Sam Houston was alive in 1861, and was vividly and vibrantly against the Confederate Cause, viewing it as antithetical to what he fought for in the Texas Revolution.\n\nSlavery was not the driving factor for the secession of Texas from Mexico, although it was a social pressure that was present. According to the Texas State Historical Association, in 1836 (the Texas Revolution taking place 1835-1836) the population consisted of about 30,000 Texians, 5,000 Blacks, 3,500 Tejanos, and 14,000 indigenous persons. This makes about 10~11% of the population as Black, a significant majority of whom would be slaves. In 1847, two years after annexation, this ratio becomes about 28~29%. These would be mostly concentrated around the Anglo farming communities in the East and North, which would be politically influential and would become adapted to the Southern way of life in short order.\n\nHowever, to look at the Texas Revolution, we need to go back to the beginning. Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, the Napoleon of the West.\n\n(Terminolog: \"Texian(s)\" = White Texan, \"Tejano(s)\" = Mexican Texan, \"Criollo(s)\" = White but born in colonial lands, \"Peninsular(es)\" = White and born in Spain, \"Empresario(s)\" = Colonial contractor hired to bring people)\n\nSanta Anna was of *criollo* origins, privileged as a 'continental' Spaniard (compared to 'peninsular', from Spain proper) under the colonial system. When revolution broke out among the *mestizo* masses, he, like a great many criollos, fought in the name of the Spanish Crown to put it down. His senior officer was a *peninsular*, even more privileged than Santa Anna himself, and during this war he witnessed brutal counterinsurgency tactics such as mass summary executions. This was also some of his first experience fighting Americans, defending Spanish territory from sympathetic American agents. When the Spanish homeland fell into troubles, a royalist officer decided to switch sides with an agreement to establish himself as the emperor of Mexico and guaranteeing the privileges of the peninsulares and criollos, with Santa Anna following his lead from then. Mexico's independence was gained later that year. This first emperor proved to be unpopular with the republican masses that had led revolution in the first place, and he tried to shut down republican efforts by closing the national congress and replacing it with a new institution that served solely him. \n\nHere's where fates turn, for Santa Anna conspired in revolution against this emperor he had once supported - he conspired, at least, for the purpose of restoring the congress. He won, and the emperor abdicated and was sent into exile, only to be executed in 1824 when he returned to Mexico once more.\n\nLater that year, 1824, the First Mexican Constitution was drafted and officialized under President Guadalupe Victoria. Victoria had been part of the revolution since the beginning, and was responsible for establishing diplomatic missions and recognition with his neighbors, as well as abolishing slavery. He resolved the economic crisis facing the nascent country, invested in all sorts of infrastructure, and helped to foster a new national spirit.\n\nVictoria's federal constitution and governance style was well-received in the borderland regions, such as The Sovereign Free State of Coahuila and Texas, or just 'Coahuila y Tejas' if you're pressed for time. These border states, which were underdeveloped and lacking in population that was integrated with Mexican society, were free to govern themselves, and conditional immigration from the United States was encouraged to help fill them out a bit more.\n\nAn early Texian rebellion formed with the Republic of Fredonia, in modern Nacogdoches in Northeast Texas (remember the geography I talked about earlier?). This rebellion was started by one Haden Edwards, an *empresario*, on the land he had himself settled. Nearby Cherokee also joined the rebellion, inspiring a white-and-red flag standing for settlers and natives together. As inspiring as they may sound, Edwards was a bit of a jerk - a Virginian of wealthy stock who tried to invalidate land titles that had already been established in the area granted to him, and rejected the elected captain of his militia (which he created by obligation, as part of his empresario contract) in favor of himself. He called for a new mayoral election, but the established residents claimed that it was rigged and appealed to a higher authority, which overturned it, which Edwards did not agree with. With tensions between established settlers and newer ones rising by the day, Edwards's contract was revoked, and he was expelled from Mexico. Without any compensation for his efforts and personal investments both in time and money, he refused to comply. After the newer brand of settlers began to face a few evictions and arrests, the local government was overthrown, and Edwards looked for support among both his previous settlers and among nearby Cherokee, to whom he promised officialized land titles to a *very significant amount of land* while they had been neglected by the state government. He sent word to other empresarios to try to gather support, but none came. The whole affair was essentially bloodless, though the Cherokee chiefs who had promised support were executed by their fellows as a show of support for Mexico when the time came to reestablish order. \n\nAlthough this was, by all accounts, a fairly minor incident, it also had the impact of a butterfly effect of sorts. The rebellion led to a Mexican federal inquiry into the state of Tejas, which under a different president led to passage of new laws unpopular with just about *everyone*, both the established and the new.\n\nThe election of 1828 was a bit crazy, with the fact of Victoria's resignation in the following year looming over everyone's heads and the direction of the country up in the air. Santa Anna and Lorenzo de Zavala, a figure who will play an important part later in our story, both supported the same candidate. Although Santa Anna was most typically a classic Criollo Conservative, Zavala was a Basque criollo, and his family had for that point been colonial, rather than peninsular, for over a century. Zavala, contrasting to Santa Anna, had been involved heavily with the Mexican Revolution in its early days, and had been among those who drafted the Constitution. For Santa Anna, this is possibly because the candidate in question, Vicente Ramon Guerrero Saldaña, had been a hero of the nation and one of those who ruled interrim between the fall of the empire and the new republic's founding. Moreover, he supported plans to strengthen the Mexican position, such as abolishing the means by which Spain kept trying to invade by invading Cuba. For Zavala, it was clearly his liberal ideology that was a draw. As a fun aside, Guerrero Saldaña was of African descent.\n\nGuerrero Saldaña ultimately fell short, losing the presidency to one Manuel Gomez Pedraza. Pedraza was a criollo, a close friend of the now-dead emperor, and was a royalist during the revolution. Santa Anna did not take his victory well, and organized a rebellion - one which Zavala was forced into joining while the Conservative government plotted against him. Zavala, being based quite close to Mexico City and with some fair amount of support, was able to help turn the tide, and forced Pedraza out. Guerrero Saldaña was appointed in 1829, and instituted sweeping liberal reforms in public education, land title, and re-abolished slavery. After a bit of murmuring, and though Stephen F. Austin seemed to have nothing but praise for Guerrero Saldaña, the Mexican governor of Tejas sent a request to the federal level to allow an exemption for Tejas - Saldaña's own words: \n\n > The serious inconvenience apprehended by the execution of the decree of the 15th of September last, on the subject of abolition of slavery in that department and the fatal results to be expected, prejudicial to the tranquility and even to the political existence of the state, and having considered how necessary it is to protect in an efficacious manner the colonization of these immense lands of the republic, he has been pleased to accede to the solicitation of Your Excellency and declare the department of Texas excepted from the general disposition comprehended in said decree.\n\nIn short, while the emancipation of slaves was a big gesture for him, Guerrero Saldaña exempted Texas because, in his eyes, the effective colonization, development, and economic health of the land came before such a gesture. That he only made such an exemption for Texas is due to the fact that it was a borderland territory surrounded by hostile tribes and had a very small non-native population, and so prioritizing its development and stability had been a long-time goal of the federal government. Though, I must point out that these murmurs were not rebellion-worthy, as Austin wrote:\n\n > I have the satisfaction to inform you that there was never the slightest break in the good order of this colony on account of the decree of September 15, because these inhabitants have placed the most blind confidence in the justice and good faith of the government\n\nWhile slavery had played a significant part in the Texan economy at the time, particularly in the northeast regions, they were not terribly upset and uppity over its abolition, and the people were quite content under Guerrero Saldaña's rule. One reason that the prospect of abolition might not have had as violent a result was that Guerrero Saldaña had promised compensation to former is slaveholders to ease the financial and economic burden that the process would incur both privately and publicly.\n\nSounds great, right? Well, not quite. More to follow in Post Part 2.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34700", "title": "1840s", "section": "Section::::Politics and wars.:North America.:Texas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 191, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 191, "end_character": 470, "text": "When the war concluded, Mexico relinquished its claim on Texas, as well as other regions in what is now the southwestern United States. Texas' annexation as a state that tolerated slavery had caused tension in the United States among slave states and those that did not allow slavery. The tension was partially defused with the Compromise of 1850, in which Texas ceded some of its territory to the federal government to become non-slave-owning areas but gained El Paso.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27143322", "title": "History of Texas (1845–1860)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 333, "text": "Texas' annexation as a state that tolerated slavery had caused tension in the United States among slave states and those that did not allow slavery. The tension was partially defused with the Compromise of 1850, in which Texas ceded some of its territory to the federal government to become non-slave-owning areas but gained El Paso\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1855455", "title": "Empresario", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 331, "text": "By empresarios attracting immigrants mostly from the southern United States to Texas, they inadvertently encouraged the spread of slavery into this territory. Although Mexico banned slavery in 1836, Texas gained independence that year, and continued to develop an economy dominated by slavery in the eastern part of the territory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "448063", "title": "Mexican Cession", "section": "Section::::Mexican–American War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 628, "text": "Considering the seizures, including all of Texas, Mexico lost 54% of its pre-1836 territory in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. For only fifteen years from 1821 (when Mexican independence was secured) and the Texan Revolt in 1836, the Mexican Cession (excluding Texas) formed approximately 42% of the country of Mexico; prior to that, it had been a part of the Spanish colony of New Spain for some three centuries. Beginning in the early seventeenth century, a chain of Roman Catholic missions and settlements extended into the New Mexico region, mostly following the course of the Rio Grande from the El Paso area to Santa Fe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32406551", "title": "Republic of Texas–United States relations", "section": "Section::::U.S. annexation of Texas.:Issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 499, "text": "Another issue raised by the debate over Texan annexation was that of slavery. Since the early nineteenth century, Texas was a producer of cotton. It was also dependent upon slave labor to produce its cotton. The question of whether or not the United States should annex Texas came at a time of increased tensions between the Northern and Southern states of the Union over the legality and morality of slavery; thus the possibility of admitting Texas as another slave state proved to be contentious.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32406551", "title": "Republic of Texas–United States relations", "section": "Section::::U.S. involvement in Texan independence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 786, "text": "Following Mexico's independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, the population of Texas numbered only 4,000 Tejanos. The new Mexican government, eager to populate the region, invited Americans to help settle the region; by 1830 the number of American settlers in Texas topped 30,000. Slavery was brought to Texas by the settlers even though the 1824 Mexican constitution declared the process illegal; in 1831 the Mexican government began to combat slavery in Texas, intensifying the desire of the Texans to seek independence. By 1835, Sam Houston and other Texans initiated the battle for independence. The United States decided to support the revolution by providing arms and supplies to the Texas rebels, eventually leading to the independence and creation of the Republic of Texas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "355738", "title": "Texas annexation", "section": "Section::::Background information.:Texas settlement and independence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1421, "text": "A general lawlessness prevailed in the vast Texas frontier, and Mexico's civic laws went largely unenforced among the Anglo-American settlers. In particular, the prohibitions against slavery and forced labor were ignored. The requirement that all settlers be Catholic or convert to Catholicism was also subverted. Mexican authorities, perceiving that they were losing control over Texas and alarmed by the unsuccessful Fredonian Rebellion of 1826, abandoned the policy of benign rule. New restrictions were imposed in 1829–1830, outlawing slavery throughout the nation and terminating further American immigration to Texas. Military occupation followed, sparking local uprisings and a civil war. Texas conventions in 1832 and 1833 submitted petitions for redress of grievances to overturn the restrictions, with limited success. In 1835, an army under Mexican President Santa Anna entered its territory of Texas and abolished self-government. Texans responded by declaring their independence from Mexico on March 2, 1836. On April 20–21, rebel forces under Texas General Sam Houston defeated the Mexican army at the Battle of San Jacinto. In June 1836, Santa Anna agreed to Texas independence, but the Mexican government refused to honor Santa Anna's pledge. Texans, now \"de facto\" independent, recognized that their security and prosperity could never be achieved while Mexico denied the legitimacy of their revolution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As a a follow-up question, is there any precedent to a former president being considered for Supreme Court Justice?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There have been very few Presidents who served in public office after the Presidency. JQA is *by far* the most famous of them, due not only to the mere length of his tenure in the house, but also due to the tenacious reputation that he earned while serving, where he became of the leading voices of abolition within Congress, fighting against the Gag Rule, the annexation of Texas, and participating in the famous legal case concerning the slave ship *Amistad*. He was the only former President to go to the House after, but not to Congress, joined in that by Andrew Johnson, although roughly opposite in terms of honor, Johnson serving a mere few months in the office in 1875 before dying in July of that year, and leaving no legacy to speak of.\n\nThere were a few others who had notable post-presidential political careers in highest level of government though. The next most obvious would be William Howard Taft, who was appointed as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by the next Republican, President Harding, in 1921, 9 years after he had failed to win reelection. It is often said that this had always been his true ambition anyways, and it is generally agreed that not only did he *enjoy* his time on the bench a great deal more than in the White House, but also that he was much better at it too, establishing himself as an able and forceful leader of the Court through the 1920s, generally seen as consistently conservative in how he kept the court directed, as well as being a strong advocate for legal reform from Congress, resulting in the creation of the Conference of Senior Circuit Judges and the passage of the Judges' Bill.\n\nThe final former President to highlight would be John Tyler, who I'm going to focus on here because conversely he is the most obscure on this count! After the Presidency he returned home to Virginia, and he did attempt to keep his reputation burnished, but didn't seek major office. With the decline of the Whig party, he began to turn toward the Democrats. In 1860, with deteriorating national situation, he attended the 1860 Democratic Convention, and although he didn't campaign for it, \"entertained the delusion\" that he might perhaps be offered up their Presidential candidate, under the impression that he would provide a unity candidate for the entire south to coalesce around. The odds of this were, in fact, nil, and he in the end became a supporter of Breckenridge, the more hardline candidate, announcing his impression of the situation to be \"*live or die, survive or perish.*\"\n\nNevertheless, he wished not to see the Union perish, even if he feared it might be impossible to avoid, and as the wave of secession began, he was a supporter of the Crittenden Compromise, which had hoped to over a means to ensure slavery had stronger protections to alleviate concerns over Lincoln's election, but of course in the end failed. He continued to try to position himself as a force for compromise, offering to head a conference of the six slave and free states closest to the border, but this too didn't prevent the march to war, even if serving in the Virginia delegation gave him further chance to feel like he was trying. He saw a few other honors in the period though, being picked by Virginia to head a delegation to Pres. Buchanan to discuss the crisis, as well as to later meet with Lincoln on the eve of his inauguration.\n\nHis return to public service continued further with his selection to attend the Virginia convention for secession, where he was considered one of the most honored members, and by that point had shifted to being pro-secession, and by the vote on the 17th, had become one of the vocal proponents, and afterwards gave a public speech comparing their coming struggle to that of their revolutionary forefathers\n\nWith secession a done deal, he finally returned to public office, standing for election to the Confederate Congress, and being chosen by Charles City County to represent them in the House. Congress wouldn't meet until February, 1862, so he spent the intervening months negotiating the official terms for Virginia's entry into the Confederacy, as well as the agreement to move the capital of the wannabe nation to Richmond, from Montgomery. He traveled to Richmond to begin his new position... and died a month before the Congress convened, passing away on January 18th, 1862. In the United States, his passing received perhaps the least notice of any former president, the traitor's death going without comment from Lincoln and the government, while in Virginia, a 150-carriage funeral procession and great mourning accompanied his passing.\n\n**Sources**\n\nBurns, Kevin J. “Chief Justice as Chief Executive: Taft’s Judicial Statesmanship.” *Journal of Supreme Court History* 43, no. 1 (March 2018): 47–68\n\nCrapol, Edward P.. *John Tyler, the Accidental President*. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012. \n\nWaldstreicher, David, ed. *A Companion to John Adams and John Quincy Adams*. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013.\n\nETA: Formatting and some clarity", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14458770", "title": "Presidency of John Quincy Adams", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 736, "text": "The presidency of John Quincy Adams began on March 4, 1825, when John Quincy Adams was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on March 4, 1829. Adams, the sixth United States president, took office following the 1824 presidential election, in which he and three other Democratic-Republicans—Henry Clay, William H. Crawford, and Andrew Jackson—sought the presidency. There was no preliminary party primary six months before the general election, as became the custom. No candidate won a majority of Electoral College votes, and so the United States House of Representatives chose the president in a contingent election. With the help of Clay, Adams was elected by the House, and Clay became Adams's Secretary of State.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15654", "title": "John Quincy Adams", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 785, "text": "John Quincy Adams (; July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the sixth president of the United States from 1825 to 1829. He previously served as the eighth United States Secretary of State from 1817 to 1825. During his long diplomatic and political career, Adams also served as an ambassador, and represented Massachusetts as a United States Senator and as a member of the United States House of Representatives. He was the eldest son of John Adams, who served as the second US president from 1797 to 1801, and First Lady Abigail Adams. Initially a Federalist like his father, he won election to the presidency as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, and in the mid-1830s became affiliated with the Whig Party.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3493102", "title": "List of tie-breaking votes cast by vice presidents of the United States", "section": "Section::::Historical significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 902, "text": "The first president of the Senate, John Adams, cast 29 tie-breaking votes. He cast his first tie-breaking vote on July 18, 1789. His votes protected the president's sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, and prevented war with Great Britain. On at least one occasion he persuaded senators to vote against legislation that he opposed, and he frequently lectured the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of the Washington administration. Toward the end of his first term, as a result of a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters, he began to exercise more restraint in the hope of realizing the goal shared by many of his successors: election in his own right as President of the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "663486", "title": "Richard Rush", "section": "Section::::Federal government service.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 322, "text": "In 1828, he was a candidate for Vice President on the re-election ticket with John Quincy Adams, but was defeated. After leaving the Treasury Department, he was sent to England and the Netherlands by the cities of Georgetown and Alexandria to negotiate a large loan for the cities, a mission that met with prompt success.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21211828", "title": "Inauguration of John Quincy Adams", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 564, "text": "John Quincy Adams was elected president by the United States House of Representatives after none of the four candidates secured a majority of votes in the electoral college in the 1824 presidential election, as prescribed by the Twelfth Amendment. The outcome was assured when Henry Clay, one of the front-runners, threw his support to Mr. Adams so that Andrew Jackson's candidacy would fail. Jackson had polled more popular votes in the election, but he did not gain enough electoral votes to win outright. Adams ran for re-election in 1828, but lost to Jackson.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14458770", "title": "Presidency of John Quincy Adams", "section": "Section::::Departure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 548, "text": "John Quincy Adams left office on March 4, 1829. Adams did not attend the inauguration of his successor, Andrew Jackson, who had openly snubbed him by refusing to pay the traditional \"courtesy call\" to the outgoing president during the weeks before his own inauguration. Jackson's wife had died shortly after the election, and Jackson blamed Adams and his followers for her death. Adams was one of only four presidents who chose not to attend their respective successor's inauguration; the others were his father, Andrew Johnson, and Richard Nixon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2533191", "title": "George Washington Adams", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 318, "text": "George Washington Adams (April 12, 1801 – April 30, 1829) was an American attorney and politician. He was the eldest son of John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States. Adams served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives and on the Boston City Council. He died of an apparent suicide at age 28.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Unless you've gained weight, it's because your body has gotten used to it. You're BAC isn't changing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The original guy who determined the blood alcohol scale (one of the first doctors who worked as a medical examiner in NYC in the early 20th C) developed it through animal testing, using dogs. He used it to find the minimum level at which the dogs became drunk. However, he did test it to see how tolerance affected drunkenness, and found (as you have noted) that dogs with higher tolerance would behave normally even at higher blood alcohol levels.\n\nSo, BAC is the same no matter how you behave, but becoming accustomed to drinking does affect how BAC makes you behave and affects your organs.\n\nIf you are interested, read The Poisoner's Handbook by Deborah Blum -- it's SUPER fascinating. There's also a good PBS documentary about it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You still have the same BAC. Your body just learned how to function better at a given BAC. *This is a bad thing.* The reason why more people don't die of alcohol poisoning every year is because long before most of us get a deadly level of alcohol in our blood we pass out or start throwing up (which generally causes us to stop drinking for the night). Keep it up and you'll eventually reach the point where you can have 0.35% blood alcohol and still be walking and talking and arguing with the hospital staff right up until your brain forgets how to tell your body to breathe and you die anyway even though the whole ER is working to save you. Not that I worked in hospitals for 19 years and saw this more than once, mind you. I gave up drinking after the second weekend.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43209744", "title": "Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 876, "text": "All items are scored from 0–7, with the exception of the orientation category, scored from 0–4. The CIWA scale is validated and has high inter-rater reliability. A randomized, double blind trial published in \"JAMA\" in 1994 showed that management for alcohol withdrawal that was guided by the CIWA scale resulted in decreased treatment duration and total use of benzodiazepines. The goal of the CIWA scale is to provide an efficient and objective means of assessing alcohol withdrawal. Studies have shown that use of the scale in management of alcohol withdrawal leads to decreased frequency of over-sedation with benzodiazepines in patients with milder alcohol withdrawal than would otherwise be detected without use of the scale, and decreased frequency of under-treatment in patients with greater severity of withdrawal than would otherwise be determined without the scale.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19329865", "title": "Short-term effects of alcohol consumption", "section": "Section::::Effects by dosage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 382, "text": "Different BACs have different effects. The following lists describe the common effects of alcohol on the body depending on the BAC. However, tolerance varies considerably between individuals, as does individual response to a given dosage; the effects of alcohol differ widely between people. Hence in this context, BAC percentages are just estimates used for illustrative purposes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4845", "title": "Blood alcohol content", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 212, "text": "Blood alcohol content (BAC), also called blood alcohol concentration, blood ethanol concentration, or blood alcohol level, is most commonly used as a metric of alcohol intoxication for legal or medical purposes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19329865", "title": "Short-term effects of alcohol consumption", "section": "Section::::Effects by dosage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 633, "text": "The definition of a unit of alcohol ranges between 8 to 14 grams of pure alcohol/ethanol depending on the country. There is no agreement on definitions of a low, moderate or high dose of alcohol either. The U.S. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism defines a moderate dose as alcohol intake up to two standard drinks or 28 grams for men and one standard drink or 14 grams for women. The immediate effect of alcohol depends on the drinker's blood alcohol concentration (BAC). BAC can be different for each person depending on their age, sex, pre-existing health condition, even if they drink the same amount of alcohol.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43209744", "title": "Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 663, "text": "The Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol, commonly abbreviated as CIWA or CIWA-Ar (revised version), is a ten item scale used in the assessment and management of alcohol withdrawal. Each item on the scale is scored independently, and the summation of the scores yields an aggregate value that correlates to the severity of alcohol withdrawal, with ranges of scores designed to prompt specific management decisions such as the administration of benzodiazepines. The maximum score is 67; Mild alcohol withdrawal is defined with a score less than or equal to 10, moderate with scores 11 to 15, and severe with any score equal to or greater than 16. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "89198", "title": "Alcohol dehydrogenase", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 385, "text": "In 1949, E. Racker defined one unit of alcohol dehydrogenase activity as the amount that causes a change in optical density of 0.001 per minute under the standard conditions of assay. Recently, the international definition of enzymatic unit (E.U.) has been more common: one unit of Alcohol Dehydrogenase will convert 1.0 µmole of ethanol to acetaldehyde per minute at pH 8.8 at 25 °C.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18948043", "title": "Alcoholic drink", "section": "Section::::Health effects.:Short-term effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1271, "text": "Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03–0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria, increased self-confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g., slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting (death may occur due to inhalation of vomit (pulmonary aspiration) while unconscious) and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. Alcohol is eliminated by enzymes in the liver at a rate of ca. 15 mg per dL of blood per hour (mg/dL/h). For a 100 kg man, this corresponds to ca. 15 mL per hour, which is the pure alcohol content of a typical 300 mL small beer bottle. The rate of elimination depends linearly on body weight and follows zero order kinetics, but can be doubled by repeated exposure (habitual drinking).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "the bacteria can produce toxins which are not destroyed by heat from what I read earlier (I think my friend also mentioned this awhile back).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1) Food poisoning is often caused by the toxins bacteria produce as waste. Heat does not destroy these toxins, so if they have already reached a level that is dangerous to humans cooking does not do any good to prevent illness. \n\n2) Contamination can occur after cooking has ended.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Bacteria, much like humans, will eat and poop. It’s the bacterial poop that causes most of the problems associated with food poisoning and not the bacteria themselves. And while you can kill the bacteria and the parasites by boiling or baking them, if they were in your food long enough for their poop to build up, the food becomes toxic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1) Not all bacteria die in cooking (also depends on cooking type e.g. If it's pressure cooked or not) and they survive as a spore such as clostridium perfringens and bacillis cereus.\n\n2) some bacteria produce heat stable toxins that cause food poisoning regardless if the bacteria themselves are dead after. Such as staph aureus.\n\n3) some bacteria survive due to insufficient cooking such as salmonella and Vibrio parahaemolyticus.\n\n4) some contaminations happen after cooking. Such as when you cut the raw meat with a knife then use it to cut the cooked meat without proper washing or when kebab shops keep the shaved off meat in a dish for hours and hours out in the open getting splashed by contaminants.\n\nThat's all I can think of now, but I'm sure there are other mechanisms (also I only talked about bacteria here)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5355", "title": "Cooking", "section": "Section::::Health and safety.:Food safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 661, "text": "Cooking can prevent many foodborne illnesses that would otherwise occur if the food is eaten raw. When heat is used in the preparation of food, it can kill or inactivate harmful organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, as well as various parasites such as tapeworms and \"Toxoplasma gondii\". Food poisoning and other illness from uncooked or poorly prepared food may be caused by bacteria such as of \"Escherichia coli\", \"Salmonella typhimurium\" and \"Campylobacter\", viruses such as noroviruses, and protozoa such as \"Entamoeba histolytica\". Bacteria, viruses and parasites may be introduced through salad, meat that is uncooked or done rare, and unboiled water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42114", "title": "Salmonella", "section": "Section::::Detection, culture, and growth conditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 262, "text": "The bacteria are not destroyed by freezing, but UV light and heat accelerate their destruction. They perish after being heated to for 90 min, or to for 12 min. To protect against \"Salmonella\" infection, heating food to an internal temperature of is recommended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "531611", "title": "Foodborne illness", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Bacteria.:Preventing bacterial food poisoning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 267, "text": "At home, prevention mainly consists of good food safety practices. Many forms of bacterial poisoning can be prevented by cooking it sufficiently, and either eating it quickly or refrigerating it effectively. Many toxins, however, are not destroyed by heat treatment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60797872", "title": "Japan Airlines food poisoning incident", "section": "Section::::Investigation.:Spread of pathogens.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 348, "text": "According to microbiologists, it can take as few as 100 staphylococci to cause food poisoning. In-flight catering logistics provided ideal conditions for the bacteria to grow and release toxins, which induce severe nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal cramps. Being heat-resistant, the toxins were not destroyed when the omelettes were heated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35490713", "title": "Physical factors affecting microbial life", "section": "Section::::High temperatures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 883, "text": "Extreme temperatures destroy viruses and vegetative cells that are active and metabolising. Organic molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipid and nucleic acids, as well as cell walls and membranes, all of which play important roles in cell metabolism, are damaged by excessive heat. Food for human consumption is routinely heated by baking, boiling and frying to temperatures which destroy most pathogens. Thermal processes often cause undesirable changes in the texture, appearance and nutritional value of foods. Autoclaves generate steam at higher than boiling point and are used to sterilise laboratory glassware, surgical instruments, and, in a growing industry, medical waste. A danger inherent in using high temperatures to destroy microbes, is their incomplete destruction through inadequate procedures with a consequent risk of producing pathogens resistant to heat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35490713", "title": "Physical factors affecting microbial life", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 236, "text": "Microbes can be damaged or killed by elements of their physical environment such as temperature, radiation, or exposure to chemicals; these effects can be exploited in efforts to control pathogens, often for the purpose of food safety.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5301306", "title": "Portable water purification", "section": "Section::::Techniques.:Heat (boiling).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 367, "text": "Heat kills disease-causing micro-organisms, with higher temperatures and/or duration required for some pathogens. Sterilization of water (killing all living contaminants) is not necessary to make water safe to drink; one only needs to render enteric (intestinal) pathogens harmless. Boiling does not remove most pollutants and does not leave any residual protection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I don't see why not. There are lots of species that exhibit extreme [sexual dimorphism](_URL_1_), or where one sex is radically different than the other.\n\nedit: in a totally unrelated note, after reading the article, TIL that there is a evolutionary biology theory called the [sexy son hypothesis](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's hard to believe that cases of extreme sexually dimorphic size differences -- with accompanying difference in brain sizes -- don't have an effect on degree of sapience.\n\nThe [blanket octopus](_URL_1_), for example, has a female 2 meters long and a male just 1% of that. Same with [anglerfish](_URL_0_), as mentioned.\n\nUnrelated bonus quote: *The males have a specially modified third right arm which stores sperm, known as a hectocotylus. During mating, this arm detaches itself and crawls into the mantle of the female to fertilize her eggs.*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If *undirected* selection/modification is done to decrease intelligence in one sex, it will dumb down the species.\n\nDirected evolution or engineering is another matter. Single sex-specific gene modification may be sufficient, as long as the gene is affecting general brain development. Say, if you like your men normal but women mentally below-average and quadrupedal, you can insert functional wild-type copy of VLDLR gene on Y chromosome and make sure other, autosomal copies are mutated just so:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43758185", "title": "Pristionchus", "section": "Section::::Reproduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 306, "text": "Most known species of \"Pristionchus\" have males and females, although several species are androdioecious, consisting of males and self-fertilizing hermaphrodites. Sex determination in \"Pristionchus\" species is by an X0 system, whereby males have one sex (X) chromosome and females/hermaphrodites have two.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6229866", "title": "Spider cannibalism", "section": "Section::::Males eating females.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 394, "text": "Reversing the traditional roles, species that have males consuming females are relatively unknown; the few that do show a male-biased sexual dimorphism. Examples include \"Allocosa brasiliensis\", \"Evarcha culicivora\", and \"Argyronetia aquatica\". Male water spiders, \"Argyronetia aquatica\", show a predilection for mating with larger females, while cannibalizing females smaller than themselves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "247151", "title": "Mimicry", "section": "Section::::Classification.:Defensive.:Browerian.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 346, "text": "This is not always the case, however. In sexually dimorphic species, one sex may be more of a threat than the other, which could mimic the protected sex. Evidence for this possibility is provided by the behaviour of a monkey from Gabon, which regularly ate male moths of the genus \"Anaphe\", but promptly stopped after it tasted a noxious female.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1544170", "title": "Anisogamy", "section": "Section::::Anisogamy and sexual dimorphism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 671, "text": "In most species, both sexes choose mates based on the available phenotypes of potential mates. These phenotypes are species specific, resulting in varying strategies for successful sexual reproduction. For example, large males are sexually selected for in elephant seals for their large size helps the male fight off other males, but small males are sexually selected for in spiders for they can mate with the female more quickly while avoiding sexual cannibalism. However, despite the large range of sexually selected phenotypes, most anisogamous species follow a set of predictable desirable traits and selective behaviors based on general reproductive success models.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5424051", "title": "Monogamy in animals", "section": "Section::::Animals.:Sexual dimorphism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 322, "text": "BULLET::::- Even if future studies clearly establish sexual dimorphism in \"Australopithecus\", other studies have shown the relationship between sexual dimorphism and mating system is unreliable. Some polygamous species show little or no sexual dimorphism. Some monogamous species show a large amount of sexual dimorphism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9334591", "title": "Koinophilia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 544, "text": "Koinophilia differs from the \"like prefers like\" mating pattern of assortative mating. If like preferred like, leucistic animals (such as white peacocks) would be sexually attracted to one another, and a leucistic subspecies would come into being. Koinophilia predicts that this is unlikely because leucistic animals are attracted to the average in the same way as are all the other members of its species. Since non-leucistic animals are not attracted by leucism, few leucistic individuals find mates, and leucistic lineages will rarely form.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3845894", "title": "Human male sexuality", "section": "Section::::Sexual coercion and violence.:Evolutionary explanations.:Evolutionary selection of sexual coercion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 646, "text": "Though it is a widely held view that sexually coercive behaviour occurs as a result of sexual selection, Smuts and Smuts (1993) proposed that sexual coercion is best described as a third type of sexual selection, rather than attempting to fit it into either of the other two forms: mate choice and intrasex competition. While sexual coercion certainly interacts with the other two forms of sexual selection, its conceptual distinction lies under the fact that a sexually coercive male may succeed in the competition for mates using coercion, despite losing in male-male competition for females, and despite not being chosen by females as a mate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "when your guts are 'more empty' what they are filled with, instead of a semi-solid mass (food), is gas and liquid. This gurgles more noisily when your intestines engage in peristalsis, a coordinated movement of the muscles that line them, in order to stir up and progress their contents.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Did you know there is a word for your tummy rumbles? A single one is called a borborygmus, and borborygmi in the plural form. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "221221", "title": "Stomach rumble", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 742, "text": "A stomach rumble, also known as a bowel sound, peristaltic sound or bubble gut, is a rumbling, growling or gurgling noise produced by movement of the contents of the gastro-intestinal tract as they are propelled through the small intestine by a series of muscle contractions called peristalsis. A trained healthcare provider can listen to these intestinal noises with a stethoscope, but they may be audible enough to be heard with the naked ear and are known as stomach rumble or borborygmus (pronounced ; plural borborygmi) as the fluid and gas moves forward in the intestines (in the vicinity of but not actually within the stomach). The lack of bowel sounds is indicative of ileus, intestinal obstruction, or some other serious pathology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "221221", "title": "Stomach rumble", "section": "Section::::Other causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 493, "text": "BULLET::::- Louder rumbles may occur when one is hungry. Around two hours after the stomach has been emptied, it sends signals to the brain, which tells the digestive muscles to restart peristalsis in a wave called the migrating motor complex. Food left behind after the first cycle is swept up, and the vibrations of the empty stomach cause hunger. Appetite plays a big role in this situation. Peristalsis recurs about every hour, and one's appetite may cause 10- to 20-minute food cravings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1355944", "title": "Mr Creosote", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 525, "text": "He finishes the feast, and several other courses, vomiting profusely all over himself, his table, and the restaurant's staff throughout his meal, causing other diners to lose their appetite, and in some cases, throw up as well. Finally, after being persuaded by the smooth maître d' to eat a single \"wafer-thin mint\", his stomach begins to rapidly expand until it explodes: covering the restaurant and diners with viscera and partially digested food—even starting a \"vomit-wave\" among the other diners, who leave in disgust.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18600477", "title": "Hiccup", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Evolutionary causes.:Clearance of air from stomach.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 318, "text": "The hypothesis suggests that the air bubble in the stomach stimulates the sensory limb of the reflex at receptors in the stomach, esophagus and along the diaphragm. This triggers the hiccup, which creates suction in the chest, pulling air from the stomach up and out through the mouth, effectively burping the animal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45609", "title": "Cheetah", "section": "Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Home ranges and territories.:Vocalisations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 242, "text": "BULLET::::- Growling: Often accompanied by hissing and spitting, the cheetah growls to show its annoyance, or when faced with danger. A study showed that growls consist of numerous short pulses with a combined duration of up to five seconds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39747", "title": "Stomach", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 369, "text": "In humans and many other animals, the stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. It secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3416", "title": "Bryozoa", "section": "Section::::Physiology.:Feeding and excretion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 388, "text": "In some species the first part of the stomach forms a muscular gizzard lined with chitinous teeth that crush armored prey such as diatoms. Wave-like peristaltic contractions move the food through the stomach for digestion. The final section of the stomach is lined with cilia (minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the intestine and out through the anus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Toyota builds good cars that last long enough to make it to the used market and get bought by these groups ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Older model toyotas are just really tough. Drive out into rural areas almost anywhere (even developed countries like the US) and you'll find tons of them still in working order.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Mainly like in instances of the super bowl by example. They make clothi NH for both teams for whatever one wins. Whichever team didn't win, their merchandise is sent to Africa and shite. And as @phcullen said, the end up in the used market", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They are not \"making old models and selling them\" there. Those are old trucks that have lasted long enough that they are sold by their original owners (and likely several others ) until they are eventually shipped over seas and sold. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Globally there are quite a few exporters who resell older but still serviceable vehicles to African countries. My mum literally got an e mail from a Nigerian who found her name card in her car. \n \nI'm not sure if he was a prince though. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9288993", "title": "Toyota War", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 617, "text": "The Toyota War ( \"Ḥarb Tūyūtā\", ) or Great Toyota War was the last phase of the Chadian–Libyan conflict, which took place in 1987 in Northern Chad and on the Libyan–Chadian border. It takes its name from the Toyota pickup trucks used, primarily the Toyota Hilux and the Toyota Land Cruiser, to provide mobility for the Chadian troops as they fought against the Libyans. The 1987 war resulted in a heavy defeat for Libya, which, according to American sources, lost one tenth of its army, with 7,500 men killed and US$1.5 billion worth of military equipment destroyed or captured. Chadian losses were 1,000 men killed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1420396", "title": "Toyota Kijang", "section": "Section::::Replacement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 469, "text": "Toyota replaced the Kijang station wagon across Southeast Asia with the smaller Avanza in 2003, and the larger Innova in 2004. The latter has been retailed by Toyota-Astra Motor in Indonesia as the \"Kijang Innova\" to retain its linkage with the original model. Toyota categorize the Innova as the fifth and sixth generation Kijang. The Kijang pickup was sold until early 2007 when it was replaced by the Hilux pickup truck to comply with the Euro 2 emission standards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30984", "title": "Toyota", "section": "Section::::Company strategy.:Worldwide presence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 253, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 253, "end_character": 762, "text": "In 2002, Toyota initiated the Innovative International Multi-purpose Vehicle project (IIMV) to optimize global manufacturing and supply systems for pickup trucks and multipurpose vehicles, and to satisfy market demand in more than 140 countries worldwide. IIMV called for diesel engines to be made in Thailand, gasoline engines in Indonesia, and manual transmissions in India and the Philippines, for supply to the countries charged with vehicle production. For vehicle assembly, Toyota would use plants in Thailand, Indonesia, Argentina, and South Africa. These four main IIMV production and export bases supply Asia, Europe, Africa, Oceania, Latin America, and the Middle East with three vehicles: The Toyota Hilux (Vigo), the Fortuner, and the Toyota Innova.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "290181", "title": "Toyota Land Cruiser", "section": "Section::::Use by militant groups.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 162, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 162, "end_character": 508, "text": "Owing to its durability and reliability, the Land Cruiser, along with the smaller Toyota Hilux, has become popular among militant groups in war-torn regions. U.S. counter-terror officials enquired of Toyota how the extremist group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant had apparently acquired large numbers of Toyota Land Cruisers and Hiluxes. Mark Wallace, the CEO of the Counter Extremism Project said, \"Regrettably, the Toyota Land Cruiser and Hilux have effectively become almost part of the ISIS brand.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "346651", "title": "Toyota Prius", "section": "Section::::Sales.:Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 611, "text": "Rising oil prices caused by the Arab Spring led to increased sales of the Prius in the first quarter of 2011, but the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami led to a production stoppage. Production restarted several days later, but output was hindered due to shortages from parts suppliers. Nevertheless, during the 2011 Japanese fiscal year (1 April 2011 through 31 March 2012), the Prius family sold 310,484 units, including sales of the Prius α, launched in May 2011, and the Toyota Aqua, launched in December, allowing the Prius brand to become the best-selling vehicle in Japan for the third-consecutive year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49003907", "title": "Tan Chong Motor", "section": "Section::::History.:1970s - Zenith.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 984, "text": "The greatest threat to Datsun's dominance in the Malaysian market came from another Japanese brand, Toyota. Like Datsun, Toyota had also embarked on a similar approach in its marketing, offering affordable, reliable and fuel efficient vehicles for the masses. Both Toyota and Datsun battled fiercely for pole position in the Malaysian market, often just fractions apart in total market share. In 1974, Toyota captured 15.96% of the Peninsular Malaysian market, while Datsun managed 15.67%, and in 1975, Toyota and Datsun captured 14.97% and 14.85% respectively. Nonetheless, Datsun successfully fended off Toyota for most of the 1970s and early 80s, making Malaysia one of the few markets in the world where Datsun beat Toyota. Nissan's upper management in Tokyo were highly supportive of Tan Chong Motor's efforts, and Tan Yuet Foh was highly respected among Nissan's executives. TCM often had the upper hand when negotiating pricing and specifications for Malaysian-market Datsuns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1365574", "title": "Toyota Hilux", "section": "Section::::Reputation.:Use by militant groups.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 135, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 135, "end_character": 686, "text": "Due to its durability and reliability, the Toyota Hilux, along with the larger Toyota Land Cruiser, has become popular among militant groups in war-torn regions as a technical. According to terrorism analyst Andrew Exum, the Hilux is \"the vehicular equivalent of the AK-47. It's ubiquitous to insurgent warfare.\" U.S. counter-terror officials have inquired with Toyota how the Salafi jihadist extremist group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant has apparently acquired large numbers of Toyota Hiluxes and Land Cruisers. Mark Wallace, the CEO of the Counter Extremism Project said, \"Regrettably, the Toyota Land Cruiser and Hilux have effectively become almost part of the ISIS brand.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Wait wtf this is really a thing???", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "_URL_0_\n\nExcellent article that gives more detail:\n\n* Everyone uses it, and want to keep to one brand, so someone in better times gets used to using Tide, all of a sudden can't afford it, either steals or buys it on the black market, rather than buying something cheap.\n\n* Since everyone uses it and sales volumes are huge, most stores weren't locking it up at all, and there are literally hundreds of bottles for the taking, so easy target for thieves. \n\n* It's all but untraceable once stolen. No serial numbers or databases like phones, car stereos, or TVs.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because when you're high you have a nearly 100% chance to forget that you ran out of laundry detergent. Drug dealers love it when you drop by with a few scoops or even a whole box.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22782543", "title": "Pill (textile)", "section": "Section::::Preventing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 337, "text": "Textile authorities say consumers can prevent or postpone pilling of their fabrics by treating them with chemical soil release treatments that make the surface of the fabric more hydrophilic, and by turning clothes inside out before washing them. Washing in laundry detergent containing enzymes will get rid of pills on cotton clothing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1606256", "title": "Dreft", "section": "Section::::Technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 339, "text": "Synthetic detergents represented an improvement in laundry washing because these synthetic materials are less susceptible to hard water. The commercial availability of fatty alcohols opened the way for the production of the related organosulfate derivatives. In Germany, BASF started selling FeWA, followed by Dreft in the following year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22782543", "title": "Pill (textile)", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 720, "text": "All fabrics pill to some extent, although fibers such as linen and silk pill less than most. The primary drivers of pilling are the physical characteristics of the textile (including both the initial fibre, and the way in which it is processed during manufacturing), the personal habits of the textile's wearer, and the environment in which the textile is used. Fibers such as wool, cotton, polyester, nylon and acrylic have a tendency to pill the most, but wool pilling diminishes over time as non-tenacious wool fibers work themselves free of the fabric and break away, whereas pilling of synthetic textiles is a more serious problem, because the stronger fibers hold on to the pills preventing them from falling off.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29990850", "title": "Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada", "section": "Section::::The Television Age (1950–1980).:Materials.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 156, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 156, "end_character": 990, "text": "Detergent, a replacement for soap, introduced in the postwar years, was used to keep clothes and dishes clean through the action of its active ingredient, tetrapropylene, a derivative of petroleum. The popular Tide brand became available in 1948. In 1964 permanent press fabrics were invented in the US by Ruth Rogan Benerito, a scientist at the Physical Chemistry Research Group of the Cotton Chemical Reactions Laboratory and introduced to Canada shortly thereafter. The press resulted from the treatment of the fabric with formaldehyde. Invented by DuPont scientist Dr. Roy J. Plunkett in 1938, polytetrafluoroethylene, a polymer considered the world's most slippery substance, was introduced commercially as Teflon, in 1946 in the US. It is used in a wide variety of applications, including as a non-stick coating on the cooking surface of pots and pans and is manufactured in Canada by DuPont in Mississauga, Ontario. Krazy Glue (ethyl cyanoacrylate) was introduced to Canada in 1973.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4979878", "title": "ORM-D", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 287, "text": "Consumer commodity is a hazardous material that is packaged and distributed in a quantity and form intended or suitable for retail sale and designed for consumption by individuals for their personal care or household use purposes. This term can also include certain drugs or medicines. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4065672", "title": "Reuse", "section": "Section::::Business models providing opportunities.:Refilling programs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 691, "text": "There have been some market-led initiatives to encourage packaging reuse by companies introducing refill packs of certain commodities (mainly soap powders and cleaning fluids), the contents being transferred before use into a reusable package kept by the customer, with the savings in packaging being passed onto the customer by lower shelf prices. The refill pack itself is not reused, but being a minimal package for carrying the product home, it requires less material than one with the durability and features (reclosable top, convenient shape, etc.) required for easy use of the product, while avoiding the transport cost and emissions of returning the reusable package to the factory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2676476", "title": "Laundry detergent", "section": "Section::::Components.:Surfactants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 460, "text": "Laundry detergents contain mostly anionic and non-ionic surfactants. Cationic surfactants are normally incompatible with anionic detergents and have poor cleaning efficiency; they are employed only for certain special effects, as fabric softeners, antistatic agents, and biocides. Zwitterionic surfactants are rarely employed in laundry detergents mainly for cost reasons. Most detergents use a combination of various surfactants to balance their performance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "From what I've heard gnats like to lay eggs in the eyes of animals. (Warm, wet, eggs stick easily) and that's why they do it. Could be wrong though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Selection bias. You see out of your eyes, so of course you're going to notice bugs near your eyes moreso than bugs, say, near your ankles.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5:Bugs in my eyes, ears. ](_URL_3_)\n1. [ELI5: Why do flies/small bugs seem to buzz around faces more than other body parts? ](_URL_0_)\n1. [ELI5: Why do flies or other insects fly specifically around your head? ](_URL_4_)\n1. [ELI5: Why do flies fly at my face? ](_URL_2_)\n1. [ELI5: Why do flys buzz around our heads? Surely they could be out looking for food or doing other shit. ](_URL_1_)\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1972163", "title": "Australian cockroach", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 243, "text": "The insect can travel quickly, often darting out of sight when someone enters a room, and can fit into small cracks and under doors despite its fairly large size. It is known to be very mobile; its wings allow it to be quite a capable flier. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3829082", "title": "Fungus gnat", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 305, "text": "Most fungus gnats are weak fliers, and can often be seen walking rapidly over plants and soil, rather than flying. However when airborne, the gnats may be quite annoying to humans by flying into their faces, eyes, and noses, both indoors and outdoors. These flies are sometimes confused with drain flies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2418006", "title": "Mythology of Stargate", "section": "Section::::Species.:Dust Bugs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 793, "text": "These bugs give the illusion of sand floating around. They can consume large volumes of water at a rapid rate considering they are such small entities. They seem to be intelligent creatures and are passive and helpful unless provoked, in which case they can be extremely lethal. They fly around in \"swarms\" and will attack together. They were the first species to be encountered in the Destiny expedition, though they were initially dismissed as a hallucination suffered by Matthew Scott. The creatures appeared to develop a rapport with Scott and aided him in his quest for Lime after he offered them water as a test of their sentience. The creatures also revived him on their home world when he collapsed due to the heat, through burrowing into the ground to release some water to wake him.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22868263", "title": "Mandyam Veerambudi Srinivasan", "section": "Section::::Research interests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 285, "text": "BULLET::::- When avoiding objects, the bee will tend to take the optimal path because it will 'balance' the rate of the optic flow between the eyes. It will, for example, fly down the middle of a tunnel, because if it flew closer to one side the optic flow would appear to be greater.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22868263", "title": "Mandyam Veerambudi Srinivasan", "section": "Section::::Research interests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 203, "text": "BULLET::::- Similarly, bees slow down in a crowded landscape because nearby objects appear to move faster than objects on the horizon. This is a safety mechanism that reduces the incidence of collision.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "355765", "title": "Compound eye", "section": "Section::::Types.:Other.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 350, "text": "Good fliers like flies or honey bees, or prey-catching insects like praying mantis or dragonflies, have specialized zones of ommatidia organized into a fovea area which gives acute vision. In the acute zone the eye is flattened and the facets larger. The flattening allows more ommatidia to receive light from a spot and therefore higher resolution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "872241", "title": "Boxelder bug", "section": "Section::::As pests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1541, "text": "During certain times of the year boxelder bugs cluster together in large groups while sunning themselves on warm surfaces near their host tree (e.g. on rocks, shrubs, trees, and man-made structures). This is especially a problem in the fall when they are seeking a warm place to overwinter. Large numbers are often seen congregating on houses seeking an entry point. Once they have gained access, they remain inactive behind siding and inside of walls while the weather is cool. Once the home's heating system becomes active for the season, the insects may falsely perceive it to be springtime and enter inhabited parts of the home in search of food and water. Once inside inhabited areas of a home, their excreta may stain upholstery, carpets, drapes, and they may feed on certain types of house plants. In the spring, the bugs leave their winter hibernation locations to feed and lay eggs on maple or ash trees. Clustered masses of boxelder bugs may be seen again at this time, and depending on the temperature, throughout the summer. Their outdoor congregation habits and indoor excreta deposits are perceived as a nuisance by many people, therefore boxelder bugs are often considered pests. However, boxelder bugs are harmless to people and pets. The removal of boxelder trees and maple trees can help control boxelder bug populations. Spiders are minor predators, but because of the boxelder bug's chemical defenses few birds or other animals will eat them. Boxelder bug populations are not affected by any major diseases or parasites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Most likely because of higher thermal conductivity.\n\nWhen water evaporates, it cools, which makes it less likely to evaporate. On ceramic, the material can transfer heat back into the now cooler water faster, but in plastic it can't, so the water has to wait longer to get enough thermal energy to fully evaporate.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Evaporation happens at the water/air surface, far away from the material the water has contact with. A different surface can influence how a drop of water shrinks, which has a small effect on the surface tension, but I would be surprised if that is relevant. The different thermal conductivity is a more interesting point.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3290848", "title": "Fluorinated ethylene propylene", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 278, "text": "The plastic is useful as a sample holder material in microscopy applications as its refractive index is close to that of water at visible wavelengths , (FEP: 1.344, water: 1.335). This minimizes the blur due to optical aberrations when the light traverses the sample container.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55693", "title": "Turquoise", "section": "Section::::Treatments.:Stabilization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 618, "text": "Material treated with plastic or water glass is termed \"bonded\" or \"stabilized\" turquoise. This process consists of pressure impregnation of otherwise unsaleable chalky American material by epoxy and plastics (such as polystyrene) and water glass (sodium silicate) to produce a wetting effect and improve durability. Plastic and water glass treatments are far more permanent and stable than waxing and oiling, and can be applied to material too chemically or physically unstable for oil or wax to provide sufficient improvement. Conversely, stabilization and bonding are rejected by some as too radical an alteration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24763385", "title": "Hot plate welding", "section": "Section::::Material weldability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 404, "text": "The water content of the plastic also affects weldability. This affects thermoplastics that absorb water from the surrounding air, mainly amorphous thermoplastics. High water content can lead to the formation of bubbles during heating and joining, reducing weld strength. Therefore, parts should be welded shortly after injection molding, stored in a dry environment, or welded with adjusted parameters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12285825", "title": "Laboratory centrifuge", "section": "Section::::Centrifuge tubes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 639, "text": "Glass centrifuge tubes can be used with most solvents, but tend to be more expensive. They can be cleaned like other laboratory glassware, and can be sterilized by autoclaving. Small scratches from careless handling can cause failure under the strong forces imposed during a run. Glass tubes are inserted into soft rubber sleeves to cushion them during runs. Plastic centrifuge tubes, especially tend to be less expensive and, with care, can be just as durable as glass. Water is preferred when plastic centrifuge tubes are used. They are more difficult to clean thoroughly, and are usually inexpensive enough to be considered disposable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4939491", "title": "Parylene", "section": "Section::::Monomer-based precursors (rather than using [2.2]paracyclophane).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 903, "text": "The easiest way to envision this scenario, i.e. the advantage of using these chemistries without a MFC) is to fill two cylindrical glass containers, one with hexanes (a high vapor pressure liquid) and one with dry ice (solid carbon dioxide). As the hexane vaporizes the liquid surface is flat and the total exposed surface area takes the shape of the glass container. The surface area does not change until the liquid is near the bottom. In the case of dry ice, the surface area is continually changing from time zero until the dry ice is totally sublimed. The changing surface area with time is a process nightmare for reproducibility. Typically, for each parylene run, new solid source [2.2]paracyclophane, is added to the sublimer boat. In the case of a liquid, one vaporizer could be used for many runs much like what is undertaken with the silicon dioxide deposition via TEOS (tetraethoxy silane).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3053725", "title": "Glass recycling", "section": "Section::::Recycling into glass containers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 888, "text": "Glass bottles and jars are infinitely recyclable.. The use of recycled glass in manufacturing conserves raw materials and reduces energy consumption. Because the chemical energy required to melt the raw materials has already been expended, the use of cullet can significantly reduce energy consumption compared with manufacturing new glass from silica (SiO2), soda ash (Na2CO3), and lime (CaCO3). Soda lime glass from virgin raw materials theoretically requires approximately 2.671 GJ/tonne compared to 1.886 GJ/tonne to melt 100% glass cullet. As a general rule, every 10% increase in cullet usage results in an energy savings of 2–3% in the melting process, with a theoretical maximum potential of 30% energy saving. Every metric ton (1,000 kg) of waste glass recycled into new items saves of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere during the manufacture of new glass. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1827851", "title": "Marine debris", "section": "Section::::Environmental impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 530, "text": "Toxic additives used in plastic manufacturing can leach into their surroundings when exposed to water. Waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and magnify on the surface of plastic debris, thus making plastic more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land. Hydrophobic contaminants bioaccumulate in fatty tissues, biomagnifying up the food chain and pressuring apex predators and humans. Some plastic additives disrupt the endocrine system when consumed; others can suppress the immune system or decrease reproductive rates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because taste is a function of smell. It isnt the taste that transfers, it is the scent which you interpret as flavour. Strong smells are caused by particles in the air and they can adhere to other foods easily. For instance, put some strong soap next to some light flavoured food and you will have soapy tasting food. It is not the flavour of the soap, but the smell you are tasting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45595791", "title": "Packet (container)", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 824, "text": "Condiments distributed in packets include ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, salad cream, HP sauce, relish, tartar sauce, vinegar and soy sauce. They provide a simple and low-cost way of distributing small amounts of condiment with ready-to-eat packaged food such as hot dogs, French fries, or hamburgers, and are common in fast food restaurants. The packets produce less contamination and mess than freely available condiments dispensed into small disposable cups or other containers, especially if the food will be in transit before dining. Potpourri fragrances are also sold in sachets. Potpourri sachet envelopes are filled with scented herbs and flowers or use vermiculite containing aromatic fragrance oil. These are known as potpourri wardrobe sachets. In Argentina and Uruguay, milk and yogurts are also sold in packets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10591", "title": "Flavor", "section": "Section::::Flavorants or flavorings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 401, "text": "Flavorings are focused on altering the flavors of natural food product such as meats and vegetables, or creating flavor for food products that do not have the desired flavors such as candies and other snacks. Most types of flavorings are focused on scent and taste. Few commercial products exist to stimulate the trigeminal senses, since these are sharp, astringent, and typically unpleasant flavors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "987492", "title": "Food browning", "section": "Section::::Non-enzymatic browning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 667, "text": "The other non-enzymatic reaction is the Maillard reaction. This reaction is responsible for the production of the flavor when foods are cooked. Examples of foods that undergo Maillard reaction include breads, steaks, and potatoes. It is a chemical reaction that takes place between the amine group of a free amino acid and the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar, usually with the addition of heat. The sugar interacts with the amino acid, producing a variety of odors and flavors. The Maillard reaction is the basis for producing artificial flavors for processed foods in the flavoring industry, since the type of amino acid involved determines the resulting flavor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19244424", "title": "Foodpairing", "section": "Section::::Methodology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 328, "text": "The essence of Foodpairing is to combine different foods that share the same major flavor components. Comparing the flavors of individual ingredients can result in new and unexpected combinations, such as strawberries paired with peas. This combination was adopted by Sang Hoon Degeimbre, the chef of L’Air du temps in Belgium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5193078", "title": "List of food additives", "section": "Section::::Purposes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 227, "text": "BULLET::::- Flavor enhancers : Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. They may be extracted from natural sources (through distillation, solvent extraction, maceration, among other methods) or created artificially.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "62155", "title": "Condiment", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 285, "text": "Condiments are sometimes added prior to serving, for example, in a sandwich made with ketchup, mustard or mayonnaise. Some condiments are used during cooking to add flavor or texture: barbecue sauce, compound butter, teriyaki sauce, soy sauce, and marmite and sour cream are examples.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13162", "title": "Gelatin dessert", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 643, "text": "When fully chilled, the most common ratios of gelatin to liquid (as instructed on commercial packaging) usually result in a custard-like texture which can retain detailed shapes when cold but melts back to a viscous liquid when warm. A recipe calling for the addition of additional gelatin to regular jelly gives a rubbery product that can be cut into shapes with cookie cutters and eaten with fingers (called \"Knox Blox\" by the Knox company, makers of unflavored gelatin). Higher gelatin ratios can be used to increase the stability of the gel, culminating in gummy candies which remain rubbery solids at room temperature (see Bloom (test)).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "While not answering your question, /u/DubiousMerchant had a [great response on another thread about Kowloon Walled City](_URL_0_) and referenced some source material that may answer your question.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In 1842, when the British won the First Opium War, they had China over a barrel and could set their own terms for surrender. One of the terms of the Treaty of Nanking was that Hong Kong would be ceded in perpetuity. The whole reason Hong Kong mattered at all was as a natural deep draft harbour, and the treaty reflected this - only Hong Kong Island itself was mentioned. \nIn 1858, realizing that their needs were growing, Britain leased Kowloon up to Boundary Street, and in 1860 the Convention of Peking made the lease permanent. \nAs Hong Kong grew, so did the need for land - and meanwhile the British position of power had weakened. in 1898, Britain leased the New Territories for 99 years. Dealing from a slightly stronger position meant China was able to get another small concession - a small military outpost - a fortified village, really - was excluded from the lease. \nFrom 1899 to 1945, the KWC was almost empty and treated no differently from any other part of Hong Kong, but in 1945 China re-asserted its rights to it. Squatters and refugees pored in, and after a brief confusion the infamous \"anarchist enclave\" was established. China was nominally in control, but generally only cared about the KWC for political gain and negotiation. \nAs the end of the 99-year lease drew closer, Britain and China entered into negotiations - starting in 1982 - to see what would happen when it came to an end. By 1985 it was clear that the end of the lease would mean Hong Kong was returned to China - which made the KWC unnecessary as a negotiating chip. Between 1987 and 1992, the 33 000 residents of the KWC were relocated, and in 1993 it was demolished - replaced by a memorial park.\n\nSources: \n\n* Girard & Lambot - City of Darkness\n* Pullinger - Crack in the Wall & Chasing the Dragon\n* Portisch - Kowloon Walled City\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2093431", "title": "Handover of Hong Kong", "section": "Section::::Additional effects.:Views of the Kowloon Walled City.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 399, "text": "Britain quickly went back on this unofficial part of the agreement, attacking Kowloon Walled City in 1899, only to find it deserted. They did nothing with it, or the outpost, and thus posed the question of Kowloon Walled City's ownership squarely up in the air. The outpost consisted of a yamen, as well as buildings which grew into low-lying, densely packed neighbourhoods from the 1890s to 1940s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "393623", "title": "Kowloon Walled City Park", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 451, "text": "The Kowloon Walled City Park () is a historical park in Kowloon City, Kowloon, Hong Kong. The Kowloon Walled City had been a military stronghold since 15th century due to its coastal location and was a centre of vice and crime until 1987. Under the agreement between the Hong Kong Government and the PRC, the Kowloon Walled City was demolished in the 1990s while the indigenous buildings and features were preserved for incorporation in the new park.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "393623", "title": "Kowloon Walled City Park", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 360, "text": "In the middle of 19th century, the Qing Government started to build an enclave beside Kowloon Bay, surrounded by stone walls. The Walled City was initially used for military purposes, housing many soldiers and their families. During World War II the stone walls were demolished by the Japanese army. Part of them were buried and well preserved under the soil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "269024", "title": "Kowloon Walled City", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 540, "text": "Kowloon Walled City was a largely ungoverned, densely populated settlement in Kowloon City, Hong Kong. Originally a Chinese military fort, the Walled City became an enclave after the New Territories was leased to the UK by China in 1898. Its population increased dramatically following the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong during World War II. By 1990, the walled city contained 50,000 residents within its borders. From the 1950s to the 1970s, it was controlled by local triads and had high rates of prostitution, gambling and drug abuse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2093431", "title": "Handover of Hong Kong", "section": "Section::::Additional effects.:Views of the Kowloon Walled City.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 426, "text": "The Walled City was originally a single fort built in the mid-19th century on the site of an earlier 17th century watch post on the Kowloon Peninsula of Hong Kong. After the ceding of Hong Kong Island to Britain in 1842 (Treaty of Nanjing), Manchu Qing Dynasty authorities of China felt it necessary for them to establish a military and administrative post to rule the area and to check further British influence in the area.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "269024", "title": "Kowloon Walled City", "section": "Section::::History.:Military outpost.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 736, "text": "The Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory of 1898 handed additional parts of Hong Kong (the New Territories) to Britain for 99 years, but excluded the walled city, which at the time had a population of roughly 700. China was allowed to continue to keep officials there as long as they did not interfere with the defence of British Hong Kong. The following year, the governor, Sir Henry Blake, suspected that the viceroy of Canton was using troops to aid resistance to the new arrangements. On 16 May 1899, British forces attacked the Walled City, only to find the viceroy's soldiers gone, leaving behind only the mandarin and 150 residents. The Qing dynasty ended its rule in 1912, leaving the walled city to the British.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1091934", "title": "Boundary Street", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 233, "text": "The boundary was highlighted by a long line of high bamboo fences, which effectively blocked smuggling between Chinese Kowloon and British Kowloon at that time. The barrier became obsolete when the New Territories joined the colony.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There used to be malaria (plasmodium parasite) in the southeastern US states. In the 20th century the government worked to eradicate malaria by draining mosquito breeding sites, killing the larvae, using DDT on the walls of houses, providing people with mosquito nets etc. Malaria must be transmitted to the mosquito from a human host, and through their effort it was eventually eliminated.\n\ne: [There are the right type of mosquito \\(anopheles\\) for transmitting malaria still in the US](_URL_0_) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Fun additional fact: we do still massively kill mosquitoes because of their disease-carrying habits. Many cities have spray trucks, which are basically pickup trucks with a spray gun on the back that disperse a mosquito killing fog. I used to see them at night in Savannah, Ga. (a swampy, coastal area, very humid and hot). Officials say the chemicals sprayed are only dangerous to adult mosquitoes, and safe for people and pets, but I wouldn't chance it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "60461168", "title": "Airport malaria", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 867, "text": "Although most imported malaria is due to travel by infected humans, airport malaria is specifically caused by the transmission of malaria parasites to a human through the bite of a malaria infected mosquito that has travelled by aircraft on an international flight from a country where malaria is usually found to a country where malaria is usually not found. It occurs at or around the vicinity of the airport. Very few mosquitoes however enter aircraft and of those that do, less than 5% are likely to carry malaria. Of the four different species of the protozoan parasite \"Plasmodium\"; \"Plasmodium falciparum\", \"Plasmodium malariae\", \"Plasmodium vivax\" and \"Plasmodium ovale\", airport malaria is most commonly the falciparum and less commonly the vivax type. These can only be transmitted by female \"Anopheles\" mosquitoes, which bite mainly between dusk and dawn.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19064373", "title": "Refugee health", "section": "Section::::Major health concerns.:Parasitic infections.:Malaria.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1128, "text": "Malaria is considered endemic in the Americas from as far north as Mexico to as far south as Argentina, in Africa from Egypt to South Africa, in Asia from Turkey to Indonesia, and in the islands of Oceania. It is estimated that 300 to 500 million people are infected each year with malaria, and over one million people die every year from the disease, predominantly in sub-Saharan Africa. Based on the high prevalence of asymptomatic malaria in sub-Saharan Africa, the CDC recommends that US-bound refugee populations from this region undergo presumptive treatment prior to departure to the US. For those refugee arrivals from sub-Saharan Africa with no pre-departure treatment documentation, the CDC recommends either they receive presumptive treatment on arrival (preferred) or have laboratory screening to detect Plasmodium infection. For refugees from other areas of the world where asymptomatic malaria is not prevalent, the CDC recommends that any refugee with signs or symptoms of malaria should receive diagnostic testing for Plasmodium, and subsequent treatment for confirmed infections, but not presumptive treatment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42766304", "title": "Child health in Uganda", "section": "Section::::Malaria.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 778, "text": "An outbreak of malaria occurs in certain regions for various reasons. Uninfected or partially infected people that move into a new area where malaria is widespread can cause an outbreak. Infected people moving into an area where malaria is not present but conditions permit the disease to thrive may also cause an outbreak. In situations where the mosquito carrying the disease is partly eliminated can cause a reoccurrence of the outbreak in that region. Young children and pregnant women are at a higher risk of contracting malaria due to the fact that they have a weaker immune system. Young children and pregnant women in rural areas with little knowledge of malaria, minimal financial and medical aid are also at a higher risk of developing malaria than other individuals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20423", "title": "Malaria", "section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 911, "text": "The geographic distribution of malaria within large regions is complex, and malaria-afflicted and malaria-free areas are often found close to each other. Malaria is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions because of rainfall, consistent high temperatures and high humidity, along with stagnant waters where mosquito larvae readily mature, providing them with the environment they need for continuous breeding. In drier areas, outbreaks of malaria have been predicted with reasonable accuracy by mapping rainfall. Malaria is more common in rural areas than in cities. For example, several cities in the Greater Mekong Subregion of Southeast Asia are essentially malaria-free, but the disease is prevalent in many rural regions, including along international borders and forest fringes. In contrast, malaria in Africa is present in both rural and urban areas, though the risk is lower in the larger cities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60461168", "title": "Airport malaria", "section": "Section::::Research directions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 539, "text": "Airport malaria poses a potential risk to the local spread of malaria. The UK is home to five species of \"anopheline\" mosquitoes, of which only \"Anopheles atroparvus\" breeds close enough in proximity to humans and in enough numbers to act as an efficient vector for malaria. A serious public health problem would arise if the introduction of infected mosquitoes led to the transmission of malaria by local mosquitoes, particularly if transmission were revived in an area where the disease had previously been endemic and then eradicated. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57745045", "title": "Aedes atlanticus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 201, "text": "Aedes atlanticus is a species of \"Aedes\" mosquito native to the southeastern United States of America. It is known for carrying a number of pathogens that can infect humans, most notably yellow fever.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60461168", "title": "Airport malaria", "section": "Section::::Epidemiology.:Other countries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 257, "text": "In the United States, between 1957 and 2003, there were 156 people reported with malaria who had no history of travel or other risk factors. Some were likely to be caused by airport malaria. A small number of airport malaria reports have come from Florida.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Einstein didn't have a cosmological principal. That article falsely attributes it to him.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The CP is that the universe is homogenous in every direction and there's no privileged point. Any extremely large structure would violate that principle because it's clearly different than the rest of the universe\n\nOn the humongous scale of the unverse, imagine the galaxies spread out like static on a mistuned TV. Pick a spot, how would you explain to another person, relative to the features on the image, where that spot is? It would be impossible, however if there's a cluster of white dots (galaxies) around the lower left corner, you could describe the spot's location relative to that location. \n\nNot sure the find is big enough to violate the CP. It's not 100% exact, but close as you can see here: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This a bit of a different question: if this LQG is 4 billion light years across, how much of it is actually quasars? Is it just a region of space that has something like 5% more average-quasar-per-volume than other regions of space, or is it an actual clump of quasar, like a galaxy cluster but larger? \n\nI mean, with a size that large there aren't just trillions upon trillions of quasars just sitting there, right?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "they explain it in the article...\n\nThe principle says that from a wide enough view the universe should look uniform. The stars should look evenly distributed.\n\nWith a 4 billion light year wide object in one location the universe no longer looks uniform. It has a gigantic blotch of stars in one spot.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't see this in here, so if someone could also help me understand: how did we not see this thing before? What was preventing its detection previously? I only know enough astronomy to know how little I know, so I appreciate the help.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I may not understand fully, but considering how far back in time you are looking to observe this and given the smaller size of the universe back then, wouldn't it make sense for structures to be closer together as they haven't spread out yet? Or even that such a structure doesn't exist now due to its huge size and has broken up or collapsed already\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38220608", "title": "Huge-LQG", "section": "Section::::Dispute.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 265, "text": "Further support for the reality of the Huge-LQG comes from the work of Hutsemékers \"et al.\" in September 2014. They measured the polarization of quasars in the Huge-LQG and found \"a remarkable correlation\" of the polarization vectors on scales larger than 500 Mpc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38220608", "title": "Huge-LQG", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 687, "text": "The Huge-LQG was estimated to be about 1.24 Gpc in length, by 640 Mpc and 370 Mpc on the other dimensions, and contains 73 quasars, respectively. Quasars are very luminous active galactic nuclei, thought to be supermassive black holes feeding on matter. Since they are only found in dense regions of the universe, quasars can be used to find overdensities of matter within the universe. It has the approximate binding mass of 6.1 (6.1 trillion (long scale) or 6.1 quintillion (short scale)) . The Huge-LQG was initially named U1.27 due to its average redshift of 1.27 (where the \"U\" refers to a connected unit of quasars), placing its distance at about 9 billion light-years from Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25239", "title": "Quasar", "section": "Section::::Properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 490, "text": "More than 200,000 quasars are known, most from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. All observed quasar spectra have redshifts between 0.056 and 7.54 (as of 2017). Applying Hubble's law to these redshifts, it can be shown that they are between 600 million and 29.36 billion light-years away (in terms of comoving distance). Because of the great distances to the farthest quasars and the finite velocity of light, they and their surrounding space appear as they existed in the very early universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25239", "title": "Quasar", "section": "Section::::History of observation and interpretation.:Development of physical understanding (1960s).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 918, "text": "Eventually, starting from about the 1970s, many lines of evidence (including the first X-Ray space observatories, knowledge of black holes and modern models of cosmology) gradually demonstrated that the quasar redshifts are genuine, and due to the expansion of space, that quasars are in fact as powerful and as distant as Schmidt and some other astronomers had suggested, and that their energy source is matter from an accretion disc falling onto a supermassive black hole. This included crucial evidence from optical and X-Ray viewing of quasar host galaxies, finding of 'intervening' absorption lines which explained various spectral anomalies, observations from gravitational lensing, Peterson and Gunn's 1971 finding that galaxies containing quasars showed the same redshift as the quasars, and Kristian's 1973 finding that the \"fuzzy\" surrounding of many quasars was consistent with a less luminous host galaxy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38220608", "title": "Huge-LQG", "section": "Section::::Dispute.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1863, "text": "Seshadri Nadathur at the University of Bielefeld has conducted an even more comprehensive study of the Huge-LQG. After a more detailed study, he announced that contrary to the claim by Clowes about a large clustering, his new map has shown that there is no clear clustering of quasars within the vicinity of the Huge-LQG. The map was actually similar to the one produced by Clowes (see above section) - with the difference that Nadathur's map included all the quasars in that region. After performing a number of statistical analyses on the quasar data, and finding extreme changes in the Huge-LQG membership and shape with small changes in the cluster finding parameters, he determined the probability that apparent clusters the size of the Huge-LQG would appear in a random assortment of quasars. He set up 10,000 regions identical in size to that studied by Clowes, and filled them with randomly distributed quasars with the same position statistics as did the actual quasars in the sky. The data is supporting the study of the homogeneity scale by Yadav \"et al.\", and that there is, therefore, no challenge to the cosmological principle. The study also implies that the statistical algorithm used by Clowes to identify the Huge-LQG, when used to correlate other quasars in the sky, produces more than a thousand clusterings identical to the Huge-LQG. While quasars can represent dense regions of the universe, one must note that all of the quasars in the sky are evenly distributed, that is, one quasar per few million light years, making their significance as a structure very unlikely. The identification of the Huge-LQG, together with the clusterings identified by Nadathur, is therefore referred to be false positive identifications or errors in identifying structures, finally arriving at the conclusion that the Huge-LQG is not a real structure at all.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41477668", "title": "Clowes–Campusano LQG", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 701, "text": "Lying at a distance of 9.5 billion light years away, the CCLQG is a cosmic decoupling of 34 individual quasars (highly luminous active galactic nuclei powered by supermassive black holes) spanning a region roughly 2 billion light-years in length, and about 1 billion light years wide, making it one of the largest and most exotic cosmic structures known in the observable universe. It was named U1.28 because of its average redshift of 1.28, and is located in the constellation of Leo. It was also notable because it is located in the ecliptic, the line where the Sun seems to travel in the entire year. It was 1.8 billion light-years away from the Huge-LQG, a group of 73 quasars discovered in 2012.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "208656", "title": "Non-standard cosmology", "section": "Section::::Proposals based on observational skepticism.:Redshift periodicity and intrinsic redshifts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 1266, "text": "During the quasar controversies of the 1970s, these same astronomers were also of the opinion that quasars exhibited high redshifts not due to their incredible distance but rather due to unexplained \"intrinsic redshift\" mechanisms that would cause the periodicities and cast doubt on the Big Bang. Arguments over how distant quasars were took the form of debates surrounding quasar energy production mechanisms, their light curves, and whether quasars exhibited any proper motion. Astronomers who believed quasars were not at cosmological distances argued that the Eddington luminosity set limits on how distant the quasars could be since the energy output required to explain the apparent brightness of cosmologically-distant quasars was far too high to be explainable by nuclear fusion alone. This objection was made moot by the improved models of gravity-powered accretion disks which for sufficiently dense material (such as black holes) can be more efficient at energy production than nuclear reactions. The controversy was laid to rest by the 1990s when evidence became available that observed quasars were actually the ultra-luminous cores of distant active galactic nuclei and that the major components of their redshift were in fact due to the Hubble flow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Oh boy, one that I can actually answer! I will try to be thorough enough for this sub's standards. For the record, I have a Master's Degree in Clinical Psychology, my thesis was written on in-group/out-group formation through auditory processing, and I specialize in adolescent Bipolar Disorder and ADHD. I also have a BSN and am certified as a Psychiatric Nurse.\n\nSo, to briefly answer your question before I explain: Yes, Freud's ideas on hyper-sexualization (and honestly most of his ideas on sexual development and sexuality in general) are considered incredibly outdated and not terribly scientific^1. In fact, Karl Popper (who is regarded by many as the progenitor of modern scientific thought/philosophy) famously used Freud as an example of pseudoscience in his work *Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge*^2 (Popper essentially considered most of Freud's theories to be the pinnacle of pseudoscience, since many of them could not be falsified).\n\nHowever, Freud remains influential to this day for several reasons. First I will explain his impact on modern psychotherapy and psychological/psychiatric science. Then I will discuss why he is such an important historical figure for the fields of psychology and psychiatry. As /u/stev0supreemo mentioned, Freud has also been studied heavily in a literary context, but I'm not as familiar with that area so I won't touch on it too much.\n\nSo, Freud's ideas are, as previously discussed, absolutely insane by modern standards. A lot of it seems like he just made it up himself based on what he saw and thought, and there is definitely some truth to that^3. Im not even going to go into the Oedipus Complex or his stages of psychosexual development because... well because I don't want to. Much of Freud's early work focuses on far more than sexuality and the unconscious mind, and he was actually one of the earliest people to correctly dismiss lack of oxygen during birth as a primary cause of cerebral palsy. However, Freud's biggest contributions that still remain today are most relevant to the practice of psychotherapy and our understanding of unconscious drives. Freud identified, described, and/or synthesized quite a few phenomena of which many are scientifically testable and still widely taught today. Among these are words you're no doubt familiar with: Id, Ego, and Superego (these are...less testable), Libido, Repression, Transference, Countertransference, Projection, and many more. His work on the unconscious and dreams is really hit or miss in terms of scientific validity and empirical support, but there are some aspects that are testable and have been supported by evidence (e.g. he proposed that particular traumatic events or life stressors could manifest themselves in dreams, and there is considerable empirical support for this idea though not necessarily for the deeper interpretation of those dreams)^4. I'll touch a little more on this in the section where I talk about his historical significance.\n\nHis biggest contribution to psychotherapy was probably his advocacy for psychodynamic therapy. He specifically championed a type of therapy called Psychoanalysis that is still practiced today, but psychodynamic therapy is the more general practice of talking to patients, forming a dialogue, listening to them, and helping them work through their issues. I know this seems like a no-brainer now, but back then it was pretty revolutionary (I mean, why would you talk to a crazy person?). There are arguably others who \"invented\" this therapy, and I will leave that debate for more qualified historians (read: actual historians) than I, but Freud undoubtedly popularized the method. He also provided the basis for what many consider the prototypical \"therapist-patient\" relationship, with practices such as trying to remain objective and not judge the patient, maintaining confidentiality (though he was less than stellar on this front), and providing analysis and recommendations where appropriate. The details of modern psychoanalytic practice and how the current practice differs from his original work is way too complicated for a single post (and I was trained in different methods), but a lot of his original techniques were the original basis for modern psychotherapy of all disciplines.\n\nSo to summarize, again, Freud's theories, ideas, and his techniques vary wildly in terms of how well they stand up to scientific and philosophical scrutiny, but they undoubtedly had a massive impact on how psychology and psychiatry are practiced today.\n\nHowever, in my personal opinion (which is shared by others, like Ernest Jones^5 and David Eagleman^6) is that Freud's true impact is a historical one. That is to say: Freud was a freaking *rock star* in his day. Psychiatry was a well established field by the time Freud came around, and Freud didn't invent the concept of psychotherapy, but Freud brought psychology into the mainstream. He gave lectures at universities around the world, he promoted his ideas and his works in sold-out talks. He was invited to speak and participate in events and research in almost every relevant scientific area. His work was so popular that it radically changed the fields of psychiatry and psychology forever. People devoted their lives to either proving his theories or to disproving them (Neo-Freudians like Karen Horney and Alfred Adler essentially founded their entire fields of work on disagreeing with Freud). The idea that the unconscious mind is the primary driver of human behavior (rather than the conscious mind, which Freud believed was important but only a small part of the human psyche) was not a new one, but it was not a mainstream idea until Freud made it so with his works, such as *The Interpretation of Dreams* (1899) and in *Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious* (1905). This idea touched a huge variety of fields, including criminal justice (can criminals really be responsible for impulsive acts if our unconscious is so influential?), philosophy (how much agency do humans really have?), medicine, and more. His works were (and are) dense and honestly written with an air of authority and certainty that is totally in contrast to how we would expect modern scientists to present their findings. But Freud’s *ideas* were accessible to the common man, and they seem to make sense on a basic level. Freud was certain of his theories, and was famously bad at taking criticism (When somebody pointed out that Freud’s beloved cigars were a bit phallic, he replied, “*sometimes a cigar is just a cigar*”). But his charisma, confidence, and authority sold a lot of people, and his popularity overshadowed almost all of his contemporaries. Like I said, he was a rock star, and without him, I don’t think psychology would look anything like what it is today, for better or for worse.\n\nSources:\n\n1. Grünbaum, A. The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique. University of California Press, 1984, pp. 97–126.\n\n2. Popper, Karl. Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963, pp. 33–39\n\n3. MacKinnon, Donald W.; Dukes, William F. (1962). Postman, Leo, ed. Psychology in the Making: Histories of Selected Research Problems. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 663, 703\n\n4. Stevens, R. *Freud and Psychoanalysis* Milton Keynes: Open University Press 1985 p. 96: \"the number of relevant studies runs into thousands\".\n\n5. Jones, Ernest. Sigmund Freud: Life and Work, vol. 1. London: Hogarth Press, 1953, pp. 94–96.\n\n6. Eagleman, David Incognito: The Secret Lives of the Brain Edinburgh: Canongate, 2011, pp. 17\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26743", "title": "Sigmund Freud", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 612, "text": "Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, and across the humanities. It thus continues to generate extensive and highly contested debate with regard to its therapeutic efficacy, its scientific status, and whether it advances or is detrimental to the feminist cause. Nonetheless, Freud's work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of W. H. Auden's 1940 poetic tribute to Freud, he had created \"a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23585", "title": "Psychoanalysis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 549, "text": "Psychoanalysis is a controversial discipline and its validity as a science is contested. Nonetheless, it remains a strong influence within psychiatry, more so in some quarters than others. The proportion of practitioners of Freudian psychoanalysis has declined as evidence-based medicine has increased the use of cognitive behavioral therapy. Psychoanalytic concepts are also widely used outside the therapeutic arena, in areas such as psychoanalytic literary criticism, as well as in the analysis of film, fairy tales and other cultural phenomena.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23585", "title": "Psychoanalysis", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 476, "text": "Freud first used the term \"psychoanalysis\" (in French) in 1896. \"Die Traumdeutung\" (\"The Interpretation of Dreams\"), which Freud saw as his \"most significant work\", appeared in November 1899. Psychoanalysis was later developed in different directions, mostly by students of Freud such as Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung, and by neo-Freudians such as Erich Fromm, Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan. Freud retained the term \"psychoanalysis\" for his own school of thought.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26743", "title": "Sigmund Freud", "section": "Section::::Legacy.:Psychotherapy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 131, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 131, "end_character": 1011, "text": "Though not the first methodology in the practice of individual verbal psychotherapy, Freud's psychoanalytic system came to dominate the field from early in the twentieth century, forming the basis for many later variants. While these systems have adopted different theories and techniques, all have followed Freud by attempting to achieve psychic and behavioral change through having patients talk about their difficulties. Psychoanalysis is not as influential as it once was in Europe and the United States, though in some parts of the world, notably Latin America, its influence in the later 20th century expanded substantially. Psychoanalysis also remains influential within many contemporary schools of psychotherapy and has led to innovative therapeutic work in schools and with families and groups. There is a substantial body of research which demonstrates the efficacy of the clinical methods of psychoanalysis and of related psychodynamic therapies in treating a wide range of psychological disorders.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35655584", "title": "Freud: A Life for Our Time", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Negative.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 466, "text": "\"Freud: A Life for Our Time\" was criticized by several authors skeptical of psychoanalysis. Allen Esterson identified Gay as one of several authors who uncritically repeat Freud's incorrect claim that during his early clinical experiences, which led to the creation of psychoanalysis, his patients reported to him that they had been sexually abused in early childhood, and he subsequently realized that in most cases these assaults were phantasies, not real events.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23585", "title": "Psychoanalysis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 622, "text": "Psychoanalysis is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques related to the study of the unconscious mind, which together form a method of treatment for mental-health disorders. The discipline was established in the early 1890s by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud and stemmed partly from the clinical work of Josef Breuer and others. Psychoanalysis was later developed in different directions, mostly by students of Freud such as Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung, and by neo-Freudians such as Erich Fromm, Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan. Freud retained the term \"psychoanalysis\" for his own school of thought.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39445", "title": "Anti-psychiatry", "section": "Section::::History.:Since 1970.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 364, "text": "Psychoanalysis was increasingly criticized as unscientific or harmful. Contrary to the popular view, critics and biographers of Freud, such as Alice Miller, Jeffrey Masson and Louis Breger, argued that Freud did not grasp the nature of psychological trauma. Non-medical collaborative services were developed, for example therapeutic communities or Soteria houses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The current level of activity is normal. On average, there are usually ~20 volcanoes in some stage of erupting at any given time. The recent news worthy eruptions (e.g. Hawaii and the recent one in Guatemala) are not connected. So the short answer it's just the coverage and/or the fact that these two eruptions are happening in populated places and that both are being filmed a lot by locals (mostly safely in the case of Hawaii and **really** unsafely in the case of the Guatemalan eruption, you should never be as close to a pyroclastic flow as some of the people shooting video are). As for the rates, couldn't find any particularly good plots, but you can check out [the smithsonian](_URL_0_) weekly eruption report to 1) get a sense that there are lots of eruptions going on that aren't making the news and 2) if you go back into the archives, which span ~18 years, you can get a somewhat qualitative sense that this number of currently erupting volcanoes isn't particularly odd. As a side note, this is not quite real time, so this is the summary for last week so it doesn't yet include the eruption in Guatemala.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It’s not so much that there’s more ‘recently’ it’s that pretty much everyone has got a camera in their hands at any given moment. I think some of the pyroclastic flows have dedicated web cameras and live streams (especially the Hawaii ones) the technological/digital age is a heck of a time to be alive.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most of the eruptions are along the Ring of Fire and it does appear of the last decade there have been more eruptions above sea level than in several centuries. Our experience of “lately” though is minuscule in comparison to millions of years of activity. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"Are they somehow connected or is it a coincidence?\"\n\nThe Hawaiian situation is completely unrelated to the Guatemalan situation. Guatemala is a point along the \"Ring of Fire,\" a system of seams at the edges of several tectonic plates, which are in a perpetual state of physical conflict. Whether it's in the news or not, there is really never a day of perfect peace in that gargantuan horseshoe of natural terror. Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, Alaska, the San Andreas fault in California, the chain of volcanoes in Central America, down to Chile. It's rare for somebody NOT to be under present duress along that route on any given day.\n\nKilauea, on the other hand, is a weird hot spot in the dead center of one of earth's biggest oceanic plates, arising from completely different forces deep in the earth, acting upon the central part of the plate from below. Unlike what's happening underneath Guatemala, where the eruptions are the result of the relative movements of different plates. So there's no relationship whatsoever. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's this emergency website, you can monitor all sorts of stuff going on in real time. There's tons of small earthquakes (rarely more than 2.5 on the scale), volcano eruptions, lots of fires, small airplane crashes and other similar stuff going every single day. It's normal. \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It is worth noting that the current eruptions at Kīlauea in Hawaii and Fuego in Guatemala are nothing new. Kīlauea has been in a constant state of eruption since Jan. 1983. More than 35 years. A few weeks ago a dike intruded further east into the Lower East Rift Zone, causing the fissure eruptions that have been so much in the news. It’s been a long time since Kīlauea burnt down any houses, but as soon as it does it suddenly gets media attention and a lot of people think it’s a new eruption when in fact it’s just another phase of the activity that started in 1983 - just at a new vent location. \n\nVolcan Fuego too has been in a frequent state of eruption for years now, with frequent Strombolian activity and often sending lava flows down the various arroyos descending around the summit. Only when it enters a more explosive phase, producing pyroclastic density currents that kill people, does it make the news. Thus further adding to the general impression that there has been an increase in volcanic activity world-wide, when in fact this is not true. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Social media. Time was it took days to find out the salient details on even the most horrific occurrences around the globe. \n\nNow I can receive real time videos of solar flares while checking on my house temperature from a continent away while reading a play by play twitter stream of 8 different sports. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "as others have said, your planet is much more active than you realize. \n\nCheck [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) if you want to see real\\-time statuses of earthquakes, volcanoes, etc. \n\nVery neat to visualize your planet's activity in near real time right in front of you :\\)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Coming from Costa Rica, I know volcanoes just go to sleep amd wake up regularly. These last few eruptions in Hawaii and Guatemala are just been covered by the media more but Costa Rica had a Volcano a few years ago erupt every night. I am sure around the world there are other very active volcanoes so this can be seen normal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "60165128", "title": "Honolulu Volcanics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 466, "text": "Volcanic activity began less than one million years ago and occurred at between 40 and 30 separate volcanic vents. The field erupted various kinds of lavas of mostly basaltic type with a high content of xenoliths, which often underwent interactions with water and thus caused steam explosions and the formation of particular volcanic structures such as tuff cones. The last eruption took place 35,000 or 76,000 years ago and future hazardous eruptions are possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "388054", "title": "Mount Taranaki", "section": "Section::::Volcanic activity.:Hazards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 403, "text": "Although volcanic eruptions are notoriously chaotic in their frequency, some scientists warn that a large eruption is \"overdue\". Research from Massey University indicates that significant seismic activity is likely again in the next 50 years. Prevailing winds would probably blow ash east, covering much of the North Island, and disrupting air routes, power transmission lines and local water supplies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "623914", "title": "Eldfell", "section": "Section::::Lava-cooling operations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 450, "text": "The eruption made headlines around the world when it began, and was covered constantly by Icelandic news crews throughout. In Europe, the eruption was one of the biggest news items while it continued, competing for front page space with breakthroughs then being made in the Vietnam War peace talks in Paris. The efforts of the islanders to halt the lava flows received particular attention, with coverage in publications such as National Geographic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1044338", "title": "Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes", "section": "Section::::Submarine preshield stage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 569, "text": "Because the eruptions occur with the volcano underwater, the form of lava typically erupted is pillow lava. Pillow lava is rounded balls of lava that was given very little time to cool due to immediate exposure to water. Water pressure prevents the lava from exploding upon contact with the cold ocean water, forcing it to simmer and solidify quickly. This stage is thought to last about 200,000 years, but lavas erupted during this stage make up only a tiny fraction of the final volume of the volcano. As time progresses, eruptions become stronger and more frequent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26964386", "title": "2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 346, "text": "The volcanic events starting in March 2010 were considered to be a single eruption divided into phases. The first eruption phase ejected olivine basaltic andesite lava several hundred metres into the air in what is known as an effusive eruption. Ash ejection from this phase of the eruption was small, rising to no more than into the atmosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23092516", "title": "Atmospheric methane", "section": "Section::::Trends in methane levels over time.:Global trends in methane levels.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 435, "text": "The 1991 spike is understood to be due to the volcanic eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in June of that year. Volcanoes affect atmospheric methane emissions when they erupt, releasing ash and sulfur dioxide into the air. As a result, photochemistry of plants is affected and the removal of methane via the tropospheric hydroxyl radical is reduced. However, growth rates quickly fell due to lower temperatures and global reduction in rainfall.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "379647", "title": "Yellowstone Caldera", "section": "Section::::Volcanism at Yellowstone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 720, "text": "Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption. The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone around 150,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well: an explosion 13,800 years ago left a diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera). Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous geothermal vents scattered throughout the region, including the famous Old Faithful Geyser, plus recorded ground-swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Why do? The main advantages of [Gorilla Glass](_URL_1_) are resistance to scratching and shattering, which aren't typical problems for cutting boards.\n\nCutting boards made of [Pyrex](_URL_0_), a different kind of glass, are very common.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hard surfaces like glass ruin the edge on knives. Cutting boards are wood and plastic to allow better and faster chopping and slicing motions while avoiding bending of the blade edge.\n\nDon't use glass (or stone or ceramic or anything hard) cutting boards.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Gorilla glass is either harder than the knife, which will damage the knife, or the knife will be harder than the gorilla glass, in which case it will scratch the glass.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28244713", "title": "Gorilla Glass", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 296, "text": "Gorilla Glass is a brand of chemically strengthened glass developed and manufactured by Corning, now in its sixth generation, designed to be thin, light and damage-resistant. Gorilla Glass is unique to Corning, but close equivalents exist, including AGC Inc. Dragontrail and Schott AG Xensation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28244713", "title": "Gorilla Glass", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 580, "text": "Gorilla Glass 3 was introduced at CES 2013. According to Corning, the material is up to three times more scratch-resistant than the previous version, with enhanced ability to resist deep scratches that typically weaken glass. The promotional material for Gorilla Glass 3 claims that it is 40% more scratch-resistant, in addition to being more flexible. The design of Gorilla Glass 3 was Corning's first use of atomic-scale modeling before the material was melted in laboratories, with the prediction of the optimal composition obtained through the application of rigidity theory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "342837", "title": "Corning Inc.", "section": "Section::::Current technologies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 331, "text": "Gorilla Glass, an outgrowth of the 1960s Chemcor project, is a high-strength alkali-aluminosilicate thin sheet glass used as a protective cover glass offering scratch resistance and durability in many touchscreens. According to the book \"Steve Jobs\" by Walter Isaacson, Gorilla Glass was used in the first iPhone released in 2007.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28244713", "title": "Gorilla Glass", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 203, "text": "As of October 2017, some five billion devices globally contain Gorilla Glass. While dominating its market, Gorilla Glass faces varying competition from rivals such as Dragontrail and synthetic sapphire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28244713", "title": "Gorilla Glass", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 359, "text": "When Gorilla Glass 3 was announced Corning indicated that areas for future improvements included reducing reflectivity and susceptibility to fingerprint smudges, and changing the surface treatments and the way it is finished. Antimicrobial Gorilla Glass with ionic silver, which is antibacterial, incorporated into its surface was demonstrated in early 2014.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15704241", "title": "Tool use by animals", "section": "Section::::Definitions and terminology.:Primates.:Gorillas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 531, "text": "Captive western lowland gorillas have been observed to threaten each other with sticks and larger pieces of wood, while others use sticks for hygienic purposes. Some females have attempted to use logs as ladders. In another group of captive gorillas, several individuals were observed throwing sticks and branches into a tree, apparently to knock down leaves and seeds. Gorillas at Prague zoo have used tools in several ways, including using wood wool as \"slippers\" when walking on the snow or to cross a wet section of the floor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8662081", "title": "Gorilla Tape", "section": "Section::::Composition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 461, "text": "Gorilla Tape incorporates a three-layer construction: a weather-resistant outer shell, reinforced fabric backing, and an adhesive layer that is applied twice as thick as the adhesive found on duct tape, which \"Popular Science\" says allows it to better surround and grip uneven surfaces. To prevent premature tearing, the two layers of fabric backing are slightly offset, making the tape 145% stronger than duct tape, while still allowing it to be torn by hand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So they don't have to carry cash. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because it is much harder to steal than cash", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It is easier to use a credit card than it is to pay something with cash, especially if you are buying something expensive.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It makes more sense for rich people to have them. They can afford to hit all their payments. Credit cards aren't supposed to be for buying shit you can't afford.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's often quicker and they can buy things on the internet.\n\nAlso, credit cards often provide some sort of consumer protection that cash/checks/debit cards do not.\n\nCredit cards are more than just credit; it's an alternate means of paying for things.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Aside from everyone's correct answer of it being easier than cash, high-limit cards also have rewards programs such as airline miles. Since they can afford it anyway and often pay off the debt without accruing interest, its basically airfare for the cost of the monthly fee. If you don't use it enough and reach the point where the monthly fee is less than the rewards you're getting, you're essentially losing money. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Building credit history. Every 5 and 10 years it basically gets wiped clean and yet it is important to have it to buy a lot of items and get loans. Rich people still need to take out loans, but they do it for a clear advantage. Try getting a larger loan without credit and you are screwed. However, credit cards build credit quickly. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Convenience, rewards and risk. Others have spoken about rewards and convenience already, so I won't repeat that. As to risk, if your debit card is compromised, you are out the money and may bounce checks until it's all fixed which can be extremely inconvenient to say the least. With a credit card you don't have that exposure, as the cc co. is fronting the money. If you have overdraft into savings, the debit card risk issue is magnified. \n\nedit: speling", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Credit cards aren't just for rich people. I'm living paycheque to paycheque but still have one. As long as you pay your bills on time you pay nothing extra and it's a great way to build your credit. Further more many credit cards come with perks.\n\nEvery dollar I spend on my credit card gets me a point that I can put towards a free trip to the theatre. Because of that I put EVERYTHING on my credit card, once pay day comes around my entire cheque goes to pay off my credit card. Not only do I have a good credit score, I also have 6 free movies saved up.\n\nedit: Also no annual or monthly fees, and with a credit limit of $5000 if an emergency every occurs I'll have the money available to cover it, even if it means having to pay interest if I can't pay it off on time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Regular use of a credit card helps establish credit worthiness enabling one to borrow large amounts of money in the future (like a mortgage). One can also get discounts / bonuses for using a card regularly (like 1-3% cash back for using it or obtain air miles). Sometimes people don't keep all of their money in a checking or savings account so having a credit card with a high limit allows you to not worry about how much you have in the bank. \nTldr - credit history, discounts, less stress.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's the deal. If you buy something with some one else's money but pay it off before you have to pay interest. you can hang on to your money for 30 extra days earning one month of extra interest in your bank account.\nAlso many credit cards offer rewards and with large purchases this can be quite great", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a lot of reasons why a rich person would use a credit card over a debit card. Off the top of my head:\n\n1. Float: Rich people don't keep cash laying around in a checking account. Aside from a coffee can buried in your back yard it is the worst place for you to keep your money. You get rich by letting your capital appreciate in interest bearing accounts/securities. A credit card lets you buy things that you want and then delay payment until the end of the grace period, all the while letting your cash accumulate interest until the AMEX bill is due. \n\n2. Business Expenses: Most rich people inevitably will have to put a business expense on their personal card. If you have a good credit card this is actually a great thing. You put large business expenses (first-class airfare, 5 star hotel, expensive client dinner/drinks) on your personal card, and then submit them (not yourself, lol, but your executive assistant does) to get reimbursed by your company. If you put it on your debit card you are essentially loaning money to your company until they pay you back a week or two later. If you put it on your credit card then you get all the rewards points for yourself and you never have to dedicate any of the cash in your bank account to the expense. I know a lot of people who work this system quite well. If you travel for work you can rig the system so much that you almost never have to pay for personal travel ever again.\n\n3. Rewards: If you are rich and you travel then you can appreciate all of the perks and upgrades that come from using an exclusive rewards program on your credit card. Most rich people you see flying in first class or staying in luxury suites didn't pay for it themselves; rather, they got upgraded for free because they were a member of the AMEX Centurian Club or some other program...and with how common point #2 is, they probably used other people's money to build up all those points in the first place. Sometimes the best part about being rich is that the richer you get the less often people require you to use your own money to buy cool stuff. \n\n4. Prestige: Because there is something very satisfying about observing that snooty shop attendant rapidly change their behaviour the moment they catch a glimpse of the black card. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We are by no means what you would call rich but my wife and I have enough to live our lives. We use the AMEX for everything that we can and pay it off at the end of the month. Amex offers 1%,2%3% and 4% cash back on different purchases. At the the end of the year we get that money back to do with it what we please. Its like getting free money but it doesnt work if you carry a balance. Only if you pay it off every month. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Rich people tend to use credit cards for a few reasons. One reason is because some credit cards offer rewards, such as cash back, flight points and even concierge services.\nAnother reason is because not all rich people have all their money available to them at one time. Imagine if someone with a net worth of 2 million dollars has to make a purchase of 15k. There is a good chance well over half of that money is in stocks, bonds, or some other non-liquid asset. Another good amount is going to be in savings. So when they need that much money, instead of taking a traditional loan out, they can use a credit card and take a month to shuffle money around. This is true for many people, I believe. Also, there is a time value of money, and many rich people can take a month to let some of their money grow and not lose it right then and there.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Appreciate the comments everyone. You have certainly given me deeper insight on the true purpose and proper usage of a credit. Also gives me a much grimmer view of credit card companies who pitch cards at people who obviously should not be using them{ like college students..}.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Credit is about the borrowing of time. When you use a credit card, you are using funds that (at that time) do not belong to you. You in turn have made a promise to the creditor that you will repay said monies at a another point in time.\n\nNow, if someone had the means (money) to buy an item, why would they use credit? It all comes down to time -- and more importantly, what else could be accomplished during a span of time. \n\nLet's say I have 100$. I could go out and buy some whizbang product for 100$, thus leaving me with 0. Or, I could use a credit card, which - for that moment - meant I had both 100$ in my pocket and my new whizbang product. Now, if I do nothing with my 100$ and my bill comes do for credit - I pay my bill and have 0$ in my pocket. It's no different than buying it outright, I just pushed the time where I had 0$ in my pocket back let's say 30 days. This doesn't really do much for me in of itself, but does allow me to do other things with my 100$ (if I am wise) that could leave me in a better position 30 days later. \n\nNow in the context of \"rich\" people, having money sit idle (like my 100$ above) is a pretty big no no. Since credit numbers are usually fixed - the terms of when bills are due, the charges (interest rate) on things, etc - they are easy to account for when planning. So, if I know that I have 30 days to pay off the 100$ credit I used, I could - in theory - use my 100$ to make more money right now and 30 days later, have a balance > 0 in my pocket. If I invested 100$ in something with a return > 0$ (or, a return > the interest rate charged per month on my card balance) I would be making money rather than having a zero-sum game at the end of each turn. \n\nThe problem is (generally) folks aren't using credit cards correctly. They spend the 100$ in their pocket as well as buying the whizbang item. They then pay the credit card companies money every month, slowly paying off the whizbang. Much of our economy and viewpoint on credit revolves around this ideal now, which is sad.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For the wealthy who pay off cards before accruing interest, it's essentially free money. Buy $10,000 worth of crap through the month, pay everything off before they charge interest, earn miles and cash back and any perks associated with a shiny American Express card without paying a penny more than the cost of what you purchased.m", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "there are three potential benefits to owning a credit card:\n\n**1** up to one month interest-free loans\nyou get billed every thirty days and only if you don't pay off your card in full will you be charged interest on the balance you carry over. you can easily purchase an item and pay for it only i.e. twenty days later. this in return saves you from having to spend money you might not want to cash out (i.e. selling stocks) or are wishing to use otherwise until payment date. a loan from a bank costs money, a loan from the credit card company **can** be free — it can even pay you if you factor in the rate of inflation, meaning the item will cost less in a month than it does today simply because of the inflation rate devaluing money in the meantime. money from the checking card on the other hand is gone instantly.\n\n**2** not carrying cash means it's replaceable. your card gets stolen? you lost your wallet? with a credit card you can just get another. cash is gone forever. you can also dispute credit card charges, giving you another shot if you get i.e. ripped off.\n\n**3** certain cards have valuable extras\nmore upscale cards like certain amex offers come with access to concierges, carry insurance or hotel benefits. you could look up the individual benefits if you were so inclined but they can be worth actual money. you can earn a lot of miles and gain instant access to lounges with some cards. it's a simple cost-benefit analysis. the card costs me $500 but last year I spent $800 on those items? of course I get one. \n\ncheck out what this card offers:\n_URL_0_\n\n*The card, available for personal and business use, offers services such as a dedicated concierge and travel agent, complimentary, companion airline tickets on international flights on selected airlines with the purchase of a full-fare ticket, personal shoppers at retailers such as Gucci, Escada, and Saks Fifth Avenue, access to airport clubs, first-class flight upgrades, membership in Sony's Cierge personal shopping program and dozens of other elite club memberships.[2] Hotel benefits include one free night, when at least one paid night is booked during the same stay, in every Mandarin Oriental hotel worldwide once a year[2] (except for the New York City property),[7] and privileges at hotel chains like Ritz-Carlton, Leading Hotels of the World, and Amanresorts. All of the benefits mentioned above are for United States-issued cards. American Express Centurion Cards issued in other countries may include different benefits. The card has recently added new amenities, including access into the Gulfstream Aerospace Private Flyers Club, Virgin Atlantic Flying Club Gold, as well as US Airways Platinum Preferred and Delta SkyMiles Platinum Medallion status. In 2007, American Airlines Admirals Club access was added to the list of amenities.[8] As of 2010, the card provided unlimited access to all US Airways Clubs regardless which carrier the cardmember is traveling on (unlike Delta, and American)[citation needed]. The card also features complimentary enrollment in Hertz Rent-A-Car #1 Club Gold and the Avis Rent-A-Car President's Club.[9]\nThe titanium-crafted \"Centurion\" card was first issued as an upgrade for all plastic U.S. \"Centurion\" cards in the first half of 2006, with the titanium version being rolled out to certain other countries as well.\nSome Centurion customers have purchased Bentley automobiles using the card or made purchases exceeding €1 million. The card has no limit; the largest purchase supposedly ever made on it exceeded $52 million for a private jet by Victor Shvetsky.[2]*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Simply, rewards. I generally run about 2k/mo through my main card, and can generally average at least 2% of that as cash back, its even more if I don't cash the points in and transfer them over to airline miles or hotel points. So, thats conservatively $40/mo of free money. If I transfer those points to my SW rapid rewards account, I can almost get a free one way ticket every month. \n\nI'm not rich, and I pay for all my purchases with credit cards. Credit cards aren't meant for buying things you cant afford, they're meant for buying everyday things while increasing purchasing power. I can spend someone else's money all month and leave mine sitting in the bank. If I have a bad week at work I don't have to scrape buy waiting to make it up. I can continue living as normal and have three weeks to get a nice fat over-time check thats bound to come. \n\nAlso, try disputing fraud charges on a debit card. The bank doesnt really give a shit because its not their money. Amex will jump through hoops if you call them with a dispute. \n\nTL;DR: Pay off your shit every month and get free money. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm by no means rich, but I manage my money pretty well. I have a credit card for the rewards and the great security features, which I imagine is nice for the rich as well. 1% to 5% cash back and theft protection/peace of mind. If I make a purchase and I have a problem with it (Macmall sold me a broken macbook pro and wouldn't take it back) the CC company will fight it for me. As long as I pay my bill in full each month I don't get hit with any interest charges and all. On top of all that both my visa and discover cars have cash back rewards programs. This period chase gives me 5% cash back on amazon purchases and select department stores. They'll either send me a check for the money (over $20) or I can put it towards my bill. Those would be my reasons to have a card even if I was rich. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Next ELI5: Why do credit cards give rewards, cash back, etc. instead of costing less in fees here and there?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5451418", "title": "Digital credential", "section": "Section::::Anonymous.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 378, "text": "On the other hand, the use of a credit card, whose main purpose is similar to money, allows for the creation of highly detailed records about the card owner. Credit cards are therefore not privacy protecting. The main privacy advantage of money is that its users can remain anonymous. There are however other security and usability properties that make real world cash popular.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17182301", "title": "Credit card", "section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Benefits to merchants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 119, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 119, "end_character": 655, "text": "For merchants, a credit card transaction is often more secure than other forms of payment, such as cheques, because the issuing bank commits to pay the merchant the moment the transaction is authorized, regardless of whether the consumer defaults on the credit card payment (except for legitimate disputes, which are discussed below, and can result in charges back to the merchant). In most cases, cards are even more secure than cash, because they discourage theft by the merchant's employees and reduce the amount of cash on the premises. Finally, credit cards reduce the back office expense of processing checks/cash and transporting them to the bank.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "509648", "title": "Perception management", "section": "Section::::Business.:Marketing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 858, "text": "This fact has necessitated the need for almost every citizen to have a credit card. However, many credit cards companies manage their perception to make sure that people continue to need credit cards, and control their perception so that many people do not fully understand what they are getting into. However, the fact that the average household in the United States is in over fifteen thousand dollars worth of debt never reaches the widespread public. Instead, they publicize how they will help if a card gets stolen, or that they have the lowest interest percentage compared to the other major competitors. But no company tells their customers that the promoted interest rate more than doubles if they do not pay the minimum balance on time. For instance, Discover's interest rate increases to 18.99% after the first minimum balance is not paid on time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57404", "title": "Yangon", "section": "Section::::Demographics.:Lifestyle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 482, "text": "Due to the problems of high inflation, the lack of high denomination notes, and the fact that many of the population do not have access to checks, or credit or debit cards, it is common to see citizens carrying a considerable amount of cash. (The highest denomination of Burmese currency kyat is 10 000 (~US$10.)) Credit cards are only rarely used in the city, chiefly in the more lavish hotels. Credit cards are also accepted in the major supermarket and convenience store chains.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152835", "title": "Debt", "section": "Section::::Types of borrowers.:Individuals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 814, "text": "People are more likely to spend more and get into debt when they use credit cards vs. cash for buying products and services. This is primarily because of the transparency effect and consumer's \"pain of paying.\" The transparency effect refers to the fact that the further you are from cash (as in a credit card or another form of payment), the less transparent it is and the less you remember how much you spent. The less transparent or further away from cash, the form of payment employed is, the less an individual feels the “pain of paying” and thus is likely to spend more. Furthermore, the differing physical appearance/form that credit cards have from cash may cause them to be viewed as “monopoly” money vs. real money, luring individuals to spend more money than they would if they only had cash available.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "509648", "title": "Perception management", "section": "Section::::Business.:Marketing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 370, "text": "Credit cards offer an alternative method of payment to cash or check and make life simpler for many people; however, today there are over 600 million credit cards issued in the United States alone and four major credit card companies. It is no longer even possible to buy a car, get a home loan, or rent an apartment from many companies without a positive credit score.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2028055", "title": "Productivity paradox", "section": "Section::::Miscellaneous causes.:Parasitic losses of cashless transactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 481, "text": "Credit card transactions now represent a large percentage of low value transactions on which credit card companies charge merchants. Most of such credit card transactions are more of a habit than an actual need for credit and to the extent that such purchases represent convenience or lack of planning to carry cash on the part of consumers, these transactions add a layer of unnecessary expense. However, debit or check card transactions are cheaper than processing paper checks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The short answer to this question is that different Slavic groups were not seen as equal in the eyes of Nazi leaders. However, this was largely due to necessity and logistics rather than true, unabashed ideology, especially as the Second World War progressed. Due to the nature of my expertise, the following answer will be focused on German interactions with Czechs. Despite the exclusion of an in-depth discussion of German interactions with other Slavic groups, I believe Nazi policy towards Czechs and Sudeten-Germans within the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia to be the perfect example of the belief that some Slavs could be treated differently or \"better\" by the Reich.\n\nOne thing that should be noted at the start of this, is that even ethnic Germans outside of the borders of Germany-proper were often ostracized by Nazi occupation. Most Sudeten-Germans especially had a particular identity that did not seek to build connection with other Germans in Austria or Germany, but rather sought to create a unique identity that was tied to the natural landscape of the Sudetenland specifically. This was supported by \"Heimat,\" or \"homeland\" groups, which heavily attempted to spacialize Sudeten-German nationalism. Heimat lead hiking and excursion clubs, as well as natural history and preservation groups \"nurtured the idea that [Sudeten] German achievements were inscribed in the [Sudetenland's] landscape” (Glassheim, *Cleansing the Czechoslovak Borderlands*, 27). Heimat activists especially sought to build this identity especially in opposition to a Czech identity that was supposedly based on \"modernity\" and industry, as well as “alienation from the soil, denationalization, and godless socialism” (Glassheim, *Cleansing the Czechoslovak Borderlands,* 33). \n\nWith this being noted, as I've mentioned in [other answers](_URL_1_), Sudeten-German nationalist parties, such as the Sudetendeutsche Partei, were decidedly Pro-Reich, but this does not mean that the Sudeten-German identity was not one completely unique of a wider Pan-German identity that the Reich desired to create. Additionally, historian Tara Zahra has done great work in showing that most of those who lived in interwar Czechoslovakia, both German and Czech, were often more anational, and the lines between what constituted a \"German\" and what constituted a \"Czech\" were often blurred, with many being able to speak both languages, as well as widespread \"mixed\" marriages. This uncertainty of exact ethnicity within Czechoslovakia is especially pertinent for understanding the absurdity of Nazi racial policy within the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia during the Second World War, as Nazi policy wished to enforce strict racial policies in a place where ethnicity had characteristically been uncertain. \n\nOn the topic of resistance to occupation: many Czech patriots had been disheartened by former President Beneš's capitulation to the Munich Decree in 1938, and Czech Communists had been absolutely mortified by Stalin's signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact (a metaphorical deal with the Devil [Hitler] in the eyes of Czech Communists). These facts, combined with the lack of a tradition with armed resistance or partisan warfare among the Czechs (as opposed, for example, to the Yugoslavs), meant that Czechs practiced traditional, open resistance against Nazi occupation comparatively less than other occupied Slavic groups. Where Czech resentment existed, it was usually directed at Sudeten-Germans rather than Reich Germans. Often, many Sudeten-Germans who could, did not initially opt for Reich citizenship due to fear from social and economic boycotts that Czech patriots might call for. Additionally, although Reich Germans occupied high ranking positions within the Protectorate's administration, Sudeten Germans usually occupied entry level bureaucratic positions and therefore were often the ones to deal face to face with Czech dissenters. \n\nCzech resistance was mostly manifested in subjective, less concrete, or otherwise less measurable ways than open armed conflict or \"traditional\" resistance (although resistance groups, such as the Ústřední vedení odboje domácího, or ÚVOD, did exist). Czechs often practiced intentional incompetence at their jobs, especially if they worked in a war related industry, such as steel or weapon manufacturing, in order to sabotage the war effort. Other actions that were deemed \"acting nationally,\" such as making a point to speak Czech rather than German, or telling jokes that undermined the perceived authority of the Reich, were popular ways to resist Germanization that were more ambiguous, harder to notice, and thus harder to punish than more \"traditional\" ideas of resistance. Cited below, Mastný's *The Czechs Under Nazi Rule* is a great work on Czech Resistance.\n\nHermann Göring, among other Reich officials, especially tied their expansionist goals not to ethnicity but rather to an economically strong, industrialized \"mitteleuropäische,\" and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia would be integral to achieving this, especially as Czechoslovakia had been the 10th largest industrial producer per capita in the world during the interwar period, and 70% of Czechoslovakia's industry was located in the Protectorate (Bryant, *Prague in Black*, 77, 78). The revocation of Jewish property in the Protectorate was enough to justify the ideological reversal of \"Czechification\" of the Protectorate, and Reich officials allowed non-Jewish Czechs to largely participate in the working economy, with 84% of the Protectorate's industrial managerial roles filled by Czechs in 1941. (Bryant, *Prague in Black*, 84, 85) Especially as the war situation became more dire for the Reich, the original goal of repopulating the Protectorate with Germans changed into a goal to make the Czechs \"German.\"\n\nTo conclude, economic necessity, along with the lack of cohesive and constant resistance compared to other occupied Slavic countries, meant that Czechs were afforded a better status in the eyes of the Reich. However, that is not to say that Czechs did not suffer. This answer's intention is not to belittle the suffering of Czech Jews by the Reich. Furthermore, we should not forget other horrendous acts committed by the Reich against Czechs, such as the [Lidice Massacre](_URL_0_). There is always a great deal of difficulty that comes attached to writing about these topics, not only in an emotional sense, but also because we should strive to avoid attaching collective guilt or innocence to groups. Collaboration and resistance are often grey areas, and harder to define than people would ideally enjoy.\n\nFinally, I find it easier to differentiate between different \"German\" classifications in the Czech language rather than English, so I apologize sometimes if in the above post it is unclear whether \"German\" refers to either a Reich German or a Sudeten-German.\n\nA great book to read for this all, heavily referenced in the above question and cited below, would be Chad Bryant's *Prague in Black.* His chapters \"A Hopelessly Mixed People\" and \"The Reich Way of Thinking\" are especially relevant. \n\n\n*Works of Interest:*\n\nBrandes, Detlef. *Die Tschechen unter deutschem Protektorat; Teil 1: Besatzungspolitik, Kollaboration und Widerstand im Protektorat Böhmen und Mähren bis Heydrichs Tod: (1939 - 1942)*. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1969.\n\nBryant, Chad. *Prague in Black: Nazi Rule and Czech Nationalism.* Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007. \n\nGlassheim, Eagle. *Cleansing the Czechoslovak Borderlands: Migration, Environment, and Health in the Former Sudetenland*. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2016.\n\nMastný, Vojtěch. *The Czechs Under Nazi Rule: The Failure of National Resistance, 1939-1942*. New York & London: Columbia University Press, 1971.\n\nZahra, Tara. *Kidnapped Souls: National Indifference and the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900-1948*. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "843049", "title": "Anti-Slavic sentiment", "section": "Section::::20th century.:Fascism and Nazism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 947, "text": "Anti-Slavic racism was an essential component of Nazism. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party regarded Slavic countries (especially Poland, Russia, and Serbia) and their peoples as non-Aryan \"Untermenschen\" (subhumans), they were deemed to be foreign nations that could not be considered part of the Aryan master race. There were exceptions for some minorities in these states which were deemed by the Nazis to be the descendants of ethnic German settlers and not Slavs who were willing to be Germanized. Hitler considered the Slavs to be inferior, because the Bolshevik Revolution had put the Jews in power over the mass of Slavs, who were, by his own definition, incapable of ruling themselves but were instead being ruled by Jewish masters. He considered the development of Modern Russia to have been the work of Germanic, not Slavic, elements in the nation, but believed those achievements had been undone and destroyed by the October Revolution. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3430147", "title": "Untermensch", "section": "Section::::Nazi propaganda and policy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1149, "text": "The Nazi views on the Slavs were explicitly contemptuous, as even prior to the World War II, Slavs, particularly the Poles, were deemed as being inferior to Germans. After Adolf Hitler gained political power in Germany, the concept of Non-Aryan \"sub-human slave-material\" was developed and started to be used also towards other Slavic peoples. Poles and Serbs were at the bottom of the Slavic \"racial hierarchy\" established by the Nazis. Soon after Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact expired, also Russians started to be seen as part of the \"subhuman\" race. Similarly, also Belarusians, Czechs, Slovaks, and Ukrainians were considered to be inferior, despite some collaborative groups were found among these nations. Nonetheless, there were Slavs such as Bosniaks, Bulgarians, and Croats who collaborated with Nazi Germany that were still being perceived as not racially \"pure\" enough to reach the status of Germanic peoples, yet they were eventually considered ethnically better than all other Slavs, mostly due to pseudoscientific theories about these nations having a minimal amount of Slavic genes and considerable admixtures of Germanic and Turkic blood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "145551", "title": "Racial policy of Nazi Germany", "section": "Section::::Basis of Nazi policies and constitution of the Aryan Master Race.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1841, "text": "The Nazis considered the Slavs as Non-Aryan \"Untermenschen\" (\"sub-humans\") who were to be enslaved and exterminated by Germans. Slavic nations such as the Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks, Bulgarians and Croats who collaborated with Nazi Germany were still being perceived as not racially \"pure\" enough to reach the status of Germanic peoples, yet they were eventually considered ethnically better than the rest of the Slavs, mostly due to pseudoscientific theories about these nations having a considerable admixture of Germanic blood. In countries where these people lived, there were according to Nazis small groups of non-Slavic German descendants. These people underwent a \"racial selection\" process to determine whether or not they were \"racially valuable\", if the individual passed they would be re-Germanised and forcefully taken from their families in order to be raised as Germans. This secret plan Generalplan Ost (\"Master Plan East\") aimed at expulsion, enslavement and extermination of most Slavic people. Nazi policy towards them changed during World War II as a pragmatic means to resolve military manpower shortages: they were allowed, with certain restrictions, to serve in the Waffen-SS, in spite of being considered subhumans. Nazi propaganda portrayed people in Eastern Europe with an Asiatic appearance to be the result of intermingling between the native Slavic populations and Asiatic or Mongolian races as sub-humans dominated by the Jews with the help of Bolshevism. At the bottom of the racial scale of non-Aryans were Jews, ethnic Poles, ethnic Serbs and other Slavic people, Romani, and black people. The Nazis originally sought to rid the German state of Jews and Romani by means of deportation (and later extermination), while blacks were to be segregated and eventually eliminated through compulsory sterilization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1098416", "title": "Anti-Russian sentiment", "section": "Section::::By country.:Western world.:Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 583, "text": "Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party regarded Slavic peoples (especially Poles and East Slavs) as non-Aryan \"Untermenschen\" (subhumans). As early as 1925, Hitler suggested in \"Mein Kampf\" that the German people needed \"Lebensraum\" (\"living space\") to achieve German expansion eastwards (\"Drang nach Osten\") at the expense of the inferior Slavs. Hitler believed that \"the organization of a Russian state formation was not the result of the political abilities of the Slavs in Russia, but only a wonderful example of the state-forming efficacity of the German element in an inferior race.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40955929", "title": "Foreign races", "section": "Section::::People of Central Europe and Eastern Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1367, "text": "According to Nazi ideology the Slavic people were simply uncultured and inferior. The Nazis feared the fertility of the Slavs and called for a depopulation policy towards them. A secret plan called the General Plan East implemented the enslavement, expulsion and possible extermination of most people of both Central and Eastern Europe. The foreign worker was given the status of the Ost-Arbeiter, estimates put the number of Ostarbeiters between 3 million and 5.5 million. The possibility of naturalization came at different levels, however, applied only to the so-called annexed eastern territories. Naturalized - but with possibility of withdrawal - were so-called German people, the foreign-born Germans living in these occupied and annexed areas, as well as Poland, the Germans were connected (through marriage, language and culture, etc.). This served to attract so-called racially valuable children, a small percentage of people in these areas were given a \"racially valuable\" by Nazi racial theorists and were to undergo Germanization and be taken to the Reich and be raised as Germans. The aim was to give the kingdom German citizenship since the 1935 race laws introduced these people after a certain period of probation and allowed them to strip their foreign national status. (This possibility of naturalization, however, did not apply to the \"General\".)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "145551", "title": "Racial policy of Nazi Germany", "section": "Section::::Policies regarding Poles, Russians and other Slavs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 824, "text": "Nazi ideology viewed the Slavic peoples as non-Aryan \" Untermenschen\" (\"sub-humans\"), who were targeted for enslavement, expulsion and extermination. The racial status of Slavs during the Third Reich was inconsistent over time. Hitler viewed the Slavs as \"a mass of born slaves who feel the need of a master\". Nazi propaganda portrayed the Germanic peoples as \"heroes\" in contrast to the Jewish and Slavic \"sub-humans\". Nazi propaganda depicted Eastern Europe as racially mixed \"Asiatic\" that was dominated by the Jews with the aid of Bolshevism. The Nazis considered some people in Eastern Europe to be suitable for Germanization (they were presumed to be of German descent); if they were considered racially valuable they were to be re-Germanized and forcefully taken from their families to Germany and raised as Germans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25613", "title": "Racism", "section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 123, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 123, "end_character": 1163, "text": "The Nazis considered most Slavs to be non-Aryan \"Untermenschen\". The Nazi Party's chief racial theorist, Alfred Rosenberg, adopted the term from Klansman Lothrop Stoddard's 1922 book \"The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under-man\". Slavic nations such as the Slovaks, Bulgarians, and Croats, who collaborated with Nazi Germany were perceived as ethnically superior to other Slavs, mostly due to pseudoscientific theories about these nations having a considerable admixture of Germanic blood. In the secret plan Generalplan Ost (\"Master Plan East\") the Nazis resolved to expel, enslave, or exterminate most Slavic people to provide \"living space\" for Germans, however Nazi policy towards Slavs changed during World War II due to manpower shortages which necessitated limited Slavic participation in the Waffen-SS. Significant war crimes were committed against Slavs, particularly Poles, and Soviet POWs had a far higher mortality rate than their American and British counterparts due to deliberate neglect and mistreatment. Between June 1941 and January 1942, the Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million Red Army POWs, whom they viewed as \"subhuman\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Way back when, television was an analog signal. More accurately, it was a *series* of analog signals that your 100%-analog color television could use to produce a picture. You have three signals for color (your TV only looked at one if it was black-and-white) and a \"timing\" signal that indicated when it should start drawing a new line. The \"vertical hold\" was a sometimes-manual synchronization to that signal.\n\n\"Scrambling\" was really just that. Some of the signals were inverted, some of them were switched. But, fundamentally, you couldn't *add* in junk or actually do significant *math* to obscure the signal, because televisions simply didn't have the ability to un-do that and produce a working picture for your paying consumer. Likewise, before relatively powerful integrated electronics became available, it wasn't economically feasible to give a customer a powerful computerized set-top box just to watch some television.\n\nSo your \"encryption\" was a scheme with only a few variables. Throw off the synchronization here, swap a color field here, and it would make the picture \"off\" enough to be unwatchable. But, likewise, once someone figured out your mechanism, they just had to create a relatively simply \"decoder\" to bring that signal back.\n\nTLDR: Analog encryption wasn't terribly complicated, but it was analog, so it required *hardware* as opposed to something digital, which might be more complex, but also could be done with a wider variety of hardware. Nowadays, everything is digital (because computing power, even for high-definition video, is so cheap) so analog encryption/decryption isn't a thing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On the scrabmblers in the town I used to live in. Pin 4 of the chip would be 0 Volts on unsxrambled channel and 5 Volts on scrambled channels. So pulling the chip from the socket and bending pin 4 straight would let you watch anything you wanted.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I built a couple of those for friends and family. The vertical sync signal was missing, so this box would create its own. You then had to fine-tune it manually to get a stable picture on your TV.\n\nLater, with the DirecTV systems, people hacked the plug-in cards that came with the box. The programming hardware was technically illegal in the US, but was about $80USD from a Canadian company. A friend was part of a \"dark web\" hacker group, and every time DirecTV changed the codes, they would be hacked within hours. Reprogram your card and you had everything. One thing you had to remember was that your box couldn't be connected to the telephone line, else DirecTV could \"call\" your box to see what it was doing. That's how they did remote fixes and upgrades back then. DirecTV finally came out with a new box and card system that couldn't be reprogrammed with the previous gear, so that was the end of that.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Everyone is talking about \"way back when\" and \"did\" but I have a cheater box rn? I have all of bell broadcasting for free...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Boxes had EPROM chips. Cable companies sent EVERY SUBSCRIBER every channel that was available. Open box, dremel cut the epoxy chip that came with the box. Install $0.89 chip that you could buy hundreds of....", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For the digital age, things work somewhat differently. \n\nThe encryption itself usually isn't broken but some other part of the hardware might have a flaw that lets you access the key data, be it a season interface, an firmware dump or just insecure key distribution. Once you get ahold of a valid key, you can rather easily emulate most common cryptography systems (in the end it's just some protocol plus AES) either in hardware or nowadays more commonly in software. Nagravision2 had such a major flaw that any key change would lock out pirate decryption for a few hours tops. Most paytv networks will weigh the suspected amount of pirate decryption against the tremendous costs of implementing a newer encryption system (usually that requires at least a smartcard change, tough luck if they went cardless and now have to exchange all the boxes). As long as the illegal decryption process is complex enough to deterr the average teenager, requires expensive hardware or at least some sort of fancy setup, they'll let people get away with it. \n\nMore recently, cardsharing has been the typical way to go. Essentially, there's one valid and paid subscription in a cardreader connected to some sort of server (cable boxes, RasPis, full blown x86 servers, even internet routers like ddWRT boxes have been successfully used) and they handle the requests from the clients that connect via internet. Depending on the card in question, a dozen individual viewers is fairly easy to handle, using two or three cards can even result in as many viewers as your internet connection can handle (and that's a lot since only a few kbytes are sent and received every couple seconds). \n\nRecently though, providers have been switching to systems that pair the card with a particular box or have gone cardless alltogether - really annoying for people who simply want to use better hardware than the usually crappy provider boxes and do nothing illegal otherwise. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Rockwell Collins in Cedar Rapids Iowa had a big controversy wenden management discovered a clandestine line in the plant where cheater boxes were being made. An actual line, with people assigned to it, making professional cheater boxes by the 10s of thousands. Selling them in the 80s fit like 30-40 dollars. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, imagine tuning a radio...an old school radio with knobs. You either go up and down that AM or FM band and when you hit the sweet spot, the music is clear.\n\nNow try that using 3 different knobs, all on different frequencies and dial into that sweet spot. That's how they were able to mask the true signal before there were true methods of encryption. Once that \"sweet spot\" was figured out, it was just getting that info out to the public which wasn't as easy as it is today. It was more of a \"mouth to ear\" distribution system to keep it on the DL. But it's not dissimilar to modern techniques.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The best were the K band satellite hacks. Modded boxes for the 8’ dishes that enabled thousands of channels on dozens of satellites.\n\nIt was like the selection available on the internet in the 1990s. Hundreds of channels of anything. The most fun we’re the news feeds - the remote camera feeds from the news stations. Watching the “Off broadcast” shenanigans of the feild reporter were fantastic. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9575098", "title": "Virgin TV", "section": "Section::::Availability.:Non-cabled areas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 390, "text": "For customers in non-cabled areas, Virgin Media offered a branded set-top box for the Freeview digital terrestrial television service, called \"Free TV\", until December 2009 when it was discontinued. The set-top box was free to any customer taking the Bundle One subscription package or for an addition fee to other customers, up to five additional set-top boxes were available per account.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9258009", "title": "Digital media player", "section": "Section::::Use.:Use for illegal streaming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 1373, "text": "\"Fully-loaded\" set-top boxes have been subject to legal controversies, especially noting that their user experiences made them accessible to end-users who may not always realize that they are actually streaming pirated content. In the United Kingdom, the Federation Against Copyright Theft (FACT) has taken court actions on behalf of rightsholders against those who market digital media players pre-loaded with access to copyrighted content. In January 2017, an individual seller plead not guilty to charges of marketing and distributing devices that circumvent technological protection measures. In March 2017, the High Court of Justice ruled that BT Group, Sky plc, TalkTalk, and Virgin Media must block servers that had been used on such set-top boxes to illegally stream Premier League football games. Later in the month, Amazon UK banned the sale of \"certain media players\" that had been pre-loaded with software to illegally stream copyrighted content. On 26 April 2017, the European Court of Justice ruled that the distribution of set-top boxes with access to unauthorized streams of copyrighted works violated the exclusive rights to communicate them to the public. In September 2017, a British seller of such boxes pled guilty to violations of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act for selling devices that can circumvent effective technical protection measures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "77904", "title": "Television receive-only", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 448, "text": "Originally, all channels could be received in the clear (ITC) and free of charge. In October 1984, the U.S. Congress passed the Cable Communications Act of 1984, which gave those using dishes the right to see signals for free unless they were scrambled, and required those who did scramble to make their signals available for a fee. Since cable channels could prevent reception by big dishes, other companies had an incentive to offer competition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "842479", "title": "Prestel", "section": "Section::::Public take-up.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 532, "text": "The original idea was to persuade consumers to buy a modified television set with an inbuilt modem and a keypad remote control in order to access the service, but no more than a handful of models were ever marketed and they were prohibitively expensive. Eventually set-top boxes were made available, and some organisations made these available as part of their subscription, for example branded Tandata terminals were provided by the Nottingham Building Society for its customers, who could make financial transactions via Prestel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "348300", "title": "Digital video recorder", "section": "Section::::History.:Hard-disk-based digital video recorders.:Digital video recorders tied to a video service.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 613, "text": "In the United States, the FCC has ruled that starting on July 1, 2007, consumers will be able to purchase a set-top box from a third-party company, rather than being forced to purchase or rent the set-top box from their cable company. This ruling only applies to \"navigation devices,\" otherwise known as a cable television set-top box, and not to the security functions that control the user's access to the content of the cable operator. The overall net effect on digital video recorders and related technology is unlikely to be substantial as standalone DVRs are currently readily available on the open market.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4842106", "title": "ONTV (pay TV)", "section": "Section::::Basic service fees.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 767, "text": "After going through a name change, ON Subscription Television's broadcast signal was secured with a relatively simple analog scrambling method over the UHF spectrum; therefore, it was a popular target for those who chose to pirate the signal. In most U.S. markets where an over-the-air subscription television service operated, viewers could purchase descrambler kits from various specialty retailers or through mail order services advertised in magazines. The increased availability of cable television, coupled with the relative ease of obtaining descramblers contributed to a significant loss of revenue for the service. Station operators in Chicago estimated that there were two thefts of service through piracy for every one of their 90,000 subscribers in 1984.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29580", "title": "Set-top box", "section": "Section::::TV signal sources.:Closed captioning box.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 568, "text": "Set-top boxes were also made to enable closed captioning on older sets in North America, before this became a mandated inclusion in new TV sets. Some have also been produced to mute the audio (or replace it with noise) when profanity is detected in the captioning, where the offensive word is also blocked. Some also include a V-chip that allows only programs of some television content ratings. A function that limits children's time watching TV or playing video games may also be built in, though some of these work on main electricity rather than the video signal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "And why does my beard stop at a certain length?!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The cell which are producing hairs have a limited lifetime. So when the cell die, the hair stop growing and fall. This is true for any kind of hair.\n\nThe growing rate and the lifetime of the cell determined the max length of the hair.\n\nThe hair in our head are produced by super-longlived cell, so they can grow quite long (but not infinite lenght, the record is somthing like 3,3meters corresponding to around 330 month growing so around 27 years but the woman with those hair is around 50 and never cut her hair).\n\nThe hait in other place are procued by cell live shorter times and so have lower maximum length", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Further question, does taking Biaten actually help the hair grow past a terminal length? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52079694", "title": "Frizz", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Damage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 226, "text": "Having some hairs that are shorter than others is not necessarily a sign of breakage. Hair naturally sheds as it reaches the end of its growth cycle, and a new hair grows in its place; the average lifespan is about six years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26060462", "title": "Human hair growth", "section": "Section::::Growth inhibitors and disorders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 273, "text": "In most people, scalp hair growth will halt due to follicle devitalization after reaching a length of generally two or three feet. Exceptions to this rule can be observed in individuals with hair development abnormalities, which may cause an unusual length of hair growth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8416397", "title": "Long hair", "section": "Section::::Hair lengths.:Maximum hair length.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 665, "text": "The maximum terminal hair length depends on the length of the anagen (period of hair growth) for the individual. Waist-length hair or longer is only possible to reach for people with long anagen. The anagen lasts between 2 and 7 years, for some individuals even longer, and is followed by shorter catagen (transition) and telogen (resting) periods. At any given time, about 85% of hair strands are in anagen. The fibroblast growth factor 5 (FGF5) gene affects the hair cycle in mammals including humans; blocking FGF5 in the human scalp (by applying a herbal extract that blocked FGF5) extends the hair cycle, resulting in less hair fall and increased hair growth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30455158", "title": "Short anagen syndrome", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 206, "text": "Short anagen syndrome is a condition where hair does not grow beyond a short length, due to an unusually short duration of active hair growth (anagen phase). Most cases are associated with fine blond hair.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2654908", "title": "Terminal hair", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 335, "text": "In humans, terminal hairs are thick, long and dark, as compared with vellus hair. During puberty, the increase in androgenic hormone levels causes vellus hair to be replaced with terminal hair in certain parts of the human body. These parts will have different levels of sensitivity to androgens, primarily of the testosterone family.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "200129", "title": "Hair loss", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Other causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 302, "text": "BULLET::::- Gradual thinning of hair with age is a natural condition known as involutional alopecia. This is caused by an increasing number of hair follicles switching from the growth, or anagen, phase into a resting phase, or telogen phase, so that remaining hairs become shorter and fewer in number.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1089621", "title": "Telogen effluvium", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 330, "text": "BULLET::::- Short anagen syndrome is characterized by an idiopathic and persistent telogen hair shedding, as well as the inability to grow hair long. This is a result of the shortening of the duration of anagen, meaning a greater number of telogen hairs at any given time, and is responsible for the majority of chronic TE cases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'll take your second question first. The East German government, under Walter Ulbricht, officially called the Berlin Wall *der antifaschistischer Schutzwall* (\"Anti-Fascist Protective Barrier\"). When you remember that it was common for Eastern-Bloc politicians to casually refer to the capitalist west as \"fascist,\" this accurately sums up the Ulbricht regime's justification for building the Wall: It was necessary to protect the GDR from the West. This was framed not merely in terms of military protection and counter-espionage, but also economic and demographic self-preservation.\n\nIn the years before the erection of the Wall, the GDR hemorrhaged capital, both human and economic. Lured by the *Wirtschaftswunder* (\"Economic Miracle\") of the Federal Republic and West Berlin in the 1950s, and the strength of western currency, several million East Germans committed *Republikflucht* (\"Desertion of the Republic\"), fleeing to West Berlin or West Germany. Many of these refugees were young, educated, and skilled - precisely the sort of people that East Germany needed to stay. The unguarded border between East and West Berlin made such desertion exceedingly easy: One had, in many cases, only to walk across the street and report to the West Berlin authorities. This became the only widely available method of flight after 1952, when the East German government sealed the German-German border. In Berlin, traffic across the sector boundaries was an everyday reality. Many resident East Berliners held jobs or studied in West Berlin. West Berliners, for their part, would often cross into East Berlin for cheap shopping, since their Western Deutsche Mark was worth so much more than the Eastern Mark.\n\nThe Ulbricht regime - not without reason - understood this situation to be a lethal threat to the survival of the GDR. His presentation of the problem, both to the broader public and to the GDR's Eastern Bloc allies, was a mix of truth and lies. He talked about the out-flow of goods due to commerce in Berlin, and of the \"trade in people\" - a less-than-convincing attempt to portray the refugees as kidnapping victims, when they were not being portrayed as venal traitors who stole an upbringing from the GDR before fleeing it for pecuniary reward in the West. Building the Wall, from this perspective, was like cauterizing a wound. And a similar medical analogy was deployed by Ulbricht himself. He justified the wall by describing the sort of people it was intended to hinder in an August 28, 1961 article in *Neues Deutschland*, the official paper of the ruling Socialist Unity Party of East Germany: \"Counter-revolutionary vermin, spies and saboteurs, profiteers and human traffickers, spoiled teenage hooligans and other enemies of the people's democratic order [who] have been sucking on our Workers' and Peasants' Republic like leeches and bugs on a healthy body.\"\n\nThe people of East Berlin reacted in much the same way as the people of West Berlin, though their reactions were understandably more muted. First, there is reason to believe that they understood even in advance of the Wall's rise that it was coming. In the days and weeks before the border closure, the number of refugees reporting to West Berlin's processing centers rose dramatically. This was, in part, spurred on by the East German government itself. On June 15, 1961, Ulbricht famously declared at a press conference that \"no one has the intention of building a wall.\" (\"*Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten.*\") It has long been speculated that this statement was a dog-whistle to the people of Berlin, indicating that the East German government definitely intended to build a wall. Ulbricht's play here was to force the hand of the Khrushchev government in Moscow, which had opposed the building of a wall, by inciting more East Germans to cross the border, rendering the border situation even more unstable and untenable. \n\nAfter the border was actually sealed on August 13, 1961, there were some dramatic scenes in along the border as East Berliners attempted last-minute flights into the West. Nurse Ida Siekmann became the first casualty of the Wall on August 23, when she jumped from her window on the Bernauer Straße - the front facade of her apartment building was the border between the Soviet and French sectors - to her death on the pavement below. Others successfully dodged through gaps in the barbed wire that, initially, was all that constituted the \"Wall.\" Groups of East Berliners observed the construction mostly from afar, since the builders were guarded by *Volkspolizei* and *Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse* (\"Combat Groups of the Working Class\" - East German paramilitaries). Some of those crowds became vocal in their disgust and anger, but this came to little and was never as open or virulent as the activity of enraged West Berliners on the other side. There was certainly no repetition of the June 1953 strikes and protests that had so nearly toppled the Ulbricht government. \n\nIn the ensuing years, many attempts were made to rush through, slip past, tunnel under, or fly over the Wall, but there was no organized, massive attempt on the part of East Berliners to protest or damage the Wall or its protectors. Whether this was a function of the repression of the East German government, self-control and acceptance on the part of the East German people, or genuine enthusiasm for the Anti-Fascist Barrier is hard to say. It was likely a combination of these factors, in grossly unequal proportions. Especially after the initial shock of the separation wore off, Berliners on both sides of the Wall acclimated to its existence in many ways. Whatever the proportion of acceptance to enthusiasm in the 1960s, how much popular support for the Wall remained by the end of the Cold War was clearly demonstrated by the crowds who cheered its fall to the echo in November of 1989.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3722", "title": "Berlin Wall", "section": "Section::::Construction begins, 1961.:Immediate effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 798, "text": "The East German government claimed that the Wall was an \"anti-fascist protective rampart\" () intended to dissuade aggression from the West. Another official justification was the activities of Western agents in Eastern Europe. The Eastern German government also claimed that West Berliners were buying out state-subsidized goods in East Berlin. East Germans and others greeted such statements with skepticism, as most of the time, the border was only closed for citizens of East Germany traveling to the West, but not for residents of West Berlin travelling to the East. The construction of the Wall had caused considerable hardship to families divided by it. Most people believed that the Wall was mainly a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering or fleeing to West Berlin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3722", "title": "Berlin Wall", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 765, "text": "In 1989 a series of revolutions in nearby Eastern Bloc countries—Poland and Hungary in particular—caused a chain reaction in East Germany that ultimately resulted in the demise of the Wall. After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany and West Berlin. Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the Wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, euphoric people and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the Wall; the governments later used industrial equipment to remove most of what was left. The \"fall of the Berlin Wall\" paved the way for German reunification, which formally took place on 3 October 1990.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3722", "title": "Berlin Wall", "section": "Section::::Construction begins, 1961.:Immediate effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 1034, "text": "With the closing of the East-West sector boundary in Berlin, the vast majority of East Germans could no longer travel or emigrate to West Germany. Berlin soon went from being the easiest place to make an unauthorized crossing between East and West Germany to being the most difficult. Many families were split, while East Berliners employed in the West were cut off from their jobs. West Berlin became an isolated exclave in a hostile land. West Berliners demonstrated against the Wall, led by their Mayor () Willy Brandt, who strongly criticized the United States for failing to respond. Allied intelligence agencies had hypothesized about a wall to stop the flood of refugees, but the main candidate for its location was around the perimeter of the city. In 1961, Secretary of State Dean Rusk proclaimed, \"The Wall certainly ought not to be a permanent feature of the European landscape. I see no reason why the Soviet Union should think it is—it is to their advantage in any way to leave there that monument to communist failure.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32842267", "title": "List of deaths at the Berlin Wall", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 497, "text": "There were numerous deaths at the Berlin Wall, which stood as a barrier between West Berlin and East Berlin from 13 August 1961 until 9 November 1989. Before the rise of the Berlin Wall in 1961, 3.5 million East Germans circumvented Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions, many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin, from where they could then travel to West Germany and other Western European countries. Between 1961 and 1989, the Wall prevented almost all such emigration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "370681", "title": "Separation barrier", "section": "Section::::Past separation barriers.:Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 511, "text": "Before the Wall's erection, 3.5 million East Germans circumvented Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions and defected from the GDR, many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin, from where they could then travel to West Germany and other Western European countries. Between 1961 and 1989, the wall prevented almost all such emigration. During this period, around 5,000 people attempted to escape over the wall, with an estimated death toll of from 136 to more than 200 in and around Berlin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14581", "title": "Ich bin ein Berliner", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 605, "text": "The West, including the U.S., was accused of failing to respond forcefully to the erection of the Wall. Officially, Berlin was under joint occupation by the four allied powers, each with primary responsibility for a certain zone. Kennedy's speech marked the first instance where the U.S. acknowledged that East Berlin was part of the Soviet bloc along with the rest of East Germany. On July 25, 1961, Kennedy insisted in a presidential address that the U.S. would defend West Berlin, asserting its Four-Power rights, while making it clear that challenging the Soviet presence in Germany was not possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11867", "title": "Germany", "section": "Section::::History.:East and West Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 449, "text": "The Berlin Wall, rapidly built on 13 August 1961 prevented East German citizens from escaping to West Germany, eventually becoming a symbol of the Cold War. Ronald Reagan's \"Tear down this wall!\" speech at the Wall on 12 June 1987 echoed John F. Kennedy's \"Ich bin ein Berliner\" speech of 26 June 1963. The fall of the Wall in 1989 became a symbol of the Fall of Communism, the Dissolution of the Soviet Union, German Reunification and \"Die Wende\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Air/wind doesn't have any special heating/cooling properties. It follows the same laws of heat exchange equilibrium that everything else does: If you put something a room with warmer air, it'll get warmer. If you put something in a room with colder air, it will get cooler.\r\n\r\nBut your car engine has something in common with your body: it produces heat while it's working. Accordingly, the air immediately surrounding your body or engine is hotter than the air in the surrounding environment. When you turn on a fan and feel cooler, all that's happening is that the fan is dispersing the heat cloud that's surrounding your body (the opposite of what a blanket does: trap the heat cloud so that the heat builds up).\r\n\r\nSo the answer to your question is that moving wind across a thing doesn't have any special mechanism for cooling that thing down. But if that thing has a bunch of heat already around it (as anything that produces heat will), blowing this cloud away can keep the temperature of the object from getting out of control.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > which is created because of friction (?).\n\nNote that many things that go wicked fast (as in an atmospheric entry) are heated not because of friction but because the air is compressed into a hot [shock layer](_URL_0_) in front of the object.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1711063", "title": "Aerodynamic heating", "section": "Section::::Physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 810, "text": "At high speeds through the air, the object's kinetic energy is converted to heat through compression and friction. At lower speed, the object will lose heat to the air through which it is passing, if the air is cooler. The combined temperature effect of heat from the air and from passage through it is called the stagnation temperature; the actual temperature is called the recovery temperature. These viscous dissipative effects to neighboring sub-layers make the boundary layer slow down via a non-isentropic process. Heat then conducts into the surface material from the higher temperature air. The result is an increase in the temperature of the material and a loss of energy from the flow. The forced convection ensures that other material replenishes the gases that have cooled to continue the process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "621008", "title": "Air cooling", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 277, "text": "In all cases, the air has to be cooler than the object or surface from which it is expected to remove heat. This is due to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat will only move spontaneously from a hot reservoir (the heat sink) to a cold reservoir (the air).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37754", "title": "Mountain", "section": "Section::::Climate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 698, "text": "However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature dependence. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometre (or 5.4 °F per 1000 feet) of altitude.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59211", "title": "Altitude", "section": "Section::::In atmospheric studies.:Temperature profile.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 693, "text": "However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometer (or 5.4 °F per 1000 feet) of altitude.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "496730", "title": "Alpine climate", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 693, "text": "However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometer (or 5.4 °F per 1000 feet) of altitude.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1711063", "title": "Aerodynamic heating", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 454, "text": "Aerodynamic heating is the heating of a solid body produced by its high-speed passage through air (or by the passage of air past a test object in a wind tunnel), whereby its kinetic energy is converted to heat by skin friction on the surface of the object at a rate that depends on the viscosity and speed of the air. In science and engineering, it is most frequently a concern regarding meteors, reentry vehicles, and the design of high-speed aircraft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "154910", "title": "Wind chill", "section": "Section::::Explanation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 574, "text": "A surface loses heat through conduction, evaporation, convection, and radiation. The rate of convection depends on both the difference in temperature between the surface and the fluid surrounding it and the velocity of that fluid with respect to the surface. As convection from a warm surface heats the air around it, an insulating boundary layer of warm air forms against the surface. Moving air disrupts this boundary layer, or epiclimate, allowing for cooler air to replace the warm air against the surface. The faster the wind speed, the more readily the surface cools.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It would be equally safe but much much more expensive.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hydrogen is already a gas.\n\nDeuterium is a rare form of hydrogen which has a neutron in addition to a proton.\n\nAs was pointed out using deuterium will increase the cost of using it since you have to filter out the regular hydrogen.\n\nOne large problem with gaseous hydrogen is that it take a lot of space.\n\nAnother is that it's very easy for it to react with oxygen causing explosions.\n\nWhat do envision would deuterium be useful for?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1055835", "title": "Hydrogen fuel", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 354, "text": "Hydrogen fuel can provide motive power for liquid-propellant rockets, cars, boats and airplanes, portable fuel cell applications or stationary fuel cell applications, which can power an electric motor. The problems of using hydrogen fuel in cars arise from the fact that hydrogen is difficult to store in either a high pressure tank or a cryogenic tank.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18620088", "title": "Hydrogen safety", "section": "Section::::Incidents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 389, "text": "Hydrogen is extremely flammable. However this is mitigated by the fact that hydrogen rapidly rises and often disperses before ignition, unless the escape is in an enclosed, unventilated area. Demonstrations have shown that a fuel fire in a hydrogen-powered vehicle can burn out completely with little damage to the vehicle, in contrast to the expected result in a gasoline-fueled vehicle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7091330", "title": "Water-fuelled car", "section": "Section::::Extracting energy from water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 322, "text": "Most proposed water-fuelled cars rely on some form of electrolysis to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen and then recombine them to release energy; however, because the energy required to separate the elements will always be at least as great as the useful energy released, this cannot be used to produce net energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1682269", "title": "Hydrogen highway", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 408, "text": "The use of hydrogen cars has been proposed as a means to reduce local air pollution and carbon emissions because hydrogen fuel cell cars emit clean exhaust. Hydrogen can be produced from natural gas, coal and renewable energy. However, as long as the majority of hydrogen continues to be produced by burning fossil fuels and transported in trucks, pollution is emitted by the hydrogen manufacturing process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11882110", "title": "Mitigation of peak oil", "section": "Section::::Transportation fuel use.:Fuel substitution.:Mobile applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 631, "text": "The use of hydrogen fuel is another alternative under development in various countries, alongside, hydrogen vehicles though hydrogen is actually an energy storage medium, not a primary energy source, and consequently the use of a non-petroleum source would be required to extract the hydrogen for use. Though hydrogen is currently outperformed in terms of cost and efficiency by battery powered vehicles, there are applications where it would come in useful. Short haul ferries and very cold climates are two examples. Hydrogen fuel cells are about a third as efficient as batteries and double the efficiency of gasoline vehicles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "188545", "title": "Hydrogen vehicle", "section": "Section::::Hydrogen.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 312, "text": "The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include chiefly its storage on board the vehicle. While the well-to-wheel efficiency for hydrogen from the least efficient manner of producing it (electrolysis) is less than 25 percent, it still exceeds that of vehicles based on internal combustion engines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "188545", "title": "Hydrogen vehicle", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 668, "text": "A 2009 study at UC Davis, published in the \"Journal of Power Sources\", similarly found that, over their lifetimes, hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles. This agrees with a 2014 analysis. \"The Washington Post\" asked in 2009, \"[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries\"? \"The Motley Fool\" stated in 2013 that \"there are still cost-prohibitive obstacles [for hydrogen cars] relating to transportation, storage, and, most importantly, production.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The javelin was a weapon peculiar to Mediterranean warfare, especially for Latin/Italian, Iberian and Celt-Iberian peoples (Sanz 21). The use of javelins (not always the *pilum*, later the *spiculum* and earlier a different type, but javelins are all basically the same in function) remained a mainstay of Roman infantry warfare for basically the entire Roman period. We keep digging them up even in the late Empire (Bishop & Coulston 200). Indeed, missile warfare became in some ways more prominent rather than less in the late Roman period, with Germanic groups also using javelins (such as the *ango*), and there was an increasing trend toward training recruits in various types of ranged warfare, also including archery and slinging (Rance 251-3). Javelins did not go away with the 'fall' of Rome either, and throwing spears (again, the Germanic *ango,* which was based on the *pilum*) pop up in the Merovingian period, though it appeared to fall out of use by the 7th century AD (Halsall 164-5). Archery became perhaps more significant in this period, as it certainly was later (166). \n\nI see no reason why any great developments in warfare (tactical or technological) should be responsible for this gradual fading away of the Mediterranean sword-and-javelin style of fighting. In my view, fighting styles shifted over time for reasons as much to do with society and culture as with technology and tactics. Perhaps the intermittent disappearance and re-use of phalanx-like tactics at various stages of European history might fit this bill: it's not as if shield-and-spear ever stopped being an effective weapons combination.* I think it is perfectly explicable by the massive shift over time in the culture of Western Europe, and the role of the javelin could be in many ways readily filled by archers and the multi-skilled soldiers of the early Medieval period (166). There is a tendency by Westerners to view changes in and the relative effectiveness of different military tactics and fighting styles from a 'technological' standpoint. For instance many casual observers tend to obsess over the exact size and shape and capabilities of the *gladius* and *scutum* in explaining Roman success and ignore the fact that the Roman army in the Mid-Republic was a highly trained, highly motivated force with hugely superior manpower reserves to its enemies. I suppose the point I am making is that shifts in military equipment and fighting styles do not necessarily have to be tactical or 'Darwinian' in any way, but can reflect changes in societies, cultures and approaches over time that are not necessarily 'superior', just different.\n\n\n\n*I am of course aware that the Romans beat the Macedonians and Seleucids, who had all-but-perfected the classical phalanx, but tactics, generalship and superior Roman resources are important factors in this. Libyan (and Carthaginian) spearmen performed usually very well, even against Roman legionaries, in the Punic Wars for instance. Later on the Romans began to re-adopt spear-based fighting styles once more, though the performance of the Mid to Late Republican Roman legions clearly demonstrate that the Mediterranean style of fighting could, well handled, deal with any enemy (though I'm not factoring the fluctuating dominance of cavalry warfare in the ancient to early modern periods in here). The reasons for the use and re-use of spear tactics are probably as much to do with the quality of recruits and training, and cultural shifts, as any 'tactical' necessity.\n\nSources:\n\nM.C. Bishop & J.C.N Coulston, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (second edition), Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2006.\n\nGuy Halsall, Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2003.\n\nPhilip Rance, \"Battle\" from The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare (Vol II), New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.\n\nQuesada Sanz, F. ‘Not so different: individual fighting techniques and small unit tactics of Roman and Iberian armies’ in P. Francois, P. Moret, S. Pere-Nogues (eds) L’Hellenisation en mediterranee occidentale au temps des guerres puniqes. Actes du Colloque International de Toulouse, 31 mars-2 avril 2005. Pallas 70 (2006) 1-25.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Roman weapons evolved across the empire's history, and the pilum wasn't exempt these processes. The general idea - a weapon with a long, narrow metal shank that would bend on impact, rendering it useless by the enemy and possibly tangling the shield of the person it hit - stayed relevant, but the form changed.\n\nBy the late empire, we see the pilum replaced / evolving into a barbed throwing darts that archaeologists usually call 'angons' (a Greek word used by a Byzantine author to describe the pilum-like javelins used by 6th century Frankish soldiers). [This image](_URL_0_) shows some reproductions of an early angon style that was popular in both the late Roman army and among 'barbarian' groups outside the frontier.\n\nWe find a lot of these javelins in bog deposits, like [Illerup Adal](_URL_2_). At Illerup, at sometime around 200AD (and on several occasions after that), a bunch of weapons were dumped into a bog. We're not entirely sure why, but the general theory is that they're the armaments of a disarmed, defeated army. The weapons were found in sets, and it was clear that warriors were armed with (among other things) a spear for hand-to-hand fighting and an angon-like javelin. In Illerup, as in the Roman army, we're looking at an organized force whose warriors whose equipment was standardized, including the provision of everyone with a made-to-purpose javelin. That speaks of a particular kind of centralized political structure: someone in charge equipped the soldiers with these standardized, specialized weapons.\n\nAs Roman power began to spin out of control in the west, however, this centralized control started to change. The army became increasingly privatized, and the responsibility to equip and support it devolved onto local elites. Regular weapon factories shut down, and production seems to have in many cases shifted to local production. Sometimes these locally manufactured weapons were still very regular, but in England at least there was an increasing amount of diversity of style, particularly in the spears people used. It's like if the army today shut down, and were replaced with a private citizen militia that had to arm itself: you'd see a lot of military surplus at first, but as time went on things would get more and more chaotic. And in England, and to a lesser extent in France, the weapons did.\n\nWhat that means for weaponry is this: the organized, specialized kits of shield, spear, javelin, etc start to disappear from the archaeology by the end of the fifth century. That doesn't mean they necessarily disappeared from the army - people may not have been buried with every weapon they owned. But I personally think the variety of weapons we see in the ground reflects the larger change in military structure we see by the end of the fifth century in the west: there's no organized army anymore, and individual members of the warrior militia have a lot more individuality and personalization in their equipment. This is when angons start to become very rare.\n\n[An angon of the style more commonly found in the 6-7th centuries](_URL_1_).\n\nIf you ask me why angons - the descendants of the pilum - ultimately vanished, I would say it's a result of a long process of military de-specialization. Warriors continued to use javelins, but the spears that are common in the archaeology during this period are generally more multi-purpose weapons that could be thrown or used in the hand. Some of these spears still have the long, narrow shank of the pilum / angon, but replace the barb with a more versatile leaf-bladed or angular tip ([for example](_URL_3_) - and there are more extreme cases with a much longer shank). These multi-function spearheads (either singly, or in pairs) seem to take the place of the more specialized set of angon + spear that we see in the larger, organized armies of the earlier (late imperial) period. I would suggest this reflects the decentralization and de-professionalization of the army in the early middle ages.\n\nWhen, precisely, the angon was entirely abandoned isn't clear. They disappear from archaeology after the 7th century, but that's because weapon burial went out of fashion. They continue to appear in art for the next 400 years, but whether that reflects reality, or whether the shape had become 'the way' to draw javelins (and outlived the weapons it was based on) is difficult to say.\n\nWhat does seem clear is that by the time armies re-specialized (in the later part of the early middle ages), the pilum / angon does not seem - as far as we can tell - to be given the same privileged place it had been in the old Roman model (whose influence had continued well into the early middle ages).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2047227", "title": "Spiculum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 517, "text": "A spiculum is a late Roman spear that replaced the pilum as the infantryman's main throwing javelin around 250 AD. Scholars suppose that it could have resulted from the gradual combination of the pilum and two German spears, the angon and the bebra. As more and more Germans joined the Roman army, their culture and traditions became a driving force for change. The spiculum was better than the old pilum when used as a thrusting spear, but still maintained some of the former weapon's penetrative power when thrown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2047227", "title": "Spiculum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 261, "text": "Vegetius mentions the spiculum in his military manual, but some scholars maintain that the spiculum was simply a different name for the pilum. Whatever the case, most historians accept that the spiculum evolved from the earlier javelins used by the Roman army.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "147287", "title": "Pilum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 283, "text": "The pilum (plural \"pila\"; ) was a javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally about long overall, consisting of an iron shank about in diameter and long with a pyramidal head. The shank was joined to the wooden shaft by either a socket or a flat tang.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8882773", "title": "Verutum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 533, "text": "The verutum, plural veruta (), was a short javelin used in the Roman army. This javelin was used by the \"velites\" for skirmishing purposes, unlike the heavier \"pilum\", which was used by the \"hastati\" and \"principes\" for weakening the enemy before advancing into close combat. The shafts were about long, substantially shorter than the \"pilum\", and the point measured about long. The \"verutum\" had either an iron shank like the \"pilum\" or a tapering metal head. It was sometimes thrown with the aid of a throwing strap, or \"amentum\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4959495", "title": "Roman military personal equipment", "section": "Section::::Personal weapons.:Spears and javelins (\"hastae\").:Javelin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 260, "text": "Although Romans often used the word \"pila\" to refer to all thrown javelins, the term \"pilum\" also means specifically the heavy Roman throwing javelin of the legions. Lighter, shorter javelins existed, such as those used by the \"velites\" and the early legions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4959495", "title": "Roman military personal equipment", "section": "Section::::Personal weapons.:Spears and javelins (\"hastae\").:\"Pilum\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 485, "text": "The \"pilum\" (plural \"pila\") was a heavy javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally somewhat less than two metres long overall, consisting of a wooden shaft from which projected an iron shank about 7 mm in diameter and 60 cm long with a pyramidal head. The iron shank was socketed or, more usually, widened to a flat tang. A \"pilum\" usually weighed between two and four kilograms, with the versions produced during the empire era being somewhat lighter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23468036", "title": "History of weapons", "section": "Section::::Pre-history and the ancient world.:The Romans.:Spears.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 886, "text": "In addition to short swords, Roman infantry typically carried a spear or other type of pole weapon. The most common was known as the javelin, a heavy spear that could be either thrown or thrusted. Similar in function to the javelin was the \"fuscina.\" Although not used by the Roman military, this fork-like trident was one of the most popular gladiator weapons. A version of the javelin that had a much longer and thinner tip was the \"pilum\", which could pierce armor or shields when thrown. Several \"pila\" could be thrown to initiate combat, disrupting the structure and defense of enemy armies and providing an opportunity for close combat, where the gladius would take over. The design of the \"pilum\" allowed it to become lodged in an enemy shield. Removing a \"pilum\" from a shield was often difficult and time consuming during combat. In fact, most were not reusable after removal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The presence of bones and shells on the ocean floor depends on where you are. If the bone or shell is deposited in the deep oceans (where the [CCD](_URL_1_) is present) then the calcium carbonate and calcium will be put into solution with the water. \n\nMOST of the shells are broken down and deposited as a carbonate ooze that will eventually become limestone. \n\nIf it is deposited near-shore, then you can get [coquinas](_URL_0_), or other such biogenic rich rocks", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I saw an excellent infographic a while back illustrating a \"whale fall\"--what happens to a whale's body after it dies. I'll look for it. In the meantime, here's an article that goes more in depth about it: [Whale fall](_URL_1_) \n\nedit: My mistake, it wasn't an infographic. It was this [video](_URL_0_). Quite beautiful, actually. One whale can support a community of organisms for 50-75 years after death. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Whale carcass yields bone-devouring worms.](_URL_0_)\n\n[Boneworms on dead whales in Monterey Bay.](_URL_1_) (video)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Bones rot away too:\n\nDebris field at the Titanic, no human bodies, only dozens of [close-spaced pairs of shoes.](_URL_0_\")", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12724477", "title": "Piksi", "section": "Section::::Ecology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 478, "text": "The deposit in which the bones were found was a silty claystone. This was formed from sediments deposited during what seems to have been a rather cool phase of the Late Cretaceous: sea levels of the Western Interior Seaway at least were apparently very low for Mesozoic standards, though this may also have been due to strong tectonic uplift in the Cordilleran Overthrust Belt. The location was inland, with the Western Interior Seaway's coast at least 350 km (220 miles) away.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49659169", "title": "Limbones Island", "section": "Section::::Ecosystems.:Biology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 233, "text": "The sea floor 15 feet below is dotted with live and healthy corals. It has many coral varieties, fish species, and amazing crustaceans, including the mantis shrimp, a type of shrimp that possesses a set of multi-colored exoskeleton.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52683587", "title": "La Garma cave complex", "section": "Section::::Description.:Lower Gallery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 229, "text": "The floor covers an area of over . Thousands of animal bones and sea shells were found in this section, including Lithic, antler and bone artefacts. Three stone structures, likely indicative of residential use, were discovered. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2804447", "title": "Globigerina", "section": "Section::::\"Globigerina\" ooze.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 375, "text": "Vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with \"Globigerina\" ooze, dominated by the foraminiferous shells of \"Globigerina\" and other Globigerinina. The name was originally applied to mud collected from the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean when planning the location of the first transatlantic telegraph cables and it was mainly composed of the shells of \"Globigerina bulloides\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1266530", "title": "Riemann (crater)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 367, "text": "The interior floor is a mixture of level terrain mixed with rough ground where impacts have stirred up the surface. It is generally less rough in the eastern half, especially near the center. A small, bowl-shaped crater lies on the floor in the southeastern part of the interior, and the faint remnants of several other lesser craters can be observed in the surface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1151728", "title": "Sucia Island", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 217, "text": "These reefs and broken shorelines are from a geologic folding of the Earth's crust, which brought many interesting marine fossils to the surface. Some good examples can be found on the southeast arm of Sucia Island. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25529115", "title": "Island Eddy", "section": "Section::::Geologyfragments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 579, "text": "BULLET::::2. Very little bedrock is actually exposed on the ground surface, save at the western tip. The long, low, drumlin-like ridge which forms the heart of the island appears to be composed mainly of glacial drift which was probably laid down during the last ice age. The same is probably true of the two smaller hillocks to the east and west of it. In contrast, the sinuous isthmuses and spits which link them are composed of sea-sorted sand, shingles and cobbles. These are of post-glacial origin and it is clear that they are being continuously moulded by tidal currents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Electronic circuits are designed to only allow electricity to pass through certain parts at certain times. That's how your phone works.\n\nIt's a set of boolean functions (1 or 0/true or false). Electricity passes through chip, and it makes a decision such as \"and/or\". If it's 'and', it sends the signal one way, and if it's 'or', it sends it another way. After it does that, this step is repeated through other logic gates that have other functions that aren't and/or (not/or or any of the many other variants).\n\nOnce you submerge it into water, it doesn't follow this designed 'trail', and the phone short-circuits. Because water is conductive, the electrical signals go wherever they can, and electronics can't handle that.\n\nTo make something of a comparison; It's the same reason you get in a line when you're shopping. Imagine if all the customers just threw all their items onto the counter at the same time and talked over each other. The cashier wouldn't know what to do. That's what the submersion is.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "56504697", "title": "OnePlus 6", "section": "Section::::Specifications.:Hardware.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 218, "text": "The phone has been specified to be dust, splash, and water resistant, however, it has not been certified with an IP Code and OnePlus suggests against submerging the device. Water damage is not covered by the warranty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53855893", "title": "Electric shock drowning", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 661, "text": "Electric shock drownings are most commonly caused by improper electrical connections on boats and docks. By law, all connections near water are required to have working ground fault circuit interruption technology, GFCI. These devices break the electrical circuit if any stray current fails to return to the source connection. If GFCI devices are missing or faulty, it is possible for current to leak into the water. If a system is leaking current into the water, appliances will likely function as normal without any indication of a problem. Correctly functioning GFCI and ELCI devices will instantaneously detect the problem and disconnect the power source. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "890485", "title": "Boating", "section": "Section::::Safety.:Drowning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 870, "text": "Another potential cause for drowning is the presence of stray electrical power from a boat leaking into the water. This is known as electric shock drowning. Metal surfaces of a boat leaking power into the water can create zones of high-energy potential. Stray current entering salt water is less of a problem than the same situation in fresh water. Salt water is a good conductor and it carries current away to ground quickly. Fresh water is a poor conductor and when alternating current forms an electrical potential near a boat, the current can paralyze a swimmer. Stray electric current has caused many drownings, but post-mortem examinations will not link this problem to the death. The problem can be reduced by prohibiting swimming near boats connected to shore power and ensuring marinas comply with National Fire Protection Association Standard 303 for marinas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1853642", "title": "Water damage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 272, "text": "Water damage describes a large number of possible losses caused by water intruding where it will enable attack of a material or system by destructive processes such as rotting of wood, growth, rusting of steel, de-laminating of materials such as plywood, and many others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "331039", "title": "Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge", "section": "Section::::Controversies.:Seawall integrity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 462, "text": "Subsequent aerial footage posted online showed a section of the dolosse breakwater completely underwater. Civil engineer So Yiu-kwan told Hong Kong media on 12 April 2018 that the water level, at the time the photos were taken, was about 1.74 mPD (metres above Principal Datum), but the maximum water level could reach 2.7 mPD. He said the dolosse would offer no wave protection if entirely submerged, and further alleged that they had been installed backwards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54024172", "title": "Telephone (sternwheeler)", "section": "Section::::Collisions and accidents.:January 1892 sinking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 310, "text": "Water flooded in, and \"Telephone\" sank so that only the bow was visible above the water’s surface. The steamer appeared to be a total loss, but remained hanging on the breakwater for about a week, which was enough time to raise the vessel. Once \"Telephone\" was raised, the damage appeared to be not so severe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3849909", "title": "Freediving blackout", "section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Shallow water blackout.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 347, "text": "Significantly, victims drown quietly underwater without alerting anyone to the fact that there is a problem and are typically found on the bottom as shown in the staged image at the right. Survivors of shallow water blackout are typically puzzled as to why they blacked out. Pool lifesavers are trained to scan the bottom for the situation shown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There were many economic factors such as competition. The Ottoman Empire had risen to prominence leading up to period of European colonization. They controlled many of the trade routes to the east, and Europeans would have had to pay to use them. So, while it was obviously an economic risk to send ships out into the unknown, the conditions of the time made it a worthwhile gamble and there was a snowball effect once resources started coming back from the New World. In the absence of an empire in Western Europe, there was great competition between powers which sped up the race to colonize. China was already powerful during this period (Ming dynasty). You had the Mughal Empire in northern India, Ottoman Empire, etc. I am not trying to say that these established powers did not try to expand using new strategies, but just think about what risks an internet start-up can take today compared to an established company like IBM or Microsoft, and the kind of disruptive economic growth happens as a result.\n\nIn addition to the economic factors, you must consider the geographic advantage that European countries had at the time. They were better positioned to send out expeditions than any of the powers in the east. It was not as feasible for, say China or Japan to send ships over the Pacific Ocean because of the long journey. They could and did take ships other places, but these places often had established powers and were not nearly as easy to conquer as the Americas proved to be. Meanwhile, after Gibraltar fell from Islamic control towards the end of the 1400s, European ships were able to get safe passage out of the Mediterranean Sea and then further west. \n\nThis brings me to the most important factor in this period of colonization, and the reason why the Americas were a desirable place to colonize: The vast majority of Native Americans were killed by germs that the Europeans brought over. This effect streamlined the process of domination in a way that the Eastern powers could only dream of. The Mongol Empire certainly dominated Asia in dramatic fashion years before this period of European colonization, but they failed to conquer Japan in two separate campaigns. Just think of what they could have accomplished with the aid of these killer germs!\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24493019", "title": "Islamic missionary activity", "section": "Section::::In Europe.:In Western Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 577, "text": "With the Ottoman Caliphate in a seemingly constant military conflict with Western Europe at their mutual borders, missionary activity in Western Europe was virtually non-existent until the dramatic changing of the European political map in the 20th century. This along with the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the same time frame paved way for a subsequent mass immigration of Muslim peoples from the Muslim World into Western Europe after World War I. With the arrival of this new immigrant population, Islamic missionary activity in Western Europe soon followed thereafter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15443", "title": "Western imperialism in Asia", "section": "Section::::Early European exploration of Asia.:Medieval European exploration of Asia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 853, "text": "In the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of Europeans, many of them Christian missionaries, had sought to penetrate into China. The most famous of these travelers was Marco Polo. But these journeys had little permanent effect on East-West trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia. The Yuan dynasty in China, which had been receptive to European missionaries and merchants, was overthrown, and the new Ming rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism. Meanwhile, the Turks consolidated control over the eastern Mediterranean, closing off key overland trade routes. Thus, until the 15th century, only minor trade and cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia continued at certain terminals controlled by Muslim traders.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "191429", "title": "Muslim world", "section": "Section::::History.:Great Divergence.:Colonialism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 448, "text": "Beginning with the 15th century, colonialism by European powers (particularly, but not exclusively, Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Russia, Austria, and Belgium) profoundly affected Muslim-majority societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim-dominated societies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14400", "title": "History of science", "section": "Section::::Post-classical science.:Western Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 449, "text": "As a result of the Pax Mongolica, Europeans, such as Marco Polo, began to venture further and further east. This led to the increased awareness of Indian and even Chinese culture and civilization within the European tradition. Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury (who had studied Mathematics in 11th century England), and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercian blast furnace at Laskill.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4746031", "title": "History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance", "section": "Section::::Historical background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1171, "text": "European Colonialism, that was accompanied by Christian evangelism and often by violence, led to the suppression of indigenous religions in the territories conquered or usurped by the Europeans. The Spanish colonization of the Americas largely destroyed the Aztec and Inca civilization. However, Colonialism (and later European Imperialism) as a whole were not motivated by religious zeal; the suppression of the indigenous religions was their side result, not their main purpose. Only partial aspects, like the Goa Inquisition, bear resemblance to the persecutions that occurred on the European continent. By the 18th century, persecutions of unsanctioned beliefs had been reduced in most Europeans countries to religious discrimination, in the form of legal restrictions on those who did not accept the official faith. This often included being barred from higher education, or from participation in the national legislature. In colonized nations, attempts to convert native peoples to Christianity became more encouraging and less forceful. In British India during the Victorian era, Christian converts were given preferential treatment for governmental appointments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "321175", "title": "Political aspects of Islam", "section": "Section::::Modern era.:Reaction to European colonialism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 274, "text": "In the 19th century, European colonization of the Muslim world coincided with the retreat of the Ottoman Empire, the French conquest of Algeria (1830), the disappearance of the Moghul Empire in India (1857), the Russian incursions into the Caucasus (1828) and Central Asia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23000764", "title": "Christianity in the 17th century", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 898, "text": "17th-century Missionary activity in Asia and the Americas grew strongly, put down roots, and developed its institutions, though it met with strong resistance in Japan in particular. At the same time Christian colonization of some areas outside Europe succeeded, driven by economic as well as religious reasons. Christian traders were heavily involved in the Atlantic slave trade, which had the effect of transporting Africans into Christian communities. A land war between Christianity and Islam continued, in the form of the campaigns of the Habsburg Empire and Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, a turning point coming at Vienna in 1683. The Tsardom of Russia, where Orthodox Christianity was the established religion, expanded eastwards into Siberia and Central Asia, regions of Islamic and shamanistic beliefs, and also southwest into the Ukraine, where the Uniate Eastern Catholic Churches arose.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because the solid line [here](_URL_1_) is the effective potential energy of the Earth (or anything) plotted against distance (taken from [here](_URL_0_)). Do you see minimum point? That is the distance where you can have a circular orbit due, i believe, to the symmetry of the potential to the left and right of this distance.\n\nsry for the small crappy pic, I couldn't find a nice one that was about gravity.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I like to think about this mathematically:\n\nIf we require that the satellite is undergoing uniform circular motion, the gravitational force must supply all of the centripetal force:\n\nF = GmM/r^2 = mv^2 /r\n\n(M is the mass of the Earth, and m is the mass of your satellite) which we can solve to get a relation between r and v, our possible values of orbital radius and velocity for uniform circular motion:\n\nv^2 = GM/r\n\nThis is the relation that tells us we can still have uniform circular motion if we increase the radius, we have to decrease the velocity, and if we decrease the radius, we have to increase the velocity. There are an infinite number of uniform circular motion solutions to the system: each possible pairing (r, v).\n\nNow we want the satellite to be geostationary/geosynchronous. This means that we impose another requirement, that the period of the orbit is 24 hours:\n\nT = 2 pi r/v = 24 hours\n\nWell, this constitutes another relation between r and v, with its own infinite family of solutions (r, v). Combining these equations gives us 2 linearly independent equations with 2 unknowns, which is a system of equations with only one solution. Thus, there is only one possible set (r, v) that gives us geosynchronous orbits.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the lower you are, the faster you have to go, and the higher you are, the slower you have to go in order to stay in orbit. As a result, there's only one altitude where the speed you have to go matches up with the speed that the earth is rotating.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41210", "title": "Geostationary orbit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 615, "text": "A geostationary orbit is a particular type of geosynchronous orbit, which has an orbital period equal to Earth's rotational period, or one sidereal day (23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds). Thus, the distinction is that, while an object in geosynchronous orbit returns to the same point in the sky at the same time each day, an object in geostationary orbit never leaves that position. Geosynchronous orbits move around relative to a point on Earth's surface because, while geostationary orbits have an inclination of 0° with respect to the Equator, geosynchronous orbits have varying inclinations and eccentricities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40239", "title": "Geosynchronous orbit", "section": "Section::::Geostationary orbit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 383, "text": "A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the solar wind, radiation pressure, variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun, and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process known as station-keeping.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "769088", "title": "Satellite Internet access", "section": "Section::::Challenges and limitations.:Signal latency.:Geostationary orbits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 769, "text": "A geostationary orbit (or geostationary Earth orbit/GEO) is a geosynchronous orbit directly above the Earth's equator (0° latitude), with a period equal to the Earth's rotational period and an orbital eccentricity of approximately zero (i.e. a \"circular orbit\"). An object in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, at a fixed position in the sky, to ground observers. Launchers often place communications satellites and weather satellites in geostationary orbits, so that the satellite antennas that communicate with them do not have to move to track them, but can point permanently at the position in the sky where the satellites stay. Due to the constant 0° latitude and circularity of geostationary orbits, satellites in GEO differ in location by longitude only.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9622293", "title": "List of orbits", "section": "Section::::Altitude classifications for geocentric orbits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 774, "text": "BULLET::::- Geosynchronous orbit (GSO) and geostationary orbit (GEO) are orbits around Earth matching Earth's sidereal rotation period. Although terms are often used interchangeably, technically a geosynchronous orbit matches the Earth's rotational period, but the definition does not require it to have zero orbital inclination to the equator, and thus is not stationary above a given point on the equator, but may oscillate north and south during the course of a day Thus, a geostationary orbit is defined as a geosynchronous orbit at zero inclination. Geosynchronous (and geostationary) orbits have a semi-major axis of . This works out to an altitude of 35,786 km (22,236 mi). Both complete one full orbit of Earth per sidereal day (relative to the stars, not the Sun).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10261692", "title": "Ground track", "section": "Section::::Satellite ground tracks.:Effect of orbital period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 615, "text": "A special case of the geosynchronous orbit, the geostationary orbit, has an eccentrity of zero (meaning the orbit is circular), and an inclination of zero in the Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed coordinate system (meaning the orbital plane is not tilted relative to the Earth's equator). The \"ground track\" in this case consists of a single point on the Earth's equator, above which the satellite sits at all times. Note that the satellite is still orbiting the Earth — its apparent lack of motion is due to the fact that the Earth is rotating about its own center of mass at the same rate as the satellite is orbiting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41210", "title": "Geostationary orbit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 811, "text": "A geostationary orbit, often referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO), is a circular geosynchronous orbit above Earth's equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation. An object in such an orbit appears motionless, at a fixed position in the sky, to ground observers. Communications satellites and weather satellites are often placed in geostationary orbits, so that the satellite antennae (located on Earth) that communicate with them do not have to rotate to track them, but can be pointed permanently at the position in the sky where the satellites are located. Using this characteristic, ocean-color monitoring satellites with visible and near-infrared light sensors (e.g. GOCI) can also be operated in geostationary orbit in order to monitor sensitive changes of ocean environments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41210", "title": "Geostationary orbit", "section": "Section::::Implementation.:Orbit allocation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 832, "text": "Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the equator. The requirement to space these satellites apart to avoid harmful radio-frequency interference during operations means that there are a limited number of orbital \"slots\" available, and thus only a limited number of satellites can be operated in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries near the same longitude but differing latitudes) and radio frequencies. These disputes are addressed through the International Telecommunication Union's allocation mechanism. In the 1976 Bogotá Declaration, eight countries located on the Earth's equator claimed sovereignty over the geostationary orbits above their territory, but the claims gained no international recognition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is kind of a Thanksgiving version of an answer since I am not at home, don't have access to my books and am writing purely from memory. Should it happen that I have the time and energy to more adequately address *all* of your questions at some later date --like maybe tomorrow?-- I will. \n\nWith regard to whether or not Custer should have seen it coming, the answer is definitively yes. Virtually all of his scouts (an assortment of Crows and Arikaras as well as some old time traders like Charley Reynolds and Mitch Bouyer) repeatedly told him --as the 7th cavalry progressed from the Yellowstone, down the Rosebud and up to the divide separating it from the Little Bighorn-- that there was sign of thousands of horses and travois having passed through the area and converging on the Little Bighorn. All of the scouts would also have been very aware that the Lakota were holding a great council, as they traditionally did every year, and would have known that they had moved it to the Little Bighorn (or \"Greasy Grass\" as the Indians knew it) from the Black Hills under pressure from gold-seekers and a US government policy of official indifference to their treaty rights, which is just to say that they would have had one more reason to be hostile. \n\nThe scouts would also have known that among the thousands of warriors camped along the Greasy Grass were a handful of known \"hostiles\" such as Crazy Horse, Gall, Sitting Bull, American Horse and Two Moons, a Cheyenne war chief who'd seen his wife and children killed by Custer's forces on the Washita in 1868. Custer would have had zero reason to expect anything less than a fight to the death from these men, and while the 7th Cavalry did contain a number of new recruits, many of its veterans would have known that they could expect no mercy from the hostiles. \n\nAccording to several sources I've read, the Arikara and Crow scouts who did not flee immediately before the battle (there were a handful who wisely got the hell out of there) began singing their death songs in the predawn hours as Custer deployed his forces.\n\nThe upshot is that Custer had plenty of warning that he was walking into a deathtrap and, given his experience as an Indian fighter, certainly should have known better. As for why he did not, there are several possibilities. One is that he was relying on his past experience, as on the Washita, which told him that an early dawn attack against a sleeping Indian village could yield good results if it were conducted with speed and aplomb. Another, concomitant factor, may have been his refusal to acknowledge the actual numbers of Lakota and Northern Cheyenne camped along the Little Bighorn. While Custer certainly knew that he was taking a big chance --he had high political ambitions and felt that a great victory could propel him, ultimately, to the presidency-- it's not clear that he recognized that he was taking on 3-5k (possibly more) Lakota and Cheyenne warriors even though, had he listened to his scouts, he clearly should have. \n\nUltimately then, no matter how one slices it, Custer had access to plenty of good intelligence as to the disposition and numbers of the Lakota and Cheyenne camped along the Greasy Grass and definitely should have known that he had zero chance of victory. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Also recommended reading is Archaeological Insights into The Custer Battle, an Assessment of the 1984 Field Season by Douglas D. Scott and Richard a Fox, Jr. which provides great insight into the course of the battle based on a comprehensive archaeological survey of the battlefield and subsequent detailed analysis of the artifacts.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34992011", "title": "Trader post scandal", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 530, "text": "However, Custer's reputation had been damaged. While attempting to restore his military prestige in the U.S. Army, Col. Custer was killed in action at the Battle of the Little Big Horn. Belknap had allowed the sale of superior military weapons to hostile Native Americans at trader posts, while having supplied soldiers in the U.S. Army defective military weapons. This upset the balance of firepower between Indians and U.S. soldiers, and may have contributed to the defeat of the U.S. military at the Battle of Little Big Horn.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56126", "title": "Battle of the Little Bighorn", "section": "Section::::Controversies.:Admiration for Custer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 192, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 192, "end_character": 478, "text": "Criticism of Custer was not universal. While investigating the battlefield, Lieutenant General Nelson A. Miles wrote in 1877, \"The more I study the moves here [on the Little Big Horn], the more I have admiration for Custer.\" Facing major budget cutbacks, the U.S. Army wanted to avoid bad press and found ways to exculpate Custer. They blamed the defeat on the Indians' alleged possession of numerous repeating rifles and the overwhelming numerical superiority of the warriors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7442589", "title": "Cultural depictions of George Armstrong Custer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 329, "text": "George Armstrong Custer (1839–1876) was a United States Army cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the Indian Wars. He was defeated and killed by the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. More than 30 movies and countless television shows have featured him as a character. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2561183", "title": "Horsemeat March", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 634, "text": "Custer and the men under his command took up positions on a hill near the native encampment known as Battle Ridge. Under the leadership of Crazy Horse, the native warriors decimated Custer's soldiers, forcing a small remnant of his command to defend themselves at a spot now known as Last Stand Hill. Custer and his men were massacred by the combined Sioux and Cheyenne force in what has become known as one of the worst defeats in American military history. Following the battle, the United States increased the size of its army and began a campaign to hunt down the large force of native warriors that had carried out the massacre.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1661546", "title": "Battle of Trevilian Station", "section": "Section::::Battle.:June 11, 1864.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 1129, "text": "Custer was now virtually surrounded, his command in an ever-shrinking circle, as every side was charged and hit with shells. Historian Eric J. Wittenberg described the general's predicament as \"Custer's First Last Stand\", foreshadowing his famous demise at the Battle of Little Bighorn. Custer, suspecting that his command would soon be overrun and concerned that his flag would be captured, tore it from its staff when the flag-bearer was hit and hid it within his coat. Sheridan at this point heard the firing from Custer's direction and realized he needed help. He charged with Devin's and Merritt's brigades, pushing Hampton's men back all the way to the station, while Gregg's brigade was ordered to swing into Fitzhugh Lee's exposed right flank, thus pushing him back. Hampton fell back to the west, Lee to the east, and the battle ended for the day with the Federals in possession of Trevilian Station. Custer's brigade had suffered 361 casualties, including more than one half of the 5th Michigan. When Sheridan asked Custer if he had lost his colors, he pulled them from his coat and exclaimed, \"Not by a damned sight!\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28741971", "title": "List of people in Montana history", "section": "Section::::Montana Territory (1864–1889).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 331, "text": "BULLET::::- Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer, (1839–1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the Indian Wars. Defeated and killed during the Battle of the Little Bighorn in Southeast Montana. Custer's defeat made him one of the most famous military figures in American history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56126", "title": "Battle of the Little Bighorn", "section": "Section::::Battle.:Custer's fight.:Other views of Custer's actions at Minneconjou Ford.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 688, "text": "Other historians claim that Custer never approached the river, but rather continued north across the coulee and up the other side, where he gradually came under attack. According to this theory, by the time Custer realized he was badly outnumbered, it was too late to break back to the south where Reno and Benteen could have provided assistance. Two men from the 7th Cavalry, the young Crow scout \"Ashishishe\" (known in English as Curley) and the trooper Peter Thompson, claimed to have seen Custer engage the Indians. The accuracy of their recollections remains controversial; accounts by battle participants and assessments by historians almost universally discredit Thompson's claim.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Ok. \n\n**HMO** = Health Maintenance Organization. It's where you have one doctor who oversees your general care: your Primary Care Physician [PCP]. Your PCP is the one you see most often, and who is most familiar with your situation. The PCP determines if you need to see a specialist for lab work or additional services, and will write a referral to those other physicians or facilities. If you go to one of them *without* a referral, your insurance pays considerably less (if at all) and you have to pay out of pocket. HMOs tend to cost less per month, and have a lower deductible. (A deductible is an annual minimum amount that you have to pay out of pocket before the insurance kicks in for certain types of treatment)\n\n**PPO** = Preferred Provider Organization. Unlike with an HMO, you do not have a PCP. Instead, there is a list of preferred providers within the network that you may visit as you see fit without being penalized. You can also typically see a doctor who is not on that list and still be covered (tho' not as well). PPOs give greater freedom to see who you want, but tend to cost a bit more per month and frequently have a higher deductible than HMOs.\n\n**Indemnity** = Pay for service. Indemnity plans are mostly a thing of the past, tho' some people might still have access. They let you see any provider without penalty, and do not require you to get referrals or select a PCP. They might require you to pay for the services you receive out of your own pocket, and then the insurance company will reimburse you afterwards. And there's typically a deductible involved.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8577239", "title": "Unit-linked insurance plan", "section": "Section::::Working principle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 598, "text": "A Unit-Linked Insurance Plan is essentially a combination of insurance and an investment vehicle. A portion of the premium paid by the policyholder is utilized to provide insurance coverage to the policyholder and the remaining portion is invested in equity and debt instruments. The aggregate premiums collected by the insurance company providing such plans is pooled and invested in varying proportions of debt and equity securities in a similar manner to mutual funds. Each policyholder has the option to select a personalized investment mix based on his/her investment needs and risk appetite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29483389", "title": "Juvenile life insurance", "section": "Section::::Juvenile life insurance as a financial planning tool.:Guaranteed growth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 433, "text": "Many insurance companies offer policies with a guaranteed interest rate plus a non-guaranteed dividend. Each insurance company’s dividend is determined by its claims, investment performance, and administrative expenses. Some companies have a record of consistently paying annual dividends for over 100 years. Several insurance companies offer the option of having a portion of the return based on the performance of an equity index.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21249534", "title": "Medical savings account (United States)", "section": "Section::::History.:Purpose and advantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 308, "text": "The plan enables a participant dual to fund a tax-exempt account for medical expenses incurred before an associated 'high deductible' insurance plan begins to cover those expenses. The individual pairs the MSA with a 'catastrophic insurance' plan, which has lower premiums than plans with lower deductibles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1160191", "title": "Long-term care insurance", "section": "Section::::Types of policies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 608, "text": "Group policies may have provisions for non-restricted or open enrollment periods and underwriting may be required. Group plans may or may not be guaranteed renewable or tax qualified. Some group plans include language allowing the insurance company to replace the policy with a similar policy and to change the premiums at that time. Some group plans can be canceled by the insurance company. To compensate for the higher insurance risk group plans may have higher deductibles and lower benefits than individual plans. Some group plans have a 3 ADL (activities of daily living) requirement for nursing care.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1160191", "title": "Long-term care insurance", "section": "Section::::Benefit eligibility and deductibles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 264, "text": "Most policies pay benefits when the policyholder needs help with two or more of six ADLs or when a cognitive impairment is present. According to the US Department of Health and Human Services all tax-qualified long-term care insurance plans have the same trigger.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43747642", "title": "Peer-to-peer insurance", "section": "Section::::General.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 653, "text": "More recently, models created by insurance companies have arisen. The insurance model is similar to the broker model except that as the peer-to-peer provider is the actual insurance company. If the pool is insufficient to pay for the claims of its members, the insurance carrier pays the excess from its retained premiums and reinsurance. Conversely, if the pool is \"profitable\" (i.e. has few claims), the \"excess\" is given back to the pool or to a cause the pool members care about. Peer-to-Peer insurers take a flat fee for running the operations of the insurance enterprise. The fee is not dependent upon how many (or how few) paid claims there are.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23630118", "title": "America's Affordable Health Choices Act of 2009", "section": "Section::::Debate and controversies.:Competition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 591, "text": "The bill bases the publicly authorized insurance plan fees on industry averages, so there is no clear economic competitive advantage versus existing private insurance. The health insurance subsidy is available to anyone with a qualifying level of income buying insurance from the exchange regardless of whether they choose a public or private plan. A poll done by \"Penn, Schoen and Berland Associates\" for the AARP stated that only 37% of Americans correctly identified the definition of the 'public option' being proposed, numbers very close to respondents guessing randomly among answers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "That's three dimensions, but two directions; the magnetic poles of the star. The magnetic fields involved create those jets. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Doesn't that image [look familiar](_URL_0_)?\n\nThe spectral matter is chasing the magnetic field. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "48782005", "title": "Astrophysical fluid dynamics", "section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Concepts of Fluid Dynamics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 409, "text": "These interesting objects are born from once-large stars that grew to four to eight times the size of our own sun before exploding in catastrophic supernovae. After such an explosion blows a star's outer layers into space, the core remains—but it no longer produces nuclear fusion. With no outward pressure from fusion to counterbalance gravity's inward pull, the star condenses and collapses in upon itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4650", "title": "Black hole", "section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Gravitational collapse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 521, "text": "The collapse may be stopped by the degeneracy pressure of the star's constituents, allowing the condensation of matter into an exotic denser state. The result is one of the various types of compact star. Which type forms depends on the mass of the remnant of the original star left after the outer layers have been blown away. Such explosions and pulsations lead to planetary nebula. This mass can be substantially less than the original star. Remnants exceeding are produced by stars that were over before the collapse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "177174", "title": "Orion Nebula", "section": "Section::::Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 565, "text": "Some of these collapsing stars can be particularly massive, and can emit large quantities of ionizing ultraviolet radiation. An example of this is seen with the Trapezium cluster. Over time the ultraviolet light from the massive stars at the center of the nebula will push away the surrounding gas and dust in a process called photo evaporation. This process is responsible for creating the interior cavity of the nebula, allowing the stars at the core to be viewed from Earth. The largest of these stars have short life spans and will evolve to become supernovae.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11009033", "title": "Type II supernova", "section": "Section::::Hypernovae.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 723, "text": "Stars with initial masses between about 25 and 90 times the sun develop cores large enough that after a supernova explosion, some material will fall back onto the neutron star core and create a black hole. In many cases this reduces the luminosity of the supernova, and above the star collapses directly into a black hole without a supernova explosion. However, if the progenitor is spinning quickly enough, the infalling material generates relativistic jets that emit more energy than the original explosion. They may also be seen directly if beamed towards us, giving the impression of an even more luminous object. In some cases these can produce gamma-ray bursts, although not all gamma-ray bursts are from supernovae.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1996903", "title": "Cassiopeia A", "section": "Section::::Expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 533, "text": "Observations of the exploded star through the Hubble telescope have shown that, despite the original belief that the remnants were expanding in a uniform manner, there are high velocity outlying eject knots moving with transverse velocities of 5,500−14,500 km/s with the highest speeds occurring in two nearly opposing jets. When the view of the expanding star uses colors to differentiate materials of different chemical compositions, it shows that similar materials often remain gathered together in the remnants of the explosion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20510749", "title": "Partial impact theory", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 389, "text": "The temporary star expands after the impact displaying an intense increase in light, after all molecular reactions have taken place the light is replaced by a hollow shell of gas or possibly a planetary nebula, and eventually dissipates into space. Bickerton explains this bright temporary star by saying that it doesn't disappear due to cooling, but that it was too hot to hold together.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1683536", "title": "Superbubble", "section": "Section::::Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 685, "text": "When stars die, supernova explosions, similarly, drive blast waves that can reach even larger sizes, with expansion velocities up to several hundred km s. Stars in OB associations are not gravitationally bound, but they drift apart at small speeds (of around 20 km s), and they exhaust their fuel rapidly (after a few millions of years). As a result, most of their supernova explosions occur within the cavity formed by the stellar wind bubbles. These explosions never form a visible supernova remnant, but instead expend their energy in the hot interior as sound waves. Both stellar winds and stellar explosions thus power the expansion of the superbubble in the interstellar medium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Adding to the question, I just today read (\"The Western Heritage since 1300 AP* Edition), that not only were there Catholic and Orthodox representatives plying for religious control of Russia, but there were also Jewish and Muslim representatives too. Was there any reason to choosing one over the other? Were Jews and Muslims stigmatized like they were in the rest Europe?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "310584", "title": "Slavic paganism", "section": "Section::::History.:Christianisation of the East Slavs.:Vladimir's baptism, popular resistance and syncretism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 1168, "text": "In 988, Vladimir of Kievan Rus' rejected Slavic religion and he and his subjects were officially baptised into the Eastern Orthodox Church, then the state religion of the Byzantine Empire. According to legend, Vladimir sent delegates to foreign states to determine what was the most convincing religion to be adopted by Kiev. Joyfulness and beauty were the primary characteristics of pre-Christian Slavic ceremonies, and the delegates sought for something capable of matching these qualities. They were crestfallen by the Islamic religion of Volga Bulgaria, where they found \"no joy ... but sorrow and great stench\", and by Western Christianity (then the Catholic Church) where they found \"many worship services, but nowhere ... beauty\". Those who visited Constantinople were instead impressed by the arts and rituals of Byzantine Christianity. According to the \"Primary Chronicle\", after the choice was made Vladimir commanded that the Slavic temple on the Kievan hills be destroyed and the effigies of the gods be burned or thrown into the Dnieper. Slavic temples were destroyed throughout the lands of Kievan Rus' and Christian churches were built in their places.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14115", "title": "History of Russia", "section": "Section::::Early history.:Kievan Rus' (882–1283).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 688, "text": "Kievan Rus' is important for its introduction of a Slavic variant of the Eastern Orthodox religion, dramatically deepening a synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next thousand years. The region adopted Christianity in 988 by the official act of public baptism of Kiev inhabitants by Prince Vladimir I, who followed the private conversion of his grandmother. Some years later the first code of laws, Russkaya Pravda, was introduced by Yaroslav the Wise. From the onset the Kievan princes followed the Byzantine example and kept the Church dependent on them, even for its revenues, so that the Russian Church and state were always closely linked.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19881422", "title": "Conversion of Chełm Eparchy", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 971, "text": "In 988 East Slavic state of Kievan Rus' was converted to the Eastern form of Christianity by Vladimir I of Kiev. Following the East-West Schism between the Roman and Byzantine Churches, the form of Christianity that Kievan Rus followed became known as Eastern Orthodox Church. In 1241, Kievan Rus was conquered by the Mongols. Over the centuries, the parts of Rus that would one day become Ukraine and Belarus were absorbed by Poland. Within the mostly Roman Catholic Polish state, the native Orthodox population and Church of the former lands of Ruthenia were pressured to transfer their allegiance from the Patriarch of Constantinople to the Pope of Rome. Between 1595-1596, the Union of Brest saw the creation of the Uniate Church (later the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church) in Ruthenia. Like other Eastern Catholic Churches, the Uniate Church maintained the liturgical, theological and devotional traditions of the Orthodox Church despite its new allegiance to Rome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21486360", "title": "Kievan Rus'", "section": "Section::::History.:Reign of Vladimir and Christianisation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 1474, "text": "Vladimir's choice of Eastern Christianity may also have reflected his close personal ties with Constantinople, which dominated the Black Sea and hence trade on Kiev's most vital commercial route, the Dnieper River. Adherence to the Eastern Church had long-range political, cultural, and religious consequences. The church had a liturgy written in Cyrillic and a corpus of translations from Greek that had been produced for the Slavic peoples. This literature facilitated the conversion to Christianity of the Eastern Slavs and introduced them to rudimentary Greek philosophy, science, and historiography without the necessity of learning Greek (there were some merchants who did business with Greeks and likely had an understanding of contemporary business Greek). In contrast, educated people in medieval Western and Central Europe learned Latin. Enjoying independence from the Roman authority and free from tenets of Latin learning, the East Slavs developed their own literature and fine arts, quite distinct from those of other Eastern Orthodox countries. (See Old East Slavic language and Architecture of Kievan Rus for details). Following the Great Schism of 1054, the Rus' church maintained communion with both Rome and Constantinople for some time, but along with most of the Eastern churches it eventually split to follow the Eastern Orthodox. That being said, unlike other parts of the Greek world, Kievan Rus' did not have a strong hostility to the Western world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "145144", "title": "Ukrainians", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Religions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 408, "text": "However it was only by the 10th century that the emerging state, the Kievan Rus', became influenced by the Byzantine Empire; the first known conversion was by the Princess Saint Olga who came to Constantinople in 945 or 957. Several years later, her grandson, Knyaz Vladimir baptised his people in the Dnieper River. This began a long history of the dominance of the Eastern Orthodoxy in Ruthenia (Ukraine).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3060242", "title": "Religion in Russia", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1241, "text": "Before the tenth century, Russians practised Slavic religion. As recalled by the \"Primary Chronicle\", Orthodox Christianity was made the state religion of Kievan Rus' in 987 by Vladimir the Great, who opted for it among other possible choices as it was the religion of the Byzantine Empire. Since then, religion, mysticism and statehood remained intertwined elements in Russia's identity. The Russian Orthodox Church, perceived as the glue consolidating the nation, accompanied the expansion of the Russian Empire in the eighteenth century. Czar Nicholas I's ideology, under which the empire reached its widest extent, proclaimed \"Orthodoxy, autocracy and nation\" (\"Pravoslavie\", \"samoderzhavie\", \"narodnost\"') as its foundations. The dominance of the Russian Orthodox Church was sealed by law, and, as the empire incorporated peoples of alternative creeds, religions were tied to ethnicities to skirt any issue of integration. Until 1905, only the Russian Orthodox Church could engage in missionary activity to convert non-Orthodox people, and apostasy was treated as an offense punishable by law. Catholicism, Islam and other religions were tolerated only among outsider (\"inoroditsy\") peoples but forbidden from spreading among Russians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "604601", "title": "Christianization of Kievan Rus'", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 805, "text": "The Christianization of Kievan Rus' took place in several stages. In early 867, Patriarch Photius of Constantinople announced to other Orthodox patriarchs that the Rus', baptised by his bishop, took to Christianity with particular enthusiasm. Photius's attempts at Christianizing the country seem to have entailed no lasting consequences, since the Primary Chronicle and other Slavonic sources describe the tenth-century Rus' as firmly entrenched in paganism. Following the Primary Chronicle, the definitive Christianization of Kievan Rus' dates from the year 988 (the year is disputed), when Vladimir the Great was baptized in Chersonesus and proceeded to baptize his family and people in Kiev. The latter events are traditionally referred to as baptism of Rus' (, ) in Russian and Ukrainian literature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You might not like the answer.\n\nOther animals don't need to wipe because they can reach around and clean themselves with their tongue. They still clean themselves as needed, I'm surprised you haven't seen the dog doing it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Do you think your dog minds when there's a little bit of poop left behind? We're the only animal that does. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We don't require it. We are just the only ones that choose to use paper and most of us don't.\n\nAnimals drag their anus on the ground or lick it.\n\nI suppose the real answer is we are the only ones smart enough to do it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Where did you shit that you got an ass whiping afterwards?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "dogs dont really care about being dirty (in fact they seem to enjoy it). people wipe their ass because they dont want to smell like shit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Another reason besides that humans are the only people that care about having a shit encrusted anus, is that humans (and all other animals) are not designed to shit sitting down. The most efficient way to shit for a human is squatting. \n\nIf you squat to shit, the shit falls out much more efficiently and will require next to no wiping. \n\nNext time you take a shit, put a stool (no pun intended) under your feet, so your legs are raised up. This is closer to a squatting position. You may be surprised at how little you have to wipe.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "410663", "title": "Whip", "section": "Section::::Use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 431, "text": "Whips are generally used on animals to provide directional guidance or to encourage movement. Some whips are designed to control animals by imparting discomfort by tapping or pain by a full-force strike that produces pain compliance. Some whips provide guidance by the use of sound, such as cracking of a bullwhip. Other uses of whips are to provide a visual directional cue by extending the reach and visibility of the human arm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "410663", "title": "Whip", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 457, "text": "The majority of whips are designed for use on animals, although whips such as the \"cat o' nine tails\" and knout were specifically developed for flagellation as a means of inflicting corporal punishment or torture on human targets. Certain religious practices and BDSM activities involve the self-use of whips or the use of whips between consenting partners. Misuse on animals may be considered animal cruelty, and misuse on humans may be viewed as assault.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "410663", "title": "Whip", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 692, "text": "A whip is a tool which was traditionally designed to strike animals or people to aid guidance or exert control over animals or other people, through pain compliance or fear of pain, although in some activities, whips can be used without use of pain, such as an additional pressure aid or visual directional cue in equestrianism. Whips are generally of two types, either a firm stick designed for direct contact, or a flexible whip that requires a specialized swing to be effective, but has a longer reach and greater force, but may have less precision. There are also whips which combine both a firm stick (the stock or handle) and a flexible line (the lash or thong), such as hunting whips.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "410663", "title": "Whip", "section": "Section::::Use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 651, "text": "Whip use by sound never or rarely strikes the animal; instead, a long, flexible whip is cracked to produce a very sharp, loud sound. This usage also functions as a form of operant conditioning: most animals will flinch away from the sound instinctively, making it effective for driving sled dogs, livestock and teams of harnessed animals like oxen and mules. The sound is loud enough to affect multiple animals at once, making whip-cracking more efficient under some circumstances. This technique can be used as part of an escalation response, with sound being used first prior to a pain stimulus being applied, again as part of operant conditioning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5682984", "title": "Donkey punch", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 582, "text": "Donkey punch is the sexual practice of inflicting blunt force trauma to the back of the head or lower back of the receiving partner during anal or vaginal sex as an attempt by the penetrating partner to induce involuntary tightening of internal or external anal sphincter muscles or vaginal passage of the receiving partner. According to Dr. Jeffrey Bahr of Medical College of Wisconsin, there is no reflex in humans that would cause such tensing in response to a blow on the head, although striking a partner on the back of the neck or head could cause severe, even lethal injury.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13034509", "title": "Courir de Mardi Gras", "section": "Section::::Traditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 544, "text": "The whips are designed to be flexible and not to inflict any serious damage onto their victims, but do produce a loud noise for the edification of onlookers. Participants claim one has not fully participated until one has been whipped. Once they are on the property, the revelers play a variety of pranks on the farmers and beg for food for the communal gumbo that lies at the end of the route. A prize ingredient is a live chicken, which is usually thrown into the air for the drunken \"Mardi Gras\" to chase through the muddy yards and fields.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39117248", "title": "Poena cullei", "section": "Section::::Execution ritual.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 607, "text": "The person was first whipped, or beaten, with \"virgis sanguinis\" (\"blood-colored rods\", probably), and his head was clad/covered in a bag made of a wolf's hide. On his feet were placed clogs, or wooden shoes, and he was then put into the \"poena cullei\", a sack made of ox-leather. Placed along with him into the sack was also an assortment of live animals, arguably the most famous combination being that of a serpent, a cock, a monkey and a dog. The sack was put on a cart, and the cart driven by black oxen to a running stream or to the sea. Then, the sack with its inhabitants was thrown into the water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Is there something about socialized healthcare that automatically mandates all pay is equivalent? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "why is it that some people think everyone needs an incentive to better themselves and excel in life? some people do it just because they can.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Countries with public healthcare still have private practices which you can pay money to see. There's a basic service provided by the government, but nobody is stopping patients from purchasing more extensive coverage on top of it.\n\nYou also have to keep in mind that hospitals are still competing with each other, so they will pay more to have good doctors. Yes, everyone's healthcare is subsidized, but a hospital with better doctors will have more patients and thus make more money.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Many (perhaps even most) doctors pursue their careers not for financial gain, but (for the most part) for the purpose of helping people. These doctors are not incentivized, or disincentivized, by financial gain to \"be better and compete for careers in the toughest specialties within healthcare systems\". Even in a socialized healthcare system however there are specific hospitals, research positions and clinics that are more desirable than others, and doctors within a socialized healthcare system are very much incentivized by these locations to \"be better and compete for careers in the toughest specialties within healthcare systems\". Furthermore, different types of doctors still receive different salaries in socialized healthcare systems (anesthesiologists in Canada, for example, are a different pay grade than a neurosurgeon).\n\nI wonder how much financial incentive there will be in privatized healthcare in USA now that diplomatic (and most importantly trade) relations with Cuba have improved. If I owned a hospital in USA, and was primarily interested in financial gain, I would employ Cuban doctors through the Cuban government to replace most of my staff. And because Cuba is economically poor compared to USA, I would probably be able to do so for *significantly* less than I had for 2014. Cuban doctors are [considered some of the best in the world](_URL_0_) after all, so it's a bit of a win-win, don't you think? Flood the market with doctors and their average pay will drop, making their services affordable to everyone!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44613689", "title": "Pediatric emergency medicine", "section": "Section::::Training.:United States of America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 276, "text": "A survey published in 2009 found that PEM physicians report higher career satisfaction than doctors in all other specialties. Per doximity, pediatric emergency physicians in the U.S. make an average of $273,683 yearly. They also work fewer hours than do other subspecialists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7400480", "title": "Pre-health sciences", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 525, "text": "Pre-Health Sciences are the undergraduate courses that prepare American college students for admission in medical, dentistry, pharmacy, optometry, veterinary, and physical therapy schools, and for training as a physician assistant. In the United States, colleges have moved away from the impractical designation of students as \"Pre-med\" majors, as only a small percentage of applicants actually achieve admission into medical schools. As such, students are given the choice to focus on the coursework required for admission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "170945", "title": "Racial discrimination", "section": "Section::::Effects on health.:Racism in healthcare system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 228, "text": "Although programs like medicaid exists to support minorities, there still seems to be a large number of people who are not insured. This financial drawback discourages people in the group to go to hospitals and doctors offices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10562714", "title": "Prescriptive authority for psychologists movement", "section": "Section::::Supporting arguments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 327, "text": "BULLET::::- Other non-physicians have prescription privileges, such as pharmacists, optometrists, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants. Some advocates have asserted that the latter three professions receive less training in clinical pharmacology, therapeutics, and psychopharmacology than many clinical psychologists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1810614", "title": "Health equity", "section": "Section::::Disparities in quality of health care.:Lack of preventive care.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 909, "text": "According to the 2009 National Healthcare Disparities Report, uninsured Americans are less likely to receive preventive services in health care. For example, minorities are not regularly screened for colon cancer and the death rate for colon cancer has increased among African Americans and Hispanic populations. Furthermore, limited English proficient patients are also less likely to receive preventive health services such as mammograms. Studies have shown that use of professional interpreters have significantly reduced disparities in the rates of fecal occult testing, flu immunizations and pap smears. In the UK, Public Health England, a universal service free at the point of use, which forms part of the NHS, offers regular screening to any member of the population considered to be in an at-risk group (such as individuals over 45) for major disease (such as colon cancer, or diabetic-retinopathy).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48442535", "title": "Medical Schools Council", "section": "Section::::Widening participation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 474, "text": "The Medical Schools Council is involved in aiding medical schools improve access for applicants with a broader range of backgrounds. In the late nineties, the Medical Schools Council (then CHMS) looked at admission data and concluded that men and people from ethnic minorities were suffering from discrimination when they applied to medical schools. It was noted that the gender variation may \"reflect the fact that girls are doing better academically than boys in school.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2356893", "title": "Primary care physician", "section": "Section::::Quality of care.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 267, "text": "Exceptions may be diseases that are so common that primary care physicians develop their own expertise. A study of patients with acute low back pain found the primary care physicians provided equivalent quality of care but at lower costs than orthopedic specialists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well, \"history\" is the study of text, but generally that means that it only goes back as far as there has been written word (and myths and oral histories etc). In Western Eurasia, this goes back to the Sumerians in about the fourth millennium, although one could argue that you still can't really do \"history\" for some time afterwards. However, we can extend our knowledge of past societies far back before that with archaeology, the study of past material remains. Archaeology can tell us a great deal about the societies it studies, such as economies, political structures, and religions.\n\nNow, to answer your question, the period you are curious about is called the \"Neolithic\" which is a word essentially meaning \"new stone age\" and is a period of time after the development of agriculture and before the use of metal. [Çatalhöyük](_URL_0_) is southern Turkey is probably the most famous Neolithic site in the \"Fertile Crescent\", but an important thing to remember is that there is no \"one thing\" happening at this time. You are asking about the entire surface of the earth, a whole bunch of things were happening, and the spread of agriculture around the Black Sea had about as much to do with what as going on in Florida as the Lapita settlement of Tonga had to do with Homer.\n\nAs a side note, please disregard the Ancient Aliens nonsense in the other response.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4953782", "title": "History of Delhi", "section": "Section::::Cities of Delhi.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 836, "text": "BULLET::::- Indraprastha, the legendary Ancient City is believed to have been established 5000 years ago (c. 2800 BC), as per the ancient Indian text- the Mahabharata. Though very much a part of India's very Ancient history, it lacks any tangible evidence to say without doubt that it existed. Archaeological evidence exists, but in such scarcity as to be inconclusive. As acknowledged by British historian Michael Wood in his BBC documentary The Story of India, the excavated ceramic pottery from the site of today's Purana Qila in Delhi and the excavated layers of the ancient city seem to match what the verses of the Mahabharata indicate. More possible evidence in its favour is the existence of a village named Indraprastha very close to the Purana Qila that was destroyed by the British during the construction of Lutyens' Delhi.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14713256", "title": "Sources of Indo-Greek history", "section": "Section::::Literary sources.:Western literary sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1236, "text": "Some narrative history has survived for most of the Hellenistic world, at least of the kings and the wars; this is lacking for India. The main Greco-Roman source on the Indo-Greeks is Justin, who wrote an anthology drawn from the Roman historian Pompeius Trogus, who in turn wrote, from Greek sources, at the time of Augustus Caesar. Justin tells the parts of Trogus' history he finds particularly interesting at some length; he connects them by short and simplified summaries of the rest of the material. In the process he has left 85% to 90% of Trogus out; and his summaries are held together by phrases like \"meanwhile\" (\"eodem tempore\") and \"thereafter\" (\"deinde\"), which he uses very loosely. Where Justin covers periods for which there are other and better sources, he has occasionally made provable mistakes. As Tarn and Develin both point out, Justin is not trying to write history in our sense of the word; he is collecting instructive moral anecdotes. Justin does find the customs and growth of the Parthians, which were covered in Trogus' 41st book, quite interesting, and discusses them at length; in the process, he mentions four of the kings of Bactria and one Greek king of India, getting the names of two of them wrong.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1472881", "title": "Hieronymus of Cardia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 210, "text": "Like the even more famous lost history of Alexander by Ptolemy I of Egypt, no significant amount of his work survived the end of the ancient world (fragments in C. W. Müller, \"Frag. hist. Graec.\" ii. 450–461).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50577743", "title": "List of ancient dishes", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 423, "text": "Although the end date of ancient history is disputed, some Western scholars use the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD (the most used), the closure of the Platonic Academy in 529 AD, the death of the emperor Justinian I in 565 AD, the birth of Islam in 610 CE or the rise of Charlemagne as the end of ancient and Classical European history. This list does not contain entries that originated after ancient history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1844767", "title": "Archaic Greece", "section": "Section::::Historiography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 348, "text": "Other sources for the period are the traditions recorded by later Greek writers such as Herodotus. However, these traditions are not part of any form of history as we would recognise it today; those transmitted by Herodotus he recorded whether or not he believed them to be accurate. Indeed, Herodotus does not even record any dates before 480 BC.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48650687", "title": "History of the Ancient World", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 363, "text": "The book \"History of the Ancient World\" provides information on the history of the ancient states in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China. It also includes the history of ancient Greece and Rome up to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. Its several chapters deal with religious views, art, and culture of the peoples of the ancient world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51320", "title": "Ancient history", "section": "Section::::Study.:Source text.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 409, "text": "Most of what is known of the ancient world comes from the accounts of antiquity's own historians. Although it is important to take into account the bias of each ancient author, their accounts are the basis for our understanding of the ancient past. Some of the more notable ancient writers include Herodotus, Thucydides, Arrian, Plutarch, Polybius, Sima Qian, Sallust, Livy, Josephus, Suetonius, and Tacitus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "While I can't speak for every fighter, there's some boxers/mma fighters with scar tissue and thats why they open up and bleed easily.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The gloves aren't sharp but the way it happen is from friction of the glove sliding across the skin & dragging it tight against the skull before tearing it under the force of the punch", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Friction.\n\nEven with gloves on, often times glancing blows still carry enough force to cause enough glove-to-skin friction to split the skin open. This is why you see boxers and fighters put Vaseline on their cheeks and eyebrows.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Its more of a tear than a cut. But you see some fighters when they get petroleum jelly put on their face before a fight. Its to help keep the gloves from sticking to their skin. As it wears off. Then gloves can stick to the skin and cause it to rip/tear. \n\nMost common spots are also where skin is close to the bone. So cheek bones and eye sockets.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4884643", "title": "Hand wrap", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 303, "text": "Hand and wrist wraps are used to compress (and keep compressed when hitting) the bones and tissues in the hand. The claim is that such compression allows boxers to hit with greater force than if they did not use them. Boxers claim they feel less pain when hitting so their opponent may feel more pain. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4243", "title": "Boxing", "section": "Section::::Rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 898, "text": "In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, or spitting. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury. Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the head or neck (called a \"rabbit-punch\") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6822383", "title": "Boxing styles and technique", "section": "Section::::Equipment and safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 473, "text": "Boxing techniques utilize very forceful strikes with the hand. There are many bones in the hand, and striking surfaces without proper technique can cause serious hand injuries. Today, most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without hand/wrist wraps and gloves. Handwraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3907084", "title": "Boxing glove", "section": "Section::::Safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 665, "text": "The impact of gloves on the injuries caused during a fight is a controversial issue. Hitting to the head was less common in the bare-knuckle era because of the risk of hurting the boxer's hand. Gloves reduce the number of cuts caused, but British Medical Association research has stated that gloves do not reduce brain injuries and may even increase them, because the main cause of injury is acceleration and deceleration of the head, and fighters wearing gloves are able to punch harder to the head. Gloves may reduce the amount of eye injuries, especially if they are thumbless, but retinal tears and detached retinas still occur to boxers wearing modern gloves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1649200", "title": "Boxer's fracture", "section": "Section::::Prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 244, "text": "Boxers and other combat athletes routinely use hand wraps and boxing gloves to help stabilize the hand, greatly reducing pain and risk of injury during impact. Proper punching form is the most important factor to prevent this type of fracture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39292719", "title": "Fist", "section": "Section::::Boxing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 386, "text": "Improper formation of the fist whilst punching or striking an object can cause bruising and broken small bones in the hand known as \"Boxer's fracture.\" Boxer's Fracture occurs when metacarpals or small bones in the hand break on the side of the pinky and ring finger. The name derives from the fact that such injuries are most common in boxers and practitioners of other fighting arts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1460084", "title": "ROH Pure Championship", "section": "Section::::Pure wrestling rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 396, "text": "BULLET::::2. There are no closed-fist punches to the face allowed in a Pure match, only open-handed slaps or chops to the face are allowed. Punches to other parts of the body (save for low blows) are permitted. The first use of a closed fist would get a warning, and the second would cause the wrestler to be penalized a rope break. If he is already out of rope breaks, he would be disqualified.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "***Hand-eye coordination*** is quite complex, involving *several regions of your brain* dedicated to processing visual information, motor control, proprioception, eye movement, et cetera. \n\nGenerally speaking and without getting into details of human neuroanatomy, this kind of **coordination requires your** ***brain*** **and your** ***body*** **to communicate well with each other**, so they both have to work well. \n\nYour ***genetics*** influence your *potential* to be faster, stronger, smarter than others, so that's a start, and there is a *relationship between motor skills and intelligence* (intelligence isn't actually one single component, but entails many qualities, such as visuo-spatial intelligence). But genetics isn't everything. Humans are born to learn language, but if we trap a human in a dungeon forever, he won't learn anything.\n\n***Coordination*** is related with how efficient your *neuronal wiring* is and *how fast your neurons fire*. The human brain is ***plastic***, which means it can *reorganize itself* to a certain extent (more so when you're young rather when you're older), for example to heal itself, to remove useless cerebral connections to become more effective or to reorganize regions to become more specialized in something (ex. learning a language - which is why it's easier to learn a language while a child). \n\n*Like a muscle, you can train it:* typing is an easy example, you're learning a complex sequence of rapid finger movements and with daily practice you learn to be very quick and efficient. While you're practicing, you're stimulating the brain into changing its cortical excitability (how easy it is to make neurons fire) and reorganizing itself, reflecting you learning how to type and making you better at doing that.\n\n***Summing it up***, some people are born with a better body and a brain that is more efficient at processing and coordinating its information and transmitting everything to the body and backwards, but depending on your physical activity, you're not only making your body stronger/faster but you're also stimulating your brain into getting specialized at \"throwing punches\" (therein the importance of repeating the same punch several times while learning martial arts).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9886454", "title": "Transactive memory", "section": "Section::::Indicators.:Coordination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 587, "text": "Coordination refers to the extent of necessity in explicit revealed planning and coordinating efforts during teamwork. When a group possesses a strong transactive memory system, the need for explicit coordination efforts reduces since teammates are aware of other teammates strengths and weaknesses, can anticipate their behavior and responds, and make quick adjustments of their own behavior in return. In groups that have developed a transactive memory, members are able to easily coordinate with one another and can go directly to those with expertise if they need their information.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17073876", "title": "Coordinated management of meaning", "section": "Section::::Basics.:Coordination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1017, "text": "Coordination refers to \"the degree to which persons perceive that their actions have fitted together into some mutually intelligible sequence or pattern of actions\". It exists \"when two people attempt to make sense out of the sequencing of messages in their conversation\". That is, if people in the interaction can recognize what their partners are talking about, then we say the conversation comes to a coordination. Scientists believes that people's desire for coordination in interaction arises from the subjectivity of meaning, which means the same message may have different meanings to different people. In order to avoid this pitfall in communication, people work together to share meanings. Research shows that sense making is the foundation of coordination. By tokens within the information connected by means of channel can the logic relationship emerge, then it contributes to the sense making. Sense making helps people to establish common understanding then further develops coordination between people.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3313340", "title": "Motor coordination", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 835, "text": "Motor coordination is the combination of body movements created with the kinematic (such as spatial direction) and kinetic (force) parameters that result in intended actions. Motor coordination is achieved when subsequent parts of the same movement, or the movements of several limbs or body parts are combined in a manner that is well timed, smooth, and efficient with respect to the intended goal. This involves the integration of proprioceptive information detailing the position and movement of the musculoskeletal system with the neural processes in the brain and spinal cord which control, plan, and relay motor commands. The cerebellum plays a critical role in this neural control of movement and damage to this part of the brain or its connecting structures and pathways results in impairment of coordination, known as ataxia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34547551", "title": "Language coordination", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 472, "text": "Language coordination is the tendency of people to mimic the language of others. The coordination occurs when one person responds to another using similar vocabulary, or word or sentence structure. Language coordination can also be applied to individuals who linguistically coordinate to a group. As suggested by the communication accommodation theory, this is often used as a way to reduce social distance (convergence). Language coordination often occurs unconsciously.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3821600", "title": "Task (project management)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 531, "text": "Tasks completion generally requires the coordination of others. Coordinated human interaction takes on the role of combining the integration of time, energy, effort, ability, and resources of multiple individuals to meet a common goal. Coordination can also be thought of as the critical mechanism that links or ties together the efforts on the singular level to that of the larger task being completed by multiple members. Coordination allows for the successful completion of the otherwise larger tasks that one might encounter. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17073876", "title": "Coordinated management of meaning", "section": "Section::::Basics.:Coordination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 546, "text": "The concept of coordination has to do with the fact that our actions do not stand alone with regard to communication. The words or actions that we use during a conversation come together to produce patterns. These patterns, also known as stories lived, influence the behavior used during each interaction as a way to collaborate. Pearce and Cronen are quick to point out that coordination does not imply a commitment to coordinate \"smoothly\", but rather the concept is meant to provide the basis for being mindful of the other side of the story.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3313340", "title": "Motor coordination", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Nonexact reproduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 323, "text": "Examples of motor coordination are the ease with which people can stand up, pour water into a glass, walk, and reach for a pen. These are created reliably, proficiently and repeatedly, but these movements rarely are reproduced exactly in their motor details, such as joint angles when pointing or standing up from sitting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because, and I shit you not, the US dollar has replaced gold Bullion as the foundation for the worlds currencies. Instead of stashing gold, other countries stash US dollars in their vaults, and *we* stash the gold. Sort of. There actually is no gold. Just Dollars. The US dollar is currently being used as the reserve currency for many other countries currencies.\n\nIf the Dollar collapses, so do many others.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Debt is not a bad thing in and of itself, and can in fact be beneficial. Being unable to pay your debt is bad. So far, the government meets its obligations on debt, although they do enjoy making it look precarious. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The US is in *such* a better financial position than it was just 7-8 years ago. No one's talking about the banks and financial system collapsing this time. \n\nAlmost all countries have debt. Debt isn't a problem unless other countries stop believing you can pay it back eventually. \n\nThe dollar is neither particularly strong nor particularly weak right now, compared to long-term historical values. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the people that tell you it will imminently collapse are just trying to sell you the doomsday product. There are a ton of issues with how America's finances are being managed, and the fiat money experiment in general, but a Mad-Max style collapse isn't one of them.\n\nPut very simply, if people all over the world kept lending you money no matter what your debt/income ratio was, and accepted payment from you in the form of pieces of paper that you printed, no matter how much you printed, you're in a pretty good spot. It works until it doesn't.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because America's economy does not run like your household economy does. In fact, there are two entirely different fields of study: microeconomics and macroeconomics. It is a common misconception that the US economy can be balanced the same way your household can be.\n\nHaving debt at the national level is not a bad thing, and we even own *most of our own debt.* It is a very complex process that even the most well educated people don't understand entirely, but basically our debt only becomes a problem if other countries stop believing we can pay back our debt, which is highly unlikely.\n\nAs for the dollar, it is not particularly weak right now, even if it is slightly weaker than recent years.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First off, the dollar has been pretty stable since we devalued it in the early '80s, so I'm not sure what loss of value you're referring to.\n\nSecond, debt doesn't stand alone, it's debt vs GDP, and our GDP is massive. Not that we don't need to deal with our debt, but it's not end-of-the-world level debt...Everyone knows we're good for it.\n\nIt's pretty much unavoidable that we need to bump taxes in order to bring our expenses in line with our revenues. This is facing the same headwinds as the Fed however: raising taxes and raising interest rates both have a negative effect on the economy, and even though *parts* of the economy are doing well, a lot of the indicators aren't as good as we'd like, so this keeps getting pushed down the line.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Debt alone is not necessarily a bad thing.\n\nThink of it this way. Most people buy a house by taking out a loan from the bank for tens to hundreds of thousands of dollars. Their total 'debt' is now far greater than their annual income.\n\nBut the bank doesn't make them pay it all back at once, it's broken down into a system of far lower mortgage payments over a period of decades. As such, while the total amount of debt can seem like a very large number, it is also very manageable to pay off with the average family's finances. Many people even refinance, take out second mortgages or otherwise take out additional loans against their house before paying off the original mortgage so that they have extra cash on hand while keeping their payments low enough to handle.\n\nThe US Debt works on a similar, though much more complex basis. Our total debt might be greater than the annual value of all that our country produces, but we are not required to pay off all that debt at once. We continue to borrow, predominantly against ourselves via government bonds, and can repay the loans slowly over time even accounting for accumulated interest.\n\nAmerica's national credit rating is one of the best in the world because we are so good at being able to repay our (national) debts.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10062100", "title": "Subprime mortgage crisis", "section": "Section::::Responses.:Economic stimulus.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 250, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 250, "end_character": 309, "text": "The U.S. government continued to run large deficits post-crisis, with the national debt rising from $10.0 trillion as of September 2008 to $16.1 trillion by September 2012. The debt increases were $1.89 trillion in fiscal year 2009, $1.65 trillion in 2010, $1.23 trillion in 2011, and $1.26 trillion in 2012.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40675309", "title": "2013 United States federal government shutdown", "section": "Section::::The shutdown.:Debt ceiling.:Potential effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 165, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 165, "end_character": 726, "text": "Yalman Onaran of Bloomberg News wrote that the government's failure to raise the debt ceiling and pay its debt would \"halt a $5 trillion lending mechanism for investors who rely on Treasuries, blow up borrowing costs for billions of people and companies, ravage the dollar and throw the U.S. and world economies into a recession that probably would become a depression\", noting that a government default would be 23 times larger than the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy during the Great Recession. On October 15, 2013, Fitch, the credit rating agency, placed the U.S. AAA ratings on \"rating watch negative\" as talks to increase the debt limit reached an impasse fueling concerns of congressional dysfunction and impending default.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31649843", "title": "International use of the U.S. dollar", "section": "Section::::Dollar versus Euro.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 450, "text": "In addition to the trade deficit, the U.S. dollar's decline was linked to a variety of other factors, including a major spike in oil prices. Economists such as Alan Greenspan suggested that another reason for the decline of the dollar was its decreasing role as a major reserve currency. Chinese officials signaled plans to diversify the nation's $1.9 trillion reserve in response to a falling U.S. currency which also set the dollar under pressure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "278421", "title": "History of the United States (1980–1991)", "section": "Section::::Reagan administration.:Rising deficits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 765, "text": "Since U.S. saving rates were very low (roughly one-third of Japan's,) the deficit was mostly covered by borrowing from abroad, turning the United States within a few years from the world's greatest creditor nation to the world's greatest debtor. Not only was this damaging to America's status, it was also a profound shift in the postwar international financial system, which had relied on the export of U.S. capital. In addition, the media and entertainment industry during the 1980s glamorized the stock market and financial sector (e.g. the 1987 movie Wall Street), causing many young people to pursue careers as brokers, investors, or bankers instead of manufacturing and making it unlikely that any of the lost industrial base would be restored any time soon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22099091", "title": "Subprime mortgage crisis solutions debate", "section": "Section::::Economic stimulus and fiscal policy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 307, "text": "Between June 2007 and November 2008, Americans lost a total of $8.3 trillion in wealth between housing and stock market losses, contributing to a decline in consumer spending and business investment. The crisis has caused unemployment to rise and GDP to decline at a significant annual rate during Q4 2008.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1299102", "title": "Household debt", "section": "Section::::U.S. economic impact.:Contribution to the 2008 financial crisis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 1477, "text": "Paul Krugman wrote in December 2010: \"The root of our current troubles lies in the debt American families ran up during the Bush-era housing bubble. Twenty years ago, the average American household’s debt was 83 percent of its income; by a decade ago, that had crept up to 92 percent; but by late 2007, debts were 130 percent of income. All this borrowing took place both because banks had abandoned any notion of sound lending and because everyone assumed that house prices would never fall. And then the bubble burst. What we’ve been dealing with ever since is a painful process of 'deleveraging': highly indebted Americans not only can't spend the way they used to, they're having to pay down the debts they ran up in the bubble years. This would be fine if someone else were taking up the slack. But what's actually happening is that some people are spending much less while nobody is spending more—and this translates into a depressed economy and high unemployment. What the government should be doing in this situation is spending more while the private sector is spending less, supporting employment while those debts are paid down. And this government spending needs to be sustained: we're not talking about a brief burst of aid; we’re talking about spending that lasts long enough for households to get their debts back under control. The original Obama stimulus wasn’t just too small; it was also much too short-lived, with much of the positive effect already gone.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "322221", "title": "National debt of the United States", "section": "Section::::Risks and debates.:Credit default.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 350, "text": "In April 1979, however, the United States may have technically defaulted on $122 million in Treasury bills, which was less than 1% of U.S. debt. The Treasury Department characterized it as a delay rather than as a default, but it did have consequences for short-term interest rates, which jumped 0.6%. Others view it as a temporary, partial default.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Marshal Ferdinand Foch, the man who accepted the german armistice famously stated in 1919, [\"This is not a peace. It is an armistice for twenty years\".](_URL_0_) He was correct, WWII began 20 years and 64 days later. He was not the only one who shared that sentiment. Winston Churchill avidly spoke about rearmament during the 1930s, but for the most part the general public did not.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "65307", "title": "World War III", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 466, "text": "Prior to the beginning of the Second World War, the First World War (1914–1918) was believed to have been \"the war to end all wars,\" as it was popularly believed that never again could there possibly be a global conflict of such magnitude. During the interwar period, WWI was typically referred to simply as \"The Great War.\" The outbreak of World War II in 1939 disproved the hope that mankind might have already \"outgrown\" the need for such widespread global wars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59746086", "title": "Global issue", "section": "Section::::Global issues.:Conflict-related.:Potential for World War III.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 494, "text": "Prior to the beginning of the Second World War, the First World War (1914–1918) was believed to have been \"the war to end all wars,\" as it was popularly believed that never again could there possibly be a global conflict of such magnitude. During the inter-war period between the two world wars, WWI was typically referred to simply as \"The Great War.\" The outbreak of World War II in 1939 disproved the hope that mankind might have already \"outgrown\" the need for such widespread global wars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4305070", "title": "History of Western civilization", "section": "Section::::Cold War: 1945–1991.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 226, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 226, "end_character": 778, "text": "The world lived in the constant fear of World War III in the Cold War. Seemingly any conflict involving Communism might lead to a conflict between the Warsaw pact countries and the NATO countries. The prospect of a third world war was made even more frightening by the fact that it would almost certainly be a nuclear war. In 1949 the Soviets developed their first atomic bomb, and soon both the United States and Soviet Union had enough to destroy the world several times over. With the development of missile technology, the stakes were raised as either country could launch weapons from great distances across the globe to their targets. Eventually, Britain, France, and China would also develop nuclear weapons. It is believed that Israel developed nuclear weapons as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11644369", "title": "The Proteus Operation", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 418, "text": "Originally, the First World War was a complete wake-up call for the human race, leading to greater internationalism and a \"Never Again\" spirit towards war that would eventually wear away the differences between the various power-blocs. By the 2020s, a global League of Nations oversees a planet totally at peace. The fledgling Nazi Party, in this 'original' timeline, simply faded out after the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "360435", "title": "Events preceding World War II in Europe", "section": "Section::::Aftermath of World War I.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 232, "text": "World War II is generally viewed as having its roots in the aftermath of World War I, in which the German Empire under Wilhelm II, with its Central Powers, was defeated, chiefly by the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30865483", "title": "Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum", "section": "Section::::Temporary exhibits.:America and the Cold War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 905, "text": "World War II was the most devastating conflict in history with much of Europe and Asia left in ruins at war's end. Yet, there was no peace. The superpowers of the United States and Soviet Union and their ideologies of democracy versus tyranny competed for prominence on the world stage in a cold war. For over 40 years these nuclear superpowers maintained a standoff and avoided a hot war that could have potentially destroyed the planet. America and the Cold War explored this powerful subject through such iconic artifacts as: an original 34' Nike Ajax missile, arming plug used to activate the bomb used on Hiroshima, Thunderbolt Air Raid siren, SALT I Treaty, scale model of Apollo-Soyuz, candy parachute from the Berlin Airlift, Stasi surveillance equipment, and a desk plaque awarded to the crew members of the Soviet SA-2 missile battalion that shot down Francis Gary Powers U-2 spy plane in 1960.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39767", "title": "History of the European Union", "section": "Section::::1945–1957: From ECSC to the Treaties of Rome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 597, "text": "World War II from 1939 to 1945 saw a human and economic catastrophe which hit Europe hardest. It demonstrated the horrors of war, and also of extremism, through the Holocaust and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Once again, there was a desire to ensure it could never happen again, particularly with the war giving the world nuclear weapons. Most European countries failed to maintain their Great Power status, with the exception of the USSR, which became a superpower after World War II and maintained the status for 45 years. This left two rival ideologically opposed superpowers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The debt ceiling is an artificial limit on debt. It has no effect on actual interest rates or the borrowing power of the US. It is simply a red tape tool used to cause debate about spending every few months. Because it was created by congress, they can also raise it. This is like you saying, I'm only going to eat 6 more times. After that 6th meal, you can then tell yourself that you'll raise the total amount of meals by 3 to a total of 9. You will do this every day, adding 3 more meals to the total amount of meals you will ever allow yourself to eat. The US gains debt whenever it spends more than it collects. (taxes, funds, tariffs) The US also gains debt whenever someone buys a US backed bond. These bonds are an investment in the US and accrue interest. The money gained from these bonds pays for whatever our taxes don't. Each year we pay the interest on these bonds. Whenever someone says the US owes debt to China or to Social Security, it really means that those groups own bonds. The only thing they can do is essentially collect the interest off the bonds or sell the bonds. Currently US Bonds are the safest and most secure investment since US is very unlikely to default anytime soon. Because the interest rate on the bonds is so low, it actually makes great financial sense to grow our debt by investing more into the US. So long as the money spent grows the economy at a rate higher than the interest rate on our debt, the US profits. If we were ever to pay off our debt, it would be a later generation, but paying it off any time soon would actually hurt us and make it even harder for future generations.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's no rational reason for there to be a debt ceiling at all, and it would be abolished, other than that it's a useful political tool for deficit hawks. The US government needs to fund its operations, and because US Treasury Bonds (read: debt) are considered more or less the safest investment on earth, it can do this really cheaply. As long as the interest payments on those bonds stay reasonable compared to tax revenue, the actual dollar value of the total debt is almost immaterial. Plus, if for some reason the US stopped issuing treasury bonds, it would actually be hugely disruptive to financial markets, which would have to find a new safe place to store excess money. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Are they simply pushing the debt onto the future generation?\n\nNot necessarily. Gov't and most organizations need to borrow money as a part of doing business, and in an inflationary economy, the amount they can borrow will increase over time.\n\nI have a job where I travel a lot. I put my business expenses on my credit card, submit an expense report to my employer, and get reimbursed. Over there years, I have asked to have my \"debt limit\" increased, because the cost of travel has increased. I'm not doing anything differently, nor am I kicking debt down the road, it is just that hotels and taxis and meals are more expensive than they were ten years ago.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31461654", "title": "United States debt ceiling", "section": "Section::::Debate on debt ceiling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 430, "text": "A vote to increase the debt ceiling has usually been (since the 1950s) a legal budgetary formality between the President and Congress. The debt ceiling has not historically been a political issue that would make the elected government fail to pass a yearly budget. Reports to Congress (from the OMB and other sources) in the 1990s have repeatedly stated that the debt limit is an ineffective means to restrain the growth of debt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40811526", "title": "United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2013", "section": "Section::::Debate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 460, "text": "In a press conference held on January 14, 2013, President Obama stated that not raising the debt ceiling would cause delays in payments including benefits and government employees' salaries and lead to default on government debt. President Obama urged Congress to raise the debt ceiling without conditions to avoid a default by the United States on government debt. Raising the debt ceiling was also supported by Ben Bernanke, chairman of the Federal Reserve.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32442495", "title": "United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011", "section": "Section::::Background.:Debt Ceiling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 947, "text": "The process of setting the debt ceiling is separate and distinct from the regular process of financing government operations, and raising the debt ceiling does not have any direct impact on the budget deficit. The US government passes a federal budget every year. This budget details projected tax collections and outlays and, therefore, the amount of borrowing the government would have to do in that fiscal year. A vote to increase the debt ceiling is, therefore, usually seen as a formality, needed to continue spending that has already been approved previously by the Congress and the President. The Government Accountability Office explains: \"The debt limit does not control or limit the ability of the federal government to run deficits or incur obligations. Rather, it is a limit on the ability to pay obligations already incurred.\" The apparent redundancy of the debt ceiling has led to suggestions that it should be abolished altogether.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32442495", "title": "United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011", "section": "Section::::Background.:Recent concern about budget deficits and long-term debt.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1153, "text": "Underlying the contentious debate over raising the debt ceiling has been an anxiety, growing since 2008, about the large United States federal budget deficits and the increasing federal debt. According to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO): \"At the end of 2008, that debt equaled 40 percent of the nation's annual economic output (a little above the 40-year average of 37 percent). Since then, the figure has shot upward: By the end of fiscal year 2011, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) projects federal debt will reach roughly 70 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) — the highest percentage since shortly after World War II.\" The sharp rise in debt after 2008 stems largely from lower tax revenues and higher federal spending related to the severe recession and persistently high unemployment in 2008–11. Though a balanced budget is ideal, allowing down payment on debt and more flexibility within government budgeting, limiting deficits to within 1% to 2% of GDP is sufficient to stabilize the debt. Deficits in 2009 and 2010 were 10.0 percent and 8.9 percent respectively, and the largest as a share of gross domestic product since 1945.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32656127", "title": "History of United States debt ceiling", "section": "Section::::1995 debt ceiling crisis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 312, "text": "The 1995 request for a debt ceiling increase led to debate in Congress on reduction of the size of the federal government, which led to the non-passage of the federal budget, and the United States federal government shutdown of 1995–96. The ceiling was eventually increased and the government shutdown resolved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32684354", "title": "Black Monday (2011)", "section": "Section::::Relationship to United States debt ceiling crisis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 654, "text": "Since the United States Department of the Treasury has no authority to issue or incur debt beyond the debt ceiling set by the United States Congress, failure to reach an agreement between the necessary members of the government to raise the debt ceiling meant that certain debts would not be paid, and this would potentially affect the government's ability to borrow quickly or at low cost, due to a perception of increased risk in loaning money to the US government. If the debt ceiling were not raised by August 2, 2011, either government spending would have to be decreased, or debt would have to be paid later than promised, also known as a default.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32656127", "title": "History of United States debt ceiling", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 671, "text": "The history of United States debt ceiling deals with movements in the United States debt ceiling since it was created in 1917. Management of the United States public debt is an important part of the macroeconomics of the United States economy and finance system, and the debt ceiling is a limitation on the federal government's ability to manage the economy and finance system. The debt ceiling is also a limitation on the federal government's ability to finance government operations, and the failure of Congress to authorise an increase in the debt ceiling has resulted in crises, especially in recent years. The debt ceiling has been suspended since October 30, 2015.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > But what if the external electron is stationary? In that case, wouldn't the electrons inside the conductor undergo length contraction because they have a velocity relative to our external electron, resulting in a net negative charge? Shouldn't that also exert a force?\n\nA steady current in a wire implies that the wire has an overall neutral charge.\n\nWhat this thought experiment is trying to demonstrate is that for a neutral wire with a steady current, performing a coordinate transformation results in the wire no longer being electrically neutral leading to an electric force.\n\nSince both reference frame has to agree on the interaction between the wire and the test charge, the magnetic field manifests itself in the rest frame of the wire.\n\nThat also implies that the external test charge has to be moving to experience this force, or there wouldn't be a charge imbalance from the rest frame of the test charge.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27643777", "title": "Measuring instrument", "section": "Section::::Electricity, electronics and electrical engineering.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 109, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 109, "end_character": 242, "text": "Electrical charges interact via a field. That field is called electric field.If the charge doesn't move. If the charge moves, thus realizing an electric current, especially in an electrically neutral conductor, that field is called magnetic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36563", "title": "Magnetic field", "section": "Section::::Magnetic field and electric currents.:Force on moving charges and current.:Force on a charged particle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 295, "text": "A charged particle moving in a -field experiences a \"sideways\" force that is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the component of the velocity that is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the charge of the particle. This force is known as the \"Lorentz force\", and is given by\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36563", "title": "Magnetic field", "section": "Section::::Definitions, units, and measurement.:The B-field.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 445, "text": "Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged particle. Experiments in electrostatics show that a particle of charge in an electric field experiences a force . Other experiments show that a charged particle experiences a force proportional to its relative velocity to a current-carrying wire. The velocity dependent portion can be separated such that the force on the particle satisfies the \"Lorentz force law\",\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9550", "title": "Electricity", "section": "Section::::Concepts.:Electric field.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 606, "text": "An electric field generally varies in space, and its strength at any one point is defined as the force (per unit charge) that would be felt by a stationary, negligible charge if placed at that point. The conceptual charge, termed a 'test charge', must be vanishingly small to prevent its own electric field disturbing the main field and must also be stationary to prevent the effect of magnetic fields. As the electric field is defined in terms of force, and force is a vector, so it follows that an electric field is also a vector, having both magnitude and direction. Specifically, it is a vector field.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20700323", "title": "Wien filter", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 725, "text": "Any charged particle in an electric field will feel a force proportional to the charge and field strength such that formula_1, where F is force, q is charge, and E is electric field strength. Similarly, any particle moving in a magnetic field will feel a force proportional to the velocity and charge of the particle. The force felt by any particle is then equal to formula_2, where F is force, q is the charge on the particle, v is the velocity of the particle, B is the strength of the magnetic field, and formula_3 is the cross product. In the case of a velocity selector, the magnetic field is always at 90 degrees to the velocity and the force is simplified to formula_4 in the direction described by the cross product.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19716", "title": "Magnetism", "section": "Section::::Magnetic force.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 308, "text": "The same situations that create magnetic fields—charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles—are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, creating a force. Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9550", "title": "Electricity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 525, "text": "When a charge is placed in a location with a non-zero electric field, a force will act on it. The magnitude of this force is given by Coulomb's law. Thus, if that charge were to move, the electric field would be doing work on the electric charge. Thus we can speak of electric potential at a certain point in space, which is equal to the work done by an external agent in carrying a unit of positive charge from an arbitrarily chosen reference point to that point without any acceleration and is typically measured in volts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you say something is a threat to nation security or something similar you will automatically mobilize a huge segment of conservative votership against someone. It's nothing more than a cheap political move, but it will probably work.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "17499384", "title": "David Gewirtz", "section": "Section::::White House e-mail controversy.:Influence of the 1939 Hatch Act.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 350, "text": "He also claims that insecure messaging puts national security at risk. He claims that since the White House staffers must bypass government servers, their email is traveling across the Internet without necessary security. He cites numerous national security risk scenarios that could occur due to possible interception of White House email messages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3847111", "title": "Patriot Debates", "section": "Section::::Title II.:Section 213.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 454, "text": "BULLET::::- Reject Secrecy: she believes that those \"on the left and right who believe that the American people have no greater enemy than their own government\", whom she implies believe in full transparency and no secrecy, are not able to answer how this protects the United States against terrorist attack and that \"opponents of the Patriot Act have never explained how they think the government can track down the web of Islamist activity in public\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23878308", "title": "Robert Hormats", "section": "Section::::Points of view.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 504, "text": "He is an advocate of enhancing intelligence capabilities, modernizing military equipment and spending more money on preparing first-responders like firemen and emergency medical technicians for crises. He worries that future presidential administrations will spend less than they should on homeland security because to do so will require raising taxes or cutting non-defense programs. He also worries that the unpopularity of the Iraq war will cause the country to reduce its military presence overseas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "766900", "title": "John Boehner", "section": "Section::::Political positions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 490, "text": "On May 25, 2006, Boehner issued a statement defending his agenda and attacking his \"Democrat friends\" such as Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi. Boehner said regarding national security that voters \"have a choice between a Republican Party that understands the stakes and is dedicated to victory, and a Democrat Party with a non-existent national security policy that sheepishly dismisses the challenges of a post-9/11 world and is all too willing to concede defeat on the battlefield in Iraq.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3854110", "title": "Terrorist Surveillance Program", "section": "Section::::News reporting.:December 16, 2005.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 503, "text": "He forcefully defended his actions as \"crucial to our national security\" and claimed that the American people expected him to \"do everything in my power, under our laws and Constitution, to protect them and their civil liberties\" as long as there was a \"continuing threat\" from al Qaeda. The president also had harsh words for those who broke the story, saying that they acted illegally. \"The unauthorized disclosure of this effort damages our national security and puts our citizens at risk\", he said.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47844651", "title": "Political positions of Jeremy Corbyn", "section": "Section::::Foreign affairs and defence.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 924, "text": "Corbyn has said he would want with the US a \"strong and friendly relationship\", while \"not be[ing] afraid to speak our mind\". He has also said the country \"is the strongest military power on the planet by a very long way. It has a special responsibility to use its power with care and to support international efforts to resolve conflicts collectively and peacefully\". He has also said that US President, Donald Trump, \"seems determined to add to the dangers [in the global situation] by recklessly escalating the confrontation with North Korea, unilaterally launching missile strikes on Syria, opposing President Obama’s nuclear arms deal with Iran and backing a new nuclear arms race\". Following Trump's withdrawal of the US from the Paris Agreement, he said it was a \"very big shame\", further saying that \"Donald Trump's decision to pull the United States out of the Paris climate change deal is reckless and dangerous\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15410960", "title": "Israel lobby in the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Active groups.:Party political groups.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 614, "text": "However, current Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn has been vocal on Middle East foreign policy. He is a member of the Palestine Solidarity Campaign, regularly campaigning against conflict in Gaza and what the organisation considers to be apartheid in Israel. Corbyn has also supported boycotting and sanctioning arms dealings in Israel, saying on the \"Electronic Intifada\": \"I think we have to push robustly for the limitation of arms supplies ... Israel is after all facing an investigation ... for war crimes, [at the International Criminal Court] as indeed are the Hamas forces on a much different or lesser scale.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The main difference between different liquids boils down to their indices of refraction and their dispersion. Changes in the index of refraction would alter the size of the rainbow arc, while changes in their dispersion would change how wide the actual rainbow band is. If the dispersion is negative, it would also flip the order of the rainbow (Red would be on the inside, and violet would be on the outside).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What /u/shadydentist said about dispersion and index of refraction is true but he/she failed to mention a very crucial part about how rainbows are formed. Weather (intentional pun) a rainbow is possible with other liquids requires explanation on how they are made.\n\nRainbows are made from lots of water droplets in the atmostphere making bajillions of ball lenses. In order for rainbows to be formed, the liquid must be light enough for a very large amount of it to be floating around in the atmostphere which I doubt gasoline would be able to do. \n\nAnother very important thing that a rainbow depends upon is the critical angle of the medium and the angle of the sunlight coming in.\n\nA rainbow is formed by the light hitting these water ball lenses, and dispersing inside the water like you would picture light from a prism. believe it or not, a rainbow requires the sunlight to be coming from behind you. This is because most of the light that comes in from the sun that is now dispersed goes straight through and you don't see it again, at angles, specific wavelengths of light hit the other side of the ball lens at the critical angle and is totally internally reflected back. this wavelength gets reflected back to the person observing the rainbow at that specific angle. hence red is located the top region of the rainbow and green another, they were the only wavelengths that got reflected back at that angle\n\ndouble rainbows occur when there are two internal reflections inside the water and because of the extra reflected cause blue to appear at the top and red at the bottom.\n\nThe reason why water droplets causes rainbows is because light is totally internally reflected around the angle that the light from the sun comes in at. other materials could form rainbows but it would depend on the angle of the sunlight and the liquid's critical angle. \n\nIf you want to see rainbow effects in gasoline you can look up thin film interference in gasoline.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1026203", "title": "Rainbows in mythology", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 623, "text": "The rainbow, a natural phenomenon noted for its beauty and mystical appearance, has been a favorite component of mythology throughout history. Rainbows are part of the myths of many cultures around the world. The Norse saw it as Bifrost; Abrahamic traditions see it as a covenant with God not to destroy the world by means of floodwater. Whether as a bridge to the heavens, messenger, archer's bow, or serpent, the rainbow has been pressed into symbolic service for millennia. There is a myriad of beliefs concerning the rainbow. The complex diversity of rainbow myths are far-reaching, as are their inherent similarities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3871014", "title": "Rainbow", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 637, "text": "A rainbow is not located at a specific distance from the observer, but comes from an optical illusion caused by any water droplets viewed from a certain angle relative to a light source. Thus, a rainbow is not an object and cannot be physically approached. Indeed, it is impossible for an observer to see a rainbow from water droplets at any angle other than the customary one of 42 degrees from the direction opposite the light source. Even if an observer sees another observer who seems \"under\" or \"at the end of\" a rainbow, the second observer will see a different rainbow—farther off—at the same angle as seen by the first observer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3871014", "title": "Rainbow", "section": "Section::::Variations.:Full-circle rainbow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 450, "text": "A circular rainbow should not be confused with the glory, which is much smaller in diameter and is created by different optical processes. In the right circumstances, a glory and a (circular) rainbow or fog bow can occur together. Another atmospheric phenomenon that may be mistaken for a \"circular rainbow\" is the 22° halo, which is caused by ice crystals rather than liquid water droplets, and is located around the sun (or moon), not opposite it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3871014", "title": "Rainbow", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 321, "text": "A rainbow is a meteorological phenomenon that is caused by reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in water droplets resulting in a spectrum of light appearing in the sky. It takes the form of a multicoloured circular arc. Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the section of sky directly opposite the sun.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3871014", "title": "Rainbow", "section": "Section::::Culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 90, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 90, "end_character": 848, "text": "Rainbows occur frequently in mythology, and have been used in the arts. One of the earliest literary occurrences of a rainbow is in the Book of Genesis chapter 9, as part of the flood story of Noah, where it is a sign of God's covenant to never destroy all life on earth with a global flood again. In Norse mythology, the rainbow bridge Bifröst connects the world of men (Midgard) and the realm of the gods (Asgard). Cuchavira was the god of the rainbow for the Muisca in present-day Colombia and when the regular rains on the Bogotá savanna were over, the people thanked him offering gold, snails and small emeralds. The Irish leprechaun's secret hiding place for his pot of gold is usually said to be at the end of the rainbow. This place is appropriately impossible to reach, because the rainbow is an optical effect which cannot be approached.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3871014", "title": "Rainbow", "section": "Section::::Explanation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1184, "text": "A rainbow does not exist at one particular location. Many rainbows exist; however, only one can be seen depending on the particular observer's viewpoint as droplets of light illuminated by the sun. All raindrops refract and reflect the sunlight in the same way, but only the light from some raindrops reaches the observer's eye. This light is what constitutes the rainbow for that observer. The whole system composed by the sun's rays, the observer's head, and the (spherical) water drops has an axial symmetry around the axis through the observer's head and parallel to the sun's rays. The rainbow is curved because the set of all the raindrops that have the right angle between the observer, the drop, and the sun, lie on a cone pointing at the sun with the observer at the tip. The base of the cone forms a circle at an angle of 40–42° to the line between the observer's head and their shadow but 50% or more of the circle is below the horizon, unless the observer is sufficiently far above the earth's surface to see it all, for example in an aeroplane (see above). Alternatively, an observer with the right vantage point may see the full circle in a fountain or waterfall spray.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3871014", "title": "Rainbow", "section": "Section::::Variations.:Supernumerary rainbows.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 969, "text": "Supernumerary rainbows cannot be explained using classical geometric optics. The alternating faint bands are caused by interference between rays of light following slightly different paths with slightly varying lengths within the raindrops. Some rays are in phase, reinforcing each other through constructive interference, creating a bright band; others are out of phase by up to half a wavelength, cancelling each other out through destructive interference, and creating a gap. Given the different angles of refraction for rays of different colours, the patterns of interference are slightly different for rays of different colours, so each bright band is differentiated in colour, creating a miniature rainbow. Supernumerary rainbows are clearest when raindrops are small and of uniform size. The very existence of supernumerary rainbows was historically a first indication of the wave nature of light, and the first explanation was provided by Thomas Young in 1804.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is definitely possible; a more practical arrangement would be a straight track running through a tunnel angled through a mountain range pointed along your desired orbit. You probably wouldn't want to use magnetic levitation exactly either, rather a sled propelled through electromagnetic propulsion.\n\nThere are a variety of interesting hurdles to overcome with such an arrangement. For example firing a projectile down the tunnel leaves a lot of air to move out of the way to allow passage. What do you do with it? It can't escape out the end fast enough so it would compress at the front of the projectile, stealing energy from the launch and perhaps damaging the payload. Engineering vents in miles of launch tunnel increases costs, and due to being underground probably won't exhaust to the surface.\n\nThe benefits to such a launch system are interesting. While it would require similar energy as a rocket launch the energy can be obtained and spent in a different way. You could for example use electrical energy from hydroelectric generators rather than chemical rockets. You don't have to carry as much fuel along with the payload thus increasing the load or decreasing the vehicle size.\n\nDrawbacks might include throwing launch sleds into the plains beyond the mountain range, and your launch tunnel melting and requiring regular maintenance.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2267305", "title": "Electromagnetic suspension", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Spaceship Launch Aid.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 221, "text": "NASA has been developing a launch aid using a magnetic levitation system to propel a spaceship. Proponents of maglev launch aid posit that it saves on design and launching costs, while providing a safer launching method.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3294173", "title": "Vactrain", "section": "Section::::21st century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 466, "text": "James R. Powell, former co-inventor of superconducting maglev in the 1960s, has since 2001 led investigation of a concept for using a maglev vactrain for space launch (theoretically two orders of magnitude less marginal cost than present rockets), where the StarTram proposal would have vehicles reach up to within an acceleration tunnel (lengthy to limit g-forces), considering boring through the ice sheet in Antarctica for lower anticipated expense than in rock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34666187", "title": "SpaceX reusable launch system development program", "section": "Section::::Technologies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 619, "text": "Several new technologies needed to be developed and tested to facilitate successful launch and recovery of both stages of the SpaceX reusable rocket launching system. Following the completion of the third high-altitude controlled-descent test, and the completion of the third low-altitude flight of the second-generation prototype test vehicle (plus eight flights of the first-generation Grasshopper prototype flight test vehicle), SpaceX indicated that they are now able to consistently \"reenter from space at hypersonic velocity, restart main engines twice, deploy landing legs and touch down at near zero velocity.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23102251", "title": "StarTram", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 720, "text": "StarTram is a proposal for a maglev space launch system. The initial Generation 1 facility would be cargo only, launching from a mountain peak at an altitude of with an evacuated tube staying at local surface level; it has been claimed that about 150,000 tons could be lifted to orbit annually. More advanced technology would be required for the Generation 2 system for passengers, with a longer track instead gradually curving up at its end to the thinner air at altitude, supported by magnetic levitation, reducing g-forces when each capsule transitions from the vacuum tube to the atmosphere. A SPESIF 2010 presentation stated that Gen-1 could be completed by the year 2020+ if funding began in 2010, Gen-2 by 2030+.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34666187", "title": "SpaceX reusable launch system development program", "section": "Section::::Technical feasibility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 387, "text": "Elon Musk said at the beginning of the program that he believed the return, vertical landing and recovery was possible because the SpaceX manufacturing methodologies result in a rocket efficiency exceeding the typical 3% margin. A SpaceX rocket operating in the reusable configuration has approximately 30% less payload lift capacity than the same rocket in an expendable configuration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9070", "title": "Deep Space 1", "section": "Section::::Technologies.:NSTAR ion engine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 499, "text": "The NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR) electrostatic ion thruster, developed at NASA Glenn, achieves a specific impulse of 1000–3000 seconds. This is an order of magnitude higher than traditional space propulsion methods, resulting in a mass savings of approximately half. This leads to much cheaper launch vehicles. Although the engine produces just thrust at maximal power (2,100 W on DS1), the craft achieved high speeds because ion engines thrust continuously for long periods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17037094", "title": "Non-rocket spacelaunch", "section": "Section::::Hybrid launch systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 343, "text": "Separate technologies may be combined. In 2010, NASA suggested that a future scramjet aircraft might be accelerated to 300 m/s (a solution to the problem of ramjet engines not being startable at zero airflow velocity) by electromagnetic or other sled launch assist, in turn air-launching a second-stage rocket delivering a satellite to orbit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You might try cross posting to /r/linguistics ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ooh! I can answer this one. Sort of. \nI studied linguistics at university, and Field Methods is one of the major aspects. So, while I can't talk about the historical aspect, I can talk about the modern approach. I can't imagine there's much that has changed there aside from the rigor of the method (you'll see what I mean in a bit). \n \nThe first step is to build a lexicon - a list of words. If the language is a living one, that's easy enough: the translator simply points at an object either in the abstract (on a map, for example) or in real life and tries to get the native speakers to name it, then records that name (this, of course, has been lampooned by Terry Pratchett when he talks about mountains that are named \"Mountain\", forests named \"Lots of Trees\", and even rivers named \"Your Finger You Fool\"). \nOnce a substantial enough lexicon has been built, the idea is to start looking for patterns - phonetic (sounds), morphemic (units of meaning), lexical (higher units of meaning), and semantic (socially-contextualised units of meaning). \nFrom there, the patterns are tested. The translator will try to generate their own sentences with the information they have at hand. They *want* to get it wrong at this stage, because they will learn more in being corrected than in getting things correct. \nThis process will go on and on, hopefully with multiple translators to correct for any confirmation bias or blind spots (some languages, for example, have a women's version and a men's version, so you'll need both genders translating to get both versions). Ideally, this process will go on for generations, because languages are, no kidding, *huge*. Hundreds of thousands of words, *millions* of permutations, *billions* of potential interpretations. \nAnd this doesn't take into account how some words simply do not gloss well. Look at r/DoesNotTranslate for some great examples. \nProblems, of course, arise with languages that no longer have any living speakers. We can't test the language, so we're left with huge gaping holes in our knowledge. Furthermore, no one's there to correct us if we go off track (by, say, misapplying a minor word, such as the difference between \"educate\" and \"elucidate\"). \nHistorically, recorded language also tended toward the more formal, with graffiti being a major exception. We therefore miss out on a whole lot of colloquial stuff too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23940", "title": "Proto-Human language", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 652, "text": "There are some linguists who question the very possibility of tracing language elements so far back into the past. Campbell notes that given the time elapsed since the origin of human language, every word from that time would have been replaced or changed beyond recognition in all languages today. Campbell harshly criticizes efforts to reconstruct a Proto-human language, saying \"the search for global etymologies is at best a hopeless waste of time, at worst an embarrassment to linguistics as a discipline, unfortunately confusing and misleading to those who might look to linguistics for understanding in this area.\" (Campbell and Poser 2008:393)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45627703", "title": "Native-language identification", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 471, "text": "Native-language identification (NLI) is the task of determining an author's native language (L1) based only on their writings in a second language (L2). NLI works through identifying language-usage patterns that are common to specific L1 groups and then applying this knowledge to predict the native language of previously unseen texts. This is motivated in part by applications in second-language acquisition, language teaching and forensic linguistics, amongst others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31002435", "title": "Knowledge extraction", "section": "Section::::Extraction from natural language sources.:Traditional information extraction (IE).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 430, "text": "Traditional information extraction is a technology of natural language processing, which extracts information from typically natural language texts and structures these in a suitable manner. The kinds of information to be identified must be specified in a model before beginning the process, which is why the whole process of traditional Information Extraction is domain dependent. The IE is split in the following five subtasks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35676775", "title": "Statistical language acquisition", "section": "Section::::Experimental paradigms.:Bilinguals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 660, "text": "It is possible that the kinds of language experience and knowledge gained through the statistical learning of the first language influences one's acquisition of a second language. Some research points to the possibility that the difficulty of learning a second language may be derived from the structural patterns and language cues that one has already picked up from his or her acquisition of first language. In that sense, the knowledge of and skills to process the first language from statistical acquisition may act as a complicating factor when one tries to learn a new language with different sentence structures, grammatical rules, and speech patterns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17464252", "title": "Input hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Acquisition-learning hypothesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 659, "text": "Acquisition of language is a natural, intuitive, and subconscious process of which individuals need not be aware. One is unaware of the process as it is happening and, when the new knowledge is acquired, the acquirer generally does not realize that he or she possesses any new knowledge. According to Krashen, both adults and children can subconsciously acquire language, and either written or oral language can be acquired. This process is similar to the process that children undergo when learning their native language. Acquisition requires \"meaningful\" interaction in the target language, during which the acquirer is focused on meaning rather than form.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "888207", "title": "Etymology", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 309, "text": "By analyzing related languages with a technique known as the comparative method, linguists can make inferences about their shared parent language and its vocabulary. In this way, word roots have been found that can be traced all the way back to the origin of, for instance, the Indo-European language family.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6383817", "title": "Ancestral reconstruction", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Character evolution.:Linguistic Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 789, "text": "Reconstructions of the words and phenomes of ancient proto-languages such as Proto-Indo-European have been performed based on the observed analogues in present-day languages. Typically, these analyses are carried out manually using the \"comparative method\". First, words from different languages with a common etymology (cognates) are identified in the contemporary languages under study, analogous to the identification of orthologous biological sequences. Second, correspondences between individual sounds in the cognates are identified, a step similar to biological sequence alignment, although performed manually. Finally, likely ancestral sounds are hypothesised by manual inspection and various heuristics (such as the fact that most languages have both nasal and non-nasal vowels).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You have these cells at the back of your eyes that are photosensitive (they have the ability to turn a particle of light into a stimulus that your brain can interpret). Light enters your eyes and travels through a lens, which sort of projects an image of the world onto the back of your eyes, where these photosensitive cells are. Each of these cells then tells your brain some of the wavelengths of light it is receiving. Your brain does the hard (read: extremely so hard you don't even know) part: it takes all the continuous streams of information from all the cells in the backs of your eyes, and BAM, color vision with built in face/object detection.\n\nHow do we specifically see color? These cells are sensitive to wavelength of light, and others are sensitive to intensity. Together, they send your brain data on the color and brightness of the light hitting them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That was sort of [explained in here](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "if you are british you can watch this _URL_0_\n\nits an episode of horizon that explores how people see colour. in recent research there's evidence that not everybody sees it the same way. for example in modern society we see primary and secondary colours as being very distinct. but a certain african tribe find it difficult to distinguish between certain colours. but that tribe sees the difference between certain shades of green more greatly than we do. because maybe it helps them distinguish ripe vegetables when gathering food.\n\nit's a good watch.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ok, like a five year old. I'll do my best. \n\nThere are these cells in your eyes that are sensitive to certain colors. There are actually 3 types of these, lets call them Red/Green Sensors Blue/Yellow Sensors and White/Black sensors. This tells your brain what colors you see. \n\nAll the light from a scene goes into your eyes, so your brain has to process it somehow. The cells that detect red/green blue/yellow white/black will get \"activated\" when the color they detect hits them. Think about it like table with different size and shape holes cut in it. Triangles, Rectangles, and Circles. If you dropped a whole bunch of shapes of blocks onto them (light) then only the correct shapes can go into the correct holes (light sensitive cells). Triangle blocks will fall into triangle holes. The blocks that don't fit will just bounce away (because these are bouncy shapes!) Pretend this table is really big, and there are a lot of holes of different sizes everywhere. It doesn't matter if a few triangles bounce off circle holes, because there are so many other triangles holes around they will get activated if there are a significant number of triangle blocks falling onto that area. \n\nThat's basically how you perceive color. It's pretty simple. The hard part is figuring out what all those colors in those positions mean. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You have these cells at the back of your eyes that are photosensitive (they have the ability to turn a particle of light into a stimulus that your brain can interpret). Light enters your eyes and travels through a lens, which sort of projects an image of the world onto the back of your eyes, where these photosensitive cells are. Each of these cells then tells your brain some of the wavelengths of light it is receiving. Your brain does the hard (read: extremely so hard you don't even know) part: it takes all the continuous streams of information from all the cells in the backs of your eyes, and BAM, color vision with built in face/object detection.\n\nHow do we specifically see color? These cells are sensitive to wavelength of light, and others are sensitive to intensity. Together, they send your brain data on the color and brightness of the light hitting them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That was sort of [explained in here](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "if you are british you can watch this _URL_0_\n\nits an episode of horizon that explores how people see colour. in recent research there's evidence that not everybody sees it the same way. for example in modern society we see primary and secondary colours as being very distinct. but a certain african tribe find it difficult to distinguish between certain colours. but that tribe sees the difference between certain shades of green more greatly than we do. because maybe it helps them distinguish ripe vegetables when gathering food.\n\nit's a good watch.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ok, like a five year old. I'll do my best. \n\nThere are these cells in your eyes that are sensitive to certain colors. There are actually 3 types of these, lets call them Red/Green Sensors Blue/Yellow Sensors and White/Black sensors. This tells your brain what colors you see. \n\nAll the light from a scene goes into your eyes, so your brain has to process it somehow. The cells that detect red/green blue/yellow white/black will get \"activated\" when the color they detect hits them. Think about it like table with different size and shape holes cut in it. Triangles, Rectangles, and Circles. If you dropped a whole bunch of shapes of blocks onto them (light) then only the correct shapes can go into the correct holes (light sensitive cells). Triangle blocks will fall into triangle holes. The blocks that don't fit will just bounce away (because these are bouncy shapes!) Pretend this table is really big, and there are a lot of holes of different sizes everywhere. It doesn't matter if a few triangles bounce off circle holes, because there are so many other triangles holes around they will get activated if there are a significant number of triangle blocks falling onto that area. \n\nThat's basically how you perceive color. It's pretty simple. The hard part is figuring out what all those colors in those positions mean. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "206472", "title": "Color constancy", "section": "Section::::Color vision.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 610, "text": "Color vision is how we perceive the objective color, which people, animals and machines are able to distinguish objects based on the different wavelengths of light reflected, transmitted, or emitted by the object. In humans, light is detected by the eye using two types of photoreceptors, cones and rods, which send signals to the visual cortex, which in turn processes those colors into a subjective perception. Color constancy is a process that allows the brain to recognize a familiar object as being a consistent color regardless of the amount or wavelengths of light reflecting from it at a given moment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3052977", "title": "List of unsolved problems in philosophy", "section": "Section::::Epistemology.:Qualia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 1131, "text": "The question hinges on whether color is a product of the mind or an inherent property of objects. While most philosophers will agree that color assignment corresponds to spectra of light frequencies, it is not at all clear whether the particular psychological phenomena of color are imposed on these visual signals by the mind, or whether such qualia are somehow naturally associated with their noumena. Another way to look at this question is to assume two people (\"Fred\" and \"George\" for the sake of convenience) see colors differently. That is, when Fred sees the sky, his mind interprets this light signal as blue. He calls the sky \"blue.\" However, when George sees the sky, his mind assigns green to that light frequency. If Fred were able to step into George's mind, he would be amazed that George saw green skies. However, George has learned to associate the word \"blue\" with what his mind sees as green, and so he calls the sky \"blue\", because for him the color green has the name \"blue.\" The question is whether blue must be blue for all people, or whether the perception of that particular color is assigned by the mind.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2932442", "title": "Visual design elements and principles", "section": "Section::::Elements of design.:Color.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 421, "text": "Color is the result of light reflecting back from an object to our eyes. The color that our eyes perceive is determined by the pigment of the object itself. Color theory and the color wheel are often referred to when studying colour combinations in visual design. Color is often deemed to be an important element of design as it is a universal language which presents the countless possibilities of visual communication.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19839094", "title": "Local color (visual art)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 522, "text": "In fine art realism and scientific descriptions of color perception, local color is the color the brain perceives an object to be. This may be radically different from the actual wavelength of light received by the pupil. For example, an apple is painted to appear red in comparison to the colors around it, but the actual pigment mixture used may be a pale green. This effect, known as color constancy, can also be observed under colored lighting in reality, and in photographs with strong color tints such as The Dress.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "302812", "title": "Color vision", "section": "Section::::Physiology of color perception.:Subjectivity of color perception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 455, "text": "Perception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented. For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects) and is more likely to interpret the page as white under all three conditions, a phenomenon known as color constancy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19097368", "title": "On Vision and Colours", "section": "Section::::Content.:Chapter 1—On Vision.:§ 1.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 477, "text": "Color is usually attributed to external bodies. However, color is actually the activity of the eye's retina. It is a sensation. The external body is perceived as the cause of the sensation of color. We say, \"The body is red.\" In reality, though, color exists only in the retina of the eye. It is separate from the external object. Color is a mere sensation in the sense organ. The external object is perceived by the intellect's understanding as being the cause of sensations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9734624", "title": "Theory of constructed emotion", "section": "Section::::Statement of the theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 513, "text": "As an analogy, consider the experience of color. People experience colors as discrete categories: blue, red, yellow, and so on, and these categories vary in different cultures. The physics of color, however, is actually continuous, with wavelengths measured in nanometers along a scale from ultraviolet to infrared. When a person experiences an object as \"blue\", she is (unconsciously) using her color concepts to categorize this wavelength. And in fact, people experience a whole range of wavelengths as \"blue.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yeah, viruses that are overly virulent kill their hosts before they are able to transmit the virus to new hosts, so more deadly viral lineages tend to burn out before being widely transmitted. So there's an evolutionary trade off between high virulence and a strain's ability to maintain itself in a population.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For viruses that are well established, the trade-off you describe is generally the case. But when a new virus enters a population, there can certainly be high transmissibility combined with high mortality. Some examples of this phenomenon would be smallpox and even measles viruses, especially in pre-modern times, which could be quite devastating.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In evolutionary biology there is definitely a trade-off between survival and reproduction. For instance, some organisms will forgo survival to have rapid reproductive maturation and success, whereas some organisms (humans) take years to sexually mature and reproduce. It can definitely be argued that viruses are non-living and this axiom shouldn't be applicable, but it seems to address your question since virulence is directly related to how many viral load (viral progeny, in this case) are created. Thus, the more contagious the better at \"reproducing\" the virus is and less likely they are to survive in your system. \n\n\nInterestingly, if that sort of evolutionary axiom is applicable to virus then that is good news for us, as a virus can not be both extremely good at reproducing AND extremely good at survival.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37132465", "title": "Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus", "section": "Section::::Virology.:Transmission.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 325, "text": "Dr. Anthony S. Fauci of the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, stated that as of now MERS-CoV \"does not spread in a sustained person to person way at all.\" Dr. Fauci stated that there is potential danger in that it is possible for the virus to mutate into a strain that does transmit from person to person.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "476084", "title": "Serial passage", "section": "Section::::Experiments.:Increasing virulence for use in animal modeling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 385, "text": "Generally, if a virus kills its host too quickly, the host will not have a chance to come in contact with other hosts and transmit the virus before dying. However, in serial passage, when a virus was being transmitted from host to host regardless of its virulence, such as Subbaro’s experiment, the viruses that grow the fastest (and are therefore the most virulent) are selected for.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5380236", "title": "Techno-organic virus", "section": "Section::::Apocalypse's variant.:Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 425, "text": "This strain of virus is less virulent than its counterpart, needing blood contact to transmit, and usually taking a longer time to infect a person, although it can have sudden short bursts of activity, during which spikes of techno-organic matter form from the diseased body and the body's parts change their forms. Another difference with the Transmode Virus is that infection is very painful and can incapacitate a person.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19167679", "title": "Virus", "section": "Section::::Role in human disease.:Prevention and treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 358, "text": "Because viruses use vital metabolic pathways within host cells to replicate, they are difficult to eliminate without using drugs that cause toxic effects to host cells in general. The most effective medical approaches to viral diseases are vaccinations to provide immunity to infection, and antiviral drugs that selectively interfere with viral replication.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37844522", "title": "Gene therapy for osteoarthritis", "section": "Section::::Vectors for osteoarthritis gene delivery.:Viral vectors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 553, "text": "Viral vectors proved to be more successful in transfecting cells as their life cycles require them to transfer their own genes to the host cells with high efficiency. A virus infects the human by inserting its gene directly into his cells. This can be deadly, but the brilliant idea is to take advantage of this natural ability. The idea is to remove all the dangerous genes in the virus and inject the healthy human genes. So, viruses are inserting positive elements to the host cells while attacking them and they will be helpful rather than harmful.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2996859", "title": "Transfusion transmitted virus", "section": "Section::::Clinical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 323, "text": "These viruses are not currently believed to cause disease in humans. Infection with these viruses tends to lead to lifelong viraemia and their possible association with disease remains under investigation. Higher than usual viral loads have been associated with severe idiopathic inflammatory myopathies, cancer and lupus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4393", "title": "Bioterrorism", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 368, "text": "The use of agents that do not cause harm to humans but disrupt the economy have been discussed. A highly relevant pathogen in this context is the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus, which is capable of causing widespread economic damage and public concern (as witnessed in the 2001 and 2007 FMD outbreaks in the UK), whilst having almost no capacity to infect humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The compression bands are meant to be worn about an inch or two down from where the tendon attaches to the bone. This helps to take the pressure off the tendon and allow it to heal. Basically the bands make our body think that the tendon actually attaches at the band, rather than at the bone. This allows the tendon to heal because when you use the muscle, the inflamed area isn't being used. \n\nIn response to the person talking about shin splints, the bands for shin splints don't work because a lot of times there is too much compression in the shin and that's what causes the shin splints. Also, shin splints are not usually located in the tendon, as much as the entire muscle. So there's really not a specific area to take the pressure off.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "960460", "title": "Tennis elbow", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 332, "text": "Tennis elbow, also known as lateral epicondylitis, is a condition in which the outer part of the elbow becomes painful and tender. The pain may also extend into the back of the forearm and grip strength may be weak. Onset of symptoms is generally gradual. Golfer's elbow is a similar condition that affects the inside of the elbow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "960460", "title": "Tennis elbow", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Physical therapy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 243, "text": "One way to help treat minor cases of tennis elbow is to simply relax the affected arm. The rest lets stress and tightness within the forearm slowly relax and eventually have the arm in working condition—in a day or two, depending on the case.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "960460", "title": "Tennis elbow", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 440, "text": "Symptoms associated with tennis elbow include, but are not limited to, radiating pain from the outside of the elbow to the forearm and wrist, pain during extension of wrist, weakness of the forearm, a painful grip while shaking hands or torquing a doorknob, and not being able to hold relatively heavy items in the hand. The pain is similar to the condition known as \"golfer's elbow\", but the latter occurs at the medial side of the elbow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19595436", "title": "Elbow", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Tennis elbow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 486, "text": "Tennis elbow is a very common type of overuse injury. It can occur both from chronic repetitive motions of the hand and forearm, and from trauma to the same areas. These repetitions can injure the tendons that connect the extensor supinator muscles (which rotate and extend the forearm) to the olecranon process (also known as “the elbow”). Pain occurs, often radiating from the lateral forearm. Weakness, numbness, and stiffness are also very common, along with tenderness upon touch.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8883608", "title": "Posterior compartment of the forearm", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Tennis elbow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 395, "text": "Tennis elbow or lateral epicondylitis is a chronic or an acute inflammation of the tendons that arise from the outer part of the elbow. The affected tendons are the tendons of extensor muscles which originate from the lateral epicondyle of humerus. It is caused by the repetitive movements and overuse. It damages the tendons which results in pain and tenderness on the outer part of the elbow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47677032", "title": "Common injuries in cricket", "section": "Section::::Upper limb Injuries.:Elbow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 366, "text": "Injuries to the Elbow are predominantly a result of poor techniques when both batting and bowling. Having a poor technique causes excess strain on the joint resulting in inflammation of the tendons surrounding the elbow. The inflammation can be treated through physiotherapy and rehabilitation to reduce the inflammation and strengthen the imbalance in the forearm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "960460", "title": "Tennis elbow", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 404, "text": "Early experiments suggested that tennis elbow was primarily caused by overexertion. However, studies show that trauma such as direct blows to the epicondyle, a sudden forceful pull, or forceful extension cause more than half of these injuries. Repeatedly mis-hitting a tennis ball in the early stages of learning the sport causes shock to the elbow joint and may contribute to contracting the condition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > they seem to consistently post losses, in both revenue and market share.\n\nThat's not enough information. Is that in only one market sector? AMD gave up on the PC market years ago, and that only makes up a small percent of their entire revenue stream. They make semi-conductors, and that's more than just processors, but also things like photo sensors, power converters, amplifiers, different types of diodes...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44063188", "title": "Lisa Su", "section": "Section::::Career.:2015–2016: AMD diversification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 452, "text": "By February 2015, roughly 40 percent of AMD's sales came from non-PC markets, such as video game consoles and embedded devices. When Su joined AMD in 2012, about 10 percent of sales came from non-PC products. In May 2015, Su and other AMD executives presented a long-term strategy for the company to focus on developing high-performance computing and graphics technologies for three growth areas: gaming, datacenter, and \"immersive platforms\" markets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "996179", "title": "X86 virtualization", "section": "Section::::Hardware-assisted virtualization.:Central processing unit.:AMD virtualization (AMD-V).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 246, "text": "AMD developed its first generation virtualization extensions under the code name \"Pacifica\", and initially published them as AMD Secure Virtual Machine (SVM), but later marketed them under the trademark \"AMD Virtualization\", abbreviated \"AMD-V\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2400", "title": "Advanced Micro Devices", "section": "Section::::History.:First twelve years.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 599, "text": "In September 1969, AMD moved from its temporary location in Santa Clara to Sunnyvale, California. To immediately secure a customer base, AMD initially became a second source supplier of microchips designed by Fairchild and National Semiconductor. AMD first focused on producing logic chips. The company guaranteed quality control to United States Military Standard, an advantage in the early computer industry since unreliability in microchips was a distinct problem that customers – including computer manufacturers, the telecommunications industry, and instrument manufacturers – wanted to avoid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2400", "title": "Advanced Micro Devices", "section": "Section::::History.:Acquisition of ATI.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 624, "text": "On October 16, 2014, AMD announced a new restructuring plan along with its Q3 results. Effective July 1, 2014, AMD reorganized into two business groups: Computing and Graphics, which primarily includes desktop and notebook processors and chipsets, discrete GPUs, and professional graphics; and Enterprise, Embedded and Semi-Custom, which primarily includes server and embedded processors, dense servers, semi-custom SoC products (including solutions for gaming consoles), engineering services, and royalties. As part of this restructuring, AMD announced that 7% of its global workforce would be laid off by the end of 2014.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29356048", "title": "Asset Marketing Systems, Inc. v. Gagnon", "section": "Section::::Background.:Factual background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 505, "text": "AMS is a field marketing organization offering sales and marketing support to insurance marketing entities. From May 1999 to September 2003, AMS hired Gagnon, an at-will, independent contractor, to develop custom software to assist with its information technology needs. AMS was Gagnon’s largest client, accounting for $2 million of revenue and 98 percent of his business. From May 2000 through April 2001, AMS and Gagnon entered a Technical Services Agreement, but nothing about a license was mentioned.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38868994", "title": "Piledriver (microarchitecture)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 276, "text": "AMD Piledriver Family 15h is a microarchitecture developed by AMD as the second-generation successor to Bulldozer. It targets desktop, mobile and server markets. It is used for the AMD Accelerated Processing Unit (formerly Fusion), AMD FX, and the Opteron line of processors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28730849", "title": "Alternative minimum tax", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 566, "text": "The AMT has undergone several changes since 1969. The most significant of those, according to the Joint Committee on Taxation, occurred under the Reagan era Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982. The law changed the AMT from an add-on tax to its current form: a parallel tax system. The current structure of the AMT reflects changes that were made by the 1982 law. However, participation and revenues from the AMT temporarily plummeted after the 1986 changes. Congress made other notable, but less significant, changes to the law in 1978, 1982, and 1986.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well, unless somehow the mantle is made of entirely iron and nickel, the planet would lack the magnetosphere that earth has to block solar radiation and help maintain a habitable environment for life as we know it. Of course, it could be entirely possible that a new form of life would emerge that actually thrived on the solar radiation bombarding the surface. So I guess, hypothetically, yes, it could harbor life, just not life as we know it.\n\nPlease correct any mistakes I've made.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not a core, but a planet with a higher carbon/oxygen ratio than Earth might end up with a mantle composed of diamond and silica carbide. However, these materials are poorer insulators than the silicate-dominated mantle we have, so such a planet would cool fairly rapidly in its interior and lack surface tectonics and volcanic outgassing, which are vital to the stability of Earth's habitable climate.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Cores don’t form due to density differences. You can actually prove this for yourself in your own kitchen. Make a saltwater or sugar water solution, then let it sit for as long as you can. Assuming enough water hasn’t evaporated to saturate it, you’ll find a homogenous solution with no layers on top of each other, even though the density difference between water and the salt or sugar isn’t insubstantial. When planet-building material separates into layers, it does so because of chemistry. \n\nDifferent types of materials have different forces that hold them together. Each can interact with its own kind. But if two different ones don’t have a way of interacting with each other, then it will take more energy to separate each from its own kind than combining them could release. Therefore, just like how a ball rolls down a hill, the two will separate, because it takes less energy to keep them separated than to combine them. \n\nSo you’d have to have some chemistry that could force some allotrope of carbon out of a solution into its own physically-separate phase, which would then precipitate to the core. I don’t know that we’ve ever seen such a chemistry. Not only would the carbon allotrope (which likely would not be diamond) to sink to the core, it would have to be denser than rocky and metallic phases, and I don’t know how you’d get that. \n\nAt standard temperature and pressure, metallic iron is about 7.89 grams/cm3. Diamond is 3 something. Granted, neither of these numbers will hold up at the temperature-pressure regime at the core, unknown to any mortal experience. But there’s no reason to believe that carbon could ever overtake iron-nickel metal, which is what normally forms cores in planetary bodies. Hard to reckon with the fact that iron has more protons and neutrons in its nucleus than carbon, no matter how you arrange the atoms. \n\nThe rocky minerals at the deepest parts of planets (just before they transition to the core) are oxides, which may have a median density of 4.65 g/cm3 to a maximum around 11. Again, don’t know if we have any cosmic chemistry that gets carbon denser than that.\n\nBut more importantly, I don’t know how we get any cosmochemistry where graphite, diamond, amorphous carbon, and other allotropes cannot remain mixed with the rocky materials. In fact, graphite appears all throughout the chondrite meteorites that we believe are samples of the type of material solar-system planets formed from. Even in bodies that have undergone differentiation into geologic layers, the carbon doesn’t seem to separate to any layer in particular. For example, graphite shows up in basalt melts on the earth and the moon, where it produces carbon monoxide and dioxide that help propel the magma to the surface by buoyancy. They wouldn’t be there if they were chemically incompatible with the molten silicates.\n\nBasically, no, I do not think we know of any situation where this could happen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1483403", "title": "Carbon planet", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 715, "text": "Such a planet would probably have an iron- or steel-rich core like the known terrestrial planets. Surrounding that would be molten silicon carbide and titanium carbide. Above that, a layer of carbon in the form of graphite, possibly with a kilometers-thick substratum of diamond if there is sufficient pressure. During volcanic eruptions, it is possible that diamonds from the interior could come up to the surface, resulting in mountains of diamonds and silicon carbides. The surface would contain frozen or liquid hydrocarbons (e.g. tar and methane) and carbon monoxide. A weather cycle is theoretically possible on carbon planets with an atmosphere, provided that the average surface temperature is below 77 °C.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55118655", "title": "Extraterrestrial diamonds", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 537, "text": "Although diamonds on Earth are rare, extraterrestrial diamonds (diamonds formed outside of Earth) are very common. Diamonds not much larger than molecules are abundant in meteorites and some of them formed in stars before the Solar System existed. High pressure experiments suggest large amounts of diamonds are formed from methane on the ice giant planets Uranus and Neptune, while some planets in other solar systems may be almost pure diamond. Diamonds are also found in stars and may have been the first mineral ever to have formed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "864017", "title": "Planetary core", "section": "Section::::Dynamics.:Trends in the Solar System.:Inner Rocky Planets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 988, "text": "All of the rocky inner planets, as well as the moon, have an iron-dominant core. Venus and Mars have an additional major element in the core. Venus’ core is believed to be iron-nickel, similarly to Earth. Mars, on the other hand, is believed to have an iron-sulfur core and is separated into an outer liquid layer around an inner solid core. As the orbital radius of a rocky planet increases, the size of the core relative to the total radius of the planet decreases. This is believed to be because differentiation of the core is directly related to a body's initial heat, so Mercury's core is relatively large and active. Venus and Mars, as well as the moon, do not have magnetic fields. This could be due to a lack of a convecting liquid layer interacting with a solid inner core, as Venus’ core is not layered. Although Mars does have a liquid and solid layer, they do not appear to be interacting in the same way that Earth's liquid and solid components interact to produce a dynamo.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32867902", "title": "PSR J1719−1438", "section": "Section::::Diamond planet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 243, "text": "Because the companion to PSR J1719-1438 is planet-sized, made primarily of carbon (with an unknown amount of oxygen), and very dense, it may be similar to a large diamond. In the science press, the object has been called the \"Diamond Planet\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55118655", "title": "Extraterrestrial diamonds", "section": "Section::::Planets.:Solar System.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 401, "text": "In 1981, Marvin Ross wrote a paper titled \"The ice layer in Uranus and Neptune—diamonds in the sky?\" in which he proposed that huge quantities of diamonds might be found in the interior of these planets. At Lawrence Livermore, he had analyzed data from shock-wave compression of methane (CH) and found that the extreme pressure separated the carbon atom from the hydrogen, freeing it to form diamond.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55321500", "title": "Geochemistry of carbon", "section": "Section::::Core.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 683, "text": "Earth's core is believed to be mostly an alloy of iron and nickel. The density indicates that it also contains a significant amount of lighter elements. Elements such as hydrogen would be stable in the Earth's core, however the conditions at the formation of the core would not be suitable for its inclusion. Carbon is a very likely constituent of the core. Preferential partitioning of the carbon isotopeC into the metallic core, during its formation, may explain why there seems to be more C on the surface and mantle of the Earth compared to other solar system bodies (−5‰ compared to -20‰). The difference can also help to predict the value of the carbon proportion of the core.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "321956", "title": "List of common misconceptions", "section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Materials science.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 230, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 230, "end_character": 697, "text": "BULLET::::- Most diamonds are not formed from highly compressed coal. More than 99 percent of diamonds ever mined have formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about below the earth's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface, and is unlikely to migrate below through common geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants, and are therefore older than coal. It is possible that diamonds can form from coal in subduction zones and in meteoroid impacts, but diamonds formed in this way are rare and the carbon source is more likely carbonate rocks and organic carbon in sediments, rather than coal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Generally no, gases don't have free electrons. If you ionized it, it would be a plasma (which does conduct), and if you're asking if there is cold plasma, [there is](_URL_0_) (they're in fluorescent lights).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "517241", "title": "Heat pipe", "section": "Section::::Structure, design and construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 402, "text": "Below the operating temperature, the liquid is too cold and cannot vaporize into a gas. Above the operating temperature, all the liquid has turned to gas, and the environmental temperature is too high for any of the gas to condense. In other words, whether too high or too low, thermal conduction is still possible through the walls of the heat pipe, but at a greatly reduced rate of thermal transfer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52827", "title": "Volumetric heat capacity", "section": "Section::::Volumetric heat capacity of gases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 1620, "text": "In monatomic gases (like argon) at room temperature and constant volume, volumetric heat capacities are all very close to 0.5 kJ/K/m, which is the same as the theoretical value of 3/2 RT per kelvin per mole of gas molecules (where R is the gas constant and T is temperature). As noted, the much lower values for gas heat capacity in terms of volume as compared with solids (although more comparable per mole, see below) results mostly from the fact that gases under standard conditions consist of mostly empty space (about 99.9% of volume), which is not filled by the atomic volumes of the atoms in the gas. Since the molar volume of gases is very roughly 1000 times that of solids and liquids, this results in a factor of about 1000 loss in volumetric heat capacity for gases, as compared with liquids and solids. Monatomic gas heat capacities per atom (not per molecule) are decreased by a factor of 2 with regard to solids, due to loss of half of the potential degrees of freedom per atom for storing energy in a monatomic gas, as compared with regard to an ideal solid. There is some difference in the heat capacity of monatomic vs. polyatomic gasses, and also gas heat capacity is temperature-dependent in many ranges for polyatomic gases; these factors act to modestly (up to the discussed factor of 2) increase heat capacity per atom in polyatomic gases, as compared with monatomic gases. Volumetric heat capacities in polyatomic gases vary widely, however, since they are dependent largely on the number of atoms per molecule in the gas, which in turn determines the total number of atoms per volume in the gas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6363853", "title": "Fluid conductance", "section": "Section::::Example from vacuum technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 310, "text": "This definition proves useful in vacuum systems because under conditions of rarefied gas flow, the conductance of various structures is usually constant, and the overall conductance of a complex network of pipes, orifices and other conveyances can be found in direct analogy to a resistive electrical circuit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35802855", "title": "Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Nonmetals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 260, "text": "Most are gases at room temperature; have relatively low densities; are poor electrical and thermal conductors; have relatively high ionisation energies and electronegativities; form acidic oxides; and are found naturally in uncombined states in large amounts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50390340", "title": "Residence time", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Surface science.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 316, "text": "In vacuum technology, the residence time of gases on the surfaces of a vacuum chamber can determine the pressure due to outgassing. If the chamber can be heated, the above equation shows that the gases can be \"baked out\"; but if not, then surfaces with a low residence time are needed to achieve ultra-high vacuums.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20647050", "title": "Temperature", "section": "Section::::Theoretical foundation.:Kinetic theory of gases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 95, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 95, "end_character": 460, "text": "Although it is not a particularly convenient device, the gas thermometer provides an essential theoretical basis by which all thermometers can be calibrated. As a practical matter, it is not possible to use a gas thermometer to measure absolute zero temperature since the gases tend to condense into a liquid long before the temperature reaches zero. It is possible, however, to extrapolate to absolute zero by using the ideal gas law, as shown in the figure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "72536", "title": "Thermal conduction", "section": "Section::::Thermal conduction instruments.:Thermal conductivity analyzer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 286, "text": "Thermal conduction property of any gas under standard conditions of pressure and temperature is a fixed quantity. This property of a known reference gas or known reference gas mixtures can, therefore, be used for certain sensory applications, such as the thermal conductivity analyzer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "New money is created every day. A lot driven by fractional reserve banking. You deposit $1,000 in the bank, and the bank then loans out a multiple of that, creating money in the process. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When we convert raw materials into other resources, the value increases.\n\nRaw steel and rocks isn’t that useful, but build a building and you can house people/do commercial activities. Wood isn’t useful, but you can print knowledge on paper and books are more valuable than raw wood.\n\nThis concept extends to ideas, not just physical materials. A new technology like self-driving cars increases the value of the economy. A new app that allows you to easily order food delivery also adds value.\n\nAs Long as economic activity exists, humans are constantly transforming resources, and value will increase.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There’s not only so much money. As value is added to a society they can make more “money” and everything is okay. In fact if societies don’t increase the amount of money in circulation at any time as the value of goods within their society increases then the money becomes more expensive and it becomes harder for the economy to work properly because there isn’t enough money to allow everyone that needs it access to it and that inhibits growth and trading of goods and services. \nThe opposite is also true, if you make to much money then each unit of money becomes worth less and that leads to inflation above what is beneficial. People lose faith that a dollar (for example) will buy the same amount of goods and services tomorrow that it does today. This also impacts the functioning of the economy. \n\nRemember money is really just something we believe has value in it. Shiny metal or paper or whatever, in reality there no to little actual value to it other than what people say it does. Money is just an easier way of doing bartering. Instead of a farmer with milk having to find someone that wants milk and that has what he wants we trade for little pieces of something or electronic digits so we can more efficiently work in the economy. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To understand wealth creation, I feel its better to eliminate currency and look at a barter system. \n\nI'm a farmer that handles chickens and you handle plants. My chickens need your plants to eat. You and your big family need the eggs from my chickens to eat. \n\nYou want to be able to buy more eggs. You work longer hours to plant more plants to be able to sell more to me so I can feed more to my chickens. My better fed chickens produce more eggs and you can buy more of them because I bought more plants from you. My farm now produces more eggs and yours produces more plants. We've increased our production, and therefore the size of our economy.\n\nWealth creation comes in when you deal with products that store value. Obviously, chickens eggs spoil and plants die. However, suppose you take a surplus of plants you made and sell it to another guy who in return for those plants, builds you a house. Now you have a house. That is wealth. The people in our little town know that it takes an X amount of plants, or X amount of chicken eggs to build a house. That house is part of your wealth now. You can sell it if you want in the future at a market price.\n\nObviously, I have no idea how farming actually works, but you get the gist of it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In simple terms, the pie (total human economic value) increases as we exploit more of Earth's resources, and do so more efficiently. As the pie grows, so does each slice.\n\nSay you and four friends have $100 between you. One friend might have $50 while the rest of you have $12.50 each. You all really like rocks. You all have a certain number of rocks between you, and trade them back and forth. Obviously, the richer friend has more leverage to accumulate more rocks.\n\nBut the number of rocks isn't static. You decide to go dig up more rocks and bring them back to your friends. Obviously, with these new resources, you'll grow wealthier, but you friends will too. The supply in rocks has increased, debasing the value of each rock and increasing the purchasing power of each dollar. You are all now wealthier despite there being no change in the money supply. Overall wealth increases when the purchasing power of the currency grows.\n\nEconomics is not zero-sum, at least from a human perspective. Technically nature is losing value, but nature is a stingy bitch and doesn't put her resources to use. Printing money actually debases the currency. It can potentially sap wealth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Raw resources turned into goods, combined with a constant printing of money to maintain a certain value of the currency. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Money is just a tool used to keep track of value. The money is constantly being recycled. Just because Bill gates has billions of dollars doesn’t mean he has billions of dollars sitting in the bank, that billion dollars is all theoretical and made up of assets and investments. Even if it was all in the bank, the bank uses this money to loan to other people and other banky activities. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "None of these are very useful explanations to a 5 year old...so let me try.\n\nWe're in a class of 20 people and we all really like purple marbles. They're all identical, but as stupid 5 year olds we can't get enough purple marbles. We'll do anything for them.\n\nJake has all the marbles. His parents bought out the store, and he now has ~100 marbles. And he won't give them to anyone. The wealth of the entire economy is 100 marbles.\n\nThe teacher starts randomly gives the kids a toy to keep each day. Some suck (the creepy old stuffed animal) where other's are awesome (Buzz Lightyear with extending wings). Everyone wants Buzz, and his companion toy, Woody. \n\nTeacher gives Jake a creepy stuffed animal, and gives Susie and Billy the Buzz and Woody toys. Jake's really into Toy Story, so he gives 15 marbles to Susie for Buzz and 10 to Billy for Woody.\n\nEveryone wants Buzz and Woody. Now that this transaction has happened, Jake knows that any other kid would happily give him 20 marbles for Buzz or 15 for Woody.\n\nThe total wealth in this economy is no longer 100 marbles, but since the toy story transaction there are still 100 physical marbles in the economy, and two assets (Buzz and Woody) worth a grand total of 35 Marbles, for a total economy the size of 135 marbles. Your marble-based economy just grew by 35%. Even though the number of physical marbles stayed the same. \n\nThere is currently only about $1t of physical US dollars but the US economy is about $20t/yr. So that's like the total value of all the toys being 2,000 marbles while still only having 100 physical marbles.\n\nMarbles are pretty gate, so people start doing all sorts of stuff to do them. Samuel can make a pretty awesome clay figurines that people will buy for 5 marbles; Susie will let you come to her house and watch her 3D TV for 3 marbles, Billy is really neat and will be your friend for 1 marbles/day\n\n\n--How Banks Create Money--\nMartha is a hell of a business girl, and starts a marble bank. Because the class is only 20 people, let's say she's the only bank (so I can talk about her like she's the whole banking industry).\n\nMarbles are great to play with, and look at (they are purple, after all), but it's hard to save 25 marbles up when they're so easy to lose, will roll out of your cubby, might get stolen by that one kid, etc. So, while it might be useful to carry 1-5 marbles on you, it's probably a good idea to give them to Martha for safekeeping.\n\nMartha is in an interesting spot. She now has 60 marbles in her care. What to do with them?\n\nThe Friend for money business is good, and Billy has amassed a fortune: 20 marbles and a number of toys worth a total of another 40 marbles. No toy is quite like his first, though, and Billy desperately wants to buy Buzz Lightyear back from Jake. Its traded hands a few times, and most recently sold for 40 marbles.\n\nBilly could sell half his toys and buy Buzz back, but that might take a while and the rumor is that Susie has 40 physical marbles today and is thinking of buying it.\n\nMartha offers to make Billy a loan, based on the fact that he has 3 people who give him a marble every day for friendship. She'll lend him 20 marbles, and he'll give her all his marble income for the next 10 school days (30 marbles in all). If he is business goes poorly, Martha has the right to seize 30 marbles worth of his toys, which are being put up as collateral. She could then sell those to the highest bidder to recover her losses.\n\nBilly happily accepts, Buzz is his.\n\nBut physical marbles don't really change hands. All 20 of Billy's saved marbles are being held by Martha, and the 40 marbles given to Jake don't come in a bag: but via a bank transfer where Martha deducts 40 marbles from Billy's account and credits them to Jake's.\n\nIn other words, the Bank of Martha just created 20 marbles of value by lending it. BoM could potentially lend far more virtual marbles than exist on Martha's cubby.\n\nAgain, there are about $1t of physical us dollars in the world. If you added them all up, the amount of USD in all accounts is about $10t. So Martha could potentially totally have accounts totalling 1,000 marbles.\n\nThe more that people buy and sell things, the greater the velocity of money and the more that more people get to use it. Wealth, in that sense, is created when you either find ways to sell things for more money, or increase the total number of things worth buying.\n\nHope this doesn't get too buried ;)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "370432", "title": "Economic inequality", "section": "Section::::Various proposed causes of economic inequality.:Wealth concentration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 714, "text": "Wealth concentration is the process by which, under certain conditions, newly created wealth concentrates in the possession of already-wealthy individuals or entities. Accordingly, those who already hold wealth have the means to invest in new sources of creating wealth or to otherwise leverage the accumulation of wealth, thus are the beneficiaries of the new wealth. Over time, wealth concentration can significantly contribute to the persistence of inequality within society. Thomas Piketty in his book \"Capital in the Twenty-First Century\" argues that the fundamental force for divergence is the usually greater return of capital (r) than economic growth (g), and that larger fortunes generate higher returns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "735201", "title": "Trickle-down economics", "section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 423, "text": "A 2015 paper by researchers for the International Monetary Fund argues that there is no trickle-down effect as the rich get richer: [I]f the income share of the top 20 percent (the rich) increases, then GDP growth actually declines over the medium term, suggesting that the benefits do not trickle down. In contrast, an increase in the income share of the bottom 20 percent (the poor) is associated with higher GDP growth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "192617", "title": "Wealth", "section": "Section::::Economic analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 329, "text": "In macroeconomic theory the 'wealth effect' may refer to the increase in aggregate consumption from an increase in national wealth. One feature of its effect on economic behavior is the wealth elasticity of demand, which is the percentage change in the amount of consumption goods demanded for each one-percent change in wealth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4244281", "title": "Life-cycle hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Implications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 667, "text": "Since wealth does not change proportionately with income from individual to individual or from year to year, we should get the result that high income leads to a low average propensity to consume while looking at the data across persons or over short periods of time. However, generally over a long period of time, wealth and income increase together, which leads to a constant ratio \"\" and thus a constant average propensity to consume. To further analyse the implications of the life-cycle model, we start by considering the case of a \"stationary economy\" in which population and productivity are constant through time. Then, we relax these assumptions one by one.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "192617", "title": "Wealth", "section": "Section::::Amount of wealth in the world.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 760, "text": "The wealth of households amounts to US$280 trillion (2017). According to the eighth edition of the Global Wealth Report, in the year to mid-2017, total global wealth rose at a rate of 6.4%, the fastest pace since 2012 and reached US$280 trillion, a gain of US$16.7 trillion. This reflected widespread gains in equity markets matched by similar rises in non-financial assets, which moved above the pre-crisis year 2007's level for the first time this year. Wealth growth also outpaced population growth, so that global mean wealth per adult grew by 4.9% and reached a new record high of US$56,540 per adult. Tim Harford has asserted that a small child has greater wealth than the 2 billion poorest people in the world combined, since a small child has no debt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34104355", "title": "Subjective well-being", "section": "Section::::Factors affecting SWB.:Wealth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 459, "text": "Research indicates that wealth is related to many positive outcomes in life. Such outcomes include: improved health and mental health, greater longevity, lower rates of infant mortality, experience fewer stressful life events, and less frequently the victims of violent crimes However, research suggests that wealth has a smaller impact on SWB than people generally think, even though higher incomes do correlate substantially with life satisfaction reports.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1103799", "title": "Distribution of wealth", "section": "Section::::Wealth concentration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 340, "text": "Wealth concentration is a process by which created wealth, under some conditions, can become concentrated by individuals or entities. Those who hold wealth have the means to invest in newly created sources and structures of wealth, or to otherwise leverage the accumulation of wealth, and are thus the beneficiaries of even greater wealth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > Are we \"falling?\"\n\nIn the sense that orbiting celestial bodies are in an [inertial frame of reference](_URL_0_), and falling while on earth also places you in an inertial reference frame, then yes, stars and planets are \"falling\".\n\nBut don't confuse that with there being some sort of universal \"down\" direction that everything's falling toward. Rather, orbiting bodies are essentially in a constant state of free-fall around the body that they're orbiting -- always falling, but with enough \"sideways\" velocity to continuously \"miss\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Universe expanding and galaxies moving away from each other means that space itself is expanding. Take a small flaccid balloon and draw a few dots on it with a texta - these represent celestial bodies. Then keep blowing up the balloon - the space between the dots will grow. The scary thing is, eventually, assuming the accelerating expanding universe theory holds, when we look out to the night sky we won't be able to see anything because the space between everything has shifted so much. We'll be alone...........\n\nOr extinct already.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6139438", "title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System", "section": "Section::::Galactic interaction.:Galactic collision and planetary disruption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 496, "text": "It is a common misconception that this collision will disrupt the orbits of the planets in the Solar System. Although it is true that the gravity of passing stars can detach planets into interstellar space, distances between stars are so great that the likelihood of the Milky Way–Andromeda collision causing such disruption to any individual star system is negligible. Although the Solar System as a whole could be affected by these events, the Sun and planets are not expected to be disturbed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8427933", "title": "List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 457, "text": "These objects are \"leaving\" the Solar System because their velocity and direction are taking them away from the Sun, and at their distance from the Sun, its gravitational pull is not sufficient to pull these objects back or into orbit. They are not impervious to the gravitational pull of the Sun and are being slowed down, but they have enough velocity to coast into interstellar space, i.e. retaining sufficient escape velocity to leave the Solar System.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2276185", "title": "Inconstant Moon", "section": "Section::::Story synopses (Sphere edition).:\"One Face\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 784, "text": "During a routine hyperspace jump, an accident involving a small meteoroid striking into the machinery causes the ship to be trapped in a stasis until billions of years have passed. They emerge in the Solar System's far future, at which time the sun has become a greenish-white dwarf and Earth has lost its atmosphere and become a tidally locked world; i.e., it only presents \"one face\" to the sun. The ship's main computer has also been damaged, so its decision to have the captain replaced by one of the passengers to maximize survival causes disagreement. The damage to the ship prevents it traveling faster than light, and the passengers and crew debate using the ship's remaining sub-light engine to travel relativistically to a neighboring star to look for a more viable planet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18412841", "title": "Stability of the Solar System", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 243, "text": "The Solar System is stable in human terms, and far beyond, given that it is unlikely any of the planets will collide with each other or be ejected from the system in the next few billion years, and the Earth's orbit will be relatively stable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1399966", "title": "List of landings on extraterrestrial bodies", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 304, "text": "This is a list of all spacecraft landings on other planets and bodies in the Solar System, including soft landings and both intended and unintended hard impacts. The list includes orbiters that were intentionally crashed, but not orbiters which later crashed in an unplanned manner due to orbital decay.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "594865", "title": "Welteislehre", "section": "Section::::Premise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 465, "text": "According to the idea, the solar system had its origin in a gigantic star into which a smaller, dead, waterlogged star fell. This impact caused a huge explosion that flung fragments of the smaller star out into interstellar space where the water condensed and froze into giant blocks of ice. A ring of such blocks formed, that we now call the Milky Way, as well as a number of solar systems among which was our own, but with many more planets than currently exist.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46553335", "title": "Progress M-27M", "section": "Section::::Spacecraft failure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 851, "text": "On 29 April, Roscosmos officially announced that the spacecraft was out of control and its orbit would eventually decay to fall back into Earth's atmosphere, with multiple systems suffering from failure and the main engine's fuel lines depressurized. The spacecraft was expected to disintegrate in the Earth's atmosphere between May 7 and 11. On the same day, the United States' NORAD reported that 44 pieces of debris \"in the vicinity of the resupply vehicle and its upper stage rocket body\" were being tracked by space tracking systems. Currently, various Russian sources reported that the potential cause of the anomaly may be related to the upper stage rocket engine shutdown or with the separation of the Progress spacecraft from the upper stage. A representative of the United States Air Force claimed that debris in the area indicated a blast.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " In a room of just 23 people there’s a 50-50 chance of two people having the same birthday. In a room of 75 there’s a 99.9% chance of two people matching.\n\nThis is whats called the Birthday Paradox. It has to do with exponents and maths I am not good at, but here is a link that might better explain. (_URL_0_)[_URL_1_]\n\nedit. Fixed link", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Someone mentioned the Birthday Paradox (which is just pure stats on combinations), but also, [birthdays aren’t evenly distributed across the calendar.](_URL_0_) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You expect to see lots of pairs (we'd need more precise data to determine whether your group of friends shows more than the expected number, however). \n\nAlthough this is counterintuitive at first glance, it's actually fairly obvious if you look at it the right way.\n\nThe point is that although the chance of any two people sharing a birthday is quite low (1/365), there are so many pairs of people that this *could* happen to, that it becomes almost inevitable that it *will* happen to a fair number of pairs.\n\neg with 200 people, there are 19,900 different pairs of people, so we'd expect a lot of matches.\n\nIndeed with only 23 people (so 253 possible pairs of people) there is already 50/50 chance you get at least one pair sharing a birthday.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Probably some cognitive bias in remembering unusual things better too. Objectively it'd be far more probable to have one person with a birthday than multiple (about four times more probable in fact). With 200 people, on a given day (assuming 365 days and uniformly distributed birthdays) there would be a 31.74% chance exactly one person has a birthday, and an 8.68% chance of exactly two, and it drops off from there (57.77% chance of no one having a birthday on a day given a specific day).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20903181", "title": "Birthday", "section": "Section::::Frequency.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 899, "text": "According to a public database of births, birthdays in the United States are quite evenly distributed for the most part, but there tend to be more births in September and October. This may be because there is a holiday season nine months before (the human gestation period is about nine months), or because the longest nights of the year also occur in the Northern Hemisphere nine months before. However, it appears the holidays have more of an effect on birth rates than the winter: New Zealand, a Southern Hemisphere country, has the same September and October peak with no corresponding peak in March and April. The least common birthdays tend to fall around public holidays, such as Christmas, New Years Day and fixed-date holidays such as July 4 in the US. This is probably due to hospitals and birthing centres not offering labor inductions and elective Caesarean sections on public holidays.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20903181", "title": "Birthday", "section": "Section::::Frequency.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 424, "text": "In New Zealand, the most common birthday is September 29, and the least common birthday is December 25. The ten most common birthdays all fall within a thirteen-day period, between September 22 and October 4. The ten least common birthdays (other than February 29) are December 24–27, January 1–2, February 6, March 22, April 1 and April 25. This is based on all live births registered in New Zealand between 1980 and 2017.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20903181", "title": "Birthday", "section": "Section::::In cultures and religions.:Judaism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 662, "text": "In Judaism, the perspective on birthday celebrations is disputed by various rabbis, although today it is accepted practice by most of the faithful. In the Hebrew Bible, the one single mention of a celebration being held in commemoration of someone's day of birth is for the Egyptian Pharaoh which is recorded in . Rabbi Moshe Feinstein always acknowledged birthdays. The Lubavitcher Rebbe encouraged people to celebrate their birthdays, by gathering friends, making positive resolutions, and through various religious observances. According to Rabbi Yissocher Frand, the anniversary of a person's birth is a special day for that person's prayers to be accepted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "73242", "title": "Birthday problem", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 516, "text": "It may well seem surprising that a group of just 23 individuals is required to reach a probability of 50% that two individuals in the group have the same birthday: this result is perhaps made more plausible by considering that the comparisons of birthday will actually be made between every possible pair of individuals = 23 × 22/2 = 253 comparisons, which is well over half the number of days in a year (183 at most), as opposed to fixing on one individual and comparing their birthday to everyone else's birthday.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7071407", "title": "Russian traditions and superstitions", "section": "Section::::Customs that are more often regarded as superstition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 244, "text": "BULLET::::- Birthday parties should be celebrated on or after one's birthday, not before. So when one's birthday falls during the week, it's best to celebrate the following weekend. And never give someone birthday wishes before their birthday.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "477069", "title": "Anniversary", "section": "Section::::Anniversary names.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 224, "text": "BULLET::::- Birthdays are the most common type of anniversary, on which someone's birthdate is commemorated each year. The actual celebration is sometimes moved for practical reasons, as in the case of an official birthday.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54217", "title": "Pigeonhole principle", "section": "Section::::Examples.:The birthday problem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 369, "text": "The birthday problem asks, for a set of randomly chosen people, what is the probability that some pair of them will have the same birthday? By the pigeonhole principle, if there are 367 people in the room, we know that there is at least one pair who share the same birthday, as there are only 366 possible birthdays to choose from (including February 29, if present). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's boring. We need something to keep our minds occupied. Reader's Digest was the original smartphone for that.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5283362", "title": "Reading motivation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 336, "text": "For students who know how to read, but need extra encouragement, giving a book talk is a way to inspire reading. It is an especially effective tool with reluctant readers who need a hook before they will invest the energy into reading a book. Reading motivation for children can be enhanced when it is read with songs or music playing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1516469", "title": "Web usability", "section": "Section::::Understanding Usability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 432, "text": "We have become so used to using the internet and different websites that we do not read them any more but rather scan through them because we are usually in a hurry to find something and have become so used to web pages that there is no need for us to read through them completely as we can successfully filter through and find only the information we need and read more about it should the information found not suffice our needs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6265123", "title": "Stanislas Dehaene", "section": "Section::::Expertise.:Neural basis of reading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 405, "text": "More recently, they have turned their attention to how learning to read may depend on a process of \"neuronal recycling\" that causes brain circuits originally evolved for object recognition to become tuned to recognize frequent letters, pairs of letters and words, and have tested these ideas examining brain responses in a group of adults who did not learn to read due to social and cultural constraints.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8146465", "title": "Alvin Liberman", "section": "Section::::Research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 409, "text": "Liberman also examined why reading is more difficult than speech perception. He attributed this greater difficulty to the human biological adaptation to speech. Liberman discovered that children who fail to learn to read on schedule lack phonemic awareness. Phonemic awareness is an awareness that word forms breaks down into individual parts. This is because they cannot appreciate the alphabetic principle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "305854", "title": "Text messaging", "section": "Section::::Social effects.:Texting while walking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 1253, "text": "Texting on a phone distracts participants, even when the texting task used is a relatively simple one. Stavrinos et al. investigated the effect of other cognitive tasks, such as engaging in conversations or cognitive tasks on a phone, and found that participants actually have reduced visual awareness. This finding was supported by Licence et al., who conducted a similar study. For example, texting pedestrians may fail to notice unusual events in their environment, such as a unicycling clown. These findings suggest that tasks that require the allocation of cognitive resources can affect visual attention even when the task itself does not require the participants to avert their eyes from their environment. The act of texting itself seems to impair pedestrians' visual awareness. It appears that the distraction produced by texting is a combination of both a cognitive and visual perceptual distraction. A study conducted by Licence et al. supported some of these findings, particularly that those who text while walking significantly alter their gait. However, they also found that the gait pattern texters adopted was slower and more \"protective\", and consequently did not increase obstacle contact or tripping in a typical pedestrian context.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48977", "title": "Go strategy and tactics", "section": "Section::::Life and death.:Reading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 554, "text": "In general, go players refer to analysis of positions as \"reading\". One major purpose of reading is to be sure that a local position can be neglected for a while. For instance, a player may be able to make gains by playing for a certain patch of territory. Yet, this play may be worth only a few points, and thus deemed unnecessary, depending on the state of the game. With confidence in one's reading, it becomes much easier to set priorities and switch around the board (see sente). Not changing gears at the correct time can be a loss of opportunity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3442915", "title": "Audiovisual education", "section": "Section::::Advantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 287, "text": "Students learn when they are motivated and curious about something. Traditional verbal instructions can be boring and painful for students. However, use of audio-visual provides intrinsic motivation to students by peaking their curiosity and stimulating their interests in the subjects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "i covered this topic in a class in university way back in the caveman days they would sit around the fire with their half wild dogs stroking their fur elicited the guard guard guard instinct in the animal thats the theory anyways so basically the theory is we were able to relax knowing we were protected ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "464447", "title": "Animal communication", "section": "Section::::Other aspects.:Human behaviour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 403, "text": "Humans also often seek to mimic animals' communicative signals in order to interact with them. For example, cats have a mild affiliative response of slowly closing their eyes; humans often mimic this signal towards a pet cat to establish a tolerant relationship. Stroking, petting and rubbing pet animals are all actions that probably work through their natural patterns of interspecific communication.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12790823", "title": "Alfaxalone", "section": "Section::::Side effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 390, "text": "When no premedications are used, alfaxalone causes animals (especially cats) to be agitated when recovering. Dogs and cats will paddle in the air, vocalize excessively, may remain rigid or twitch, and have exaggerated reactions to external stimuli such as light and noise. For this reason, it is recommended that animals recovering from anesthesia by alfaxalone stay in a quiet, dark area.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28912839", "title": "Sophia \"Chat\" Sanduval", "section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 349, "text": "Animals sense that Chat can understand them and become very friendly around her. Even when an animal is normally aggressive, Chat can gain that animal's loyalty (she once got a criminal's bulldog to turn on his owner by telling him his master was \"bad\"). Chat often uses this power to calm down nervous and wounded animals at animal rescue centers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1857260", "title": "Devocalization", "section": "Section::::Less invasive interventions.:Accommodation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 476, "text": "Because dogs often bark excessively due to stress, boredom, or frustration, changing aspects of an animal's environment to make them more content is a suitable way to quiet them down, rather than forcibly silencing a distressed animal. Spending more time with an animal, such as playing, walking, and other bonding activities, will keep them occupied and make them feel more at ease. If the animal is stressed, it is best to remove the object that is causing them discomfort.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5976304", "title": "Calmness", "section": "Section::::Childhood origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 225, "text": "Parental soothing (by rocking, holding etc) in infancy lays the foundations of the capacity to self-calm. Thereafter transitional objects can help maintain calmness, while pets as self-objects also promote soothing and calm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38973977", "title": "Comfort behaviour in animals", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 911, "text": "Comfort behaviours are performed from an early age and change little during development. Several comfort behaviours are associated with the beginning of a rest period (e.g. grooming), whereas others are associated with the end of a rest period (e.g. stretching), possibly to prepare the body for escape or hunting. Others, (e.g. dust bathing) will be performed only when the appropriate internal and external stimuli are present (see also sham dustbathing). Animals generally perform comfort behaviours only when they are not engaged in essential activities (e.g. feeding, drinking, hunting, escape); these behaviours are therefore sometimes categorised as \"luxury activities\". However, animals can be highly motivated to perform some comfort behaviours (e.g. dust bathing in hens), and conditions that thwart these behaviours (e.g. battery cages) are considered to have a negative influence on animal welfare.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455907", "title": "Astraphobia", "section": "Section::::Dogs and cats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 294, "text": "Generally if any animal is anxious during a thunderstorm or any similar, practically harmless event (e.g. fireworks display), it is advised to simply continue behaving normally, instead of attempting to comfort animals. Showing fearlessness is, arguably, the best method to \"cure\" the anxiety.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Here's a reconstruction of the last ~250 million years, which basically shows the break up of Pangea. The thing to remember is that Pangea is only the most recent supercontinent; there have been at least 6 or 7 over Earth's 4.5 billion year history. _URL_0_\n\nThe driving force, very simply, is gravity. Thermal buoyancy in the mantle means that convection cells get set up, and these drag the surface plates along with them. Subduction oceanic slabs are a big part of this, as they draw dense cold material back down into the mantle. New oceanic crust gets formed in mid ocean ridges. There's practically no oceanic crust on the planet older than ~200 million years, while continental crust can be viewed as a silica-rich scum which is not dense enough to sink back into the mantle to get recycled. As a result continental crust is up to ~ 4 billion years old in places. Continents and supercontinents which have been formed can be rifted apart again by rising and divergent mantle convection cells - we can see this happening at the moment in the Afar region of E Africa, where a rift valley is forming which could ultimately form a new ocean basin.\n\nMeterorite impacts have had no recognised impact on plate tectonics (the timescales of mantle flow are in the millions of years).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "59406670", "title": "Henry Robert Frankel", "section": "Section::::Work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 987, "text": "Continental drift is the theory which emerged in the early 20th Century that the Earth's continents have moved over geologic time relative to each other, thus appearing to have \"drifted\" across the ocean bed. The idea of continental drift was subsumed by the theory of plate tectonics in the mid-20th century. Plate tectonics explains that the continents move by riding on plates of the Earth's lithosphere. Frankel's four volume work, \"The Continental Drift Controversy\" (\"Volume 1: Wegener and the Early Debate; Volume 2: Paleomagnetic Support for Shifting Continents; Volume 3: Initiation of Seafloor Spreading; and Volume 4: Evolution into Plate Tectonics\"), published in 2012 by Cambridge University Press, is generally considered seminal and definitive in the field of earth sciences. The work is based upon critical analysis of the entire primary literature and Frankel's 35 years of active correspondence with the leading figures during the revolution's climactic final quarter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6056", "title": "Continental drift", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 668, "text": "Continental drift is the theory that the Earth's continents have moved over geologic time relative to each other, thus appearing to have \"drifted\" across the ocean bed. The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. The concept was independently and more fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, but his theory was rejected by many for lack of any motive mechanism. Arthur Holmes later proposed mantle convection for that mechanism. The idea of continental drift has since been subsumed by the theory of plate tectonics, which explains that the continents move by riding on plates of the Earth's lithosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6056", "title": "Continental drift", "section": "Section::::History.:Wegener and his predecessors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1001, "text": "Continental drift without expansion was proposed by Frank Bursley Taylor, who suggested in 1908 (published in 1910) that the continents were moved into their present positions by a process of \"continental creep\". In a later paper he proposed that this occurred by their being dragged towards the equator by tidal forces during the hypothesized capture of the moon in the Cretaceous, resulting in \"general crustal creep\" toward the equator. Although his proposed mechanism was wrong, he was the first to realize the insight that one of the effects of continental motion would be the formation of mountains, and attributed the formation of the Himalayas to the collision between the Indian subcontinent with Asia. Wegener said that of all those theories, Taylor's, although not fully developed, had the most similarities to his own. In the mid-20th century, the theory of continental drift was referred to as the \"Taylor-Wegener hypothesis\", although this terminology eventually fell out of common use.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8245348", "title": "History of geology", "section": "Section::::20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 549, "text": "In 1912 Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of Continental Drift. This theory suggests that the shapes of continents and matching coastline geology between some continents indicates they were joined together in the past and formed a single landmass known as Pangaea; thereafter they separated and drifted like rafts over the ocean floor, currently reaching their present position. Additionally, the theory of continental drift offered a possible explanation as to the formation of mountains; Plate Tectonics built on the theory of continental drift.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "842360", "title": "Paleomagnetism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 429, "text": "Paleomagnetists led the revival of the continental drift hypothesis and its transformation into plate tectonics. Apparent polar wander paths provided the first clear geophysical evidence for continental drift, while marine magnetic anomalies did the same for seafloor spreading. Paleomagnetism continues to extend the history of plate tectonics back in time and are applied to the movement of continental fragments, or terranes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2508167", "title": "Drummond Matthews", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 649, "text": "Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift had never gained much scientific support due to its lack of any satisfactory mechanism to drive the process. During the 1950s, however, extensive surveys of the ocean floor revealed a global, linked system of mid-ocean ridges, all of which exhibited high thermal flow and considerable seismic activity. Hess hypothesized that new ocean crust was being formed at the ocean ridges by extrusions of magma from the Earth's mantle, and that convection currents within the mantle were continuously carrying the newly formed crust away from the ridge, widening the ocean basin and pushing the continents apart.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1821971", "title": "Mid-ocean ridge", "section": "Section::::History.:Impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 518, "text": "Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912. He stated: \"the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima [rising] from depth\". However, Wegener did not pursue this observation in his later works and his theory was dismissed by geologists because there was no mechanism to explain how continents could plow through ocean crust, and the theory became largely forgotten.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You have the right to *own* both guns and swords. That does not necessarily mean you have a right to openly carry either of them around town.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If the Congress of the United States tried to pass a law unreasonably restricting your right to keep and bear a sword, that law would be challenged on the same grounds as a law unreasonably restricting your right to keep and bear a gun.\n\n\"Arms\" means arms. It doesn't mean *fire*arms specifically.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As far as I know, there aren't any Federal restrictions on sword purchases. You can buy and own as many as you like. Most cities, however, have laws against carrying large bladed weapons around in public, for safety reasons. This is all as it should be.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "40589862", "title": "Right to keep and bear arms in the United States", "section": "Section::::Civilian usage meaning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 491, "text": "The people's right to have their own arms for their defense is described in the philosophical and political writings of Aristotle, Cicero, John Locke, Machiavelli, the English Whigs and others. Though possessing arms appears to be distinct from \"bearing\" them, the possession of arms is recognized as necessary for and a logical precursor to the bearing of arms. Don Kates, a civil liberties lawyer, cites historic English usage describing the \"right to keep and bear \"their private arms\".\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "219243", "title": "Right to keep and bear arms", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 308, "text": "The right to keep and bear arms (often referred to as the right to bear arms) is the people's right to possess weapons (arms) for their own defense. Only few countries recognize people's right to keep and bear arms and protect it on statutory level, and even fewer protect the right on constitutional level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30865508", "title": "List of firearm court cases in the United States", "section": "Section::::State courts.:Aymette v. State.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 355, "text": "BULLET::::- 3. The right to keep and bear arms for the common defense, is a great political right. It respects the citizens on the one hand, and the rulers on the other; and although this right must be inviolably preserved, it does not follow that the legislature is prohibited from passing laws regulating the manner in which these arms may be employed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40589862", "title": "Right to keep and bear arms in the United States", "section": "Section::::Early commentary in state courts.:Aymette.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 355, "text": "BULLET::::- 3. The right to keep and bear arms for the common defense, is a great political right. It respects the citizens on the one hand, and the rulers on the other; and although this right must be inviolably preserved, it does not follow that the legislature is prohibited from passing laws regulating the manner in which these arms may be employed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "219243", "title": "Right to keep and bear arms", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 689, "text": "Generally, where modern constitutions refer to arms at all, the purpose is \"to allow the government to regulate their use or to compel military service, not to provide a right to bear them\". Constitutions which historically guaranteed a right to bear arms are those of Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Liberia, Mexico, Nicaragua and the United States of America. Nearly all of the Latin American examples were modelled on that of the United States. At present, out of the world’s nearly 200 constitutions, three still include a right to bear arms: Guatemala, Mexico, and the United States; of these three, only the last does not include explicit restrictive conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30148417", "title": "Gun laws in New York", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 372, "text": "The U.S. Supreme Court in the case \"District of Columbia v. Heller\", 554 U.S. 570 (2008) ruled that \"the right to bear arms\" is an individual right and a right to arms in common use are protected under the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Court further ruled that this right applies against the states in \"McDonald v. Chicago\", 561 U.S. 742 (2010).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31655", "title": "Second Amendment to the United States Constitution", "section": "Section::::Pre-Constitution background.:Influence of the English Bill of Rights of 1689.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 645, "text": "The right to bear arms in English history is regarded in English law as a subordinate auxiliary right of the primary rights to personal security, personal liberty, and private property. According to Sir William Blackstone, \"The ... last auxiliary right of the subject ... is that of having arms for their [defense], suitable to their condition and degree, and such as are allowed by law. Which is ... declared by ... statute, and is indeed a public allowance, under due restrictions, of the natural right of resistance and self-preservation, when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Actually, there are a lot of papyri and archeological pieces from the ancient Egypt which have never been studied by archeologists and egyptologists. These numerous missing objects are actually in the hands of collectionners. \n\nThis is the result of the state of egyptology in the 18th and 19th centuries : Egyptology as a science just started with the decipherment of the hieroglyphics, in 1822. Before that, and until the creation of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in 1858 by Auguste Mariette, egyptian antiquities have been stolen because of their value and the mysticism attached to the old egyptian civilisation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "175403", "title": "Hermitage Museum", "section": "Section::::History.:The Hermitage since 1991.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 289, "text": "The museum announced in July 2006, that 221 minor items, including jewelry, Orthodox icons, silverware and richly enameled objects, had been stolen. The value of the stolen items was estimated to be approximately $543,000 but by the end of 2006 several of the stolen items were recovered.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45701683", "title": "Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum theft", "section": "Section::::Stolen artwork.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 780, "text": "Altogether, thirteen pieces were stolen at an estimated loss of $500 million, making the robbery the largest recorded private property theft in history. Empty frames remain hanging in the museum, both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for their potential return. One of the paintings, \"The Concert\", was Gardner's first major acquisition and one of only 34 known Vermeer works in the world. It is thought to be the most valuable unrecovered stolen painting, with a value estimated at over $200 million. Another painting, \"The Storm on the Sea of Galilee\", is Rembrandt's only known seascape. The bronze finial was taken from the top of a Napoleonic flag, possibly appearing like gold to the thieves. The museum is offering a $100,000 reward for this piece alone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45701683", "title": "Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum theft", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 800, "text": "The stolen works had originally been purchased by art collector Isabella Stewart Gardner (1840–1924) and intended to be left on permanent display at the museum with the rest of her collection. Since the collection and its layout are permanent, empty frames remain hanging both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for their potential return. Experts are puzzled by the choice of paintings that were stolen, especially since more valuable artwork was left untouched. Among the stolen works was \"The Concert\", one of only 34 known works by Vermeer and thought to be the most valuable unrecovered painting, valued at over $200 million. Also missing is \"The Storm on the Sea of Galilee\", Rembrandt's only known seascape. Other works by Rembrandt, Degas, Manet, and Flinck were also stolen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8197312", "title": "Chinese Pavilion at Drottningholm", "section": "Section::::Burglary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 465, "text": "The stolen objects were: a small Japanese lacquered box on a stand, a sculpture in green soapstone, a red lacquered chalice with a lid, a chalice carved from a rhinoceros horn, a small blackened, bronze teapot and a plate made of musk wood. Several other pieces were damaged during the break-in. Detailed descriptions and photos of the stolen items can be found at the referenced link. , none of the stolen objects has been recovered and no arrests have been made.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4705248", "title": "Ring of Pietroassa", "section": "Section::::History.:Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 550, "text": "Ten objects, among them one of the inscribed rings, were stolen shortly after the find was made, and when the remaining objects were recovered, it was discovered that the other ring had been cut into at least four pieces by a Bucharest goldsmith, whereby one of the inscribed characters had become damaged to the point of illegibility. Fortunately, detailed drawings, a cast, and a photograph made by London's Arundel Society of the ring before it was damaged survive, and the nature of the lost character can be established with relative certainty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46453694", "title": "Spillings Hoard", "section": "Section::::Discovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 353, "text": "The larger find was intact but the smaller had been damaged by a plough. A previous landowner who visited the excavation commented that he had found metal wires around the find-spot several years earlier, but thinking that they were only steel wire, he had thrown them away. It was therefore concluded that the treasure had originally been even larger.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "393171", "title": "National Library of Sweden", "section": "Section::::History.:Book thefts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 443, "text": "In 2004, it was discovered that dozens of rare books from its collection had been stolen. The subsequent investigation revealed that the thief was a senior librarian working at the National Library. At least 62 books were stolen and only a few have been recovered, some with the aid of FBI. Some of the books still missing are works by Johannes Kepler, Thomas Hobbes, and Christiaan Huygens. The library maintains a list of the missing books.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Psychology undergrad here: The big problem with your chemical senses (especially with smell) is that you can't properly assign a specific perception of an aroma to a certain stimulus. You know very well which porperties a stimulus for your eyes must have for you to perceive it as \"blue\" or \"red\", but what properties does a molecule have to have for you to perceive it as \"cherry\" or even more difficult, which specific molecules do produce the aroma of \"coffee\"? Turns out that this is a very complex question, as many chemically very similar molecules are perceived as drastically different smells or vice versa. Taking this difficulty into account, a complex cognitive representation of the aroma stimulus in your memory seems very challenging. However, your smell is the only sense that doesn't connect with the Thalamus before reaching its corresponding cortex area and limbic structures like the Amygdala or the Hippocampus, therefore the emotional memory of an aroma is much more directly accessible, thus more intensive, and in some way that's compensating for a complex cognitive representation as your sight or hearing can offer. \n\nEdit: Linda Buck and Richard Axel won the 2004 Nobelprize in Physiology or Medicine for their pioneering research on olfaction, you might want to take a look into this, as it uncovers the complexity of olfactory encoding: \n_URL_1_\n\nThe idea of a certain cell assembly representing an aroma, thus creating an \"olfactory map\", is further explored in this article:\n_URL_0_\n\nAll of this shows that neuronal representation of aromas is very complex and enigmatic, much more so than stimulus representation in the visual or auditory system.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "IIRC olfactory senses are more closely linked to memory than visual senses are. You can just look at how inaccurate eye witness testimony is as a point. I had an MR\\DD client that used to smell the pages of his old magazines and toys, and I became curious as to why this might be. What I read was that the sense of smell is extremely powerful and more closely linked to memories than any other sense. But maybe my memory is off (and maybe because u didn't smell my computer first lol).\n\nI'll look for a source in a moment, unless someone beats me too it.\n\nEdit: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Perfumer here.\nWith training any person would be able to replicate smells inside their heads as well as any visual or auditory input. The main problem is cultural. Our western society does not value the sense of smell as highly as other senses: children are not taught to notice odors, our olfactory \"vocabulary\" is really limited, we are not used to rely on our sense of smell on a day-to-day basis etc.\nThe Jahai people in the Malayan peninsula is the best example I can remember of a culture that highly praises the sense of smell, having even specific vocabulary to describe odors: [an article on Cognitive magazine about that](_URL_0_)\nedit: formatting.\nedit 2: removing link to non-scientific article.\nedit 3: changed \"remembering\" to \"replicating inside the head\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Cognitive scientist here. Keep in mind that the pathways involved in memory recall are very different depending on the type of information intended. Visual information is easily recalled and recognized due to it being objectively useful to remember (navigation, object recognition, food seeking, mating, etc), however certain sensory information is rarely required to be recalled in such a way so the pathways are much weaker/nonexistent. You are able to recognize a smell very easily, especially with other cues (if you smell something and see the name, you will easily state that the name is correct or not). Likewise, you can detect if that smell is beneficial or harmful very easily. However there is not much use in, and thus you don't get a lot of practice in, remembering the smell or taste itself. Humans do not use smell for object recognition (we prefer to rely on vision information for this, unlike other animals such as dogs) nor for communication (we rely on audiovisual information, unlike ants) and so these pathways, while able to exist (see blind case studies) do not get as much use and so recalling a smell or taste can be very difficult for us (without practice).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Very interesting and informative responses here. One piece of information I think is missing: the region in the brain responsible for olfaction is small relative to other organisms. Humans have evolved to navigate visuo-spatially. This is why our visual cortex is massive and our olfactory bulb is small. ([Citation](_URL_0_) ) So, the people who discussed the different pathways olfactory and visual information are correct. But, I think it's important to note how much circuitry is involved, not just which ones.\n\n\nIn regards to the social context of smell. Another amazing aspect of the human brain is its plasticity. We are capable to adapt to such a wide variety of contexts that we've all but managed to thrive everywhere on this planet. This allows our brain to form extra connections with experience. Such as those made in the brain of a well trained sommelier. We can train our brain to process olfactory information more readily but there are distinct limitations. We will never be able to recall a smell the same way dogs and rodents do, which I imagine they are as proficient at as we are at recalling images. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First of all, thanks for all the replies! Secondly, I think, due to the poor phrasing of my question, that not everyone in this thread is talking about the same thing. What I meant to ask is why, and, as people have pointed out, I understand that this is a very subjective topic, I cannot recreate a scent or taste in my mind. I can recognize the scent of a hotdog when I smell it, but when I'm hungry and sitting down in my bed, I can't just \"smell\" it like I can picture the shape and color of the hotdog. \n\nPeople have attributed this to differences in culture and our dependence on hearing and sight for survival. I have also heard that the way we use a sensory system shapes the system itself. So, in theory, if I trained my scent or taste at a relatively young age such that I hadn't already developed a rich system, I would be able to recreate scents or tastes within my mind. \n\nI find this all very interesting, so once again, thanks for all the amazing responses! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a direct physiological reason why you don't recreate smells in your head from memory. \n\nSmell (olfaction) is the oldest of the senses and basically is not processed by the parts of the brain where memories are formed. We can recognize a smell as something we have smelled before, but typically not recreate it later.\n\nMost people with training can create connections between smells and other senses in the brain, like sound or visual, and remember these connections. Still, they don't consciously recreate the smell itself form memory.\n\nThis goes over it well for the more technical:\n_URL_0_\n\nAnd quoting a relevant paragraph:\n\n\"The limbic system is a network of connected structures near the middle of the brain linked within the central nervous system. These structures “work together to affect a wide range of behaviors including emotions, motivation, and memory” (Athabasca University-Advance Biological Psychology Tutorials). This system deals with instinctive or automatic behaviors, and has little, if anything, to do with conscious thought or will.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This thread has me so confused. I can remember smells almost perfectly, especially distinct smells like citrus, lavender, rosemary, etc. Is everyone saying they can't recall what those smell like unless they smell it again? This has me fascinated and confused ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36639372", "title": "Mnemonic effect", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 205, "text": "The only thing that is currently agreed upon is that the brain does actually group different information, and many associations are instantly created when viewing or remembering images, numbers or sounds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21244096", "title": "Odor", "section": "Section::::Behavioral cues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 398, "text": "An odor can cue recall of a distant memory. Most memories that pertain to odor come from the first decade of life, compared to verbal and visual memories which usually come from the 10th to 30th years of life. Odor-evoked memories are more emotional, associated with stronger feelings of being brought back in time, and have been thought of less often as compared to memories evoked by other cues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2158298", "title": "Visual impairment", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Communication.:Surroundings.:Smell.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 179, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 179, "end_character": 498, "text": "Certain smells can be associated with specific areas and help a person with vision problems to remember a familiar area. This way there is a better chance of recognizing an area's layout in order to navigate themselves through. The same can be said for people as well. Some people have their own special odor that a person with a more trained sense of smell can pick up. A person with an impairment of their vision can use this to recognize people within their vicinity without them saying a word.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26755147", "title": "Aromachologist", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 542, "text": "When odors activate the olfactory pathways that lead to the limbic portion of the brain they trigger the release of neurotransmitters that affect the brain and mental state of the individual in a variety of ways. Stimuli transmitted to the limbic system cannot be consciously blocked, so all olfactory stimuli influence our emotions. Smell has not been studied in as much depth as vision and hearing. The brain is able to process small differences in smell and the sense of smell may last longer in the aging process than sight and hearing. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21312318", "title": "Recognition memory", "section": "Section::::Neural underpinnings.:Normal brains.:In other senses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 375, "text": "Recognition memory is not confined to the visual domain; we can recognize things in each of the five traditional sensory modalities (i.e. sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste). Although most neuroscientific research has focused on visual recognition, there have also been studies related to audition (hearing), olfaction (smell), gustation (taste), and tactition (touch).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1764639", "title": "Levels-of-processing effect", "section": "Section::::Sensory modes.:Smell.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 740, "text": "Odor memory is weaker than visual memory, achieving a successful identification rate of only 70-80% of visual memory. Levels-of-processing effects have been found within odor memory if subjects are asked to \"visualize\" smells and associate them with a particular picture. Subjects who perform this task have a different recall value on explicit memory tests than subjects who memorize smells using self-chosen methods. The difference in recall value, however, depends on the subject, and the subject's ability to form images from odors. Attributing verbal attributes to odors has similar effects. Semantic processing of odors (e.g. attributing the \"mud\" odor to \"smell like a puddle\") has found to have the most positive effects on recall.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2367207", "title": "Cue-dependent forgetting", "section": "Section::::Cues.:Semantic cues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 351, "text": "An experiment from 1966 showed that people remember a group of words better if they are within the same theme category. Such words that generate recall by association are known as \"semantic cues\". If the sound of the word is emphasized during the encoding process, a cue that could be used could also put emphasis on the phonetic quality of the word.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "That's a pretty complex question. Languages all move at their own pace, and have their own unique history, so it's going to be a different answer for each language. \n\nEnglish has gone through a lot of changes from its \"Old\" to \"Modern\" stages, so Old English and modern English are very different. Here's an exerpt from \"[Beowulf](_URL_2_),\" an epic poem in Old English, written around 900 A.D.:\n\n > Hwæt. We Gardena in geardagum, \n\n > þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon, \n\n > hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon. \n\n > Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum, \n\n > monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah, \n\n > egsode eorlas.\n\nIt looks very different to today's English, mostly because the language hadn't borrowed very much yet from Norman French (that comes later, after the Norman invasion of 1066). It had a lot of very different grammar rules, too - more like today's Germanic languages (eg, German, Icelandic) than today's English.\n\nOld French and Modern French are also very different, but less so than Old English and Modern English. Looking at the oldest written piece of Old French, from the [Oaths of Strasbourg](_URL_1_) (842 A.D.):\n\n > Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun saluament, d'ist di in auant, in quant Deus sauir et podir me dunat, si saluarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo, et in adiudha et in cadhuna cosa si cum om per dreit son fradra saluar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet.\n\nOld French looks very Latin, still, but - and I'm relying on your Quebecois eyes, here - you can see where there are elements of Modern French already. (Edit: [Modern French translation of that text here.](_URL_0_))\n\nItalian is a bit different. There is no real \"Old Italian,\" as \"Italian\" was originally many different dialects. What Italians speak today is essentially the same as the Italian dialect spoken in Florence in the 1300s, made popular by Florentine author Dante Alighieri. An example from his \"[La divina commedia](_URL_3_)\" (1308-1321):\n\n > Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita\n\n > mi ritrovai per una selva oscura\n\n > ché la diritta via era smarrita.\n\n > Ahi quanto a dir qual era è cosa dura\n\n > esta selva selvaggia e aspra e forte\n\n > che nel pensier rinova la paura!\n\nAside from his use of the *passato remoto* tense (\"mi ritrovai\" rather than \"mi sono ritrovato\"), it basically reads like modern Italian, and actually, the *passato remoto* is still often used today in the southern regions of Italy, so even that isn't really obsolete.\n\nI hope that gives you some useful information. If I can answer any questions, please let me know.\n\nEdit: Also, here is a comparison of Old High German (500-1050 A.D.) and modern German:\n\n > Old High German: Oba Karl then eid, then er sīnemo bruodher Ludhuwīge gesuor, geleistit, indi Ludhuwīg mīn hērro then er imo gesuor forbrihchit, ob ih inan es irwenden ne mag: noh ih noh thero nohhein, then ih es irwenden mag, widhar Karlo imo ce follusti ne wirdhit. (From the [Oaths of Strasbourg](_URL_4_) again, 842 A.D.)\n\n > Modern German translation: Falls Ludwig/Karl den Eid, den er seinem Bruder Karl/Ludwig schwört, wahrt und Karl/Ludwig, mein Herr, seinerseits ihn bricht, und wenn ich ihn nicht davon abhalten kann, dann werde weder ich noch irgendjemand, den ich davon abhalten kann, mich an einer Hilfeleistung gegen Ludwig/Karl beteiligen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "More than about 600-700 years of linguistic drift seems to result in something which is basically another language. I can just about follow Shakespear and Marlowe ('early modern english'), but Chaucer ('middle english') is mostly gibberish to me. Actual Old English (pre-1200) is about as readable as modern German to me (i.e. I can guess at some of the words and sometimes manage to grasp the meaning of simple sentances).\n\nProbably worth posting this to /r/linguistics for a more professional opinion.\n\nEDIT: apparently I was wrong in my assumption that most languages evolve at about the same rate in the long term. The above only really applies to English.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My Chinese History professor once told us that the Mandarin script hasn't changed (beyond vocabulary expansion) since Qin Shi Huang standardized it in the 2nd century BC. He could easily read texts in Mandarin from the 1st century BC and later without much translation difficulty.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not a linguist, but Arabic seems to have been a relatively static language at least since the standardisation of the written Arabic. The written language has a very exact grammatical notation so that, unlike in English, one always knows the 'proper' pronunciation. Of course dialects are still very varied though. Two people, one with the thickest Gulf accent and another with the thickest Moroccan accent, won't be able to understand each other, but for that the 'RP' of Modern Standard Arabic is available to talk in. Modern Arabic is quite different from classical, with its influences from English, French and so on, but most classical terms such as those found in the Quran are still part of the vocabulary.\n\nI interviewed a linguist specialising in Gulf dialects, Prof Clive Holes of Oxford University, a few months ago and he told me an interesting, relevant fact. The 'Bahraani' dialect, spoken by the native Bahrainis who've lived on the island the longest and their mainland cousins on the east coast of Saudi, share their dialect with some highly isolated village people in the mountains of Oman. As in, these Omani people (who have little contact with Musqat let alone lands beyond their nation) have almost the _exact_ same dialect a few hundred/thousand miles north of them. This suggests that they were part of the same group that migrated out of the Yemen which settled in Bahrain and eastern Saudi however many thousands of years ago, and neither dialects have evolved since leaving Yemen (the Yemeni dialect of course has). It's oddly static for such a long period of time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some languages are very conservative--that is, they do not innovate new features or undergo significant phonological change--but not very many. Icelandic and Lithuanian are the two that pop to mind for me: Icelandic is, I'm told, extremely similar to Old Norse, and Lithuanian is reputed to be the living language that most closely resembles Proto-Indo-European, retaining a great deal of features that were lost in other languages.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22667", "title": "Old English", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 578, "text": "Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is very different from Modern English and difficult for Modern English speakers to understand without study. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German: nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms, and word order is much freer. The oldest Old English inscriptions were written using a runic system, but from about the 8th century this was replaced by a version of the Latin alphabet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2785010", "title": "Old English grammar", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 428, "text": "The grammar of Old English is quite different from that of Modern English, predominantly by being much more inflected. As an old Germanic language, Old English has a morphological system that is similar to that of the hypothetical Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections thought to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including characteristically Germanic constructions such as the umlaut.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22667", "title": "Old English", "section": "Section::::Revivals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 429, "text": "Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Anglo-Saxon literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include Alistair Campbell and J. R. R. Tolkien. Ransom Riggs uses several Old English words, such as syndrigast (singular, peculia), ymbryne (period, cycle), etc., dubbed as \"Old Peculiar\" ones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9930002", "title": "Proto-language", "section": "Section::::Proto-X vs. Pre-X.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 716, "text": "When multiple historical stages of a single language exist, the oldest attested stage is normally termed \"Old X\" (e.g. \"Old English\", \"Old Korean\"). For an earlier, hypothetical stage, reconstructed through the method of internal reconstruction, terminology differs, with some authors using \"Proto-X\" (e.g. \"Proto-English\") and others using \"Pre-X\" (e.g. \"Pre-English\"). The case of Irish is somewhat different; the language known as Old Irish is the language in which the first significant texts are known, but an older stage named Primitive Irish is also attested, though much more sparsely. This is similar to the situation of Old Norse and Proto-Norse, where both are attested but the latter only fragmentarily.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22667", "title": "Old English", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 379, "text": "BULLET::::- Prehistoric Old English (c. 450 to 650); for this period, Old English is mostly a reconstructed language as no literary witnesses survive (with the exception of limited epigraphic evidence). This language, or bloc of languages, spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old English.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "344148", "title": "History of English", "section": "Section::::Old English.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 686, "text": "Most native English speakers today find Old English unintelligible, even though about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The grammar of Old English was much more inflected than modern English, combined with freer word order, and was grammatically quite similar in some respects to modern German. The language had demonstrative pronouns (equivalent to \"this\" and \"that\") but did not have definite article \"the\". The Old English period is considered to have evolved into the Middle English period some time after the Norman conquest of 1066, when the language came to be influenced significantly by the new ruling class's language, Old Norman.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8569916", "title": "English language", "section": "Section::::History.:Proto-Germanic to Old English.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 590, "text": "Old English is very different from Modern English, and is difficult for 21st-century English speakers to understand. Its grammar was similar to that of modern German, and its closest relative is Old Frisian. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs had many more inflectional endings and forms, and word order was much freer than in Modern English. Modern English has case forms in pronouns (\"he\", \"him\", \"his\") and has a few verb inflections (\"speak\", \"speaks\", \"speaking\", \"spoke\", \"spoken\"), but Old English had case endings in nouns as well, and verbs had more person and number endings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Matty The Horse Ianello served in Korea.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One of my favorite fiction books is *The Fortunate Pilgrim* by Mario Puzo, and it's about an Italian-American family living in New York. One of the sons of the family is involved with organized crime (the Italian mafia, if you will) and another is conscripted to go fight WWII. The dynamic between the brothers is great. I recommend reading it, especially if you're going to try to write something similar. It sounds like you intend to focus more on the war aspect than Puzo did (it's only a very short moment in the book), so I think you can easily avoid repeating any of his ideas.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44796", "title": "Giovanni Falcone", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 616, "text": "His life parallels that of his close friend Paolo Borsellino. They both spent their early years in the same neighbourhood in Palermo. Though many of their childhood friends grew up in the Mafia background, both men fought on the other side of the war as prosecuting magistrates. They were both killed in 1992, a few months apart. In recognition of their tireless effort and sacrifice during the anti-mafia trials, they were both awarded the Italian \"Medaglia d'oro al valore civile\" (Gold medal for civil valour). They were also named as heroes of the last 60 years in the 13 November 2006 issue of \"Time Magazine\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1494514", "title": "Giovanni Brusca", "section": "Section::::Mafia career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 514, "text": "Born in San Giuseppe Jato. His grandfather and great-grandfather, both farmers, were made members of the Mafia. His father Bernardo Brusca, a local Mafia patriarch, served concurrent life sentences for numerous homicides. Bernardo Brusca allied himself with the Corleonesi of Salvatore Riina and Bernardo Provenzano when he replaced Antonio Salamone as capo mandamento of San Giuseppe Jato, paving the way for his three sons’ careers – apart from Giovanni, his younger brother Vincenzo and elder brother Emanuele.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24248993", "title": "Louis Tom Dragna", "section": "Section::::Criminal career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 601, "text": "According to his army enlistment record, Louis Dragna spent two years in college. He started to become involved in the crime family in the 1940s. Under his uncle Jack, the Mafia in Los Angeles was growing into a very widespread enterprise. Louis has an arrest record dating back to 1946. Dragna became a made man in 1947 along with Jimmy Fratianno, Dominic Brooklier, Joseph Dippolito, and Salvatore \"Dago Louie\" Piscopo. Louis Dragna was eventually promoted to Captain (caporegime) in the family by his uncle. Some say that Louis never \"made his bones\" i.e. committed a murder on the Mafia's orders.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25677112", "title": "Henry Maddocks (politician)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 355, "text": "In the years following World War I, in which one of his sons was killed, Maddocks had a reputation as an advocate for disabled ex-servicemen, and was an early member of the Imperial War Graves Commission. He once proposed that convicted criminals who were subsequently killed while serving in the armed forces should have their conviction records erased.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2192747", "title": "Five Families", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 494, "text": "The crime families originated out of New York City Sicilian Mafia gangs. Salvatore Maranzano formally organized them in the summer of 1931, after the April 15 murder of Giuseppe Masseria, in what has become known as the Castellammarese War. Maranzano introduced the now-familiar Mafia hierarchy: boss (\"capofamiglia\"), underboss (\"sotto capo\"), advisor (\"consigliere\"), captain (\"caporegime\"), soldier (\"soldato\"), and associate; and declared himself \"capo di tutti capi\" (boss of all bosses).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3508190", "title": "Tommy Lucchese", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 358, "text": "Thomas \"Tommy\" Lucchese (born Gaetano Lucchese; ; December 1, 1899 – July 13, 1967) was an Italian American gangster and founding member of the Mafia in the United States, an offshoot of the \"Cosa Nostra\" in Sicily. From 1951 until 1967, he was the boss of the Lucchese crime family, one of the Five Families that dominates organized crime in New York City.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46590077", "title": "Cohen crime family", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 439, "text": "The organization was allied with the Five Mafia Families—specifically the Luciano crime family—in New York, the Chicago Outfit in Chicago, and the Dragna crime family in Los Angeles (prior to Siegel's death). Cohen's family was the primary target for organized crime police squads, particularly the LAPD squad ran by Police Chief Bill Parker called the Gangster Squad, who also targeted Jack Dragna and the family during pre-Cohens reign.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You really can't but that's ok. Most will not get offended if you ask nicely where there are from. Same goes for Hispanics as they generally are hard to differentiate but often people will appreciate that you did not just assume anything without asking first.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "_URL_0_ This will help you practice !", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ask them.\n\nDon't bother guessing, it's not worth it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sometimes you can tell by their surnames. Common Korean names are Kim, Park, Cho, or Han. Very simple. You can usually recognize a Japanese name, like Takahashi, Nakamura, Hayashi, Yamamoto, etc. - very different from Korean or Chinese names. Japanese names never start with V, X, or Z, but Chinese names may start with X or Z. Common Chinese names are Wang/Wong, Chang, Wu, Yang. But there is some overlap, of course, so use this with a grain of salt. A lot of Asians can't even differentiate by looks most of the time, so don't feel bad. Just ask politely like you're just curious and they probably won't mind telling you. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm Asian, let me just throw this story here: I was on a bus once, two other Asians sat a few rows behind me. They discussed/argued for a good half an hour about my ethnicity, in my language\n\nEdit: just curious, why is it imperative for you to know? Do you ask a white person what is his/her ethnicity? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just by eye? It's hard if you aren't one of those, and it's not easy even if you are. Best to ask. It's usually not a touchy subject.\n\nThere are certain subtle physical features that appear in, say, Koreans but less so among southern Chinese, or in certain Japanese populations but not in Northern Chinese, but because of mixing, migrations, war, etc. relying on those won't be reliable. You can also listen in on them, but again, that's unreliable. I solely speak fluent English whenever I'm outside, and many others do so as well. And being unable to write my language won't help.\n\nSo. Just ask. Nobody's gonna get offended, and it's a good conversation opener.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's a question\n\nCan you differentiate between a Russian, a Pole, a Czech or an Austrian?\n\nThey look exactly fucking alike, barring extreme regional differences.\n\nHowever, get their cultures mixed up and you'll likely have offended them.\n\nIt's the same idea with Asians. Only, they're yellow so they're \"foreign\" compared to the relatively white faces of european countries", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You can't/shouldn't in general.\n\nThere's people that look distinctly Chinese, those that look distinctly Japanese and those that look distinctly Korean. I would estimate like 25% of them look like that. The other 75% it's hard to tell. There's definitely people I could easily recognize but for everyone that I can easily recognize, there's MORE that I can't.\n\nThe other way to try to tell is by their accent or what language they speak. If you're some what familiar with the different Asian languages you can tell what language they're speaking even if you don't understand it.\n\nOr you can tell by last name like someone already suggested.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42161679", "title": "Immigration to Japan", "section": "Section::::Immigrant integration into Japanese society.:Ethnicity and nationality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 301, "text": "The concept of as represented in Japanese makes no distinction between racial, ethnic, and national identities. Where the census of the United Kingdom, for example, separates \"ethnic or racial background\" from nationality, the Japanese Census and Statistics Bureau do not distinguish between the two.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7612319", "title": "Chinese people in Japan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 696, "text": "Chinese people in Japan include any people self-identifying as ethnic-Chinese or people possessing Chinese citizenship living in Japan. People aged 22 or older cannot possess dual-citizenship in Japan, so Chinese possessing Japanese citizenship typically no longer possess Chinese citizenship. The term \"Chinese people\" typically refers to the Han Chinese, the main ethnic group living in China (PRC) (including Hong Kong and Macau SARs), Taiwan (ROC), and Singapore. Officially, China (PRC) is home to 55 additional ethnic minorities, including people such as Tibetans, though these people might not self-identify as Chinese. Han Chinese people have had a long history in Japan (as a minority).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "372983", "title": "Chinese people", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 394, "text": "Chinese people are the various individuals or ethnic groups associated with China, usually through ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, citizenship or other affiliation. Han Chinese, the largest ethnic group in China, at about 92% of the population, are often referred to as \"Chinese\" or \"ethnic Chinese\" in English, however there are dozens of other related and unrelated ethnic groups in China.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "364338", "title": "Respect", "section": "Section::::Signs and other ways of knowing respect.:Language.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 244, "text": "In the Chinese culture, individuals often address their friends as juniors and seniors even if they are just a few months younger or older. When a Chinese person asks someone their age they often do this so they know how to address the person.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15576", "title": "Demographics of Japan", "section": "Section::::Migration.:Immigration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 401, "text": "Japanese statistical authorities do not collect information on ethnicity, only nationality. As a result, both native and naturalized Japanese citizens are counted in a single group. Although official statistics show near homogeneity, one analysis describe the population as “multi-ethnic”, although unofficial statistics still show that ethnic minorities are small compared with many other countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1162876", "title": "Koreans in Japan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 624, "text": "They currently constitute the second largest ethnic minority group in Japan after Chinese immigrants due to many Koreans assimilating into the general Japanese population. The majority of Koreans in Japan are , often known simply as , who are the permanent ethnic Korean residents of Japan. The term Zainichi Korean refers only to long-term Korean residents of Japan who trace their roots to Korea under Japanese rule, distinguishing them from the later wave of Korean migrants who came mostly in the 1980s, and from pre-modern immigrants dating back to antiquity who may themselves be the ancestors of the Japanese people.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55063", "title": "China proper", "section": "Section::::Extent.:Ethnic perspective.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 436, "text": "Ethnic Han Chinese is not synonymous with speakers of the Chinese language. Many non-Han Chinese ethnicities, such as the Hui and Manchu, are essentially monolingual in Chinese, but do not identify as Han Chinese. The Chinese language itself is also a complex entity, and should be described as a family of related languages rather than a single language if the criterion of mutual intelligibility is used to classify its subdivisions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A fear of clowns deals with something known as the \"uncanny valley\". It applies to objects that are close enough to humans to be recognized as such, but they aren't quite \"right\".\n\nFeatures are drawn to be highly exaggerated. Your brain doesn't know how to react. \"It's like me... But it's not. It might attack.\" It's the same reason that people are afraid of dolls. They're so familiar, but something is off.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30971919", "title": "Autophobia", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 871, "text": "Another experience that doctors believe leads individuals to develop this phobia is children being abandoned, usually by their parents, when they are very young. This first causes childhood trauma that then persists to affect them as they grow up. This turns into autophobia because they are now afraid that all of the important people in their lives are going to leave or abandon them. Therefore, this particular phobia can come from behavior and experiences that these people have had when they were growing up. However, abandonment does not necessarily mean being left alone physically, this also includes being isolated financially or emotionally. Having drastic, life-altering experiences, particularly causes more trauma which makes this phobia worse. People that have very high anxiety and in this case are more “high strung,” are more susceptible to this phobia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4829543", "title": "Heliophobia", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 459, "text": "Phobias are classified as a type of anxiety disorder. There is often no discernible cause of phobia onset, though Rachman describes three possibilities: classical conditioning, vicarious acquisition and informational/instructional acquisition. Occasionally they are triggered by harmful events surrounding the phobic object or situation - in this case, for example, severe sunburn, chronic light-triggered migraines, or trauma accompanied by bright sunlight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33901877", "title": "Childhood phobias", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 352, "text": "A childhood phobia is an exaggerated, intense fear “that is out of proportion to any real fear” found in children. It is often characterized by a preoccupation with a particular object, class of objects, or situation that one fears. A phobic reaction is twofold—the first part being the “intense irrational fear’ and the second part being “avoidance.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8750561", "title": "Phobophobia", "section": "Section::::Cause and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1182, "text": "Phobophobia is mainly linked with internal predispositions. It is developed by the unconscious mind which is linked to an event in which phobia was experienced with emotional trauma and stress, which are closely linked to anxiety disorders and by forgetting and recalling the initiating trauma. Phobophobia might develop from other phobias, in which the intense anxiety and panic caused by the phobia might lead to fearing the phobia itself, which triggers phobophobia before actually experiencing the other phobia. The extreme fear towards the other phobia can lead the patient to believe that their condition may develop into something worse, intensifying the effects of the other phobia by fearing it. Also, phobophobia can be developed when anxiety disorders are not treated, creating an extreme predisposition to other phobias. The development of phobophobia can also be attributed to characteristics of the patient itself, such as phylogenetic influence, the prepotency of certain stimuli, individual genetic inheritance, age incidence, sex incidence, personality background, cultural influence inside and outside the family, physiological variables and biochemical factors. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20413851", "title": "Blood-injection-injury type phobia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 319, "text": "Causes of BII phobia have yet to be fully understood. There is a body of evidence which suggests the phobia has genetic underpinnings, though many phobics also cite a traumatic life event as a cause of their fear. The fainting response accompanying the phobia may have originated as an adaptive evolutionary mechanism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23337", "title": "Phobia", "section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 566, "text": "Phobias are a common form of anxiety disorder, and distributions are heterogeneous by age and gender. An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) found that between 8.7 percent and 18.1 percent of Americans suffer from phobias, making it the most common mental illness among women in all age groups and the second most common illness among men older than 25. Between 4 percent and 10 percent of all children experience specific phobias during their lives, and social phobias occur in one percent to three percent of children and adolescents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "766888", "title": "Psychopathology", "section": "Section::::\"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 392, "text": "BULLET::::- Phobias Found in people of all ages. Characterized by an abnormal response to fear or danger. Persons diagnosed with Phobias suffer from feelings of terror and uncontrollable fear, exaggerated reactions to danger that in reality is not life-threatening, and is usually accompanied by physical reactions related to extreme fear: panic, rapid heartbeat, and/or shortened breathing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The patient can still take extra breaths when the body is signaling it needs more oxygen, but a ventilator takes away the work of breathing (the energy required to move the diaphragm again and again). A patients diaphragm may not be able to keep up with inspiratory demands with the rest of the body needing energy for other things, such as fighting off the virus. I don’t remember exactly how much breathing is in terms of energy usage, but a ventilator (if set to the right deepness, pressure, and frequency of breaths) takes away that work so your body can put it to other uses.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A ventilator has several modes to work on. Some people are so incredibly sick they have no ability to use their diaphragm to aid in breathing, it’s not that it functionally doesn’t work they just can’t. So the ventilator has modes where it does everything for them. Other modes allow the patient to breathe on their own in conjunction with the ventilator, and every time they breathe on their own the ventilator will assist with smaller amounts of pressure to make it easier. \n\nThere are several components to what the settings mean, but I’m not sure I can explain them in 5 year old terms, but if you’re interested and have questions I can certainly try! \n\nSome ventilators are also fancy and you can insert a probe down their esophagus and it can actually sense when the nerve is triggering your diaphragm to contract, and will help with the breathing that way too. Don’t ask me how, we don’t use them in my unit, but my husband has experience with them, I literally thought he was making it up when he was explaining it to me, lol.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a few modes to work with in a ventilator. We sometimes use a ventilator even when the diaphragm is working. We look for impending signs of respiratory collapse. If the body has high needs for oxygen, the diaphragm may get tired by working tirelessly and eventually stop working. So we step in with a ventilator before that happens. Also, there are a few conditions in which when a person breathes out, his lungs remove most of the air and the next inhalation takes a lot of struggle (normally some air stays inside even when we exhale fully so that small alveoli in lungs stay inflated). Consider the example of a balloon. It takes comparatively higher pressure to START blowing in air in a non-inflated balloon but once it has some air in it, it gets easier to fill more air in it. The same happens with lungs. Hence, one mode of ventilator keeps giving a background pressure even after exhalation to keep those alveoli open", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "261803", "title": "Medical ventilator", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 261, "text": "A medical ventilator (or simply ventilator in context) is a machine designed to provide mechanical ventilation by moving breathable air into and out of the lungs, to deliver breaths to a patient who is physically unable to breathe, or breathing insufficiently.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "279711", "title": "Mechanical ventilation", "section": "Section::::Types of ventilators.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 418, "text": "Ventilators come in many different styles and method of giving a breath to sustain life. There are manual ventilators such as bag valve masks and anesthesia bags that require the users to hold the ventilator to the face or to an artificial airway and maintain breaths with their hands. Mechanical ventilators are ventilators not requiring operator effort and are typically computer-controlled or pneumatic-controlled.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "279711", "title": "Mechanical ventilation", "section": "Section::::Risk.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 566, "text": "Mechanical ventilation is often a life-saving intervention, but carries potential complications including pneumothorax, airway injury, alveolar damage, ventilator-associated pneumonia, and ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis. Other complications include diaphragm atrophy, decreased cardiac output, and oxygen toxicity. One of the primary complications that presents in patients mechanically ventilated is acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). ALI/ARDS are recognized as significant contributors to patient morbidity and mortality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38687102", "title": "Mechanical power", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 487, "text": "While in many cases mechanical ventilation is a life-saving or life-preserving intervention, it also has the potential to cause harm to the patient via ventilator-associated lung injury. A number of stresses may be induced by the ventilator on the patient's lung. These include barotrauma caused by pressure, volutrauma caused by distension of the lungs, rheotrauma caused by fast-flowing delivery of gases and atelectotrauma resulting from repeated collapse and re-opening of the lung.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57169", "title": "Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 472, "text": "Ventilating or ventilation (the \"V\" in HVAC) is the process of exchanging or replacing air in any space to provide high indoor air quality which involves temperature control, oxygen replenishment, and removal of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and other gases. Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating, and prevents stagnation of the interior air.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16996257", "title": "Pulmonary contusion", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Ventilation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 956, "text": "People with signs of inadequate respiration or oxygenation may need to be intubated and mechanically ventilated. Mechanical ventilation aims to reduce pulmonary edema and increase oxygenation. Ventilation can reopen collapsed alveoli, but it is harmful for them to be repeatedly opened, and positive pressure ventilation can also damage the lung by overinflating it. Intubation is normally reserved for when respiratory problems occur, but most significant contusions do require intubation, and it may be done early in anticipation of this need. People with pulmonary contusion who are especially likely to need ventilation include those with prior severe lung disease or kidney problems; the elderly; those with a lowered level of consciousness; those with low blood oxygen or high carbon dioxide levels; and those who will undergo operations with anesthesia. Larger contusions have been correlated with a need for ventilation for longer periods of time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "974284", "title": "Duchenne muscular dystrophy", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Respiration assistance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 671, "text": "Modern \"volume ventilators/respirators,\" which deliver an adjustable volume (amount) of air to the person with each breath, are valuable in the treatment of people with muscular dystrophy-related respiratory problems. The ventilator may require an invasive endotracheal or tracheotomy tube through which air is directly delivered, but for some people, noninvasive delivery through a face mask or mouthpiece is sufficient. Positive airway pressure machines, particularly bilevel ones, are sometimes used in this latter way. The respiratory equipment may easily fit on a ventilator tray on the bottom or back of a power wheelchair with an external battery for portability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Essentially you've hit the nail on the head with your last sentence\n\n > a perceived lack of opportunity in the North\n\nWhile the First Great Migration (1910-1930) was largely caused by the brutality of Jim Crow Laws and Lynchings, another reason were the increased job opportunities in the North, which largely didn't exist before 1910. The huge jump in Northern manufacturing capability required a massive boost in labor, which African-Americans would meet. Northern manufacturers like Henry Ford even sent men into the South to recruit black laborers for their factories. Before the Great Migrations, there was simply no pull to the North or West for African Americans. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To add to /u/Dubstripsquads' response, demand was also created by a series of stiff anti-immigration laws passed by Congress. In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act was the first federal immigration law; it officially suspended Chinese immigration for a decade but had mixed effects (/u/Artrw can speak to these). After the establishment of the Bureau of Immigration in 1891, restrictions came on almost a regular basis. In 1902, the Chinese Exclusion Act was renewed for an indefinite period. In 1903, Anarchists, epileptics, polygamists and beggars were banned from immigration. In 1906, English language skills became a basic requirement for immigration.\n\nIn 1921, the landmark Quota Act of 1921 restricted immigration to 3 percent of each nationality present in the United States in 1910. Asians were still prohibited from immigration, and the act specifically targeted immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, whom the Dillingham Report of 1910 suggested were inferior to other immigrants. The U.S. State Department has [a pretty good precis of immigration laws from 1921 to 1936 here](_URL_2_).\n\nAt the same time the supply of workers was being cut through these anti-immigration laws, demand was soaring with the rise of consumer industry. In addition, the fighting of World War I raised industrial demand to previously unknown heights. In the South, too, there was a cause: The spread of the boll weevil across the South devastated its principal crop and put many farm workers off the fields.\n\nIt would be wrong to say that there was a unified, organized campaign to look to the American South for labor, but it happened anyway ─ 6 million black Americans independently making the decision to move north for employment. As [Isabel Wilkerson's *The Light of Other Suns*](_URL_1_) explains: \n\n > \"There was no leader, there was no one person who set the date who said, 'On this date, people will leave the South.' They left on their own accord for as many reasons as there are people who left. They made a choice that they were not going to live under the system into which they were born anymore and in some ways it was the first step that the nation's servant class ever took without asking.\"\n\nBetween 1910 and 1970, nearly 6 million black Americans left the South, [irrevocably changing the demographic and social map of the United States](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "97698", "title": "Grant Parish, Louisiana", "section": "Section::::Demographics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 488, "text": "The decreases in population from 1910–1920, and from 1940–1960, were chiefly caused by different phases of the Great Migration, as African Americans left segregation and oppression of the South to seek better opportunities in the North, during the first phase, and in the West, especially California's defense industry, in the second phase. Tens of thousands of migrants left Louisiana during times of agricultural difficulties and the collapse of agricultural labor after mechanization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "375540", "title": "Great Migration (African American)", "section": "Section::::Second and New Great Migration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 497, "text": "The Great Depression of the 1930s resulted in reduced migration because of decreased opportunities. With the defense buildup for World War II and with the post-war economic prosperity, migration was revived, with larger numbers of blacks leaving the South through the 1960s. After the political and civil gains of the Civil Rights Movement, in the 1970s migration began to increase again. It moved in a different direction, as blacks traveled to new regions of the South for economic opportunity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41678310", "title": "Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps", "section": "Section::::Subsequent commemoratives and definitives.:Events in the Civil War.:Culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 130, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 130, "end_character": 357, "text": "The Second Wave of Immigration reshaped American society in its diversity and urban numbers leading to an explosion of internal commerce and providing a consumer base for the coming industrial age. At 28 percent, the \"Gilded generation\" fighting the Civil War included a larger share of immigrants than any other generation in America since colonial times.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3177125", "title": "Springfield race riot of 1908", "section": "Section::::Background.:Immigrants and race.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 241, "text": "As Reconstruction came to an end, between 1870 and 1890, the United States was undergoing a massive population increase. Between 1890 and 1908, rapid industrialization and urbanization brought millions of European immigrants to the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "485133", "title": "Gilded Age", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 821, "text": "Railroads were the major growth industry, with the factory system, mining, and finance increasing in importance. Immigration from Europe, and the eastern states, led to the rapid growth of the West, based on farming, ranching, and mining. Labor unions became increasingly important in the rapidly growing industrial cities. Two major nationwide depressions—the Panic of 1873 and the Panic of 1893—interrupted growth and caused social and political upheavals. The South, after the Civil War, remained economically devastated; its economy became increasingly tied to commodities, cotton, and tobacco production, which suffered from low prices. With the end of the Reconstruction era in 1877, African-American people in the South were stripped of political power and voting rights, and were left economically disadvantaged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2100581", "title": "Lynching in the United States", "section": "Section::::World War II to present.:Second Great Migration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 131, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 131, "end_character": 752, "text": "The industrial buildup to World War II acted as a \"pull\" factor in the second phase of the Second Great Migration starting in 1940 and lasting until 1970. Altogether in the first half of the 20th century, 6.5 million African Americans migrated from the South to leave lynchings and segregation behind. Unlike the first round, composed chiefly of rural farm workers, the second wave included more educated workers and their families who were already living in Southern cities and towns. In this migration, many left for Western cities in addition to Northeastern and Midwestern cities, as defense industries recruited tens of thousands to higher-paying, skilled jobs. They settled in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Phoenix, Portland, and Seattle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "375540", "title": "Great Migration (African American)", "section": "Section::::White southern reaction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 738, "text": "When the Great Migration started in the 1910s, white southern elites seemed to be unconcerned, and industrialists and cotton planters saw it as a positive, as it was siphoning off surplus industrial and agricultural labor. As the migration picked up, however, southern elites began to panic, fearing that a prolonged black exodus would bankrupt the South, and newspaper editorials warned of the danger. White employers eventually took notice and began expressing their fears. White southerners soon began trying to stem the flow in order to prevent the hemorrhaging of their labor supply, and some began attempting to address the poor living standards and racial oppression experienced by Southern blacks in order to induce them to stay.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The notion of 'sea level' isn't actually the current sea level because that changes from year to year and more profoundly from place to place. Weather, moon, the geography of the water body in the area, and climate change, are just a few of the things that change 'actual' sea level (this is all from [Wikipedia](_URL_0_)).\n\nIn science, people are usually trying to describe a standard pressure, which has been generally agreed upon as [standard sea level](_URL_1_) or 101.325 kPa. As for other uses of 'sea-level' where you're literally talking about water level and not just the pressure of a standard system, you're pretty much stuck using the mean water-level or whatever makes sense in the context of what's being described. I doubt that standard pressure will be adjusted anytime soon for increasing global water levels, only because there already remains such a vast variation in sea levels and pressures for the reasons I listed above, but even moreso because the past century of science uses the standard for pretty much everything.\n\nAnd finally, I'm not sure exactly what you're talking about when you say 0, but you might be talking about a specific datum?\n > In the UK, the Ordnance Datum (the 0 metres height on UK maps) is the mean sea level measured at Newlyn in Cornwall between 1915 and 1921. Prior to 1921, the datum was MSL at the Victoria Dock, Liverpool.\n\nTL;DR: Standard pressure references probably won't change, but sea-level has already been changing quite profoundly depending on how you look at it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58691342", "title": "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C", "section": "Section::::Main Statements.:Impact of 1.5°C or 2°C warming.:Weather, sea level, ice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 246, "text": "The \"global mean sea level is projected rise (relative to 1986-2005) by 0.26 to 0.77m by 2100 for 1.5°C global warming\" and about 0.1m more for 2°C. A difference of 0.1m may correspond to 10 million more or fewer people exposed to related risks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "62529", "title": "Sea level", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 638, "text": "Mean sea level (MSL) (often shortened to sea level) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic datumthat is used, for example, as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation, or, in aviation, as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured to calibrate altitude and, consequently, aircraft flight levels. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is instead the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57436987", "title": "Relative sea level", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 425, "text": "Relative sea level (abbreviated as RSL) is defined as the sea level that is observed with respect to a land-based reference frame. It is often contrasted with eustatic sea level, which is a measure of the total mass or volume of the oceans. Relative sea level can change by the processes changing eustatic sea level (e.g. ice melt and thermal expansion), but also by changes on land such as subsidence and isostatic rebound.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2113608", "title": "Supercontinent cycle", "section": "Section::::Effects on sea level.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 307, "text": "As the mean level of the sea floor decreases, the volume of the ocean basins increases, and if other factors that can control sea level remain constant, sea level falls. The converse is also true: younger oceanic lithosphere leads to shallower oceans and higher sea levels if other factors remain constant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17005656", "title": "Subboreal", "section": "Section::::Sea level.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 272, "text": "Like in the Atlantic, the global sea level kept on rising during the Subboreal but at a much slower rate. The increase amounted to about 1 m, which corresponds to a rate of 0.3 mm per year. At the end of the Subboreal, the sea level was about 1 m below the current value.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26406489", "title": "Physical impacts of climate change", "section": "Section::::Geophysical systems.:Oceans.:Sea level rise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 576, "text": "IPCC (2007a:13, 14) projected sea level rise to the end of the 21st century using the [[Special Report on Emissions Scenarios|SRES]] emission [[economics of global warming#Scenarios|scenarios]]. Across the six SRES marker scenarios, sea level was projected to rise by 18 to 59 cm (7.1 to 23.2 inches). This projection was for the time period 2090–2099, with the increase in level relative to average sea levels over the 1980–1999 period. Due to a lack of scientific understanding, this sea level rise estimate does not include all of the possible contributions of ice sheets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1268258", "title": "Eustatic sea level", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 378, "text": "The eustatic sea level is the distance from the center of the earth to the sea surface. An increase of the eustatic sea level can be generated by decreasing glaciation, increasing spreading rates of the mid-ocean ridges or more mid-oceanic ridges. Conversely, increasing glaciation, decreasing spreading rates or fewer mid-ocean ridges lead to a fall of the eustatic sea level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "All bacteria have certain temperatures that their enzymes, or proteins in their bodies which process nutrients and other things perform at the maximum rate. As the environment temperature increases, enzyme action increases until it reaches a high enough temperature that enzymes denature, meaning that their substrate area (where enzymes attach to food) unfold, therefore not allowing them to interact with what they are supposed to. As temperature gets colder, enzymes simply work at a slower pace. So I guess the basic answer to your question is that temperature speeds up enzyme activity, allowing them to process nutrients faster allowing for faster growth. Sorry for the lengthy response...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1633355", "title": "Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 477, "text": "External conditions such as acidity and temperature affect the growth rates of \"Lactobacillus sanfrancisco\". One study found that of temperature of 33 °C (91 °F) leads to maximum growth rates, whereas temperatures over 41 °C (105 °F) completely inhibit the bacteria growth. Ideal and maximum growth temperatures of other organisms may be quite different; for instance a common yeast in sourdough, \"Candida milleri\", prefers 27 °C (81 °F) and will not grow above 36 °C (97 °F).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40138", "title": "Bacterial growth", "section": "Section::::Environmental conditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 469, "text": "Environmental factors influence rate of bacterial growth such as acidity (pH), temperature, water activity, macro and micro nutrients, oxygen levels, and toxins. Conditions tend to be relatively consistent between bacteria with the exception of extremophiles. Bacterium have optimal growth conditions under which they thrive, but once outside of those conditions the stress can result in either reduced or stalled growth, dormancy (such as formation spores), or death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "300420", "title": "Mesophile", "section": "Section::::Adaptations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 616, "text": "All bacteria have their own optimum environmental surroundings and temperatures in which they thrive. Many factors are responsible for a given organism's optimal temperature range, but evidence suggests that the expression of particular genetic elements (alleles) can alter the temperature-sensitive phenotype of the organism. A recently published study demonstrated that mesophilic bacteria could be genetically engineered to express certain alleles from psychrophilic bacteria, consequently shifting the restrictive temperature range of the mesophilic bacteria to closely match that of the psychrophilic bacteria.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5934762", "title": "Brucella abortus", "section": "Section::::Bacteria Reaction.:Survival.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 456, "text": "Temperature plays a huge role in the survival of \"B. abortus\". The bacteria can survive for a longer period of time if they are at a cooler temperature. This is why it can transmit through liquids like milk and tap water. \"B. abortus\" can last a lot longer in animals if they aren’t watched closely and if the cattle aren’t getting treatment for it. In humans, it can be caught after noticing signs and the correct tests to determine the type of bacteria.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35215882", "title": "Isothermal microcalorimetry", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Examples of applications.:Biology and medicine.:Microbiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 117, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 117, "end_character": 1199, "text": "In general, bacteria are about 1/10 the size of mammalian cells and produce perhaps 1/10 as much metabolic heat-i.e. ca. 3x10 W/cell. Thus, compared to mammalian cells (see above) ca. 10X as many bacteria—ca. 330,000—must be present to produce detectable heat flow—i.e. 1 μW. However, many bacteria replicate orders of magnitude more rapidly in culture than mammalian cells, often doubling their number in a matter of minutes (see Bacterial growth). As a result, a small initial number of bacteria in culture and initially undetectable by IMC rapidly produce a detectable number. For example, 100 bacteria doubling every 20 minutes will in less than 4 hours produce 330,000 bacteria and thus an IMC-detectable heat flow. Consequently, IMC can be used for easy, rapid detection of bacteria in the medical field. Examples include detection of bacteria in human blood platelet products (Trampuz et al. 2007) and urine (Bonkat \"et al.\" 2011) and rapid detection of tuberculosis (Braissant et al. 2010, Rodriguez et al. 2011). Fig. 7 shows an example of detection times of Tuberculosis bacteria as a function of the initial amount of bacteria present in a closed IMC ampoule containing a culture medium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29223911", "title": "Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris", "section": "Section::::Environment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 242, "text": "The optimum temperature range for bacterial growth and host symptom development is between 25° to 30 °C. A slower rate of growth is observed at temperatures as low as 5 °C and up to 35 °C. However, infected hosts are symptomless below 18 °C.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31055046", "title": "Jundiz recycling plant", "section": "Section::::Biodigestor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 569, "text": "Different species of bacteria are able to survive at different temperature ranges. Ones living optimally at temperatures between 35–40 °C are called mesophiles or mesophilic bacteria. Some of the bacteria can survive at the hotter and more hostile conditions of 55–60 °C, these are called thermophile.Methanogens come from the domain of archaea. This family includes species that can grow in the hostile conditions of hydrothermal vents. These species are more resistant to heat and can therefore operate at high temperatures, a property that is unique to thermophile.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "He was already found guilty, the issue here is that the sentence for the guilt was out of line considering the sentencing guidelines.\n\nDouble Jeopardy protects from being tried again for the same crime (decision of guilt or not), not protection from an improper trial (hung jury, mistrial, etc).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Lawyer here! Double jeopardy exists to keep someone from being *tried* multiple times (for the same conduct). That's it. There's nothing saying a defendant can't be re-sentenced.\n\nIn the case here, the trial has already happened. The guy was convicted. The ship has sailed. But the sentence imposed by the trial court was legally flawed, so the appeals court told it to try again. It's not uncommon.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Double Jeopardy is a bit more complex than people assume.\n\nIt isn't a major concern in the appellate process for cases like this. The man was already found guilty, the question was whether the sentence was appropriate. \n\nMost states have a certain amount of time that it is appropriate to sentence someone for whatever crime. Generally speaking, if you are convicted of, let's say, a \"level X felony\" there is a specific amount of time you are supposed to go to jail. Again, generally, if a judge does not sentence that proscribed amount of time, the sentence handed down is subject to appeal. There is almost always a list of criteria that can allow a judge to go outside the proscribed time, either sentencing more time, or less. For this crime, it seems that one of the criteria was how much control the victim had over the situation. Because the sentencing judge felt the victim had substantial control, the judge sentenced him for less time. The prosecution said that the convicted person should have served at least four years, so they appealed the judges sentencing, not the determination that the person was guilty. (EDIT: It wasn't that the prosecution just felt like he should have served four years; four years was probably what the statute proscribed that he serve. Had the judge sentenced the person beyond what would have been proscribed in the statute then the convicted person's lawyers could have appealed the sentence to try to get it lowered. The same way that certain factors can mitigate the length of a sentence, certain factors can enhance the sentence handed down, like if the crime had been done for racial reasons[depending on the statute, there is a lot of broad strokes stuff going on in my answer because 99% of the law depends on something that depends on something that depends on something])\n\nThis is not a jeopardy issue. A jeopardy issue would be if the original court had found the person not guilty, and then the state charged him again. There would also have been a jeopardy issue if the judge had sentenced him to a time proscribed by that state's statutes and then the state tried to appeal it to get a different sentencing time. \n\nYou are protected from being twice put in jeopardy by the Fifth Amendment, when jeopardy occurs is a legal issue that may vary in each situation and jurisdiction. If I recall correctly, jeopardy generally attaches when the jury is sworn in for jury trials, and I believe when the first witness is called in a bench trial.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Others answered the main part here pretty well. But I should also point out that there are other ways in which Double Jeopardy does not apply.\n\nThe biggest thing being the appellate courts. When you appeal something, the courts don't examine your guiltiness/nonguiltiness. They don't care about that. They examine the case itself and ensure that everything was conducted the way it was supposed to be conducted. If there's anything that looks like it could possibly be unfair or perhaps evidence was submitted that actually shouldn't have been allowed etc, the appellate courts can overturn the ruling and another trial can commence.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "57090585", "title": "Burks v. United States", "section": "Section::::Court Decision.:The Long Answer.:Reasoning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 1329, "text": "The Court also explained why the Double Jeopardy Clause permits a second prosecution following reversal for trial error—such as flawed jury instructions, evidentiary rulings, or prosecutorial misconduct—but not for evidentiary insufficiency. Because trial errors \"impl[y] nothing with respect to the guilt or innocence of the defendant,\" the Court reasoned, \"[i]t would be a high price indeed for society to pay were every accused granted immunity from punishment because of any defect sufficient to constitute reversible error in the proceedings leading to conviction.\" Where trial error occurs, a defendant \"has a strong interest in obtaining a fair readjudication of his guilt free from error, just as society maintains a valid concern for insuring that the guilty are punished.\" The same cannot be said after a reversal for insufficiency of the evidence, where the prosecution has already had \"one fair opportunity to offer whatever proof it could assemble.\" What is more, the Court observed, it is no small matter for a reviewing court to reverse a conviction on these grounds, as it \"must sustain the verdict if there is substantial evidence, viewed in the light most favorable to the Government, to uphold the jury's decision.\" The \"prosecution's failure [will be] clear\" in cases where a reviewing court holds otherwise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3460666", "title": "Criminal Justice Act 2003", "section": "Section::::Retrial for serious offences (the \"double jeopardy\" rule).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 777, "text": "The double jeopardy rule means that a person cannot be tried more than once for the same offence. It is an important safeguard to acquitted defendants, but there is an important general public interest in ensuring that those who have committed serious crimes are convicted of them. The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry Report recognised that the rule is capable of causing grave injustice to victims and the community in certain cases where compelling fresh evidence has come to light after an acquittal. It called for a change in the law to be considered, and we have accepted that such a change is appropriate. The European Convention on Human Rights (Article 4(2) of Protocol 7) explicitly recognises the importance of being able to re-open cases where new evidence comes to light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57090585", "title": "Burks v. United States", "section": "Section::::Court Decision.:The Long Answer.:Precedent.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 319, "text": "Finally, the Court had held in \"Forman v. United States\" that a new trial following a reversal—no matter the ground—never constitutes double jeopardy: \"It is elementary in our law that a person can be tried a second time for an offense when his prior conviction for that same offense has been set aside by his appeal.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7941", "title": "Double jeopardy", "section": "Section::::European Convention on Human Rights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 348, "text": "In many European countries, the prosecution may appeal an acquittal to a higher court. This is not regarded as double jeopardy, but as a continuation of the same case. The European Convention on Human Rights permits this by using the phrase \"\"finally\" acquitted or convicted\" (emphasis added) as the trigger for prohibiting subsequent prosecution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57090585", "title": "Burks v. United States", "section": "Section::::Relevant Constitutional Provision.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1117, "text": "Among other things, \"[t]he Double Jeopardy Clause forbids a second trial for the purpose of affording the prosecution another opportunity to supply evidence which it failed to muster in the first proceeding.\" The Clause does so to \"protect an individual from being subjected to the hazards of trial and possible conviction more than once for an alleged offense.\" An acquittal triggers this protection. As the Court recently explained: '[T]he law attaches particular significance to an acquittal,' \"United States v. Scott\", so a merits-related ruling concludes proceedings absolutely. This is because '[t]o permit a second trial after an acquittal, however mistaken the acquittal may have been, would present an unacceptably high risk that the Government, with its vastly superior resources, might wear down the defendant so that ‘even though innocent he may be found guilty,’. And retrial following an acquittal would upset a defendant's expectation of repose, for it would subject him to additional 'embarrassment, expense and ordeal' while 'compelling him to live in a continuing state of anxiety and insecurity.'\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "649139", "title": "Prejudice (legal term)", "section": "Section::::With prejudice and without prejudice.:Criminal law.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 327, "text": "If a criminal case is brought to trial and the defendant is acquitted, jeopardy is attached to the case and it can never be retried. If the defendant was convicted and his conviction is overturned, jeopardy is not attached because the defendant is considered to simply be in the same state they were before the case was tried.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56362066", "title": "Blueford v. Arkansas", "section": "Section::::Supreme Court.:Arguments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1055, "text": "Before the Supreme Court, Blueford argued that the Double Jeopardy Clause prohibits a retrial on charges of capital murder and first-degree murder because the foreperson's report that the jury had unanimously voted against those charges acquitted him of those charges. Blueford asserted that even though the jury had not filled out a formal form verdict, the foreperson's clear announcement in open court that the jury had unanimously voted to acquit Blueford of charges constituted a final verdict of acquittal. Additionally, Blueford argued that because the trial court had instructed the jury to consider the lesser included charges only if the jury had unanimously voted to acquit on the more serious charge, the jury's deadlock on manslaughter established that it had acquitted Blueford on capital murder and first-degree murder. Blueford also contended that because a conviction of a lesser included offense implicitly acquits on a more serious offense, a deadlock on a lesser included offense must also implicitly acquit on a more serious offense.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A little bit of google makes it seem like your dad is right. Because wiki says that the way your teacher did it, it can refer to acetic acid, or several other compounds. _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "CH3COOH is the correct way to describe the structure in organic chemistry, but if you're just looking at the stoichiometric formula then the C2H4O2 is technically correct.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They're both technically correct, but your dad is correcter. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think the term your teacher should have used is carboxylate or acetate if you're referring specifically to the ionic form of acetic acid but this is definitely a situation where many chemists throw these terms without the rigid specificity normally expected of scientists.\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nif you scroll down to TMA acetate you'll see an example of this ion.\n\n_URL_1_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We generally write CH3COOH in the lab, however it is still technically correct to write it your teacher's way. The reason why it is more common to use CH3COOH is because that depicts a better physical representation of how the actual [acetic acid molecule](_URL_0_) is structured. As you can see, it starts with the CH3 methyl group on one side, which is then connected to another C atom which has two O attached to it, and then finally there is an H attached to one of the O.\n\nKnowing how a molecule is structured will also help you understand how that molecule will behave in a chemical reaction. For example, if we write it down your teacher's way C2H4O2, we don't see that there is H on the end of the molecule which can ionize, and therefore we don't even know it's an acid! Also present in the molecule that I already mentioned is the methyl group, which is quite apparent in your \"father's\" naming convention. That methyl group might react in a very unique manner in various chemical reactions, so it is important to know that acetic acid contains the methyl group. Another functional group you could single out in the acetic acid molecule is the acetyl group, CH3CO–, which will also react in a very specific manner in many different chemical reactions. I remember seeing acetic acid quite a bit back in my polymer science courses in many different reactions, and the acetyl group played a role in a few of those reactions. In polymer science, it's absolutely necessary to know the physical structure of each molecule you're working with, because that will give you clues on melting temperatures, the behavior of the polymer, strength of the polymer, and other physical properties.\n\nI'm not sure how far along in chemistry you are, so don't let me talk down on you, but knowing certain \"functional groups\" (like the methyl and acetyl groups I just mentioned) is pretty important when you get into organic chemistry and beyond. These functional groups also appear in many other molecules, and they tend to behave similarly in those other molecules as well. Recognizing various functional groups and understanding their behavior will become more important as you advance in your chemistry career.\n\nThere's another reason why a lot of scientists in practice use your father's naming convention as well. It's actually the simplist reason, too. There are actually other chemical compounds that share the same number of H, O and C atoms. For example, HO-CH=CH-OH is a chemical that could also be written out as C2H4O2. Using the CH3COOH naming convention gets rid of these ambiguous statements.\n\nSo to sum up: writing the *very* well known and well used acetic acid as CH3COOH will help reflect the molecules physical structure, which will also help tell the scientist how the chemical may react in any given situation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "56969043", "title": "Korean Chemistry Olympiad", "section": "Section::::Process.:Test 1.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 447, "text": "After the on-line questions, students will take a test about what they have learned while solving the on-line questions. First grade students in high school take this test. The questions are based on basic chemistry. The test can determine how much the students understand basic chemistry. 80 well-ranked students can join the Summer school 1. About one organic chemistry questions appear in the test. All the tests are held in Konkuk University.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39732185", "title": "Nellie May Naylor", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 778, "text": "\"When a freshman girl comes over to a chemistry class, she perhaps leaves a class in cookery, meal planning, or color and design, which has held her interest because of her familiarity with that work and her sympathetic attitude toward it. Entering her chemistry class, she is bewildered by the array of unrecognized pieces of apparatus and the unfamiliar terms used. Can we wonder at the lack of attention in chemistry class as we begin to discuss the law of multiple proportion or the percentage of iron in certain ores? Yet we can demand that attention if we approach the subject by an explanation of how our grandmothers used iron pots and kettles, black and unattractive, heavy and hard to handle, while all the time in the clay around there was an abundance of aluminum.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27199689", "title": "M. Kumarasamy College of Engineering", "section": "Section::::Science & Humanities.:Chemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 267, "text": "The Department of chemistry was established in the year 2000 with the destination of offering basic knowledge to the undergraduate students in Science and Technology. It fulfills the basic needs of undergraduate students and strengthens their knowledge in Chemistry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3489887", "title": "University of Hyderabad", "section": "Section::::Schools and departments.:School of Chemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 267, "text": "The School of Chemistry admits students to its M.Sc. and Ph.D. programmes. The school's curriculum covers all branches of chemistry in keeping with the interdisciplinary nature of the subject today. The school's research and its faculty have gained wide recognition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1579586", "title": "Physics First", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 565, "text": "Others point out that, for example, secondary school students will never study the advanced physics that underlies chemistry in the first place. “[I]nclined planes (frictionless or not) didn't come up in ... high school chemistry class ... and the same can be said for some of the chemistry that really makes sense of biological phenomena.” For physics to be relevant to a chemistry course, students have to develop a truly fundamental understanding of the concepts of energy, force, and matter, beyond the context of specific applications like the inclined plane.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "665574", "title": "United States National Chemistry Olympiad", "section": "Section::::Exam format.:Multiple choice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 636, "text": "The first part contains 60 multiple-choice questions. Each question has four answer choices. The questions are loosely grouped into 10 sets of 6 items; each set corresponds to a different chemistry topic. Typically, the topics are, in order, descriptive chemistry/laboratory techniques, stoichiometry, gases/liquids/solids, thermodynamics, kinetics, equilibrium, electrochemistry, electronic structure/periodic trends, bonding theories, and organic chemistry. There is no penalty for guessing; a student's score is equal to the number of questions answered correctly. One and a half hours (90 minutes) are allotted for this first part.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8469210", "title": "Isaac Mustafin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 581, "text": "programs in chemistry with the participation of Professor Mustafin: the editor of the program Lyudmila Boiko, a philologist, recollects that the most interesting lessons in chemistry were given to her by professor Mustafin in recording TV programs; to this day she remembers his curious parallels and witty notes. For example, Mustafin stated that chemical reaction is similar to a performance, in which all characters are known, and chemical thermodynamics allows one to peep behind the curtain and find out what will become with the heroes of this performance as a result of the\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They're not really waterproof, is the simple answer. They're mostly waterproof, and rely on angles to shed and wick the water away faster than it would drip out the other side. \n\nThis means you can make a relatively light and inexpensive material that still allows for airflow. \n\nAs to why your finger makes it come through, it's basically surface tension. When there's nothing touching the inside, the water sticks together and drains down, but when you touch it, the water can stick together and flow onto your finger. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3116287", "title": "Waterproof fabric", "section": "Section::::Definition and specifications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 293, "text": "Waterproof/breathable fabrics resist liquid water passing through, but allow water vapour to pass through. Their ability to block out rain and snow while allowing vapour from sweat to evaporate leads to their use in rainwear, waterproof outdoor sports clothing, tents, and other applications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "235363", "title": "Tent", "section": "Section::::General considerations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 869, "text": "Tent fabric may be made of many materials including cotton (canvas), nylon, felt and polyester. Cotton absorbs water, so it can become very heavy when wet, but the associated swelling tends to block any minute holes so that wet cotton is more waterproof than dry cotton. Cotton tents were often treated with paraffin to enhance water resistance. Nylon and polyester are much lighter than cotton and do not absorb much water; with suitable coatings they can be very waterproof, but they tend to deteriorate over time due to a slow chemical breakdown caused by ultraviolet light. The most common treatments to make fabric waterproof are silicone impregnation or polyurethane coating. Since stitching makes tiny holes in a fabric seams are often sealed or taped to block these holes and maintain waterproofness, though in practice a carefully sewn seam can be waterproof.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2099543", "title": "Waterproofing", "section": "Section::::In clothing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1146, "text": "Some garments, and tents, are designed to give greater or lesser protection against rain. For urban use raincoats and jackets are used; for outdoor activities in rough weather there is a range of hiking apparel. Typical descriptions are \"showerproof\", \"water resistant\", and \"waterproof\". These terms are not precisely defined. A showerproof garment will usually be treated with a water-resisting coating, but is not rated to resist a specific hydrostatic head. This is suitable for protection against light rain, but after a short time water will penetrate. A water-resistant garment is similar, perhaps slightly more resistant to water but also not rated to resist a specific hydrostatic head. A garment described as waterproof will have a water-repellent coating, with the seams also taped to prevent water ingress there. Better waterproof garments have a membrane lining designed to keep water out but allow trapped moisture to escape (\"breathability\")—a \"totally\" waterproof garment would retain body sweat and become clammy. Waterproof garments specify their hydrostatic rating, ranging from 1,500 for light rain, to 20,000 for heavy rain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16761344", "title": "External wall insulation", "section": "Section::::Dampness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 651, "text": "The application of External Wall Insulation can help to deal with rain penetration problems through solid walls by blocking wind-driven rain. However, it can also make the problem worse if poor detailing (e.g. around eaves) allows water to pass behind the external wall insulation where it can become trapped. A high standard of design and installation should therefore be insisted upon. The dangers of not adequately designing and specifying these systems is dealt with in a research paper written by Joe Malone and published in the CIOB's Construction, Research and Innovation Journal (Volume 4, Issue 4, Dec 2013 The Risky Business of Covering Up)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7676521", "title": "Hiking equipment", "section": "Section::::Apparel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 399, "text": "Basic outdoor clothing materials are goose down, wool, polyester, and polyolefin, which provide similar degrees of insulation when dry. Wool and polyesters perform reasonably well for most weather conditions and provide some insulation while wet. Cotton/linen wicks moisture, good for hot/humid weather. Cotton, linen and down lose insulation when wet unless they are treated to be water-resistant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21779320", "title": "Rainscreen", "section": "Section::::The rainscreen system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 624, "text": "In a rainscreen the air gap allows the circulation of air on the moisture barrier. (These may or may not serve as a vapour barrier, which can be installed on the interior or exterior side of the insulation depending on the climate). This helps direct water away from the main exterior wall which in many climates is insulated. Keeping the insulation dry helps prevent problems such as mold formation and water leakage. The vapour-permeable air/weather barrier prevents water molecules from entering the insulated cavity but allows the passage of vapour, thus reducing the trapping of moisture within the main wall assembly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8208783", "title": "Weatherstripping", "section": "Section::::Weatherstripping in buildings.:Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 329, "text": "Weatherstripping around openings – especially doors and windows – is used in buildings to keep out weather, increase interior comfort, lower utility bills, and reduce noise. Builder weatherstripping can be made from felt; vinyl, rubber, or poly foam; EPDM cellular rubber and vinyl tubing; and metals such as brass and aluminum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There is a radiolab pod cast about this topic....pretty much all debris is clasified by size and tracked individually by an agency sort of like NASA. They ping alerts to crews who might encounter the larger peices so they can avoid it but they said there is pretty much no way to keep track of the really small bits as there is soo much of it.\n\nAlso mentionioned is that if too much builds up due to a major incident then we are pretty much fucked.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The [US Space Surveillance Network](_URL_0_) includes both ground-based sensors and satellites that do the tracking.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4110735", "title": "NASA Orbital Debris Program Office", "section": "Section::::Measurements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 613, "text": "Measurements of near-Earth orbital debris are accomplished by conducting ground-based and space-based observations of the orbital debris environment. Data is acquired using ground-based radars and optical telescopes , space-based telescopes, and analysis of spacecraft surfaces returned from space. Some important data sources have been the U.S. Space Surveillance Network, the Haystack X-Band Radar, and returned surfaces from the Solar Max, Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), and the Space Shuttle spacecraft. The data provide validation of the environment models and identify the presence of new sources.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "266344", "title": "Space debris", "section": "Section::::Tracking and measurement.:Tracking from the ground.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 522, "text": "Radar and optical detectors such as lidar are the main tools for tracking space debris. Although objects under have reduced orbital stability, debris as small as 1 cm can be tracked, however determining orbits to allow re-acquisition is difficult. Most debris remain unobserved. The NASA Orbital Debris Observatory tracked space debris with a liquid mirror transit telescope. FM Radio waves can detect debris, after reflecting off them onto a receiver. Optical tracking may be a useful early-warning system on spacecraft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9015137", "title": "2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Space debris tracking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 211, "text": "As of April 2019, 3,000 of the 10,000 pieces of space debris routinely tracked by the US Military as a threat to the International Space Station were known to have originated from the 2007 satellite shoot down.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "526864", "title": "STS-63", "section": "Section::::Mission highlights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 486, "text": "On flight day two, the crew deployed the Orbital Debris Radar Calibration System-II (ODERACS-II) to help characterize orbital debris environment for objects smaller than 10 centimeters (about four inches) in diameter. Complement of six target objects of known dimensions and with limited orbital lifespans released into orbit and tracked by ground-based radars, allowing precise calibration of radars so they can more accurately track smaller pieces of space debris in low Earth orbit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2026812", "title": "EISCAT", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 701, "text": "The system was also tested for space debris tracking and the radars were proven to be capable of statistical observations of Low-Earth orbit (LEO) debris (altitudes of 500 to 1500 km) down to 2 cm in size. Since these measurements are insufficient to determine complete orbits, the radar has only limited space surveillance value. Because the space debris tracking change is only a dedicated back-end computer system, the primary EISCAT observations are not compromised. As a result of that, the EISCAT radars allow continuous monitoring of the LEO debris in a beam park mode, functioning as a space surveillance system part of the European Space Agency's Space Situational Awareness Programme (SSA).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "266344", "title": "Space debris", "section": "Section::::Tracking and measurement.:Measurement in space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 426, "text": "Returned space hardware is a valuable source of information on the directional distribution and composition of the (sub-millimetre) debris flux. The LDEF satellite deployed by mission STS-41-C \"Challenger\" and retrieved by STS-32 \"Columbia\" spent 68 months in orbit to gather debris data. The EURECA satellite, deployed by STS-46 \"Atlantis\" in 1992 and retrieved by STS-57 \"Endeavour\" in 1993, was also used for debris study.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2680305", "title": "Sample-return mission", "section": "Section::::Sample-return missions.:New missions after a 20-year hiatus.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 443, "text": "The Earth-Orbital Debris Collection (ODC) experiment was deployed on the Mir space station for 18 months during 1996–97 and used aerogel to capture particles from low Earth orbit, consisting of interplanetary dust and man-made particles. Far from being \"the last sample-return mission... in... twenty years\", ODC was a portable version of an LDEF collector, decreasing collection time significantly, and effective area by orders of magnitude.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The board of directors vote him out. They might do so under pressure from prominent shareholders. Ultimately, though, the board of directors determine the executive structure of the company (including voting in new board members). He's still the chairman of the board, but that doesn't mean he runs the board, so he can be voted out.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Public companies like Papa johns are beholden to their stockholders; often there are a board of people who own a majority of the stocks who have more power than the CEO; if they dont like what the CEO is doing they can replace him", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "just because he's the founder doesn't mean he owns majority share of the company. when he sold shares of the company to investors for money, he sold majority share away. \n\nbill gates only owns 4% of microsoft.\n\nmark zuckerberg only owns 28% of facebook.\n\njeff bezoes only owns 17% of amazon. \n\nwhoever has majority shares get majority power influence over the board. that's how you share a company with thousands of owners. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Papa John's is a publicly traded company. This means that individuals can buy portions of the company called \"shares\" and the company can use that money to invest and grow. John Schnatter kept 25% of the company for himself when they went public, but the other 75% was sold in order to grow the brand. \n\nThe shareholders are represented by a board of directors. Schnatter has a lot of power, but if they all agreed he shouldn't be CEO then they can make him. They can choose a new CEO. What they *can't* do is take away his 25% of the company.\n\nSo he still owns 25% of the company. He still will make millions and millions of dollars from Papa John's. He just doesn't actually *run* the company any more.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's a great question, and it touches on a lot of public confusion over what \"CEO\" means, versus Chairman, versus Founder, President, etc. The best way to explain it is to walk you through the differences in how small and large companies are owned and managed.\n\nLet's say you own a corner store with your spouse. Ownership and decision-making rests entirely with you two, right? If you ever disagree on how money should be spent, or how the company should be run, you can probably talk things out, so no formal mechanism for that stuff is necessary.\n\nBut take a slightly larger company. Like say... a Silicon Valley startup just past its infancy. It needs $10M to grow, and the Founder doesn't have that cash on hand. So they go and look for investors willing to pony up the money.\n\nWell, investors don't know this Founder personally. They're not going to turn over, say... $2M to some random person and let them do whatever with it forever, even if they tentatively like what they've done so far. They want to make sure that money is spent wisely. But the Founder isn't going to turn over control of their business, either. So what do they do?\n\nThey vote on it! Typically, they will form a council, called a Board of Directors. Each investor, along with the Founder, gets a seat on the Board roughly equal to how much money they put in. And then the Board votes on all major decisions the company makes.\n\nExcept it's not practical to have the Board vote on *every* decision. (Imagine if the Board had to get together and vote on every hire and fire in a 500-person company!) So the Board votes to appoint someone -- the Founder to start -- to make all the day-to-day decisions, with the caveat that they could vote again to fire that person if they don't like what they're doing. That is the CEO. *The CEO works for the Board, not the other way around,* even if the CEO also has a vote on that same Board. This is the biggest important distinction between a CEO and say... just a President.\n\nThings are a little more complicated in a huge, public company, with millions of shareholders, but the principle is the same. The shareholders vote in groups to nominate a Board of Directors, and then again, the Board votes to nominate the CEO. If the CEO does something that enough shareholders dislike (like, say... pops off in public about kneeling NFL players and tanks the stock price) they can lean on the Board. If enough Board members flip, they can vote to fire the CEO.\n\nBut there is another, important title: In very large companies with large, unwieldy Boards with billions of public shares, the Board will typically nominate its *own* leader, called a Chairman, to manage the Board itself. Ideally, for separation of powers purposes, you want this to be a different person from the CEO, but very powerful and successful CEOs (like Disney's Bob Iger) can often convince the Board to also name them Chairman too.\n\nIt's now *very* difficult to fire the CEO, because as Chairman, the CEO manages the voting schedule and agenda of the very council that could conceivably ever vote to fire them. You can still do it, but it takes a *huge* majority of the Board to overrule the Chairman, and usually by that point the Chairman and CEO realizes they are so screwed that they will negotiate a resignation before it actually comes to a vote.\n\nThis is what happened in Papa John's case. But as part of his resignation negotiation as CEO, he got to keep Chairman. The Board then voted to make his former second in command the new CEO. So you can argue that Papa John really isn't giving up a huge amount of control.\n\nThe politics of these Board seats, CEO, Chairman, Founder, and shareholders can get *extremely* complicated and very dramatic -- just as complicated as any national government, with its dueling separation of powers, factions, voters, parties, etc. [Entire books have been written](_URL_0_) about some of the more famous and dramatic wars for control of major companies, if you're interested in knowing more.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52901510", "title": "Founder CEO", "section": "Section::::Founder CEO succession.:Occurrence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 416, "text": "In the three years subsequent to the firm being founded, Wasserman concluded 50% of founder CEOs step down. The following year, another 10% step down and by the time the firm has an initial public offering less than 25% of founders still hold the CEO position. This being said, the decision to step down is not always voluntary, four out of five founder CEOs are forced to relinquish their role as CEO by investors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52901510", "title": "Founder CEO", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 975, "text": "Founder CEO succession can occur through both voluntary and involuntary means. Noam Wasserman found in majority of founder CEO successions, the founder is forced to step down by investors. Founder CEOs who successfully execute product development or enter into negotiations with potential outside investors for additional capital have a higher likelihood of being replaced than those who are not as successful with product development and/or do not to raise additional capital. Indicated by several scholars, like Wasserman, as the CEO becomes successful in product development the needs of the firm expand and a mismatch between the current skills of the founder CEO and the new skills needed for the firm's success going forward is likely to occur, increasing the probability of succession. Founder CEOs are generally succeeded by someone from outside the firm. Founder CEO comebacks have occurred when the founder CEO was replaced and later returned to their role as CEO.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2154438", "title": "White Man's Burden (film)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 277, "text": "The chastened CEO visits Pinnock's grieving widow and offers her the money that Louis lost when he was fired. She refuses it, and when Thomas awkwardly asks if she wants more, she bluntly says \"How much would ever be enough?\" and closes the door in his face as the movie ends.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1071523", "title": "Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 439, "text": "She served as president, chairwoman and CEO of the company until being forced to resign as a result of the ImClone insider trading case. As part of an agreement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), she was banned from serving in any role that would allow her to prepare, audit or disclose financial results of a public company until August 2011. In effect, this banned her from serving as an officer of her own company.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45555525", "title": "Yana Peel", "section": "Section::::Career.:Serpentine Galleries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 228, "text": "She stepped down as CEO in June 2019 as a consequence of the attention paid to her co-ownership of NSO Group, an Israeli cyberweapons company whose software has allegedly been used by authoritarian regimes to spy on dissidents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18219207", "title": "John Philp Thompson Sr.", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 252, "text": "\"CEOs are the world's unelected leaders. We are given positions of power that are conducive to leaders of a small country. Therefore, we are responsible to make all our decisions with people in mind and not just with the numbers they represent to us.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "846874", "title": "Ferrero SpA", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 252, "text": "On 30 March 2017, it was announced that Lapo Civiletti will be the first non-family CEO in the history of the company and will take up the role from 1 September, while Giovanni Ferrero will become the executive chairman focusing on long-term strategy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A sunburn isn't the same as a tan. Tans are caused by the production of melanin in the skin as a response to sun exposure. Sunburns are the layers of your skin literally being burned by sunlight, and the redness is caused by inflammation, not pigment. The redness goes away as healing occurs.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20647810", "title": "Sunburn", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 778, "text": "Sunburn is caused by UV radiation, either from the sun or from artificial sources, such as tanning lamps, welding arcs, or ultraviolet germicidal irradiation. It is a reaction of the body to direct DNA damage from UVB light. This damage is mainly the formation of a thymine dimer. The damage is recognized by the body, which then triggers several defense mechanisms, including DNA repair to revert the damage, apoptosis and peeling to remove irreparably damaged skin cells, and increased melanin production to prevent future damage. Melanin readily absorbs UV wavelength light, acting as a photoprotectant. By preventing UV photons from disrupting chemical bonds, melanin inhibits both the direct alteration of DNA and the generation of free radicals, thus indirect DNA damage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20647810", "title": "Sunburn", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 213, "text": "Sunburn is an inflammatory response in the skin triggered by direct DNA damage by UV radiation. When the skin cells' DNA is overly damaged by UV radiation, type I cell-death is triggered and the skin is replaced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20647810", "title": "Sunburn", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 460, "text": "Sunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue, such as skin, that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, commonly from the Sun. Common symptoms in humans and other animals include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch, pain, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. An excess of UV radiation can be life-threatening in extreme cases. Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of primarily non-malignant skin tumors. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20647810", "title": "Sunburn", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 316, "text": "Sunburn causes an inflammation process, including production of prostanoids and bradykinin. These chemical compounds increase sensitivity to heat by reducing the threshold of heat receptor (TRPV1) activation from to . The pain may be caused by overproduction of a protein called CXCL5, which activates nerve fibres.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20647810", "title": "Sunburn", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Duration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 214, "text": "Sunburn can occur in less than 15 minutes, and in seconds when exposed to non-shielded welding arcs or other sources of intense ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, the inflicted harm is often not immediately obvious.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20647810", "title": "Sunburn", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 435, "text": "The differential diagnosis of sunburn includes other skin pathology induced by UV radiation including photoallergic reactions, phototoxic reactions to topical or systemic medications, and other dermatologic disorders that are aggravated by exposure to sunlight. Considerations for diagnosis include duration and intensity of UV exposure, use of topical or systemic medications, history of dermatologic disease, and nutritional status.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20647810", "title": "Sunburn", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Variations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 239, "text": "Minor sunburns typically cause nothing more than slight redness and tenderness to the affected areas. In more serious cases, blistering can occur. Extreme sunburns can be painful to the point of debilitation and may require hospital care.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It reduces the overall quality of the housing. It actually creates less available housing and also raises the price of homes that should be lower. \n\nI personally think that it is morally wrong because it is a violation of property rights. If someone wants to rent out his house for $1k/month and someone else is willing to pay that, why should the government not allow the two parties to make that deal?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One of the main reason capitalism works is that prices somewhat accurately reflect supply and demand. Rent control takes away this information. As a result, there isn't the same incentive to create new developments. Less new development means less supply, which would increase prices, but they're kept artificially low which compounds the problem. You end up with a situation where the government then has to step in to create new housing, because businesses don't find it profitable.\n\nHow disastrous it ends up depends on how out of tune the government rent control is with what the open market prices would have been. This isn't like banking regulations or employment insurance though, it's a reduction of information that never ends well.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In my town it is not uncommon for tenants to own property down the street while living in a rent controlled apartment at less than half the market rate for 10 years.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The laws around rent control can get really complicated really quickly, and they vary a lot from city to city . . . but let's say the basic rules are that I'm a landlord and I can only raise rent 2% per year as long as a tenant stays in their apartment.\n\nAs rent everywhere else starts going up, my tenants have nowhere else to go that they can afford. I'd really like to make more money, but I can't raise rent on my existing tenants because they don't want to leave (since everywhere else is more expensive now).\n\nThe landlords and tenants are now stuck with each other. I don't want to spend money fixing the place up, because my tenant has below-market rent. In fact, I don't care if they're unhappy, because I'd be thrilled if they moved out--I can rent that apartment out at a current rate to new tenants in a heartbeat.\n\nThe end result is people wind up sitting on apartments they should have left ages ago, but couldn't afford to, and landlords do the bare minimum maintaining their properties because they'd rather the renters come and go more often so they don't get locked in to the rent control limit. Everybody winds up worse off.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "TLDR: It causes housing shortages and degradation.\n\nImagine rent was fixed at $1/month in Saskatchewan. This is obviously ridiculous, but it'll prove a point.\n\nEveryone in Saskatchewan who is renting would be able to afford to rent. In fact, word spreads of Saskatchewans great rental prices. People begin to move to Saskatchewan, where they can take advantage. In fact, many people who used to own their homes sell their houses and begin to rent. Then one day, there's no more rental properties available.\n\nSaskatchewan Mining Company is looking to hire people all across Canada, but they can't get people to move to Saskatchewan. because there's no housing left. Even new college kids can't get a place to live.\n\nPeople are starting to realize that more apartments need to be built, but no one is willing to build them. At $1 rent, its not profitable to do so. Homelessness increases.\n\nFurthermore, landlords stop paying for things like fixing pipes because they don't have money. The quality of already existing properties declines.\n\nThe same thing happens to varying degrees at any price below equilibrium price (the price the market would set absent of any rent control).\n\nCan rent be set at a price which doesn't have these effects? Yes. But it would require politicians to set a reasonable price, while many in their constituency (renters) would want the ceiling lowered as much as possible. \n\nConsensus from economists is that the market prices rent more effectively than politicians.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Rent control is bad for cities in the **long run**. If landlords can only charge a very low rate for rent, they won't add more properties and won't bother to maintain the ones the already own. Low rent encourages more people to try and look for apartments. When more people want apartments than there are apartments to be had, **less people get housing, the housing that is rent controlled is in worse condition, and the way in which landlords decide who gets housing often ends up biased** (long waiting lists, giving preference to people they know, discriminating against race, etc.) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'll explain like you're five:\n\nLet's say you are fortunate enough to have a few playhouses that your family gave you as presents. Obviously you can't play in all of them all the time, so you, being a smart little boy or girl, decide to let the other kids from your class borrow them from you for some extra money. Let's say it's going to be $5 per week.\n\nYour friends Arthur, Bashir and Carol can afford to pay you the money because they each have a successful lemonade stand, so they get to have the playhouses for the week. Let's say they borrow it from you like this, while paying, for a few weeks (renting). You also agree that you'll come and help them fix things that break through normal play (i.e. basic landlord stuff). Eventually, you might even have enough money to buy new playhouses, and rent that out to more classmates (invest in more housing). The amount your friends pay you might change from week to week, depending on if there are other fun games they can play or other playhouses in the area they can use (market price for rents).\n\nNow a few new kids moved into town and want to rent a playhouse from you. Their parents don't give them a big allowance (lower-income families), so they can't afford to pay you, and then can't get a playhouse. They think this isn't fair, so your teacher and parents (government) come and tell you that you have to charge less money so the other kids can play too (rent control). They may outright tell you that you can't charge that much money (price ceiling) or you'll get in trouble, so now you can only charge $1 a week.\n\nSince prices are so much lower now, everyone and anyone wants to come borrow a playhouse from you, but there aren't enough to go around (housing shortage).\n\nSo now what do you do? Well, you can't get enough money to invest in new playhouses, so you don't bother to get more playhouses for your friends. You also know that, since there is so much demand, that you don't need to bother fixing stuff that breaks. Even if your friend gets mad at you and doesn't want to keep playing and paying, you can easily find someone else.\n\nThe only way other kids can even get playhouses now is if their parents buy them one (government housing), since they can't borrow from you. So now nobody's really happy.\n\n**tl;dr** You rent some playhouses for $5, your teacher says that isn't fair to the other kids, now you can only charge $1. There are more kids than playhouses and everybody loses.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Devil's advocate here:\n\nTHE RENT IS TOO DAMN HIGH!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It reduces the overall quality of the housing. It actually creates less available housing and also raises the price of homes that should be lower. \n\nI personally think that it is morally wrong because it is a violation of property rights. If someone wants to rent out his house for $1k/month and someone else is willing to pay that, why should the government not allow the two parties to make that deal?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One of the main reason capitalism works is that prices somewhat accurately reflect supply and demand. Rent control takes away this information. As a result, there isn't the same incentive to create new developments. Less new development means less supply, which would increase prices, but they're kept artificially low which compounds the problem. You end up with a situation where the government then has to step in to create new housing, because businesses don't find it profitable.\n\nHow disastrous it ends up depends on how out of tune the government rent control is with what the open market prices would have been. This isn't like banking regulations or employment insurance though, it's a reduction of information that never ends well.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In my town it is not uncommon for tenants to own property down the street while living in a rent controlled apartment at less than half the market rate for 10 years.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The laws around rent control can get really complicated really quickly, and they vary a lot from city to city . . . but let's say the basic rules are that I'm a landlord and I can only raise rent 2% per year as long as a tenant stays in their apartment.\n\nAs rent everywhere else starts going up, my tenants have nowhere else to go that they can afford. I'd really like to make more money, but I can't raise rent on my existing tenants because they don't want to leave (since everywhere else is more expensive now).\n\nThe landlords and tenants are now stuck with each other. I don't want to spend money fixing the place up, because my tenant has below-market rent. In fact, I don't care if they're unhappy, because I'd be thrilled if they moved out--I can rent that apartment out at a current rate to new tenants in a heartbeat.\n\nThe end result is people wind up sitting on apartments they should have left ages ago, but couldn't afford to, and landlords do the bare minimum maintaining their properties because they'd rather the renters come and go more often so they don't get locked in to the rent control limit. Everybody winds up worse off.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "TLDR: It causes housing shortages and degradation.\n\nImagine rent was fixed at $1/month in Saskatchewan. This is obviously ridiculous, but it'll prove a point.\n\nEveryone in Saskatchewan who is renting would be able to afford to rent. In fact, word spreads of Saskatchewans great rental prices. People begin to move to Saskatchewan, where they can take advantage. In fact, many people who used to own their homes sell their houses and begin to rent. Then one day, there's no more rental properties available.\n\nSaskatchewan Mining Company is looking to hire people all across Canada, but they can't get people to move to Saskatchewan. because there's no housing left. Even new college kids can't get a place to live.\n\nPeople are starting to realize that more apartments need to be built, but no one is willing to build them. At $1 rent, its not profitable to do so. Homelessness increases.\n\nFurthermore, landlords stop paying for things like fixing pipes because they don't have money. The quality of already existing properties declines.\n\nThe same thing happens to varying degrees at any price below equilibrium price (the price the market would set absent of any rent control).\n\nCan rent be set at a price which doesn't have these effects? Yes. But it would require politicians to set a reasonable price, while many in their constituency (renters) would want the ceiling lowered as much as possible. \n\nConsensus from economists is that the market prices rent more effectively than politicians.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Rent control is bad for cities in the **long run**. If landlords can only charge a very low rate for rent, they won't add more properties and won't bother to maintain the ones the already own. Low rent encourages more people to try and look for apartments. When more people want apartments than there are apartments to be had, **less people get housing, the housing that is rent controlled is in worse condition, and the way in which landlords decide who gets housing often ends up biased** (long waiting lists, giving preference to people they know, discriminating against race, etc.) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'll explain like you're five:\n\nLet's say you are fortunate enough to have a few playhouses that your family gave you as presents. Obviously you can't play in all of them all the time, so you, being a smart little boy or girl, decide to let the other kids from your class borrow them from you for some extra money. Let's say it's going to be $5 per week.\n\nYour friends Arthur, Bashir and Carol can afford to pay you the money because they each have a successful lemonade stand, so they get to have the playhouses for the week. Let's say they borrow it from you like this, while paying, for a few weeks (renting). You also agree that you'll come and help them fix things that break through normal play (i.e. basic landlord stuff). Eventually, you might even have enough money to buy new playhouses, and rent that out to more classmates (invest in more housing). The amount your friends pay you might change from week to week, depending on if there are other fun games they can play or other playhouses in the area they can use (market price for rents).\n\nNow a few new kids moved into town and want to rent a playhouse from you. Their parents don't give them a big allowance (lower-income families), so they can't afford to pay you, and then can't get a playhouse. They think this isn't fair, so your teacher and parents (government) come and tell you that you have to charge less money so the other kids can play too (rent control). They may outright tell you that you can't charge that much money (price ceiling) or you'll get in trouble, so now you can only charge $1 a week.\n\nSince prices are so much lower now, everyone and anyone wants to come borrow a playhouse from you, but there aren't enough to go around (housing shortage).\n\nSo now what do you do? Well, you can't get enough money to invest in new playhouses, so you don't bother to get more playhouses for your friends. You also know that, since there is so much demand, that you don't need to bother fixing stuff that breaks. Even if your friend gets mad at you and doesn't want to keep playing and paying, you can easily find someone else.\n\nThe only way other kids can even get playhouses now is if their parents buy them one (government housing), since they can't borrow from you. So now nobody's really happy.\n\n**tl;dr** You rent some playhouses for $5, your teacher says that isn't fair to the other kids, now you can only charge $1. There are more kids than playhouses and everybody loses.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Devil's advocate here:\n\nTHE RENT IS TOO DAMN HIGH!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1758541", "title": "Urban decay", "section": "Section::::Rent control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1078, "text": "Rent controls are often enacted due to public pressure and complaints regarding the cost of living. Proponents of rent controls argue that rent controls combat inflation, stabilize the economic characteristics of a city's population, prevent rent gouging, and improve the quality of housing. Capitalist economists have documented that rent control affects the supply and demand relationship in housing markets which can contribute to urban blight and does not provide the benefits its proponents advocate. Rent control contributes to urban blight by reducing new construction and investment in housing and deincentivizing maintenance. If a landlord's costs to perform maintenance consume too large a proportion of profit, that is revenue minus costs, from rent, the landlord will feel pressure to drastically reduce or eliminate maintenance entirely. This effect has been observed in New York City, a 2009 study by a lobbying firm found 29% of rent-controlled buildings were categorized as either deteriorated or dilapidated in contrast with 8% of non-rent-controlled housing .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41258426", "title": "Rent regulation", "section": "Section::::Economics.:Economists' views.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 230, "text": "Paul Krugman writes that rent control inhibits construction of new housing, creates bitter tenant–landlord relations, and in markets with not all apartments under rent control, causes an increase in rents for uncontrolled units. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41258426", "title": "Rent regulation", "section": "Section::::Economics.:Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 744, "text": "Rent price controls remain the most controversial element of a system of rent regulation. Historically, economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo viewed landlords as producing very little that was valuable, and so regarded \"rents\" as an exploitative concept. (Economists note that the land value tax is a way to capture this un-earned value.) Modern rent controls (sometimes called rent leveling or rent stabilization) are intended to protect tenants in privately owned residential properties from excessive rent increases by mandating gradual rent increases, while at the same time ensuring that landlords receive a return on their investment that is deemed fair by the controlling authority, which might, or might not be a legislature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44423058", "title": "Costa–Hawkins Rental Housing Act", "section": "Section::::Factors causing 1970s rent control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 660, "text": "The issues involved in rent control are complex and compelling, with multiple dimensions: personal, social, economic, political, legal. Often debates and discussions are at risk of provoking a competition between overstatements. Some proponents may call every raise \"rent gouging\" while some opponents say rent control leads to slums. \"The range of assertions by rent control combatants [can be] astonishing.\" In the worse case, the \"debate becomes a hollow clash of extremes, and the results are an uninformed electorate, rash policy, and a divided community.\" In 'second generation rent control' the issues have become more articulated, yet still contested.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44423058", "title": "Costa–Hawkins Rental Housing Act", "section": "Section::::Rent control in California.:Opposition to rent control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 318, "text": "Generally economists find fault with how rent control works over time: it reduces the supply of housing. In making the opposition argument, such general principles have been applied to California. Pro-rent control arguments are usually adopted by cities when enacting ordinances establishing rent control (see above).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44423058", "title": "Costa–Hawkins Rental Housing Act", "section": "Section::::Rent control in California.:Opposition to rent control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 698, "text": "Economic conclusions are subject to interpretation by the public. Rent control that lowers rents for some can work to raise rents for others. Is it to be deemed 'good for society' if the total benefit amount to those favored with lower rents via rent control is cancelled by the program's unintended effect of raising the rent to others? What if its primary effect is merely to redistribute the cost of rent unequally rather than to reduce it overall. Is there an alternative? The authors of a recent 'Stanford paper' state, \"If society desires to provide social insurance against rent increases, it would be more desirable to offer this subsidy in the form of a government subsidy or tax credit.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1434699", "title": "Price ceiling", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Rent control in New York City.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 754, "text": "Rent control is a system where the government sets a price ceiling on rent (often in combination with eviction limitations and maintenance requirements). When soldiers returned from World War II and started families, which increased demand for apartments, but stopped receiving military pay, many of them could not deal with higher rents. The government put in price controls so that soldiers and their families could pay their rents and keep their homes. However, it increased the quantity demand for apartments and lowered the quantity supplied, and so the number of available apartments rapidly decreased until none were available for latecomers. Price ceilings create shortages when producers are allowed to abdicate market share or go unsubsidized.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It plots individual points. \"Insane\" is an exaggeration. Think about this, say you had a super HD 4K monitor and had the graph going across the entire screen. If the software were to individually compute every pixel it displays... it would only have to compute about 4000 points, one for every x value, which is not hard for a computer at all for most functions, certainly easier than making inferences about arbitrary functions (but not necessarily if the form of the function is known in advance).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Everything outside the mathematical world has to be discretized in order to be represented. Computers do this by stepping over a function and plotting points close enough together to give the illusion of a continuous function. If you zoom in far enough you can notice the non-continuousness and therefore it should be given precision based on the application.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "87352", "title": "Graph of a function", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 643, "text": "In the modern foundations of mathematics, and, typically, in set theory, a function is actually equal to its graph. However, it is often useful to see functions as mappings, which consist not only of the relation between input and output, but also which set is the domain, and which set is the codomain. For example, to say that a function is onto (surjective) or not the codomain should be taken into account. The graph of a function on its own doesn't determine the codomain. It is common to use both terms \"function\" and \"graph of a function\" since even if considered the same object, they indicate viewing it from a different perspective.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6144616", "title": "Pointer machine", "section": "Section::::Schönhage's storage modification machine (SMM) model.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 372, "text": "The computer consists of a fixed alphabet of input symbols, and a mutable directed graph (aka a state diagram) with its arrows labelled by alphabet symbols. Each node of the graph has exactly one outgoing arrow labelled with each symbol, although some of these may loop back into the original node. One fixed node of the graph is identified as the start or \"active\" node.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5213", "title": "Computing", "section": "Section::::Computer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 522, "text": "A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions called a computer program. The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable source code form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an algorithm. Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to machine instructions according to the CPU type.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8501", "title": "Distributed computing", "section": "Section::::Theoretical foundations.:An example.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 394, "text": "BULLET::::- The graph \"G\" is the structure of the computer network. There is one computer for each node of \"G\" and one communication link for each edge of \"G\". Initially, each computer only knows about its immediate neighbors in the graph \"G\"; the computers must exchange messages with each other to discover more about the structure of \"G\". Each computer must produce its own color as output.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "87352", "title": "Graph of a function", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 431, "text": "In mathematics, the graph of a function is, formally, the set of all ordered pairs , such that is in the domain of the function . In the common case where and are real numbers, these pairs are Cartesian coordinates of points in the Euclidean plane and thus form a subset of this plane, which is a curve in the case of a continuous function. This graphical representation of the function is also called the \"graph of the function\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54414446", "title": "Graph matching", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 290, "text": "Graphs are commonly used to encode structural information in many fields, including computer vision and pattern recognition, and graph matching is an important tool in these areas. In these areas it is commonly assumed that the comparison is between the \"data graph\" and the \"model graph\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6144616", "title": "Pointer machine", "section": "Section::::Schönhage's storage modification machine (SMM) model.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 489, "text": "The machine can receive instructions which change the layout of the graph. The basic instructions are the new \"w instruction, which creates a new node which is the \"result\" of following the string \"w\", and the set \"w\" to \"v instruction which (re)directs an edge to a different node. Here \"w\" and \"v\" represent \"words\". \"v\" is a \"former\" word—i.e. a previously-created string of symbols—so that the redirected edge will point \"backwards\" to an old node that is the \"result\" of that string.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "To answer the first part of your question:\n\nThe Constitution did **not** specify March 4, or any other date, as the beginning of the new President's term. It stated only that the length of the President's term was four years. And, while the Constitution gave Congress the power to set the date for the selection of Electors, and the date the Electors should cast their votes, it did *not* give Congress the power to set the date on which the President's term began.\n\nCongress met for the first time on March 4th 1789. This date was the [result of a vote of the Continental Congress](_URL_0_):\n\n > Resolved, That the first Wednesday in January next be the day for appointing electors in the several States, which before the said day shall have ratified the said Constitution; that the first Wednesday in February next be the day for the electors to assemble in their respective States and vote for a President; and that **the first Wednesday in March** next be the time, and the present seat of Congress [New York] the place for commencing, proceeding under the said Constitution.\"\n\n[EDIT: So, to answer OP's specific question, it looks as if they were fond of Wednesdays, and March 4th happened to be a Wednesday in 1789].\n\nAlthough Congress didn't count the electoral votes of the first Presidential election until April 6th of that year, and President Washington was not sworn in until April 30th, his term in office was retroactively considered to have begun on March 4th (since that was when the new Constitution \"commenced\").\n\nSince every Presidential term was four years long, as specified by the Constituion, every subsequent Presidential term (until the XX Amendment was enacted) also began on March 4th.\n\n\n\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "An interesting side note is that March 4, 1848 fell on a Sunday. Zachary Taylor refused to be sworn in on a Sunday, and took his oath on Monday. Millard Fillmore, Taylor's Vice President, also waited. Polk did not stay in office for that extra day. Some claim David Rice Atchison, president pro tempore and next in succession, was president for that day. He never claimed to have been president for that day (in fact mentioned he slept for much of that day), and the myth likely began as a marketing ploy by Atchison, Kansas.\n\nJanuary 20th is roughly a month after the Elecorial College vote (the third Wednesday in December) and roughly two weeks after the president of the senate confirms the vote. January 20, 1937 was a Wednesday, so the 20th became the official day (FDR was already in office and the 20th Amendment reached the required number of states ratifying it on January 23, so FDR's second term retroactively began on the 20th). To keep terms four years, it has remained January 20th.\n\nETA: I stand corrected. When arguing to shrink the lame duck period, those explaining why a long lame duck can be a bad thing, point to secession of Southern states with the election of Lincoln and the bank failures in the Great Depression (which FDR addressed pretty much as soon as he was sworn-in in 1932). For some reason I associated the 20th Amendment as a reaction to FDR closing the banks. Instead it was more of a reflection of larger issues related to the ability of government to respond to crisises.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14458980", "title": "Presidency of Herbert Hoover", "section": "Section::::Domestic affairs.:Twentieth Amendment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 661, "text": "Efforts to change these dates through a constitutional amendment began in the late 1920s. In March 1932, Congress approved a constitutional amendment moving the beginning and ending of the terms of the president and vice president from March 4 to January 20, and of members of Congress from March 4 to January 3. The amendment also specified procedures for cases in which the president-elect dies or otherwise fails to qualify. By January 23, 1933, the amendment had been ratified by the requisite number of states to become the Twentieth Amendment. Roosevelt's second inauguration in 1937 was the first presidential inauguration to take place on the new date.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31644", "title": "Constitution of the United States", "section": "Section::::Ratified amendments.:Government processes and procedures (Amendments 12, 17, 20, 22, 25, and 27).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 117, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 117, "end_character": 811, "text": "The Twentieth Amendment (1933) changes the date on which a new President, Vice President and Congress take office, thus shortening the time between Election Day and the beginning of Presidential, Vice Presidential and Congressional terms. Originally, the Constitution provided that the annual meeting was to be on the first Monday in December unless otherwise provided by law. This meant that, when a new Congress was elected in November, it did not come into office until the following March, with a \"lame duck\" Congress convening in the interim. By moving the beginning of the president's new term from March 4 to January 20 (and in the case of Congress, to January 3), proponents hoped to put an end to lame duck sessions, while allowing for a speedier transition for the new administration and legislators.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46820536", "title": "March 1932", "section": "Section::::March 3, 1932 (Thursday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 227, "text": "BULLET::::- The United States Congress ratified the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution, moving the presidential inauguration date up from March 4 to January 20 and eliminating lame-duck sessions of Congress.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31672", "title": "Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "section": "Section::::Effect of the amendment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 923, "text": "Section 1 of the Twentieth Amendment prescribes January 20, at noon, as the start-finish date for the four-year term of both the President and Vice President. Previously March 4, the new date shortened the period between election day in November and Inauguration Day by about six weeks, accelerating the pace of the transfer of presidential power from the out-going president to his successor. By changing the date on which presidential terms end and begin, Section 1 has superseded the Twelfth Amendment's reference to March 4 as the date by which the House of Representatives must—under circumstances where no candidate won an absolute majority of votes for president in the Electoral College—conduct a contingent presidential election. Section 1 also specifies January 3, at noon, as the start-finish date for the terms of members of the Senate and the House of Representatives; the previous date had also been March 4.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24909346", "title": "United States Senate", "section": "Section::::Membership.:Elections and term.:Term.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 640, "text": "The Constitution set the date for Congress to convene — Article 1, Section 4, Clause 2, originally set that date for the third day of December. The Twentieth Amendment, however, changed the opening date for sessions to noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. The Twentieth Amendment also states that Congress shall assemble at least once in every year and allows Congress to determine its convening and adjournment dates and other dates and schedules as it desires. Article 1, Section 3, provides that the president has the power to convene Congress on extraordinary occasions at his discretion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "224794", "title": "82nd United States Congress", "section": "Section::::Constitutional amendments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 293, "text": "BULLET::::- February 27, 1951: Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, setting a term limit for election and overall time of service to the office of President of the United States, was ratified by the requisite number of states (then 36) to become part of the Constitution\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31672", "title": "Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 383, "text": "The Twentieth Amendment (Amendment XX) to the United States Constitution moved the beginning and ending of the terms of the president and vice president from March 4 to January 20, and of members of Congress from March 4 to January 3. It also has provisions that determine what is to be done when there is no president-elect. The Twentieth Amendment was adopted on January 23, 1933.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are many videos of what is apparently misconduct in the voting process aimed at benefitting Hillary Clinton and suppressing the supporters of Bernie Sanders.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Several bernie-supporting delegates were rejected for various reasons, it got rowdy because of accusations of voter suppression, and the hosts said they couldn't maintain security anymore so they had to leave.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Nevada had what is called a 3 tier primary process. The 1st tier (voting by citizens) went in favor of Hillary. The second tier (delegate Selection at a congressional district level) went to Bernie, because not enough Hillary supporters showed up. The third tier (state level) was last night, and it flipped back to Hillary because (supposedly) 64 2nd tier Bernie delegates were denied entry. When people protested in favor of Bernie,they were ignored. There are several videos of the resulting chaos. In my opinion, the entire delegate/superdelegate process is rediculous and decidedly undemocratic.\n\nEdit: added \"state level\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15318806", "title": "Nevada caucuses", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 388, "text": "The Nevada caucuses are an electoral event in which citizens of the U.S. state of Nevada meet in precinct caucuses to elect delegates to the corresponding county conventions. There are 17 counties in Nevada and so there are 17 conventions. The county conventions then select delegates to Nevada's State Convention, which then choose delegates for the presidential nominating conventions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10927687", "title": "2008 Democratic Party presidential debates and forums", "section": "Section::::Debates.:January 15, 2008 - MSNBC 6:00pm PST - Las Vegas, Nevada, College of Southern Nevada.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 373, "text": "The Nevada Democratic Party partnered with the U.S. Hispanic Chamber of Commerce and IMPACTO, 100 Black Men of America, and the College of Southern Nevada to hold the second Democratic presidential debate in Las Vegas. The debate was telecast live by MSNBC and held at the Cashman Center in Las Vegas on Tuesday, January 15, 2008 from 6:00 – 8:00 pm Pacific Standard Time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49120913", "title": "2016 United States presidential election in Nevada", "section": "Section::::Primary elections.:Democratic caucuses.:State Convention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 669, "text": "The state convention was held in May as the final stage of the delegate selection process. Supports of Senator Sanders were angered when Party officials declined to accept the credentials of close to 60 pro-Sanders delegates. Nevada Democratic Party Chairwoman, Roberta Lange, allegedly received numerous death threats and threats to the lives of her family and grandchildren; a criminal investigation has yet to confirm these claims or the identities of those allegedly involved. At the convention, Sanders supporters protested until the staff cancelled the event. The event was later criticized as being violent, although there is no evidence that violence occurred.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7624856", "title": "2006 United States House of Representatives elections in Nevada", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 442, "text": "The Nevada congressional elections of 2006 took place on November 7, 2006 when each of the state's three congressional districts elected a representative to the United States House of Representatives. Although President George W. Bush captured the state in both the 2000 and 2004 elections, he did so with a very slim margin (3.35% in 2000 and just 2.59% in 2004). Nevada was considered a battleground state due to the close victory margins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38218002", "title": "2014 United States House of Representatives elections in Nevada", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 346, "text": "The 2014 United States House of Representatives elections in Nevada were held on Tuesday, November 4, 2014 to elect the four U.S. Representatives from the state of Nevada, one from each of the state's four congressional districts. The elections coincided with the elections of other federal and state offices, including a gubernatorial election.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44582614", "title": "Bernie Sanders 2016 presidential campaign", "section": "Section::::Campaign.:Caucuses and primaries.:Nevada State Convention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 1203, "text": "At the Nevada Democratic State Convention in May, Sanders delegates were outraged by changes to and interpretations of rules that resulted in denial of the credentials of almost 60 Sanders backers, with the result that Sanders, instead of edging Clinton out in delegates to the national convention, came in second. Angry Sanders backers shouted down keynote speaker Barbara Boxer, a Clinton supporter. It was widely reported that some shoving, and throwing of chairs and other objects, ensued before Nevada Democratic Party Chairwoman Roberta Lange ended the convention early, but no actual evidence of chair-throwing ever emerged. After the convention was adjourned, casino security guards and local police were called to remove Sanders supporters who refused to leave the casino ballroom. Lange received death threats to herself and her family online and by telephone after \"Sanders supporters posted Lange's home and business addresses, email and cell phone number online.\" Sanders spokesman Michael Briggs said, \"We do not condone violence or encourage violence or even threats of violence\", and denied that the campaign had a role \"in encouraging the activity that the party is complaining about.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19034580", "title": "2012 Democratic National Convention", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 310, "text": "The 2012 Democratic National Convention was a gathering, held from September 4 to September 6, 2012, at the Time Warner Cable Arena in Charlotte, North Carolina, in which delegates of the Democratic Party chose the party's nominees for President and Vice President in the 2012 United States national election.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Every now and then I remember how pointless and insignificant everyone's lives are.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "29605965", "title": "Life satisfaction", "section": "Section::::Factors affecting life satisfaction.:Seasonal effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 384, "text": "Research has found that the onset of SAD typically occurs between the ages of 20–30 years, but most affected people do not seek medical help. This could be due to the stigma of mental health issues. Many are afraid to state they are suffering and would rather hide it. As a society, we should push forward towards greater acceptance and gain knowledge in order to solve these issues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37762066", "title": "Separation anxiety disorder", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 439, "text": "SAD may cause significant negative effects within areas of social and emotional functioning, family life, and physical health of the disordered individual. The duration of this problem must persist for at least four weeks and must present itself before a child is eighteen years of age to be diagnosed as SAD in children, but can now be diagnosed in adults with a duration typically lasting six months in adults as specified by the DSM-5.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37762066", "title": "Separation anxiety disorder", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Workplace.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 734, "text": "Just how SAD affects a child's attendance and participation in school, their avoidance behaviors stay with them as they grow and enter adulthood. Recently, \"the effects of mental illness on workplace productivity have become a prominent concern on both the national and international fronts\". In general, mental illness is a common health problem among working adults, 20% to 30% of adults will suffer from at least one psychiatric disorder. Mental illness is linked to decreased productivity, and with individuals diagnosed with SAD their levels at which they function decreases dramatically resulting in partial work-days, increase in number of total absences, and \"holding back\" when it comes to carrying out and completing tasks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23476797", "title": "Social anxiety disorder", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Comorbidity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 702, "text": "SAD shows a high degree of co-occurrence with other psychiatric disorders. In fact, a population-based study found that 66% of those with SAD had one or more additional mental health disorders. SAD often occurs alongside low self-esteem and most commonly clinical depression, perhaps due to a lack of personal relationships and long periods of isolation related to social avoidance. Clinical depression is 1.49 to 3.5 times more likely to occur in those with SAD. Anxiety disorders other than SAD are also very common in patients with SAD, in particular generalized anxiety disorder. Avoidant personality disorder is likewise highly correlated with SAD, with comorbidity rates ranging from 25% to 89%.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66811", "title": "Seasonal affective disorder", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 282, "text": "One study looked at whether some people could be predisposed to SAD based on personality traits. Correlations between certain personality traits, higher levels of neuroticism, agreeableness, openness, and an avoidance-oriented coping style, appeared to be common in those with SAD.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "751106", "title": "Anchoring", "section": "Section::::Influencing factors.:Mood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 415, "text": "A wide range of research has linked sad or depressed moods with more extensive and accurate evaluation of problems. As a result of this, earlier studies hypothesized that people with more depressed moods would tend to use anchoring less than those with happier moods. However, more recent studies have shown the opposite effect: sad people are \"more\" likely to use anchoring than people with happy or neutral mood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37762066", "title": "Separation anxiety disorder", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Observation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 282, "text": "As noted by Altman, McGoey & Sommer, it is important to observe the child, \"in multiple contexts, on numerous occasions, and in their everyday environments (home, daycare, preschool)\". It is beneficial to view parent and child interactions and behaviors that may contribute to SAD.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "William Feetham patented a chain-release shower in 1767. In the late 1800s communal showers took hold by French military, under the direction of physician François Merry Delabost who had first tried them out on prisoners for reasons of economics and hygiene.\n\nIn modern times showers did not start to become common until the early 1920s, by which time homes had water heating and reliable plumbing, and had shower heads in existing tubs. But it was slow going at first. A 1954 article in Challenge magazine noted, \"the plumbing industry confidently predicts that the day is not far off when a bathroom and bathtub (with shower) will become a necessary adjunct to every bedroom in the home.\" (Challenge Vol. 2, No. 6 (March 1954), pp. 36-38).\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Piggy backing on this, when did bathing regularly become a thing, as an idea of hygiene. \n\nSure you see public baths in history, but was it due to hygiene or a social thing. Hot tubs are pretty cool and have nothing to do with hygiene. \n\nLike, was there a time when people didn't bathe regularly and just stank or did most people throughout history bathe? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "477822", "title": "Shower", "section": "Section::::Cultural significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 418, "text": "Showering is mostly part of a daily routine primarily to promote cleanliness and prevent odor, disease and infection. Advances in science and medicine in the 19th century began to realize the benefit of regular bathing to an individual's health. As a result, most modern cultures encourage a daily personal hygiene regimen. Showering has also developed the reputation as a relaxing and generally therapeutic activity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "172111", "title": "Washing machine", "section": "Section::::Washing by hand.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 325, "text": "Removal of soap and water from the clothing after washing was a separate process. First, soap would be rinsed out with clear water. After rinsing, the soaking wet clothing would be formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. The entire process often occupied an entire day of hard work, plus drying and ironing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2831247", "title": "Hair washing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 285, "text": "Hair washing is the cosmetic act of keeping hair clean by washing it. To remove sebum from hair, some apply a surfactant, usually shampoo (sometimes soap) to their hair and lather the surfactant with water. The surfactant is rinsed out with water along with the dirt that it bonds to.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54487", "title": "Homemaking", "section": "Section::::Housekeeping.:Laundry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 707, "text": "Laundry refers to the act of washing clothing and linens, the place where that washing is done, and/or that which needs to be, is being, or has been laundered. Various chemicals may be used to increase the solvent power of water, such as the compounds in soaproot or yucca-root used by Native American tribes. Soap, a compound made from lye (from wood-ash) and fat, is an ancient and very common laundry aid. Modern washing machines typically use powdered or liquid laundry detergent in place of more traditional soap. Once clean, the clothes have been wrung out — twisted to remove most of the water. Then they were hung up on poles or clotheslines to air dry, or sometimes just spread out on clean grass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5248591", "title": "Shower gel", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 296, "text": "Shower gel (also shower cream or body wash) is a specialized liquid product used for cleaning the body during showers. Not to be confused with liquid soaps, shower gels, in fact, do not contain saponified oil. Instead, it uses synthetic detergents derived from either petroleum or plant sources.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2494084", "title": "Hair care", "section": "Section::::Hair cleaning and conditioning.:Hair cleaning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 968, "text": "Washing hair removes excess sweat and oil, as well as unwanted products from the hair and scalp. Often hair is washed as part of a shower or bathing with shampoo, a specialized surfactant. Shampoos work by applying water and shampoo to the hair. The shampoo breaks the surface tension of the water, allowing the hair to become soaked. This is known as the wetting action. The wetting action is caused by the head of the shampoo molecule attracting the water to the hair shaft. Conversely, the tail of the shampoo molecule is attracted to the grease, dirt and oil on the hair shaft. The physical action of shampooing makes the grease and dirt become an emulsion that is then rinsed away with the water. This is known as the emulsifying action. Sulfate free shampoos are less harming on color treated hair than normal shampoos that contain sulfates. Sulfates strip away natural oils as well as hair dye. Sulfates are also responsible for the foaming effect of shampoos.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "304947", "title": "Turkish bath", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 385, "text": "Bathing roughly follows ancient Roman bathing practices. It starts with relaxation in a room heated by a continuous flow of hot, dry air, allowing the bather to perspire freely. Bathers may then move to an even hotter room before they wash in cold water. After performing a full body wash and receiving a massage, bathers finally retire to the cooling-room for a period of relaxation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Unfortunately probably not. A relatively recent study pegged the half life of DNA at around 500 years depending on the environmental surroundings. So every 500 years roughly half of the remaining bonds in the DNA molecule will be broken. After 2000 years, you would only expect 1/16 of the bonds to be remaining. And it's all downhill from there. Recently extinct animals could possibly have their DNA sequenced (and in fact the wooly mammoth has been mostly sequenced) but they would be much less likely to be fossilized. So we probably aren't getting DNA from fossils.\n\nAlso, we don't use microscopes to read the DNA sequence. We use DNA sequencing, which I can explain in more detail if you're interested in that.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3285684", "title": "Ancient DNA", "section": "Section::::Non-human aDNA.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 385, "text": "Researchers in 2016 measured chloroplast DNA in marine sediment cores, and found diatom DNA dating back to 1.4 million years. This DNA had a half-life significantly longer than previous research, of up to 15,000 years. Kirkpatrick's team also found that DNA only decayed along a half-life rate until about 100 thousand years, at which point it followed a slower, power-law decay rate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18776622", "title": "Scott Woodward (biologist)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 223, "text": "In 1994, Woodward announced to have extracted and typed DNA from an 80-million-year-old Cretaceous dinosaur bone, but S. Blair Hedges and other ancient DNA experts demonstrated that Woodward had really sequenced human DNA.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3285684", "title": "Ancient DNA", "section": "Section::::Problems and errors.:Age limit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 788, "text": "A critical review of ancient DNA literature through the development of the field highlights that few studies after about 2002 have succeeded in amplifying DNA from remains older than several hundred thousand years. A greater appreciation for the risks of environmental contamination and studies on the chemical stability of DNA have resulted in concerns being raised over previously reported results. The dinosaur DNA was later revealed to be human Y-chromosome, while the DNA reported from encapsulated halobacteria has been criticized based on its similarity to modern bacteria, which hints at contamination. A 2007 study also suggests that these bacterial DNA samples may not have survived from ancient times, but may instead be the product of long-term, low-level metabolic activity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15832610", "title": "Beelzebufo", "section": "Section::::Discovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 345, "text": "The first fossil fragments were found in 1993 by David W. Krause of New York's Stony Brook University, but it took 14 years for scientists Susan E. Evans, Marc E. H. Jones, and Krause to assemble enough data for publication in the \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,\" the journal of the United States National Academy of Sciences.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37615833", "title": "2013 in science", "section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:December.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 705, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 705, "end_character": 248, "text": "BULLET::::- Scientists report the results of the oldest human DNA found. The DNA is from a 400,000-year-old hominin femur bone fossil uncovered in Spain and matches the DNA of extinct human Denisovans that lived thousands of miles away in Siberia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8824279", "title": "Mary Higby Schweitzer", "section": "Section::::Discoveries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 346, "text": "Evidence for the extraction of short segments of ancient DNA from dinosaur fossils has been reported on two separate occasions. The extraction of protein, soft tissue, remnant cells and organelle-like structures from dinosaur fossils has been confirmed. Blood-derived porphyrin proteins have also been discovered in a mid Eocene mosquito fossil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "328736", "title": "Archaeogenetics", "section": "Section::::Methods.:Methods of DNA analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 490, "text": "The identity of the fossil remain can be uncovered by comparing its DNA sequence with those of known species using software such as BLASTN. This archaeogenetic approach is especially helpful when the morphology of the fossil is ambiguous. Apart from that, species identification can also be done by finding specific genetic markers in an aDNA sequence. For example, the American indigenous population is characterized by specific mitochondrial RFLPs and deletions defined by Wallace et al.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Think of it this way. For every mirror there is an area NOT lit because light headed for that area was redirected by the mirror, at a loss because the mirror is not 100% efficient.\n\nThat's where the seemingly \"extra\" light comes from.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The effect would be somehow similar because light would come from many different directions at once, but the total amount of light would be what the single candle produced.\n\nYou can compare this situation to having a flashlight in a dark room. If you point it towards a certain object in the room the light will look underpowered for ligting the whole area and most of the room will be dark. But if you point it to the ceiling the whole room will be lighted. There is no more light or energy in the room, it's just more evenly distributed. \n\nThe light that bounces from a mirror is reduced by a 30% at least.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30115275", "title": "Illumination problem", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 602, "text": "The illumination problem is a resolved mathematical problem attributed to Ernst Straus in the 1950s. Straus asked if a room with mirrored walls can always be illuminated by a single point light source, allowing for repeated reflection of light off the mirrored walls. Alternatively, the question can be stated as asking that if a billiard table can be constructed in any required shape, is there a shape possible such that there is a point where it is impossible to the billiard ball in a at another point, assuming the ball is point-like and continues infinitely rather than stopping due to friction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8870404", "title": "An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump", "section": "Section::::Painting.:Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 632, "text": "In both of these works the candlelit setting had a realist justification. Viewing sculpture by candlelight, when the contours showed well and there might even be an impression of movement from the flickering light, was a fashionable practice described by Goethe. In the orrery demonstration the shadows cast by the lamp representing the sun were an essential part of the display, used to demonstrate eclipses. But there seems no reason other than heightened drama to stage the air pump experiment in a room lit by a single candle, and in two later paintings of the subject by Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo the lighting is normal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "508572", "title": "Foot-candle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 360, "text": "Thus one foot-candle is equal to one lumen per square foot or approximately 10.764 lux. In practical applications, as when measuring room illumination, it is very difficult to measure illuminance more accurately than ±10%, and for many purposes it is quite sufficient to think of one foot-candle as about ten lux as is typically done in the lighting industry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12370017", "title": "A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 604, "text": "In both of these works, the candlelit setting had a realist justification. Viewing sculpture by candlelight, when the contours showed well, and there might even be an impression of movement from the flickering light, was a fashionable practice described by Goethe. In the orrery demonstration the shadows cast by the lamp representing the Sun were an essential part of the display. But there seems no reason other than heightened drama to stage the air pump experiment in a room lit by a single candle, and in two later paintings of the subject by Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo the lighting is normal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48193", "title": "Camera obscura", "section": "Section::::History.:1000 to 1400: Optical and astronomical tool, entertainment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 269, "text": "He described a 'dark chamber' and did a number of trials of experiments with small pinholes and light passing through them. This experiment consisted of three candles in a row and seeing the effects on the wall after placing a cutout between the candles and the wall. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "490309", "title": "Peep show", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 363, "text": "Peep shows were further developed with translucent painting techniques, perforations and cut-out shapes that provided special effects when lit from behind by candles. Changing the light from the front to the back of the picture could change the scene from day to night, much like the dissolving views that would later become a popular type of magic lantern show.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "323858", "title": "History of animation", "section": "Section::::The Magic Lantern.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 894, "text": "Techniques to add motion to painted glass slides for the magic lantern were described since circa 1700. These usually involved parts (for instance limbs) painted on one or more extra pieces of glass moved by hand or small mechanisms across a stationary slide which showed the rest of the picture. Popular subjects for mechanical slides included the sails of a windmill turning, a procession of figures, a drinking man lowering and raising his glass to his mouth, a head with moving eyes, a nose growing very long, rats jumping in the mouth of a sleeping man. A more complex 19th century rackwork slide showed the then known eight planets and their satellites orbiting around the sun. Two layers of painted waves on glass could create a convincing illusion of a calm sea turning into a very stormy sea tossing some boats about by increasing the speed of the manipulation of the different parts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "From a Euro-American perspective, the Sabbath has been around since Biblical times, so the idea of having one day per week to take a break is ancient. \n\nI believe that current 5-day work week started around the later Industrial revolution, when more people began paying attention to things like worker welfare (no more children playing around with heavy machinery), as well as starting to introduce a shorter workday (eventually ending in the 9-5 workday we have now)\n\nHard to say what the sole effect of making a five week day was since it was a change accompanied by shorter workdays and better labor regulation.\n\nWiki: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11097960", "title": "Sabbath", "section": "Section::::Secular traditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 1063, "text": "The weekend is that period of the week set aside by custom or law for rest from labor. In many countries it is Saturday and Sunday and often includes Friday night. This five-day workweek arose in America when labor unions attempted to accommodate Jewish Sabbath, beginning at a New England cotton mill and also instituted by Henry Ford in 1926; it became standard in America by about 1940 and spread among English-speaking and European countries to become the international workweek. China adopted it in 1995 and Hong Kong by 2006. India and some other countries follow both the international workweek and a more traditional Saturday half-workday and Sunday weekend. While Indonesia and Lebanon have the international workweek, most Muslim countries count Friday as the weekend, alone or with Thursday (all or half) or Saturday. Some universities permit a three-day weekend from Friday to Sunday. The weekend in Israel, Nepal, and parts of Malaysia, is Friday (all or half) and Saturday. Only the one-day customary or legal weekends are usually called \"Sabbath\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "398210", "title": "The Weekenders", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 247, "text": "The Weekenders is an American animated television series created by Doug Langdale. It centers on the weekend life of four seventh graders: Tino, Lor, Carver, and Tish. The series initially aired on ABC and UPN, but was later moved to Toon Disney.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2277568", "title": "Kimball Union Academy", "section": "Section::::Weekend life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 336, "text": "Weekend activities are many and varied. Saturday evening events include trips to dinner or the movies, on-campus movies, and dances, while on Sundays there are irregular shopping trips to town; trips to major ski areas, to Boston, and to concerts and sports events at Dartmouth; and outdoor activities such as apple-picking and hiking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55477444", "title": "The Weekend (SZA song)", "section": "Section::::Music and lyrics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1007, "text": "\"The Weekend\" is a song characterized by a soft, slow-burning melody that runs throughout its four minutes and thirty-two seconds. Its sultry production draws from contemporary R&B and 1990s neo soul music genres. Built around a synth-line, the song is completed with finger-snaps, key thumps that resemble the sound of a ticking clock, hi-hats and a high-pitched vocal sample. Lyrically, \"The Weekend\" is about polyamory. SZA sings about sharing her romantic partner with other women; she finds herself in the perspective of a woman who only sees her partner at weekends while others have him during the week. Some online publications called the song's narrator a \"side chick\", but according to SZA, \"The Weekend\" is about sharing a man with two other women at the same time. She sings in the hook, \"My man is my man is your man / Heard it's her man too\". For her, this song is about feeling empowered in a situation in which the narrator's lover tries to play her. In interview with Vulture.com she said:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10821961", "title": "Weekend (TV program)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 503, "text": "Weekend is an American television newsmagazine program that aired on NBC from 1974 to 1979. It originally aired once monthly on Saturday nights from 11:30 p.m. to 1 a.m. Eastern time, the same time slot as Saturday repeats of \"The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson\" during its first season, then to replace \"Saturday Night Live\", once a month on those weekends when the \"SNL\" cast was not producing a show. The program was awarded a George Foster Peabody medal in 1975 and attracted a cult following.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47560310", "title": "Weekender (Flowered Up song)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 437, "text": "\"Weekender\" is a 1992 single by the band Flowered Up. The band had performed the song as early as 1991. The song has been described as denouncing people who only go to clubs on the weekend and advocating a party-all-the-time philosophy of the group. The group originally wanted it to be released through their current label London Records. The single was turned down by the label and released later in April 1992 by Heavenly Recordings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55477444", "title": "The Weekend (SZA song)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 618, "text": "\"The Weekend\" is a song recorded by American singer SZA for her debut studio album, \"Ctrl\" (2017). Written by SZA and its producer ThankGod4Cody, the song samples \"Set the Mood (Prelude)\" from the 2006 album \"FutureSex/LoveSounds\", written by Justin Timberlake, Timbaland, and Danja, who also received writing credits for \"The Weekend\". A contemporary R&B and neo soul record, \"The Weekend\" uses a synth-line, hi-hats, drums, a high-pitched vocal sample and clocking key thumps. Its theme is polyamory; SZA sings about sharing a lover with other women from the perspective of one who only see her partner at weekends.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hitler discussed this in Mein Kampf. \n\nHe promoted the idea of five sub-races of the Aryan people. Dinaric, Alpine, mediterranean, Nordic, and Eastern Baltic. The best kind of Aryan is, you probably guessed it, are the predominantly blue eyed and fair headed Nordics. \n\nThis was actually very popular, Nordicism I mean, way before Hitler promoted it. Anyway, Hitler said that Germans and other kinds of Aryans have either been diluted and weakened over time (mixing with Jewish people for example).\n\nHe promoted blue eyed and blonde germans as models because they are less not Nordic. Essentially, Germans needed to expunge non-Nordic lineage which will cause them to have blue eyes and blonde hair again. \n\nThe issue with Nordicism conflicted with Italy which promoted Mediterreneanism. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "see this similar post from a few months ago for previous responses\n\n[How is it the Nazis justified the attempted creation of a society filled with tall, blond-haired, blue eyed people, when Hitler himself did not fit this model?](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24558035", "title": "Aryan", "section": "Section::::Etymology.:Usage.:Contemporary usage.:Nazism and white supremacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 727, "text": "The Nazis considered the purest Aryans to be those that belonged to the \"Nordic race\" physical ideal, known as the \"master race\" during Nazi Germany. Although the physical ideal of the Nazi racial theorists was typically the tall, fair-haired and light-eyed Nordic individual, such theorists accepted the fact that a considerable variety of hair and eye colour existed within the racial categories they recognised. For example, Adolf Hitler and many Nazi officials had dark hair and were still considered members of the Aryan race under Nazi racial doctrine, because the determination of an individual's racial type depended on a preponderance of many characteristics in an individual rather than on just one defining feature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8813901", "title": "James Grover McDonald", "section": "Section::::Diary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 308, "text": "\"When I indicated my disbelief in their racial theories, they said what other Nazis had said: 'But surely you, a perfect type of Aryan, could not be unsympathetic to our views'... I had the impression that they really do set unbelievable store by such physical characteristics as long heads and light hair.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "145551", "title": "Racial policy of Nazi Germany", "section": "Section::::Basis of Nazi policies and constitution of the Aryan Master Race.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 249, "text": "The feeling that Germans were the Aryan \"Herrenvolk\" (Aryan master race) was widely spread among the German public through Nazi propaganda and among Nazi officials throughout the ranks, in particular when Reichskommissariat Ukraine Erich Koch said:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "103695", "title": "Master race", "section": "Section::::Nordicism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 574, "text": "Although the physical ideal of these racial theorists was typically the tall, fair-haired and light-eyed Nordic individual, such theorists accepted the fact that a considerable variety of hair and eye colour existed within the racial categories they recognised. For example, Adolf Hitler and many Nazi officials had dark hair and were still considered members of the Aryan race under Nazi racial doctrine, because the determination of an individual's racial type depended on a preponderance of many characteristics in an individual rather than on just one defining feature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4080953", "title": "Nazism and race", "section": "Section::::Racial hierarchy.:Aryan: Nordic and Germanic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1536, "text": "Hitler made references to an \"Aryan Race\" founding a superior type of humanity. The purest stock of Aryans according to Nazi ideology was the Nordic people of Germany, England, Denmark, The Netherlands, Sweden and Norway. The Nazis defined Nordics as being identified by tall stature (average 175 cm), long faces, prominent chins, narrow and straight noses with a low bridge, lean builds, doliocephalic skulls, straight light hair, light eyes, and fair skin. The Nazis claimed that Germanic people specifically represented a southern branch of the Aryan-Nordic population. The Nazis did not consider all Germans to be of the Nordic type (which predominated the north), and stated that Germany also had a large \"Alpine\" population (identified by, among other features, lower stature, stocky builds, flatter noses, and higher incidences of darker hair and eyes). Hitler and Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther framed this as an issue to be corrected through selective breeding for \"Nordic\" traits. Hitler Youth propaganda emphasized the \"Nordic\" nature of Germans, with the text issued to all Hitler Youth members stating: \"the principal ingredient of our people is the Nordic race (55%). That is not to say that half our people are pure Nordics. All of the aforementioned races appear in mixtures in all parts of our fatherland. The circumstance, however, that the great part of our people is of Nordic descent justifies us taking a Nordic standpoint when evaluating our character and spirit, bodily structure, and physical beauty.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42277", "title": "Aryan race", "section": "Section::::Aryanism.:Nazism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 562, "text": "These and other ideas evolved into the Nazi use of the term \"Aryan race\" to refer to what they saw as being a superior race, which was narrowly defined by the Nazis as being identical with the Nordic race, followed by other sub-races of the Aryan race and excluding Slavs as non-Aryan. They worked to maintain the purity of this race through eugenics programs (including anti-miscegenation legislation, compulsory sterilization of the mentally ill and the mentally deficient, the execution of the institutionalized mentally ill as part of a euthanasia program).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "141013", "title": "Arthur de Gobineau", "section": "Section::::Life and theories.:Gobineau's racial theories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 233, "text": "Gobineau later came to use and reserve the term Aryan only for the \"German race\" and described the Aryans as 'la race germanique'. By doing so, he presented a racist theory in which Aryans—that is Germans—were all that was positive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Lets everybody enjoy their holidays without watching TV and having to keep up while with family and gives more time to film and edit episodes\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26688484", "title": "The End (Lost)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 423, "text": "The finale was written by co-creator/executive producer Damon Lindelof and executive producer Carlton Cuse, and directed by executive producer Jack Bender. Unlike the previous season finales, which were two hours long with advertisements, the series finale was expanded by half an hour, running two and a half hours starting at 9 pm ET, with a retrospective of the past six seasons running for two hours, starting at 7 pm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9707858", "title": "Transformers: Animated", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 460, "text": "After the series' normal run began in January 2008, the first two seasons were aired nearly back-to-back, creating nearly a year-long delay in between the second and third seasons. The long-awaited final season finally premiered in North America on March 14, 2009, with a 90-minute (three episode) special. After a lack of communication and much speculation, it was officially announced at BotCon 2009 that the series was over, at least in a televised format.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "437042", "title": "Corner Gas", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 734, "text": "As broadcast of the fourth season finale approached, there was a flurry of news reports suggesting that the series was coming to an unexpected end, based upon televised promotions for the episode, leaked plot details, and wording of a CTV press release issued on March 6, 2007, that implied that the series finale would air on March 12, 2007. Two segments of production footage with time code circulated on YouTube also seemed to indicate a series finale as imminent despite the show's continued success in Canada and recent U.S. sale. On March 7, 2007, CTV clarified its press release, stating it was a season finale, and on March 13, 2007, CTV confirmed an order for a 19-episode fifth season, that premiered on September 24, 2007.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27318455", "title": "Future Shock (FlashForward)", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 518, "text": "The series was cancelled on May 14, 2010. However, the promo that aired on May 20, 2010 stated that this was the season finale. The finale was originally set to be two hours long, consisting of both this episode and \"Countdown\". After cancellation, they were aired separately. John Polson directed this episode, his third directing credit for the season. Timothy J. Lea and Scott M. Gimple wrote the episode. This is Lea's second writing credit for the show. He wrote the episode \"Queen Sacrifice\" with Byron Balasco.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "478003", "title": "Season finale", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 314, "text": "A season finale (British English: last in the series; Australian English: season final) is the final episode of a season of a television program. This is often the final episode to be produced for a few months or longer, and, as such, will try to attract viewers to continue watching when the series begins again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16703723", "title": "Rock the Cradle", "section": "Section::::Items.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 309, "text": "BULLET::::- The show was conceived as an eight-week contest, but due to lower-than-expected ratings, an announcement in Episode 3 declared that subsequent episodes would have double eliminations, reducing the total number of broadcast shows to six. The Finale was moved from Las Vegas, Nevada to Los Angeles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48460368", "title": "Dilantha Malagamuwa", "section": "Section::::TV Show.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 290, "text": "The show consists of 26 episodes which aired at prime time 9:30pm (local time) every Wednesdays. The season finale aired on 29 March 2017. Due to higher viewership demand and the popularity of the show ITN, officially announced their interest in renewing for the second season of the show.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are animals like a sponge that you would likely mistake for a plant if you didn't know better, and plants that can move and eat \"meat\" like a venus fly trap. I know that plants and animals are different in that plants have cell walls and animals have cell membranes, and given how far back on the tree of life we are related, those two things must be really different and important.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Animal cells don't have the recipe to make chloroplasts cells, new cell recipes are not easy to develop. It's something that was discovered only once in history by a cell, and all nowadays plant are the descendant of this cell. \n\nSome slugs steal chloroplasts from plants and then do photosynthesis for themselves.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The distinction seems very vivid in part because it's a simplified way of classifying different living things. Fungi are an obvious weird further case but there are others. Some organisms - like [kelp](_URL_1_), for example - look like plants and can photosynthesize, but aren't *really* plants according to modern classification schemes. Meanwhile, the creepy wriggling [parasite that causes malaria](_URL_2_) is actually more closely related to plants than animals. [Golden Algae](_URL_0_) aren't plants but they can photosynthesise and have cellular tails that let them swim. In short, plants and animals may seem as different as chalk and cheese, but there all sorts of other weird chalky-cheesy mix up organisms out there we don't usually hear about.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If plant could walk it would require much more energy and photosynthesis can't produce enough food for that much work. \nAnd animals can't do photosynthesis cause they need more energy and can't be dependent on photosynthesis.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19828134", "title": "Plant", "section": "Section::::Ecology.:Distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 268, "text": "Plants are often the dominant physical and structural component of habitats where they occur. Many of the Earth's biomes are named for the type of vegetation because plants are the dominant organisms in those biomes, such as grasslands, taiga and tropical rainforest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22346936", "title": "Plant genetics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 755, "text": "Plants, like all known organisms, use DNA to pass on their traits. Animal genetics often focuses on parentage and lineage, but this can sometimes be difficult in plant genetics due to the fact that plants can, unlike most animals, be self-fertile. Speciation can be easier in many plants due to unique genetic abilities, such as being well adapted to polyploidy. Plants are unique in that they are able to produce energy-dense carbohydrates via photosynthesis, a process which is achieved by use of Chloroplast|chloroplasts]]. Chloroplasts, like the superficially similar mitochondria, possess their own DNA. Chloroplasts thus provide an additional reservoir for genes and genetic diversity, and an extra layer of genetic complexity not found in animals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23470640", "title": "Plant ecology", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1021, "text": "The study of plants and vegetation is complicated by their form. First, most plants are rooted in the soil, which makes it difficult to observe and measure nutrient uptake and species interactions. Second, plants often reproduce vegetatively, that is asexually, in a way that makes it difficult to distinguish individual plants. Indeed, the very concept of an individual is doubtful, since even a tree may be regarded as a large collection of linked meristems. Hence, plant ecology and animal ecology have different styles of approach to problems that involve processes like reproduction, dispersal and mutualism. Some plant ecologists have placed considerable emphasis upon trying to treat plant populations as if they were animal populations, focusing on population ecology. Many other ecologists believe that while it is useful to draw upon population ecology to solve certain scientific problems, plants demand that ecologists work with multiple perspectives, appropriate to the problem, the scale and the situation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "637102", "title": "Plant physiology", "section": "Section::::Environmental physiology.:Plant disease.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 548, "text": "Because the biology of plants differs with animals, their symptoms and responses are quite different. In some cases, a plant can simply shed infected leaves or flowers to prevent the spread of disease, in a process called abscission. Most animals do not have this option as a means of controlling disease. Plant diseases organisms themselves also differ from those causing disease in animals because plants cannot usually spread infection through casual physical contact. Plant pathogens tend to spread via spores or are carried by animal vectors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4183", "title": "Botany", "section": "Section::::Genetics.:Epigenetics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 613, "text": "Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant. Exceptions include highly lignified cells, the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity, and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei. While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals, such as chromatin remodelling, an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4183", "title": "Botany", "section": "Section::::Scope and importance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1027, "text": "The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration. In addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion. Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, medicine, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14126223", "title": "Plant development", "section": "Section::::Growth.:Morphological variation during growth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 522, "text": "Plants exhibit natural variation in their form and structure. While all organisms vary from individual to individual, plants exhibit an additional type of variation. Within a single individual, parts are repeated which may differ in form and structure from other similar parts. This variation is most easily seen in the leaves of a plant, though other organs such as stems and flowers may show similar variation. There are three primary causes of this variation: positional effects, environmental effects, and juvenility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The story you heard is from Usama ibn Munqidh, a poet and diplomat (among other things) from Damascus who often visited crusader Jerusalem:\n\n > “Anyone who is recently arrived from the Frankish lands is rougher in character than those who have become acclimated and have frequented the company of Muslims. Here is an instance of their rough character (may God abominate them!): \n > \n > Whenever I went to visit the holy sites in Jerusalem, I would go in and make my way up to the al-Aqsa Mosque, beside which stood a small mosque that the Franks had converted into a church. When I went into the al-Aqsa Mosque - where the Templars, who are my friends, were - they would clear out that little mosque so that I could pray in it. One day, I went into the little mosque, recited the opening formula ‘God is great!’ and stood up in prayer. At this, one of the Franks rushed at me and grabbed me and turned my face towards the east, saying ‘Pray like *this*!’ \n > \n > A group of Templars hurried towards him, took hold of the Frank and took him away from me. I then returned to my prayers. The Frank, that very same one, took advantage of their inattention and returned, rushing upon me and turning my face to the east, saying ‘Pray like *this*!’ \n > \n > So the Templars came in again, grabbed him, and threw him out. They apologized to me, saying, ‘This man is a stranger, just arrived from the Frankish lands sometime in the past few days. He has never before seen anyone who did not pray towards the east.’ \n > \n > ‘I think I’ve prayed quite enough,’ I said and left. I used to marvel at the devil, the change of his expression, the way he trembled and what he must have made of seeing someone praying towards Mecca.”\n\nThis is one of Usama’s various amusing anecdotes about the Franks. Usually they're probably meant to be jokes, making fun of the big dumb idiot Franks (i.e. crusaders) from the far away land of ice and snow. They’re basically like “dumb blonde” jokes or “dumb \\[insert ethnicity\\]” jokes but from the perspective of a medieval Muslim. There are certainly truthful elements of Usama’s stories, so it’s possible something like this actually happened - in general, both sides seem to agree that the crusaders who settled in the east were culturally different than the new arrivals. But did this exact incident happen? We don’t know, but maybe not.\n\nIn any case, Usama seems to be the only Muslim who got along well with the Templars. For everyone else, they were fanatically devoted to warfare. They often acted without consulting the other leaders of the kingdom, since they felt they had no authority but the Pope and could do whatever they wanted. On one occasion, some ambassadors from the Assassins came to Jerusalem to negotiate a truce, and the Templars ambushed and killed them. It was a major scandal in the kingdom. \n\nThey were recognized as brave and strong warriors, but that wasn't always necessarily a good thing. For the Muslims this bravery was interpreted more as brutal fanaticism. The Templars would attack and kill anyone, anywhere, with little regard for tactical or political considerations, or at least that's how the Muslims felt about them. They were in a way too strong, too dangerous, unlike the more respectable might and bravery of the regular crusader army. When Saladin defeated the crusaders at the Battle of Hattin in 1187, he took thousands of prisoners and many of them were eventually ransomed - but not the Templars. Would the Templars have spared any Muslim prisoners? Probably not! So Saladin had all the Templar (and Hospitaller) prisoners executed:\n\n > \"Two days after the victory, the Sultan sought out the Templars and Hospitallers who had been captured and said: 'I shall purify the land of these two impure races.' He assigned fifty dinar to every man who had taken one of them prisoner, and immediately the army brought forward at least a hundred of them. He ordered that they should be beheaded, choosing to have them dead rather than in prison. With him was a whole band of scholars and sufis and a certain number of devout men and ascetics; each begged to be allowed to kill one of them, and drew his sword and rolled back his sleeve. Saladin, his face joyful, was sitting on his dais; the unbelievers showed black despair, the troops were drawn up in their ranks, the amirs stood in double file. There were some who slashed and cut cleanly, and were thanked for it; some who refused and failed to act, and were excused; some who made fools of themselves, and others took their places.\"\n\nIn other battles they either all fought to the death, or were captured and killed afterwards as well - for example in the Battle of Forbie in 1244, only a handful of Templars survived.\n\nSo the story you heard is just the opinion of one Muslim, who may have been making the equivalent of an ethnic joke, and basically all other Muslims feared and hated the Templars.\n\nSources:\n\nMalcolm Barber, *The New Knighthood: A History of the Order of the Temple* (Cambridge University Press, 1995)\n\nUsama ibn Munqidh, The Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades, trans. Paul M. Cobb (Penguin Classics, 2008)\n\nThe account of the Templar massacre at Hattin is by Saladin’s secretary Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani, which has been translated in Francesco Gabrieli, *Arab Historians of the Crusades*, trans. E. J. Costello, (University of California Press, 1969)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3980247", "title": "History of the Knights Templar", "section": "Section::::The Crusades and the Knights Templar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1892, "text": "The Knights Templar were the elite fighting force of their day, highly trained, well-equipped and highly motivated; one of the tenets of their religious order was that they were forbidden from retreating in battle, unless outnumbered three to one, and even then only by order of their commander, or if the Templar flag went down. Not all Knights Templar were warriors. The mission of most of the members was one of support – to acquire resources which could be used to fund and equip the small percentage of members who were fighting on the front lines. There were actually three classes within the orders. The highest class was the knight. When a candidate was sworn into the order, they made the knight a monk. They wore white robes. The knights could hold no property and receive no private letters. He could not be married or betrothed and cannot have any vow in any other Order. He could not have debt more than he could pay, and no infirmities. The Templar priest class was similar to the modern day military chaplain. Wearing green robes, they conducted religious services, led prayers, and were assigned record keeping and letter writing. They always wore gloves, unless they were giving Holy Communion. The mounted men-at-arms represented the most common class, and they were called \"brothers\". They were usually assigned two horses each and held many positions, including guard, steward, squire or other support vocations. As the main support staff, they wore black or brown robes and were partially garbed in chain mail or plate mail. The armor was not as complete as the knights. Because of this infrastructure, the warriors were well-trained and very well armed. Even their horses were trained to fight in combat, fully armored. The combination of soldier and monk was also a powerful one, as to the Templar knights, martyrdom in battle was one of the most glorious ways to die.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16869", "title": "Knights Templar", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 677, "text": "The Templars became a favoured charity throughout Christendom and grew rapidly in membership and power. They were prominent in Christian finance. Templar knights, in their distinctive white mantles with a red cross, were among the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades. Non-combatant members of the order, who formed as much as 90% of the order's members, managed a large economic infrastructure throughout Christendom, developing innovative financial techniques that were an early form of banking, building its own network of nearly 1,000 commanderies and fortifications across Europe and the Holy Land, and arguably forming the world's first multinational corporation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20648590", "title": "Trials of the Knights Templar", "section": "Section::::Events in France.:Prelude.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1648, "text": "While the Templars had started off well and were at times considered the model of Christian knighthood, it wasn’t long before resentment of their privileges, of their being \"rich as kings\", and criticism of some of their actions in war began to surface. For example, at the siege of Damascus in 1148, the Templars as well as the Hospitallers were accused of accepting bribes to convince Conrad III of Germany to abandon the effort. There was other criticism of their actions as well. Following the disastrous battle at the Horns of Hattin and the subsequent fall of Jerusalem, which some blamed on the Templars; they were left with almost no discernible military purpose in the Holy Land. Other critics also questioned their morals. The chronicler William of Tyre was often critical of the order and in one instance accused them of ransoming Nasr-al-Din, the sultan's son, for six thousand gold florins. When the Grand Master Odo de St Amand died in 1179, William called him \"a wicked man, haughty and arrogant, in whose nostrils dwelt the spirit of a fury, one who neither feared God nor revered man\" and that he was \"mourned by no one.\" When the Templars took up banking and lending the criticism only increased. Both Walter Map and John of Salisbury accused the Templars of avarice. Matthew Paris sometimes praised them while at other times was severely critical of the Templars. The loss of the last foothold in Syria, Tortosa in 1302, was yet another failure that left them vulnerable to their critics. As the obvious surprise and shock of their arrests in 1307 indicate, nobody thought the Order was flawed to the point it needed disbanding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16728651", "title": "Knights Templar in popular culture", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 845, "text": "The original historic Knights Templar were a Christian military order, the Order of the Poor Fellow Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, that existed from the 12th to 14th centuries to provide warriors in the Crusades. These men were famous in the high and late Middle Ages, but the Order was disbanded very suddenly by King Philip IV of France, who took action against the Templars in order to avoid repaying his own financial debts. He accused them of heresy, ordered the arrest of all Templars within his realm, and had many of them burned at the stake. The dramatic and rapid end of the organization led to many stories and legends developing about them over the following centuries. The Order and its members increasingly appear in modern fiction, though most of these references portray the medieval organization inaccurately.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17416992", "title": "Military history of the Crusader states", "section": "Section::::Crusader forces.:Heavy cavalry and infantry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 720, "text": "The Templar Knights were created in 1119 when King Baldwin II gave permission for eight knights to start a new military order to protect pilgrims on their way to the Holy land. They never retreated from battle and as a result, only a tenth of the Templars survived battle. The Order had to constantly spend large sums of money recruiting new knights. Over time, The Templars grew to an impressive order of thousands of members, though not all would have been heavy cavalry – most would have been squires or servants accompanying the Knights. The Templars participated in almost every major battle of the Second Crusade onwards. They were later betrayed and disbanded by a combination of the French crown and the papacy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "503345", "title": "High Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Religion.:Crusades.:Military orders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 327, "text": "The Knights Templar were a Christian military order founded after the First Crusade to help protect Christian pilgrims from hostile locals and highway bandits. The order was deeply involved in banking, and in 1307 Philip the Fair (Philippine le Bel) had the entire order arrested in France and dismantled on charges of heresy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4040841", "title": "Knights Templar (Freemasonry)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1034, "text": "The Knights Templar, full name The United Religious, Military and Masonic Orders of the Temple and of St John of Jerusalem, Palestine, Rhodes and Malta, is a fraternal order affiliated with Freemasonry. Unlike the initial degrees conferred in a regular Masonic Lodge, which (in most Regular Masonic jurisdictions) only require a belief in a Supreme Being regardless of religious affiliation, the Knights Templar is one of several additional Masonic Orders in which membership is open only to Freemasons who profess a belief in Christianity. One of the obligations entrants to the order are required to declare is to protect and defend the Christian faith. The word \"United\" in its full title indicates that more than one historical tradition and more than one actual order are jointly controlled within this system. The individual orders 'united' within this system are principally the Knights of the Temple (Knights Templar), the Knights of Malta, the Knights of St Paul, and only within the York Rite, the Knights of the Red Cross.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The dropped object would accelerate toward the center of the earth until it reached terminal velocity, and once it passed the earth's center it would start to slow down and then fall back toward the center again, oscillating back and forth until gravity and wind resistance would keep it at the center of the earth. If there was no friction/air resistance, it would just oscillate back and forth indefinitely. \n\nIf you *threw* the object downward and there was no air resistance it would exit the other side of the tunnel with the same velocity that you threw it with.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A [great video](_URL_0_) with Neil deGrasse Tyson that explains everything.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "People that claim it would oscillate back and forth are wrong. It's a nice thought, but it's a misinterpretation of the laws of nature. \nThat would happen if the gravity of earth was created by a small point at the centre of the earth, and that the object \"falling\" could pass through that point.\n\nFirst of all, lets take a look at the formula for gravitational force: F = G*M1*M2/r^2\n\nG is the gravitational constant, we don't need to worry about that for this example. \nM1 an M2 are the masses attracted to each other.\nr^2 is the interesting thing here. The r itself is the distance between the two bodies, but the ^2 means that the relationship is squared. I.e. if the distance doubles, the force is only a fourth. \n\nNow, to simplify things, lets just consider that the object is in a cavity in the exact centre of the earth, lets also assume that the earth is a perfect sphere with perfectly equal density.\n\nSince the object is inside what causes the gravity, we can't really treat earth as just one object, we have to think of it as very many objects stuck next to each other all around the object (I.e. particles), all have an equal amount of mass (and therefore equal gravitational pull). \n\nSo, there are forces trying to pull the object in every direction. As long as the object is perfectly centered, the net force acting on the object will be zero. But if we placed the object slightly off-zero, the formula for gravitational force tells us that the \"pull\" from the particles that make up earth won't be even, the ones that are closer will exert a slightly larger force than the more distant ones, so the sum of the forces would not be zero. Newton taught us that an object will remain in its current state until acted on by a force. Well, since we now have a net force that is non-zero, the object will start to move towards the closer one of the particles acting upon it. The closer it get, the more pull it will feel from the closer particles, and the less pull it will feel from the more distant particles. \n\nMany people like to think that a stationary object at the centre of the earth would be ripped apart, but this is not correct.\nSince gravity act on all particles with mass, ALL of the objects particles will be acted upon by the gravitational forces. I.e. all parts of the object is being \"pulled\" in all directions. But what about the r^2 from that gravitational force formula?! Yes, the particles in the \"northern\" part of the object will get a slightly larger pull to the north compared to particles in the south part of the object. This is a variant of what is called \"tidal forces\". Another example of tidal forces is the fact that your head feel slightly less gravity than your feet. However, the forces are far two weak to overcome the forces holding particles together. So if you happen to fall into a bottomless pit, at least you don't have to worry about being ripped apart :/\n\nSo, trying to get an object stationary at the centre of the earth would be like trying to get a steel ball centered between two magnets (magnets also have this r^2 thing), virtually impossible.\n\nAnother way to imagine gravity being a round bowl, with a pin in the centre representing earth (or any other object large enough to have a significant gravitational field). Put a ball in the bowl, and it will go to the centre and hit the pin = falling towards earth and eventually hitting is. Now, for the \"being in a cavity inside the large object\", flip the bowl upside down, letting where the bowl meets the table around the perimeter represent the walls of said cavity. Try to balance the ball on top of the bowl. It will race to either side, hitting the table (the walls of the cavity).\n\nNow back to the actual question:\nFrom what I wrote above, we can draw the conclusion that the object dropped would start off by falling down, since most of the gravitational forces acting upon it are \"coming from\" lower than where you are holding the object before you drop it. \nBut after a short while, when the object has passed into the earth a bit, you will have gravitational forces from the side as well, and here the above reasoning comes into play. Since the object can't reasonably be exactly centered in the hole, it will get a slightly larger \"pull\" off towards one side of the wall. And subsequently, it will end up sliding down against that wall until the friction overcomes the gravitational force pulling it down (remember, the net sum of the gravitational forces lessen as the object get closer to the centre of the earth), and there it will stop. It will never fully reach half way through.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13910777", "title": "Berwick Tunnel", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 275, "text": "Because the tunnel was not straight, it was not possible to see if someone had entered the tunnel from the other end. To overcome this, a byelaw was introduced which stated that whoever reached the centre first should continue, whilst the other boat would have to turn back.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20114269", "title": "Tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers", "section": "Section::::Counter-mining.:Underground tactics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 1055, "text": "The tunnellers developed counter tactics, which both sides deployed. The first was the use of large mines placed in one's own tunnels – some actually dug towards enemy noise to create damage – which when exploded would create fissures and cracks in the ground, making the ground either unsuitable for tunnelling or destroying existing tunnels and works. A small device, called the camouflet, created a localised underground chamber designed not to break the surface and form craters, but to destroy a strictly limited area of underground territory – and its occupants. The second tactic, deployed when the enemy tunnel was too close to your existing works or trenches, was the deployment of rod-fed torpedo shaped camouflet charges. Effectively land mines on the end of long iron sticks, the technique was a defensive tactic against an immediate threat. Towards the end of the tunnel war, forces also deployed mines at greater depths, which, coupled with the use of listening devices, could be exploded away from friendly trenches as a defensive measure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38847854", "title": "Wainuiomata Tunnel", "section": "Section::::History.:Construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 212, "text": "The first pass on the tunnel shaft was not to excavate down to the full depth of the completed tunnel. Rather, an additional of earth was to be removed before the sealed roadway could be laid through the tunnel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39601582", "title": "Tunnels of Gibraltar", "section": "Section::::Excavation methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 572, "text": "Post-war tunnelling took place in less urgent circumstances and new, less damaging, tunnelling methods were used. Explosives were employed again but this time in smaller quantities, placed in drill holes bored into the face of the excavation. They were fired electrically in a sequence which began in the centre of the face and spread outwards, so that the centre would create a void into which the peripheral rock could fall. The downside of this method was that it created tunnels with jagged sides, as it fractured the limestone around the periphery of the excavation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3423248", "title": "Simplon Tunnel", "section": "Section::::History.:Construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 234, "text": "On 24 February 1905, the two halves of the tunnel came together. They were out of alignment by only horizontally and vertically. Construction time was 7½ years, rather than 5½ years, due to problems such as water inflows and strikes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3054453", "title": "Sapperton Railway Tunnel", "section": "Section::::Construction, engineering, and maintenance difficulties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 735, "text": "This diagram also casts doubt on the unsupported assertions which are sometimes made that the gap between the two tunnels is the result of a roof collapse in the early days of the tunnel. This gap coincides precisely with the level section at the summit of the line, and also with a dip in the contours of the ground above which brings the ground level below the depth at which the transition from tunnel to cutting is made at the outer ends of the tunnels. It is unlikely that a chance collapse would have taken place to correspond with these features with such convenient precision. The gap is also shown to be in the more stable oolitic strata rather than the unstable stretches of fuller's earth which are more liable to collapse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2014297", "title": "Immersed tube", "section": "Section::::Construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 828, "text": "The tunnel is made up of separate elements, each prefabricated in a manageable length, then having the ends sealed with bulkheads so they can be floated. At the same time, the corresponding parts of the path of the tunnel are prepared, with a trench on the bottom of the channel being dredged and graded to fine tolerances to support the elements. The next stage is to place the elements into place, each towed to the final location, in most cases requiring some assistance to remain buoyant. Once in position, additional weight is used to sink the element into the final location, this being a critical stage to ensure each piece is aligned correctly. After being put into place, the joint between the new element and the tunnel is emptied of water then made water tight, this process continuing sequentially along the tunnel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It’s the midterm elections for congress and some special elections for governors that are in new positions. \n\nEdit: just considered you might not know what Congress is. It’s kind of like the parliament if your from a country with that. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Every two years, the entire House of Representatives and 1/3 of the Senate are up for election. This gives the possibility to flip the majority party in both chambers of the federal legislature, making it more difficult to pass legislation preferred by the Republican party. (But not enough to give a veto-proof Democratic majority in both chambers). [This is a drastic oversimplification making the assumption a lot of proposed legislation is sharpy decided along party lines]\n\nIn addition, as usual, many state/local elections are held simultaneously", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically the Republican party currently hold all three branches of government President, Senate, House of representatives 1/3 of the senate and all of the house are up for re-election. This could potentially leave the Democrats in charge and able to block any and all legislation from the President, in addition they could also impeach Trump on various breaches since he took office which would leave Mike Pence the republican vice president in charge.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's mostly too little too late for any real change. Most of the \"divisiveness\" in American politics is just theater to keep voters angry enough to vote for one of the two parties even if they don't like either, just to vote against the other. Meanwhile they happily work together behind the scenes to do things like keep the population in debt and over throw foreign governments that don't let American cooperations abuse their people and ecology.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1136615", "title": "America Votes", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 246, "text": "America Votes is a 501(c)4 organization that aims \"to coordinate and promote progressive issues.\" America Votes leads national and state-based coalitions to advance progressive policies and increase voter turnout for Democratic Party candidates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32522562", "title": "Americans Elect", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 336, "text": "Americans Elect was a political organization in the United States known primarily for its efforts to stage a national online primary for the 2012 US Presidential Election. Although it was successful in obtaining signatures to get on the ballot in a majority of states, the process set up by the organization did not select a candidate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39619035", "title": "Centrism", "section": "Section::::Usage by political parties by country.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 759, "text": "Americans Elect, a coalition of American centrists funded by wealthy donors such as business magnate Michael Bloomberg, former junk-bond trader Peter Ackerman and hedge fund manager John H. Burbank III, launched an effort in mid-2011 to create a national \"virtual primary\" that would challenge the current two-party system. The group aims to nominate a presidential ticket of centrists with names that would be on ballots in all 50 states. The group banks on broad cultural dissatisfaction with the partisan gridlock in Washington, D.C. \"The Christian Science Monitor\" has stated that \"the political climate couldn't be riper for a serious third-party alternative\" such as their effort, but the \"hurdles Americans Elect faces are daunting\" to get on ballots.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32522562", "title": "Americans Elect", "section": "Section::::People.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 558, "text": "Americans Elect was formed by many of the individuals who were responsible for a previous attempt to nominate an Internet candidate, Unity08, and had substantially identical goals for the 2012 presidential election cycle. Americans Elect's founder and Chairman was financier Peter Ackerman. Kahlil Byrd was the former CEO; he subsequently become the president of StudentsFirst by January 2013. Other members of the Board of Directors included Eliot Cutler, Dennis Blair, Stephen W. Bosworth, Irvine Hockaday, and Christine Todd Whitman and Joshua S. Levine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2283425", "title": "Thomas C. Mann", "section": "Section::::Truman administration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 366, "text": "At election time it is just political suicide to try to defend the United States... I think on the whole people in the other American Republics understand and support us, but it isn't good politics to say so at election time. We are a sort of punching bag during elections. Everybody likes to take a swing at us, and makes sure he does every time you say something.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "519775", "title": "Political campaign", "section": "Section::::Modern election campaigns in the United States.:Types of elections.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 244, "text": "The United States is unusual in that dozens of different offices are filled by election, from drain commissioner to the President of the United States. Elections happen every year on many different dates in many different areas of the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8961281", "title": "Kennedy Plaza", "section": "Section::::Notable speeches, parades, and gatherings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 465, "text": "On other occasions, in other years, this country has elected Republican Presidents and Democratic Presidents. They do it when they make a decision that that party and that candidate will serve a great national purpose. \"In my judgment and the responsibility ultimately is yours, in my judgment the United States will be best served by a candidate and a party who recognizes the basic issues of our time, and that is that this country has to go back to work again.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "considering there are living witnesses to some of the atrocities, it's hard to deny atrocities happened.\n\nthe Japanese story says there was no high level orders. and whatever stories of individual soldiers committing actions must have been fabrications because honorable soldiers always follow orders. \n\njust like flat earthers, no amount of evidence will ever convince them that their opinion is wrong. and once you're in deep, you're committed to go all the way.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Unlike Germany, which took the high road of apologizing for all of their wartime behavior, the Japanese have never fully taken responsibility for their war crimes. Comfort women (sex slaves) are the other well-established atrocity that comes to mind.\n\nTo be fair, Iris Chang's The Rape of Nanking (where many many people learn about the details of the massacre) presents itself as a scholarly book but is not. Japanese scholars have seized on that. Still, the amount of evidence (including photographs) not to mention Japanese behavior all over the Pacific Theater make for a very solid case that something dark and grizzly happened there.\n\nOne particularly touchy issue is a Japanese report sent home describing a Japanese prince having a contest to see how many people he can decapitate how quickly. This is pointedly controversial because it involves Japanese royalty. Nevertheless, it fits with the rest of the scummy behavior and I'm not sure anybody outside of Japan contests this happening.\n\nNumbers are always a difficult thing when it comes to war crimes, but it is laughable to say that nothing happened there.\n\nI award the point to the Chinese.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22079251", "title": "Nanjing Massacre denial", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1148, "text": "Nanking Massacre denial is the denial that Imperial Japanese forces murdered hundreds of thousands of Chinese soldiers and civilians in the city of Nanjing during the Second Sino-Japanese War, a highly controversial episode in Sino-Japanese relations. Some historians accept the findings of the Tokyo tribunal with respect to the scope and nature of the atrocities committed by the Imperial Japanese Army after the Battle of Nanking, others do not. In Japan, however, there has been a debate over the extent and nature of the massacre. Relations between Japan and China have been complicated as a result, as denial of the massacre is seen in China as part of an overall unwillingness on Japan's part to admit and apologize for its aggression, or a perceived insensitivity regarding the killings. Estimates of the death toll vary widely, ranging from 40,000 to 200,000. Some scholars, notably the revisionists in Japan, have contended that the actual death toll is far lower, or even that the event was entirely fabricated and never occurred at all. These revisionist accounts of the killings have become a staple of Japanese nationalist discourse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1000232", "title": "Genocides in history", "section": "Section::::20th century (from World War I).:Japan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 183, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 183, "end_character": 389, "text": "During the Nanking massacre which was committed during the early months of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese committed mass killings against the Chinese. Bradley Campbell described the Nanking Massacre as a genocide, because the Chinese were unilaterally killed by the Japanese en masse during the aftermath of the battle for the city, despite its successful and certain outcome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39094222", "title": "Death toll of the Nanjing Massacre", "section": "Section::::Stance of the Chinese government.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 320, "text": " The official stance of the People's Republic of China is that 300,000 or more Chinese were massacred in Nanking. Initially, this figure was generally accepted as including both massacre victims and Chinese soldiers killed in combat, though during the 1980s it came to be interpreted as including only massacre victims.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13106128", "title": "China–Japan relations", "section": "Section::::Bilateral sensitive issues.:Issue of history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 570, "text": "The PRC and Japan continue to debate over the actual number of people killed in the Rape of Nanking. The PRC claims that at least 300,000 civilians were murdered while Japan claims a far less figure of 40,000-200,000. While a majority of Japanese believe in the existence of the massacre, a Japanese-produced documentary film released just prior to the 60th anniversary of the massacre, titled \"The Truth about Nanjing\", denies that any such atrocities took place. These disputes have stirred up enmity against Japan from the global Chinese community, including Taiwan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22079251", "title": "Nanjing Massacre denial", "section": "Section::::Prominent Japanese denialists.:Shudo Higashinakano.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 742, "text": "Massacre denialists such as Higashinakano argue that the \"Nanking Massacre\" was a fabrication and war-time propaganda spread by the Chinese Nationalists and Communists. He argues that the activities of the Japanese military in Nanking were in accordance with international law and were humane. Among other claims, he has denied that there was execution of POWs in uniform, and cited anecdotes claiming that Chinese POWs were treated humanely by Japanese soldiers. However, Higashinakano has also claimed at times that the executed POWs were illegitimate combatants, and so their execution was legitimate under international law. Higashinakano believes some several thousand 'illegitimate combatants' may have been executed in such a fashion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39094222", "title": "Death toll of the Nanjing Massacre", "section": "Section::::Debate on the scope of the massacre.:Chinese soldiers and POWs as massacre victims.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 562, "text": "The first academic accounts of the Nanking Massacre included as massacre victims all Chinese who were killed by the Japanese Army in and around Nanking, including Chinese soldiers who were killed in action. This definition was supported by Hora and other early scholars. In 1986 Ikuhiko Hata became the first historian to call this definition into question. Hata argued that Chinese troops killed on the battlefield were part of the Battle of Nanking rather than Nanking Massacre, and that only civilians and disarmed POWs should be counted as massacre victims.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10707866", "title": "Anti-Japanese sentiment in China", "section": "Section::::Denials of Nanjing massacre by some public officials in Japan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 318, "text": "On June 19, 2007, a group of around 100 Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) lawmakers again denounced the Nanjing Massacre as a fabrication, arguing that there was no evidence to prove the allegations of mass killings by Japanese soldiers. They accused Beijing of using the alleged incident as a \"political advertisement\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's not a denial of service or something like preferential treatment for a certain race, gender, etc. Actuarial science is just that: a science. Insurance is a business, and the different variables that determine how much someone pays for their insurance are based on past and present statistics of behavior. The price isn't set for me just because I'm a non-married white male with no dependents and so on, it's because all of those factors statistically show that I am a higher risk for an insurance claim. There is chemistry in the human brain involved as well that helps explain why the 18-25 partition has an upper bound of 25. There are subgroups within that partition as well.\n\nIf there was a flat rate insurance cost for everyone who owned a car, regardless of age, gender, driving history, etc, there would be a massive outcry from the 'safer' drivers who then pay more than their share for the claims of the young and old.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > I believe there is a law that companies can't discriminate against things like age, sex, race, and in some states, sexual orientation\n\n\nRace is subject to strict scrutiny in discrimination. Age and sex are subject to a rational basis test (for instance, is it discriminatory to not give a 12 year old a driver's license?).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1782965", "title": "No-fault insurance", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 829, "text": "Proponents of no-fault insurance argue that automobile collisions are inevitable and that at-fault drivers are not necessarily higher risk and should not necessarily be punished; moreover, they note that the presence of liability insurance insulates reckless or negligent drivers from financial disincentives of litigation; also, uninsured motorists are often \"judgment proof\" (i.e., can't and won't end up paying for their liability anyway), so that in regions with high numbers of such uninsured motorists, no-fault systems may make more sense. Furthermore, traditional insurance is regressive because drivers of inexpensive cars are liable for damage to any car, no matter its value, even though they only add a small amount of liability to the pool with their less valuable cars. This issue is fixed under a no-fault regime.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42471422", "title": "Micro job", "section": "Section::::Controversies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 336, "text": "Individual auto insurance policies do not cover commercial activities, which may result in denials of claims if drivers are working for hire. To prevent legal complications, some ride service providers are requiring their drivers to purchase commercial insurance. Legislation for micro job worker issues remains unclear and unresolved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1160447", "title": "Disability in the United States", "section": "Section::::Insurance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 563, "text": "It is illegal for California insurers to refuse to provide car insurance to properly licensed drivers solely because they have a disability. It is also illegal for them to refuse to provide car insurance \"on the basis that the owner of the motor vehicle to be insured is blind,\" but they are allowed to exclude coverage for injuries and damages incurred while a blind unlicensed owner is actually operating the vehicle (the law is apparently structured to allow blind people to buy and insure cars which their friends, family, and caretakers can drive for them).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9361554", "title": "Insurance Information and Enforcement System", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 567, "text": "The Insurance Information and Enforcement System is a system used, in the United States, by many Department of Motor Vehicles agencies to track people who might be driving without automobile insurance. Since many jurisdictions forbid uninsured driving, a system like this is necessary to keep track of any applications and cancellations of policies. The system was created largely because many people try to trick the DMV into thinking they're keeping their car insured by registering a car with a policy and then cancelling the policy soon after to keep the plates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31576870", "title": "Vehicle insurance in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1231, "text": "Vehicle insurance, in the United States and elsewhere, is designed to cover risk of financial liability or the loss of a motor vehicle the owner may face if their vehicle is involved in a collision resulting in property or physical damages. Most states require a motor vehicle owner to carry some minimum level of liability insurance. States that do not require the vehicle owner to carry car insurance include Virginia, where an uninsured motor vehicle fee may be paid to the state; New Hampshire, and Mississippi which offers vehicle owners the option to post cash bonds (see below). The privileges and immunities clause of Article IV of the U.S. Constitution protects the rights of citizens in each respective state when traveling to another. A motor vehicle owner typically pays insurers a monthly fee, often called an insurance premium. The insurance premium a motor vehicle owner pays is usually determined by a variety of factors including the type of covered vehicle, the age and gender of any covered drivers, their driving history, and the location where the vehicle is primarily driven and stored. Credit scores are also taken into consideration. Most insurance companies offer premium discounts based on these factors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "804702", "title": "Status quo bias", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 594, "text": "Automotive insurance consumers and other examples: The US states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania inadvertently ran a real-life experiment providing evidence of status quo bias in the early 1990s. As part of tort law reform programs, citizens were offered two options for their automotive insurance: an expensive option giving them full right to sue and a less expensive option with restricted rights to sue. In New Jersey the cheaper option was the default and most citizens selected it. Only a minority chose the cheaper option in Pennsylvania, where the more expensive option was the default.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "567696", "title": "Vehicle insurance", "section": "Section::::Repair insurance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 165, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 165, "end_character": 347, "text": "Some drivers opt to buy the insurance as a means of protection against costly breakdowns unrelated to an accident. In contrast to more standard and basic coverages such as comprehensive and collision insurance, auto repair insurance does not cover a vehicle when it is damaged in a collision, during a natural disaster or at the hands of vandals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "in 1977 NATO agreed to adopt a 2nd round in addition to the 7.62x51mm round, specifically the SS109 steel tipped round which was designed to pierce a soviet style steel helmet at 600 meters.\n\nJane's Infantry Weapons 1986–1987, pg. 362\n\nThe Small Arms Review vol.10, no.2 November 2006.\n\nIt's 4am and I haven't looked into the details of the agreement but I'm assuming it's related to the US introducing the M16 and 5.56mm round in 1960. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's two questions here. One, why was an intermediate rifle round* chosen? Two, to get to your question why was 5.56x45mm specifically chosen?\n\n*\"intermediate\" rifle rounds are rifle cartridges which are smaller than full-sized rifle rounds. For example, the Russian 7.62x54mmR, which has a 7.62mm bullet and a 54mm long shell (the brass part of a cartidge that contains the primer and propellant). By contrast the Russian 7.62x39mm round fire by the AK-47 fires a shorter, lighter 7.62mm diameter bullet from a shorter 39mm shell. The 5.56x45mm is thus an intermediate round, whereas the 7.62x51mm NATO round is a full-sized rifle round.\n\nTo answer the first question, the end of WWII and the immediate aftermath saw a doctrinal shift amongst many world militaries. Observers realized that many infantry engagements were happening at realtively close ranges (25-400m). At those ranges, rifles firing full-sized rounds had several disadvantages. The heavy recoil of the larger rounds made quick follow-up shots difficult and allowed enemy soldiers armed with submachine guns (the Soviets frequently equipped entire battalions with SMGs for close assault work) to outshoot soldiers with bolt-action and semi-auto battle rifles. The heavy and bulky ammunition limited the amount of ammunition soldiers could carry. And the pistol cartridges fired by submachine guns simply didn't have the reach or stopping power needed to be an effectively replacement for full-sized rifles. So a compromise had to be reached.\n\nArms designers came up with a simple solution to these problems: the intermediate round. This idea actually predates WWII, and several firearms inventors had proposed mid-sized rifle cartridges. The best-known example is the .276 Pedersen round, which would have been fired out of the M1 Garand (Douglas MacArthur intervened and had the M1 chambered in .30-06 instead).\n\nHowever, intermediate cartridge development really accelerated toward the end of WWII and the beginning of the Cold War. In 1943 and 1944, Germany developed the StG43/MP44, which fired an intermediate round: the 7.92×33mm Kurz. In 1945, the British began work on the .280/7mm round, which they planned to fire from the EM-2 bullpup rifle. And of course the Russians had the SKS (and later the AK-47) in 7.62×39mm.\n\nNow, to answer the second part of your question: why was the 5.56mm round chosen? Why not .280 British or one of the other contenders? Well, part of it came down to the fact it was an American design. As the largest nation in NATO, the largest arms buyer/producer, and the founder of the alliance, the US had enormous clout over NATO standardization decisions. Once the Americans decided that they wanted to go with the AR-15/M-16 combination, any NATO member that wanted an intermediate round (and still wanted to be able to buy/borrow ammo from US warstocks in the event of an emergency) more or less had to go with 5.56mmx45. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "390237", "title": "Automatic rifle", "section": "Section::::History.:5.56mm NATO.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 881, "text": "Therefore, in March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO forces adopt the 5.56×45mm cartridge. This shift represented a change in the philosophy of the military's long-held position about caliber size. By the middle of the 1970s, other armies were looking at assault rifle type weapons. A NATO standardization effort soon started and tests of various rounds were carried out starting in 1977. The U.S. offered the 5.56×45mm M193 round, but there were concerns about its penetration in the face of the wider introduction of body armor. In the end, the Belgian 5.56×45mm SS109 round was chosen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980. The SS109 round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long range performance and improved penetration (specifically, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet at 600 meters).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35022", "title": "5.56×45mm NATO", "section": "Section::::Rifle barrel configurations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 385, "text": "When 5.56×45mm NATO was adopted as standard in 1980, NATO chose a 178 mm (1-in-7\") rifling twist rate for the 5.56×45mm NATO chambering to adequately stabilize the relatively long NATO L110/M856 5.56×45mm NATO tracer projectile. The US at that time converted all rifles in inventory by replacing the barrels and all new US military rifles since have been manufactured with this ratio.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6579", "title": "Carbine", "section": "Section::::History.:After World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 1638, "text": "By the 1960s, after becoming involved in War in Vietnam, the US did an abrupt about-face and decided to standardize on the intermediate 5.56×45mm round (based on the .223 Remington varmint cartridge) fired from the new, lightweight M16 rifle, leaving NATO to hurry and catch up. Many of the NATO countries couldn't afford to re-equip so soon after the recent 7.62mm standardization, leaving them armed with full-power 7.62mm battle rifles for some decades afterwards, although by this point, the 5.56mm has been adopted by almost all NATO countries and many non-NATO nations as well. This 5.56mm NATO round was even lighter and smaller than the Soviet 7.62×39mm AK-47 cartridge, but possessed higher velocity. In U.S. service, the M16 assault rifle replaced the M14 as the standard infantry weapon, although the M14 continued to be used by designated marksmen. Although at 20\", the barrel of the M16 was shorter than that of the M14, it was still designated a \"rifle\" rather than a \"carbine\", and it was still longer than the AK, which used a 16\" barrel. (The SKS – an interim, semi-automatic, weapon adopted a few years before the AK-47 was put into service – was designated a carbine, even though it's 20\" barrel was significantly longer than the AK series' 16.3\". This is because of the Kalashnikov's revolutionary nature, which altered the old paradigm. Compared to previous rifles, particularly the Soviets' initial attempts at semi-automatic rifles, such as the 24\" SVT-40, the SKS was significantly shorter. The Kalashnikov altered traditional notions and ushered in a change in what was considered a \"rifle\" in military circles.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19901", "title": "M16 rifle", "section": "Section::::NATO standards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 1110, "text": "In March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO forces adopt the 5.56×45mm cartridge. This shift represented a change in the philosophy of the military's long-held position about caliber size. By the mid 1970s, other armies were looking at M16-style weapons. A NATO standardization effort soon started and tests of various rounds were carried out starting in 1977. The U.S. offered the 5.56×45mm M193 round, but there were concerns about its penetration in the face of the wider introduction of body armor. In the end the Belgian 5.56×45mm SS109 round was chosen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980. The SS109 round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long range performance and improved penetration (specifically, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet at 600 meters). Due to its design and lower muzzle velocity (about 3110 ft/s) the Belgian SS109 round is considered more humane because it is less likely to fragment than the U.S. M193 round. The NATO 5.56×45mm standard ammunition produced for U.S. forces is designated M855.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2471637", "title": "Comparison of the AK-47 and M16", "section": "Section::::Comparison of characteristics.:Terminal ballistics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 1110, "text": "In March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO forces adopt the 5.56×45mm cartridge. This shift represented a change in the philosophy of the military's long-held position about caliber size. By the mid 1970s, other armies were looking at M16-style weapons. A NATO standardization effort soon started and tests of various rounds were carried out starting in 1977. The U.S. offered the 5.56×45mm M193 round, but there were concerns about its penetration in the face of the wider introduction of body armor. In the end the Belgian 5.56×45mm SS109 round was chosen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980. The SS109 round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long range performance and improved penetration (specifically, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet at 600 meters). Due to its design and lower muzzle velocity (about 3110 ft/s) the Belgian SS109 round is considered more humane because it is less likely to fragment than the U.S. M193 round. The NATO 5.56×45mm standard ammunition produced for U.S. forces is designated M855.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18950865", "title": "Assault rifle", "section": "Section::::History.:5.56mm NATO.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 869, "text": "In March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO forces adopt the 5.56×45mm cartridge. This shift represented a change in the philosophy of the military's long-held position about caliber size. By the middle of the 1970s, other armies were looking at assault rifle type weapons. A NATO standardization effort soon started and tests of various rounds were carried out starting in 1977. The U.S. offered the 5.56×45mm M193 round, but there were concerns about its penetration in the face of the wider introduction of body armor. In the end the Belgian 5.56×45mm SS109 round was chosen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980. The SS109 round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long range performance and improved penetration (specifically, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet at 600 meters).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35022", "title": "5.56×45mm NATO", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 534, "text": "The 5.56×45mm NATO (official NATO nomenclature 5.56 NATO) is a rimless bottlenecked intermediate cartridge family developed in the late 1970s in Belgium by FN Herstal. It consists of the SS109, SS110, and SS111 cartridges. On 28 October 1980 under STANAG 4172 it was standardized as the second standard service rifle cartridge for NATO forces as well as many non-NATO countries. The 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge family was derived from, but is not identical to, the .223 Remington cartridge designed by Remington Arms in the early 1960s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because people want something to be upset about and this is the newest thing. Two weeks ago, no one ever even knew about this goddamn lion. The news said we should be mad, so everyone got pissed. Outrage gives people a feeling of purpose.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Stories have characters, setting, plot, conflict and resolution. \n\nA rich American dentist traveled to Africa to shoot a lion named Cecil for fun. \n\nThis is a very striking premise to a story and sets up the characters, setting and plot. People want to experience the conflict (the backlash against the dentist, the morality and legality of hunting etc) and then see that conflict resolve (will the dentist be brought to justice?).\n\nThe broader issue of rhinos becoming extinct is very hard to tell as an interesting story. It's like the difference between a blockbuster thriller and a long, but important, documentary series.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1098286", "title": "Mysore Zoo", "section": "Section::::Incidents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 771, "text": "The zoo witnessed a series of animal deaths in 2004 and 2005. In August 2004, a Lion-tailed macaque was found mysteriously dead. An emu and a tiger were also reported to have died mysteriously. On 4 September 2004, an elephant died, reportedly of acute hemorrhagic enteritis and respiratory distress. It was reported that the illness in elephants was due to poisoning. As a safety measure, the zoo authority suspended several staff members who were allegedly responsible for the \"gruesome killings\". Laboratory tests later confirmed that the two elephants, named Ganesha and Roopa, had been poisoned. This was followed by another elephant death (Komala) on 7 September despite heightened security. Komala had been scheduled to be transferred to Armenia in about a month.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47352090", "title": "Education for Nature - Vietnam", "section": "Section::::Wildlife trade in Vietnam.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 253, "text": "Rhinos, annihilated in Vietnam in 2010, are also threatened with extinction as a result of wildlife trade: in 2007, 13 were killed for their horns. By 2014, the number had ballooned; 1215 rhinos were poached and killed in South Africa in just one year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47373041", "title": "Killing of Cecil the lion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 629, "text": "The killing resulted in international media attention, caused outrage among animal conservationists, criticism by politicians and celebrities and a strong negative response against Palmer. Five months after the killing of Cecil, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service added lions in India and West and Central Africa to the endangered species list, making it more difficult for United States citizens to legally kill lions. According to Wayne Pacelle, then President of the Humane Society, Cecil had \"changed the atmospherics on the issue of trophy hunting around the world,\" adding \"I think it gave less wiggle room to regulators.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1635424", "title": "Asiatic lion", "section": "Section::::Threats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 400, "text": "The Asiatic lion currently exists as a single subpopulation, and is thus vulnerable to extinction from unpredictable events, such as an epidemic or large forest fire. There are indications of poaching incidents in recent years. There are reports that organized gangs have switched attention from tigers to these lions. There have also been a number of drowning incidents after lions fell into wells.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "515151", "title": "The Ghost and the Darkness", "section": "Section::::Historical accuracy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 369, "text": "Although Patterson claimed the lions were responsible for up to 135 deaths, a peer-reviewed paper on man-eating lions and the circumstances surrounding this notorious event states that only about 28–31 killings can be verified (Kerbis Peterhans & Gnoske, 2001). (This figure does not take into account any people who may have been killed but not eaten by the animals.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20718189", "title": "Bawean deer", "section": "Section::::Conservation threats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 226, "text": "Their past extinction was due to tigers—precisely, the Balinese tiger—and humans hunting them for their antlers and pelts. Their main predators now are humans, leopards, dholes (the Asiatic wild dog), pythons, and crocodiles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3347025", "title": "Nagarhole National Park", "section": "Section::::Threats and Conservation efforts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 626, "text": "Poaching of birds and other mammals is another serious issue. A high number of elephant deaths have been reported from this park, with nearly 100 elephants dying between 1991–92 and 2004-05 in the Kodagu and Hunsur Forest Division (PA Update 2005). Elephants are killed for their ivory. A study carried out by Wildlife First! found that nearly 77 elephants were reported dead between 1 January 2000 and 31 October 2002. Another study carried out by the Institute for Natural Resources, Conservation, Education, Research and Training (INCERT) in 2002 revealed that as many as seven elephants had been killed earlier that year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your question is certainly welcome here but you might want to try posting it to /r/AskAcademia too – they're good with career advice.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32494174", "title": "University of Łódź Faculty of Management", "section": "Section::::Events.:Career Days.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 110, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 110, "end_character": 389, "text": "The Career Days is a project organized by the international organization called AIESEC. Its main aim is to inform students about the actual offers on the labor market. Students are encouraged to come into direct contact with potential employers of various companies and exchange information with them. The project consists of two parts: job and internship fair and The Academy of Skills. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15486397", "title": "My Career (magazine)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 365, "text": "My Career is a national bi-annual comprehensive magazine for Canadian university and college students. It discusses life choices after graduation, such as career development, post-graduate education and working/travelling abroad (see work abroad) in addition to articles related to campus life, healthy living, student finances and maintaining a work-life balance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38461041", "title": "School of Business and Management of Technology of BSU", "section": "Section::::Centers for Learning and Development.:Career Development Center.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 375, "text": "The Career Development Center motivates students and graduates to self-plan and structure their career goals, helps them to adapt to the contemporary labor market, and ensures full professional career realization. The main purpose is to assist graduates in finding employment and developing careers after graduation, as well as connecting employers with potential employees.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13262570", "title": "European University Cyprus", "section": "Section::::Student Services.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 781, "text": "The Career Center was established in 1989 and has provided students as well as alumni with personal and career development counseling and advice. The Center maintains links to a wide range of local and regional public sector organizations and private corporations. Every year the Career Center invites distinguished professionals from various fields to talk to students helping them broaden their scope and understanding of the job market as well as refine their own professional choices. European University Cyprus has adopted and developed several specialized tools to assist its students including the Employability Database and the Ariadne Psychometric Tool and is an active member of the International Association for the Exchange of Students for Technical Experience IAESTE.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12871127", "title": "Council of Ontario Universities", "section": "Section::::COU Network.:My Career Info.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 559, "text": "My Career Info is a not-for-profit career site developed and run by the Council of Ontario Universities. The site is designed to help students, graduates, and entry-level workers access campus career services, build a strong portfolio, gain budgeting skills, and find a job that fits with their education, skills and interests. They update the site regularly with the latest news from the job sector, including new job apps, resume and interview tips, and career advice. It is designed to help students incorporate career planning directly into their degree.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3559656", "title": "Career Center (Winston-Salem, North Carolina)", "section": "Section::::Career-related classes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 309, "text": "The career center offers classes related to specific fields. These classes, usually about 1.5 hours (two periods) long, are designed to help students gain a better understanding in that specific field, and better prepares them for it. They are taught by professionals in that specific industry. They include:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "604271", "title": "Institute for Humane Studies", "section": "Section::::Programs.:Seminars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 293, "text": "For graduate students pursuing academic careers, IHS sponsors an annual research colloquium, policy research seminars and invitation-only Career Development Seminars designed to help students \"land a job in academia, gain tenure, and contribute to the academic and intellectual conversation.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your body is not an anatomical mirror. Your left side does not mirror your rigt side. Same as your left index finger is not identical to your right index finger. Thus your veins runs 'differently' in your body, meaning that some are close to the skin and some are not.\nAnother contributing factor might also be that you havent always exercised like now, and from childhood may have had a prefered arm (and leg) you used more than the other, leading to this arm being repetitively used more throughout life.\nNb! I am not a native english speaker.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24879702", "title": "On the Sacred Disease", "section": "Section::::Summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 493, "text": "\"The other runs upward by the right veins in the lungs and divides into branches for the heart and the right arm. The remaining part of it rises across the clavicle to the right side of the neck, and is superficial so as to be seen; near the ear it is concealed, and there it divides; its thickest, largest, and most hollow part ends in the brain; another small vein goes to the right ear, another to the right eye, and another to the nostril. Such are the distributions of the hepatic vein.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6671684", "title": "Posterior intercostal veins", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 303, "text": "The posterior intercostal veins are veins that drain the intercostal spaces posteriorly. They run with their corresponding posterior intercostal artery on the underside of the rib, the vein superior to the artery. Each vein also gives off a dorsal branch that drains blood from the muscles of the back.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6923640", "title": "Ascending lumbar vein", "section": "Section::::Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 224, "text": "The ascending lumbar vein is a paired structure (i.e. one each for the right and left sides of the body). It starts at the lateral sacral veins, and it runs superiorly, intersecting with the lumbar veins as it crosses them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "81854", "title": "Central venous catheter", "section": "Section::::Types.:PICC line.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 263, "text": "A peripherally inserted central catheter, or PICC line (pronounced \"pick\"), is a central venous catheter inserted into a vein in the arm (via the basilic or cephalic veins) rather than a vein in the neck or chest. The tip is positioned in the superior vena cava.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7980143", "title": "Left gastric vein", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 235, "text": "It then turns backward and passes from left to right behind the omental bursa and drains into the portal vein. Thus, it acts as collaterals between the portal veins and the systemic venous system of the lower esophagus (azygous vein).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1238189", "title": "Cervical vertebrae", "section": "Section::::Structure.:Vertebra prominens.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 262, "text": "On the left side it occasionally gives passage to the vertebral artery; more frequently the vertebral vein traverses it on both sides; but the usual arrangement is for both artery and vein to pass in front of the transverse process, and not through the foramen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6688021", "title": "Right marginal vein", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 266, "text": "The right marginal vein is a small vein that drains blood from the heart. It passes along the inferior margin of the heart and joins the small cardiac vein (sometimes known as the right coronary vein) in the coronary sulcus, or opens directly into the right atrium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you say that it's literally same exact milk (same brand, same type, same size, etc) then its probably different stocks. Lets say Whole Foods bought milk 2 weeks ago and Safeway bought theirs 2 days ago. So WF's milk is older, and thus expires sooner.\n\nHowever if you mean that brands are different, but product is essentially same - then it depends on what kind of milk it is, how it was processed, how it was made, from what animals (cows, goats, almonds (yes - almond is an animal :P )) etc. Pasteurised vs natural, etc. \n\nNo, the expiration date is not dictated by retailer. Rather its dictated by producer - whoever produces it marks it on the package.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's likely one of two options:\n\nIs the Safeway milk ultrapasteurized? It will say so on the label. Ultrapasteurized dairy products are heated to a higher temperature which better sterilizes them and allows them to last much longer than standard pasteurization. Some ultrapasteurized products are shelf stable (they don't require refrigeration until opened). However the higher temperature affects the flavor of the product, and is more \"processed\" which is similar to \"chemicals\" on a food label. \n\nThe other option (are they coming from the same processor, same brand, etc) is Whole Food's acquisition path for dairy takes more time than Safeway's (which may have different paths for different classes of products). If Whole Foods routes all purchases through warehouses then to stores, while Safeway has ships milk from processor to stores Safeway will consistently have fresher milk but higher shipping costs. This can be worth it if Safeway attracts customers with their milk.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Probably the one with the short code was processed using HTST and packaged traditionally, while the other was UHT processed and packaged in an aseptic environment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If they were the same product from the same plant they will have the same expiration date. \n\nMilk products sold in the United States have a plant code. First two digits is the state the rest is the plant. They are limited on how long they can sell it based on the type of pasteurization.\n\nRegular homonogized pasteurization has a couple week shelf life. Ultra pasteurization has couple months and UHT has the longest, it’s also shelf stable, meaning you can keep it on the counter. Pasteurization changes the flavor profile that’s why everything isn’t just UHT milk. \n\nHowever for any milks, once you open them they all last the same. About 1 week before they go bad. \n\nTo recap, pasteurization is not an indicator of quality, and shelflife is based on pasteurization not quality.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "644148", "title": "Evaporated milk", "section": "Section::::Reconstitution and substitution.:Shelf life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 234, "text": "The shelf life of canned evaporated milk varies according to both its added content and its proportion of fat. For the regular unsweetened product a life of fifteen months can be expected before any noticeable destabilization occurs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19714", "title": "Milk", "section": "Section::::Varieties and brands.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 158, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 158, "end_character": 252, "text": "Milk preserved by the UHT process does not need to be refrigerated before opening and has a much longer shelf life (six months) than milk in ordinary packaging. It is typically sold unrefrigerated in the UK, U.S., Europe, Latin America, and Australia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "449934", "title": "Dairy farming", "section": "Section::::Concerns.:Animal welfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 432, "text": "The production of milk requires that the cow be in lactation, which is a result of the cow having given birth to a calf. The cycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation, followed by a \"dry\" period of about two months of forty-five to fifty days, before calving which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry period that falls outside this time frame can result in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "969613", "title": "Dairy cattle", "section": "Section::::Milk production levels.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 527, "text": "The dairy cow produces large amounts of milk in its lifetime. Production levels peak at around 40 to 60 days after calving. Production declines steadily afterwards until milking is stopped at about 10 months. The cow is \"dried off\" for about sixty days before calving again. Within a 12 to 14-month inter-calving cycle, the milking period is about 305 days or 10 months long. Among many variables, certain breeds produce more milk than others within a range of around 6,800 to 17,000 kg (15,000 to 37,500 lb) of milk per year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23311", "title": "Pasteurization", "section": "Section::::Pasteurization process.:Equipment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 401, "text": "High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization, such as that used for milk ( for 15 seconds) ensures safety of milk and provides a refrigerated shelf life of approximately two weeks. In ultra-high-temperature (UHT) pasteurization, milk is pasteurized at for 1–2 seconds, which provides the same level of safety, but along with the packaging, extends shelf life to three months under refrigeration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "969613", "title": "Dairy cattle", "section": "Section::::Animal welfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 592, "text": "The production of milk requires that the cow be in lactation, which is a result of the cow having given birth to a calf. The cycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation is followed by a \"dry\" period of about two months before calving, which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry period that falls outside this time frames can result in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation. Dairy operations therefore include both the production of milk and the production of calves. Bull calves are either castrated and raised as steers for beef production or used for veal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46682463", "title": "Salva (cheese)", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 429, "text": "For its production full-cream pasteurized milk is used. Its coagulation, at , lasts 30 minutes, then the curd is twice chopped in extremely little fragments. Finally, the bulk mass is put for 8–16 hours in a damp location. The aging lasts either 3–5 months (in this case the product has an aromatic and fragrant flavour), or 8–12 months. There are rare truckles aged up to 36 months. Sometimes the crust is flavoured with marcs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes although we don't have anything close to the technology to make that. If exploded in a vacuum it would look the same as a regular nuclear bomb, if it was in contact with regular matter than there'd be an intense burst of gamma radiation as it annihilates with regular matter.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Assuming it was used on an anti-matter Earth (completely comprised of antimatter) than it would generally operate the same. \n\nIf you made on here then it'd be a giant waste because simply dropping golf ball of antimatter would result in the release of about 60x the energy of the Hiroshima bomb.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just to add some details:\n\nThe yield of conventional nuclear bombs is a somewhat tricky thing to control. Because the nuclear fission part doesn't fully undergo fission, the yield is entirely determined by the specific dynamics of the implosion process. As you can imagine, this could vary a great deal from explosion-to-explosion unless extremely tight engineering requirements are used, combined with very careful experimentation. Even then, we should expect to have some error in estimating the yield.\n\nAntimatter bombs, on the other hand, could be virtually predicted down to the megajoule. Once the device starts to be destroyed, it is guaranteed that all the antiparticles will find a companion. But I suppose the radiation could possibly trigger some subsequent nuclear reactions which could add to the yield and create uncertainty.\n\nThe most pressing challenge is the energy inefficiency and scale of creating anti-matter. If we get beyond that, reliable containment will become a very major challenge.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What might be practical in the medium term future would be an anti-matter triggered fusion bomb. This would theoretically only require 10^−13 gram of antimatter and would result in a much lighter and \"cleaner\" atomic weapon than is currently feasible. The thought of a nuclear hand grenade is frankly terrifying though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1039609", "title": "Antimatter weapon", "section": "Section::::Acquiring and storing antimatter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 280, "text": "Antimatter production and containment are currently impenetrable barriers (due to current technological limitations) to the creation of antimatter weapons. Quantities measured in grams will be required to achieve a destructive effect comparable with conventional nuclear weapons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1317", "title": "Antimatter", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Weapons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 410, "text": "Antimatter has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons. A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it will ever be feasible. However, the U.S. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the Cold War, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1039609", "title": "Antimatter weapon", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 482, "text": "An antimatter weapon is a theoretically possible device using antimatter as a power source, a propellant, or an explosive for a weapon. Antimatter weapons cannot yet be produced due to the current cost of production of antimatter (estimated at 63 trillion dollars per gram) given the extremely limited technology available to create it in sufficient masses to be viable in a weapon, and the fact that it annihilates upon touching ordinary matter, making containment very difficult.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21785", "title": "Nuclear weapon", "section": "Section::::Types.:Other types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 701, "text": "Antimatter, which consists of particles resembling ordinary matter particles in most of their properties but having opposite electric charge, has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons. A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it is feasible beyond the military domain. However, the U.S. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the Cold War, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself. A fourth generation nuclear weapon design is related to, and relies upon, the same principle as antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2915617", "title": "Pure fusion weapon", "section": "Section::::Alternative fusion trigger.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 439, "text": "Some researchers have examined the use of antimatter as an alternative fusion trigger, mainly in the context of antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion but also nuclear weapons. Such a system, in a weapons context, would have many of the desired properties of a pure fusion weapon. However, the technical barriers to producing and containing the required quantities of antimatter appear formidable, well beyond present capabilities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1039609", "title": "Antimatter weapon", "section": "Section::::Antimatter catalyzed weapons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 529, "text": "Antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion proposes the use of antimatter as a \"trigger\" to initiate small nuclear explosions; the explosions provide thrust to a spacecraft. The same technology could theoretically be used to make very small and possibly \"fission-free\" (very low nuclear fallout) weapons (see pure fusion weapon). Antimatter-catalyzed weapons could be more discriminate and result in less long-term contamination than conventional nuclear weapons, and their use might therefore be more politically acceptable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37852", "title": "Fusion rocket", "section": "Section::::Confinement concept.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 227, "text": "A still more speculative concept is antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion, which would use tiny quantities of antimatter to catalyze a fission and fusion reaction, allowing much smaller fusion explosions to be created.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "hi! could you specify which country you're referring to? thanks!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, that is the case. During the 1970s and 80s these plastic crates were regularly pilfered because of their solid construction and light weight. Today manufacturers have copied these designs and they're sold in stores as consumer goods.\n\nSome states have similar laws for shopping carts, possession is illegal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't feel like this is a history question at all. Really a cursory google could answer this:\n\n > Theft of milk crates, as it turns out, is an issue taken very, very seriously by the dairy industry. The International Dairy Foods Association (IDFA), which runs a whole website devoted to public education on the issues of milk crate misuse, estimates that dairy companies lose 20 million milk crates a year to theft. At about $4 per crate, that’s an $80 million loss per year. That represents just a fraction of a percent of gross national fluid milk sales — in excess of $20 billion in 2012 — but dairy profit margins aren’t huge, and $80 million is $80 million.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAlso:\n_URL_1_\n\nThink about it, they are a great size, and incredibly sturdy therefore they are desirable. The practice in the industry is to place the empty ones outside so the worker can take them with them.\n\nI've acquired a few myself.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23658647", "title": "Minnesota v. Clover Leaf Creamery Co.", "section": "Section::::Opinion of the court.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1520, "text": "It was held that (1) the ban on plastic nonreturnable milk containers was rationally related to the achievement of legitimate state purposes and thus did not violate the equal protection or due process clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment, since the state legislature could rationally have decided that its ban on plastic nonreturnable milk jugs might foster greater use of environmentally desirable alternatives, even though another type of nonreturnable is permitted to continue in use, having concluded that nonreturnable, nonrefillable milk containers pose environmental hazards, it was not arbitrary or irrational to ban the most recent entry into the field while in effect \"grandfathering\" paperboard containers, and the legislature had concluded, on evidence sufficient to make the questions at least debatable, that the statute would help to conserve energy and ease the state's solid waste disposal problem, and (2) the statute did not violate the commerce clause, since it regulated even-handedly by prohibiting all milk retailers from selling their products in plastic, nonreturnable milk containers, without regard to whether the milk, the containers, or the sellers are from out of state, the burden imposed on interstate commerce was relatively minor and was not clearly excessive in light of the substantial state interest in promoting conservation of energy and other natural resources and easing solid waste disposal problems, and no approach with a lesser impact on interstate activities was available.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "507190", "title": "Steel and tin cans", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 369, "text": "In the mid-20th century, a few milk products were packaged in nearly rimless cans, reflecting different construction; in this case, one flat surface had a hole (for filling the nearly complete can) that was sealed after filling with a quickly solidifying drop of molten solder. Concern arose that the milk contained unsafe levels of lead leached from this solder plug.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1214243", "title": "United States v. Carolene Products Co.", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 415, "text": "The case dealt with a federal law that prohibited filled milk (skimmed milk compounded with any fat or oil other than milk fat to resemble milk or cream) from being shipped in interstate commerce. The defendant, a company that traded in a form of filled milk consisting of condensed skim milk and coconut oil, argued that the law was unconstitutional because of both the Commerce Clause and the Due Process Clause.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152902", "title": "Dormant Commerce Clause", "section": "Section::::Health and safety regulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 411, "text": "Similarly, in \"Minnesota v. Clover Leaf Creamery Co.\", 449 U.S. 456 (1981) the Court upheld a state law that banned nonreturnable milk containers made of plastic but permitted other nonreturnable milk containers. The Court found that the existence of a burden on out-of-state plastic industry was not 'clearly excessive' in comparison to the state's interest in promoting conservation. And the court continued:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1010583", "title": "Crate", "section": "Section::::Other crates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 269, "text": "Milk crates and bottle crates are a form of reusable packaging used to ship to retail stores and to return empty bottles to the bottler or packager. These are usually moulded plastic designs expected to make several round trip shipments. Wood structures are also used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51521372", "title": "Teeswater Creamery", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 324, "text": "In 1977, the Milk Marketing Board and the Ontario Government banned the shipping of milk in cans, and vehicles with stainless steel bulk tanks were put into use. In 1979, a study of the plant's milk waste treatment process was carried out by the Water Research Centre, which was researching methods of treating dairy waste.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23658647", "title": "Minnesota v. Clover Leaf Creamery Co.", "section": "Section::::Background.:Issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 204, "text": "The controversy centered on the narrow issue of whether the legislative classification between plastic and nonplastic, nonreturnable milk containers was rationally related to achievement of conservation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Check this out.](_URL_0_)\n\n > Every device connected to the public Internet is assigned a unique number known as an Internet Protocol (IP) address. IP addresses consist of four numbers separated by periods (also called a 'dotted-quad') and look something like 127.0.0.1.\n\n > Since these numbers are usually assigned to internet service providers within region-based blocks, an IP address can often be used to identify the region or country from which a computer is connecting to the Internet. An IP address can sometimes be used to show the user's general location.\n\nThere is more detail at the website I linked (including showing you your IP address and location).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Kids these days are exposed to porn at a far too early age.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's called \"geolocation\". Every computer on the internet has a unique \"IP address\" (sort of like a telephone number). ISPs generally get large blocks of continuous IPs & assign sub-blocks to a geographical area. Through a lot of work, people have built databases that can figure out what geographical area your IP is likely to be coming from.\n\nIt's not always perfect. For example, they always place me two states away.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "they dont. It's actually real live local girls waiting to hook up. It's posted by your local ISP.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "they use your webcam then ask millions of mothers who is jerking it in the video, and then they find who it is and ask for the address ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43402519", "title": "Dangerous (Big Data song)", "section": "Section::::Music video.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 779, "text": "The rest of the video alternates between the pitching of advertising ideas and the concepts being shown in real time. The advertisement within the video opens with a woman (Lauren Francesca) in a two-piece running outfit jogging down a street, who is later joined by a second woman (Nicola Fiori) also jogging and similarly dressed. The camera frequently pans from the shoes to their breasts and faces, and closed captioning reading \"sexual breathing\". Seeing the chief marketing director's bored reaction, the designers begin to incorporate more graphic ideas into the advertisement, including the joggers headbutting various bystanders to death and engaging in a lesbian kiss, to the approval of the director and his executives, who toast champagne to celebrate their success.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27553226", "title": "Article video marketing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 256, "text": "Article video marketing is a type of content marketing and advertising in which business create 30 seconds to 5-minute videos about specific topics. The videos are then uploaded to various video sharing websites like YouTube for distribution and exposure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27601152", "title": "In-image advertising", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 337, "text": "In-image advertising uses “data about the image, its tags, and the surrounding content to match images with ads that are contextually relevant.” Once a website owner integrates the scripts onto their publishing systems, site visitors can move their mouse over the images or look at an image for a certain amount of time to reveal an ad.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27485048", "title": "Social-network game", "section": "Section::::Advertising.:Video ads.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 231, "text": "Video ads are shown either in in-game interstitials (e.g. when the game is loading a new screen) or through incentive-based advertising, i.e. you will get either an in-game reward or Facebook credits for watching an advertisement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25225226", "title": "Adult non-pornographic website", "section": "Section::::Concerns and criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 381, "text": "A site's advertisers often are selling sexual products or services, which may compromise the sites image as an educational site, as they may be the same advertisers as at a pornographic site. Some sites choose not to work with financial sponsors, instead relying on reader donations—however, generally only sites with high levels of web traffic can support themselves in this way.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "653717", "title": "Pierre Woodman", "section": "Section::::Movies.:\"Castings X\" productions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 296, "text": "The scenes are typically filmed in hotel rooms, usually in Central Europe. The actresses do not really know what the fake porn director does. Woodman shows the girls a Private magazine or some pornographic images and then inviting them to do something similar to what's displayed in the images. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15869818", "title": "Gaysir", "section": "Section::::History.:Controversies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 202, "text": "While ads show hardcore pornographic pictures, the users are not allowed to upload pictures with sexual content as profile pictures and pictures showing hardcore sexual activity in the picture gallery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]