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[ { "answer": "Some parts of your question were covered in [this earlier answer,](_URL_1_) which points out that the earliest certain written record of Stonehenge only dates from the late Norman period (c.1130). And even after that, it wasn't until the first stirrings of antiquarianism in the mid-17th century that we get any sort of significant flow of information about the site and how it was regarded. \n\nAll that said, we do have some clues. Let's review the ways things stood from period to period.\n\n**Saxon era**\nThe word \"Stonehenge\" is a corruption of the Saxon *Stanenges*, \"hanging stones\". It's usually supposed the name was given to the site because the trilithons at its centre reminded people of gallows. Some support for that supposition comes from the discovery of the victim of a Saxon-era execution (an articulated skeleton known to archaeologists as \"burial 4.10.4\"), whose remains were found in 1922, inhumed in the north-east ditch that surrounds the monument. These remains were long thought lost, but when rediscovered in 1999 they were carbon-dated to c.600-690. The victim, a male of 5 feet 4 inches (1.65m), who may have been either Saxon or a Briton, and was aged 28-32, had been decapitated with a single well-aimed blow from an axe or sword. Pitts et al observe that several known Saxon execution sites are associated with Neolithic monuments such as long barrows. Hence we have some evidence that for the early Saxons, Stonehenge may have been an execution and funerary site. Also worth noting, Pitts says, is that this burial is \"the oldest indication we have that Stonehenge had a significance in recent centuries.\"\n\n**Norman period**\nThe chronicler Henry of Huntingdon wrote about Stonehenge in the context of his listing of the four great wonders of England. For his (much less reliable) contemporary Geoffrey of Monmouth, who claimed to base his work on a probably non-existent old Welsh book, Stonehenge was a memorial to British soldiers killed by Saxon invaders led by Hengist in the fifth century AD, and later the burial site of two great British kings, Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther.\n\n**From 1130-1530**\nStonehenge again goes largely unrecorded in this period. The historian and Tudor propagandist Polydore Vergil mentions it, but only to repeat Monmouth's account.\n\n**Mid to late Tudor period**\nThe first known image of Stonehenge was executed probably by Joris Hoefnagel in 1568 or 1569. The original is lost, but [several versions of it exist,](_URL_0_) including a print by \"R.F.\" and a watercolour by Lucas de Heere. It's notable for its inaccuracy, showing the stones as \"curvaceous as a Modigliani nude\" (Burl) and focussing, as do so many later descriptions, on the sarsens rather than the less well preserved bluestone circle. \n\nThe topographer William Camden mentions the site in his *Britannia* (1588), though without devoting the sort of attention we might expect from our more modern perspective. He focused on the monuments; physicality, calling it \"a huge and monstrous piece of work,\" made of \"certain mighty and unwrought stones.\" He added that some thought the stones themselves were artificial, not things that had been quarried and carved, being stuck together with \"some glewie and unctuous matter\".\n\n**Stuart period**\nThe first systematic investigations of Stonehenge date to this period. James I and other members of a party paying a visit to the Earl of Pembroke, who lived nearby, excavated some ox bones from the site in 1620 (which they speculated were the products of sacrifices once made there), and the king asked his architect Inigo Jones to investigate the monument's history. Jones pitched a tent at the henge and took measurements, also excavating to find out how deeply embedded the stones were in the local chalk. His notes were published in 1655 as *The Most Notable Antiquity of Great Britain, Vulgarly Called Stoneheng, on Salisbury Plain.* He thought it was a Roman construction and likened it to temples he knew of in Tuscany. At about the same that infamous royal favourite George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham, also visited the site and excavated a large pit in the centre of the monument in order to topple one of the sarsen stones (55), also significantly undermining its companion (56), whic hby 1660 was leaning over at an angle of 75 degrees . Buckingham was interested enough in pursuing these inquiries to offer to purchase the site from its owner, a local gentleman, but he was rebuffed.\n\nIn 1663, Walter Charleton wrote a book on the monument, *Chorea Gigantum* (\"giant's dance\") which speculated that Stonehenge was a royal court or palace constructed by the Danes around the time of King Alfred.\n\nCharles II also visited the site (on his way into exile, 1651) and was entranced by it, pausing in his flight to \"reckon and re-reckon the stones.\" After his restoration in 1660 he ordered the renowned Stuart diarist John Aubrey to conduct fresh investigations at the henge.\n\nAubrey already knew the site well, though he considered it be be inferior in its plan and construction to the Avebury Circle. He was the first to attempt to compare Stonehenge to other ancient stone circles and also the first to associate it with the druids, speculating that it was an ancient religious temple (still a popular supposition even today, of course). It's also to Aubrey that we owe the discovery of the \"Aubrey holes\" inside the bank encircling the henge. Modern archaeologists believe these had been used to anchor wooden poles that had once surrounded the henge.\n\n**The Hanoverians**\nGeorg Keysler, a German traveller who visited Britain in the 1720s, saw Stonehenge and thought it had been constructed by Saxons. Organised excavations at the henge date to 1723, when Lord Pembroke (a descendant of the earl of the 1620s) had trenches dug around the altar stone at the centre of the monument and discovered numerous flints.\n\nFinally we come to William Stukeley, another antiquarian, whose once-battered reputation has been undergoing quite a revival in recent years, It was Stukeley who first correctly suggested that the stones were of far greater antiquity than earlier thought, putting its construction at about 480 BC (still out by around 2,000 years, but by far the best and most thought-out guess made to that time – and that can be said to have ushererd in the modern period of Stonehenge studies.) He also identified the stones that make up the henge as coming from at least three different sources, and made the first serious efforts to place Stonehenge within the wider context of its surroundings.\n\nOf course, while all this antiquarianism was going on, the local people of Salisbury Plain were also interacting with the monument - generally to despoil and quarry it for homes and road surfacing, but also to chip away at the stones to carve out bits of rock that were considered lucky charms. Examination of successive images of Stonehenge show the loss of some stones and the toppling and fracturing of others, as a result of this small scale but ongoing work. Other forces were also at work in this period, however; the loss of one 60-ton sarsen was caused by a band of \"gypsies\" who sheltered at Stonehenge in the early 1790s while waiting for a local fair to begin. They dug a shelter for themselves against the stone and this was enough to weaken the foundations and bring it down a couple of years later.\n\n*Sources*\n\nBurl, Aubrey. *Stonehenge: A Complete History*, 2006\n\nNorth, John. *Stonehenge*, 1996\n\nPitts, M. and Bayliss, A. and McKinley, J. and Bylston, A. and Budd, P. and Evans, J. and Chenery, C. and Reynolds, A. and Semple, S. J. (2002) ’An Anglo-Saxon decapitation and burial at Stonehenge.’, *Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine*, 95 . pp. 131-146.\n\nRichardson, R.C. \"William Camden and the re-discovery of England.\" *Trans. Leics. Arch. and Hist. Soc.* 78 (2004) pp.108-123.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "715418", "title": "Aubrey holes", "section": "Section::::Extra-astronomical interpretations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 632, "text": "In fact, early Stonehenge may have been barely different from the other Neolithic timber circles of the British Isles which had varying numbers of postholes and orientations and could therefore not have been used for in island-wide eclipse predicting. The interpretation of such timber circles is unclear, although parallels were drawn with Native American totem poles by Stuart Piggott in a 1946 BBC radio lecture. A 50 cm high carved wooden figure found in the Thames Marshes in 1912 and carbon dated to 2460-1980 BCE has been used rather tenuously to support the theory of carved wooden posts serving a more terrestrial purpose.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28916", "title": "Shetland", "section": "Section::::Prehistory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 823, "text": "Numerous brochs were erected during the Iron Age. In addition to Mousa there are significant ruins at Clickimin, Culswick, Old Scatness and West Burrafirth, although their origin and purpose is a matter of some controversy. The later Iron Age inhabitants of the Northern Isles were probably Pictish, although the historical record is sparse. Hunter (2000) states in relation to King Bridei I of the Picts in the sixth century AD: \"As for Shetland, Orkney, Skye and the Western Isles, their inhabitants, most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time, are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence.” In 2011, the collective site, \"The Crucible of Iron Age Shetland\", including Broch of Mousa, Old Scatness and Jarlshof, joined the UKs \"Tentative List\" of World Heritage Sites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "991395", "title": "Timber circle", "section": "Section::::British Isles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 385, "text": "Timber circles in the British Isles date to the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. The posts themselves have long since disappeared and the sites are identified from the circles of postholes that they stood in. Aerial photography and geophysical survey have led to the discovery of increasing numbers of the features. Often a postpipe survives in the posthole fill aiding diagnosis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61000872", "title": "Tisbury Stone Circle and Henge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 528, "text": "Tisbury Stone Circle and Henge was part of a tradition of stone circle construction that spread through much of Great Britain, Ireland, and Brittany between 3,300 and 900 BCE, during the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. The stone circle tradition was accompanied by the construction of timber circles and earthen henges, reflecting a growing emphasis on circular monuments. The purpose of such rings is unknown, although archaeologists speculate that the stones represented supernatural entities for the circle's builders. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "351573", "title": "Henge", "section": "Section::::Origin and distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 799, "text": "Julian Cope, in \"The Megalithic European\", proposes that the henge was a regional development from the Europe-wide causewayed enclosure. He notes it appeared following a cultural upheaval in around 3000 BC, which inspired the peoples of Neolithic Europe to develop more independently. He notes the 'rondel enclosures' of Bavaria's Isar Valley, which according to investigations by the German archaeologist R. A. Maier, \"drew comparisons with the henge monuments and causewayed enclosures of the British Isles.\" Although still with a multiple-causewayed ditch and entrances at cardinal points, the roundels are described by John Hodgson (2003) as not being positioned with defensive aims in mind. The largest, at Kothingeichendorf, appeared to be \"midway between a henge and a causewayed enclosure\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1009591", "title": "Holkham", "section": "Section::::History.:Anglo-Saxons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 426, "text": "By about 600 the distribution of cruciform brooches, a diagnostic of Anglo-Jutish society, show that the culture had displaced the Celtic on the east coast of Britain, including coastal East Anglia. A similar displacement was true of Saxon culture in south-east Britain, diagnosed by saucer brooches. Two bands of Saxons penetrated into East Anglia, one down the rivers that empty into the Wash and the other into the centre.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "485036", "title": "Northern Isles", "section": "Section::::History, culture and politics.:Pictish times.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 733, "text": "The culture that built the brochs is unknown, but by the late Iron Age the Northern Isles were part of the Pictish kingdom. The main archaeological relics from these times are symbol stones. One of the best examples is located on the Brough of Birsay; it shows three warriors with spears and sword scabbards combined with traditional Pictish symbols. The St Ninian's Isle Treasure was discovered in 1958. The silver bowls, jewellery and other pieces are believed to date from approximately 800 AD. O'Dell (1959) stated that \"the treasure is the best survival of Scottish silver metalwork from the period\" and that \"the brooches show a variety of typical Pictish forms, with both animal-head and lobed geometrical forms of terminal\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's a system to describe how many resources are being devoted to a fire. More alarms means more trucks and firefighters are responding.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Each \"alarm\" is essentially a call for multiple additional units to a fire. These are done in fairly standard packages; rather than say \"Send two engines and a truck\", a firefighter will say \"Send an additional alarm\", and a largely pre-planned response will be sent. The package details depend on the department and the area. The FDNY will send 3 engines, 2 trucks, and a chief for a first alarm; if the fire needs a bit more there's another smallish assignment containing mostly specialty units, and then a second alarm adds a bunch more units (including higher-ranking chiefs, communications units, etc.) At the high end (past 5 alarms), each new alarm is 4 engines and 2 trucks and 1 chief. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "17685051", "title": "Multiple-alarm fire", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 352, "text": "One-alarm, two-alarm, three-alarm fires, etc., are categories of fires indicating the level of response by local authorities. The term multiple-alarm is a quick way of indicating that a fire is severe and is difficult to contain. This system of classification is common in the United States and in Canada among both fire departments and news agencies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1588825", "title": "Fire alarm control panel", "section": "Section::::Panel indicators.:Alarm.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 640, "text": "Also known as \"Fire\" or \"General Alarm\". This indicator is lit when an alarm condition exists in the system, initiated by smoke detectors, heat detectors, sprinkler flow switches, manual pull stations, manual call points, or otherwise. Along with the indicator on the panel, notification appliances, such as horns and strobes, are also activated, signaling a need to evacuate to building occupants. In an alarm condition, the fire alarm panel indicates where the alarm originated. The alarm panel can be reset once the device which initiated the alarm is reset, such as returning the handle of a manual pull station to its normal position.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4136175", "title": "Fire protection", "section": "Section::::Classifying fires.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 438, "text": "Fires are sometimes categorized as \"one alarm\", \"two alarm\", \"three alarm\" (or higher) fires. There is no standard definition for what this means quantifiably, though it always refers to the level response by the local authorities. In some cities, the numeric rating refers to the number of fire stations that have been summoned to the fire. In others, the number counts the number of \"dispatches\" for additional personnel and equipment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "753323", "title": "Chicago Fire Department", "section": "Section::::Communications.:Alarm assignments.:Multiple Alarms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 520, "text": "Higher-alarms for larger fires and more serious incidents are assigned as 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th Alarm Assignments as upgrades of a \"Still & Box\", a \"Box\", or a \"Working Fire\". Each alarm level is signified by the level of alarms, followed by the number 11. The number \"11\" after the level of alarm is tradition of the bell and register system striking 11 blows onto the bell in the firehouse after whatever level of alarm the incident has been upgraded to, followed by the box number, carried over into the modern era.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17685051", "title": "Multiple-alarm fire", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 321, "text": "A common misconception is that a \"3-alarm fire,\" for example, means that three firehouses responded to the fire. This is not the rule behind the naming convention, although some cities may use the number of firehouses responding for multi-alarm designations because that is the simplest way to determine an alarm number.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "855608", "title": "Firefighting", "section": "Section::::Categorizing fires.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 120, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 120, "end_character": 467, "text": "In the US, fires are sometimes categorized as \"one alarm\", \"all hands\", \"two alarm\", \"three alarm\" (or higher) fires. There is no standard definition for what this means quantifiably; though, it always refers to the level of response by the local authorities. In some cities, the numeric rating refers to the number of fire stations that have been summoned to the fire. In others, it reflects the number of \"dispatches\" requesting additional personnel and equipment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3391379", "title": "Lighting control system", "section": "Section::::Automated control.:Alarm conditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 203, "text": "Alarm conditions typically include inputs from other building systems such as the fire alarm or HVAC system, which may trigger an emergency 'all lights on' or ' all lights flashing' command for example.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Immunology is one of those topics that can get extremely tedious and complicated. So, since I don't know how much detail you're looking for exactly, I'll just start with the basics and you can ask questions from there if you like!\n\n* Antigen (\"against life\") = anything that is harmful to you and triggers an immune reaction.\n\n* Antibody (*probably condensed from some longer phrase such as \"anti-toxic body\")* = Any of a bunch of proteins of the immune system that seek out and destroy antigens. They also have other functions including helping to trigger other antibodies to help them attack an antigen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42233582", "title": "Antigen-antibody interaction", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 572, "text": "Antigen-antibody interaction, or antigen-antibody reaction, is a specific chemical interaction between antibodies produced by B cells of the white blood cells and antigens during immune reaction. It is the fundamental reaction in the body by which the body is protected from complex foreign molecules, such as pathogens and their chemical toxins. In the blood, the antigens are specifically and with high affinity bound by antibodies to form an antigen-antibody complex. The immune complex is then transported to cellular systems where it can be destroyed or deactivated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22860615", "title": "Plantibody", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 268, "text": "Antibodies (also known as an immunoglobulins) are complex proteins produced by vertebrates that recognize antigens (or molecular patterns) on pathogens and some dangerous compounds in order to alert the Adaptive immune system that there are pathogens within the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3196405", "title": "Linear epitope", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 409, "text": "An antigen is any substance that the immune system can recognize as being foreign and which provokes an immune response. Since antigens are usually proteins that are too large to bind as a whole to any receptor, only specific segments that form the antigen bind with a specific antibody. Such segments are called epitopes. Likewise, it is only paratope of the antibody that comes in contact with the epitope.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1915", "title": "Antigen", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 724, "text": "Antigens are \"targeted\" by antibodies. Each antibody is specifically produced by the immune system to match an antigen after cells in the immune system come into \"contact\" with it; this allows a precise identification or matching of the antigen and the initiation of a tailored response. The antibody is said to \"match\" the antigen in the sense that it can bind to it due to an adaptation in a region of the antibody; because of this, many different antibodies are produced, each able to bind a different antigen while sharing the same basic structure. In most cases, an adapted antibody can only react to and bind one specific antigen; in some instances, however, antibodies may cross-react and bind more than one antigen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15852005", "title": "Human anti-mouse antibody", "section": "Section::::The HAMA response.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 585, "text": "Antibody treatment is a type of therapy that is used to treat certain types of cancer and immune disorders. Antibodies are proteins which are naturally formed by the body in response to a foreign substance, known as an antigen. Antibodies can also be grown outside of the patient’s body and injected into them to help aid the immune system to fight disease. These types of antibodies are typically called monoclonal antibodies because they are created to target one specific antigen. Herceptin and Avastin, two widely used cancer fighting drugs, are examples of monoclonal antibodies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "338526", "title": "Humoral immunity", "section": "Section::::Antibodies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 453, "text": "An antibody is used by the acquired immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses. Each antibody recognizes a specific antigen unique to its target. By binding their specific antigens, antibodies can cause agglutination and precipitation of antibody-antigen products, prime for phagocytosis by macrophages and other cells, block viral receptors, and stimulate other immune responses, such as the complement pathway.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42233582", "title": "Antigen-antibody interaction", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 642, "text": "There are several types of antibodies and antigens, and each antibody is capable of binding only to a specific antigen. The specificity of the binding is due to specific chemical constitution of each antibody. The antigenic determinant or epitope is recognized by the paratope of the antibody, situated at the variable region of the polypeptide chain. The variable region in turn has hyper-variable regions which are unique amino acid sequences in each antibody. Antigens are bound to antibodies through weak and noncovalent interactions such as electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The answers are further back in time than you're asking about here, but while you're waiting this thread might interest you:\n\n[*Do the speeches we often see before a battle in most literature and visual performances have any historical basis. Did the kings and generals leading an army ever give a speech to rally the troops. Or is this just a modern romanticism?*](_URL_0_) featuring /u/Thrasyboulus, /u/Celebreth, and /u/Quietuus", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "50570333", "title": "Danilo III (patriarch)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 473, "text": "Lazar's speech, like other speeches delivered by princes to their armies before battles, represents evidence of oral literary language that was formed by the traditions of oratory. Danilo III brought to life the spoken word of the protagonists and gave vocal and emotional charge to a scene that has great heroic and epic potential. The dramatization of Lazar's speech and the responses of the choir of Serbian warriors can be compared to that of ancient Greek tragedies. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "250392", "title": "Council of Clermont", "section": "Section::::Speech.:Robert.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 293, "text": "Robert's account of Urban's speech has the rhetoric of a dramatic \"battle speech\". Urban here emphasizes reconquering the Holy Land more than aiding the Greeks, an aspect lacking in Fulcher's version and considered by many historians an insertion informed by the success of the First Crusade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "617018", "title": "Breaking character", "section": "Section::::Famous breaks in film.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 345, "text": "BULLET::::- In the film \"A Knight's Tale\", Mark Addy breaks character in the first sword fighting scene after Paul Bettany's character gives a rousing speech and no one responds. The crowd were actually Czech men and women who did not understand the speech or that they were supposed to cheer; only after Addy yelled did they remember to cheer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5899639", "title": "Alex Norton", "section": "Section::::Awards and other work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 318, "text": "He has also done voice over work on \"Medieval Total War II\" as the voice of some of the Scottish characters in the game, along with voicing Gaunter O'Dimm in \"Hearts of Stone\", an expansion pack for the video game \"\". He also appeared on \"The Weakest Link\" TV Drama Characters Edition. He was the first one voted off.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3793", "title": "Battle of Bosworth Field", "section": "Section::::Legacy and historical significance.:Shakespearian dramatisation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 1073, "text": "The fight between the two armies is simulated by rowdy noises made off-stage (\"alarums\" or alarms) while actors walk on-stage, deliver their lines, and exit. To build anticipation for the duel, Shakespeare requests more \"alarums\" after Richard's councillor, William Catesby, announces that the king is \"[enacting] more wonders than a man\". Richard punctuates his entrance with the classic line, \"A horse, a horse! My kingdom for a horse!\" He refuses to withdraw, continuing to seek to slay Henry's doubles until he has killed his nemesis. There is no documentary evidence that Henry had five decoys at Bosworth Field; the idea was Shakespeare's invention. He drew inspiration from Henry IV's use of them at the Battle of Shrewsbury (1403) to amplify the perception of Richard's courage on the battlefield. Similarly, the single combat between Henry and Richard is Shakespeare's creation. \"The True Tragedy of Richard III\", by an unknown playwright, earlier than Shakespeare's, has no signs of staging such an encounter: its stage directions give no hint of visible combat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56372075", "title": "Dilly Dilly", "section": "Section::::List of ads.:Television.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 260, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Ye Olde Pep Talk\" (January 2018; also aired at Super Bowl LII) – A medieval king tries to motivate his small villager army who is vastly outnumbered, until he brings up the fact that they are out of Bud Light and that the enemy has cases of them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7724855", "title": "Elene", "section": "Section::::Analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 438, "text": "\"('They rode about the famous one; then the shield dinned, the battle-tarp clanged, the king advanced with a troop, a battalion to the battle. The raven yelled from above, dark and greedy for carrion. The troop was on the march. The horn-bearers ran, the heralds called out, the horse trod the earth\"), In this example, the rhymes emphasize the din of voices and the crash of weapons, which builds excitement throughout the battle scene.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The British in general and some other folk in the Commonwealth. My more elderly but still Canadian by birth family certainly has the same tea fixation even if they don't call anything in particular 'tea time' or 'afternoon tea'.\n\nTea is a common drink and there is a sort of 'tea time' some observe as a meal event and it's generally considered polite to offer tea to guests. A lot of people will have it at some point through the day.\n\nUnless otherwise specified it'll be a black tea usually. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In Ireland, \"tea time\" or \"having your tea\" is actually a colloquial term for the evening meal, as well as the actual drink. And to make it even more confusing, many refer to lunch as \"dinner\", and the dinner as \"tea\".\n\nBut pasically, praesartus is correct. People routinely drink tea throughout the day in both the UK and Ireland. As in at work or college, the occasional \"tea break\" where someone makes a pot of tea and everyone has a cup is pretty much as common as a smoke break for those who smoke.\n\nIf someone comes in to your house, even just to drop back a DVD they'd borrowed, it's pretty common to have a cup of tea with them. Tea would generally be included in the \"time to stay for a drink?\" question if someone's just dropping by, which in the US seems to be confined to having a beer. Over here, \"staying for a drink\" can mean anything from a cup of tea to a glass of whiskey. :p", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1942639", "title": "Doublet (linguistics)", "section": "Section::::Origin.:Borrowed origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 316, "text": "More remotely, cognate terms from different languages can be borrowed, such as \"sauce\" (Old French) and \"salsa\" (Spanish), both ultimately from Latin, or \"tea\" (Dutch \"\") and \"chai\" (Hindi), both ultimately from Chinese. This last pair reflects the history of how tea has entered English via different trade routes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43650902", "title": "Etymology of tea", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 548, "text": "The etymology of the word \"tea\" can be traced back to the various Chinese pronunciations of the word. Nearly all the words for tea worldwide, fall into three broad groups: \"te\", \"cha\" and \"chai\", which reflected the history of transmission of tea drinking culture and trade from China to countries around the world. The few exceptions of words for tea that do not fall into these three broad groups are mostly from the minor languages from the botanical homeland of the tea plant, and likely to be the ultimate origin of the Chinese words for tea.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1575598", "title": "Wanderwort", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 423, "text": "Tea, with its maritime variant \"tea\" and Eurasian continental variant \"chai\" (both variants have entered English), is an example whose spread occurred relatively late in human history and is therefore fairly well understood: \"tea\" is from Hokkien, specifically Amoy, from the Fujianese port of Xiamen, hence maritime, while \"cha\" (whence \"chai\") is used in Cantonese and Mandarin. See etymology of tea for further details.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43650902", "title": "Etymology of tea", "section": "Section::::Etymological observations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 238, "text": "The different words for tea fall into two main groups: \"\"te\"-derived\" (Min) and \"\"cha\"-derived\" (Cantonese and Mandarin). The words that various languages use for \"tea\" reveal where those nations first acquired their tea and tea culture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19337173", "title": "Tea (meal)", "section": "Section::::Tea as the main evening meal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 353, "text": "The term 'Tea' is often used among the English working classes - particularly those of the North of England - as signifying the main meal of the evening. Other than the name, the meal is not different from those eaten as dinner or supper. More generally, a high tea was and is often the last meal of the day for young children, before an early bedtime.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3255567", "title": "Kōdō", "section": "Section::::Etymology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 521, "text": "In the search for a suitable term, translations of such words into English sometimes focus on a narrower aspect of the original term. One common translation in context is \"ceremony\", which entails the process of preparation and smelling in general, but not a specific instance. In some instances, it functions similarly to the English suffix \"-ism\", and as in the case of tea (\"chadō/sadō\" 茶道) one sees \"teaism\" in works dating from early efforts at illustrating \"sadō\" in English, focusing on its philosophy and ethos. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43650902", "title": "Etymology of tea", "section": "Section::::Etymological observations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 518, "text": "BULLET::::- The Dutch word for \"tea\" (\"thee\") comes from Min Chinese. The Dutch may have borrowed their word for tea through trade directly from Fujian or Formosa, or from Malay traders in Java who had adopted the Min pronunciation as \"teh\". The Dutch first imported tea around 1606 from Macao via Bantam, Java, and played a dominant role in the early European tea trade through the Dutch East India Company, influencing other European languages, including English, French (\"thé\"), Spanish (\"té\"), and German (\"Tee\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sunlight comes from above, and it can only go through so much moisture before it's all blocked. Therefore the gray areas are just the thickest areas of cloud coverage. The clouds themselves are actually white throughout, just varying levels of sunlight.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Large amounts of cloud.\n\nClouds appear white because they scatter incoming light in all directions. So regardless of which direction the sun comes from, some bounces off and reaches your eyes. \n\nBut when you have enough cloud or a dense cloud, their effect on light is so much it can't pass through. If the light is coming at an angle that it would need to pass through the cloud before hitting your eyes, it won't make it. And it will appear dark, or black. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2108187", "title": "The Black Cloud", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 275, "text": "The Black Cloud is a science fiction novel by British astrophysicist Fred Hoyle. Published in 1957, the book details the arrival of an enormous cloud of gas that enters the solar system and appears about to destroy most of the life on Earth by blocking the Sun's radiation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28779877", "title": "Atmospheric optics", "section": "Section::::Cloud coloration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 959, "text": "The color of a cloud, as seen from the Earth, tells much about what is going on inside the cloud. Dense deep tropospheric clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very dark grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background. High tropospheric and non-tropospheric clouds appear mostly white if composed entirely of ice crystals and/or supercooled water droplets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "174823", "title": "Dark nebula", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 563, "text": "Dark clouds appear so because of sub-micrometre-sized dust particles, coated with frozen carbon monoxide and nitrogen, which effectively block the passage of light at visible wavelengths. Also present are molecular hydrogen, atomic helium, CO (CO with oxygen as the O isotope), CS, NH (ammonia), HCO (formaldehyde), c-CH (cyclopropenylidene) and a molecular ion NH (diazenylium), all of which are relatively transparent. These clouds are the spawning grounds of stars and planets, and understanding their development is essential to understanding star formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "731893", "title": "Grey", "section": "Section::::In the sciences, nature, and technology.:Storm clouds.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 474, "text": "The whiteness or darkness of clouds is a function of their depth. Small, fluffy white clouds in summer look white because the sunlight is being scattered by the tiny water droplets they contain, and that white light comes to the viewer's eye. However, as clouds become larger and thicker, the white light cannot penetrate through the cloud, and is reflected off the top. Clouds look darkest grey during thunderstorms, when they can be as much as 20,000 to 30,000 feet high.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43420826", "title": "Anthropogenic cloud", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 450, "text": "A homogenitus, anthropogenic or artificial cloud, is a cloud induced by human activity. Although generally clouds covering the sky have only a natural origin, from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the use of fossil fuels and water vapor and other gases emitted by nuclear, thermal and geothermal power plants yield significant alterations of the local weather conditions. These new atmospheric conditions can thus enhance cloud formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17599355", "title": "White", "section": "Section::::Scientific understanding (Color science).:Why snow, clouds and beaches are white.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 352, "text": "Clouds are white for the same reason as ice. They are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air, very little light that strikes them is absorbed, and most of the light is scattered, appearing to the eye as white. Shadows of other clouds above can make clouds look gray, and some clouds have their own shadow on the bottom of the cloud.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1077335", "title": "Polar stratospheric cloud", "section": "Section::::Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 250, "text": "Forward-scattering of sunlight within the clouds produces a pearly-white appearance. Particles within the optically thin clouds cause colored interference fringes by diffraction. The visibility of the colors may be enhanced with a polarising filter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "'Pirates' helped finance the first Episcopal church in Rhode Island, Trinity church. The church denies this (and are technically correct), as none of the men were ever convicted of piracy, or they were under a Letter of Marque at the time (making them privateers).\n\nThis little factoid allows me to begin the long and fascinating story of Henry Avery, Thomas Tew, Thomas Paine, William Mays, William Kidd, the ingenius (read: pirate brokering) Rhode Island governors, and the Golden Age of Piracy... all in one wonderful teaser fact.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not a historian, but I have trained as a history teacher in Australia, and I love Australian colonial history, and telling people our most famous icon / outlaw Ned Kelly, and the convict Alexander Pearce...\n\nKelly is very well known, but some of what he did is complete genius... In their famous bank robbery, they locked the police in their own cells, dressed in their uniforms and posed as reinforcements form Sydney, robbed the bank, burnt the mortgage deeds (so everyone in the area owned their property), and then went to the pub, and shouted the bar for two days...\n\nPearce was a convict in Tasmania in the 1820s who escaped with six others along the inhospitable west coast of Tasmania, there is nothing there (even today) and they turned to cannibalism to survive, and although apparently he didn't start it, Pearce was the last to survive... When he was caught, and brought back to Hobart, no one believed him when he said what happened, and so he was simply locked up again... Pearce then escaped again with another inmate, and was caught later, having eaten him, he was carrying his bones on him, and wearing his clothes, even though he still had normal food left... After this, he was put to death...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On child labor during the Industrial Revolution.\n\nIt's often taught in the U.S. that children were used to work certain machines, in part, because the children's small hands were needed to fit in the small spaces. This isn't the entire truth. The machines could have been designed for adults, but were specifically designed for children. Child labor was preferable to the factory owners as they were cheaper, and far less able to quit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I used to teach middle school kids about the Civil War and they all seemed to enjoy hearing about [Wilmer McLean](_URL_0_). When the war started he owned a farm in Virginia, Manassas to be exact. As most of you know, the first major battle, The First Battle of Bull Run, took place there. There was fighting on his farm even. The Confederate general Beauregard used McLean's home as his headquarters till a cannonball ripped through the kitchen. \n\nMcLean was too old to fight and wanted to protect his family more than anything so he packed up what possessions he had and left Manassas behind. He thought he'd move farther south, away from D.C. where there was sure to be more battles, to relative safety of southern Virginia. The *safe, peaceful* town he picked was Appomattox. \n\nIn April 1865, with the war about over, General Lee uses McLean's new home as a meeting place to surrender to General Grant. After the terms of surrender were signed in McLean's parlor, officers realized that this was obviously a historical site now and proceeded to remove all his furniture. I believe they used his home for weeks after as well. \n\nWilmer McLean, the man who the Civil War started and ended on his property. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One of the more important parts of the American declaraion of independence was taken almost literally from the Dutch declaration of independence.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'll point out that the Vietnamese Declaration of Independence was taken as much from France's [Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen](_URL_0_) as it was from its American predecessor. As Vietnam was a former French colony, Ho Chi Minh studied in Paris and was certainly familiar with the document. David Armitage has a good book on the propagation of a declaration as a genre in his prosaically-titled [The Declaration of Independence: A Global History](_URL_1_).\n\nAs long as I'm talking about France and the DRM & C, a fun fact I like sharing is that while the document was written and propagated in French and has become synonymous with the French nation, Henri Grégoire estimated that at the time of the Revolution, [only about an eighth of France's population claimed French as its native language](_URL_2_). Most spoke a local dialect (_patois_) such as Occitan, Gascon, or Breton.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I... Um... All of it? Pretty hard to nail down one part. I suppose telling people about how factories were converted to war production during WWII leading to all kinds of innovations in technology, work and labour relations. I particularly enjoy pointing out that the Ford factory in Geelong was used to manufacture a whole heap of things: jeeps, machine guns, submersible vehicles and even sea mines!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Learned last year in history lessons doing the wild west. One particular event we had to cover was the Johnson County War (I believe it was called) where a bunch of cattle barons hired some armed gunmen to go and kill off a bunch of supposed 'cattle rustlers' (who were actually just homesteaders who's land the barons wanted). The hired guns (around 50 in total) had a list of people to kill, quite a few of which were in the nearby town. There was also a farm nearby in which they had been asked to kill other 'rustlers'. While it should have been an easy job at the farm, they were actually held off there for an entire day, by a lone man called Nat who's friend they had just killed. One man against 50. They eventually burned him out, but by that time word had got to the town and a force of 150 was rallied together, who chased the thugs back to another farm and held them captive there till the army came.\n\nSorry if things are inaccurate, we did this a while back and I'm terrible at names. It a good story though to attract people to what was actually happening in the west, since a lot of people's knowledge is just stereotypes. For example cowboys are often painted as gunslinging, drinking and whoring bad guys who spent most of their time in the town. While this sometimes did happen, it was only for a few days, and for the rest of the time cowboys led a hard life either moving cattle or patrolling ranches. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's pretty much the showpiece of my area of study, but I love talking about the August coup. I'm also very surprised at how few Westerns know the basic details of the coup, if they have heard of it at all. \n\nLess historical and more speculative, but I love batting around the \"Lost Cosmonaut\" theory. I think it nicely illustrates how secretive the USSR was, and also how primitive the space program was in its early years. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I live in rural central Florida and i often like to recommend a book aptly named \"A Land Remembered\" by Parick Snith about the pioneer's who colonized this land when only the indians, who've been established since 12,000 bc. How the land and the expansion of the united states destroyed an ancient land that you can still see and be apart of. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pope Sylvester II, who was educated in the Arabic tradition of Spain, was so well educated in comparison to Europeans of the day that many people thought he was a sorcerer who practiced witch craft. \n\nEdit: Changed Sorceror to Sorcerer. Misspelled it the first time. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Part of my work includes Thomas Paine, well-known because of his impact in the United States, France, and England. However many people (usually people not studying history) question whether or not Paine and his ideas are relevant in today's world. I like to point out that President Obama quoted Paine in his inauguration speech. Although Obama was referring to the words spoken by Washington, it was Washington quoting Paine's work, \"The American Crisis.\"\n\nIf you are interested in the quotation, it is near the end of his speech: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I enjoy telling people about the Battle of Kursk, many people haven't heard of it and its staggering number of participants and overall impact on WWII.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Going through Victorian newspapers, I've come across a lot of strange and transient cultural phenomena that never made it into the history books. For example: monkey parachuting.\n\nNo, seriously. The case I came across was in 1851. A hot-air balloon went up from a park in London, and a monkey was tossed out with a parachute attached, falling into the back garden of a Mr Lovelock. The monkey was fine, but Lovelock was beaten up when a gang barged in his front door to get their monkey back.\n\nThe best thing is that the papers refer to this kind of bizarre balloon stunt as a fairly common nuisance. Apparently, as well as all the other problems in Dickensian London, you had to keep an eye out for animals descending from on high.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I live in Arizona, and always enjoy telling people complaining about Mexican immigrants that where we live was once Mexico, until the US beat Mexico in a war and took (purchased for a pittance in their surrender treaty) almost half of Mexico's land. In my experience the Mexican-American war is entirely skipped over in primary and secondary curriculum.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I love telling people, kids especially, that John Keats was 5\"1' (meter and a half) tall. That I'm 5' makes this quite fun, indeed. Also that he was well known in school for being quite a scrapper and once beat up a kid who he found torturing a cat.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "During the WWII there was a lot of intelligence activity which made a big difference on the outcome of the war.For example before the d day they threw aluminum airplanes above the pas de calais which on radars appeared like air fleet.Germans were convinced that attack is going to be launched on calais which was heavily defended.Also British airforce didnt protect the south east of the country so german recon thought they got away unseen,spotting what they thought it was tank _URL_0_ the same time all the british force was located in south west and of course guarded by airforce.German planes seen inflatable tanks which were \"hidden\" there just waiting to be seen.A lot more of interesting things like this can be found almost for any operation in the war!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "_URL_0_\n\nI know it's a wikipedia article, but I think it's hilarious.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "William Walker. Grey Eyed Man of Destiny. President of Nicaragua. Free Booter. Nemesis of Vanderbilt.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pretty much any chance I get to talk about my area of study, I'm happy. The Roman views on oral sex are the thing that I tend to bring up the most, because they're so different from Modern American views, and it always kind of blows (heh!) people's minds. (Romans thought of cunnilingus as one of the most scandalous sex acts that one could perform because it made the man passive to the woman. This is why, in the first episode of Spartacus, when the Roman legatus goes down on his wife who has inexplicably turned up at the battlefield in Thrace, I had a hard time not just turning the show off then and there. I can maybe buy that a well-born Roman man might have just gone ahead and done it anyway, but in a tent in his army camp where someone might have walked in and seen him letting a woman use his mouth? Uh, no.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Frank Lloyd Wright abandoned his family, was married several times, and his home (Taliesin) was the site of a mass murder by a disgruntled servant while Wright was in Chicago (8 dead). Also, Falling Water, one of his most iconic buildings, has been plagued with mold problems and deflection of the cantilevers, which caused some significant cracking. Since it's an iconic image of American architecture, a significant amount of money has been poured into restoring it (I wish I could find an exact figure, but my google skills are failing me)\n\nThe patron that commissioned Falling Water, Edgar Kaufmann, also commissioned another vacation home in Palm Springs, California from modernist architect Richard Neutra. [Immortalized in this photograph by Julius Shulman](_URL_1_), I think it has a far more interesting relationship with the landscape than Falling Water.\n\nAnother interesting fact from my field that I find really fascinating is that Leslie Robertson, the engineer for the World Trade Center in the 70s, ran simulations on what might happen if a commercial airliner hit the buildings. Unfortunately he only considered the impact, and not the resulting heat from the fire. NOVA did a great documentary called [Why the Towers Fell](_URL_0_) if you don't mind watching this poor older gentleman feel partially responsible. His design was credited with keeping the building standing far longer than expected, allowing many more people to get out, but watching him cry during his interview is heartbreaking.\n\nedit- the documentary, while informative, is occasionally disturbing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Honey bees are not native to North America. They were often one of the first signs to indigenous groups that white settlers were entering their territory. \n\nThe uniform of a park ranger is linked to the very first guards at Yellowstone National Park. Those guard were U.S. Army cavalry. \n\nThey're really just interesting facts, but can be tied into a discussion about larger issues sometimes. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I have a 20th century political history degree and after my conversations involving the middle east evolve to a certain point, I bring up [ Mosaddegh]( _URL_0_). all of the fundies and horror stories you hear about Iran can be traced to the united states displacing him. We put the shah of Iran into our pocket and that set the stage for the 79 Iranian uprising whose party is still in power today. \n\nWe made the middle east a shit hole.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm from Cirencester, UK (a.k.a. Corinium Dobunnorum) - the second largest town in the Roman Province of Britannia. It was initially a fort, but nearby in what is now Bagendon was a pre-Roman oppidum (tribal centre) with a mint.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Either of the following, both of which I've posted before in this subreddit, proving that I do, in fact, enjoy telling people about them, hah!:\n\n1. [Mystery surrounding the colour of USS Arizona on Dec. 7, 1941](_URL_0_), the battleship whose destruction at Pearl Harbor so enraged the American populace and into WWII;\n\n2. The [role of a few dreadnoughts](_URL_1_) in bringing the Ottoman Empire into WWI.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The fact that slavery was thriving in southern industry (U.S. History). This dispels the notion that capitalism and slavery were incompatible. Slavery as a system was quite adaptable, and it was becoming a central ingredient to the infant southern industry of the nineteenth century. Southern industrialists believed that they could not compete with northern and foreign industry without the low labor cost of slavery.\n\nThere are at least two major implications. One is that capitalism and freedom/liberty do not automatically go hand-in-hand. The philosophic debate on slavery versus free-labor ideology was ultimately decided through violence rather than a natural connection between capitalism and liberty. The other is that slavery was not going to go away on its own without the U.S. Civil War. Slavery was becoming more strongly entrenched in the decades prior to the war.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "it's very likely that there was no [\"last stand\"](_URL_0_) by custer at the battle of little bighorn, due to archaeological evidence collected at the site. it's been a while since i read richard fox's book about the subject but i believe the evidence showed that it was probably a massive single assault with crazy horse leading a bold charge and \"splitting\" the last big group of the 7th. the actual \"last stand\" most likely occurred in a deep ravine that the remaining survivors fled down but were picked off easily by the natives on each side of the ravine. i also think that more evidence showed that custer's group was killed before miles keough's battalion.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I love debunking the myth that Washington murdered a bunch of drunk and sleeping Hessians at the Battle of Trenton. This lets me get into how Washington was actually a pretty good tactical general and that he wasn't **only** good at running away. \n\nI also love talking about trench warfare in the US Civil War and how much certain aspects of that war were signs of what would happen in WWI. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Al-Jahiz, an Arabic poet and philosopher, wrote about natural selection and biological evolution (see the Book of Animals), a thousand years before Charles Darwin, and with 0% of the bullshit that Darwin and modern science have had to endure underneath religious fundamentalists.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A fun piece of historical math. The Roman Empire was in decline longer than the US has been a country. The reign of Commodus, who lived until 180 AD is generally regarded as the beginning of the end for Rome. But Rome in the west would last until 476, in the reign of Romulus Augustus. thats about 300 years. If the Eastern Empire is included in our calculations, it lasts yet another 1100 years making the total 1300 years. The US has been a sovereign state for only 250 approximate years. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When Alaric (who sacked Rome in 410CE) died, his successors had the Busento River diverted so they could bury him, and his wealth, in the riverbed. The river was then sent back on its original course and the slaves and captives who did the labor were killed so no one would know where he was buried.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That great master painters most often just did detail work of their paintings (faces, hands and so on) and that everything else was done by their workshop. For example Rembrandt is know to have bought works of art and resold it under his name. The reason for this was that by singing them he have them a sort of seal of approval. - > as good as by myself. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I love telling people that during medieval and renaissance times, and basically any era in which witches were prevalent, that a witch \"flying on her broom stick\" was actually a woman using a broom stick as a makeshift penis/dildo, which was lubricated with a substance (usually a mixture of toad skin, which can contain DMT, and a hemp seed oil) that gave euphoric hallucinations along with the stimulation of the makeshift penis/dildo. The mixture itself was given the term \"flying ointment\", which was applied to the shaft of the broomstick before being inserted into the woman's vagina.\n\nWhat's even funnier and more intriguing is that when you look up old depictions of witches flying on their brooms, they appear to be sitting on them the opposite way that you would imagine a witch to be sitting. The broom bristles usually appear [in front](_URL_0_) of the witch, rather than behind. Though, many times you'll see pictures in which they aren't even riding brooms, but rather a pitchfork, or a pike, or some soft of pole-like object. And just like the broom though, they're usually depicted riding it the other way around, not always, but many times.\n\n[Source](_URL_1_)\n\n*edited for the inclusion of a source*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As a Midwesterner I love telling people about the real Johnny Appleseed:\n\nJohnny Appleseed is a heavily mythologized figure so a lot of people don't even think he is real. He would run around the Ohio River valley planting apple tree nurseries in desirable locations just ahead of settlers moving into the area and then sell them to buy more land.\n\nChapman's father fought as a Minuteman in Concord, MA and continued to fight in the Continental Army under George Washington. And Chapman himself was born right around the time of the Battle of Bunker Hill.\n\nBasically he would purchase land, make a nursery, fence it off to protect it from animals, and leave it in the care of a local person who would sell the trees. He would periodically come back and tend the land. He did this all over PA, OH, IN, and IL. He lived an itinerant subsistence lifestyle even though he owned thousands of acres of land by the time he died.\n\nThe really fun fact is that apple trees grown from seed almost never produce tasty, large apples (You have to graft branches that produce, say, a Red Delicious onto a new tree in order to get new Red Delicious apple trees. This means that all Red Delicious apples are clones of the original Red Delicious apple tree).\n\nThe trees and apples they made were used primarily for making hard cider and apple jack (a concentrated cider that had more booze in it).\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Henry VIII of England has a reputation for being quite the womanizer and going through wives like a Hollywood actor, but many people don't know he was married to Catherine of Aragon for almost 24 years. From the evidence, he was truly in love with her in the beginning of their marriage - he known her since he was a boy, and married her as soon as his father (who had been postponing the marriage) died. Henry had some affairs with other women even starting fairly early in the marriage, but this was pretty common for kings. He didn't think of ending his marriage to Catherine until he'd been married 16 years, Catherine had passed childbearing age, and he met Anne Boleyn.\n\nHis later marriages were indeed pretty short (6 months and 3 days for Anne of Cleaves), but he wasn't always as capricious and quick to turn around as he gets made out to be.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I always find it interesting to talk about the argument over whether or not \"God\" would appear in the Israeli declaration of independence, and what this said about the founders of Israel. A secular Labor Zionist refused absolutely to have \"God\" appear in the text (referring to the last paragraph, \"Placing our trust in the [God] of Israel\"), while the religious insisted on mentioning God somewhere in the declaration. Ben-Gurion eventually proposed a compromise, where they would say \"placing our trust in the Rock of Israel,\" where \"Rock of Israel\" could be seen either as a metaphor for the God of Israel or for the Land of Israel. Ben-Gurion's compromise was accepted without a vote, to prevent splitting the room with the hostility such a vote might create.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well it's really not a historical fact (and I obviously state that when i tell it), but it befits the common self-ironic historical narrative I have, so here goes nothing:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nsry for wikiarticle", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are World War One training trenches in Houston's Memorial Park.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I love talking about the nature of religious debate in the early centuries of Christianity, mainly how Latin Christianity related to Byzantine Christianity: their differences, their fights, and how they gradually split. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Don't ever let me start talking about the Eastern Roman Empire... I will talk to you for hours on end about how awesome they were, and how much it sucks that they're always overlooked. I actually did this to a girl once... I kinda feel bad now looking back, but what happened was a friend asked me about the Roman Maniple formation (I had been applying it to great success in Empire: Total War, and he was asking me about it) to which I happily obliged. Before I knew it I was going on about how much I disliked Romulus Agustulus (only because I don't think he's worthy of being called the last emperor, I actually feel bad for the kid) was, and why Constantine XI is the real last Emperor, all with a ton of Roman history in between. I went on for probably over an hour. Poor girl probably didn't even know who Romulus was to begin with.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My friends from Russia believe they won the war, as we here in the US also believe. As a historian it's important to remember that without the involvement of the US Germany would not have had to fight a two front war and might have won. Although we all know winning a war in Russia in winter is near impossible against the Russians. Also the fact that Hitler broke his treaty with Stalin and attacked was a huge mistake. The war is just what we thought it was a concerted effort by many nations, not just one. This gets lost because sometimes American pride blinds us to other countries contributions. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most people have not even heard of Aksum; usually the only time I get to talk about my pet subject is with people on the internet, most of whom are unable to grasp the idea of a strong polity in Africa, central the trade between Rome and India. Yes people, not every important classical civilization was located in Eurasia.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Around the turn of the 20th century, some enterprising farmers in southern California decided to try and irrigate \"The Valley of Death\" (different from Death Valley, also now called Imperial Valley) with water from the colorado river. The valley receives around 2.4\" of rain annually, but has excellent, loamy soil from the river. They cut irrigation channels, but they kept silting over. As a temporary measure, they built a small gate to regulate the water flow, to hopefully ease the rate of infil in their newly cut channels. Unfortunately, 1905 was an especially good year for the Colorado, precipitation wise, and the resulting spring flood, washed out the gate, overflowed a dike, and allowed the river to flow uninhibited through the very soft, loamy soil, which it quickly cut a deep trench into. As a result, There was an approximately **80ft tall waterfall moving backwards up the river, at about the pace of a walking man**. The railroad eventually stopped it, but some estimates say that if left unchecked, it could have grown to almost 300ft high as it moved farther up the river. This is how the Salton sea was formed", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The fork became popular in the West due to a Byzantine woman eating with one in Venice", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Battle of Midway hung on the action of one dive bomber pilot.\n\n(for those who know what I'm talking about, yes, I know I'm over-simplifying)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The reason we have our current days of the week set up and named as they are (in the English Language anyway) is because of our Germanic ancestors and Rome. Typically, when one thinks about the cultural influences in the ancient world that contribute to the modern Western world they think Rome and Greece. But a lot of times it's the cultural influences of the Germanic tribes during their migrations and subsequent societies that contribute directly to our day to day modern lives. I like to think about why things are the way they are. \n\nBut the Germanic tribes got the system of a 7 day week with days named after gods in the pantheon from their Roman neighbors, they just adopted their own gods (except for Saturn, he kept a day because he's badass...or eats babies, I can't remember). This is important because it suggests a level of cultural trade that is contrary to the stereotypical view most people have of Rome on one side of a wall and the barbarians on the other, with nothing but hate and warfare between them. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not a historian, but I love this bit of local history. I lived in Brooklyn for many years, before it got too expensive, and people there are still upset about the Dodgers leaving back in 1957, and still curse the name Walter O'Malley, the team's owner who pulled up stakes for Los Angeles.\n\nBut it's harder to fault O'Malley when you know the whole story. Ebbett's Field, the Dodgers' stadium, was cramped and in poor condition - there were reportedly rats living under the outfield bleachers. As he had to compete with the Yankees and the Giants, who hadn't yet departed for San Franscisco, O'Malley was having trouble filling the stadium, even with a championship team.\n\nSo, he wanted a new stadium. Unlike today's sports owners, he didn't blackmail the city into paying for one. He was going to build it himself, with his own money, he just needed a place to put it. Then as now, there wasn't a lot of empty land up for grabs in Brooklyn.\n\nBut there was one mostly empty spot, at the corner of Atlantic and Flatbush Avenues. It's an ideal spot, at the edge of Downtown Brooklyn, above several subway lines, and across the street from where the Long Island Railroad terminates. So, centrally located and very easy to get to on public transportation. The northwest corner of the intersection was mostly empty lots, and O'Malley lobbied the city to use the power of eminent domain - which New York had recently granted itself - to force the owners to sell, so the stadium could be built.\n\nThe city refused. The city council didn't think a baseball stadium was as important as, say, an opera house (Lincoln Center was one of the first major uses of eminent domain by the city). For years, O'Malley tried to sway the council, all the while, fielding offers for millions of dollars to move out West. Finally, he gave up banging his head against the wall in Brooklyn, and took the money to move to L.A. He instantly became the most hated man in Brooklyn, never mind it was the politicians who basically drove him to it.\n\nThe great irony is, when I moved to New York in '96, that northwest corner of Atlantic and Flatbush was still mostly vacant lots. No one ever used that land. Right at the end of the 90s, someone finally built a shopping center there. It has a curved facade facing the intersection, and looks for all the world like a baseball stadium.\n\nThe second irony? Professional sports left Brooklyn in 1957, and would not return until next month, when the Brooklyn Nets debut in their new arena... at the northEAST corner of Atlantic and Flatbush.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I study left-wing European terrorism; primarily in the 1970s. People will often glibly say someone \"would have to be insane to be terrorists,\" or something to that effect.\n\nThere was a group of students with various mental illnesses that were patients of a Dr. Wolfgang Huber, attached to the University of Heidelberg in the very late 1960s and very early 1970s. Huber was a proponent of the notion that mental illness was the result of capitalist society, and the path to mental health was essentially revolution. He and his patients formed a group called the Socialists Patients Collective; the German version of the acronym was the SPK.\n\nDuring this time frame a nascent terrorist group was scaring the crap out of Germans and killing American GI's, blowing up buildings, and maiming Germans: the so-called \"Baader-Meinhof Group. After the primary leadership of the group was captured in the summer of 1972, a second-generation of terrorists joined up to help secure the release of the first generation from prison. The group that formed the basis for this second generation? The SPK.\n\nIn 1975 the former SPK members were responsible for taking over the German embassy in Stockholm, eventually killing Germans and blowing up the embassy (how the bomb went off is still a mystery).\n\nThe bottom line to this anecdote is that when folks mention to me \"boy, you'd have to be crazy to be a terrorist,\" I say \"that's more true than you realize... let me tell you about the SPK...\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That's where my Great Grandpa died. (He was Russian) He was buried on the spot in a brother grave together with his buddies. I found out later in soviet archives the exact place.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I always enjoy telling my friends about my granddad , who during the north sea flood of holland in 1953 saved his boss and his family who lived across the canal by rowboat at the age of 19.\n\nHe and an older coworker who joined him after he volunteered also enlisted a police officer who rather didn't come along.\n\nThey went by row boat, my grandpa and his colleague rowing and the police officer was emptying the boat with a bucket.\n\nAfter rowing over the canal which was pretty rough water they arrived at the farmer's house with the family sitting on the roof.\nMy gramps needed some rope, so he dove in the ice cold waters of the barn and swam\nBetween drowned cows and horses to get to a rope.\n\nThey then helped the family climb down the roof with the rope. \n\nAnd then they had to row back again.\n\nI can tell it way better in Dutch but that's my main language anyways so that'd explain pretty wel ha.\n\nI always like this little bit of history in a big historic event in my country.\nI think because I can relate to it..\nAh well thanks for reading if you did !", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As someone who studies Byzantium, I like telling people how the Roman Empire never actually fell but lasted another 1100 years.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Vatican is faced using marble from the Colosseum. When other people also started stealing marble from ancient ruins to decorate with, the Vatican would no longer have a monopoly on that pretty marble, so they declared the Colosseum\ta site of martyrdom to protect it from revrent looters, even though no Christians were every executed there. Also, after the fall of Rome, only about 50,000 people lived there in a city built for millions, until the Vatican moved back there and fixed it up. Picture only a few thousands people living in an abandoned New York City for reference and scale. \n\n(note: I'm not a bona fide historian, I just studied a lot of Renaissance and ancient Roman art history.)\n\nEdit: bonus: even though Christians weren't killed in the Colosseum, tons of slaves and criminals were. If someone was sentenced to die, they could instead opt to act out one of the Roman myths in the stadium. Sometimes these involved castrating themselves, fighting wild animals, or any number of other gruesome but potentially non lethal acts. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The [cadaver synod](_URL_0_) is kind of interesting because it's really weird and fascinating. Pope Formosus's body was exhumed, put into trial, hastily buried, exhumed again, tossed into a river, retrieved and buried, then ten years later again exhumed, put intor trial, tossed in a river, retrieved and buried for the third time. I think they all lost thier marbles somewhere.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the 8th century, Charlemagne (the original Holy Roman Emperor) and Harun al-Rashid (greatest of the Abbassid Caliphs) exchanged a series of letters. They were obviously sympathetic to each other, and insofar as it was possible, corresponded regularly. In one letter, Harun al-Rashid mentioned elephants, an animal with which Charlemagne was unfamiliar.\n\nWhen Harun al-Rashid learned this, he sent an elephant named Abul-Abbas to Charlemagne's court in Aachen, where he lived for eight years. \n\nFor me, it's fascinating on so many levels. The ease with which Roman Catholic and Muslim rulers could converse, the 8th century Bromance element, the idea that diplomacy used to be about gift-giving. Most of all, the elephant was delivered by land. So I imagine peasants in the Balkans, quietely cutting wood in a clearing, only to see a military guard march past with an elephant. \n\nOh, and to toss in a Vietnam reference - when The Communist Manifesto was first published in Vietnamese in 1923, they had to come up with a new word as Vietnamese lacked a translation for \"society\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Early in his *Histories* (A.D. 100) Tacitus, Roman senator and historian, mentions that at the time of his writing, \"...the Balkans were in turmoil.\" \n\nThis may seem underwhelming but ask yourself: when in any of our lifetimes, or our ancestors' lifetimes, have the Balkans *not* been in turmoil?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Moldavia(very small country) Year 1475 battle of vaslui where stefan cel mare (stephen the great) with an army of 40.000 men(mostly peasants) defeted a ottoman army of 150.000.\n\nHe knew that didn't stand a chance in direct battle , so he burned all the crops , posioned all the wells except on the way to vaslui , then he had a bit of luck with a very foggy day when the ottoman army was crossing a river and send 500 men on the other side of the swamp to sound the trumpets so to fool the ottomans where the moldavian army was , they took the bait and sent the bulk of the army through the swamp , clogged not able to see anything with the moldavians attacking from all sides they routed but they were slaughtered .\n\nnext year sultan sends another army this time 200.000 men , the moldavians with a 20.000 army again mostly peasants this time looses the main battle(razboieni) but by poisoning the wells burning all the fields forces the enemy army to split up or starve , and then through guerilla tactics forces them to leave by winter time.\n\nStefan had the tartars to the east , polish to the north and hungarians to the west , and ofcourse ottomans to the south , he rulled from 1457-1504 won 48 major battles against all 4 nations , lost only 1 (razboieni) but as i mentioned above it wasn't a total loss.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't enjoy telling people this, but I have to remind people constantly Marie-Antoinette neither said 'let them eat cake' nor drove France into debt.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25990564", "title": "Personal learning network", "section": "Section::::Aspects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 300, "text": "\"For the first time in history, we know now how to store virtually all humanity's most important information and make it available, almost instantly, in almost any form, to almost anyone on earth. We also know how to do that in great new ways so that people can interact with it, and learn from it.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46638670", "title": "Rustam Singh", "section": "Section::::Ideas and arguments.:Roots of violence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 244, "text": "What kind of knowledge do humans try to acquire? \"It is the knowledge about the world and about things in general, both living and nonliving; knowledge about themselves, their mind and body; knowledge about histories, economies and societies.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33570327", "title": "History of knowledge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 619, "text": "The history of knowledge is the field covering the accumulated and known human knowledge created or discovered during the history of the world and its historic forms, focus, accumulation, bearers, impacts, mediations, distribution, applications, societal contexts, conditions and methods of production. It is related to, separate from the history of science, the history of scholarship and the history of philosophy. The scope of the history of knowledge encompass all the discovered and created fields of human derived knowledge such as logic, philosophy, mathematics, science, sociology, psychology, data mining etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18528776", "title": "Thomas Jefferson and education", "section": "Section::::Views on structuring content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 513, "text": "\"The reading in the first stage, where [the people] will receive their whole education, is proposed.. to be chiefly historical. History by apprising them of the past will enable them to judge of the future; it will avail them of the experience of other times and other nations; it will qualify them as judges of the actions and designs of men; it will enable them to know ambition under every disguise it may assume; and knowing it, to defeat its views.\"—Thomas Jefferson: Notes on Virginia Q.XIV, 1782. ME 2:106\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55105", "title": "World Brain", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.:The Informative Content of Education.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 334, "text": "For this year I suggest we give the questions of drill, skills, art, music, the teaching of languages, mathematics and other symbols, physical, aesthetic, moral and religious training and development, a rest, and that we concentrate on the inquiry: What are we telling young people directly about the world in which they are to live?\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "200329", "title": "Charles Webster Leadbeater", "section": "Section::::Writing and speaking career.:\"Clairvoyance\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 363, "text": "\"He has before him a field of historical research of most entrancing interest. Not only can he review at his leisure all history with which we are acquainted, correcting as he examines it the many errors and misconceptions which have crept into the accounts handed down to us; he can also range at will over the whole story of the world from its very beginning.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2216485", "title": "A History of Knowledge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 529, "text": "A History of Knowledge (1991, ) is a book on intellectual history, with emphasis on the western civilization, written by Charles Van Doren, a former editor of the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\". It is a history of human thought covering over 5000 years of philosophy, learning, and belief systems that surveys the key historical trends and breakthroughs connecting the globalizing human landscape of the 20th century all the way back to the scattered roots of human civilization in India, Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Greece, and Rome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Not yet.\n\nWhen ice forms, it forms tiny crystals. These tiny crystals tend to pierce the cell walls of animal cells. As you can imagine, having all of your cell walls shredded is fatal.\n\nThere are a few exceptions. Some species of frog, by modulating the solute concentrations (amount of dissolved stuff, like sugar) in their bodies, can survive a freeze without seeming to undergo too much trauma. The way they're able to do this is that they prevent actual freezing in most of the vital tissues, because freezing points are lower where solute concentrations are higher.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38657573", "title": "Cryotank", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 692, "text": "The term “cryotank” refers to storage of super-cold fuels, such as liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. Cryotanks and cryogenics can be seen in many sci-fi movies, but they are still currently undeveloped. All that needs to be done is for a human to be loaded into the tank and then they can be frozen until a time comes when any diseases they have can be cured and they can live an even longer life. This could also be used in space travel and just preserving human life in general. The problem with this is when the human body is frozen, ice crystals form in the cells. The ice crystals then continue to expand rupturing the cell wall and destroying the integrity of the cell, or killing it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19349845", "title": "Cryopreservation", "section": "Section::::Freezable tissues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 812, "text": "Proponents of cryonics claim that cryopreservation using present technology, particularly vitrification of the brain, may be sufficient to preserve people in an \"information theoretic\" sense so that they could be revived and made whole by hypothetical vastly advanced future technology. Not only is there no guarantee of its success, many people argue that human cryopreservation is unethical. According to certain views of the mind body problem, some philosophers believe that the mind, which contains thoughts, memories, and personality, is separate from the brain. When someone dies, their mind leaves the body. If a cryopreserved patient gets successfully resuscitated, no one knows if they would be the same person that they once were or if they would be an empty shell of the memory of who they once were.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "177052", "title": "Immortality", "section": "Section::::Physical immortality.:Prospects for human biological immortality.:Cryonics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 886, "text": "Cryonics, the practice of preserving organisms (either intact specimens or only their brains) for possible future revival by storing them at cryogenic temperatures where metabolism and decay are almost completely stopped, can be used to 'pause' for those who believe that life extension technologies will not develop sufficiently within their lifetime. Ideally, cryonics would allow clinically dead people to be brought back in the future after cures to the patients' diseases have been discovered and aging is reversible. Modern cryonics procedures use a process called vitrification which creates a glass-like state rather than freezing as the body is brought to low temperatures. This process reduces the risk of ice crystals damaging the cell-structure, which would be especially detrimental to cell structures in the brain, as their minute adjustment evokes the individual's mind.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1231522", "title": "Biological immortality", "section": "Section::::Attempts to engineer biological immortality in humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 664, "text": "For several decades, researchers have also pursued various forms of suspended animation as a means by which to indefinitely extend mammalian lifespan. Some scientists have voiced support for the feasibility of the cryopreservation of humans, known as cryonics. Cryonics is predicated on the concept that some people considered clinically dead by today's medicolegal standards are not actually dead according to information-theoretic death and can, in principle, be resuscitated given sufficient technological advances. The goal of current cryonics procedures is tissue vitrification, a technique first used to reversibly cryopreserve a viable whole organ in 2005.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7478553", "title": "Death and culture", "section": "Section::::Disposition of remains.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 580, "text": "Cryonics is the process of cryopreservating of a body to liquid nitrogen temperature to stop the natural decay processes that occur after death. Those practicing cryonics hope that future technology will allow the legally dead person to be restored to life when and if science is able to cure all disease, rejuvenate people to a youthful condition and repair damage from the cryopreservation process itself. , there were over 150 people in some form of cryopreservation at one of the two largest cryonics organizations, Alcor Life Extension Foundation and the Cryonics Institute.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "807570", "title": "Cryogenic fuel", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 536, "text": "Cryogenic fuels are fuels that require storage at extremely low temperatures in order to maintain them in a liquid state. These fuels are used in machinery that operates in space (e.g. rocket ships and satellites) because ordinary fuel cannot be used there, due to absence of an environment that supports combustion (on Earth, oxygen is abundant in the atmosphere, whereas in human-explorable space, oxygen is virtually non-existent) and space is a vacuum. Cryogenic fuels most often constitute liquefied gases such as liquid hydrogen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "807570", "title": "Cryogenic fuel", "section": "Section::::Operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 473, "text": "Cryogenic fuels can be placed into two categories: inert and flammable or combustible. Both types exploit the large liquid to gas volume ratio that occurs when liquid transitions to gas phase. The feasibility of cryogenic fuels is associated with what is known as a high mass flow rate. With regulation, the high-density energy of cryogenic fuels is utilized to produce thrust in rockets and controllable consumption of fuel. The following sections provide further detail.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Our detection methods don't work well for systems that look like our solar system. We don't know yet. What we know for sure: There are many systems that look completely different. Planets much closer to the star, much more distant, inner gas planets and outer rocky planets, planets in double star systems, planets as hot as some stars, ...\n\n* Transits and related methods are more likely for planets near the star. We found many systems with planets very close to the star - often closer than Mercury.\n* Radial velocity measurements work better for heavy planets close to the star. We found many systems with that. Imagine Jupiter, but closer to the Sun than Mercury.\n* Direct imaging works best for very large planets with a very large separation to the parent star, much larger than the planets in our system.\n* Microlensing and other approaches don't find enough for good statistical analyses.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Stars with rings:\n\nThe Sun does have a number of \"rings\", such as the asteroid belt, but of course this belt is *extremely* empty - you are unlikely to see any large object whilst passing through. It is necessary for any ring in orbit around a body to be low density, since any ring which had a high density of matter will slowly coalesce into a planet given time. Ring systems can be found around young stars that are still forming their planets, or *possibly* in systems that recently experienced some sort of major event, such as a collision between two planets. Not a star but with regards to rings: the rings of Saturn are something of a curiosity- they shouldn't be stable over long periods. One theory suggested that Saturn's rings were formed relatively recently due to the breakup of a moon.\n\nStars as planets:\n\nThis sounds like a [binary star,](_URL_1_) a system with two stars orbiting each other. Whenever you have multiple bodies in space, they will orbit around their mutual centre of mass. If one object is significantly larger than the other, the centre of mass of the two will be very close to the larger one, so the larger object will barely move, and the smaller object will circle it. Amazingly, about half of all star systems contain two *or more* stars- there is no real upper limit to how many stars can form together.\n\nSome of our most famous stars are actually systems: [Sirius](_URL_4_), our brightest star, is one example of a binary system with a large star (Sirius A) being circled by a much smaller one (Sirius B). [Alpha Centurai,](_URL_7_) our closest neighbour is a three-star system. There are huge systems like [Castor,](_URL_5_) -6 stars- which [is arranged](_URL_0_) so that there is a pair of stars, orbiting another pair, the four of which are being orbited by a third pair. The possible joint record holders are believed to be [AR Cassiopeiae](_URL_3_) and [Nu Scorpii](_URL_6_) with seven.\n\nSpecial orbits:\n\nWhat we have -elliptical orbits, with low eccentricity so that the orbits appear circular- is a very stable configuration. It's possible to contrive strange orbits like [this figure 8 orbit](_URL_2_), but these are unlikely to exist naturally: they require very precise starting conditions to form, and minor perturbations are prone to causing the orbits to fall apart. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24718", "title": "Ring system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 422, "text": "The most prominent and most famous planetary rings in the Solar System are those around Saturn, but the other three giant planets (Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune) also have ring systems. Recent evidence suggests that ring systems may also be found around other types of astronomical objects, including minor planets, moons, and brown dwarfs, and as well, the interplanetary spaces between planets such as Venus and Mercury.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46326758", "title": "Satellite system (astronomy)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1015, "text": "Many Solar System objects are known to possess satellite systems, though their origin is still unclear. Notable examples include the largest satellite system, the Jovian system, with 79 known moons (including the large Galilean moons) and the Saturnian System with 62 known moons (and the most visible ring system in the Solar System). Both satellite systems are large and diverse. In fact all of the giant planets of the Solar System possess large satellite systems as well as planetary rings, and it is inferred that this is a general pattern. Several objects farther from the Sun also have satellite systems consisting of multiple moons, including the complex Plutonian system where multiple objects orbit a common center of mass, as well as many asteroids and plutinos. Apart from the Earth-Moon system and Mars' system of two tiny natural satellites, the other terrestrial planets are generally not considered satellite systems, although some have been orbited by artificial satellites originating from Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46326758", "title": "Satellite system (astronomy)", "section": "Section::::Features and interactions.:Ring systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 507, "text": "Ring systems are collections of dust, moonlets, or other small objects. The most notable examples are those around Saturn, but the other three gas giants (Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune) also have ring systems. Studies of exoplanets indicate that they may be common around giant planets. The 90 million km (0.6 AU circumplanetary ring system discovered around J1407b has been described as \"Saturn on steroids\" or “Super Saturn” Luminosity studies suggest that an even larger disk exists in the PDS 110 system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "827792", "title": "Rare Earth hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Requirements for complex life.:With the right arrangement of planets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1175, "text": "Observations of exo-planets have shown that arrangements of planets similar to our Solar System are rare. Most planetary systems have super Earths, several times larger than Earth, close to their star, whereas our Solar System's inner region has only a few small rocky planets and none inside Mercury's orbit. Only 10% of stars have giant planets similar to Jupiter and Saturn, and those few rarely have stable nearly circular orbits distant from their star. Konstantin Batygin and colleagues argue that these features can be explained if, early in the history of the Solar System, Jupiter and Saturn drifted towards the Sun, sending showers of planetesimals towards the super-Earths which sent them spiralling into the Sun, and ferrying icy building blocks into the terrestrial region of the Solar System which provided the building blocks for the rocky planets. The two giant planets then drifted out again to their present position. However, in the view of Batygin and his colleagues: \"The concatenation of chance events required for this delicate choreography suggest that small, Earth-like rocky planets – and perhaps life itself – could be rare throughout the cosmos.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "240963", "title": "Star system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 387, "text": "A star system or stellar system is a small number of stars that orbit each other, bound by gravitational attraction. A large number of stars bound by gravitation is generally called a \"star cluster\" or \"galaxy\", although, broadly speaking, they are also star systems. Star systems are not to be confused with planetary systems, which include planets and similar bodies [such as comets.]\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24718", "title": "Ring system", "section": "Section::::Rings around exoplanets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 550, "text": "Because all giant planets of the Solar System have rings, the existence of exoplanets with rings is plausible. Although particles of ice, the material that is predominant in the rings of Saturn, can only exist around planets beyond the frost line, within this line rings consisting of rocky material can be stable in the long term. Such ring systems can be detected for planets observed by the transit method by additional reduction of the light of the central star if their opacity is sufficient. As of January 2015, no such observations are known.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9763", "title": "Exoplanet", "section": "Section::::General features.:Rings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 503, "text": "The rings of the Solar System's gas giants are aligned with their planet's equator. However, for exoplanets that orbit close to their star, tidal forces from the star would lead to the outermost rings of a planet being aligned with the planet's orbital plane around the star. A planet's innermost rings would still be aligned with the planet's equator so that if the planet has a tilted rotational axis, then the different alignments between the inner and outer rings would create a warped ring system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well, you have this thing called watersheds. Watersheds are basically an area of land in which we can safely predict that a healthy amount of the water available in this land will flow into a specific body of water, like lakes or rivers. So although you don't see rainfall specifically landing in the river, it will make its way there eventually as long as it lands within the watershed. Mind you, watersheds tend to be huuuuuuge, hundreds of square miles. The Mississippi's watershed, for example, runs from Idaho to Pennsylvania and from Canada to New Orleans.\n\nAlso, we can't forget about groundwater, which is about 20% of the world's freshwater. So there's fully 1/5th of our freshwater that's never visible to us - thus, the idea that it's all spring water isn't as crazy as it sounds.\n\nAnother large source of water is ice, snow, and glaciers. Remember, glaciers are so huge that they literally flattened the northern half of North America. Glaciers are so incomprehensibly big that it may be hard to imagine just how much of our water supply comes from their slow melting. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > it can't rain that much for the continual flow...\n\nYes, it can. And it does.\n\nThink back to a forecast that predicts rain. Maybe for a particularly rainy day you'll hear that they predict an inch of rain.\n\nFor *every single square mile* that gets an inch of rain, that's 17.38 **million** gallons of water falling from the sky.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, Kiadawg, think about all the area of all the oceans in the world slowly evaporating in to the air as they are warmed by the sun and whipped up by the wind. There is always a fair amount of the water in the world held in the air as moisture, or you might have heard it called humidity. There is normally enough moisture in all the air on the planet that if it suddenly all condensed out, it would cover the planet in a layer 1 or two inches deep, although it's not really evenly spread out like that of course. The amount of water the air can carry depends on the temperature of the air, warmer air can hold more.\n\nNow as the air moves away from the seas over the land, it first gets warmed more so the moist air rises, and also keeps picking up more water from all the trees and plants that are continually sucking water up from the ground and then breathing it out from their leaves, (have a look at some images from the rain forests, lots of moisture formed there) then once the moist air reaches a height where it's cooler it starts to form clouds as the water starts to condense out as tiny vapour particles. \n\nEventually the layer of moist air is blown past areas of high land, mountains etc and at this point, because more of the moist air is pushed up higher into colder parts of the atmosphere, the air just can't hold as much water and it condenses out as rain. Of course the temperature and pressure of the air varies a lot all over the land, so you get water condensing out all over the place sometimes too.\n\nAs the water falls all over the land it tends to filter down slowly over several weeks towards the lowest points, back towards the sea. Areas of hundreds or thousands of square miles have lots of little streams forming, which gradually all add together and make bigger flows of water, the rivers. \n\nOver time, this cycle of evaporation, condensation and then flow of water forms channels cut in to the land at the points where most of the water ends up flowing because of the shape of the land. So you can see that there must be enough water in rain to fill the rivers, because that's what formed them. Don't forget, some of the water that falls as rain takes a long time to filter through the ground to the rivers, and at different times of the year some gets stored as Ice in colder parts of the world or up mountains, which then slowly thaws over the summer adding to the flow. There are areas of the world where the rivers only flow in certain seasons, for instance, drying up for part of the year, and starting again in huge floods every year.\n\nIn my country, Britain, it has pretty much RAINED NON STOP FOR THE LAST THREE DAMN MONTHS!, I'm sorry Kiadawg, I'm calm again now, come back, no shouting, no bad words.... the rivers can't really cope with the flow of water back to the sea any more, when that happens the rivers burst their banks and large areas flood, and everyone sits indoors bored and cheesed off waiting for a chance to have a barbeque or go to the beach, wringing their socks out and slowly growing mildew and staring at the calendar, wondering whether to start building an ark. \n\nSo yes, there is easily enough water to keep the rivers flowing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18842395", "title": "River", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 681, "text": "Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle; water generally collects in a river from precipitation through a drainage basin from surface runoff and other sources such as groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of stored water in natural ice and snowpacks (e.g., from glaciers). Potamology is the scientific study of rivers, while limnology is the study of inland waters in general. Most of the major cities of the world are situated on the banks of rivers, as they are, or were, used as a source of water, for obtaining food, for transport, as borders, as a defensive measure, as a source of hydropower to drive machinery, for bathing, and as a means of disposing of waste. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18842395", "title": "River", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 523, "text": "Rivers have been a source of food since pre-history. They are often a rich source of fish and other edible aquatic life, and are a major source of fresh water, which can be used for drinking and irrigation. Rivers help to determine the urban form of cities and neighbourhoods and their corridors often present opportunities for urban renewal through the development of foreshoreways such as river walks. Rivers also provide an easy means of disposing of waste water and, in much of the less developed world, other wastes. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "558685", "title": "Natural environment", "section": "Section::::Water on Earth.:Rivers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 214, "text": "A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, a sea or another river. A few rivers simply flow into the ground and dry up completely before reaching another body of water. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6262231", "title": "Water distribution on Earth", "section": "Section::::Distribution of river water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 322, "text": "The total volume of water in rivers is estimated at 2,120 km³ (510 cubic miles), or 2% of the surface fresh water on Earth. Rivers and basins are often compared not according to their static volume, but to their flow of water, or surface runoff. The distribution of river runoff across the Earth's surface is very uneven.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "558685", "title": "Natural environment", "section": "Section::::Water on Earth.:Rivers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 476, "text": "The water in a river is usually in a channel, made up of a stream bed between banks. In larger rivers there is also a wider floodplain shaped by waters over-topping the channel. Flood plains may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel. Rivers are a part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally collected from precipitation through surface runoff, groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of water stored in glaciers and snowpacks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4687085", "title": "Streamflow", "section": "Section::::Role in the water cycle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 666, "text": "Streams and rivers play a critical role in the hydrologic cycle that is essential for all life on Earth. A diversity of biological species, from unicellular organisms to vertebrates, depend on flowing-water systems for their habitat and food resources. Rivers are major aquatic landscapes for all manners of plants and animals. Rivers even help keep the aquifers underground full of water by discharging water downward through their streambeds. In addition to that the oceans stay full of water because rivers and runoff continually refreshes them. Streamflow is the main mechanism by which water moves from the land to the oceans or to basins of interior drainage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21830", "title": "Nature", "section": "Section::::Water on Earth.:Streams.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 803, "text": "A stream is a flowing body of water with a current, confined within a bed and stream banks. In the United States, a stream is classified as a watercourse less than wide. Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle, instruments in groundwater recharge, and they serve as corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The biological habitat in the immediate vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone. Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction, streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and waterways in general involves many branches of inter-disciplinary natural science and engineering, including hydrology, fluvial geomorphology, aquatic ecology, fish biology, riparian ecology, and others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is one of those stupid things I think about every time I drive past one of those signs, and never think to research when I'm home. Next stop, Google. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are lines painted on the side of the road. The planes will see your car cross a line and time how long until you cross the next one. They divide the distance traveled by the time it took and get your average speed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6906155", "title": "Road speed limit enforcement in Australia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 383, "text": "Road speed limit enforcement in Australia constitutes the actions taken by the authorities to force road users to comply with the speed limits in force on Australia's roads. Speed limit enforcement equipment such as speed cameras and other technologies such as radar and LIDAR are widely used by the authorities. In some regions, aircraft equipped with VASCAR devices are also used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43081", "title": "Traffic", "section": "Section::::Organized traffic.:Speed limits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 644, "text": "To enforce speed limits, two approaches are generally employed. In the United States, it is common for the police to patrol the streets and use special equipment (typically a radar unit) to measure the speed of vehicles, and pull over any vehicle found to be in violation of the speed limit. In Brazil, Colombia and some European countries, there are computerized speed-measuring devices spread throughout the city, which will automatically detect speeding drivers and take a photograph of the license plate (or number plate), which is later used for applying and mailing the ticket. Many jurisdictions in the U.S. use this technology as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "460557", "title": "Speed bump", "section": "Section::::Speed bumps.:Dynamic speed bumps.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 358, "text": "The Actibump system, successfully used in Sweden, is based on powered equipment integrated into the road surface, which operates a platform that is lowered a few centimeters when a speeding vehicle approaches. Any vehicle approaching at or under the speed limit will pass on a level road. The system measures the speed of an oncoming vehicle by using radar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "92529", "title": "Intelligent transportation system", "section": "Section::::Intelligent transportation applications.:Automatic road enforcement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 201, "text": "BULLET::::- Speed cameras that identify vehicles traveling over the legal speed limit. Many such devices use radar to detect a vehicle's speed or electromagnetic loops buried in each lane of the road.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27104735", "title": "Speed limit enforcement", "section": "Section::::Methods.:Pacing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 290, "text": "Officers in some jurisdictions may also use pacing, particularly where a more convenient radar speed measuring device is not available—a police vehicle's speed is matched to that of a target vehicle, and the calibrated speedometer of the patrol car used to infer the other vehicle's speed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12530893", "title": "Police vehicles in the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Roads policing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 451, "text": "Road policing units, or more informally known as traffic cars, are faster police vehicles used by specialist officers, tasked with conducting high speed pursuits and responding to major traffic accidents. Traffic cars are often estate cars or SUVs that can carry additional equipment, such as traffic cones, signs to warn of road closures or collisions and some basic scene preservation equipment. Their daily roles primarily consist of ANPR patrols.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1491325", "title": "Traffic break", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 380, "text": "During times of high congestion, risky driving, or dangerous road conditions, law enforcement may institute so-called \"rolling roadblocks,\" where official vehicles line up across the road and drive at a set speed. Since anyone attempting to pass them would be doing so on the shoulder and thereby garnering a ticket from the officer, traffic speeds are kept at the desired level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The whole subject is a bit too complicated and a bit too deep for a short ELI5, but I'll give a stab at the gist of it.\n\nThe reason why computers work (at least in the vein of your question) is very similar to the reason why we have language -- written, spoken, etc. \n\nWhat you're reading right at this very moment is a complex system (language) simplified to symbols on the screen. The very fact that you can read these words and attain meaning from them means that each sentence, each word, and each letter represent a sort of code that you can understand. \n\nIf we take an apple for example, there are many other ways to say that in different languages. Manzana. Pomme. Apfel. And so on. Codes -- some symbol maps to some concept.\n\nIn the context of computers, well, they can only \"understand\" binary. Ones and zeros. On and off. Well, that's okay, because we can map those ones and zeros to codes that we (humans) care about. Like 101010111 could represent \"apple\" if we wanted it to. \n\nSo we build these physical circuits that either have power or don't (on and off) and we can abstract that to 1's (power flowing through that circuit) and 0's (no power flowing through it). This way, we can build physical chips that give us basic building blocks (basic instructions it can do) that we can leverage in order to ultimately make programs, display stuff, play sounds, etc. And the way we communicate that to the computer is via the language it can understand, binary.\n\nIn other words, in a basic sense, we can pass the processor binary, and it should be able to interpret that as a command. The length of the binary, and what it should contain can vary from chip to chip. But lets say our basic chip can do basic math. We might pass it a binary number: 0001001000110100 but it might be able to slice it up as 0001 | 0010 | 0011 | 0100 -- so the first four, 0001, might map to an \"add\" command. The next four, 0010, might map to a memory location that holds a number. The third group of four might be the number to add it to. The last group might be where to put it. Using variables, it might look like: \n\nc = a + b. Where \"c\" is 0100, \"a\" is 0010, \"b\" is 0011, and the \"+\" (addition operator) is 0001.\n\nFrom there, those basic instructions, we can layer abstractions. If I tell you to take out the trash, that's a pretty basic statement. If I were to detail all the steps needed to do that, it would get a lot longer -- take the lid off the can, pull the bag up, tie the bag, go to the big garbage can, open the lid, put the trash in. Right? Well, if I tell you to take out the trash, it rolls up all those sub actions needed to do the task into one simple command.\n\nIn programming, it's not all that different. We layer abstractions to a point where we can call immense functionality with relatively little code. Some of that code might control the video signal being sent to the screen. Some of that code might control the logic behind an app or a game. All of the code though, is getting turned into 1's and 0's and processed by your cpu in order to make the computer do what is asked. \n\nIf you want to learn more, I highly recommend [Code by Charles Petzold](_URL_0_) for a much more in depth but still layman friendly explanation of all this.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One thing to add to all that is said already above: 0s and 1s are not only used to encode *data* (0=No, 1=Yes, and you build up from there) but also to encode *instructions* (0=Turn off, 1=Turn on, and you build up from there).\n\nNothing much different than writing data and instructions in human languages in books, essentially (\"Yes\", \"No\", \"Turn on\", \"turn off\"). But two things changed our approach:\n\n+ industrial revolution: now we could have machine executing instructions, instead of human reading cooking recipes. Machines are (were?) dumb, so we needed to find a simpler language to interact with them, free of context, sarcasm, double meaning, etc.\n+ Shannon's information theory: we discovered that anything could be represented by the simplest act that tells you a story, the coin flip, aka the yes vs no, aka the 0 vs 1. If you wanted to tell a longer story (image, song, game) you just need more 0s and 1s. This was a huge thing! Before, no one would think that sound and image both contained information that could be expressed the same way!\n\nHope that helps!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's math. There are different ways of counting and we call these bases. What method is used depends a lot on who's doing the counting. \n\nFor instance human beings tend to work in base 10, which one has to wonder if it's a coincidence that we have 10 fingers and count in multiples of 10? Base 10 is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0\n\nBinary computers count in base 2 which is 0 1 \n\nYou also have base 8 or Octal which corresponds to the 8 bits in a byte and counts like 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7. Very useful for TCP4 networking. \n\nAnd the other main one is base 16 aka HEX. Hex is 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F. Hex is useful for storing things like ASCII text like the text you're reading in my post. \n\nYou can freely convert from one base to another and the binary numbers computers used do this most efficiently using octa and hex conversions since it's arranged logically into 8 bits to a byte, 16 bits to a word, etc. \n\nIn binary this is what they look like\nocta 11111111\nhex 11111111 11111111\n\nAnd decimal numbers (base 10) are usually not used directly, but are instead encoded in octets or hex. So counting to 10 in octet binary would look like \n\n00000000 0\n\n00000001 1\n\n00000010 2\n\n00000011 3\n\n00000100 4\n\n00000101 5 \n\n00000110 6 \n\n00000111 7\n\n00001000 8\n\n00001001 9\n\n00001010 10\n\nThe way binary works is by doubling the value of each digit, with a 1 enabling that number, and a 0 disabling it. \n\nSo an 8 bit binary number has 8 digits that are either 1's or 0's and they correspond to the following numbers\n\n128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 \n\n\nso if you want to write the number 128 it would be 10000000. The number 64 would be 01000000. The number 3 would be 00000011 because 2 + 1 = 3. The number 255 would be 11111111 because 128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1 equals 255. \n\nLearning about TCP4 networking introduces you to these conversions because although IP addresses look like normal numbers, 192.168.1.1 they are actually just 1' and 0's and because of the way computers and networks are encoded in an IP address, some network numbers are possible and others are impossible. For instance you can have a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 but you can't have a subnet mask of 255.255.63.0 because of the way the base 10 numbers are converted into binary. So learning IP networking and subnet masks teaches you to count in base 10, base 2, and base 8. And if you learn TCP6 you also need to learn to count in base 16. \n\nFor example these are all the same number, but represented differently by each system. \n255\n11111111\nFF\n\n\n\n\nIn TCP4 networking, the subnet mask is created by stripping bits off of an octet and because all bits after a certain position are ignored, it limits the exact numbers of systems and networks you can have. For instance a /24 netmask would be 255.255.255.0 or 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 but lets say you wanted to do a /25 netmask. That would be 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 which would equal 255.255.255.128. /26 would be 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 or 255.255.255.192. You can't skip a digit in subnet masks so you couldn't have something like 10001000 so the netmasks descend in value like 0,128,192,224,240,248,252,254,255 or \n100000000 128\n\n11000000 192\n\n11100000 224\n\n11110000 240\n\n11111000 248\n\n11111100 252\n\n11111110 254\n\n11111111 255\n\n00000000 0", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "imagine a grid, now in those boxes make some of them black and leave the others white. simple on/off it's either black or it's white. black out the right boxes and you got an image. it's a basic black and white image though, and has no shades of grey. so let's get more complex, well to do that we need a number...how can we make a number using only ons and offs? well we know that off can be 0 and on can be 1, well this is just a base 2 system.\n\nok, so what is a base 2 system? well you are probably familiar with a base 10 system, so there are digits 0-9 or 10 possible digits, so one spot in a number can represent anything from 0 to 9 and when you go higher to carry the 1 right? so 9+1 is 10 19+1 is 20 (the 9 rolls back to 0 the 1 gets carried and added to the other 1 to make 2) so base 2 is the same principal, you have the numbers 0-1 so 1+1=10 because the 1 goes back to 0 and you carry the 1, 11+1=100 because you carried the 1 which made the next one roll over and carry the one to the next slot.\n\nso since 1+1=10 we can know 10=2 in base 10. 10+1 is 11 which means 3 in base 10. and so on.\n\nso, now we have that, let's give it 255 shades of grey, this is a number with 8 slots each slot being on or off. so you get the number 00000000-11111111 \n\nso let's take that same grid, but now we will use a mixture of paint, black and white paint. for each 1 in the number add a drop of black paint, for each 0 add a drop of white paint. (this isn't exactly accurate since something that was 50% black in this system would be 00001111 but it should be 10000000) so mix those up based on those proportions and add them to the grid. now you have a nice greyscale. if you wanted colour instead, you can 3 of those 8 bit numbers, one for red, one for green, one for blue.\n\nthis is true for anything a computer does, what a number means depends on what it's talking to. so if i send 1110000 to that paint machine maybe it thinks i want 3 drops of black and 4 drops of white, if i send it to a robot maybe it thinks i want to send 112 pulses of voltage to a stepper motor, if i send it to a text editor maybe it thinks i want to print the character q (the 112'th character in the character map) the same number means different things to different systems. it could be a memory address, it could be a number, a letter, an instruction, it all comes down to the machine.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The same way Morse code can communicate every word ever conceived and then some, despite being just a single light turning on or off. \n\nExcept computers can do it billions of times a second.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30709221", "title": "Digital transformation", "section": "Section::::Development.:Digitization (of information).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1062, "text": "In political, business, trade, industry and media discourses, \"digitization\" is defined as the 'technical process' of \"\"converting\" analog information into digital form\" (i.e. numeric, binary format, as zeros and ones). In electrical engineering, the older term \"digitalization\" still occurs in this sense, which is the original meaning of that term. Most often an electrical device called an analog-to-digital converter is utilized, for example in scanning of images, or in sampling of sounds (e.g. music sampling) and of measurement data. The term may also refer to manual information digitization, for example of illustrations using a digitizer tablet. Digitizing is technically explained as the representation of signals, images, sounds and objects by generating a series of numbers, expressed as a discrete value, and represented by binary numbers. For example, digitization was introduced in telecommunication networks from the 1970s, in view to improve the phone call sound quality, response time, network capacity, cost-effectiveness and sustainability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3247336", "title": "1-bit DAC", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 347, "text": "A Bitstream or 1-bit DAC is a consumer electronics marketing term describing an oversampling digital-to-analog converter (DAC) with an \"actual\" 1-bit DAC (that is, a simple \"on/off\" switch) in a delta-sigma loop operating at multiples of the sampling frequency. The combination is equivalent to a DAC with a larger number of bits (usually 16-20).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4248773", "title": "Programmable system-on-chip", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Configurable analog and digital blocks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 277, "text": "Each digital block is considered an 8-bit resource that designers can configure using pre-built digital functions or user modules (UM), or, by combining blocks, turn them into 16-, 24-, or 32-bit resources. Concatenating UMs together is how 16-bit PWMs and timers are created.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13729283", "title": "Digital (Joy Division song)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 219, "text": "\"Digital\" is a song by the band Joy Division, originally released on the 1978 double 7\" EP entitled \"A Factory Sample\". It was later featured on the 1981 compilation album \"Still\" and the 1997 box set \"Heart and Soul\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13636", "title": "History of computing hardware", "section": "Section::::Advent of the digital computer.:Digital computation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 897, "text": "The term digital was first suggested by George Robert Stibitz and refers to where a signal, such as a voltage, is not used to directly represent a value (as it would be in an analog computer), but to encode it. In November 1937, George Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs (1930–1941), completed a relay-based calculator he later dubbed the \"Model K\" (for \"kitchen table\", on which he had assembled it), which became the first binary adder. Typically signals have two states – low (usually representing 0) and high (usually representing 1), but sometimes three-valued logic is used, especially in high-density memory. Modern computers generally use binary logic, but many early machines were decimal computers. In these machines, the basic unit of data was the decimal digit, encoded in one of several schemes, including binary-coded decimal or BCD, bi-quinary, excess-3, and two-out-of-five code. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "169945", "title": "Rounding", "section": "Section::::Rounding to other values.:Rounding to a specified multiple.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 374, "text": "The increment is normally a finite fraction in whatever numeral system is used to represent the numbers. For display to humans, that usually means the decimal numeral system (that is, is an integer times a power of 10, like 1/1000 or 25/100). For intermediate values stored in digital computers, it often means the binary numeral system ( is an integer times a power of 2).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25284", "title": "Qubit", "section": "Section::::Bit versus qubit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 212, "text": "A binary digit, characterized as 0 and 1, is used to represent information in classical computers. A binary digit can represent up to one bit of Shannon information, where a bit is the basic unit of information.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Villa's motives for the Columbus raid seem to have been various. He wanted to take revenge on the American arms dealer who had taken money for supplies and neither given him the arms or returned the money. He was increasingly angry at the way the US professed to be neutral in the Revolution, but actually aided Carranza. He also hoped to gain arms and supplies. He achieved none of these. Instead, instead of easily overcoming what he'd been told was a garrison of 50 US soldiers , he encountered one of 600. Instead of opening fire in a surprise attack on the barracks, Villa's troops opened fire on the stables. As a result of a vigorous defense and counter-attack, Villa lost men- especially officers- and was forced to retreat back to Mexico empty handed.\n\nThe Punitive Expedition was ordered by President Wilson after Villa's raid, intended to find Villa and his army. About 5,000 soldiers, it had the initial tacit cooperation of Carranza, who helped supply it by railroad. Despite the advantages of force and supplies, it was however trying to operate in Chihuahua, Villa's home: and so Villa knew the territory. Chihuahua was/is also the biggest state in Mexico, sparsely settled and with rough terrain, so capable of hiding armies. There was a great deal of local resentment to having a US army operating in Mexico, despite Pershing being under strict orders to treat civilians with great respect. Pershing soon discovered that no one would supply his army with information about Villa's whereabouts, and rightly suspected that the locals were also constantly supplying Villa with information about Pershing's. Villa also discovered that Carranza's troops were also often more sympathetic to his army than to the Americans, and would sometimes look the other way when his men were in an area. When Villa was wounded in the knee, he essentially dispersed his units and hid in a cave for two months. This also briefly created the impression that he was possibly dead, and the Expedition therefore successful.\n\nPershing had had some experience in fighting guerrillas in the Philippines and pretty quickly assessed the situation, saying that a much longer time would be needed, and more resources, if Villa was to be found. But as the Expedition continued, Carranza became himself more hostile to the US, more hostile to having the US Army on Mexican territory and less cooperative, and his troops began to show some real armed resistance to the US, for example blocking them at Parral. Things might have escalated further, but neither Wilson or Carranza wanted to enter into a war: Mexico was too divided and weak, and the US was anticipating being pulled into WWI in Europe for which it would need an entire army. After about a year of futility, Pershing was put back into a more defensive position along the border, and eventually all US forces left Mexican soil.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1033164", "title": "Pancho Villa Expedition", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 407, "text": "The Pancho Villa Expedition—now known officially in the United States as the Mexican Expedition, but originally referred to as the \"Punitive Expedition, U.S. Army\"—was an unsuccessful military operation conducted by the United States Army against the paramilitary forces of Mexican revolutionary Francisco \"Pancho\" Villa from March 14, 1916, to February 7, 1917, during the Mexican Revolution of 1910–1920.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "145332", "title": "Pancho Villa", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 516, "text": "Villa subsequently led a raid against a small U.S.–Mexican border town resulting in the Battle of Columbus on 9 March 1916, and then retreated to escape U.S. retaliation. The U.S. government sent U.S. Army General John J. Pershing on an expedition to capture Villa, but Villa continued to evade his attackers with guerrilla tactics during the unsuccessful, nine-month incursion into Mexican sovereign territory. The mission ended when the United States entered World War I and Pershing was recalled to other duties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14701052", "title": "Puerto Palomas, Chihuahua", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 910, "text": "Pancho Villa launched his attack on Columbus, New Mexico, on March 9, 1916, from Palomas. In retaliation, the United States launched the Pancho Villa Expedition, under General John J. Pershing, to capture him. Notwithstanding more than a year of effort, including one of the first large-scale uses of motorized transport by the U.S. Army, Pancho Villa was not captured. During this campaign, a young Lt. George S. Patton, later to be known as General Patton, became famous. During his service and accompanied by ten soldiers of the 6th Infantry Regiment, Patton killed two Mexican leaders, including \"General\" Julio Cárdenas, commander of Villa's personal bodyguard. For this action, as well as Patton's affinity for the Colt Peacemaker, Pershing titled Patton his \"Bandito.\" Patton's success in this regard gained him a level of fame in the United States, and he was featured in newspapers across the nation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23962301", "title": "Chihuahua (state)", "section": "Section::::History.:Mexican Revolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 780, "text": "Public opinion pressured the U.S. government to bring Villa to justice for the raid on Columbus, New Mexico; U.S. President Wilson sent Gen. John J. Pershing and some 5,000 troops into Mexico in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Villa. It was known as the Punitive Expedition. After nearly a year of pursuing Villa, American forces returned to the United States. The American intervention had been limited to the western sierras of Chihuahua. Villa had the advantage of intimately knowing the inhospitable terrain of the Sonoran Desert and the almost impassable Sierra Madre mountains and always managed to stay one step ahead of his pursuers. In 1923 Villa was assassinated by a group of seven gunmen who ambushed him while he was sitting in the back seat of his car in Parral.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42632735", "title": "Genovevo Rivas Guillén", "section": "Section::::Battle of Carrizal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 863, "text": "During the Punitive Expedition, where he persecuted Pancho Villa for the attack on Columbus, New Mexico, in June 21 of 1916 a column U.S. Army under the command of Captain Charles T. Boyd were marching towards Rancho Santo Domingo from Villa Ahumada, Chihuahua, which was first owned by an American, the operation carried out limitations granted by the Mexican government of Venustiano Carranza to the American expedition, so lieutenant Rivas lining the nearby town of Carrizal was submitted to block them, requesting their return, so Captain Boyd refused, and warned that going after a U.S. army deserter, requesting the presence of his superior, General presented Félix Gómez who supported his subordinate, so after the hostilities where General Gómez died broke and stay ahead of lieutenant Rivas, who was defeated and put to flight the majority of Americans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "363180", "title": "Venustiano Carranza", "section": "Section::::Career.:\"Primer Jefe\" of the Constitutionalist Army, 1913–1915.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1901, "text": "Although Pancho Villa was a skilled commander, his tactics throughout the 1913-14 campaign created a number of diplomatic incidents that were a major headache for Carranza in this period. Villa had confiscated the property of Spaniards in Chihuahua and had allowed his troops to murder an Englishman, Benton, and an American, Bauch. At one point, Villa arrested Manuel Chao, the Governor of Chihuahua, and Carranza had to personally travel to Chihuahua to order Villa to release Chao. In Tampico, nine U.S. Navy sailors were arrested by Mexican troops over a misunderstanding about fuel supplies. In response to the Tampico Affair, the United States government sent 2,300 Navy troops to occupy Veracruz, Veracruz. The fighting ended with 22 Navy troops and almost 200 Mexican soldiers being killed, and Veracruz taken. Carranza, in order to keep his nationalistic credentials, threatened war with the United States. In his spontaneous response to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, Carranza asked \"…that the president withdraw American troops from Mexico and take up its complaints against Huerta with the Constitutionalist government.\" The situation became so tense that war seemed imminent. On April 22, 1914, on the initiative of Felix A. Sommerfeld and Sherburne Hopkins, Pancho Villa traveled to Ciudad Juarez to calm fears along the border and asked President Wilson's emissary George Carothers to tell \"Señor Wilson\" that he had no problems with the American occupation of Veracruz. Carothers wrote to Secretary William Jennings Bryan: \"As far as he was concerned we could keep Vera Cruz [sic] and hold it so tight that not even water could get into Huerta and …he could not feel any resentment.\" Whether trying to please the U.S. government or through the diplomatic efforts of Sommerfeld and Carothers, or maybe as a result of both, Villa stepped out from under Carranza's stated foreign policy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3303790", "title": "Military history of Mexico", "section": "Section::::Early 20th Century.:World War I Era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 389, "text": "In 1916, Pancho Villa crossed the U.S. border and attacked the town of Columbus, New Mexico; this was the sole invasion by a foreign armed corps of the continental U.S. in the 20th century. This raid led the U.S. to send a force under General John Pershing into Mexico, which spent 11 months unsuccessfully chasing him in the punitive Pancho Villa Expedition (March 1916 – February 1917).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm not going to answer your question directly, and I apologize since this will be a top level post, but I don't know that you will get any replies again. You're asking the people here to do your homework for you in a way. But I'll give you my thoughts as someone interested in the period.\n\n[*The New York City Draft Riots*](_URL_0_) by Iver Bernstein has been on my reading list for a while. [Here is a review of it](_URL_1_) on JSTOR if you have access. It covers the riots portrayed in *Gangs of New York* (at least the movie, I haven't read the book) and also discusses the religions and politics working in New York at the time. This would be where I would start off, partly because that's the most interesting part of the American Civil War to me, and partly because those riots were a pivotal part of the plot (again, of the movie), and something that is confirmed historical. It also covers the fundamental issues surrounding the riots.\n\nNow, keeping in mind, I haven't read either book. I read reviews of the Bernstein book but I haven't quite gotten to it on my list yet. But I looked for it and picked it up partly because of the movie, which I know is different than the book, so take that as you will. So that's where I would start.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "97137", "title": "Five Points, Manhattan", "section": "Section::::In popular culture.:Films.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 464, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Gangs of New York\" (2002) is an historical film set in the mid-19th century, in the Five Points district of New York City. The film, directed by Martin Scorsese and written by Jay Cocks, Steven Zaillian, and Kenneth Lonergan, was inspired by Herbert Asbury's nonfiction book, \"The Gangs of New York\" (1928). It was made at Cinecittà, Rome, distributed by Miramax Films, and nominated for numerous awards, including the Academy Award for Best Picture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1634999", "title": "Herbert Asbury", "section": "Section::::Recent years.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 496, "text": "The 2002 film \"Gangs of New York\" by director Martin Scorsese about the underworld and civil strife / riots among immigrant groups from the 1840s to the Civil War era revitalized interest in Asbury, and many of Asbury's works, mostly chronicling the largely hidden history of the seamier side of American popular culture, have been reissued. In 2008, The Library of America selected an excerpt from \"The Gangs of New York\" for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of \"American True Crime\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3013056", "title": "Slobbery Jim", "section": "Section::::References.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 261, "text": "BULLET::::- Herbert Asbury, \"The Gangs of New York: an Informal History of the Underworld\". Wheeler Publishing, Waterville, Maine 2003 especially pages 46–47 (originally written in 1927, this book was the basis of the Martin Scorsese film, \"Gangs of New York\")\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8867962", "title": "The Gangs of New York (book)", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 700, "text": "The book details the rise and fall of 19th century gangs in New York City, prior to the domination of the Italian-American Mafia during Prohibition in the 1920s. Focusing on the saloon halls, gambling dens, and winding alleys of the Bowery and the Five Points district of Lower Manhattan, the book evokes the destitution and violence of a turbulent era, when colorfully named criminals like \"Dandy\" Johnny Dolan, William Poole (also known as Bill the Butcher), and Hell-Cat Maggie lurked in the shadows, and infamous gangs including the Plug Uglies, Dead Rabbits, and Bowery Boys ruled the streets. It includes a rogues' gallery of prostitutes, pimps, poisoners, pickpockets, murderers, and thieves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "188902", "title": "Gangs of New York", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 333, "text": "Gangs of New York is a 2002 American epic period drama film directed by Martin Scorsese, set in the New York slums, and inspired by Herbert Asbury's non-fiction book, \"The Gangs of New York\". The screenplay was by Jay Cocks, Steven Zaillian, and Kenneth Lonergan. The film stars Leonardo DiCaprio, Daniel Day-Lewis and Cameron Diaz.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "188902", "title": "Gangs of New York", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 1074, "text": "In 1970, Scorsese came across Herbert Asbury's \"The Gangs of New York: An Informal History of the Underworld\" (1927) about the city's nineteenth century criminal underworld and found it to be a revelation. In the portraits of the city's criminals, Scorsese saw the potential for an American epic about the battle for the modern American democracy. At the time, Scorsese was a young director without money or clout; by the end of the decade, with the success of crime films such as \"Mean Streets\" (1973), about his old neighborhood, and \"Taxi Driver\" (1976), he was a rising star. In 1979, he acquired screen rights to Asbury's book; however, it took twenty years to get the production moving forward. Difficulties arose with reproducing the monumental city scape of nineteenth century New York with the style and detail Scorsese wanted; almost nothing in New York City looked as it did in that time, and filming elsewhere was not an option. Eventually, in 1999, Scorsese was able to find a partnership with Harvey Weinstein, noted producer and co-chairman of Miramax Films.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33368084", "title": "Limelight (2011 film)", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1031, "text": "As the owner of legendary New York City hotspots like The Limelight, Tunnel, Palladium, and Club USA, Peter Gatien was considered by many to be the undisputed king of the 1980s New York City club scene. The Ontario native, whose trademark eye patch made him stand out in a crowd, built and oversaw a chain of nightclub ventures that brought thousands of patrons per night during its peak years. However, after years of legal battles and police pressure spearheaded by Mayor Rudolph Giuliani's drive to crack down on the city's nightlife scene during the mid-1990s, Gatien was deported to Canada, bringing an end to his presence and influence in the city's nightlife scene. The documentary features interviews with numerous people involved in the club's scene, as well as key informants in Gatien's high-profile trial. Produced by Gatien's daughter, Jen, and Alfred Spellman, and directed by Billy Corben (who previously directed the film \"Cocaine Cowboys\"), the film documents the rise and fall of Gatien and his nightclub empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If anyone can answer this, what's the case with the other major romance languages e.g. Spanish, Italian, etc? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Might be worth a cross post to /r/linguistics ?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hi! I hope this answer will help you out. The thing about medieval French is that it was more a language that was created from the way it sounded, rather than the French of today that is highly regulated and very planned out. So, medieval French when spoken aloud, even by a non-speaker, sounds exactly the way it should (like Spanish and German, which are phonetically spelled out when written down). If you're familiar with modern French, you'll know that it's almost impossible to speak the language just by reading the words, because of all the hidden pronunciations.\n\n\nI have included a portion of the Lai de Lanval by Marie de France, originally written in Anglo-Norman ca. 1170-1215. Anglo-Norman is one of the \"easier\" medieval French dialects to understand from a modern perspective, but I think that this passage, and its translation into modern French, is enough to illustrate how the two are close and comprehensible to one another, yet still very different.\n\n\n-ANGLO-NORMAN-\n\nEle jut sur un lit mut bel\n\nLi drap valeient un chastel\n\nEn sa chemise senglement.\n\nMut ot le cors bien fait e gent;\n\nUn cher mantel de blanc hermine,\n\nCovert de purpre alexandrine,\n\nOt pur le chaut sur li geté;\n\nTut ot descovert le costé,\n\nLe vis, le col e la peitrine;\n\nPlus ert blanche que flur d'espine.\n\n-MODERN FRENCH-\n\nElle étoit couchée sur un lit magnifique dont le plus beau château n'auroit pas seulement payé le prix des draperies. Sa robe qui étoit serrée, laissoit apercevoir l'élégance d'une taille faite au tour. Un superbe manteau doublé d'hermine et teint en pourpre d'Alexandrie , couvroit ses épaules. La chaleur l'avoit forcée de l'écarter un peu, et à travers cette ouverture qui lui mettoit le côté à découvert, l'œil apercevoit une peau plus blanche que la fleur d'épine.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just one thing to keep in mind: there were drastic changes to English throughout the Medieval period, partially under the influence of the Vikings and Normans. So, while English from the 11th century and before is effectively impossible to read without studying it as if it were a foreign language, Middle English, which existed in the later Middle Ages, can be read without too much more annotation than Shakespeare, and is certainly not \"incomprehensible.\" If you read Chaucer's writings (14th century), you'd find that they would, in general, be readable.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As an aside, not all medieval English is as incomprehensible as you think. We read Chaucer and various other works in ~14th century Middle English in college, without any special training in the language. As long as you have a glossary or footnotes for the most arcane words, you can generally figure the rest out; it's not that much harder than reading Shakespeare or any other early modern English writer.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15679376", "title": "Mind your Ps and Qs", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 211, "text": "Another proposal concerns the use of Norman French in medieval England; as the English dialect of the 11th century had no qs, one must watch their usage in court or discourse with the French Norman conquerors. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11292933", "title": "Anglo-Norman language", "section": "Section::::Trilingualism in Medieval England.:Language of the people.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 795, "text": "Though the great mass of ordinary people spoke Middle English, French, because of its prestigious status, spread as a second language, encouraged by its long-standing use in the school system as a medium of instruction through which Latin was taught. In the courts, the members of the jury, who represented the population, had to know French in order to understand the plea of the lawyer. French was used by the merchant middle class as a language of business communication, especially when it traded with the continent, and several churches used French to communicate with lay people. A small but important number of documents survive associated with the Jews of medieval England, some featuring Anglo-French written in Hebrew script, typically in the form of glosses to the Hebrew scriptures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11292933", "title": "Anglo-Norman language", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 451, "text": "Middle English was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman and, later, Anglo-French. W. Rothwell has called Anglo-French 'the missing link' because many etymological dictionaries seem to ignore the contribution of that language in English and because Anglo-Norman and Anglo-French can explain the transmission of words from French into English and fill the void left by the absence of documentary records of English (in the main) between 1066 and c. 1380.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "253283", "title": "Linguistic imperialism", "section": "Section::::Other languages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 609, "text": "The English language during the Middle Ages was an object of linguistic imperialism by the French language, particularly following the Norman conquest. For hundreds of years, French or Anglo-Norman was the language of administration (\"See Law French\") and therefore a language of superior status in England. Latin remained the language of the church and of learning. Although many words introduced by the Normans are today indistinguishable by most English-speakers from native Germanic words, later-learned loanwords derived from Latin or French often have a more cultured sound to a native English-speaker.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18803164", "title": "English people", "section": "Section::::History of English people.:Norman and Angevin rule.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 430, "text": "Despite the assimilation of the Normans, the distinction between 'English' and 'French' survived in official documents long after it had fallen out of common use, in particular in the legal phrase \"Presentment of Englishry\" (a rule by which a hundred had to prove an unidentified murdered body found on their soil to be that of an Englishman, rather than a Norman, if they wanted to avoid a fine). This law was abolished in 1340.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4478036", "title": "History of French", "section": "Section::::External history.:Franks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 568, "text": "Philologists such as Pope (1934) estimate that still perhaps fifteen percent of the vocabulary of modern French derives from Germanic sources, though the proportion was larger in Old French, as the language was consequently re-Latinised and partly Italianised by clerics and grammarians in the Middle Ages and later. Nevertheless, a large number of words like \"haïr\" \"to hate\" (≠ Latin \"odiare\" Italian \"odiare\", Spanish \"odiar\", Occitan \"asirar\") and \"honte\" \"shame\" (≠ Latin \"vĕrēcundia\" Occitan \"vergonha\", Italian \"vergogna\", Spanish \"vergüenza\") remain common.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7599170", "title": "Legal English", "section": "Section::::Historical development.:Style.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 270, "text": "Whereas legal language in the Medieval period combined Latin, French, and English to avoid ambiguity. According to Walter Probert, judicial lawyers, roughly starting in the twentieth century, often manipulate the language to be more persuasive of their campaign ideals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Each of the nine Pirate Lords agreed to hold a piece of eight to be presented during a meeting of the Brethren Court, though the term came to apply to a variety of items and trinkets as the pirates found themselves short on money, simply keeping the original term as it sounded more 'piratey'. Each piece of eight reflected something about the lord who possessed the piece, and altogether, the nine pieces were used to bind the sea goddess Calypso to a human form, after Davy Jones informed the Brethren on how to capture her.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1431983", "title": "Pirates Constructible Strategy Game", "section": "Section::::Other collectible elements, tins and other unusual releases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 175, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 175, "end_character": 449, "text": "BULLET::::- 2007 - Four different \"Pirates of the Caribbean PocketModels \" tins featuring one of four Special Edition \"Megacard\" Krakens eight \"masted\" monsters), 10 ships, three terrain cards, five or more crew or treasure cards, two dice, complete game rules. Each of the four distinct tins features cover artwork of one of the main characters from the movie and randomly contained one kraken (A Fearsome Creature, Beastie, Kray-Kin, The Kraken).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4159512", "title": "Buccaneer (game)", "section": "Section::::Board design.:Evolution of design.:1930s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 373, "text": "The 1938 version of the game had a roll up canvas board (packaged in a tube) and a playing area of 25 x 25 squares, the Treasure Island in the middle spanning 5 x 5 squares. Complete sets of this version are now very rare and in good condition can sell for more than £100 (UK pounds - as of 2010). This version had 9 rum barrels and 6 of each of the other treasure items. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35859", "title": "1721", "section": "Section::::Events.:January–June.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 270, "text": "BULLET::::- April – Pirates John Taylor and Olivier Levasseur capture the 700-ton Portuguese galleon \"Nossa Senhora do Cabo\" at Réunion. The total value of treasure on board (from Goa) is estimated as between £100,000 and £875,000, one of the largest pirate hauls ever.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "321496", "title": "Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Box office.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 401, "text": "\"Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl\" opened at #1, grossing $46,630,690 in its opening weekend and $70,625,971 since its Wednesday launch. It eventually made its way to $654,264,015 worldwide ($305,413,918 domestically and $348,850,097 overseas), becoming the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2003. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 50.64 million tickets in the US.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29652738", "title": "Lego Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 474, "text": "Lego Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game is a Lego-themed action-adventure video game developed by Traveller's Tales and published by Disney Interactive Studios. Released in May 2011, to coincide with the release of \"\", the game is based on the \"Pirates of the Caribbean\" film series, and its storyline covers the first four films. The game is available on the Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Nintendo 3DS, Nintendo DS, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Wii, Xbox 360.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5093087", "title": "Pirates of the Caribbean: The Legend of Jack Sparrow", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 378, "text": "Pirates of the Caribbean: The Legend of Jack Sparrow is an action-adventure video game by American developer 7 Studios for the PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows. It features playable levels based on the experiences of Captain Jack Sparrow, voiced by Johnny Depp who portrays him in the movies, after the events of \"\". The game includes action, puzzles and humorous cutscenes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52213701", "title": "Captain Morgan in popular culture", "section": "Section::::Other products.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 248, "text": "BULLET::::- The video game \"Sid Meier's Pirates!\" features Henry Morgan as the greatest pirate in the Caribbean. Incorrectly, Morgan's flagship in the game is the \"Queen Anne's Revenge\", which was historically the ship of fellow pirate Blackbeard.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As I recall, the theory was to use balloons of some sort to keep one aloft amongst the clouds. The big problem was corrosion, something that I have yet to read a solution for. I'm actually curious about what one would do for food, colonial expansion, the initial costs to doing this, and harvesting resources from Venus so as not to rely on sending supplies from Earth.\n\nI would put the colonization of Venus as possible, but not probable.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What are the exploitable resources on Venus that would make colonization worth the cost?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I remember back in undergrad astronomy, we had a mechanical engineer in one of our upper div. classes. She was a professional engineer who had worked for 20+ years at NASA. She was a very nice lady, but was singularly obsessed with colonization of Mars/Venus. Any time a new concept was introduced, she'd want to know the possible ramifications for colonization. \n\nFinally, one of our professors - one of the leading researchers on Mars (specifically Martian volcanology/geomorphology) - asked her what her fixation was about. She admitted that she was a very concerned environmentalist, and that she considered starting anew on Mars/Venus to be humanity's only real option for survival. \n\nIt quickly developed that she thought that the whole study of astronomy was in effect the study of applied interplanetary colonization. She was shocked when the professor, and later the rest of the faculty, affirmed that astronomy was no such thing. And that, in fact, virtually no astronomers consider Mars/Venus colonization to be practical in even the long-term.\n\nThe simple truth of the matter is that with the technology and money it would take to terraform and travel to and otherwise colonize Mars or Venus, it would be much much simpler to apply that technology on Earth. Or, in the mists of some distant science-fiction future, on some distant extrasolar planet.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hmm... Moderately-silly yet honest related question, how viable are Jetsons-style towers?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3528649", "title": "Colonization of Venus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 460, "text": "The colonization of Venus has been a subject of many works of science fiction since before the dawn of spaceflight, and is still discussed from both a fictional and a scientific standpoint. However, with the discovery of Venus's extremely hostile surface environment, attention has largely shifted towards the colonization of the Moon and Mars instead, with proposals for Venus focused on colonies floating in the upper-middle atmosphere and on terraforming. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1687339", "title": "Venus in fiction", "section": "Section::::Stories set on Venus.:\"New Venus\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 804, "text": "BULLET::::- In Frederik Pohl's \"The Merchants of Venus\" (1972), Pohl made a meticulous effort to present a plausible way for human colonization of Venus, under the conditions revealed by probes. In this story, Venus had been settled in the distant past by mysterious aliens which humans called Heechee. They left behind various artifacts as well as tunnels and underground chambers which could be adapted to human use, which both considerably reduced the price of colonization and provided a strong economic incentive as Heecheee artifacts fetched high prices. This became the basis for Pohl's celebrated Heechee Series, where the search for Heechee artifacts and the Heechee themselves goes deeper and deeper into space, and meanwhile human-settled Venus has become a sovereign state and a major power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4923982", "title": "Terraforming of Venus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 521, "text": "The terraforming of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation. Terraforming Venus was first scholarly proposed by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961, although fictional treatments, such as \"The Big Rain\" of The Psychotechnic League by novelist Poul Anderson, preceded it. Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet's atmosphere:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13203040", "title": "Venus In Situ Explorer", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 597, "text": "The study of Venus is essential to understanding the evolution of terrestrial planets, understanding how Venus and Earth diverged, and comprehending when and if planets develop habitable environments. While on the surface, the Venus In Situ Explorer would function for several hours to acquire and characterize a core sample of the surface to study pristine rock samples not weathered by the very harsh surface conditions of the planet. Also, the VISE would determine the composition and mineralogy of the surface. The lander would also release a short-lived balloon to measure cloud-level winds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1770184", "title": "Jovian Chronicles", "section": "Section::::Setting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 216, "text": "BULLET::::- Venus: terraformed by a consortium of corporations, Venus is now a marginally habitable planet. The Venusian upper class and their workers live in polar arcologies, surrounded by terraforming processors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1687339", "title": "Venus in fiction", "section": "Section::::Stories set on Venus.:\"Old Venus\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 574, "text": "BULLET::::- In Jack Williamson's \"Seetee Ship\" (1949) and \"Seetee Shock\" (1950), Venus is colonized by China, in cooperation with some colonists from Japan and other East Asian countries, who all find the climate of Venus (as conceived here) congenial for the growing of rice. The Chinese transfer the seat of their government to Venus after the United States builds a nuclear base on the Moon, which enables the Americans to dominate the whole of Earth. The Asian-colonized Venus is one of the main powers contending for control of the mineral wealth of the Asteroid Belt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3528649", "title": "Colonization of Venus", "section": "Section::::Aerostat habitats and floating cities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 395, "text": "At least as early as 1971 Soviet scientists have suggested that rather than attempting to colonize Venus' hostile surface, humans might attempt to colonize the Venerian atmosphere. Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glenn Research Center has summarized the perceived difficulties in colonizing Venus as being merely from the assumption that a colony would need to be based on the surface of a planet:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Atmospheric fluctuations are not truly random, they're just extremely chaotic and unpredictable.\n\nRadioactivity is different. As far as we can tell, it really is random when a radioactive particle will decay.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20046536", "title": "Noisy data", "section": "Section::::Sources of noise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 566, "text": "Random noise is often a large component of the noise in data. Random noise in a signal is measured as the Signal-to-Noise Ratio. Random noise contains almost equal amounts of a wide range of frequencies, and is also called \"white noise\" (as colors of light combine to make \"white\"). Random noise is an unavoidable problem. It affects the data collection and data preparation processes, where errors commonly occur. Noise has two main sources: errors introduced by measurement tools and random errors introduced by processing or by experts when the data is gathered.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "235757", "title": "Sensor", "section": "Section::::Classification of measurement errors.:Sensor deviations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 323, "text": "All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors. Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a random error that can be reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the dynamic behavior of the sensor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1326120", "title": "Spectroradiometer", "section": "Section::::Sources of error.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 282, "text": "\"Random errors\" are variations about that mean. In the case of spectroradiometric measurements, this could be thought of as noise from the detector, internal electronics, or the light source itself. Errors of this type can be combated by longer integration times or multiple scans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18443992", "title": "Maximum likelihood sequence estimation", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 214, "text": "In cases where the contribution of random noise is additive and has a multivariate normal distribution, the problem of maximum likelihood sequence estimation can be reduced to that of a least squares minimization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28157027", "title": "Crystallographic image processing", "section": "Section::::Brief history of crystallographic image processing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 775, "text": "The key difference between geometric inference and all kinds of traditional statistical inferences is that the former merely states the co-existence of a set of definitive (and exact geometrical) constraints and noise, whereby noise is nothing else but an unknown characteristic of the measurement device and data processing operations. From this follows that \"\"in comparing two\"\" (or more) \"\"geometric models we must take into account the fact that the noise is identical (but unknown) and has the same characteristic for both\"\" (all) \"\"models\"\". Because many of these approaches use linear approximations, the level of random noise needs to be low to moderate, or in other words, the measuring devices must be very well corrected for all kinds of known systematic errors. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46904907", "title": "Shirley Wind", "section": "Section::::Health hazard.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 335, "text": "In January 2013, a study of the low frequency noise was completed, which showed that three of the houses studied had evidence of low frequency noise, but in only one house was that noise coming from the outside. However, the study could not conclude that the health effects experienced by local residents were caused by the wind farm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8648241", "title": "Modulation error ratio", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 312, "text": "MER is closely related to error vector magnitude (EVM), but MER is calculated from the average power of the signal. MER is also closely related to signal-to-noise ratio. MER includes all imperfections including deterministic amplitude imbalance, quadrature error and distortion, while noise is random by nature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "When an article gets submitted they have a lot of people look at it and similar data in order to publish it. It generally takes months. And a lot of research is funded either at a government or private level.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The articles are submitted to journals or conferences for publication. They are then 'peer reviewed'.\n\nThe peer review process is largely a check on relevance and basic sanity. The reviewers want to ensure the work is meaningful and not simply a rehash of previous work (although the standards for this these days are incredibly low). They also want to ensure the author is using plausible methods within the field.\n\nIn terms of data faking, we don't know. We simply trust that the researcher was honest. Unless the work is very significant or has real-world consequences, no one is likely to replicate it. However, almost any work with far-reaching consequences *will* be replicated and they'll discover that the conclusions are inaccurate.\n\nWhen you look at people who have been caught in academic fraud, it's almost always because they've established a pattern over years of publishing too-good-to-be-true work that someone finally figures out *isn't* true.\n\nIn terms of getting revenue from their research work, researchers normally don't. Your published works are a way of building your CV. Your CV is what gets you hired in academia and certain industry jobs. If you don't publish anything, you're unlikely to be considered for these jobs.\n\nResearchers do earn money from patents, but you don't need to publish to secure a patent - and, in many cases, it would be prudent to not publish your results if you're planning to monetize them in this fashion.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There’s a board, the IRB, that you have to submit your hypothesis and plan to before you even start. You have to get approval from the board on your tactics for gaining data, make sure it’s ethical, fair, and unbiased. And you have to have a *ton of supporting information. If you don’t get approval you can’t submit your research. You can’t just bring a document to them and ask for it to be published. Depending on the type of research, sometimes you can get government funding. Some companies have their own research labs and will pay people to carry out experiments. For example I know hospitals always do “Evidence-based practice”. Where research teams look at certain practices and research the efficacy of it, instead of just saying “well we’ve always done it like this”. \n\nMost people in Research don’t have any motivation to fake or sway results, they’re after the truth. That being said, I’m sure if you really wanted to you could. There are some ways to prevent that, in Blind, Double Blind, and unbiased research (where the researcher isn’t tied to the company or another entity in any way).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Let's start with the last question.\n\nGenerally some Master's (in some countries) and all PhD students in scientific fields get paid either with a grant they got or a grant they were offered from a prof. Where does the grant come from? Either the students or the prof or the group submit a project proposal to some authority or government body or some funding agency, they explain the problem in the field, how they intend to fix it, and how this would impact the world. If the agency is convinced, they give them the money: it's usually from tax payers money, by can also be from pharma companies or charities or whatever (conflict of interest might arise). The money then covers everything from consumables to instruments to wages of people you hire for the project and salary or stipend of the main student. Post doctoral fellows are similar, but they get paid typically from their own grant (they bring their own project when they join the lab, and they already have an approved funding, they just need a lab to work), but post docs can also join a lab that already has a grant (usually super rich labs in top universities). Professors get money from the university itself and they also typically have side jobs as some consultant or the CEO of a spin off/start up bio tech company and so on.\n\nSo publishing per se doesn't pay you (in fact you often end up paying for it). But publishing good science shows your employers that you're good and productive, which makes them hire you and pay you (also for grant agencies to give you money).\n\nLet's get to the first questions. How's quality controlled? Well.. It goes like this: you write up a paper, with figures and tables showing the data. You don't show everything, that would be way too long, you skip out on the controls and validation experiments and pick out representative stuff and so on. Now when the paper is received it depends on the journal, but usually it goes through a preliminary assessment where they decide is this at all fit to be in the journal in terms of field? Is the quality standard at least in the ball park of our journal? Are the authors sketchy or from some weird place you never even heard of? Etc.\n\nOnce this step is done. Then there is I think the editor choosing whether he recommends this for publishing in the journal. This is just based on quality, significance, reputation, vision, etc. If yes, then a group of experts who are usually professors are chosen from around the world who are good at the field of that paper and pretty up to date. Sometimes the profs are the go to profs for the journal, sometimes they're new and so on. Then these professors read the manuscript and criticize the living shit out of it. They look at the quality of the data, the validity of the data, the credibility of the methods, the sensibility of the whole approach, the interpretation of the results, does this fall in line with previous literature? Is it completely conflicting with everything we know? If so, is there a possible reason or just straight out bs? Are the controls properly done? And so on. They really scrutinize the paper and dig it to the bone.\n\nThen it's a dynamic process. After the first review round, the profs sent their recommendation and opinion to the editor. The editor, based on the. Comments, decides hmm.. Okay this is worth it. So he sends the author that they have preliminary acceptance if they respond to the comments. The comments can be questions for clarification, asking for the controls that aren't shown, asking for more experiments to make sure the observed effect is real and reproducible, ask for the actual raw untouched data (this is usually done to studies showing revolutionary data, they want to make sure it's not made up, and trust me some papers before have been found to be fake this way, they can even analyze the noise in the system to see if it's random or there's a pattern). They can also ask for changes to text, writing style, etc... Etc. Then it's a cycle.. Back and forth between the authors and the reviewers, until the reviewers are satisfied and say okay. We're good. Then it gets published in the next available issue.\n\nOf course.. This is high end journal stuff. Like nature, science, cell, etc and also stuff like PNAS, endocrinology, etc. But crappy journals from some random country with an impact factor of 0.2 are usually extremely careless and don't give two shits if your data is true.\n\nOnce a paper gets published in a good journal, that doesn't mean it's fact. Some fake data still makes its way through. And if it's bad enough it usually gets retracted later. Like that Wakefield crap. But sometimes the model used in the paper or the protocol followed or something is actually suboptimal and renders inaccurate data or something specific to their set up but cannot be reproduced. This is usually found by later papers. I mean all science builds on itself. Most of what you do in a paper depends on protocols by other papers. And you use the protocol of another paper and it doesn't give you their result because you have a different model, and then others find themselves in the same shoes, well eventually that paper loses its value and gets cited very little. Science is all about reproducibility. Even if you succeed in scamming a journal, it's impossible to scam the scientific community and they find out in a few years (very easy to scam the public though.. Too damn easy).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "**How do scientific research articles get published?** \n\nA given journal has a panel of scientists that perform a peer review on submitted papers. An established scientist in a relevant field reads of the paper looking for flaws and trying to establish whether it is interesting enough to be published.\n\n**How do we know their results aren't faked?** \n\nIf a paper presents interesting and novel results, two things will happen. First, the paper will be scrutinized for errors and anomalies, faking data in a way that will pass deep statistical analysis is actually quite difficult. Next, if there are no obvious flaws, other scientists will try to replicate the experiment to get the same results. That will quickly expose any shenanigans, many a career has been ruined by simply overstating results, much less faking them.\n\n**What exactly are scientific journals?**\n\nA journal will typically be associated with a scientific organization, like a university or a professional group, although some are independent. They invite scientists in their field to submit papers, provide peer reviewers to ensure quality, and publish results they consider interesting. The more prestigious the journal, the higher the quality of the submissions, the more accomplished the peer reviewers, and the higher the cost. Some run thousands of dollars per year.\n\n**How do researchers get revenue from publishing their research work?** \n\nThey don't, not directly. Publishing does three things for the researcher, it ensures they get credit for the discovery, it improves their reputation (and job prospects) within the field, and it justifies their existence to their employers, particularly those in academia.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Generally they're published in journals with a peer-review process. Typically when you submit an article to a journal they'll give it a look over to make sure it fits the scope of the journal and if it does they'll send it out to some other academic in the field to check the methodology, literature review, analysis, writing etc.. The reviewers don't get paid, it's part of the 'service' obligation that's part of most academic jobs. There's always the risk a reviewer will do a half-arsed job, but there will be at least one other reviewer, so if you do that there's a good chance you'll get found out and do damage to your reputation.\n\nThe reviewers usually don't check that the data is real because they don't have access to the necessary information. It's up to universities/research institutions to ensure academic integrity in relation to the falsification of data. At that level there *are* people who can check up and usually there's more than one person involved in the research project. Anyone caught falsifying data's reputation will be ruined, they'll certainly be fired and probably be unable to find work in the field again. Sometimes it happens, but generally there is very little motivation to falsify data and doing so involves taking a career-ending risk.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6277878", "title": "Open science", "section": "Section::::Politics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 495, "text": "In many countries, governments fund some science research. Scientists often publish the results of their research by writing articles and donating them to be published in scholarly journals, which frequently are commercial. Public entities such as universities and libraries subscribe to these journals. Michael Eisen, a founder of the Public Library of Science, has described this system by saying that \"taxpayers who already paid for the research would have to pay again to read the results.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29537", "title": "Scientific misconduct", "section": "Section::::Responsibility of authors and of coauthors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 899, "text": "Authors are expected to keep all study data for later examination even after publication. The failure to keep data may be regarded as misconduct. Some scientific journals require that authors provide information to allow readers to determine whether the authors might have commercial or non-commercial conflicts of interest. Authors are also commonly required to provide information about ethical aspects of research, particularly where research involves human or animal participants or use of biological material. Provision of incorrect information to journals may be regarded as misconduct. Financial pressures on universities have encouraged this type of misconduct. The majority of recent cases of alleged misconduct involving undisclosed conflicts of interest or failure of the authors to have seen scientific data involve collaborative research between scientists and biotechnology companies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43427", "title": "Nature (journal)", "section": "Section::::Publication in Nature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 579, "text": "As with most other professional scientific journals, papers undergo an initial screening by the editor, followed by peer review (in which other scientists, chosen by the editor for expertise with the subject matter but who have no connection to the research under review, will read and critique articles), before publication. In the case of \"Nature\", they are only sent for review if it is decided that they deal with a topical subject and are sufficiently ground-breaking in that particular field. As a consequence, the majority of submitted papers are rejected without review.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37316", "title": "Scientific journal", "section": "Section::::Publishing process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1189, "text": "The authors of scientific articles are active researchers instead of journalists; typically, a graduate student or a researcher writes a paper with a professor. As such, the authors are unpaid and receive no compensation from the journal. However, their funding bodies may require them to publish in scientific journals. The paper is submitted to the journal office, where the editor considers the paper for appropriateness, potential scientific impact and novelty. If the journal's editor considers the paper appropriate, the paper is submitted to scholarly peer review. Depending on the field, journal and paper, the paper is sent to 1–3 reviewers for evaluation before they can be granted permission to publish. Reviewers are expected to check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument, i.e. if the data collected or considered in the paper support the conclusion offered. Novelty is also key: existing work must be appropriately considered and referenced, and new results improving on the state of the art presented. Reviewers are usually unpaid and not a part of the journal staff—instead, they should be \"peers\", i.e. researchers in the same field as the paper in question.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23047", "title": "Pseudoscience", "section": "Section::::Indicators of possible pseudoscience.:Lack of openness to testing by other experts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 285, "text": "BULLET::::- Some agencies, institutions, and publications that fund scientific research require authors to share data so others can evaluate a paper independently. Failure to provide adequate information for other researchers to reproduce the claims contributes to a lack of openness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3552700", "title": "Fabrication (science)", "section": "Section::::Consequences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 818, "text": "A finding that a scientist engaged in fabrication will often mean the end to his or her career as a researcher. Scientific misconduct is grounds for dismissal of tenured faculty, as well as for forfeiture of research grants. Given the tight-knit nature of many academic communities, and the high stakes involved, researchers who are found to have committed fabrication are often effectively (and permanently) blacklisted from the profession, with reputable research organizations and universities refusing to hire them; funding sources refusing to sponsor them or their work, and journals refusing to consider any of their articles for publication. In some cases, however, especially if the researcher is senior and well-established, the academic community can close ranks to prevent injury to the scientist's career.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37316", "title": "Scientific journal", "section": "Section::::Scope.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1241, "text": "Articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education. Scientific articles allow researchers to keep up to date with the developments of their field and direct their own research. An essential part of a scientific article is citation of earlier work. The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting citations (citation impact). Some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles, and seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper. Schoolbooks and textbooks have been written usually only on established topics, while the latest research and more obscure topics are only accessible through scientific articles. In a scientific research group or academic department it is usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs. Public funding bodies often require the results to be published in scientific journals. Academic credentials for promotion into academic ranks are established in large part by the number and impact of scientific articles published. Many doctoral programs allow for thesis by publication, where the candidate is required to publish a certain number of scientific articles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\"20,000 Leagues Under the Sea\"\n\n20,000 Leagues = 111,120 km\n\nDiameter of the Earth = 12,769 km", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45051881", "title": "The Big Short (film)", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Historical accuracy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 262, "text": "David McCandless's visual blog Information is Beautiful\" deduced that, while taking creative licence into account, the film was 91.4% accurate when compared to real-life events, calling it a \"shockingly truthful film\" with \"very little dramatization or fakery\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43117078", "title": "Bridge of Spies (film)", "section": "Section::::Production.:Historical accuracy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 288, "text": "The visual blog \"Information is Beautiful\" deduced that, while taking creative licence into account, the film was 88.8% accurate when compared to real-life events, summarizing it as \"pretty damn truthful, reflecting a general trend in Hollywood towards more historically accurate tales\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "420617", "title": "George MacDonald Fraser", "section": "Section::::Works.:History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 390, "text": "BULLET::::- \"The Hollywood History of the World: From One Million Years B.C. to Apocalypse Now\" (1988, revised 1996) The book discusses how Hollywood deals with history. It concludes that the standard of historical analysis in most movies is far better than one might imagine. The text is illustrated by comparative images of figures from history and the actors who portrayed them in film.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40033650", "title": "Best Film You've Never Seen", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 275, "text": "Best Film You've Never Seen is a book by the journalist and editor Robert K. Elder. Published in 2013, the book features interviews with 35 directors about lesser-known movies that influenced them. This is the companion to his previous book, \"The Film That Changed My Life\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47763204", "title": "Shock Value (book)", "section": "Section::::Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 722, "text": "Cynthia C. Scott of \"Bright Lights Film Journal\" wrote that the book \"lacks the epic scope\" of other New Hollywood histories, but it offers compelling arguments to take the discussed films seriously. Ty Burr of \"The New York Times\" praised the book's research but wrote it \"struggles to bring the larger picture into focus\". Matthew Hays of \"The Globe and Mail\" called it \"crucial reading for any serious horror aficionado\". Zack Handlen of \"The A.V. Club\" rated it A− and wrote that the book's only flaw is that it should have been longer. Ryan Daley of Bloody Disgusting rated it 5/5 stars and described it as \"the most effortlessly enchanting treatise on the American horror film since Stephen King's \"Danse Macabre\"\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "518117", "title": "Mughal-e-Azam", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 232, "text": "The film is widely considered to be a milestone of its genre, earning praise from critics for its grandeur and attention to detail. Film scholars have welcomed its portrayal of enduring themes, but question its historical accuracy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47737755", "title": "Heneral Luna", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 449, "text": "Historian and former National Commission for Culture and the Arts chair Ambeth Ocampo strongly recommended the film, calling it \"an engaging narrative, supported by wonderful cinematography and grounded on sound historical research.\" He added that \"When I previewed the film, I commented that it should not open with a disclaimer simply because it is a cinematic retelling of what many consider textbook history and is not a doctoral dissertation.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hi, long-time lurker. But I think I can actually contribute a bit to this!\n\n___________________________________________________________________\n\n**Banned Beards**\n\nI actually don't know too much about the Jehovah's Witnesses, so I won't try and touch on their beliefs and practices.\n\nMormons (LDS), however, I do know a bit about. For the LDS Church and its members, **a lack of facial hair is more cultural than spiritual**; there's no commandments or doctrine that insist men be clean-shaven. The early Presidents of the LDS Church, from [Brigham Young](_URL_4_) to [George Albert Smith](_URL_10_) (#2 through #8), had varying degrees of facial hair, and many of the other leaders of the LDS Church ([early Quorum of the Twelve Apostles and First Presidency](_URL_7_)) sported what look like quite stylish beards for the time.\n\nInstances within the LDS Church where facial hair *is* banned do exist. The two that come to mind are (1) young men serving as full-time missionaries and (2) students at Brigham Young University (BYU). From the official *Missionary Handbook*:\n\n > Keep your hair relatively short (not clipped too close) and evenly tapered. Extreme or faddish styles— including spiked, permed, or bleached hair or a shaved head—are not appropriate. Sideburns should reach no lower than the middle of the ear. (See the pictures of a missionary haircut included with your call packet.) **Elders should shave each day.**\n\n > ([Missionary Handbook: Missionary Conduct](https://_URL_5_/manual/missionary-handbook/missionary-conduct?lang=eng), emphasis added)\n\nBYU's Honor Code contains a similar requirement that [\"men are expected to be clean-shaven; beards are not acceptable.\"](_URL_0_) According to the Salt Lake Tribune, BYU President Ernest Wilkinson banned beards in 1969. (Salt Lake Tribune, [The History of BYU's Honor Code,\"](_URL_1_) 29. Oct. 2016.)\n\nBoth bans are addressed by Dallin H. Oaks, who was President of BYU at the time (he now serves as a member of the LDS Church's highest governing body).\n\n > \"Our rules against beards and long hair have the same purpose as the requirements our Church makes of its missionaries. In this university, which is largely supported by the tithes of faithful members and which stands as a beacon of Latter-day Saint values, we wish to avoid an appearance that has become associated with rebellion and rejection of values we hold dear. A recent book by Jerry Rubin, the clown prince of the hippy movement, gives this vivid characterization of the meaning of long hair:\n\n > > \"'Long hair is communication. Young kids identify short hair with authority, discipline , , ,—and long hair with letting go, letting your hair down, being free, being open. Wherever we go, our hair tells people where we stand on Vietnam, Wallace, campus disruption, dope. We’re living TV commercials for the revolution.\n\n > > \"'Long hair is the beginning of our liberation from the sexual oppression that underlies this whole military society.'\" [Jerry Rubin, Do It, pp. 93, 95–96]\n\n > (Dallin H. Oaks, \"Be Honest in All Behavior,\" 30. Jan. 1973, [_URL_12_](_URL_9_).)\n\nSimilarly, in a 1971 issue of the LDS Church's publication for its teenage members, the *New Era*, Oaks was again cited as saying:\n\n > The rule against beards and long hair for men stands on a different footing. [. . .] Unlike modesty, which is an eternal value in the sense of rightness or wrongness in the eyes of God, **our rules against beards and long hair are contemporary and pragmatic. They are responsive to conditions and attitudes in our own society at this particular point in time.** \n\n > There is nothing inherently wrong about long hair or beards, any more than there is anything inherently wrong with possessing an empty liquor bottle. But a person with a beard or an empty liquor bottle is susceptible of being misunderstood. Either of these articles may reduce a person’s effectiveness and promote misunderstanding because of what people may reasonably conclude when they view them in proximity to what these articles stand for in our society today.\n\n > **In the minds of most people at this time, the beard and long hair are associated with protest, revolution, and rebellion against authority. They are also symbols of the hippie and drug culture.** Persons who wear beards or long hair, whether they desire it or not, may identify themselves with or emulate and honor the drug culture or the extreme practices of those who have made slovenly appearance a badge of protest and dissent. In addition, unkemptness—which is often (though not always) associated with beards and long hair—is a mark of indifference toward the best in life. \n\n > (Dallin H. Oaks, \"Standards of Dress and Grooming,\" Dec. 1971 *New Era*, [_URL_5_](https://_URL_5_/new-era/1971/12/standards-of-dress-and-grooming?lang=eng), emphasis added.)\n\nThe prohibitions of the LDS Church on facial hair are a product of its members' desire to be [\"in the world, but not of the world\"](_URL_6_); a push by their leaders to separate themselves from \"worldly things\" but remain [\"the light of the world.\"](_URL_2_) And in the late 1960s and 1970s, when counterculture in America was marked a preponderance of beards and facial hair in general, the leaders of the LDS Church wanted their young adult followers to keep a safe distance from counterculture movements that espoused beliefs or practiced activities that did violate LDS commandments, such as drug use or sexual promiscuity. And even though society has moved beyond that, with facial hair rapidly becoming mainstream over the past several years, the unofficial stance of the LDS Church has not drastically changed. (It is worth noting that several publications maintained by the LDS Church have moved towards a more lenient stance, such as the LDS Employment Services' recommendation for [\"Dressing for Success\"](_URL_3_) suggest that job-seekers \"follow appropriate business culture for facial hair.\")\n\n**TL;DR:** Mormons don't have facial hair because of the association it had in the 1960s/1970s with practices they forbid, such as drug use.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can't say anything about Jehovah's Witnesses or LDS and their facial hair. I can say that all Abrahamic religions, which would include Jews, Christians, Muslims, and (more to the point of your question) Rastafari, have inherited a ban on cutting the beard from the Torah. \n\nHere, it's stated in [Leviticus 19:27](_URL_2_), two translations: \n\nESV - *You shall not round off the hair on your temples or mar the edges of your beard.*\n\nDouay-Rheims (older, Catholic) - *Nor shall you cut your hair roundwise: nor shave your beard.*\n\nLeviticus 19 in general spells out other rules of purity and decency, like not creating hybrid animals, not wearing clothing made from blended fabrics, not turning your daughter into a prostitute, so this might be a thing that was seen along those lines - beard-trimming apparently has something in common with dishonesty or following false idols (things also banned in that chapter).\n\nThere are other statements of this prohibition elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible (which is the book that makes Abrahamic religions *Abrahamic*), particularly in the context of mourning traditions - the next verse in Leviticus bans cutting the body in memory of the dead (which I *believe* is where the Jehovah's Witness ban on blood transfusions and tattoos comes from - the idea of penetrating the body with metal - but I couldn't quote anything authoritative on that). \n\nLeviticus 25 further bans the priesthood from [trimming beards](_URL_6_) , which in context appears to be a sign of \"profaning\" oneself. \n\nOutside the Torah, the idea of cutting beards comes up a few times, generally as a kind of debasement or misery, and as a \"foreign\" thing... something the neighboring tribes or nations did, that the People of the Covenant weren't supposed to do.\n\nIn [Jeremiah 41:5](_URL_0_) we've got some unhappy foreigners gashing their bodies and trimming their beards after the (Babylonian-appointed) governor of Israel was assassinated... and a couple of chapters later, we've got the Lord saying he's fixing to destroy \"[those who cut the corners of their hair](_URL_4_)\", meaning the people of Kedar and Hazor, \"men of the East\" who were defeated by Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian King. (This is usually interpreted as the hair on the temples - maybe sideburns. The *peot* ringlets you might see on Chasidim are specific to these \"corners\" - Hebrew for \"corner\" being *peah*.)\n\nIsaiah has more [mourning foreigners](_URL_5_), and Second Samuel has [some Israelite envoys being abused by shaving](_URL_3_). They're told by King David to stay away, in fact, until their beards grow back. How humiliating!\n\n[Ezekiel](_URL_1_) and [Isaiah](_URL_7_) also have references to beard-shaving as an almost apocalyptic thing - something that happens when God's judgement is rendered on Israel. An embarrassment and a calamity, in other words. \n\nFrom the way it's written about in the Tanakh, I'd assume there are traces of other Ancient Near Eastern traditions about beards and shaving, but it'll have to be up to /u/yodatsracist or /u/captainhaddock or some other, wiser, head to fill in those spaces. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21244099", "title": "Facial hair", "section": "Section::::In religions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 431, "text": "Many religious male figures are recorded to have had facial hair; for example, numerous prophets mentioned in the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) were known to grow beards. Other religions, such as Sikhism, mandate growing beards. Amish men grow beards after marriage, but continue to shave their moustaches in order to avoid historical associations with military facial hair due to their pacifistic beliefs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "162110", "title": "Beard", "section": "Section::::In religion.:Judaism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 383, "text": "The Zohar, one of the primary sources of Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism), attributes holiness to the beard, specifying that hairs of the beard symbolize channels of subconscious holy energy that flows from above to the human soul. Therefore, most Hasidic Jews, for whom Kabbalah plays an important role in their religious practice, traditionally do not remove or even trim their beards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5539914", "title": "Shenandoah (beard)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 219, "text": "This style of facial hair was made famous by individuals such as Abraham Lincoln and C. Everett Koop. In Spain, it could be largely associated with 1970s \"progres\" and other cultural icons, such as writer Álvaro Pombo.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "162110", "title": "Beard", "section": "Section::::In religion.:Christianity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 695, "text": "Iconography and art dating from the 4th century onward almost always portray Jesus with a beard. In paintings and statues most of the Old Testament Biblical characters such as Moses and Abraham and Jesus' New Testament disciples such as St Peter appear with beards, as does John the Baptist. However, Western European art generally depicts John the Apostle as clean-shaven, to emphasize his relative youth. Eight of the figures portrayed in the painting entitled \"The Last Supper\" by Leonardo da Vinci are bearded. Mainstream Christianity holds Isaiah Chapter 50: Verse 6 as a prophecy of Christ's crucifixion, and as such, as a description of Christ having his beard plucked by his tormentors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "68301", "title": "Hijab", "section": "Section::::History.:Pre-Islamic veiling practices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 424, "text": "Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East. Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses. In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "68897", "title": "Veil", "section": "Section::::History.:Antiquity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 425, "text": "Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East. Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians, before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses. In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "162110", "title": "Beard", "section": "Section::::History.:Ancient and classical world.:Lebanon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 639, "text": "The ancient Semitic civilization situated on the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent and centered on the coastline of modern Lebanon gave great attention to the hair and beard. Where the beard has mostly a strong resemblance to that affected by the Assyrians, and familiar to us from their sculptures. It is arranged in three, four, or five rows of small tight curls, and extends from ear to ear around the cheeks and chin. Sometimes, however, in lieu of the many rows, we find one row only, the beard falling in tresses, which are curled at the extremity. There is no indication of the Phoenicians having cultivated mustachios.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Also, was/is there any movement to have the UK switch to driving on the right side of the road? I know that some countries have made a switch, so the UK possibly could too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "301108", "title": "Pan-American Highway", "section": "Section::::Development and construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 784, "text": "The concept of an overland route from one tip of the Americas to the other was originally proposed at the First Pan-American Conference in 1889 as a railroad; however, this proposal was never realized. The idea of building a highway emerged at the Fifth International Conference of American States in 1923. The first conference regarding construction of the highway occurred on October 5, 1925. Finally, on July 29, 1937, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Canada, and the United States signed the \"Convention on the Pan-American Highway\", whereby they agreed to speedy construction, by all adequate means. In 1950, Mexico became the first Latin American country to complete its portion of the highway.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3492275", "title": "Rhinoceros Party of Canada (1963–93)", "section": "Section::::Policies and politics.:Other campaigns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 233, "text": "BULLET::::- Adopting the British system of driving on the left; this was to be gradually phased in over five years with large trucks and tractors first, then buses, eventually including small cars, and bicycles and wheelchairs last.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12202", "title": "Transport in Guyana", "section": "Section::::Statistics.:Highways.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 207, "text": "BULLET::::- Driving is on the left, a practice inherited from United Kingdom colonial authorities. Guyana & Suriname are the only 2 countries on the (in-land) American continent who still drive on the left.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14619020", "title": "Transcontinental Motor Convoy", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 432, "text": "The United States' Good Roads Movement of the late 19th century began as increased use of bicycles required better surfaces over the existing wagon and carriage roads. The development of the automobile and their increased use resulted in the formation of the United States Good Roads Association and various individual cross-country trips by individual vehicles, followed by the first transcontinental trip by a convoy of vehicles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8979498", "title": "History of road transport", "section": "Section::::Modern roads.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 240, "text": "The Good Roads Movement occurred in the United States between the late 1870s and the 1920s. Advocates for improved roads led by bicyclists such as the League of American Bicyclists turned local agitation into a national political movement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "441496", "title": "Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands", "section": "Section::::Transportation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 435, "text": "The United States Virgin Islands is the only place under United States jurisdiction where the rule of the road is to drive on the left. This was inherited from what was the then-current Danish practice at the time of the American acquisition in 1917. However, because Saint Thomas is a U.S. territory, most cars are imported from the mainland United States and therefore the steering column is located on the left side of the vehicle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "136600", "title": "Tyler, Texas", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 406, "text": "In 1985, the international Adopt-a-Highway movement originated in Tyler. After appeals by local Texas Department of Transportation officials, the local Civitan chapter adopted a 2-mi (3-km) stretch of U.S. Highway 69 to maintain. Drivers and other motorists traveling on this segment of US-69 (between Tyler and nearby Lindale) will notice brown road signs that read, \"First Adopt-A-Highway in the World.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It was illegal to leave the GDR without a special permit, which also stated how and when you had to return. If you failed to do so, you risked criminal prosecution according to § 213 StGB-DDR, up to 5 years in prison (extended to 8 years in 1977). This includes attempts to flee, thus she could face anything from a fine to 8 years in prison for being accomplice in an attempt to flee.\n\nIf the authorities assumed that she organized (or helped to organize) her husbands escape, she could also be persecuted according to § 105 StGB-DDR, in which case she could face between 2 and 15 years in prison (later extended to lifelong prison).\n\nSources:\n § 105. Staatsfeindlicher Menschenhandel\n § 213. Ungesetzlicher Grenzübertritt\n Strafgesetzbuch der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (StGB) vom 12. Januar 1968 in der Fassung vom 7. April 1977.\n\nThese are only the direct criminal persecutions though. If she had known about the attempt, even if she were only likely fined, she would have risked to be deprived of her (future) children's custody or be forced to give their children up for adoption.\n\nSource:\n Marie-Luise Warnecke: Zwangsadoptionen in der DDR, Berliner Wissenschaftsverlag, Berlin 2009\n\nFurthermore, she and potential children (or other close relatives) risked occupational bans. In that case, she would only be allowed to work in specifically permitted jobs, which carried the risk of being prosecuted according to § 249 StGB-DDR, which could be punished with up to 5 years in prison.\n\nAccess to higher education for her and her close family could also be limited or completely denied. \n\nSource:\n Danuta Kneipp: Berufsverbote in der DDR? Zur Praxis politisch motivierter beruflicher Ausgrenzung in Ost-Berlin in den 70er und 80er Jahren. in: Potsdamer Bulletin für Zeithistorische Studien Nr. 36-37/2006, Seite 32 ff\n § 249. Gefährdung der öffentlichen Ordnung durch asoziales Verhalten.\n Strafgesetzbuch der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (StGB) vom 12. Januar 1968 in der Fassung vom 7. April 1977.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5155986", "title": "Republikflucht", "section": "Section::::\"Republikflucht\".:Berlin Wall and illegal migration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1537, "text": "Between 1961 and 1989 several thousand East German citizens emigrated by obtaining temporary exit visas and subsequently failing to return, or by engaging in dangerous attempts to cross the Berlin Wall, the Inner German border, or the borders of other Eastern Bloc countries. Those who fled across the fortified borders did so at considerable personal risk of injury or death (see: List of deaths at the Berlin Wall), with several hundred \"Republikflüchtlinge\" dying in accidents or by being shot by the GDR Border Troops, while some 75,000 were caught and imprisoned. West Germany allowed refugees from the Soviet sector of Berlin, the Soviet zone, or East Germany to apply to be accepted as \"Vertriebene\" (expellees) of the sub-group of Soviet Zone Refugees (\"Sowjetzonenflüchtlinge\") under the Federal Expellee Law (BVFG § 3), and thus receive support from the West German government. They had to have fled before 1 July 1990 in an attempt to rescue themselves from an emergency situation – especially one posing a threat to health, life, personal freedom, or freedom of conscience – created by the political conditions imposed by the regime in the territory from which they had escaped (BVFG § 3). The law did not apply to influential former supporters of the eastern political system or to offenders against legality and humanity during the period of Nazi rule or thereafter within East Berlin or East Germany, and finally it was applicable to any who had fought against the democracy in West Germany or West Berlin (BVFG § 3 (2)).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "849186", "title": "Inner German border", "section": "Section::::Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border.:Refugee flows and escape attempts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 112, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 112, "end_character": 718, "text": "Between 1950 and 1988, around 4 million East Germans migrated to the West; 3.454 million left between 1950 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961. After the border was fortified and the Berlin Wall constructed, the number of illegal crossings fell dramatically and continued to fall as the defences were improved over the subsequent decades. However, escapees were never more than a small minority of the total number of emigrants from East Germany. During the 1980s, only about 1% of those who left East Germany did so by escaping across the border. Far more people left the country after being granted official permits, by fleeing through third countries or by being ransomed by the West German government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "661867", "title": "Hof, Bavaria", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern Era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 483, "text": "In 1989 thousands of East German citizens, who had demanded the right to travel or emigrate to West Germany and had been allowed to do so, first arrived on western soil at Hof's railway station, having been placed on a special train and officially \"expelled\" by the East German government. Hof is located near the old Berlin-Munich autobahn, which was thought to be a possible invasion route by Warsaw Pact forces had the Cold War ever escalated into armed conflict (see Fulda Gap).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9483", "title": "East Berlin", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 633, "text": "In June 1948, all railways and roads leading to West Berlin were blocked, and East Berliners were not allowed to emigrate. Nevertheless, more than 1,000 East Germans were escaping to West Berlin each day by 1960, caused by the strains on the East German economy from war reparations owed to the Soviet Union, massive destruction of industry, and lack of assistance from the Marshall Plan. In August 1961, the East German Government tried to stop the population exodus by enclosing West Berlin within the Berlin Wall. It was very dangerous for fleeing residents to cross because armed soldiers were trained to shoot illegal migrants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5155986", "title": "Republikflucht", "section": "Section::::\"Republikflucht\".:Legal migration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 324, "text": "Some estimates put the number of those who left the East Berlin, the Soviet occupation zone, and the GDR between 1945 and 1961 at between 3 and 3.5 million people. Close to one million of those who left were refugees and expellees from World War II and the post-war era initially stranded in the Soviet zone or East Berlin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24815929", "title": "Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border", "section": "Section::::Refugee flows and escape attempts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1309, "text": "Between 1945 and 1988, around 4 million East Germans migrated to the West. 3.454 million of them left between 1945 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961. The great majority simply walked across the border or, after 1952, exited through West Berlin. After the border was fortified and the Berlin Wall was constructed, the number of illegal border crossings fell drastically. The numbers fell further as the border defenses were improved over the subsequent decades. In 1961, 8,507 people fled across the border, most of them through West Berlin. The construction of the Berlin Wall that year reduced the number of escapees by 75% to around 2,300 per annum for the rest of the decade. The Wall changed Berlin from being one of the easiest places to cross the border, from the East, to be one of the most difficult. The number of escapees fell further to 868 per annum during the 1970s and to only 334 per annum between 1980 and 1988. However, escapees were never more than a small minority of the total number of emigrants from East Germany. Far more people left the country after being granted official permits, by fleeing through third countries or by being ransomed to the West German government. During the 1980s, only about 1% of those who left East Germany did so by escaping across the border.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32970065", "title": "Horst Kasner", "section": "Section::::Migration to the German Democratic Republic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 393, "text": "Several weeks after the birth of their daughter, the family moved from Hamburg to East Berlin. The interior border was not yet completely closed, but most German migration was in the opposite direction (see also: Berlin Wall). In the first five months of 1954, 180,000 people had fled the GDR, and during the building of the border defenses between 1949 and 1961, around 2.5 million had left.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sorry, we don't allow [throughout history questions](_URL_0_). These tend to produce threads which are collections of trivia, not the in-depth discussions about a particular topic we're looking for. If you have a specific question about a historical event or period or person, please feel free to re-compose your question and submit it again. Alternatively, questions of this type can be directed to more appropriate subreddits, such as /r/history or /r/askhistory.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34352177", "title": "Socioeconomic mobility in the United States", "section": "Section::::Causes and issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 890, "text": "Explanations for the relatively low level of social mobility in the US include the better access of affluent children to superior schools and preparation for schools so important in an economy where pay is tilted toward educated workers; high levels of immigration of unskilled laborers and low rate of unionization, which leads to lower wages among the least skilled; public health problems, like obesity and diabetes, which can limit education and employment; the sheer size of the income gap between the rich which makes it harder to climb the proverbial income ladder when the rungs are farther apart; poverty, since those with low income have significantly lower rates of mobility than middle and higher income individuals. The factors which affect social mobility vary across the United States as does social mobility which in favored areas is much higher than in less favored areas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1342299", "title": "Diseases of affluence", "section": "Section::::Cardiovascular disease.:Prevalence in countries of affluence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 748, "text": "People of lower socio-economic status are more likely to have cardiovascular disease than those who have a higher socio-economic status. This inequality gap has occurred in developed countries because people who have a lower socio-economic status often face many of the risk factors of tobacco and alcohol use, obesity as well as having a sedentary lifestyle. Further social and environmental factors such as poverty, pollution, family history, housing and employment contribute to this inequality gap and to risk of having a health condition caused by cardiovascular disease. The increasing inequality gap between the higher and lower income populations continues in countries such as Canada, despite the availability of health care for everyone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7257476", "title": "Happiness economics", "section": "Section::::Determinants.:Economic freedom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 309, "text": "Individualistic societies have happier populations. Institutes of economic freedom are associated with increases wealth inequality but does not necessarily contribute to decreases in aggregate well-being or subjective well-being at the population level. In fact, income inequality enhances global well-being.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "420088", "title": "Social mobility", "section": "Section::::Patterns of mobility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 742, "text": "In a study for which the results were first published in 2009, conduct an exhaustive analysis of social mobility in developed countries. In addition to other correlations with negative social outcomes for societies having high inequality, they found a relationship between high social inequality and low social mobility. Of the eight countries studied—Canada, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Germany, the UK and the US, the US had both the highest economic inequality and lowest economic mobility. In this and other studies, in fact, the USA has very low mobility at the lowest rungs of the socioeconomic ladder, with mobility increasing slightly as one goes up the ladder. At the top rung of the ladder, however, mobility again decreases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "312898", "title": "American exceptionalism", "section": "Section::::Basis of arguments.:Mobility and welfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 554, "text": "However, social mobility in the U.S. is lower than in some European Union countries if defined regarding income movements. American men born into the lowest income quintile are much more likely to stay there compared to similar people in the Nordic countries or the United Kingdom. Many economists, such as Harvard economist N. Gregory Mankiw, however, state that the discrepancy has little to do with class rigidity; rather, it is a reflection of income disparity: \"Moving up and down a short ladder is a lot easier than moving up and down a tall one.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36835395", "title": "Great Gatsby curve", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 310, "text": "Another journalist argued that a connection between income inequality and low mobility could be explained by the lack of access for un-affluent children to better (more expensive) schools and if this enabled access to high-paying jobs; or to differences in health care that may limit education and employment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2379996", "title": "Population health", "section": "Section::::The human role of economic inequality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 863, "text": "Recently, human role has been encouraged by the influence of population growth there has been increasing interest from epidemiologists on the subject of economic inequality and its relation to the health of populations. There is a very robust correlation between socioeconomic status and health. This correlation suggests that it is not only the poor who tend to be sick when everyone else is healthy, heart disease, ulcers, type 2 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, certain types of cancer, and premature aging. Despite the reality of the SES Gradient, there is debate as to its cause. A number of researchers (A. Leigh, C. Jencks, A. Clarkwest—see also Russell Sage working papers) see a definite link between economic status and mortality due to the greater economic resources of the better-off, but they find little correlation due to social status differences.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There's a thought experiment, called a [Dyson Sphere](_URL_0_) (after physicist Freeman Dyson who popularized the thought experiment), that does this.\n\nThe engineering required to achieve this is far beyond our current capabilities, making it a highly theoretical concept.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well not close it off completely, but we could possibly in the future have solar panels that orbit the sun like satellites do on earth, but just bigger ofc.\n\nSaw it on some YouTube video who did the math, you would just have to need way more material than we could ever dream of getting, to surround the whole sun. I'm talking planet crushing machines, and you would probably need multiple planets.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That is what is called a Dyson sphere. You would need to dismantle a whole bunch of planets to get enough material for one. It will have to be massive or anything inside it would fry. \n\nThat being said, if you are asking as a way to maximize solar power generation, then you don’t need to surround the sun at all, all you need is to put your solar panel outside the atmosphere where they would get a whole lot more energy. The problem is that it is difficult to move the energy back", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34779206", "title": "Photovoltaic power station", "section": "Section::::Technology.:Solar array arrangements.:Dual axis trackers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 294, "text": "To maximise the intensity of incoming direct radiation, solar panels should be orientated normal to the sun's rays. To achieve this, arrays can be designed using two-axis trackers, capable of tracking the sun in its daily orbit across the sky, and as its elevation changes throughout the year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12579610", "title": "Canfield joint", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 346, "text": "When applied to solar panels, the Canfield joint tracks the Sun more of the time and will not tangle the power cords attached to them. This is especially valuable to space flight when the spacecraft is performing complicated manoeuvres. Its application was expected to be incorporated into the now-defunct Constellation Program as a key element.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25920006", "title": "Ecohouse", "section": "Section::::Building concepts.:Active solar gain.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 235, "text": "Orientation towards the sun also means that active solar systems can be fitted, both solar water heating panels and electricity generating solar panels on the roofs, further adding to the free heat and electricity gained from the sun.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4526198", "title": "Solar panels on spacecraft", "section": "Section::::Implementation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 360, "text": "Sometimes, satellite operators purposefully orient the solar panels to \"off point,\" or out of direct alignment from the Sun. This happens if the batteries are completely charged and the amount of electricity needed is lower than the amount of electricity made; off-pointing is also sometimes used on the International Space Station for orbital drag reduction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33643424", "title": "O'Neill cylinder", "section": "Section::::Design.:Attitude control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 291, "text": "The habitat and its mirrors must be perpetually aimed at the Sun to collect solar energy and light the habitat's interior. O'Neill and his students carefully worked out a method of continuously turning the colony 360 degrees per orbit without using rockets (which would shed reaction mass).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4526198", "title": "Solar panels on spacecraft", "section": "Section::::Implementation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 296, "text": "Solar panels need to have a lot of surface area that can be pointed towards the Sun as the spacecraft moves. More exposed surface area means more electricity can be converted from light energy from the Sun. Since spacecraft have to be small, this limits the amount of power that can be produced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41262001", "title": "Luna Ring", "section": "Section::::Construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 540, "text": "The construction of a concrete ring on the Moon's equator to support the solar panels would be performed by robots, that would be teleguided back from Earth. Then, the solar panels would be placed on the concrete layer, and connected to microwave and laser transmitting stations. The energy sent to Earth that way could be captured by receiving stations all through the day. The fact that the ring would surround the entire moon would mean that at least half of it would always be lit by the sun, resulting in constant electric production.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "One possible thread to investigate is the relationship between Washington and contemporaries like John Dewey and Ella Flagg Young. There are some interesting primary sources that speak to the time the two men were in the same place at the same time and how those interactions lead to changes across the system.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39618898", "title": "Augustus Granville Dill", "section": "Section::::Talented tenth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1023, "text": "After Reconstruction, the two prevailing schools of thought regarding education and labor of the black American were those espoused by W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington. These two scholars had opposing ideas on how the African American should fight for equality. Washington believed in an industrial education and in putting aside concerns about civil rights until after economic advancement had been achieved, while Du Bois believed in a classical education, and envisioned a future wherein educated African Americans he called the \"talented tenth\" would lead the African American out of inequality. Granville is an example of the \"talented tenth\" Du Bois believed in. His contributions were mostly made by organizing rather than being a part of labor unions themselves. Dill's efforts also signify the African American contribution to labor. With his education, he advanced in the ranks of the NAACP as editor of The Crisis. He helped gain recognition for the racial inequalities present in employment and labor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2234378", "title": "Nadir of American race relations", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 645, "text": "Black literacy levels, which rose during Reconstruction, continued to increase through this period. The NAACP was established in 1909, and by 1920 the group won a few important anti-discrimination lawsuits. African Americans, such as Du Bois and Wells-Barnett, continued the tradition of advocacy, organizing, and journalism which helped spur abolitionism, and also developed new tactics that helped to spur the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Harlem Renaissance and the popularity of jazz music during the early part of the 20th century made many Americans more aware of black culture and more accepting of black celebrities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "123427", "title": "Education in the United States", "section": "Section::::Issues.:Affirmative action.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 195, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 195, "end_character": 581, "text": "African American academics Henry Louis Gates and Lani Guinier, while favoring affirmative action, have argued that in practice, it has led to recent black immigrants and their children being greatly overrepresented at elite institutions, at the expense of the historic African American community made up of descendants of slaves. In 2006, Jian Li, a Chinese undergraduate at Yale University, filed a civil rights complaint with the Office for Civil Rights against Princeton University, stating that his race played a role in their decision to reject his application for admission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31812177", "title": "African Americans in Atlanta", "section": "Section::::History.:Post-Reconstruction and Jim Crow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 491, "text": "Booker T. Washington, principal of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, delivered a speech to the 1895 Cotton States and International Exposition which urged African Americans to focus more upon economic empowerment instead of immediate socio-political empowerment and rights, much to the anger of other civil rights leaders, including W. E. B. Du Bois, a graduate of Fisk University and Harvard, who would become one of the major civil rights activists of the first half of the 20th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "345779", "title": "Mary Ann Shadd", "section": "Section::::Social activism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 430, "text": "These newspapers worked to uplift the race and to change the perception that white Americans held about former slaves. \"Black community leaders stressed that education, strong moral values, honest labor, thrift, and so forth would change the myths that whites had about black's inferiority. Essentially, this meant the ascent from ignorance to literacy.\" Cary and Douglass both used their papers to promote this line of thinking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1688046", "title": "Civil rights movement (1896–1954)", "section": "Section::::The Niagara Movement and the founding of the NAACP.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 560, "text": "At the turn of the 20th century, Booker T. Washington was regarded, particularly by the white community, as the foremost spokesman for African Americans in the US. Washington, who led the Tuskegee Institute, preached a message of self-reliance. He urged blacks to concentrate on improving their economic position rather than demanding social equality until they had proved that they \"deserved\" it. Publicly, he accepted the continuation of Jim Crow and segregation in the short term, but privately helped to fund national court cases that challenged the laws.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20836549", "title": "New York City teachers' strike of 1968", "section": "Section::::Community control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 509, "text": "Bolstered by the civil rights movement, but frustrated by resistance to desegregation, African Americans began to demand authority over the schools in which their children were educated. The ATA called for community-controlled schools, educating with a \"Black value system\" that emphasized \"unity\" and \"collective work and responsibility\" (as opposed to the \"middle class\" value of \"individualism\"). Leftist white allies, including teachers from the recently eclipsed Teachers Union, supported these demands.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Based on values obtained from the Wikipedia for Moonlight and Sunlight, the light of the sun can vary between 120,000 lux and 400-200 lux depending on atmospheric conditions. The average lux value of moonlight is around 0.1. With that in mind while it may be theoretically possible to utilise moonlight to produce vitamin D it's unlikely to reach anywhere the 'therapeutic' dose that the body requires. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No. Vitamin D production requires UVB radiation, not simply \"light\". In addition to moonlight being much less intense than sunlight, the moon doesn't reflect UV radiation as well as it does visible light. [Source](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32587", "title": "Veganism", "section": "Section::::Vegan diet.:Nutrients.:Vitamin D.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 869, "text": "Vitamin D comes in two forms. Cholecalciferol (vitamin D) is synthesized in the skin after exposure to the sun or consumed from food, usually from animal sources. Ergocalciferol (vitamin D) is derived from ergosterol from UV-exposed mushrooms or yeast and is suitable for vegans. When produced industrially as supplements, vitamin D is typically derived from lanolin in sheep's wool. However, both provitamins and vitamins D and D have been discovered in spp. (especially ) and these edible lichen are harvested in the wild for producing vegan vitamin D. Conflicting studies have suggested that the two forms of vitamin D may or may not be bioequivalent. According to researchers from the Institute of Medicine, the differences between vitamins D and D do not affect metabolism, both function as prohormones, and when activated exhibit identical responses in the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24998247", "title": "Vitamin D", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 569, "text": "Vitamin D from the diet, or from skin synthesis, is biologically inactive. A protein enzyme must hydroxylate it to convert it to the active form. This is done in the liver and in the kidneys. As vitamin D can be synthesized in adequate amounts by most mammals exposed to sufficient sunlight, it is not an essential dietary factor, and so not technically a vitamin. Instead it could be considered a hormone, with activation of the vitamin D pro-hormone resulting in the active form, calcitriol, which then produces effects via a nuclear receptor in multiple locations. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37130699", "title": "Vitamin D and neurology", "section": "Section::::Physiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 872, "text": "Vitamin D (the inactive version) is mainly from two forms: vitamin D3 and vitamin D2. Vitamin D3, or cholecalciferol, is formed in the skin after exposure to sunlight or ultra violet radiation or from D3 supplements or fortified food sources. Vitamin D2, or ergocalciferol, is obtained from D2 supplements or fortified food sources. These two forms of vitamin D are metabolized in the liver and stored as 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Before biological use, the storage form must be converted into an active form. One common active form is 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D. The term \"vitamin D\" in this article, refers to group of molecules including cholecalciferol, ergocalciferol, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and the active forms. The role of vitamin D is best characterized as enabling calcium absorption and regulating calcium homeostasis. Vitamin D also play a role in phosphate absorption.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24998247", "title": "Vitamin D", "section": "Section::::Dietary intake.:Sources.:Natural sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 381, "text": "In general, vitamin D is found in fungi and vitamin D is found in animals. Vitamin D is produced by ultraviolet irradiation of ergosterol found in many fungi. The vitamin D content in mushrooms and \"Cladina arbuscula\", a lichen, increase with exposure to ultraviolet light. This process is emulated by industrial ultraviolet lamps, concentrating vitamin D levels to higher levels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25987", "title": "Rickets", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Supplementation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 494, "text": "Sufficient vitamin D levels can also be achieved through dietary supplementation and/or exposure to sunlight. Vitamin D (cholecalciferol) is the preferred form since it is more readily absorbed than vitamin D. Most dermatologists recommend vitamin D supplementation as an alternative to unprotected ultraviolet exposure due to the increased risk of skin cancer associated with sun exposure. Endogenous production with full body exposure to sunlight is approximately 250 µg (10,000 IU) per day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24998247", "title": "Vitamin D", "section": "Section::::Biosynthesis.:Synthesis in the skin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 620, "text": "Vitamin D is produced photochemically from 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin of most vertebrate animals, including humans. The precursor of vitamin D, 7-dehydrocholesterol is produced in relatively large quantities. 7-Dehydrocholesterol reacts with UVB light at wavelengths of 290–315 nm. These wavelengths are present in sunlight, as well as in the light emitted by the UV lamps in tanning beds (which produce ultraviolet primarily in the UVA spectrum, but typically produce 4% to 10% of the total UV emissions as UVB). Exposure to light through windows is insufficient because glass almost completely blocks UVB light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25669714", "title": "Health effects of sunlight exposure", "section": "Section::::Synthesis of vitamin D.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 404, "text": "UVB induces production of vitamin D in the skin at rates of up to 1,000 IUs per minute. This vitamin helps to regulate calcium metabolism (vital for the nervous system and bone health), immunity, cell proliferation, insulin secretion, and blood pressure. In third-world countries, foods fortified with vitamin D are \"practically nonexistent.\" Most people in the world depend on the sun to get vitamin D.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "An acidic environment will denature proteins - like heat does. That's the reason you begin to see white in chicken like if it's cooked. It's the principle behind [ceviche](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36655054", "title": "Hamonado", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 375, "text": "Typically meat (usually fatty cuts of pork, but can also be chicken or beef) is marinated overnight in a sweet sauce made with pineapple juice, brown sugar, soy sauce, and various spices. It is then pan-fried until the meat is browned. The meat is then simmered in stock and the marinade with added pineapple chunks until the meat is very tender. It is served on white rice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1120500", "title": "Sauerbraten", "section": "Section::::Preparation.:Marinating the roast.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 224, "text": "It is frequently advised to marinate the meat in an earthenware, glass, plastic, or enamel container rather than one made of bare metal, as the acidic marinade would react with a metal vessel during the extended marinating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21299730", "title": "Lemon", "section": "Section::::Culinary uses.:Juice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 452, "text": "Lemon juice is used to make lemonade, soft drinks, and cocktails. It is used in marinades for fish, where its acid neutralizes amines in fish by converting them into nonvolatile ammonium salts. In meat, the acid partially hydrolyzes tough collagen fibers, tenderizing the meat, but the low pH denatures the proteins, causing them to dry out when cooked. In the United Kingdom, lemon juice is frequently added to pancakes, especially on Shrove Tuesday.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1608912", "title": "Carne asada", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 450, "text": "Carne asada can be purchased from meat markets either prepared (\"preparada\", i.e., already marinated) or not (\"no preparada\"), for marinating at home. The meat can be marinated in many different ways, from simply rubbing with salt to using spice rubs such as lemon and pepper or garlic salt and lime, before being cooked on a grill. Some recipes incorporate beer into the marinade. It can be chopped so it is more easily put into tacos and burritos.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8218336", "title": "Kabab barg", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 254, "text": "The meat is cut in strips and given a marinade in olive oil, onions, garlic, saffron, salt and black pepper. It is then skewered and grilled. Tomatoes are grilled separately and often served on the side with rice or bread, sometimes seasoned with sumac.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21299730", "title": "Lemon", "section": "Section::::Culinary uses.:Juice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 225, "text": "Lemon juice is also used as a short-term preservative on certain foods that tend to oxidize and turn brown after being sliced (enzymatic browning), such as apples, bananas, and avocados, where its acid denatures the enzymes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52864", "title": "Marination", "section": "Section::::Tissue breakdown.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 354, "text": "In meats, the acid causes the tissue to break down, which allows more moisture to be absorbed and results in a juicier end product; however, too much acid can be detrimental to the end product. A good marinade has a balance of acid, oil, and spice. If raw marinated meat is frozen, the marinade can break down the surface and turn the outer layer mushy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > Aid workers that have been killed. \n\nProbably because they're dead, I suppose. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "per the former gitmo commander, those 5 were scheduled to be released at the end of 2014 anyway due to no prosecutable evidence.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The government has a responsibility to recover American soldiers. The government does not have an equivalent responsibility to secure the release of people who voluntarily entered a combat zone.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The American government needs soldiers to fight. Having policies to ensure that the we will recover those soldiers if they are captured encourages others to sign up. In this case they had a particular desire to have him back because he was a desertion case and prosecuting him sets an example for other soldiers who might desert. But even without his circumstances the government goes to great lengths to recover captured American soldiers because its the best policy to ensure we get future soldiers.\n\nThe American government doesn't employ aid workers, or at least the ones you are discussing. They have no obligation to them beyond that of a normal citizen. The government has no incentive to recruit more. In fact in almost all cases the government dissuades American citizens from going into the areas where they could be captured exactly so they don't have to deal with problems like this. Putting American citizens in a situation where they could be captured is bad policy. It encourages that capture and can be used as a weapon against America. The government doesn't want to encourage that and one of the ways to do so is to say it will not make attempts to recover them. Its the same with paying ransoms, paying ransoms just encourages the kidnappers to kidnap more. \n\nIn the case of the soldiers (or other government employees) they don't have a choice about being there and since the government sent them into harms way it has an obligation to recover them. In the case of private citizens who chose to go into harms way despite being told not to go it has a much lesser obligation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7697064", "title": "Foreign policy of the Stephen Harper government", "section": "Section::::Relations with the United States.:Maher Arar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 779, "text": "On January 26, 2007, the government announced a compensation worth $11.5 million to Syrian-Canadian Maher Arar due to an error from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The RCMP was blamed for giving misleading information to U.S. officials and suspected him as a possible terrorist threat and a member of the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda. He was arrested in New York in 2002 and later deported to Syria where he was tortured in a Syrian jail. The government also gave official apologies. Public Safety Minister Stockwell Day criticized the U.S. authorities for not removing Arar on a terrorist watch list based on information from the CIA. U.S. Ambassador to Canada David Wilkins replied that Canada must not dictate to the United States on who is not allowed in the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57648175", "title": "Ali Bin Fetais Al-Marri", "section": "Section::::Controversies.:Links with Al-Qaeda members.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 400, "text": "According to US media, the General Prosecutor of Qatar intervened via an intermediary (i.e. a \"government contractor\" and \"close friend\") to free his relative in exchange of a couple of US citizens arbitrarily detained in Qatar. At his arrival in Doha, the Al-Qaeda member was welcomed by Qatari officials as \"a hero\". A board member of Al-Jazeera wrote a celebratory message on his Twitter account.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11587452", "title": "2007 John F. Kennedy International Airport attack plot", "section": "Section::::Arrests and trial.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 800, "text": "On June 25, 2008 Kareem Ibrahim, Abdel Nur and Abdul Kadir were extradited to the United States. They pleaded not guilty to charges of trying to \"cause greater destruction than in the Sept. 11 attacks\". The men were ordered held without bail pending a hearing scheduled for August 7. Russell Defreitas is being held after an earlier not guilty plea. On June 29 the four men were indicted on charges with conspiring to \"cause death, serious bodily injury and extensive destruction\" at the airport. On August 6, a judge ordered three of the alleged plotters extradited to the United States. On August 2, 2010, Kadir and Defreitas were convicted in the JFK airport bomb plot. In 2011, Ibrahim was found guilty of the JFK Airport bomb plot, and in February 2012, Ibrahim was sentenced to life to prison.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "297314", "title": "Hemant Lakhani", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 371, "text": "Hemant Lakhani (1935 – June 19, 2013) was an Indian-born British rice trader and sari salesman. He was convicted in 2005 of illegal arms dealing after purchasing a fake surface-to-air missile from a Russian intelligence agent posing as a disgruntled military officer, then attempting to sell that missile to an informant working for FBI and posing as a Somali terrorist.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9598988", "title": "Abdul Tawala Ibn Ali Alishtari", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 609, "text": "He has pleaded guilty in U.S. District Court to terrorism financing and conspiracy to commit wire fraud. Specifically, the indictment accuses Alishtari of accepting an unspecified amount of money (later specified as $15,000) to transfer $152,000 to Pakistan and Afghanistan to provide night vision goggles, medical supplies, and other equipment to terrorist training camps. The international money laundering charge arises from the prosecution's allegation that Alishtari transferred $25,000 from a bank in New York to a bank in Montreal, with the intent that the funds be used to train and equip terrorists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23543326", "title": "John G. Koeltl", "section": "Section::::Notable decisions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 751, "text": "Koeltl is known for his October 2006 decision to sentence civil rights lawyer Lynne Stewart to 28 months in prison for providing material assistance to a terrorist, her client, 1993 World Trade Center bombing mastermind Omar Abdel-Rahman, by secretly passing messages to his radical followers in Egypt. Koeltl rejected the prosecutors' recommendation of 30 years. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals ordered Koeltl to reconsider whether that sentence was too light and to take into account the government's arguments that she had committed perjury at her trial and abused her position as a lawyer. On remand, Koeltl cited remarks Stewart had made after being sentenced that indicated a lack of remorse. He changed the sentence to 10 years in prison. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44206204", "title": "Irek Hamidullin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 755, "text": "\"The Washington Post\" reported the Hamidullah was considered one of the foreigners with the strongest evidence against him, and that the Department of Defense wanted to bring him to the United States, to face charges before a military commission like the controversial Guantanamo military commissions. They reported the DoD was planning to try to bring less than ten foreign captives from Afghanistan to the United States to face charges before a military commission. Quoting officials who would not put their name on record the \"Washington Post\" reported \"“He’s pretty well-connected in the terrorist world,”\" and that he had ties to Chechen rebels, and two Afghan opposition militias, and that he had declared he would \"“return to jihad,”\" if released.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The asteroid loses kinetic energy and gains potential energy. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "125769", "title": "Binding energy", "section": "Section::::Mass-energy relation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1648, "text": "For example, if two objects are attracting each other in space through their gravitational field, the attraction force accelerates the objects, increasing their velocity, which converts their potential energy (gravity) into kinetic energy. When the particles either pass through each other without interaction or elastically repel during the collision, the gained kinetic energy (related to speed) begins to revert into potential energy, driving the collided particles apart. The decelerating particles will return to the initial distance and beyond into infinity, or stop and repeat the collision (oscillation takes place). This shows that the system, which loses no energy, does not combine (bind) into a solid object, parts of which oscillate at short distances. Therefore, to bind the particles, the kinetic energy gained due to the attraction must be dissipated by resistive force. Complex objects in collision ordinarily undergo inelastic collision, transforming some kinetic energy into internal energy (heat content, which is atomic movement), which is further radiated in the form of photons - the light and heat. Once the energy to escape the gravity is dissipated in the collision, the parts will oscillate at a closer, possibly atomic, distance, thus looking like one solid object. This lost energy, necessary to overcome the potential barrier to separate the objects, is the binding energy. If this binding energy were retained in the system as heat, its mass would not decrease, whereas binding energy lost from the system as heat radiation would itself have mass. It directly represents the \"mass deficit\" of the cold, bound system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5487863", "title": "Retarded position", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 742, "text": "Note that for gravitational masses moving past each other in straight lines (or for that matter for electromagnetically charged objects), there is little or no retardation effect on the effect from them, which is mediated by \"static\" components of the fields. So long as no radiation is emitted, conservation of momentum requires that forces between objects (either electromagnetic or gravitational forces) point at objects' instantaneous and up-to-date positions, and not in the direction of their speed-of-light-delayed (retarded) positions. However, since no information can be transmitted from such an interaction, such influences (which seem to exceed that of the influence of light), cannot be used to violate principles of relativity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44017873", "title": "Negative energy", "section": "Section::::Gravitational energy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 846, "text": "The strength of the gravitational attraction between two objects represents the amount of gravitational energy in the field which attracts them towards each other. When they are infinitely far apart, the gravitational attraction and hence energy approach zero. As two such massive objects move towards each other, the motion accelerates under gravity causing an increase in the positive kinetic energy of the system. At the same time, the gravitational attraction - and hence energy - also increase in magnitude, but the law of energy conservation requires that the net energy of the system not change. This issue can only be resolved if the change in gravitational energy is negative, thus cancelling out the positive change in kinetic energy. Since the gravitational energy is getting stronger, this decrease can only mean that it is negative.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2292225", "title": "Light-dragging effects", "section": "Section::::Velocity-dependent effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 502, "text": "BULLET::::- For a moving gravity-source the gravitational field can be considered as an extension of the object, and carries inertia and momentum - since a direct collision with the moving object can impart momentum to an external particle, interaction with the object's gravitational field should allow \"momentum exchange\" too. Consequently, a moving gravitational field drags light and matter. This general effect is used by NASA to accelerate space probes, using the gravitational slingshot effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "422481", "title": "Mass–energy equivalence", "section": "Section::::Conservation of mass and energy.:Fast-moving objects and systems of objects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 536, "text": "When an object is pushed in the direction of motion, it gains momentum and energy, but when the object is already traveling near the speed of light, it cannot move much faster, no matter how much energy it absorbs. Its momentum and energy continue to increase without bounds, whereas its speed approaches (but never reaches) a constant value—the speed of light. This implies that in relativity the momentum of an object cannot be a constant times the velocity, nor can the kinetic energy be a constant times the square of the velocity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5487863", "title": "Retarded position", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1148, "text": "As in the case of the Liénard–Wiechert potentials for electromagnetic effects and waves, the static potentials from a moving gravitational mass (i.e., its simple gravitational field, also known as gravitostatic field) are \"updated,\" so that they point to the mass's actual position at constant velocity, with no retardation effects. This happens also for static electric and magnetic effects and is required by Lorentz symmetry, since any mass or charge moving with constant velocity at a great distance, could be replaced by a moving observer at the same distance, with the object now at \"rest.\" In this latter case, the static gravitational field seen by the observer would be required to point to the same position, which is the non-retarded position of the object (mass). Only gravitational waves, caused by acceleration of a mass, and which cannot be removed by a change in a distant observer's inertial frame, must be subject to aberration, and thus originate from a retarded position and direction, due to their finite velocity of travel from their source. Such waves correspond to electromagnetic waves radiated from an accelerated charge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "579026", "title": "Gravitational potential", "section": "Section::::Mathematical form.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 324, "text": "The gravitational field, and thus the acceleration of a small body in the space around the massive object, is the negative gradient of the gravitational potential. Thus the negative of a negative gradient yields positive acceleration toward a massive object. Because the potential has no angular components, its gradient is\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's an open and shut case, really. The only angles of interest were (a) the rapists were high profile sports players, indicating they had some community support behind them, and (b) the large degree of social networking used by the rapists and the other students. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This ~~[Blog](_URL_1_)~~ gives a pretty good run down of all the controversy. \n\n*Edit for summary:\nAlthough two students were convicted, evidence was uncovered that there were many more people involved in the rape and subsequent cover up. From other students who tweeted jokes about the girl while she was being dragged from party to party; to coaches, teachers, and law enforcement turning a blind eye or even encouraging the victim to keep quiet. Apparently this isn't an isolated incident for Stubenville, in light of all the news coverage other victims have come forward.\nThere's also coaches giving drugs to students, student party apartments, and underground gambling on high school sports. \n\nAlso, here is the link to the original [Local Leaks](_URL_0_) site, it has a bit more videos, info, and references.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What nobody else touched on yet was the controversy with CNN\n\nWhen CNN ran the story, they focused entirely on how the future of these \"young, promising football players was tragically ruined by this event\". Many people were angry at CNN because they reported it as more of a tragedy for the rapists and barely mentioned the girl who got raped.\n\n \"It was incredibly emotional—incredibly difficult even for an outsider like me to watch what happened as these two young men that had such promising futures, star football players, very good students, literally watched as they believe their life fell apart.\" - Poppy Harlow, CNN reporter. Many felt she was sympathizing with them, rather than, you know, berating them for raping and filming a sixteen year old girl.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10166968", "title": "Kevin Coe", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 650, "text": "Kevin Coe (born Frederick Harlan Coe on February 2, 1947) is an American convicted rapist from Spokane, Washington, often referred to in the news media as the South Hill Rapist. As of May 2008, Coe is still a suspect in dozens of rapes, the number of which is unusually large; his convictions received an unusual amount of attention from appeals courts. Coe's mother Ruth was convicted for hiring a hitman against the judge and the prosecutor at her son's trial following his conviction. The bizarre relationship between Coe and his mother became the subject of a nonfiction book, \"Son: A Psychopath and his Victims\", by the crime author Jack Olsen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58619973", "title": "Ronnie Shelton", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 325, "text": "Ronald 'Ronnie' Shelton (1 October 1961 – 25 September 2018), better known as West Side rapist, was an American convicted serial rapist. He was convicted of raping over 30 women in Cleveland, Ohio, over a 6 year period. He may have raped up to 50 women. Shelton was caught on video using an ATM with his victims' bank cards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59913257", "title": "Niklas Eliasson", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 364, "text": "Niklas Erik Axel Eliasson (born 13 November 1986), also known as the Örebro rapist, is a serial rapist who was convicted of 14 assaults on women and sentenced to 12 years in prison. He was considered one of Sweden's worst serial rapists of all time. According to his lawyer, \"[t]here was a feeling and an inner voice that urged and triggered him to attack women.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21970368", "title": "John Worboys", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 232, "text": "John Derek Radford (formerly John Worboys; born June 1957) is a British convicted sex offender, known as the Black Cab Rapist. Worboys was convicted in 2009 for attacks on 12 women. Police say he may have had more than 100 victims.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2828730", "title": "Lawrence Singleton", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 772, "text": "Lawrence Bernard \"Larry\" Singleton (July 28, 1927 – December 28, 2001) was an American criminal known for perpetrating an infamous rape and mutilation of an adolescent hitch-hiker, Mary Vincent, in California in 1978. He brutally raped Vincent and cut off her arms and left her to die in a ditch off the Interstate 5 in Del Puerto Canyon, California. Vincent managed to crawl up to safety and later acted as a key witness against the rapist. Released from prison on good behavior from his 14-year, 8 month sentence, he went on to murder Roxanne Hayes. On February 19, 1997, Singleton stabbed Hayes in his new home. The police found the nude rapist covered in blood as he stood over the mutilated body of Roxanne Hays. The victim was a mother of three from Tampa, Florida.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8513572", "title": "Antoni Imiela", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 545, "text": "Antoni Imiela (1954 – 8 March 2018) was a German-born convicted rapist who grew up in County Durham, England. He was found guilty of the rape of nine women and girls, and the indecent assault, and attempted rape, of a 10-year-old girl whom he repeatedly punched and throttled. The crimes took place in Surrey, Kent, Berkshire, London, Hertfordshire and Birmingham, and the press dubbed the offender the M25 Rapist after the M25 motorway that passes in the vicinity of all but one of these areas. He died in HMP Wakefield prison on 8 March 2018.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5642197", "title": "Troy Graves", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 394, "text": "Troy Graves (born May 4, 1972) is an American serial rapist and murderer of Shannon Schieber. He committed a series of rapes in Philadelphia between 1997 and 1999, where he was known as the \"Center City rapist\". He also committed rapes in Fort Collins, Colorado, in 2001, where he was arrested in 2002. He is serving a life sentence in the Sterling Correctional Facility in Sterling, Colorado.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are going to be three main reasons for this. First, the half-life of the drug is the time for half the material to break down, meaning there is rare chances for some of the material to last longer than usual. It's an estimate, not a guarantee.\n\nSecond, and more important, is the fact that drugs like Alprazolam break down into secondary products, 4-hydroxyalprazolam and α-hydroxyalprazolam, which themselves can be broken down into other metabolites, before being excreted in the urine.\n\nLike most drugs, the compounds can be deposited into fats or other tissue, leading to a lingering timeline of release, especially when taken over a long period of time.\n\nFor example, if you take 1 dose a day, and 1/4 remains in your body after 1 day, then on Day 2 you would have 1.25 dose-equivalents in your body. On Day 3, it would be 1.31, to a limit of 1.333 dose-equivalents in the blood, plus whatever is stored in your tissues.\n\nThe third main reason is going to be drug-interaction. Using a CYP3A4 inhibitor, like Tagamet (cimetidine) can delay the intake of Alprazolam into the liver, which would delay the breakdown of the drug, which would allow it to stay in the body longer.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4781", "title": "Benzodiazepine", "section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 423, "text": "BULLET::::- Intermediate-acting compounds have a median half-life of 12–40 hours. They may have some residual effects in the first half of the day if used as a hypnotic. Rebound insomnia, however, is more common upon discontinuation of intermediate-acting benzodiazepines than longer-acting benzodiazepines. Examples are alprazolam, estazolam, flunitrazepam, clonazepam, lormetazepam, lorazepam, nitrazepam, and temazepam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "359650", "title": "Diclofenac", "section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 203, "text": "The action of one single dose is much longer (6 to 8 hr) than the very short 1.2–2 hr half-life of the drug would indicate. This could be partly because it persists for over 11 hours in synovial fluids.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4009961", "title": "Loprazolam", "section": "Section::::Side effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 371, "text": "Side effects of loprazolam are generally the same as for other benzodiazepines such as diazepam. The most significant difference in side effects of loprazolam and diazepam is it is less prone to day time sedation as the half-life of loprazolam is considered to be intermediate whereas diazepam has a very long half-life. The side effects of loprazolam are the following:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1345085", "title": "Acetaminophen/butalbital", "section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 214, "text": "Butalbital has a half-life of about 35 hours. Acetaminophen has a half-life of about 1.25 to 3 hours, but may be increased by liver damage and after an overdose. Caffeine has a half-life of about 2.5 to 4.5 hours.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2938548", "title": "Nordazepam", "section": "Section::::Pharmacology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 801, "text": "Nordazepam is a partial agonist at the GABA receptor, which makes it less potent than other benzodiazepines, particularly in its amnesic and muscle-relaxing effects. Its elimination half life is between 36 and 200 hours, with wide variation among individuals; factors such as age and gender are known to impact it. The variation of reported half-lifes are attributed to differences in nordazepam metabolism and that of its metabolites as nordazepam is hydroxylated to active metabolites such as oxazepam, before finally being glucuronidated and excreted in the urine. This can be attributed to extremely variable hepatic and renal metabolic functions among individuals depending upon a number of factors (including age, ethnicity, disease, and current or previous use/abuse of other drugs/medicines).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22951352", "title": "Benzodiazepine use disorder", "section": "Section::::Risk factors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 396, "text": "**The duration of apparent action is usually considerably less than the half-life. With most benzodiazepines, noticeable effects usually wear off within a few hours. Nevertheless, as long as the drug is present it will exert subtle effects within the body. These effects may become apparent during continued use or may appear as withdrawal symptoms when dosage is reduced or the drug is stopped.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9157858", "title": "Nicomorphine", "section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 319, "text": "Via the epidural route, a much slower release from epidural space occurs and nicomorphine remains detectable for 1.5 hours or so, and has a longer effect of 18.2 +/- 10.1 hours due to slower release of the active metabolites, morphine and 6-nicotinoylmorphine. Half lives for those compounds is listed in the IV route.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If car A's turn signal is blinking every 1.3 seconds, and car B's signal is going every 1.4, they won't match up. However, since one car's signal is faster than the other's, it will eventually 'catch up'. While they won't be perfectly in sync, they'll appear to blink together for a second or two before the gap between increases a sufficient amount.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Imagine I'm walking around a track, and it takes me 5 min to make one loop around. You're also walking the track, and you do a loop in 5:30. We are walking at different speeds, and will complete the loops in time periods that are obviously different. But when I pass you, there will be a brief period of time when it looks like we're walking together. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Let's say that blinker 1 blinks every three seconds, and blinker 2 blinks every five seconds. \n\nBlinker 1: 3, 6, 9, 12, *15*, 18, 21, 24, 27, *30*\n\nBlinker 2: 5, 10, *15*, 20, 25, *30*, 35, 40, 45\n\nAt 15 and 30 seconds, they will coincide. In a real life scenario, the blink intervals are much shorter, but the idea is the same.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm going to represent three people's lights. O means on, X means off, the number is the time:\n\n 00 OOO -----\n 01 XXX\n 02 OXX\n 03 XOX\n 04 OXX\n 05 XXO\n 06 OOX\n 07 XXX\n 08 OXX\n 09 XOX\n 10 OXO\n 11 XXX\n 12 OOX\n 13 XXX\n 14 OXX\n 15 XOO\n 16 OXX\n 17 XXX\n 18 OOX\n 19 XXX\n 20 OXO\n 21 XOX\n 23 OXX\n 23 XXX\n 24 OOX\n 25 XXO\n 26 OXX\n 27 XOX\n 28 OXX\n 29 XXX\n 30 OOO ---\n\nSo what the hell does this all mean?\n\nSo the first light goes off every other second. The second light goes off every third second, and the third one goes off every fifth second.\n\nSo that means they'll all have to light up.... every 30 seconds - Because 30 is the **lowest common denominator** of 2, 3, and 5.\n\nWhile this is a good math way of looking at it. The simpler way is that they don't really go off at the same time, just close enough that it looks that way to you, and that's weird, so you remember it, or you take notice of it. Most of the time it's not close so that's not interesting, so you forget it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4945436", "title": "Peugeot 308", "section": "Section::::Second generation (T9, 2013–present).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 203, "text": "The changes included daytime running lights/DRL at the bottom and the blinker (turn signal indicator) is on the daytime light, advising the pedestrian or other road user to which direction it is moving.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5508817", "title": "Traffic-light signalling and operation", "section": "Section::::Warnings of traffic light ahead.:Flashing yellow lights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 90, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 90, "end_character": 1063, "text": "In some areas, a \"prepare to stop\" sign with two alternately flashing yellow lights is installed in locations where a high-speed road (design speed usually at least 55 mph / 90 km/h) leads up to a traffic light, where the traffic light is obscured from a distance (or both conditions), or before the first traffic signal after a long stretch of road with no signals. This is installed so that drivers can view it from a distance. This light begins blinking with enough time for the driver to see it and slow down before the intersection light turns yellow, then red. The flashing yellow light can go out immediately when the light turns green, or it may continue for several seconds after the intersection light has turned green, as it usually takes a line of cars some time to accelerate to cruising speed from a red light. These are relatively common in areas such as the United States, Canada, Western Australia, New South Wales, New Zealand and Liberia. Japan uses a variant signal with two lamps, a green one and a flashing yellow one, for the same purpose.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3230649", "title": "Emergency vehicle equipment", "section": "Section::::Visual warning devices.:Active visual warnings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 345, "text": "BULLET::::- Alternating Vehicle Lights or Wig-wags - This causes the Full beam headlights, or Fog lights to flash in a pattern (usually alternating left-right-left, although it can be together, or in a random pattern), and can also be used at the rear of the vehicle on Brake, Fog or reversing lights to warn vehicles approaching from the rear.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20854014", "title": "Turn indicator stalk", "section": "Section::::Innovations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 203, "text": "Many modern cars have a \"one-touch\" feature on their stalks. This is primarily based on (motorway) lane-switching, where a single flick of the indicator will cause it to flash between two and six times.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25119429", "title": "Head start (positioning)", "section": "Section::::In traffic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 227, "text": "In traffic, at a red light, many motorists will start to inch up in anticipation of the light turning green (watching the signal of the perpendicular traffic). This will give them a \"head start\" on other motorists on the road.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15036401", "title": "Xiaolüren", "section": "Section::::Prevalence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 540, "text": "Aside from pedestrian signals, traffic lights are now equipped with countdown timers, too. There were red-light and green-light timers, but the latter were mostly taken down due to the accidents they induced by encouraging drivers to speed up as the green-light timers ended. As for red-light timers, they cannot only inform the time remains for waiting but also make the drivers focus on their own signal instead of green light of the other direction. This reduces clashes between cars that start too early and cars that run yellow light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2352077", "title": "Daytime running lamp", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 355, "text": "A daytime running lamp (DRL, also daytime running light) is an automotive lighting and bicycle lighting device on the front of a roadgoing motor vehicle or bicycle, automatically switched on when the vehicle is in drive, emitting white, yellow, or amber light. Their job isn't to help the driver see the road but to help other road users see the vehicle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A lot of music, especially, is licensed from someone else for the game. So if they're showing Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, they have permission to show the video game. If they want to play the music (\"When Worlds Collide\" - Powerman 5000), then they have to get permission from Powerman 5000 or their agent/record label to play that music.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53918131", "title": "Ludomusicology", "section": "Section::::Areas of enquiry.:Relationship to music in other screen media.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 946, "text": "Because video games are (usually) screen-based media, there are strong links between the study of game music and the study of music in other screen-based media (like film and television). Concepts such as diegesis and acousmatics, which originate in film and film audio studies, are broadly applicable to video game music analyses, often with minimal adjustment. Furthermore, there are similarities between video game and film music techniques as varying stages throughout video game music history. For example, Neil Lerner notes a relationship between music in early/silent cinema and game music aesthetics from the 1970s onwards, on the basis of \"largely nonverbal communication system[s]\" and \"continuous musical accompaniment\". Similarly, Gregor Herzfeld compares the use of high energy music in \"Gran Turismo\" to the use of rock music in action films like \"The Fast and the Furious\", due to associations with risky and/or exciting behavior.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "350752", "title": "Video game music", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 566, "text": "With advances in technology, video game music has grown to include the same breadth and complexity associated with television and film scores, allowing for much more creative freedom. While simple synthesizer pieces are still common, game music now includes full orchestral pieces and popular music. Music in video games can be heard over a game's title screen, options menu, and bonus content, as well as during the entire gameplay. Modern soundtracks can also change depending on a player's actions or situation, such as indicating missed actions in rhythm games.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "350752", "title": "Video game music", "section": "Section::::History.:Pre-recorded and streaming music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 518, "text": "Both using new music streams made specifically for the game, and using previously released/recorded music streams are common approaches for developing sound tracks to this day. It is common for X-games sports-based video games to come with some popular artists recent releases (\"SSX\", \"Tony Hawk\", \"Initial D\"), as well as any game with heavy cultural demographic theme that has tie-in to music (\"\", \"Gran Turismo\", and \"Grand Theft Auto\"). Sometimes a hybrid of the two are used, such as in \"Dance Dance Revolution\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46621", "title": "Soundtrack", "section": "Section::::Types of recordings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 353, "text": "BULLET::::5. Video game soundtracks are often released after a game's release, usually consisting of the theme and background music from the game's levels, menus, title screens, promo material (such as entire songs of which only segments were used in the game), cut-screens and occasionally sound-effects used in the game (Examples: \"Sonic Heroes\", \"\")\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2822936", "title": "Soundtrack album", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 584, "text": "Contemporaneously, a soundtrack can go against normality, (most typically used in popular culture franchises) and contains recently released or exclusive never before released original pop music selections, (some of which become high charting records on their own, which due to being released on another franchises title, peaked because of that) and is simply used for promotional purposes for well known artists, or new or unknown artists. These soundtracks contain music not at all heard in the film/television series, and any artistic or lyrical connection is purely coincidental.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32010904", "title": "Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U", "section": "Section::::Development.:Music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 661, "text": "Like previous games in the series, \"Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U\" features many original and re-arranged musical pieces from various different gaming franchises. Both versions have multiple musical tracks that can be selected and listened to using the \"My Music\" feature, including pieces taken directly from earlier \"Super Smash Bros.\" titles. The 3DS version features less music altogether than the Wii U version however, and only has two songs per stage because of size limitations. The 3DS version also has a \"Play in Sleep Mode\" option, allowing players to listen to the game's music from the sound menu whilst the system is in sleep mode.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46621", "title": "Soundtrack", "section": "Section::::Movie and television soundtracks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 588, "text": "Contemporaneously, a soundtrack can go against normality, (most typically used in popular culture franchises) and contains recently released and/or exclusive never before released original pop music selections, (some of which become high charting records on their own, which due to being released on another franchises title, peaked because of that) and is simply used for promotional purposes for well known artists, or new or unknown artists. These soundtracks contain music not at all heard in the film/television series, and any artistic or lyrical connection is purely coincidental.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sort of a tongue-in-cheek follow-up question. Could you be fit early 20s Jewish man and serve in the military and is there any difference in the service required? I'm thinking analogous to African Americans serving in WWII. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Related question: How was Wehrkraftzersetzung implemented? Was it applied very strictly? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It was possible and there were several reasons why someone in the demographic you described would still be in Germany.\n\nThe first and most obvious was – like in so many draft systems – the question of the job one held, had been trained for or were in training for. Nazi Germany had the term \"unabkömmlich\" – indispensable – for people whose jobs and positions had been deemed indispensable for the functioning of the German political, administrative and economic system and who accordingly would not be called up to military service. The \"unabkömmlich\" designation encompassed a rather large number of jobs and positions: From skilled workers in factories producing munitions and/or weapons to huge swaths of the German civilian administrative apparatus, both in Germany as well as in the occupied countries to people in the internal hierarchy in the Nazi party, such as your local Nazi Party leader – for how could Germany fight a war without the party officials there to indoctrinate the populace.\n\nHowever, who was unabkömmlich and which jobs were in principle designated as such changed over the course of the war. Germany during WWI suffered a massive man power problem. Already in the late 1930s, the German economy began experiencing a severe man power shortage. This was among the prime reasons why the Nazi regime implemented a major escalation of policies and measures of persecution that also affected German laborers during that period. The persecution of so-called asocials, the cooperation between well-fare agencies, labor agencies and Gestapo, the expansion of the Concentration Camps system with camps such as Buchenwald and Mauthausen build around that time are all best understood in the context of the Nazi state trying very hard to mobilize labor reserves through massive imprisonment. Similarly, around the same time the labor agencies were granted a massive choke hold on German workers. Form 1938 on you couldn't just change your job anymore but rather had to get permission from the labor agency, who had also the possibility of sending laborer that in the eyes of their employers didn't conform off to so-called \"labor education camps\", a Gestapo camp where people were imprisoned for 40 to 60 days.\n\nThe reason this is important is because during the course of the war, the regime's strategy was to replace more and more German workers with foreign forced laborers in order to free up the former to serve in the Wehrmacht. This invariably changed which jobs and professions were deemed unabkömmlich during the war. For example, following the German occupation of Poland several hundred thousand German soldiers from agrarian families were released from the Wehrmacht as reservists in order to help their families with the harvest. Many of them remained out of the Wehrmacht and away from active service until the invasion of the USSR in 1941. Once that occurred however, this policy of releasing hundreds of thousands of agrarian laborers from the Wehrmacht stopped because over the course of the war with the Soviets, unskilled agrarian laborers in Germany were simply replaced with Polish or Soviet forced laborers. Over the course of the war, 15 million people came to Germany as forced laborers with 1944 seeing the peak of this massive system when the German economy employed 7 million forced laborers in the month of August. That was almost a quarter of the entire labor force in Germany.\n\nSo, a person could be deemed \"unabkömmlich\" when they couldn't be replaced either by someone of similar qualification working twice as hard or by a foreign forced laborer. This included skilled factory workers like machinists and certain tool makers but also – important for the demographic you are asking about – university students. Although the number of university students had due to political and demographic developments been shrinking during the 1930s – with the lowest number being 28.696 university students in all of Germany in 1939/40 when many volunteered for the Wehrmacht – it still was a significant population that for the most part could earn a significant deferment. While some students such as medical students or those working on research significant for the war effort by way of armament projects were for the most part excused from serving until very late in the war, for many other students their status meant that they were called up to serve only for a short time. Take f. ex. Hans Scholl of White Rose fame: He served on the Ostfront for 15 weeks in 1942 after already having received his military training in the 1930s and having enrolled as a student during the war. Entire student units existed wherein university students were commanded to serve at the front during the semester breaks.\n\nAnd while these were all \"run of the mill\" reasons for why someone from the demographic you described might not serve in Nazi Germany, there was another significant population that wasn't called up: Jews and those imprisoned in concentration camps. For some of those imprisoned in concentration camps, service in the Wehrmacht could indeed be a way out of the camp or a way to free family from the camp. This is a phenomenon that can be observed, interestingly enough, with several members of the Romani community from Austria's Burgenland with regard to the Lackenbach concentration camp. There several men who volunteered for the Wehrmacht were able to free themselves and their families and ultimately save themselves from deportation to Auschwitz. Why this request was granted by the Nazi administrators and who made the decision about which prisoners could volunteer and which couldn't is unfortunately not documented but in a very limited number of cases it was possible.\n\nAlso, I've written about this before [here](_URL_0_) but the Nazis' policy on homosexuals was not as comprehensive as it is sometimes imagined and not all persons arrested or even sentenced for homosexual activities went to Concentration Camps. In fact, many of them also served in the Wehrmacht either in lieu of their prison sentence or after their sentence had been served.\n\nThe only victim group of German nationality consistently not called up were those the Nazi regime regarded as Jews. Although, so-called Mischlinge, meaning people the regime regarded as \"mixed race\" were also drafted. While at several points in time the regime discussed getting rid of those soldiers, in the end that didn't happen, most likely because of practical considerations.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1767172", "title": "Reich Labour Service", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 276, "text": "From June 1935 onward, men aged between 18 and 25 may have served six months before their military service. During World War II compulsory service also included young women and the RAD developed to an auxiliary formation which provided support for the Wehrmacht armed forces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33988117", "title": "70th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 586, "text": "As World War II progressed, German manpower available for military service declined and this was exacerbated by the severe losses suffered in Normandy, Tunisia and Stalingrad, for example. Groups of men, previously declared unfit for active service, were drafted or recalled into service. These included those with stomach complaints and it was decided that these men would be concentrated into one formation to facilitate the provision of special foods and to isolate infectious or unpleasant conditions (hence the unofficial description of \"White Bread\" or Magen (Stomach) Division).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13949533", "title": "Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany", "section": "Section::::Punishment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1394, "text": "Compulsory military service for all men between 18 and 45 years of age was introduced by Hitler in March 1935. No exemptions were provided for religious or conscientious reasons, and Witnesses who refused to serve or take the oath of allegiance to Hitler were sent to prison or concentration camp, generally for terms of one or two years. At the outbreak of war in August 1939, more serious punishments were applied. A decree was enacted that greatly increased penal regulations during periods of war and states of emergency and included in the decree was an offense of \"demoralization of the armed forces\"; any refusal to perform military service or public inducement to this effect would be punishable by death. Between August 1939 and September 1940, 152 Bible Students appeared before the highest military court of the Wehrmacht, charged with demoralization of the armed forces, and 112 were executed, usually by beheading. Garbe estimates about 250 German and Austrian Jehovah's Witnesses were executed during World War II as a result of military court decisions. In November 1939, another regulation was issued providing for the jailing of anyone who supported or belonged to an \"anti-military association\" or displayed an \"anti-military attitude\", which allowed authorities to impose prison sentences on the charge of IBSA membership. Death penalties were applied frequently after 1943.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47869586", "title": "February 1938", "section": "Section::::February 28, 1938 (Monday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 115, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 115, "end_character": 276, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Oberkommando der Wehrmacht\" chief Wilhelm Keitel ordered all retired military officers to be placed \"at the disposal\" of the military regardless of age. Officers discharged under dishonorable circumstances as well as Jews and those married to Jews were excluded.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60611466", "title": "Conscription in the Soviet Union", "section": "Section::::Conscription Methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 330, "text": "However in times of war, specifically WWII, conscription methods became a lot less bureaucratic, with anyone who appeared to be of age forcibly conscripted from areas that had been taken back from German control. Soldiers in these liberated areas would comb haystacks, search forests etc. for those thought to be evading service.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37009650", "title": "January 1943", "section": "Section::::January 13, 1943 (Wednesday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 326, "text": "BULLET::::- Adolf Hitler issued the \"Führer decree on the full employment of men and women in the defence of the Reich\" in order to bring another 500,000 men into the German armed forces by replacing male factory workers with women. Accordingly, all women between 17 and 45 years old were required to register for employment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "83938", "title": "French Resistance", "section": "Section::::Chronology.:1943: A mass movement emerges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 1589, "text": "As the occupation went on, service with the STO was widened, with farmers and university students losing their exempt status until 1944, when all fit men aged 18–60 and women aged 18–45 were being called up for service with the STO. Men over 45 and all women serving in the STO were guaranteed not to go to Germany and many were put to work building the Atlantic Wall for the Organisation Todt, but had no way of knowing where they would go. The so-called \"réfractaires\" attempted to avoid being called up and often went into hiding rather work in the \"Reich\". At least 40,000 Frenchmen (80% of the resistance were people under thirty) fled to the countryside, becoming the core of the \"maquis\" guerrillas. They rejected the term \"réfractaire\" with its connotations of laziness and called themselves the \"maquis\", which originated as Corsican Italian slang for bandits, whose root word was \"macchia\", the term for the scrubland and forests of Corsica. Those who lived in the \"macchia\" of Corsica were usually bandits, and those men fleeing to the countryside chose the term \"maquis\" as a more romantic and defiant term than \"réfractaire\". By June 1943, the term \"maquis,\" which had been a little-known word borrowed from the Corsican dialect of Italian at the beginning of 1943, became known all over France. It was only in 1943 that guerilla warfare emerged in France as opposed to the more sporadic attacks against the Germans that had continued since the summer of 1941, and the Resistance changed from an urban movement to a rural movement, most active in central and southern France.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Interesting crystal structure... don't think it's a meteor, they don't tend to have any sharp features. Is it magnetic?\n\nAt a guess i'd say maybe some sort of igneous rock or maybe a leaf fossil. Couldn't say for sure though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Notice the piece is flat and unrounded. I believe it is a vein, broken free from it's gangue. The mineral is probably an iron carbonate (siderite?), possibly psudomorphic after limonite - crushed powder is probably ruddy brown and it would fizz in 10% HCl. These guys often form in hydrothermal settings around intrusions or in extensional settings; given how undeformed it is (except a bit of brittle fracturing visible in cross-section), I'd suggest the latter.\n\nre, siderite pseudomorph after limonite: _URL_0_\n\nDefinitely non-meteoritic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1415820", "title": "Heat Shield Rock", "section": "Section::::Discovery.:Analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 854, "text": "The rock was initially identified as unusual in that it showed, from the analysis with the Mini-TES spectrometer, an infrared spectrum that appeared unusually similar to a reflection of the sky. In-situ measurements of its composition were then made using the APXS, showing the composition to be 93% Iron, 7% nickel, with trace amounts of germanium (~300 ppm) and gallium (<100 ppm). Mössbauer spectra show the iron to be primarily in metallic form, confirming its identity as an iron-nickel meteorite, composed of kamacite with 5–7% nickel. This is essentially identical to the composition of a typical IAB iron meteorite found on Earth. The surface of the rock shows the \"regmaglypts,\" or pits formed by the ablation of a meteorite during passage through the atmosphere, characteristic of meteorites. The largest dimension of the rock is nearing 31cm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19937", "title": "Meteorite", "section": "Section::::Meteorites in history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 469, "text": "There are reports that a sacred stone was enshrined at the temple that may have been a meteorite. The Black Stone set into the wall of the Kaaba has often been presumed to be a meteorite, but the little available evidence for this is inconclusive. Although the use of the metal found in meteorites is also recorded in myths of many countries and cultures where the celestial source was often acknowledged, scientific documentation only began in the last few centuries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57985758", "title": "Serra Pelada (meteorite)", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 403, "text": "Studies by researchers from Bahia, Pará, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo indicated that it was a rare type of meteorite, which must have come off one of the largest and brightest asteroids in the solar system, 4 Vesta. The meteorite of is essentially a basaltic rock, consisting mainly of two minerals, feldspar and silicates, known as pyroxenes, in addition to quartz and apatite, in smaller proportions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4067097", "title": "Wolfsegg Iron", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 582, "text": "Early descriptions of the object appeared in contemporary editions of the scientific journals \"Nature\" and \"L'Astronomie\", the object identified by scientists as being a fossil meteorite. It was reported that the object was discovered when a workman at the Braun iron foundry in Schöndorf, Austria, was breaking up a block of lignite that had been mined at Wolfsegg. In 1886, mining engineer Adolf Gurlt reported on the object to the Natural History Society of Bonn, noting that the object was coated with a thin layer of rust, was made of iron, and had a specific gravity of 7.75.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23700884", "title": "Aliskerovo", "section": "Section::::History.:Meteorite discovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 676, "text": "A meteorite was recovered here on July 10, 1977. The meteorite was discovered in alluvium approximately 200,000 years old. It weighed and was classified by the Natural History Museum as a medium Octahedrite, containing (mineral composition determined by X-ray spectral microanalysis): 9.25% nickel, 0.42% cobalt, and 0.30% phosphorus. Some of its structural features testify to repeated metamorphic influences (impact loads and heating), which occurred during both its extraterrestrial existence and its passage through the atmosphere and fall to Earth including: exhibiting striated kamacite, emulsion-like taenite, and the recrystallization of troilite-daubréelite nodules.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48420751", "title": "Brown and Black Asteroid", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 234, "text": "Brown and Black Asteroid is an outdoor sculpture and replica of the Willamette Meteorite by an unknown artist, installed outside the University of Oregon Museum of Natural and Cultural History in Eugene, Oregon, in the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "135659", "title": "Hart, Texas", "section": "Section::::Planetary Science.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 601, "text": "A rare type of meteorite unique to the Western Hemisphere was discovered near Hart in March 2010. A field worker found a single, large, dense brownish stone weighing 966 grams beside a road located 0.25 miles from the town of Hart. The meteor was subsequently purchased by a collector. The stone was analyzed at the University of Washington and was classified as a Carbonaceous Chondrite (CK3), the most massive example of one of 25 known specimens in the world. The finding was published in The Meteoritical Bulletin, No. 101 (2013) MB 101 with the meteorite being given the official name of \"Hart\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Gamma Ray Bursts have a usual duration of some seconds to some minutes; the avarage of \"normal\" gamma rays is a bit more than half a minute. Some of them however had a lifespan of some minutes to hours, with a record of some weeks. Those are very rare, however. \n\nAsking for a planet killer, there is no difference to other Gamma Ray Bursts in duration, but in distance. Close by GRBs can irradiate the atmosphere much stronger and that's all. So all GRBs are potential planet killers, however most of them are simply too far away to be an actual threat for us. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22549887", "title": "GRB 090423", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 516, "text": "A gamma-ray burst is an extremely luminous event flash of gamma rays that occurs as the result of an explosion, and is thought to be associated with the formation of a black hole. The burst itself typically only lasts for a few seconds, but gamma-ray bursts frequently produce an \"afterglow\" at longer wavelengths that can be observed for many hours or even days after the burst. Measurements at these wavelengths, which include X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio, enable follow up study of the event.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13640867", "title": "Gamma-ray burst progenitors", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 692, "text": "Gamma-ray burst progenitors are the types of celestial objects that can emit gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). GRBs show an extraordinary degree of diversity. They can last anywhere from a fraction of a second to many minutes. Bursts could have a single profile or oscillate wildly up and down in intensity, and their spectra are highly variable unlike other objects in space. The near complete lack of observational constraint led to a profusion of theories, including evaporating black holes, magnetic flares on white dwarfs, accretion of matter onto neutron stars, antimatter accretion, supernovae, hypernovae, and rapid extraction of rotational energy from supermassive black holes, among others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48803", "title": "Gamma-ray burst", "section": "Section::::Progenitors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 989, "text": "The massive-star model probably does not explain all types of gamma-ray burst. There is strong evidence that some short-duration gamma-ray bursts occur in systems with no star formation and no massive stars, such as elliptical galaxies and galaxy halos. The favored theory for the origin of most short gamma-ray bursts is the merger of a binary system consisting of two neutron stars. According to this model, the two stars in a binary slowly spiral towards each other because gravitational radiation releases energy until tidal forces suddenly rip the neutron stars apart and they collapse into a single black hole. The infall of matter into the new black hole produces an accretion disk and releases a burst of energy, analogous to the collapsar model. Numerous other models have also been proposed to explain short gamma-ray bursts, including the merger of a neutron star and a black hole, the accretion-induced collapse of a neutron star, or the evaporation of primordial black holes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21779590", "title": "GRB 970508", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 305, "text": "A gamma-ray burst is a highly luminous flash associated with an explosion in a distant galaxy and producing gamma rays, the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, and often followed by a longer-lived \"afterglow\" emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175184", "title": "European Southern Observatory", "section": "Section::::ESO telescopes: research and discoveries.:Gamma-ray bursts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 219, "text": "Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are bursts of highly energetic gamma rays lasting from less than one second to several minutes. They are known to occur at great distances from earth, near the limits of the observable universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48803", "title": "Gamma-ray burst", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 430, "text": "In gamma-ray astronomy, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are extremely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant galaxies. They are the brightest electromagnetic events known to occur in the universe. Bursts can last from ten milliseconds to several hours. After an initial flash of gamma rays, a longer-lived \"afterglow\" is usually emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, microwave and radio).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48803", "title": "Gamma-ray burst", "section": "Section::::Classification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 707, "text": "The light curves of gamma-ray bursts are extremely diverse and complex. No two gamma-ray burst light curves are identical, with large variation observed in almost every property: the duration of observable emission can vary from milliseconds to tens of minutes, there can be a single peak or several individual subpulses, and individual peaks can be symmetric or with fast brightening and very slow fading. Some bursts are preceded by a \"precursor\" event, a weak burst that is then followed (after seconds to minutes of no emission at all) by the much more intense \"true\" bursting episode. The light curves of some events have extremely chaotic and complicated profiles with almost no discernible patterns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "To keep the car from spinning out, as you know the objective of drifting is to slide the car through a corner without making it spin, turning it opposite of the turn counters the cars drifting therefore stabilizing and balancing the drift.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As the drift angle becomes larger, the car is traveling more sideways than straight ahead. Just as you do when you drive your car, the drifter points the front wheels where they want to go. In this case, it's straight out the side that's 'forwards' in the direction they're traveling.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The front wheels are not pointing in the \"opposite\" direction from where they need to go. They are pointing **exactly in the direction they need to go**. If you examine a video closely, you'll find that the front wheels don't slip - they're following right around the curve.\n\nIt is the back wheels that are swung outwards, thus the car is pointing further into a turn than it is going.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2014537", "title": "Alvis Stalwart", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 731, "text": "However, this system causes \"wind up\" in the transmission (inter-component stress) as all the wheels are forced to rotate at the same speed, which during cornering is impossible. This led to rapid wear and breakage of the bevel gear boxes if the vehicle was used on firm surfaces, such as tarmac or concrete – in off-road conditions, the natural 'slip' of a loose surface, such as mud or gravel reduced wind up. This problem is of special concern for modern-day Stalwart owners – to get a vehicle to a show either requires moving it by low-loader or driving it on the road, risking damage to the transmission. Alternatively, the front and rear driveshafts can be removed, eliminating wind up at the expense of off-road capability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2044956", "title": "Adhesion railway", "section": "Section::::Getting the train moving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 1055, "text": "A driven wheel does not roll but actually turns faster than the corresponding locomotive movement and the difference between the two is known as the \"slip velocity\". \"Slip\" is the \"slip velocity\" compared to the \"vehicle velocity\". When a wheel rolls freely along the rail the contact patch is in what is known as a \"stick\" condition. If the wheel is driven or braked the proportion of the contact patch with the \"stick\" condition gets smaller and a gradually increasing proportion is in what is known as a \"slip condition\". This diminishing \"stick\" area and increasing \"slip\" area supports a gradual increase in the traction or braking torque that can be sustained as the force at the wheel rim increases until the whole area is \"slip\". The \"slip\" area provides the traction. During the transition from the \"all-stick\" no-torque to the \"all-slip\" condition the wheel has had a gradual increase in slip, also known as creep and creepage. High adhesion locomotives control wheel creep to give maximum effort when starting and pulling a heavy train slowly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29784269", "title": "Pullback motor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 485, "text": "Pulling the car \"backward\" (hence the name) winds up an internal spiral spring; a flat spiral rather than a helical coil spring. When released, the car is propelled forward by the spring. When the spring has unwound and the car is moving, the motor is disengaged by a clutch or ratchet and the car then rolls freely onward. Often the clutch mechanism is geared so that the pullback distance needed to wind the spring is less than the distance the spring is engaged propelling forward.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47188915", "title": "Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)", "section": "Section::::Equipment.:Drift Mode.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 677, "text": "Introduced in the Mercedes-AMG E 63 S 4MATIC+, drift mode allows the car to completely cut the front axle from its all-wheel-drive 4MATIC system and transfer all and of torque to the rear axle of the car. This allows the driver to engage in easier drifts due to the nature of the rear wheel drive function. To enable drift mode, the driver must select Race mode, turn ESP off, and put the automatic gearbox into manual shifting. Next, the driver must pull both the paddles towards them and an option for drift mode arises. To fully enable drift mode, the driver must pull the right paddle and drift mode is now enabled. Drift mode can be equipped with E-Class AMG models only.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "263198", "title": "Opposite lock", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 619, "text": "Before entry to the bend, the car is turned towards the bend slightly, but quickly, so as to cause a rotating motion that induces the rear of the car to slide outwards. Power is applied which applies further sideways movement. At the same time, opposite lock steering is applied to keep the car on the desired course. As the car reaches the bend it will have already turned through most of the needed angle, traveling sideways and losing some speed as a result. A smooth application of power at this point will accelerate the car into the bend and then through it, gradually removing the sideways component of travel. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "263228", "title": "Handbrake turn", "section": "Section::::Dangers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 576, "text": "Like other methods of inducing a drift, the handbrake turn does pose a serious risk of the vehicle flipping over, and caution must be taken when performing the maneuver with a vehicle with a high center of gravity (such as an SUV). The basic danger lies in bad judgment of surroundings, resulting in the sliding vehicle hitting an obstacle (another vehicle, a guardrail or a tree), or bad judgment of speed, resulting in the vehicle driving off the road rather than sliding, or releasing the handbrake when the vehicle is moving sideways so that all tire forces are sideways.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41154916", "title": "Driveline windup", "section": "Section::::H-drive.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 419, "text": "When used for equally spaced wheels (i.e. rather than cargo trucks with close-set rear axles) the front two wheels are arranged so that both steer, the rear less so than the leading wheel. The varying track radii mean that when the vehicle drives in a curve on firm tarmac each wheel travels a different distance. Without differential action between the wheels on each side, wind-up can occur in the bevels and shafts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There's a great [engineer guy video on quartz clocks](_URL_0_) that's worth watching.\n\nBasically there are two sides to the system. First, you create a very small \"tuning fork\" of quartz, which has a very precise resonance frequency (typically 32,768 Hz, for reasons that will be explained). Quartz is piezo-electric, when a voltage is applied it will vibrate and when it vibrates it will generate a voltage. This means that the tiny quartz tuning fork will generate a series of electric pulses at a frequency of 32,768 Hz. Second, a small digital chip is paired with this pulse, it does very little, most of what it does is add. With every pulse from the quartz the chip adds 1 to a count. When it reaches 32,768 it triggers a signal indicating that one second has passed. That signal can then be used in other adders to add up seconds, minutes, hours, etc. In this way a digital clock can keep track of the passage of time.\n\n32,768 is chosen because it is precisely 2^15. Meaning that starting from zero a simple 14 bit adder can count up and once it gets precisely to 32,768 it will trigger overflow/carry over to the 15th bit, which can be used as a signal for keeping track of seconds. Also, the size of a quartz crystal tuned to 32,768 Hz is small enough to be compact, cheap, and use a low amount of power while still being large enough to be produced with incredibly high precision while also producing sound (though very faint) in frequencies that humans can't hear.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6613070", "title": "System time", "section": "Section::::Retrieving system time.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 315, "text": "Note that the resolution of an implementation's measurement of time does not imply the same precision of such measurements. For example, a system might return the current time as a value measured in microseconds, but actually be capable of discerning individual clock ticks with a frequency of only 100 Hz (10 ms).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15444460", "title": "Open-circuit time constant method", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 363, "text": "The open-circuit time constant method is an approximate analysis technique used in electronic circuit design to determine the corner frequency of complex circuits. It also is known as the zero-value time constant technique. The method provides a quick evaluation, and identifies the largest contributions to time constants as a guide to the circuit improvements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3733061", "title": "Intervalometer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 528, "text": "An intervalometer, also called an interval meter or interval timer, is a device that is used to measure short intervals of time. Such devices are commonly used to signal, in accurate time intervals, the operation of some other device. This is done by measuring the intermittent pulses released between a starting pulse signal and an ending pulse signal, before a pulse counter measures the number of pulses released into the appropriate time interval. For instance, an intervalometer might activate something every 30 seconds. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30012", "title": "Time", "section": "Section::::Temporal measurement and history.:History of time measurement devices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 544, "text": "Atomic clocks use the frequency of electronic transitions in certain atoms to measure the second. One of the atoms used is caesium, most modern atomic clocks probe caesium with microwaves to determine the frequency of these electron vibrations. Since 1967, the International System of Measurements bases its unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium atoms. SI defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation that corresponds to the transition between two electron spin energy levels of the ground state of the Cs atom.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27393000", "title": "Output power of an analog TV transmitter", "section": "Section::::Nominal power of a TV transmitter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 224, "text": "To measure the nominal output power, measuring devices with time constants much greater than the line time are used. So the measuring equipment's measure only the highest level (sync pulse) of a line waveform which is 100%.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "144485", "title": "Time and frequency transfer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 251, "text": "Time and frequency transfer describes mechanisms for comparing measurements of time and frequency from one location to another. The technique is commonly used for creating and distributing standard time scales such as International Atomic Time (TAI).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6069126", "title": "Time perception", "section": "Section::::Neuroscientific perspectives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 881, "text": "Professor Warren Meck devised a physiological model for measuring the passage of time. He found the representation of time to be generated by the oscillatory activity of cells in the upper cortex. The frequency of these cells' activity is detected by cells in the dorsal striatum at the base of the forebrain. His model separated explicit timing and implicit timing. Explicit timing is used in estimating the duration of a stimulus. Implicit timing is used to gauge the amount of time separating one from an impending event that is expected to occur in the near future. These two estimations of time do not involve the same neuroanatomical areas. For example, implicit timing often occurs to achieve a motor task, involving the cerebellum, left parietal cortex, and left premotor cortex. Explicit timing often involves the supplementary motor area and the right prefrontal cortex.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This happened to me on my motorcycle during an near miss crash with another vehicle. I had the jitters and couldn't immediately lift my bike, it's like my mind was so all over the place I couldn't focus my mind enough to continuously drive my muscles to lift my bike. Strange feeling, the best comparison I can make is it's like trying to lift something heavy while laughing hysterically.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This happened to me on my motorcycle during an near miss crash with another vehicle. I had the jitters and couldn't immediately lift my bike, it's like my mind was so all over the place I couldn't focus my mind enough to continuously drive my muscles to lift my bike. Strange feeling, the best comparison I can make is it's like trying to lift something heavy while laughing hysterically.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "146311", "title": "Shock (circulatory)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 332, "text": "Shock is the state of not enough blood flow to the tissues of the body as a result of problems with the circulatory system. Initial symptoms may include weakness, fast heart rate, fast breathing, sweating, anxiety, and increased thirst. This may be followed by confusion, unconsciousness, or cardiac arrest as complications worsen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146311", "title": "Shock (circulatory)", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 729, "text": "One of the key dangers of shock is that it progresses by a positive feedback mechanism. Poor blood supply leads to cellular damage, which results in an inflammatory response to increase blood flow to the affected area. This is normally very useful to match up blood supply level with tissue demand for nutrients. However, if enough tissue causes this, it will deprive vital nutrients from other parts of the body. Additionally, the ability of the circulatory system to meet this increase in demand causes saturation, and this is a major result, of which other parts of the body begin to respond in a similar way; thus, exacerbating the problem. Due to this chain of events, immediate treatment of shock is critical for survival.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146311", "title": "Shock (circulatory)", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 363, "text": "Shock is a common end point of many medical conditions. Shock itself is a life-threatening condition as a result of compromised body circulation. It has been divided into four main types based on the underlying cause: hypovolemic, distributive, cardiogenic, and obstructive. A few additional classifications are occasionally used including: endocrinologic shock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26824523", "title": "Shock: Social Science Fiction", "section": "Section::::Notable Features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 880, "text": "... Because a game of Shock is built around real-world issues that you care about, your game is going to be a little deeper than just entertainment -- it's going to be a story that's about something. It's going to have some intellectual heft to it. It's going to get you thinking. For this reason, I think that playing Shock can actually be therapeutic: when you're feeling confused about some topic in the news, if you can't decide how you feel about some pressing social issue, if you see a new invention and wonder what it might mean, you can play a Shock game about it. Role-playing it out might help you and your friends work through your thoughts and explore possible consequences. In Shock, I think we might finally have an RPG that does what the best written SF does -- help us learn to cope with the rapid social and technological changes occurring in the modern world. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43165092", "title": "Shock (comics)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 284, "text": "Shock (Ariel Tremmore) is a fictional character, and a supervillain in the Marvel Comics universe. A psychopathic killer, she fought with Daredevil in New York City. Shock possesses the power to induce fear and hallucinations in other people by releasing pheromones through her skin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1888708", "title": "Shock value", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 206, "text": "Shock value is the potential of an image, text, action, or other form of communication, such as a public execution, to provoke a reaction of sharp disgust, shock, anger, fear, or similar negative emotions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "211889", "title": "Electrical injury", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 877, "text": "The injury related to electric shock depends on the magnitude of the current. Very small currents may be imperceptible or produce a light tingling sensation. A shock caused by low current that would normally be harmless could startle an individual and cause injury due to suddenly jerking away from the source of electricity, resulting in one striking a stationary object, dropping an object being held or falling. Stronger currents may cause some degree of discomfort or pain, while more intense currents may induce involuntary muscle contractions, preventing the victim from breaking free of the source of electricity. Still larger currents usually result in tissue damage and may trigger fibrillation of the heart or cardiac arrest, any of which may ultimately be fatal. If death results from an electric shock the cause of death is generally referred to as electrocution. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Short answer: yes to a very limited extent\n\nLonger answer: not in any realistic, safe, or controllable way.\n\nWeather is super complicated and often pretty hard to predict. Imagine if you had a big bowl of water and you kept sloshing it around, meteorology is guessing/analyzing where individual waves will form.\n\nYou can effect the weather by large releases of heat or particulates, but both have enormous ecological impacts and are expensive. Also if you mess with the weather in one place you tend to fuck over somewhere else (a la butterfly effect).\n\nSo generally its not safe, cheap, or smart, but we could technically do it minorly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "856862", "title": "Buys Ballot's law", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 604, "text": "The law outlines general rules of conduct for masters of both sail and steam vessels, to assist them in steering the vessels away from the center and right front (in the Northern Hemisphere and left front in the Southern Hemisphere) quadrants of hurricanes or any other rotating disturbances at sea. Prior to radio, satellite observation and the ability to transmit timely weather information over long distances, the only method a ship's master had to forecast the weather was observation of meteorological conditions (visible cloud formations, wind direction and atmospheric pressure) at his location.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10378", "title": "European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts", "section": "Section::::Work and projects.:Early warning of severe weather events.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 399, "text": "Forecasts of severe weather events allow appropriate mitigating action to be taken and contingency plans to be put into place by the authorities and the public. The increased time gained by issuing accurate warnings can save lives, for instance by evacuating people from a storm surge area. Authorities and businesses can plan to maintain services around threats such as high winds, floods or snow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "856862", "title": "Buys Ballot's law", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 510, "text": "Included in the \"Sailing Directions for the World\" are Buys Ballot's techniques for avoiding the worst part of any rotating storm system at sea using only the locally observable phenomena of cloud formations, wind speed and barometric pressure tendencies over a number of hours. These observations and application of the principles of Buys Ballot's law help to establish the probability of the existence of a storm and the best course to steer to try to avoid the worst of it—with the best chance of survival.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1114260", "title": "Weather ship", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 700, "text": "Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as commercial shipping tended to avoid weather systems for safety reasons, whereas the weather ships did not. They were also helpful in monitoring storms at sea, such as tropical cyclones. Beginning in the 1970s, their role was largely superseded by cheaper weather buoys. The removal of a weather ship became a negative factor in forecasts leading up to the Great Storm of 1987. The last weather ship was \"Polarfront\", known as weather station M (\"Mike\"), which was removed from operation on January 1, 2010. Weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18950685", "title": "Affreightment", "section": "Section::::Customary rights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 341, "text": "In a storm at sea, it may be necessary for the safety of ship and cargo to cut away a mast or to jettison (throw overboard) part of the cargo. In such a case the master, acting for the shipowner or cargo-owner, as the case may be, sacrifices part of the ship or part of the cargo to save the rest of the ship and cargo from a common danger.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33978", "title": "Weather", "section": "Section::::Modification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 1028, "text": "The aspiration to control the weather is evident throughout human history: from ancient rituals intended to bring rain for crops to the U.S. Military Operation Popeye, an attempt to disrupt supply lines by lengthening the North Vietnamese monsoon. The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding; they include the fog- and low stratus dispersion techniques employed by major airports, techniques used to increase winter precipitation over mountains, and techniques to suppress hail. A recent example of weather control was China's preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. China shot 1,104 rain dispersal rockets from 21 sites in the city of Beijing in an effort to keep rain away from the opening ceremony of the games on 8 August 2008. Guo Hu, head of the Beijing Municipal Meteorological Bureau (BMB), confirmed the success of the operation with 100 millimeters falling in Baoding City of Hebei Province, to the southwest and Beijing's Fangshan District recording a rainfall of 25 millimeters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4607152", "title": "Climate change adaptation", "section": "Section::::Methods of adaptation.:Weather control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 128, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 128, "end_character": 580, "text": "Russian and American scientists have in the past tried to control the weather, for example by seeding clouds with chemicals to try to produce rain when and where it is needed. A new method being developed involves replicating the urban heat island effect, where cities are slightly hotter than the countryside because they are darker and absorb more heat. This creates 28% more rain 20–40 miles from cities compared to upwind. On the timescale of several decades, new weather control techniques may become feasible which would allow control of extreme weather such as hurricanes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The idea of public-key cryptography is that the first computer shares the public key, and keeps the private key to itself. The second computer encrypts data (typically, a randomly generated session key for symmetric cryptography, which is much faster than public-key cryptography) with the first computer's public key and sends it to the first computer. The first computer decrypts the encrypted data with its private key, which no one else can do.\n\nEdit: I should've said \"The basic idea\"; real-world protocols are of course more complicated.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It doesn't. In an asymmetric system like RSA or ElGamal, the private key is never transmitted over the wire - this is why it's called the private key. _URL_0_\n\nIn a symmetric system where both parties use the same key, it's actually generated interactively by the two parties and the algorithm they use is capable of generating a shared secret over an insecure channel. Diffie Hellman is an interactive algorithm that relies on the discrete logarithm problem for its security. \n_URL_1_ ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "46999487", "title": "Identity-based conditional proxy re-encryption", "section": "Section::::Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 790, "text": "Under the identity-based cryptographic setting, the public key of the user can be an arbitrary string of bits provided that the string can uniquely identify the user in the system. The unique string, for example, can be an email address, a phone number, and a staff ID (if used only internally within an organization). However, the corresponding private key is no longer generated by the user. From the public key, which is a unique binary string, there is a key generation center (KGC), which generates and issues the private key to the user. The KGC has a public key, which is assumed to be publicly known, and the encryption and decryption then work under the unique binary string defined public key and the corresponding private key, respectively, with respect to the KGC’s public key.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59644", "title": "Digital signature", "section": "Section::::Additional security precautions.:Putting the private key on a smart card.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 211, "text": "All public key / private key cryptosystems depend entirely on keeping the private key secret. A private key can be stored on a user's computer, and protected by a local password, but this has two disadvantages:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58608", "title": "Trusted Computing", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:Trust.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 749, "text": "In the widely used public-key cryptography, creation of keys can be done on the local computer and the creator has complete control over who has access to it, and consequentially their own security policies. In some proposed encryption-decryption chips, a private/public key is permanently embedded into the hardware when it is manufactured, and hardware manufacturers would have the opportunity to record the key without leaving evidence of doing so. With this key it would be possible to have access to data encrypted with it, and to authenticate as it. It is trivial for a manufacturer to give a copy of this key to the government or the software manufacturers, as the platform must go through steps so that it works with authenticated software.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "616119", "title": "Key server (cryptographic)", "section": "Section::::Public versus private keyservers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 309, "text": "Many publicly accessible key servers, located around the world, are computers which store and provide OpenPGP keys over the Internet for users of that cryptosystem. In this instance, the computers can be, and mostly are, run by individuals as a pro bono service, facilitating the web of trust model PGP uses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40745", "title": "Authenticator", "section": "Section::::Classification.:Authenticator secrets.:Cryptographic key.:Public-private key pair.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 324, "text": "A public-private key pair is used to perform public-key cryptography. The public key is known to (and trusted by) the verifier while the corresponding private key is bound securely to the authenticator. In the case of a dedicated hardware-based authenticator, the private key never leaves the confines of the authenticator.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20538184", "title": "Privacy protocol", "section": "Section::::Examples of privacy protocols.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 471, "text": "A simple protocol that does not rely on a human third party involves password changing. This works anywhere one has to type in new passwords the same twice before the password is changed. The first individual will type their secret in the first box, and the second person will type their secret in the second box, if the password is successfully changed then the secret is shared. However the computer is still a third party and must be trusted not to have a key logger.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1725275", "title": "Key distribution", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 311, "text": "In public key cryptography, the key distribution of public keys is done through public key servers. When a person creates a key-pair, they keep one key private and the other, known as the \"public-key\", is uploaded to a server where it can be accessed by anyone to send the user a private, encrypted, message...\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Companies like Nintendo and Sony already have their own game distribution platforms and they're generally very wary of using other distribution channels. \n\nIf they distribute games through Steam, they ultimately would have to give up lots of control over the distribution and pricing of the games. Furthermore, Steam will take a cut of the sales revenue that Sony/Nintendo are probably unwilling to give up. \n\nAlso, Steam already acts as a competitor in some ways since users may opt to buy video games on Steam/PC rather than consoles, so that's just another reason these companies may be unwilling to negotiate deals with PC distribution platforms like Steam.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2622904", "title": "Virtual Console", "section": "Section::::Wii.:Library history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 295, "text": "Nintendo had stated that the Wii Shop Channel would not be used exclusively for retro games, and WiiWare games have appeared in North America as of May 12, 2008. These original games are made available through the WiiWare part of the Wii Shop Channel, as opposed to through the Virtual Console.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27851100", "title": "Breach (video game)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 377, "text": "As of August 2011, the PC version has been removed from the Steam Store, due to lack of servers to play on and Atomic Games having seemingly gone dark. Retail versions can still be activated on Steam; Valve has been reported to be giving out Store credits to unsatisfied customers who bought the retail version after the game has been made unavailable for purchase from Steam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30837479", "title": "Digital distribution in video games", "section": "Section::::Buyer advantages and disadvantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 544, "text": "Compared to physically distributed games, digital games like those offered on the Steam digital distribution service cannot be lost or destroyed, and can be redownloaded at any time. Services like Steam, Origin, and Xbox Live do not offer ways to sell used games once they are no longer desired, even though some services like Steam do have family sharing options. This is also somewhat countered by frequent sales offered by these digital distributors, often allowing major savings by selling at prices below what a retailer is able to offer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13503628", "title": "Wii system software", "section": "Section::::Technology.:Backward compatibility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 714, "text": "Because of the original device's backward compatibility with earlier Nintendo products players can enjoy a massive selection of older games on the console in addition to hundreds of newer Wii game titles. However, South Korean units lack GameCube backward compatibility. Also, the redesigned Wii Family Edition and Wii Mini, launched in 2011 and 2013 respectively, had this compatibility stripped out. Nevertheless, there is another service called Virtual Console which allow users to download older games from prior Nintendo platforms (namely the Nintendo Entertainment System, Super NES and Nintendo 64) onto their Wii console, as well as games from non-Nintendo platforms such as the Genesis and TurboGrafx-16.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15799912", "title": "GameCube controller", "section": "Section::::Availability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 1021, "text": "While unlicensed GameCube Controllers are constantly on the market from third party manufacturers such as Old Skool and Mad Catz (though the latter has produced products that are officially licensed by Nintendo), they are criticized for generally being made of lower quality products than Nintendo's official GameCube controllers. The official controllers have become scarce at retailers, as an increased demand of the controller started due to the Wii's backward compatibility with GameCube games and the fact that several Wii games support the controller as a primary method of control. In response to the regained popularity, Nintendo decided to re-launch the GameCube controller. These relaunched models of the GameCube have a 3-meter wire cord, which is longer than the original models, which had a 2-meter wire cord. These relaunched models also lack the metal braces inserted inside the controller's triggers to help push the triggers down, something which the 2001-2007 manufactured GameCube controllers do have.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58758387", "title": "List of retro style video game consoles", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 565, "text": "Starting in the 2000s, the trend of retrogaming spawned the launch of several new consoles that usually imitate the styling of pre-2000s home consoles and only play games that released on those consoles. Some retro style consoles play the games of pre-2010s handheld consoles. Most retro style consoles are dedicated consoles, but many have an SD Card slot that allows the user to add additional games, an internet connection that allows users to download games, or even support the cartridges of older video game systems such as the Nintendo Entertainment System.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "898503", "title": "Steam (software)", "section": "Section::::Client functionality.:Storefront features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1238, "text": "In October 2012, Steam introduced non-gaming applications, which are sold through the service in the same manner as games. Creativity and productivity applications can access the core functions of the Steamworks API, allowing them to use Steam's simplified installation and updating process, and incorporate features including cloud saving and Steam Workshop. Steam also allows game soundtracks to be purchased to be played via Steam Music or integrated with the user's other media players. Valve have also added the ability for publishers to rent and sell digital movies via the service, with initially most being video game documentaries. Following Warner Bros. Entertainment offering the \"Mad Max\" films alongside the September 2015 release of the game based on the series, Lionsgate entered into agreement with Valve to rent over one hundred feature films from its catalog through Steam starting in April 2016, with more films following later. In March 2017, Crunchyroll started offering various anime for purchase or rent through Steam. However, by February 2019, Valve shuttered video from its storefront save for videos directly related to gaming content. While available, users could also purchase Steam Machine related hardware.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's not my field, so I can't say too much so I will just paraphrase a couple points that Terry Tao made in a [Post](_URL_0_) about why it is hard. (If I say anything horridly wrong, please correct me.) He says that there are three general strategies to solving these kinds of nonlinear PDEs.\n\n* Find explicit solution. \n\n* Perturbation\n\n* Controlling a solution based on some global quantity (like Energy)\n\nWe can bet that no one is going to randomly find an explicit solution, it would take a great deal of luck and the arbitrariness of the initial conditions makes this not likely. Perturbation is when you slightly broaden the problem with an artificial parameter. Tao says the main issue with this is that no matter how small the parameter is, the Navier-Stokes equation behaves completely differently between perturbed and non-perturbed versions. When you perturb, the equation behaves a lot like a linear equation, which is not the case in when you don't. The issue with the third method is that no known quantities either do scale very well and this means that we lose control over the finer details of the solution, or they can't control a solution.\n\nThis means that there are three possible routes to figuring this problem out:\n\n* Get really lucky and find an explicit solution\n\n* Create a new kind of global quantity that behaves well that we can use to control a solution\n\n* Invent a new method entirely that doesn't rely on any of the known methods.\n\nAll three are not going to be easy. There's no way that we can rely on the first option. The second condition is hard because the Navier-Stokes breaks down every known quantity that we can try to track, because it's pretty abusive to geometry and chaotic at all scales and there aren't any quantities from physics besides energy that we can rely on and it doesn't help us. But, you never know, as he says that the Poincare Conjecture (the only Millenium Prize Problem to have been solved) was solved by controlling a new kind of variable, though it was geometric in origin and the Navier-Stokes equation does not behave well in that aspect. That leaves the third option. This is hard because instead of controlling solutions through some quantity, it is possible for quantities to blow up and not behave well under scaling. \n\nI guess the moral is that it allows for very chaotic solutions and that really messes shit up.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are many issues with finding an analytical solution to this set of equations, one being that turbulence itself can be modeled in many ways depending on viscosity and other parameters.\n\nAlso solving it would not necessarily be useful. CFD solutions can be fast using implicit equations, generally with reduced order modelling and a good starting point for iterative solutions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "48395", "title": "Navier–Stokes equations", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Turbulence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 125, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 125, "end_character": 1159, "text": "The numerical solution of the Navier–Stokes equations for turbulent flow is extremely difficult, and due to the significantly different mixing-length scales that are involved in turbulent flow, the stable solution of this requires such a fine mesh resolution that the computational time becomes significantly infeasible for calculation or direct numerical simulation. Attempts to solve turbulent flow using a laminar solver typically result in a time-unsteady solution, which fails to converge appropriately. To counter this, time-averaged equations such as the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS), supplemented with turbulence models, are used in practical computational fluid dynamics (CFD) applications when modeling turbulent flows. Some models include the Spalart–Allmaras, –, –, and SST models, which add a variety of additional equations to bring closure to the RANS equations. Large eddy simulation (LES) can also be used to solve these equations numerically. This approach is computationally more expensive—in time and in computer memory—than RANS, but produces better results because it explicitly resolves the larger turbulent scales.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2684988", "title": "Fluid mechanics", "section": "Section::::Navier–Stokes equations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 584, "text": "Solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations for a given physical problem must be sought with the help of calculus. In practical terms only the simplest cases can be solved exactly in this way. These cases generally involve non-turbulent, steady flow in which the Reynolds number is small. For more complex cases, especially those involving turbulence, such as global weather systems, aerodynamics, hydrodynamics and many more, solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations can currently only be found with the help of computers. This branch of science is called computational fluid dynamics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48395", "title": "Navier–Stokes equations", "section": "Section::::Stream function for 2D equations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 118, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 118, "end_character": 513, "text": "The incompressible Navier–Stokes equation is a differential algebraic equation, having the inconvenient feature that there is no explicit mechanism for advancing the pressure in time. Consequently, much effort has been expended to eliminate the pressure from all or part of the computational process. The stream function formulation eliminates the pressure but only in two dimensions and at the expense of introducing higher derivatives and elimination of the velocity, which is the primary variable of interest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7655681", "title": "Antony Jameson", "section": "Section::::Computational fluid dynamics methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 308, "text": "During his career, Professor Jameson has devised a variety of new schemes for solving the Euler and Navier-Stokes equations for inviscid and viscous compressible flows. For example, he devised a multigrid-scheme for the solution of steady flow problems and the dual time stepping scheme for unsteady flows. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4248526", "title": "Computational aeroacoustics", "section": "Section::::Methods.:Direct numerical simulation (DNS) Approach to CAA.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 392, "text": "The compressible Navier-Stokes equation describes both the flow field, and the aerodynamically generated acoustic field. Thus both may be solved for directly. This requires very high numerical resolution due to the large differences in the length scale present between the acoustic variables and the flow variables. It is computationally very demanding and unsuitable for any commercial use.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59474790", "title": "Amit Agrawal", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1563, "text": "The Navier-Stokes equation has been employed to describe flow for more than a century. However, the need for having more accurate equations has been noted because of limitations of this equation in the high Knudsen number range. Agrawal employed Onsager-principle consistent distribution function to solve the Boltzmann equation, and derived entirely new sets of equations (as opposed to adding ad hoc terms to the available equations, commonly undertaken in the literature), termed as OBurnett and O13 equations which are superset of the Navier-Stokes equations. This is particularly significant as the proposed equations are of second-order and unconditionally stable; the two issues that have plagued all existing higher-order equations and their variants. These may be the thermodynamically-consistent higher-order equations that scientists have been trying to derive for several decades now! Early results show that the derived equations are indeed accurate. Further, he proposed an innovative iterative approach to solve \"such higher-order equations analytically\", and solved two different problems within Burnett hydrodynamics for the first time ever. The approach is general enough to be applicable to other non-linear partial differential equations. Agrawal has written a book entitled \"Microscale Flow and Heat Transfer: Mathematical Modeling and Flow Physics\" explaining these higher order transport equations. The development of these accurate higher-order continuum transport equations is expected to rejuvenate the entire subject of hydrodynamics. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2047298", "title": "Stokes flow", "section": "Section::::Stokes equations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 348, "text": "The equation of motion for Stokes flow can be obtained by linearizing the steady state Navier-Stokes equations. The inertial forces are assumed to be negligible in comparison to the viscous forces, and eliminating the inertial terms of the momentum balance in the Navier–Stokes equations reduces it to the momentum balance in the Stokes equations:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Gamma radiation is distinct from the other three. Alpha (helium nucleus), beta (fast moving electrons), and neutron radiation are classed as particle radiation, while gamma radiation is a high-energy electromagnetic wave.\n\nNeutron radiation isn't mentioned along the other three because it can't directly ionize atoms the same way alpha, beta, and gamma radiation can. Neutron radiation only ionizes by interacting with hydrogen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The \"α, β, γ\" classification of radiation was made by Rutherford and Villard back around the turn-of-the-century. It was basically empirical (on the basis of how far they penetrated through matter), and they didn't really know what these things were. I.e. they didn't know that gamma rays were actually the same thing as Röntgen's \"X-rays\", that \"beta rays\" were actually the same thing as \"cathode rays\" which JJ Thomson had (at the time) postulated to be electrons. Neutrons and neutron radiation weren't discovered until much later, around 1930. So neutron radiation got a better, more descriptive name than the other three. \n\nBut neutron radiation _is_ usually considered ionizing radiation. It can cause ionization in a number of ways. First, by being absorbed by a nucleus (or just deflected by it) which can impart enough energy to cause ionization. Second, free neutrons decay into energetic protons and electrons (and a neutrino), both of which are directly ionizing. Third, it can cause it indirectly by transmuting stable nuclei to radioisotopes after being absorbed. \n\nI suspect it's mentioned less often, perhaps in part just because of the history here, but also because neutron emission is much less common form of decay compared to the other three. Alpha/beta/gamma is a concern whenever you deal with radioisotopes, but not so much neutron radiation unless you're dealing with a nuclear reactor or bomb.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21787470", "title": "Alpha particle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 657, "text": "Alpha particles, also called alpha ray or alpha radiation, consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways. Alpha particles are named after the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α. The symbol for the alpha particle is α or α. Because they are identical to helium nuclei, they are also sometimes written as or indicating a helium ion with a +2 charge (missing its two electrons). If the ion gains electrons from its environment, the alpha particle becomes a normal (electrically neutral) helium atom .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12984", "title": "Geiger counter", "section": "Section::::Types and applications.:Particle detection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 502, "text": "Alpha particles have the shortest range, and to detect these the window should ideally be within 10 mm of the radiation source due to alpha particle attenuation. However, the Geiger–Müller tube produces a pulse output which is the same magnitude for all detected radiation, so a Geiger counter with an end window tube cannot distinguish between alpha and beta particles. A skilled operator can use varying distance from a radiation source to differentiate between alpha and high energy beta particles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37872", "title": "Beta particle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 314, "text": "A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta decay, β decay and β decay, which produce electrons and positrons respectively.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "202522", "title": "Ionizing radiation", "section": "Section::::Types.:Directly ionizing.:Alpha particles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 642, "text": "Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus. Alpha particle emissions are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways. Alpha particles are named after the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α. The symbol for the alpha particle is α or α. Because they are identical to helium nuclei, they are also sometimes written as or indicating a Helium ion with a +2 charge (missing its two electrons). If the ion gains electrons from its environment, the alpha particle can be written as a normal (electrically neutral) helium atom .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12739994", "title": "Whole-body counting", "section": "Section::::Principles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 317, "text": "Whole body counting may be unable to distinguish between radioisotopes that have similar gamma energies. Alpha and beta radiation is largely shielded by the body and will not be detected externally, but the coincident gamma from alpha decay may be detected, as well as radiation from the parent or daughter nuclides.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25856", "title": "Radiation", "section": "Section::::Ionizing radiation.:Gamma radiation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 569, "text": "Gamma (γ) radiation consists of photons with a wavelength less than 3x10 meters (greater than 10 Hz and 41.4 keV). Gamma radiation emission is a nuclear process that occurs to rid an unstable nucleus of excess energy after most nuclear reactions. Both alpha and beta particles have an electric charge and mass, and thus are quite likely to interact with other atoms in their path. Gamma radiation, however, is composed of photons, which have neither mass nor electric charge and, as a result, penetrates much further through matter than either alpha or beta radiation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21787470", "title": "Alpha particle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 449, "text": "When alpha particle emitting isotopes are ingested, they are far more dangerous than their half-life or decay rate would suggest, due to the high relative biological effectiveness of alpha radiation to cause biological damage. Alpha radiation is an average of about 20 times more dangerous, and in experiments with inhaled alpha emitters, up to 1000 times more dangerous than an equivalent activity of beta emitting or gamma emitting radioisotopes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "you programmed in binary by flipping toggle switches. after that came punch cards. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Machine language is a code that CPU can run directly. Many years ago some brave young men and women wrote a series of machine language programs that converted assembly language into machine code. After this point, programmers simply needed to write programs in assembly language and pass it through the machine language translator. Eventually more machine language programs were invented that allowed people write in high level programs then compile them into a large number of different machine languages so a single program can run on a number of different computers.\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "All programming is basically simple logic (addition, subtraction, comparing values, etc.) and control statements (jump, branch, etc.). At the lowest level of all, you've got electrical circuits, not code.\n\nThis is how adding two numbers works: [image](_URL_0_). This performs basic binary math, and outputs the addition of two 1's or 0's (with an extra \"carry\" digit if you're doing 1+1, which is 10). Here is an example of a 4-bit full adder: [image](_URL_1_). However, in your device, it's probably a tiny chip only a few microns thick.\n\nA person who wants to build a computer from raw metal and silicon would want to make these electrical circuits, then stick them together in the right way to make a processor. The wizards at intel and whatnot have to do this basically by hand, and so did the first people who made computers.\n\nThe processor takes in binary inputs (for instance, the number 00011101101110), and then depending on what number it is, does a different operation. When you add A + B in code, A + B are being stored in this binary input, as well as the word \"add\", and where you want the number to be stored. The processor looks at the binary number, send the electrical signals to the circuits that will add them together, and goes on to the next line.\n\nAt this point, they can reasonably easily invent programming languages using these microprocessors. You make a computer with circuits that turns text like this:\n\n add a, b, c\n\ninto \n\n 100101000010001000010\n\nwhich when fed to the compiler will store b+c in the address of a.\n\nThat \"add a,b,c\" is assembly, the base for programming languages. The coding language \"C\" uses a \"compiler\", which turns if \"I.amhungry() { dothis(); }\" into assembly, which is then assembled into the machine code binary, which is executed by the processor.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53723", "title": "Digital media", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 294, "text": "Codes and information by machines were first conceptualized by Charles Babbage in the early 1800s. Babbage imagined that these codes would give him instructions for his Motor of Difference and Analytical Engine, machines that Babbage had designed to solve the problem of error in calculations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5295", "title": "Character encoding", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1128, "text": "The history of character codes illustrates the evolving need for machine-mediated character-based symbolic information over a distance, using once-novel electrical means. The earliest codes were based upon manual and hand-written encoding and cyphering systems, such as Bacon's cipher, Braille, International maritime signal flags, and the 4-digit encoding of Chinese characters for a Chinese telegraph code (Hans Schjellerup, 1869). With the adoption of electrical and electro-mechanical techniques these earliest codes were adapted to the new capabilities and limitations of the early machines. The earliest well-known electrically-transmitted character code, Morse code, introduced in the 1840s, used a system of four \"symbols\" (short signal, long signal, short space, long space) to generate codes of variable length. Though most commercial use of Morse code was via machinery, it was also used as a manual code, generatable by hand on a telegraph key and decipherable by ear, and persists in amateur radio use. Most codes are of fixed per-character length or variable-length sequences of fixed-length codes (e.g. Unicode).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4748", "title": "Baudot code", "section": "Section::::History.:Baudot code (ITA1).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 536, "text": "Baudot invented his original code in 1870 and patented it in 1874. It was a 5-bit code, with equal on and off intervals, which allowed for transmission of the Roman alphabet, and included punctuation and control signals. It was based on an earlier code developed by Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber in 1834. It was a Gray code (when vowels and consonants are sorted in their alphabetical order), nonetheless, the code by itself was not patented (only the machine) because French patent law does not allow concepts to be patented.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5225", "title": "Code", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 733, "text": "In communications and information processing, code is a system of rules to convert information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another form or representation, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a communication channel or storage in a storage medium. An early example is the invention of language, which enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what they saw, heard, felt, or thought to others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry, and limits the audience to those present when the speech is uttered. The invention of writing, which converted spoken language into visual symbols, extended the range of communication across space and time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "896120", "title": "History of programming languages", "section": "Section::::Early history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 231, "text": "The first computer codes were specialized for their applications: e.g., Alonzo Church was able to express the lambda calculus in a formulaic way and the Turing machine was an abstraction of the operation of a tape-marking machine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "290019", "title": "Legacy code", "section": "Section::::Modern interpretations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 307, "text": "Ginny Hendry characterized creation of code as a challenge to current coders to create code that is \"like other legacies in our lives—like the antiques, heirlooms, and stories that are cherished and lovingly passed down from one generation to the next. What if legacy code was something we took pride in?\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4748", "title": "Baudot code", "section": "Section::::History.:Baudot code (ITA1).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 540, "text": "Technically, five-bit codes began in the 17th century, when Francis Bacon developed the cipher now called Bacon's cipher. The cipher was not designed for machine telecommunications (it was instead a method of encrypting a hidden message into another) and, although in theory it could be adapted to that purpose, it only covered 24 of the 26 letters of the English alphabet (two sets of letters, I/J and U/V, were expressed with the same code) and contained no punctuation, spaces, numbers or control characters, rendering it of little use.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No.\n\nYour sex organs are not the only \"source\" for your sex drive. It affect it in some ways, although there is no consensus about how much.\n\nIn losing them, you'd fail to act upon these desires, but your capacity to feel them would not disappear completely.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "411851", "title": "Sexual dysfunction", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 957, "text": "Physical factors that can lead to sexual dysfunctions include the use of drugs, such as alcohol, nicotine, narcotics, stimulants, antihypertensives, antihistamines, and some psychotherapeutic drugs. For women, almost any physiological change that affects the reproductive system—premenstrual syndrome, pregnancy and the postpartum period, menopause—can have an adverse effect on libido. Injuries to the back may also impact sexual activity, as can problems with an enlarged prostate gland, problems with blood supply, or nerve damage (as in sexual dysfunction after spinal cord injuries). Diseases such as diabetic neuropathy, multiple sclerosis, tumors, and, rarely, tertiary syphilis may also impact the activity, as could the failure of various organ systems (such as the heart and lungs), endocrine disorders (thyroid, pituitary, or adrenal gland problems), hormonal deficiencies (low testosterone, other androgens, or estrogen) and some birth defects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23890494", "title": "Sex after pregnancy", "section": "Section::::Birth method and injuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 370, "text": "Women with damage or tears to their perineum resume sex later than women with an intact perineum, and women who needed perineal sutures report poorer sexual relations. Perineal damage is also associated with painful sex. Women who have an anal tear are less likely to have resumed sex after six months and one year, but they have normal sexual function 18 months later.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67918", "title": "Genital modification and mutilation", "section": "Section::::Reasons.:As treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 439, "text": "If the genitals become diseased, as in the case of cancer, sometimes the diseased areas are surgically removed. Females may undergo vaginectomy or vulvectomy (to the vagina and vulva, respectively), while males may undergo penectomy or orchiectomy (removal of the penis and testicles, respectively). Reconstructive surgery may be performed to restore what was lost, often with techniques similar to those used in sex reassignment surgery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36792950", "title": "Transgender hormone therapy", "section": "Section::::Requirements.:Eligibility.:ICD-10.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 253, "text": "BULLET::::- Have persistent denial relating to their anatomy. This can be shown through a belief that they will grow up to be the opposite sex, that their genitals are disgusting or will disappear, or that it would be better not to have their genitals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53858250", "title": "Non-consensual condom removal", "section": "Section::::Impact and risks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 366, "text": "Removing or damaging a condom during sex increases the risks of pregnancy and the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Victims may feel betrayal and many victims see it as a \"grave violation of dignity and autonomy\". Many may also experience emotional and psychological distress, especially those who have experienced sexual violence in the past.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "320379", "title": "Rape of males", "section": "Section::::Effects.:Physical effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 529, "text": "The data from hospital emergency rooms show that male rape victims are more likely to have non-genital injuries than females, and that they are more likely to neglect seeking medical attention if the injuries are not significant. Hodge and Canter (1998) report that homosexual male victims are more likely to sustain serious injuries than heterosexual male victims. Sometimes victims become infected by a sexually transmitted disease as the result of rape, but it is infrequent and includes only a small portion of male victims.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19196455", "title": "Douche", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 590, "text": "Douching after intercourse is estimated to reduce the chances of conception by only about 30%. In comparison, proper male condom use reduces the chance of conception by as much as 98%. In some cases douching may force the ejaculate further into the vagina, increasing the chance of pregnancy. A review of studies by researchers at the University of Rochester Medical Center (N.Y.) showed that women who douched regularly and later became pregnant had higher rates of ectopic pregnancy, infections, and low birth weight infants than women who only douched occasionally or who never douched.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I think there already is at least one strain of ebola that is airborne, but is harmless to humans. Ebola Reston or something. Thank you Hotzone.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think there already is at least one strain of ebola that is airborne, but is harmless to humans. Ebola Reston or something. Thank you Hotzone.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43335980", "title": "Gene drive", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Disease vector species.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 298, "text": "One possible application is to genetically modify mosquitoes and other disease vectors so that they cannot transmit diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Researchers claimed that by applying the technique to 1% of the wild population of mosquitoes, they could eradicate malaria within a year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43955674", "title": "Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone", "section": "Section::::History of Ebola in Sierra Leone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 632, "text": "Even after a successful recovery from an Ebola infection, semen may contain the virus for at least two months. Breast milk may contain the virus for two weeks after recovery, and transmission of the disease to a consumer of the breast milk may be possible. By October 2014 it was suspected that handling a piece of contaminated paper may be enough to contract the disease. Contamination on paper makes it harder to keep records in Ebola clinics, as data about patients written on paper that gets written down in a \"hot\" zone is hard to pass to a \"safe\" zone, because if there is any contamination it may bring Ebola into that area.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1741458", "title": "Molecular virology", "section": "Section::::Viral pathogenesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 382, "text": "In order for the viral disease to develop several steps need to be taken. First, the virus has to enter the body and implant itself into a tissue ( e.g. respiratory tissue). Second, the virus has to reproduce extracellular after invading in order to make ample copies of itself. Third, the synthesized viruses must spread throughout the body via circulatory systems or nerve cells.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40817806", "title": "Zaire ebolavirus", "section": "Section::::Genome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1027, "text": "It was found that 472 nucleotides from the 3' end and 731 nucleotides from the 5' end are sufficient for replication of a viral \"minigenome\", though not sufficient for infection. Virus sequencing from 78 patients with confirmed Ebola virus disease, representing more than 70% of cases diagnosed in Sierra Leone from late May to mid-June 2014, provided evidence that the 2014 outbreak was no longer being fed by new contacts with its natural reservoir. Using third-generation sequencing technology, investigators were able to sequence samples as quickly as 48 hours. Like other RNA viruses, Ebola virus mutates rapidly, both within a person during the progression of disease and in the reservoir among the local human population. The observed mutation rate of 2.0 x 10 substitutions per site per year is as fast as that of seasonal influenza. This is likely to represent incomplete purifying selection as the virus is repeatedly passed from human to human, and may pose challenges for the development of a vaccine to the virus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40817806", "title": "Zaire ebolavirus", "section": "Section::::Replication.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 918, "text": "Being acellular, viruses such as Ebola do not replicate through any type of cell division; rather, they use a combination of host- and virally encoded enzymes, alongside host cell structures, to produce multiple copies of themselves. These then self-assemble into viral macromolecular structures in the host cell. The virus completes a set of steps when infecting each individual cell. The virus begins its attack by attaching to host receptors through the glycoprotein (GP) surface peplomer and is endocytosed into macropinosomes in the host cell. To penetrate the cell, the viral membrane fuses with vesicle membrane, and the nucleocapsid is released into the cytoplasm. Encapsidated, negative-sense genomic ssRNA is used as a template for the synthesis (3'-5') of polyadenylated, monocistronic mRNAs and, using the host cell's ribosomes, tRNA molecules, etc., the mRNA is translated into individual viral proteins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1891639", "title": "Salmon isavirus", "section": "Section::::Transmission.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 267, "text": "The virus is spread by contact with infected fish or their secretions, or contact with equipment or people who have handled infected fish. The virus can survive in seawater, so a major risk factor for any uninfected farm is its proximity to an already infected farm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6599910", "title": "Gene delivery", "section": "Section::::Methods.:Viral delivery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 338, "text": "Viral vector based gene delivery uses a viral vector to deliver genetic material to the host cell. This is done by using a virus that contains the desired gene and removing the part of the viruses genome that is infectious. Viruses are efficient at delivering genetic material to the host cell's nucleus, which is vital for replication. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's mostly just dissolving solid mateirals into the hot water. Then, they diffuse.\n\nSo, chemically, it's pretty much the same as mixing sugar, salt, whatever into water.\n\nThe compounds become solvated and form hydrogen bonds, then can diffuse through the water.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "29719481", "title": "Extraction (chemistry)", "section": "Section::::Modern variations and Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 231, "text": "Boiling tea leaves in water extracts the tannins, theobromine, and caffeine out of the leaves and into the water. Solid-liquid extractions at laboratory scales can use Soxhlet extractors (such as oil from olive cake see at right).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "265020", "title": "Bai people", "section": "Section::::Tea Ceremony.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 530, "text": "The first tea course starts with baking the tea leaves in a clay pot over a small flame, shaking the leaves often whilst they bake. When they turn slightly brown and give off a distinct fragrance, heated water is added to the pot. The water should immediately begin bubbling. When the bubbling ceases a small amount of bitterly fragrant, concentrated tea remains. Due to the sound the hot water makes when it enters the clay pot the first course tea was, in previous times, also known as Lei Xiang Cha 雷响茶 (Sound of Thunder Tea).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2167759", "title": "Chrysanthemum tea", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 870, "text": "Chrysanthemum tea is a flower-based infusion beverage made from chrysanthemum flowers of the species \"Chrysanthemum morifolium\" or \"Chrysanthemum indicum\", which are most popular in East Asia, especially China. To prepare the tea, chrysanthemum flowers (usually dried) are steeped in hot water (usually 90 to 95 degrees Celsius after cooling from a boil) in either a teapot, cup, or glass; often rock sugar or cane sugar is also added, and occasionally also wolfberries. The resulting drink is transparent and ranges from pale to bright yellow in color, with a floral aroma. In Chinese tradition, once a pot of chrysanthemum tea has been drunk, hot water is typically added again to the flowers in the pot (producing a tea that is slightly less strong); this process is often repeated several times. Chrysanthemum tea was first drunk during the Song Dynasty (960–1279).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6931501", "title": "Kahwah", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 322, "text": "The tea is made by boiling green tea leaves with saffron strands, cinnamon bark, cardamom pods, and occasionally Kashmiri roses to add a great aroma. Generally, it is served with sugar or honey and crushed nuts, usually almonds or walnuts. Some varieties are made as an herbal infusion only, without the green tea leaves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8444939", "title": "Canned tea", "section": "Section::::Tea.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 482, "text": "Tea is a beverage made by steeping processed leaves, buds, or twigs of the plant Camellia sinensis in hot water for a few minutes. The processing can include oxidation (called \"fermentation\" in the tea industry), heating, drying and the addition of herbs, flowers, spices and fruits. There are four main types of tea: black, oolong, green, and white. Tea is a natural source of caffeine, theophylline, theanine, and antioxidants; but it has almost no fat, carbohydrates, or protein\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2638560", "title": "Butter tea", "section": "Section::::Customs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 273, "text": "The concentrate, produced by repeatedly boiling tea leaves, will keep for several days and is commonly used in towns. The tea is then combined with salt and butter in a special tea churn (), and churned vigorously before serving hot. Now an electric blender is often used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2638560", "title": "Butter tea", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 531, "text": "Another method is to boil water and add handfuls of the tea into the water, which is allowed to steep until it turns almost black. Salt is then added, along with a little soda if wanted. The tea is then strained through a horse-hair or reed colander into a wooden butter churn, and a large lump of butter is added. This is then churned until the tea reaches the proper consistency and transferred to copper pots that sit on a brazier to keep them warm. When a churn is not available, a wooden bowl and rapid stirring will suffice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Astronomers like Julian dates because they make math simpler for events that don't have anything to do with the Earth year. If a variable star has a period of 270 days, it is a lot easier to add subtract 270 than it is to count through all the months to figure the exact date.\n\nWhy 4713 BC? It is pretty arbitrary, but it is useful because it predates any historical events, so you don't have the BC/AD problem. \n\nThe reason for that particular date is pretty obscure. When they came up with it in the 1500's, there was a 15 year cycle, a 19 year cycle, and a 28 year cycle astronomers cared about. 4713 BC was the last time all three cycles started at the same time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38007", "title": "Julian day", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1126, "text": "The term \"Julian date\" may also refer, outside of astronomy, to the day-of-year number (more properly, the ordinal date) in the Gregorian calendar, especially in computer programming, the military and the food industry, or it may refer to dates in the Julian calendar. For example, if a given \"Julian date\" is \"October 5, 1582\", this means that date in the Julian calendar (which was October 15, 1582, in the Gregorian calendar—the date it was first established). Without an astronomical or historical context, a \"Julian date\" given as \"36\" most likely means the 36th day of a given Gregorian year, namely February 5. Other possible meanings of a \"Julian date\" of \"36\" include an astronomical Julian Day Number, or the year AD 36 in the Julian calendar, or a duration of 36 astronomical Julian years). This is why the terms \"ordinal date\" or \"day-of-year\" are preferred. In contexts where a \"Julian date\" means simply an ordinal date, calendars of a Gregorian year with formatting for ordinal dates are often called \"\"Julian calendars\"\", but this could also mean that the calendars are of years in the Julian calendar system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38007", "title": "Julian day", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 679, "text": "Historical Julian dates were recorded relative to GMT or Ephemeris Time, but the International Astronomical Union now recommends that Julian dates be specified in Terrestrial Time, and that when necessary to specify Julian dates using a different time scale, that the time scale used be indicated when required, such as JD(UT1). The fraction of the day is found by converting the number of hours, minutes, and seconds after noon into the equivalent decimal fraction. Time intervals calculated from differences of Julian Dates specified in non-uniform time scales, such as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), may need to be corrected for changes in time scales (e.g. leap seconds).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38007", "title": "Julian day", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 570, "text": "The French mathematician and astronomer Pierre-Simon Laplace first expressed the time of day as a decimal fraction added to calendar dates in his book, \"\", in 1799. Other astronomers added fractions of the day to the Julian day number to create Julian Dates, which are typically used by astronomers to date astronomical observations, thus eliminating the complications resulting from using standard calendar periods like eras, years, or months. They were first introduced into variable star work by Edward Charles Pickering, of the Harvard College Observatory, in 1890.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "730958", "title": "Julian year (astronomy)", "section": "Section::::Julian calendar distinguished.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 452, "text": "The \"Julian year\", being a uniform measure of duration, should not be confused with the variable length historical years in the Julian calendar. An astronomical Julian year is never individually numbered. Astronomers follow the same calendar conventions that are accepted in the world community: They use the Gregorian calendar for events since its introduction on (or later, depending on country), and the Julian calendar for events before that date.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27760969", "title": "Barycentric Julian Date", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 496, "text": "The Barycentric Julian Date (BJD) is the Julian Date (JD) corrected for differences in the Earth's position with respect to the barycentre of the Solar System. Due to the finite speed of light, the time an astronomical event is observed depends on the changing position of the observer in the Solar System. Before multiple observations can be combined, they must be reduced to a common, fixed, reference location. This correction also depends on the direction to the object or event being timed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38007", "title": "Julian day", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 301, "text": "Originally the Julian Period was used only to count years, and the Julian calendar was used to express historical dates within years. In his book \"Outlines of Astronomy\", first published in 1849, the astronomer John Herschel added the counting of days elapsed from the beginning of the Julian Period:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38007", "title": "Julian day", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 252, "text": "The \"Julian day number\" is based on the \"Julian Period\" proposed by Joseph Scaliger, a classical scholar, in 1583, at the time of the Gregorian calendar reform, as it is the least common multiple of three calendar cycles used with the Julian calendar:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "From what i understand, its the power of over believeing, then realizing it has to make up the difference when it realizes some part didnt happen", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically if you believe hard enough, your body will try and make it true. Obviously it can’t do as much as a drug for testing can do, but the placebo effect is quite a powerful thing. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "981225", "title": "Nocebo", "section": "Section::::Effects.:Side effects of drugs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 713, "text": "It has been shown that, due to the nocebo effect, warning patients about side effects of drugs can contribute to the causation of such effects, whether the drug is real or not. This effect has been observed in clinical trials: according to a 2013 review, the dropout rate among placebo-treated patients in a meta-analysis of 41 clinical trials of Parkinson's disease treatments was 8.8%. A 2013 review found that nearly 1 out of 20 patients receiving a placebo in clinical trials for depression dropped out due to adverse events, which were believed to have been caused by the nocebo effect. A 2018 review found that half of patients taking placebos in clinical trials report intervention-related adverse events.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "142821", "title": "Placebo", "section": "Section::::Effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 815, "text": "Measuring the extent of the placebo effect is difficult due to confounding factors. By contrast, placebos do not appear to affect the actual diseases. For example, a patient may feel better after taking a placebo due to regression to the mean (i.e. a natural recovery or change in symptoms). It is harder still to tell the difference between the placebo effect and the effects of response bias, observer bias and other flaws in trial methodology, as a trial comparing placebo treatment and no treatment will not be a blinded experiment. In their 2010 meta-analysis of the placebo effect, Asbjørn Hróbjartsson and Peter C. Gøtzsche argue that \"even if there were no true effect of placebo, one would expect to record differences between placebo and no-treatment groups due to bias associated with lack of blinding.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "981225", "title": "Nocebo", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 974, "text": "A nocebo effect is said to occur when negative expectations of the patient regarding a treatment cause the treatment to have a more negative effect than it otherwise would have. For example, when a patient anticipates a side effect of a medication, they can suffer that effect even if the \"medication\" is actually an inert substance. The complementary concept, the \"placebo\" effect, is said to occur when positive expectations improve an outcome. Both placebo and nocebo effects are presumably psychogenic, but they can induce measurable changes in the body. One article that reviewed 31 studies on nocebo effects reported a wide range of symptoms that could manifest as nocebo effects including nausea, stomach pains, itching, bloating, depression, sleep problems, loss of appetite, sexual dysfunction and severe hypotension. Mental states such as beliefs and expectations can strongly influence the outcome of disease, the experience of pain, and even success of surgery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "981225", "title": "Nocebo", "section": "Section::::Response.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 775, "text": "The worsening of the subject's symptoms or reduction of beneficial effects is a direct consequence of their exposure to the placebo, but those symptoms have not been chemically generated by the placebo. Because this generation of symptoms entails a complex of \"subject-internal\" activities, in the strictest sense, we can never speak in terms of simulator-centered \"nocebo effects\", but only in terms of subject-centered \"nocebo responses\". Although some observers attribute nocebo responses (or placebo responses) to a subject's gullibility, there is no evidence that an individual who manifests a nocebo/placebo response to one treatment will manifest a nocebo/placebo response to any other treatment; i.e., there is no fixed nocebo/placebo-responding trait or propensity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26370510", "title": "Levomilnacipran", "section": "Section::::Side effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 305, "text": "Side effects seen more often with levomilnacipran than with placebo in clinical trials included nausea, dizziness, sweating, constipation, insomnia, increased heart rate and blood pressure, urinary hesitancy, erectile dysfunction and delayed ejaculation in males, vomiting, tachycardia, and palpitations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54424256", "title": "Sofosbuvir/velpatasvir", "section": "Section::::Side effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 290, "text": "Common side effects (in more than 10% of people) are headache, fatigue and nausea. In studies, severe side effects were experienced in 3% of patients, and 0.2% terminated the therapy because of adverse events. These effects occurred with similar frequencies in people treated with placebo.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "142821", "title": "Placebo", "section": "Section::::Effects.:Negative effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 498, "text": "A phenomenon opposite to the placebo effect has also been observed. When an inactive substance or treatment is administered to a recipient who has an expectation of it having a \"negative\" impact, this intervention is known as a nocebo (Latin \"nocebo\" = \"I shall harm\"). A nocebo effect occurs when the recipient of an inert substance reports a negative effect or a worsening of symptoms, with the outcome resulting not from the substance itself, but from negative expectations about the treatment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you look at the etymology, 'tele' is Ancient Greek for 'far away'. So a 'telescope' is something used to look at things 'far away'. \n\n\nIf it was a 'macroscope', it'd be used to look at big things. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's not the opposite of a microscope. Both tools magnify images. The opposite of a microscope would be a fisheye lens.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "117534", "title": "Optical microscope", "section": "Section::::Types.:Regular microscope.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 337, "text": "A regular microscope uses a lens or set of lenses to enlarge an object through angular magnification alone, giving the viewer an erect enlarged virtual image. The use of a single convex lens or groups of lenses are found in simple magnification devices such as the magnifying glass, loupes, and eyepieces for telescopes and microscopes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22483", "title": "Optics", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Human eye.:Optical instruments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 123, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 123, "end_character": 845, "text": "Microscopes were first developed with just two lenses: an objective lens and an eyepiece. The objective lens is essentially a magnifying glass and was designed with a very small focal length while the eyepiece generally has a longer focal length. This has the effect of producing magnified images of close objects. Generally, an additional source of illumination is used since magnified images are dimmer due to the conservation of energy and the spreading of light rays over a larger surface area. Modern microscopes, known as \"compound microscopes\" have many lenses in them (typically four) to optimize the functionality and enhance image stability. A slightly different variety of microscope, the comparison microscope, looks at side-by-side images to produce a stereoscopic binocular view that appears three dimensional when used by humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8603", "title": "Diffraction", "section": "Section::::Diffraction of light.:Diffraction-limited imaging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 254, "text": "Thus, the larger the aperture of the lens, and the smaller the wavelength, the finer the resolution of an imaging system. This is why telescopes have very large lenses or mirrors, and why optical microscopes are limited in the detail which they can see.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "603273", "title": "Magnification", "section": "Section::::Examples of magnification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 283, "text": "BULLET::::- A microscope, which makes a small object appear as a much larger image at a comfortable distance for viewing. A microscope is similar in layout to a telescope except that the object being viewed is close to the objective, which is usually much smaller than the eyepiece.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19568", "title": "Microscope", "section": "Section::::Types.:Optical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 977, "text": "The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the optical microscope. This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane. Optical microscopes have refractive glass (occasionally plastic or quartz), to focus light on the eye or on to another light detector. Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1250x with a theoretical resolution limit of around 0.250 micrometres or 250 nanometres. This limits practical magnification to ~1500x. Specialized techniques (e.g., scanning confocal microscopy, Vertico SMI) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is diffraction limited. The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the near-field scanning optical microscope.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "266611", "title": "Optical telescope", "section": "Section::::Principles.:Inverted images.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 935, "text": "Most telescope designs produce an inverted image at the focal plane; these are referred to as \"inverting telescopes\". In fact, the image is both turned upside down and reversed left to right, so that altogether it is rotated by 180 degrees from the object orientation. In astronomical telescopes the rotated view is normally not corrected, since it does not affect how the telescope is used. However, a mirror diagonal is often used to place the eyepiece in a more convenient viewing location, and in that case the image is erect, but still reversed left to right. In terrestrial telescopes such as spotting scopes, monoculars and binoculars, prisms (e.g., Porro prisms) or a relay lens between objective and eyepiece are used to correct the image orientation. There are telescope designs that do not present an inverted image such as the Galilean refractor and the Gregorian reflector. These are referred to as \"erecting telescopes\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "102858", "title": "Cell theory", "section": "Section::::Microscopes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 381, "text": "Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because Java is everywhere! The more popular something is the more it will be exploited. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16389", "title": "Java virtual machine", "section": "Section::::JVM specification.:Bytecode verifier.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 709, "text": "A basic philosophy of Java is that it is inherently safe from the standpoint that no user program can crash the host machine or otherwise interfere inappropriately with other operations on the host machine, and that it is possible to protect certain methods and data structures belonging to trusted code from access or corruption by untrusted code executing within the same JVM. Furthermore, common programmer errors that often led to data corruption or unpredictable behavior such as accessing off the end of an array or using an uninitialized pointer are not allowed to occur. Several features of Java combine to provide this safety, including the class model, the garbage-collected heap, and the verifier.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4718446", "title": "Java (software platform)", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:Security.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 512, "text": "In recent years, researchers have discovered numerous security flaws in some widely used Java implementations, including Oracle's, which allow untrusted code to bypass the sandboxing mechanism, exposing users to malicious attacks. These flaws affect only Java applications which execute arbitrary untrusted bytecode, such as web browser plug-ins that run Java applets downloaded from public websites. Applications where the user trusts, and has full control over, all code that is being executed are unaffected.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4718446", "title": "Java (software platform)", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:Security.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 110, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 110, "end_character": 268, "text": "On January 10, 2013, three computer specialists spoke out against Java, telling Reuters that it was not secure and that people should disable Java. Jaime Blasco, Labs Manager with AlienVault Labs, stated that \"Java is a mess. It’s not secure. You have to disable it.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38680880", "title": "Java security", "section": "Section::::Potential sources of security vulnerabilities in Java applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 273, "text": "A vulnerability in the Java platform will not necessarily make all Java applications vulnerable. When vulnerabilities and patches are announced, for example by Oracle, the announcement will normally contain a breakdown of which types of application are affected (example).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38680880", "title": "Java security", "section": "Section::::Criticism of security manager.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 352, "text": "The security manager in the Java platform (which, as mentioned above, is designed to allow the user to safely run untrusted bytecode) has been criticized in recent years for making users vulnerable to malware, especially in web browser plugins which execute Java applets downloaded from public websites, more informally known as \"Java in the browser\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10933", "title": "Functional programming", "section": "Section::::Concepts.:Functional programming in non-functional languages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 551, "text": "In Java, anonymous classes can sometimes be used to simulate closures; however, anonymous classes are not always proper replacements to closures because they have more limited capabilities. Java 8 supports lambda expressions as a replacement for some anonymous classes. However, the presence of checked exceptions in Java can make functional programming inconvenient, because it can be necessary to catch checked exceptions and then rethrow them—a problem that does not occur in other JVM languages that do not have checked exceptions, such as Scala.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4718446", "title": "Java (software platform)", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:Security.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 454, "text": "The Java platform provides a security architecture which is designed to allow the user to run untrusted bytecode in a \"sandboxed\" manner to protect against malicious or poorly written software. This \"sandboxing\" feature is intended to protect the user by restricting access to certain platform features and APIs which could be exploited by malware, such as accessing the local filesystem, running arbitrary commands, or accessing communication networks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Carl Sagan did a pretty good ELI5 on this topic.](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"Imagine a 3D cube. Now add one dimension\" -- mathematicians", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Like a 3D cube casts a [2D shadow](_URL_0_), a 4D cube casts a 3D shadow, so [that shape you often see representing a hypercube](_URL_1_) is actually the 3D shadow of a 4D cube.\n\nAnother fun fact is if you drew on a 4D piece of paper you would actually be able to draw in 3 dimensions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Let's first get a grasp of what a \"dimension\" is in geometry. \"Dimension\" sounds like a big word and is sometimes used to mean something like \"world\" or \"universe\" when people talk about \"alternate dimensions\" and so on, but it's actually a fairly simple concept in geometry and mathematics in general.\n\n\nLet's have a look at some examples to figure it out:\n\n\nIs there such a thing as a 0-dimensional object? Yes! A point. \nHere we are talking about the geometrically perfect point. So perfect that we cannot even draw it with our imperfect tools. If you try to measure how wide a geometrically perfect point is, you can't. It's just a single pixel. It is so tiny that it has no width/height/breadth, you can assign no number to it. It has no dimensions.\n\n\nNow, how can you make a 1D object from this? The answer: You add another point and connect both with a lot of really close points to form a line (it's actually an infinite amount of points).\nUnlike the point, you can measure a line with a ruler, but this only works in one \"way\", along the line's width. A geometrically perfect line has no height and no breadth. It is a 1-dimensional object, you can only measure it in one way, in one dimension. Why is the dimension we measure the line's width? Well, that's just convention, a name we decided to give it. It really does not matter if you call that measurement width, breadth or height. That's just the way people decided they would call it.\n\n\nLet's progress to 2D now. To make a 2D object you take the line from before and make a copy of it a little further away. Then you connect both lines with additional lines. The object you created is an area. An area is a 2-dimensional object, so you can measure it in two ways. You can measure its width and its breadth.\n\n\nFurther to 3D: Take the area from before, add a copy of it and connect both areas with additional areas. Suddenly, you have a volume, which is a 3D object. You can measure width, breadth and height of this object, because it has three dimensions.\n\n\nNotice how for every transition to a higher dimension, we used several copies of the object in the lower dimension to create the object in the higher dimension. To make a line we used a bunch of points. To make an area we used a bunch of lines. To make a volume we used a bunch of areas... so mathematicians figured out: To make a 4D object, we need to use a bunch of 3D objects!\nThis is how a hypercube is drawn. You take a 3D cube, and place another 3D cube near it. Then you connect both cubes using other 3D objects.\n\n\nThis was all probably a bit difficult to visualize in your head, so [here's a nifty animation](_URL_1_) showing you what I just described in this post. Also, [here's an additional non-animated picture](_URL_0_).\n\n\nUsing the same principle you can go beyond 4D and do this for 5D, 6D, etc. The results get increasingly difficult to visualize both because our brains are not able to handle the images and because we can only use 2D images (flat screen of your computer or a sheet of paper) or possibly 3D toy models to represent the multi-dimensional objects. You can certainly imagine it's a difficult task to do.\n\n\nBut what is this all good for? Why would anyone need a 4D, 5D, 6D or whatever-D object? This seems like a mathematical curiosity at best. However, there are many practical uses and I will explain them in the following with a simple example.\n\n\nBefore, I kept mentioning how each dimension adds a measurable quantity to our objects. We commonly say that our world is 3D, because it has the measurable quantities of breadth, width and height. \nHowever, if you stop to think about it, there are a lot of other things you can measure: There's time, which is often called the \"fourth dimension\", but you can also measure more simple things like the amount of money you have, how many green apples you bought and how many red apples you bought.\nEach of these things you can assign a number to, can be thought of as a dimension in mathematics. Keep in mind that this concept of dimension is a bit different from the purely geometrical one, where each dimension corresponds to an object's size.\n\n\nThis different take on dimensions is mathematically really useful if you're trying to track changes in several distinct things, or variables.\nFor example, a farmer might be interested in how much food and water his cows consume, how much milk they produce, how much they have to poop, how much space they take up, how often they get ill and so on... in total, the farmer has to keep track of six variables (food, water, milk, poop, space, illness), he's dealing with six dimensions. Thanks to those crazy mathematicians that invented formulas for 6D objects, the farmer can apply the same formulas to the variables influencing his cows. This way he can find out how to best feed them so they do not get ill and produce the maximum amount of milk, while keeping the amount of poop as low as possible.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is probably the best video I have seen if you want to try and visualise 4D:\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Adventure Time actually ELI5 in the episode \"[The Real You](_URL_0_)\":\n\n\"This 2-dimensional bubble casts a 1-dimensional shadow. A 3-dimensional bubble casts a 2-dimensional shadow. A 4-dimensional bubble casts a 3-dimensional shadow!\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Dimensions are simply directions.\n\nNow, imagine two dimensions. You could draw two lines following each dimension, and you'd have a square.\n\nWith one dimension, the equivalant would be a line. With 0 dimensions, the equivalent would be a point.\n\nWith three dimensions, the equivalent is a cube.\n\nThink of it like this.\n\nAt 0 dimensions, you have a point. When you move this point through one dimension, it makes a line. When you move that line through a dimension at a right angle to it, it makes a square. If you move that square at a right angle to both dimensions, you make a cube.\n\nSo when you move a cube through a dimension at a right angle to all three dimensions, you get a hypercube.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39783", "title": "Hypercube", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 368, "text": "In geometry, a hypercube is an \"n\"-dimensional analogue of a square () and a cube (). It is a closed, compact, convex figure whose 1-skeleton consists of groups of opposite parallel line segments aligned in each of the space's dimensions, perpendicular to each other and of the same length. A unit hypercube's longest diagonal in \"n\" dimensions is equal to formula_1.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "787776", "title": "Curse of dimensionality", "section": "Section::::Domains.:Distance functions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 245, "text": "In this sense, nearly all of the high-dimensional space is \"far away\" from the centre. To put it another way, the high-dimensional unit hypercube can be said to consist almost entirely of the \"corners\" of the hypercube, with almost no \"middle\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6285", "title": "Cube", "section": "Section::::Other dimensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 330, "text": "The analogue of a cube in four-dimensional Euclidean space has a special name—a tesseract or hypercube. More properly, a hypercube (or \"n\"-dimensional cube or simply \"n\"-cube) is the analogue of the cube in \"n\"-dimensional Euclidean space and a tesseract is the order-4 hypercube. A hypercube is also called a \"measure polytope\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2851410", "title": "Five-dimensional space", "section": "Section::::Five-dimensional geometry.:Hypersphere.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 232, "text": "A hypersphere in 5-space (also called a 4-sphere due to its surface being 4-dimensional) consists of the set of all points in 5-space at a fixed distance \"r\" from a central point P. The hypervolume enclosed by this hypersurface is:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39783", "title": "Hypercube", "section": "Section::::Coordinates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 255, "text": "An \"n\"-dimensional hypercube is also often regarded as the convex hull of all sign permutations of the coordinates formula_3. This form is often chosen due to ease of writing out the coordinates. Its edge length is 2, and its \"n\"-dimensional volume is 2.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1364622", "title": "Four-dimensional space", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 451, "text": "A four-dimensional space or 4D space is a mathematical extension of the concept of three-dimensional or 3D space. Three-dimensional space is the simplest possible abstraction of the observation that one only needs three numbers, called \"dimensions\", to describe the sizes or locations of objects in the everyday world. For example, the volume of a rectangular box is found by measuring its length, width, and height (often labeled \"x\", \"y\", and \"z\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39783", "title": "Hypercube", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 269, "text": "An \"n\"-dimensional hypercube is more commonly referred to as an n\"-cube or sometimes as an n\"-dimensional cube. The term measure polytope (originally from Elte, 1912) is also used, notably in the work of H. S. M. Coxeter who also labels the hypercubes the γ polytopes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The propane needs oxygen to be able to burn (burning is just chemically combining with an oxidizer), and there's no oxygen in the hose. As long as the pressure is such that the propane is constantly pushed out, then oxygen can't get in, and the propane in the hose can't burn.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Two reasons: The outward flow of the gas pushes the hot area away from the opening, and propane needs oxygen to burn. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "there is no special mechanism there is just no oxygen in the tank for the fire to breath. fire needs fuel (like wood or in this case propane) oxygen (to breath) and an ignition source (which would be a lighter on the gas stove) without oxygen it has fuel and an ignition but can go where there isnt oxygen so stays where there is.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Based on answers in this thread:\nDoes this mean that there is likewise no risk of igniting a can of deodorant, when blowing fire igniting the outburst of gas?\n\nAs a kid, my mom always told me that this was the reason you should not do that, and would like to know if there is no need for taking cover every time I see some dude burning bugs :). \n\nSorry for my english", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Propane tanks have a few things that keep this from happening. First is the safety valve that is build in to a lot of propane tanks.\n\nSecond is that the lack of oxidizer\n\nThird is that the outward force of propane is sufficient to repel air.\n\nLastly and I know this is true with bunson burners and other lab equipment. The gas in the line has a very low pressure making it hard to to get a high enough concentration to combust. The spout that the flame comes out of is the only part that needs to be pressurized to prevent damage.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "21 comments on a topic involving Propane. None of them mention Hank Hill.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12249109", "title": "Sustainable automotive air conditioning", "section": "Section::::Arguments.:Arguments against non-CO refrigerants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 283, "text": "Butane and propane are very flammable petroleum products; they are used as fuels for gas barbecue grills, disposable lighters, etc. Like gasoline, to which it chemically is closely related, propane has a tendency to explode if mixed with oxygen and ignited in an enclosed container.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23643", "title": "Propane", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 559, "text": "Propane is a popular choice for barbecues and portable stoves because the low boiling point of makes it vaporize as soon as it is released from its pressurized container. Therefore, no carburetor or other vaporizing device is required; a simple metering nozzle suffices. Propane powers buses, forklifts, taxis, outboard boat motors, and ice resurfacing machines and is used for heat and cooking in recreational vehicles and campers. Propane is also used in some locomotive diesel engines as a fuel added into the turbocharger yielding much better combustion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2725902", "title": "Paintball marker", "section": "Section::::Propellant system.:Propane.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 369, "text": "However, propane produces heat, which (when firing for an extended period at high rates of fire) can cause burns if improperly handled. It can also be a fire hazard: the Tippmann C3 releases small amounts of flames from the vents in the combustion chamber and out of the barrel when firing. If a marker develops a leak from improper maintenance, it could cause a fire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4924", "title": "Bunsen burner", "section": "Section::::Operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 612, "text": "The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the laboratory bench with rubber tubing. Most laboratory benches are equipped with multiple gas nozzles connected to a central gas source, as well as vacuum, nitrogen, and steam nozzles. The gas then flows up through the base through a small hole at the bottom of the barrel and is directed upward. There are open slots in the side of the tube bottom to admit air into the stream using the Venturi effect, and the gas burns at the top of the tube once ignited by a flame or spark. The most common methods of lighting the burner are using a match or a spark lighter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5979440", "title": "Gas burner", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 225, "text": "A gas burner is a device that produces a controlled flame by mixing a fuel gas such as acetylene, natural gas, or propane with an oxidizer such as the ambient air or supplied oxygen, and allowing for ignition and combustion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2512136", "title": "Flamethrower, Portable, No 2", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 389, "text": "In some versions the nozzle was fitted with a 10-chambered cylinder which contained the ignition cartridges. These could be fired once, each giving the operator 10 bursts of flame. In practice this gave 10 one-second bursts. It was also possible to spray fuel without igniting it to ensure there was plenty splashed around the target, then fire an ignited burst to light up the whole lot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "770768", "title": "Liquid fuel", "section": "Section::::Petroleums.:Gasoline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1020, "text": "Liquid gasoline itself is not actually burned, but its fumes ignite, causing the remaining liquid to evaporate and then burn. Gasoline is extremely volatile and easily combusts, making any leakage potentially extremely dangerous. Gasoline sold in most countries carries a published octane rating. The octane number is an empirical measure of the resistance of gasoline to combusting prematurely, known as knocking. The higher the octane rating, the more resistant the fuel is to autoignition under high pressures, which allows for a higher compression ratio. Engines with a higher compression ratio, commonly used in race cars and high-performance regular-production automobiles, can produce more power; however, such engines require a higher octane fuel. Increasing the octane rating has, in the past, been achieved by adding 'anti-knock' additives such as lead-tetra-ethyl. Because of the environmental impact of lead additives, the octane rating is increased today by refining out the impurities that cause knocking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sorry you're incorrect, pearly penile papules are not a \"condition\" they are 100% normal, and are considered a simple anatomical variation. Please do not mistake these as any kind of STD or a vestigial form of a penis spines as they are histologically very different (keratinized epithelial vs vascularized connective tissue) \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sadly, almost any and all explanations we give at this point is speculation. Figuring out the evolutionary \"reason\" is very tricky.\n\nThe wikipedia article points out that the bone aids in prolonging intercourse. A popular, reasonably supported hypothesis concerning the purpose of engaging in prolonged, energetically costly intercourse is to pump out the sperm of other males from the vagina. One might speculate that human monogamy could make the bone unnecessary...that is certainly what some guy editing wikipedia seems to think.\n\nPersonally, I highly doubt that this is the full story. Humans are not nearly monogamous enough for the structure to disappear entirely without some selective pressure against having the bone. The promiscuous bonobos have pretty small baculums (as do most apes)...and they don't even engage in mate guarding (jealous behavior).\n\nHonestly, the first thing I thought of when I read this question? If the human penis had a bone running through it, it could be easily injured. Considering our upright posture it would be pretty easy to damage the exposed, brittle structure. A flaccid penis will bend and not break in response to trauma. Having your penis break during sex is *already* a thing that happens...imagine what would happen if you had a thin little bone there? Animals which do not spend much time upright won't really ever have to worry about trauma to that area.\n\nBut...yeah, I realize that's complete speculation. Feel free to down-vote or remove if it violates the guidelines...but I really don't think it's more speculative than any other answer this question can hope to get.\n\nRegarding the spines...well, apparently the mild injury to the vagina triggers ovulation in in some species (like cats). Humans menstrual cycles are pretty constant regardless of mating activity...that may have something to do with it. Don't believe the pop-sci articles which tell you that \"losing the spines causes longer lasting sex, which is beneficial in monogamy\"...because monogamy would make long lasting sex a waste of energy for both parties. It still may be a result of selection for longer lasting sex...but reduced promiscuity likely is *not* a factor in that selection.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36355545", "title": "Penile spines", "section": "Section::::Humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 545, "text": "In the primate line, a regulatory DNA sequence associated with the formation of small keratinized penile spines was lost. This simplification of penis anatomy may be associated with the sexual habits of humans. In some species which retain the full expression of penile spines, penile spines contribute to increased sexual sensation and quicker orgasms. An hCONDEL (highly conserved region of DNA that contains deletions in humans) located near the locus of the androgen receptor gene may be responsible for the loss of penile spines in humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2809404", "title": "Hirsuties coronae glandis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 751, "text": "Hirsuties coronae glandis (also known as hirsutoid papillomas and pearly penile papules; PPP) are small protuberances that may form on the ridge of the glans of the human penis. They are a form of acral angiofibromas. They are a normal anatomical variation in humans and are sometimes described as vestigial remnants of penile spines, sensitive features found in the same location in other primates. In species in which penile spines are expressed, as well as in humans who have them, the spines are thought to contribute to sexual pleasure and quicker orgasms. It has been theorized that pearly penile papules stimulate the female vagina during sexual intercourse. In addition, pearly penile papules secrete oil that moistens the glans of the penis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "195216", "title": "Phimosis", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 253, "text": "Phimosis in older children and adults can vary in severity, with some able to retract their foreskin partially (relative phimosis), while others are completely unable to retract their foreskin, even when the penis is in a flaccid state (full phimosis).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "195216", "title": "Phimosis", "section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 310, "text": "The most acute complication is paraphimosis. In this condition, the glans is swollen and painful, and the foreskin is immobilized by the swelling in a partially retracted position. The proximal penis is flaccid. Some studies found phimosis to be a risk factor for urinary retention and carcinoma of the penis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49084", "title": "Glans penis", "section": "Section::::In humans.:Clinical significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 503, "text": "Inflammation of the glans penis is known as balanitis, and, occurs in 3–11% of males (up to 35% of diabetic males). Edwards reported that it is generally more common in males who have poor hygiene habits or have not been circumcised. It has many causes, including irritation, or infection with a wide variety of pathogens. Careful identification of the cause with the aid of patient history, physical examination, swabs and cultures, and biopsy are essential in order to determine the proper treatment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "991066", "title": "Baculum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 496, "text": "The baculum (also penis bone, penile bone, or os penis, or os priapi) is a bone found in the penis of many placental mammals. It is absent in the human penis, but present in the penises of other primates, such as the gorilla and chimpanzee. The bone is located above the male urethra, and it aids sexual reproduction by maintaining sufficient stiffness during sexual penetration. The homologue to the baculum in female mammals is known as the baubellum or os clitoridis – a bone in the clitoris.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "383494", "title": "Hypospadias", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 438, "text": "In most cases, the foreskin is less developed and does not wrap completely around the penis, leaving the underside of the glans uncovered. Also, a downward bending of the penis, commonly referred to as chordee, may occur. Chordee is found in 10% of distal hypospadias and 50% of proximal hypospadias cases at the time of surgery. Also, the scrotum may be higher than usual on either side of the penis (called penoscrotal transposition). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Would [Yokota Air Base](_URL_2_) count, perhaps? Or [Incirlik AB](_URL_0_)? Military personell often go off-base for shopping and tourism, leading to a lot of multilingual fun in those areas.\n\nA little less recently, I think [South Africa](_URL_1_) counts as a nice coexistance (linguistically, not culturally). [Afrikaans](_URL_3_), of course, is what remains of that linguistic coexistance today - languages will usually combine when they stay together long enough.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Are French and English too similar for your tastes?\n\nBecause otherwise I'd cast you gaze upon the Canada", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Dutch and french in Belgium?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Many of North America's Indian nations, like the Iroquois and Creek Confederacies, were multiethnic alliances. \n\nThe Basque language is a unique outlier, and the Basques have a long history of reluctant and strained cooperation with the various nations they've found themselves part of.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What about Basque? Not only is it completely different from Spanish or French, it's completely unlike any Indo-European language.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Modern Ireland? Gaeilge and English are very different languages. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "English and Maori in NZ.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is extremely common.\n\nQuechua and Spanish in Peru\n\nGuarani and Spanish in Paraguay\n\nEnglish is a lingua franca through most of south eastern Papua New Guinea, where Oceanic languages are spoken.\n\nHindi/English/local languages in India\n\netc.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What about Hungary?\n\nHungarian is a very, very different language from the languages of its empire.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the Philippines, Tagalog and English are both the main languages. Tagalog, coming from the Austronesian Family (SE Asia) and we have English, which is obviously Anglo-Saxon/West German in origin. Surprisingly, it is easy for Tagalog and English speakers to learn the other language as the sounds are 'somewhat' similar. However, grammatically speaking, they're (half a world) apart, and there are hardly any similarities in sentence structure.\n\nHaving a large band of Filipinos learn English is an interesting phenomenon, as they have 'Tagalogized' many English expressions and grammar rules. Who knows what English will look like among them, say in two hundred or four hundred years from now?\n\nAnyway, probably more than you'd care to know :)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Arabic and French in Lebanon, Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The official languages of Hong Kong are English and Cantonese, both written and spoken. \n\nThe official languages of Macau are Cantonese and Portuguese.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Perhaps Welsh and English in Wales?\nWelsh is a development of old the British celtic language, wheras English is West Germanic.\n\nIt enjoys equal status within Wales as English, and it is compulsory that all schoolchildren learn it until age 16.\n\nWelsh was pretty much the only language spoken by the masses in Wales until the vast influx of English workers during the Industrial Revolution.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Let me save this thread the hassle:\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "India. The languages of northern and southern India are from completely different language families.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31273", "title": "Tocharian languages", "section": "Section::::Tocharian A and B.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 945, "text": "In their declensional and conjugational endings, the two languages innovated in divergent ways, with neither clearly simpler than the other. For example, both languages show significant innovations in the present active indicative endings but in radically different ways, so that only the second-person singular ending is directly cognate between the two languages, and in most cases neither variant is directly cognate with the corresponding Proto-Indo-European (PIE) form. The agglutinative secondary case endings in the two languages likewise stem from different sources, showing parallel development of the secondary case system after the Proto-Tocharian period. Likewise, some of the verb classes show independent origins, e.g. the class II preterite, which uses reduplication in Tocharian A (possibly from the reduplicated aorist) but long PIE \"ē\" in Tocharian B (possibly from the long-vowel perfect found in Latin \"lēgī\", \"fēcī\", etc.).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "181498", "title": "Plautdietsch language", "section": "Section::::Varieties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 543, "text": "As one might expect from a spoken language which traditionally lacked a consistent writing system, and which has been carried by speakers to several different territories where other languages prevail, several regional differences have developed. However, the major differences seem to have originated in the beginning of the 19th century in the two Mennonite settlements in New Russia (today Ukraine), known as Chortitza (Old Colony) and Molotschna (New Colony), as noted above. Some of the major differences between these two varieties are:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "243822", "title": "Agglutination", "section": "Section::::Examples of agglutinative languages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 391, "text": "On the other hand, it is also the case that some languages that have developed from agglutinative proto-languages have lost this feature. For example, contemporary Estonian, which is so closely related to Finnish that the two languages are mutually intelligible, has shifted towards the fusional type. (It has also lost other features typical of the Uralic families, such as vowel harmony.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3320752", "title": "Language barrier", "section": "Section::::Misconceptions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 365, "text": "It is sometimes assumed that when multiple languages exist in a setting, there must therefore be multiple language barriers. Multilingual societies generally have lingua francas and traditions of its members learning more than one language, an adaptation; while not entirely removing barriers of understanding, it belies the notion of impassable language barriers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14848", "title": "Indo-European languages", "section": "Section::::History of Indo-European linguistics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 508, "text": "Gaston Coeurdoux and others made observations of the same type. Coeurdoux made a thorough comparison of Sanskrit, Latin and Greek conjugations in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship among them. Meanwhile, Mikhail Lomonosov compared different language groups, including Slavic, Baltic (\"Kurlandic\"), Iranian (\"Medic\"), Finnish, Chinese, \"Hottentot\" (Khoekhoe), and others, noting that related languages (including Latin, Greek, German and Russian) must have separated in antiquity from common ancestors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "370878", "title": "Dialect continuum", "section": "Section::::Europe.:Uralic languages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 601, "text": "The other major language family in Europe besides Indo-European are the Uralic languages. The Sami languages, sometimes mistaken for a single language, are a dialect continuum, albeit with some disconnections like between North, Skolt and Inari Sami. The Baltic-Finnic languages spoken around the Gulf of Finland form a dialect continuum. Thus, although Finnish and Estonian are separate languages, there is no definite linguistic border or isogloss that separates them. Recognition of this fact is however more difficult today because many of the intervening languages have declined or gone extinct.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "159835", "title": "Fusional language", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 355, "text": "Examples of fusional Indo-European languages are: Kashmiri, Sanskrit, Pashto, New Indo-Aryan languages such as Punjabi, Hindustani, Bengali; Greek (classical and modern), Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Irish, German, Faroese, Icelandic, Albanian, all Baltic and Slavic languages. Northeast Caucasian languages are weakly fusional.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your pupils are larger at night as there's less ambient light. Bright headlights in that situation let in more light than you can handle.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "418780", "title": "Headlamp", "section": "Section::::Optical systems.:Reflector lamps.:Reflector optics.:Dual-beam reflector headlamps.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 413, "text": "Night driving is difficult and dangerous due to the blinding glare of headlights from oncoming traffic. Headlamps that satisfactorily illuminate the road ahead without causing glare have long been sought. The first solutions involved resistance-type dimming circuits, which decreased the intensity of the headlamps. This yielded to tilting reflectors, and later to dual-filament bulbs with a high and a low beam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "261105", "title": "Roadkill", "section": "Section::::Prevention.:Night driving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 571, "text": "Night time drivers should reduce speed and use high beam headlights when possible to give themselves maximum time to avoid a collision. However, when headlights approach a nocturnal animal, it is hard for the creature to see the approaching car (nocturnal animals see better in low than in bright light). Furthermore, the glare of oncoming vehicle headlights can dazzle some species, such as rabbits; they will freeze in the road rather than flee. It may be better to flash the headlights on and off, rather than leaving them on continuously while approaching an animal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "698830", "title": "Street light", "section": "Section::::Disadvantages.:Health and safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 536, "text": "BULLET::::- The loss of night vision because of the accommodation reflex of drivers' eyes is the greatest danger. As drivers emerge from an unlighted area into a pool of light from a street light their pupils quickly constrict to adjust to the brighter light, but as they leave the pool of light the dilation of their pupils to adjust to the dimmer light is much slower, so they are driving with impaired vision. As a person gets older the eye's recovery speed gets slower, so driving time and distance under impaired vision increases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7497745", "title": "Glare (vision)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 231, "text": "Glare is difficulty of seeing in the presence of bright light such as direct or reflected sunlight or artificial light such as car headlamps at night. Because of this, some cars include mirrors with automatic anti-glare functions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "698830", "title": "Street light", "section": "Section::::Purpose.:Beacon lights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 887, "text": "A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as they come closer to it and they can adjust their braking and know exactly where to turn if they intend to leave the main road or see vehicles or pedestrians. A beacon light's function is to say \"here I am\" and even a dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose. To prevent the dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways this purpose is commonly served by placing reflectors at the sides of the road.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1840504", "title": "Twilight Sentinel", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 354, "text": "An electric photocell located in the dashboard detected lighting conditions and activated the headlights as appropriate. Usually, this would mean turning on the headlights at dusk and shutting them off after sunrise. During daytime driving, the photocell would be able to keep the headlights off when driving under a bridge, through a short tunnel, etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "698830", "title": "Street light", "section": "Section::::Purpose.:Roadway lights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 905, "text": "Because of the dangers discussed above, roadway lights are properly used sparingly and only when a particular situation justifies increasing the risk. This usually involves an intersection with several turning movements and much signage, situations where drivers must take in much information quickly that is not in the headlights' beam. In these situations (A freeway junction or exit ramp) the intersection may be lit so that drivers can quickly see all hazards, and a well designed plan will have gradually increasing lighting for approximately a quarter of a minute before the intersection and gradually decreasing lighting after it. The main stretches of highways remain unlighted to preserve the driver's night vision and increase the visibility of oncoming headlights. If there is a sharp curve where headlights will not illuminate the road, a light on the outside of the curve is often justified.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Magnets is exactly right. The magnet holds the trolley to the escalator, and the grooves just help to keep the trolley centered so it can be pushed off at the end.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33261423", "title": "Rail push trolley", "section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 316, "text": "The push trolleys are a potential safety hazard as they occupy track (albeit temporarily) and, if the trolley is not removed from track in time, it can collide with a train and cause an accident. Therefore, on sections having gradients or poor visibility, the push trolleys are not allowed without traffic blocks. '\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33261423", "title": "Rail push trolley", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 638, "text": "A rail push trolley or simply a push-trolley is a hand-pushed trolley used to inspect the rails and other track-side railway infrastructure. It is a simple trolley, pushed by two or four persons (called trolleymen), with hand brakes to stop the trolley. When the trolley slows down, two trolleymen jump off the trolley, and push it till it picks up speed. Then they jump into the trolley again, and the cycle continues. The trolleymen take turns in pushing the trolley so that the speed is maintained and two persons do not get tired. Four persons are also required to safely lift the trolley off the rail tracks when a train approaches.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8718594", "title": "Trolleytruck", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1192, "text": "A trolleytruck (also known as a freight trolley or trolley truck) is a trolleybus-like vehicle used for carrying cargo instead of passengers. A trolleytruck is usually a type of electric truck powered by two overhead wires, from which it draws electricity using two trolley poles or two pantographs. Two current collectors are required in order to supply and return current, because the return current cannot pass to the ground (as is done by streetcars on rails) since trolleytrucks use tires that are insulators. Lower powered trucks, such as might be seen on the streets of a city, tend to use trolley poles for current collection. Higher powered trucks, such as those used for large construction or mining projects, may exceed the power capacity of trolley poles and have to use pantographs instead. Trolleytrucks have been used in various places around the world and are still in use in cities in Russia and Ukraine, as well as at mines in North America and Africa. Because they draw power from the mains, trolleytrucks can use renewable energy sources – modern trolleytrucks systems are under test in Sweden and Germany along highways using diesel–electric hybrids to reduce emissions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "187801", "title": "Shopping cart", "section": "Section::::Theft prevention.:Physical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 697, "text": "Some retailers, including the ALDI chain of supermarkets, use a system where each cart has a lock mounted on the handle, connecting it to the cart in front of it when nested together, or to a chain mounted on a cart collection corral. The lock releases when a suitable coin or token is inserted, and the user gets their coin or token ejected back out of the lock when the cart is reattached to another trolley. This encourages shoppers to bring their carts back, solving both theft and the issue of carts being left around parking lots. The system is slightly flawed, however, in that carts can be attached to each other away from the corral and tokens retrieved from all but the front-most cart.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11631454", "title": "Shopping cart conveyor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 335, "text": "A shopping cart conveyor is a device used in multi-level retail stores for moving shopping carts parallel and adjacent to an escalator. Shoppers can load their shopping carts onto the conveyor, step onto the escalator, ride the escalator with the cart beside them and collect the cart with the contained merchandise at the next level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "187801", "title": "Shopping cart", "section": "Section::::Theft prevention.:Cart retrieval service.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 598, "text": "Most retailers in North America utilize a cart retrieval service, which collects carts found off the store's premises and returns them to the store for a fee. The primary strength of this system is the ability of pedestrian customers to take purchases home and allow retailers to recapture abandoned carts in a timely manner at a fraction of the cost of a replacement cart. It also allows retailers to maintain their cart inventories without an expensive capital outlay. A drawback of this method is that it is reactive, instead of proactively preventing the carts from leaving the store premises.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "187801", "title": "Shopping cart", "section": "Section::::Theft prevention.:Physical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 513, "text": "Another method is to mount a pole taller than the entrance, onto the shopping cart, so that the pole will block exit of the cart. However, this method requires that the store aisles be higher than the pole, including lights, piping, any overhead signage and fixtures. It also prevents customers from carting their purchases to their cars in the store's carts. Many customers learn to bring their own folding or otherwise collapsible cart with them, which they can usually hang on the store's cart while shopping.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The producer for the series hires people with a similar sensibility and gives guidance so that they maintain a consistent tone.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is common in most tv shows. The demands on the writer and especially the directors mean a single writer/director can't keep pace with a 12 or 21 episode in 4/8 month schedule.\n\nThere's a show creator or show runner who probably came up with the idea and provides continuity. The scripts would have to be vetted by them. And probably all the directors, actors etc. get to review drafts as well and have input to some extent. So its not like one writer can completely write a character out (hit by a train for example) unless all stakeholders with creative input agree.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On the writing staff, there is someone who serves as what they call the Showrunner. This is the person with ultimate authority over the script. They're in charge of the writing room when coming up with story ideas, they're in charge of handing out writing assignments for each episode. And they often re-write the other writers' scripts once submitted. So it's that person's job to make sure the script fits the tone of the series, that each character's voice is maintained, etc.\n\nIn TV, the direction and cinematography and editing and production design is basically set by the first episode. Those people will determine the look and feel of the series. Everyone who comes later works to keep things consistent. They still have important work to do, but they have a limited set of choices to make, because they have to stay within the framework set by the first episode. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "35661508", "title": "Arrested Development (season 4)", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 995, "text": "The show format is different compared to previous seasons: each of the fifteen episodes focuses on one individual character—with every episode happening at the same time within the show's universe—showing the character's activities since the conclusion of the third season. According to Jason Bateman, \"If I'm driving down the street in my episode and Gob's going down the sidewalk on his Segway, you could stop my episode, go into his episode, and follow him and see where he's going\". Part of the reason for this format was the challenge with getting the cast together to shoot on the same dates. \"We shot for Netflix and of course everybody was busy, so everybody had a different shooting schedule. I did scenes with light stands with an X in tape put on them. I would have a conversation with Jeffrey Tambor, then I would turn to my right and have a conversation with Jessica Walters, but both of them were light stands instead,\" said Henry Winkler in a November 2017 interview with Uproxx.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43251161", "title": "Episodic storytelling", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 255, "text": "Multiple episodes are usually grouped together into a series through a unifying story arc. Episodes may not always contain the same characters, but each episode draws from a broader group of characters, or cast, all of whom exist in the same story world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2047426", "title": "Law & Order (franchise)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1118, "text": "Shared people and resources in a common fictional setting are the connecting links between the shows, e.g., Hudson University and the \"New York Ledger\" tabloid newspaper. Many supporting characters, such as district attorneys, psychologists, and medical examiners are also shared among the shows. Occasionally, crossovers of main characters or shared storylines between two of the shows will occur. A few major characters have also left the cast of one show within the franchise only to eventually join another. The music, style, and credits of the shows tend to be similar, with the voiceover in the opening of every series performed by Steven Zirnkilton. The shows share the iconic \"dun, dun\" sound effect of a jail cell locking, created, along with the theme songs, by Mike Post. Past episodes of the American series are in syndication with local over-the-air stations, along with cable channels such as USA Network and Bravo (both owned by the franchise's production company, NBCUniversal), TNT, WGN America, Ion Television, and AMC Networks' SundanceTV and WeTV, showing episodes sometimes up to six times a day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3424124", "title": "The Visitor (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 267, "text": "As a show where the main character is travelling to different locations in each episode, the show doesn't feature a large cast of primary characters. Similarly to shows like \"The X-Files\", most episodes feature a supporting cast that appears for just a single scene.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58353511", "title": "Amazing Interiors", "section": "Section::::Format.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 239, "text": "Each episode follows a similar format, featuring three different houses. One home is under construction or renovation, and the episode follows the process throughout the remodel. The other two houses are shown as segments during the show.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "494158", "title": "Title sequence", "section": "Section::::Television.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 703, "text": "Although a title sequence may be modified during a series to update cast changes or incorporate new \"highlight\" shots from later episodes, it will tend to remain largely the same for an entire season. Some shows have had several quite different title sequences and theme music throughout their runs, while in contrast some ever-popular shows have retained their original title sequences for decades with only minor alterations. Conversely, retaining a series' original title sequence can allow a producer to change many key elements within a programme itself, without losing the show's on-screen identity. Other variations include changing only the theme music whilst keeping the visuals or vice versa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1230988", "title": "Freddy's Nightmares", "section": "Section::::Premise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 283, "text": "One element that makes the series unique is its two-tier story approach. Most of the episodes feature two different stories that each take up the first and second halves. Every second story, however, usually built on a character who played a minor (or supporting) role in the first.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is really complex. If I were you, I'd check out the book \"Hallucinations\" by Oliver Sacks, as he talks about this extensively. In short, people who become blind can have hallucinations after - this disease is called Charles Bonnet Syndrome. It generally believed that when the brain is deprived of visual stimuli and thus deprived of activity in visual areas, it makes its own activity, causing people who have developed blindness to sometimes experience visual hallucination. This is all I can really say about it without cracking out the book to get you specific details.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Here is an AMA on the subject](_URL_0_). Not trying to be a dick but I have seen this request or something similar on Reddit at least a dozen times in the last month.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here is a description of possible routes of hallucinogenesis, from the neurophysiological perspective. I apologize for its length, but this is /r/askscience, so I want to be thorough.\n\nBy-and-large, perception is not a passive nerve process. Inputs expect outputs, outputs expect inputs, etc. Any process that manages to interfere with this can throw the perceptual system off-kilter, the result depending on the affected sensory modalities. Not only that, but neural rhythms organize perceptual processing, so perturbations in these rhythms can also throw-off the perceptual system. As long as a sensorily-deprived person's brain is subject to these rules -- pretty much every non-comatose person is -- then they have the capacity to experience hallucinations. So, blind people can hallucinate, sometimes in the visual modality.\n\nBlind people sometimes report visual hallucinations, but it depends on the circumstances underlying the blindness. It depends upon whether or not one is blind from birth, or becomes blind after being sighted. If the nervous system develops around a lack of visual input, it never comes to expect it. However, it's a different story for someone whose eye is gouged-out. The resulting nerve damage, and the sudden disruption in the visual system, can lead to \"phantom visions,\" usually blobs or simple patterns. Higher areas of the brain, like the LGN or V1, were expecting this input from the retina. Normally, the V1 can partially \"simulate\" the expected retinal input if necessary. But if the input is suddenly removed and is not quickly restored, the accuracy of the simulation ability drastically declines. The resulting \"phantom sight\" -- blobs or shifting diffuse shapes -- represent the cortical \"check\" on incoming retinal activation. When the \"check\" of retinal input is removed, the V1 runs wild, dominating the formation of the resulting perception.\n\nSensory deprivation apparatii take advantage of the \"check\" ability of higher brain areas: remove the data that most closely resembles the stimulus, and the simulation ability of the cortex starts to take over. However, how good is a simulation without continual feedback to ground it to its subsumed stimuli? Without input parameters, the simulation once again runs wild. However, beyond this very general knowledge, I know little about how sensory deprivation apparratii can affect perception. I suspect that it reduces the stimulation of primary sensory neurons to the point where it serves as a simulation for sudden, catastrophic input loss, allowing primary sensory cortices to dominate the resulting perceptual formations.\n\nApart from input/output checks, the brain relies on self-generated timing mechanisms to perceive the environment. Hallucinogens by-and-large disrupt facets of the brain's timing: the input/output checks are retained (thus, the path of information flow is retained), but the patterns of neuronal communication change. For instance, sensory inputs might arrive at a brain structure at a consistent rate. However, the structure doesn't process this \"real-time\" input. Instead, the structure \"aggregates\" the real-time input over the span of, say, 50 msec, then generates a signal that represents the \"average input level\" that occurred during the 50 msec window. A signal representing this average is exported to the next brain structure in the circuit, which itself is collecting \"average signals\" from a multitude of other brain structures. Over the course of 100 msec, this structure determines the \"input packet\" with the highest value, creates a signal representing this packet and the structure that sent it, and forwards it onwards to the next node in the circuit. \n\nHallucinogens tend to disrupt these timing mechanisms, usually in accord with the dose size, and especially in-accord with the affected neurotransmitter's computational role. The disrupted timing usually only distorts dependent neural \ncomputations, but doesn't outright falsify them. For instance, maybe the aggregation epoch of a structure increases from 50 to 60 msec as a result of serotonergic disturbance: this allows more time to collect real-time input, so the computed average increases, albeit slightly. But, the increase is enough so that the exported information \"wins\" at the next computational node, and thus this information is forwarded more often than usual to the cortex. The cortex attempts to oblige, but its neural timing was also thrown-off by serotonergic disturbance. Thus, the message is transmitted, but like a game of \"telephone,\" its expected fidelity is reduced. This is how most of the popular hallucinogens induce psuedo-hallucinations. Blind people's brains also rely on rhythms to process sensory information, so they're equally capable of hallucinating due to drugs like LSD. \n\nJust as a general rule, the more a neurotransmitter system influences neural rhythms, and the more widespread its influence, the more likely its disturbance will result in legitimate hallucinations. Take a hallucinogen like datura, and its active psychoactive compound targets what is perhaps our most fundamental neurotransmitter system: acetylcholine. The entire brain and nervous system are founded upon this one system, so it's no surprise that a drug affecting this system will induce legitimate hallucinations, and produce a toxic reaction in the body (e.g. scopolamine). This system is responsible for setting \"foundational\" rhythms, upon which most other brain rhythms are organized. Under these circumstances, you see a catastrophic lack of coordination between perceptual structures: errors are introduced into the processed information at each step up the computational \"food chain,\" such that the information is patently \"false\" when it enters the cortex. \n\nTaking scopolamine is like engaging in a game of Telephone with extremely drunk, non-native english speakers. You say, \"Your mom smells bad!\" to the first neuron, he passes it on, and the last neuron in the chain reports the message as, \"Dab perfume in your robot's sky.\"\n\nOn the other hand, LSD's pseudo-hallucinogenic effects rely on its affect on specific serotonergic receptors, which have a more-confined pathway through the midbrain, basal ganglia, and \"lower level\" cortical areas, and the rhythms influenced by serotonin ride \"atop\" multiple other layers of rhythms. Thus, LSD affects neural rhythms on a much more limited scope than scopolamine. The incoming information has retained much of its fidelity upon entering the cortex, but it's still not quite what the cortex expected: the final neuron in this chain replies, \"Your mother smelled an offensive odor.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "47332350", "title": "DeepDream", "section": "Section::::Process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 204, "text": "The cited resemblance of the imagery to LSD- and psilocybin-induced hallucinations is suggestive of a functional resemblance between artificial neural networks and particular layers of the visual cortex.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8748", "title": "N,N-Dimethyltryptamine", "section": "Section::::Effects.:Subjective psychedelic experiences.:Reported encounters with external entities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 362, "text": "Hallucinations of strange creatures had been reported by Szara in the \"Journal of Mental Science\" (now the \"British Journal of Psychiatry\") (1958) \"Dimethyltryptamine Experiments with Psychotics\", Stephen Szara described how one of his subjects under the influence of DMT had experienced \"strange creatures, dwarves or something\" at the beginning of a DMT trip.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18952932", "title": "Hallucinogen", "section": "Section::::Psychedelics and mental illnesses in long-term users.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 338, "text": "No clear connection has been made between psychedelic drugs and organic brain damage. However, hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a diagnosed condition wherein certain visual effects of drugs persist for a long time, sometimes permanently, although science and medicine have yet to determine what causes the condition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49159", "title": "Hallucination", "section": "Section::::Cause.:Experimentally-induced hallucinations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 536, "text": "The evidence for this statement has been accumulating for more than a century. Studies of benign hallucinatory experiences go back to 1886 and the early work of the Society for Psychical Research, which suggested approximately 10% of the population had experienced at least one hallucinatory episode in the course of their life. More recent studies have validated these findings; the precise incidence found varies with the nature of the episode and the criteria of \"hallucination\" adopted, but the basic finding is now well-supported.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7973164", "title": "Anomalous experiences", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 536, "text": "The evidence for this statement has been accumulating for more than a century. Studies of benign hallucinatory experiences go back to 1886 and the early work of the Society for Psychical Research, which suggested approximately 10% of the population had experienced at least one hallucinatory episode in the course of their life. More recent studies have validated these findings; the precise incidence found varies with the nature of the episode and the criteria of \"hallucination\" adopted, but the basic finding is now well-supported.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24514", "title": "Psychosis", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Hallucinations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 555, "text": "Visual hallucinations occur in roughly a third of people with schizophrenia, although rates as high as 55% are reported. Content frequently involves animate objects, although perceptual abnormalities such as changes in lighting, shading, streaks, or lines may be seen. Visual abnormalities may conflict with proprioceptive information, and visions may include experiences such as the ground tilting. Lilliputian hallucinations are less common in schizophrenia, and occur more frequently in various types of encephalopathy (e.g., Peduncular hallucinosis).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47332350", "title": "DeepDream", "section": "Section::::Usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 583, "text": "Recently, a research group out of the University of Sussex created a \"Hallucination Machine\", applying the DeepDream algorithm to a pre-recorded panoramic video, allowing users to explore virtual reality environments to mimic the experience of psychoactive substances and/or psychopathological conditions. They were able to demonstrate that the subjective experiences induced by the Hallucination Machine differed significantly from control (non-‘hallucinogenic’) videos, while bearing phenomenological similarities to the psychedelic state (following administration of psilocybin).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well more or less because its basically uterus wallpaper not exactly just blood like you would find in your veins.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's not like blood from the rest of your body at all. Menstrual blood is filled with dead cells of the uterine lining, as well as a dead ovum. It's basically blood filled with biological garbage. It would cause ridiculous amounts of infection (sepsis) if it was given to someone in place of regular blood.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "* Ew. \n\n* Lots of red liquid, not as much blood as you think there is in that liquid to make it red. \n\n* No good collection method.\n\n* It doesn't all come out at once.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In order to donate blood, you have to keep it clean and you have to add anticoagulants to stabilize it for transport otherwise it just coagulates. \n\nAside from the obvious contaminants that could be present in your random vagina, the blood comes out far too slowly to be viable for collection. The amount is also rather negligible when compared to standard donation methods(about 80ml of blood compared to a pint which is 473ml). \n\nI mean, what are you going to do? Stand over a blood bucket for 4 days?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "505536", "title": "Blood donation", "section": "Section::::Donor health benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 284, "text": "In patients prone to iron overload, blood donation prevents the accumulation of toxic quantities. Donating blood may reduce the risk of heart disease for men, but the link has not been firmly established and may be from selection bias because donors are screened for health problems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3790470", "title": "LGBT rights in Cuba", "section": "Section::::Blood donation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 237, "text": "Individuals seeking to donate blood must be in good health, have a regular pulse and must not have had a viral injection (catarrh or pharyngitis) within the past 7 days. Men who have sex with men are not explicitly banned from donating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12907037", "title": "LGBT rights in Peru", "section": "Section::::Blood donation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 383, "text": "Nevertheless, when comedian and playwright Carolina Silva Santisteban applied to donate blood in early 2018, her application was rejected on the basis of her sexual orientation. Theoretically, blood donation rules in Peru do not prevent homosexual applicants from donating, if they are otherwise in good health, though in practive several blood drives have rejected such applicants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17602457", "title": "Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 577, "text": "Many countries have laws that prohibit donations of blood or tissue for organ transplants from men who have sex with men (MSM), a classification of men who engage (or have engaged in the past) in sex with other men, regardless of whether they identify themselves as bisexual, gay or otherwise. Restrictions on donors are sometimes called \"deferrals\", since blood donors who are found ineligible may be found eligible at a later date. However, many deferrals are indefinite meaning that donation may not be accepted at any point in the future, thus constituting a de facto ban.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7015318", "title": "LGBT rights in Malta", "section": "Section::::Health and blood donation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 646, "text": "Gay and bisexual men in Malta are not allowed to donate blood. In May 2016, Minister for Health Chris Fearne announced that a technical committee set up in 2015 to review the ban had recently completed its report and recommended scrapping the current indefinite deferral on donations. The new policy, if implemented, would still exclude donations from men who have had sex with another man any time in the previous 12 months. In September 2016, the youth wing of the Labour Party announced their support for lifting the ban. There are plans to allow LGBT individuals in a stable monogamous relationship to donate blood by sometime in early 2019.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21420673", "title": "World Blood Donor Day", "section": "Section::::History.:2012: Every blood donor is a hero.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 284, "text": "The 2012 campaign focused on the idea that any person can become a hero by giving blood. Blood cannot yet be manufactured artificially, so voluntary blood donation remains vital for healthcare worldwide. Many anonymous blood donors save lives every day through their blood donations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1494752", "title": "Plateletpheresis", "section": "Section::::Platelet transfusion.:Whole blood platelets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 268, "text": "Problems with apheresis include the expense of the equipment used for collection. Whole blood platelets also do not require any additional donor recruitment, as they can be made from blood donations that are also used for packed red blood cells and plasma components.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Put simplistically, the power from an engine is made from the combustion of fuel and air. A supercharger compresses the incoming air, allowing more to enter the engine. More fuel is added to the engine via the fuel injectors, and the two combined combust to create more power than would have otherwise been made.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not a car guy, but Wiki just confirmed my guess - a supercharger provides / allows for a greater oxygen intake to the engine. This lets it burn more fuel and do more strokes or revolutions or whatever... and that makes you go vroom. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Supercharger sucks more air +more gas =more power", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A supercharger is driven by a belt on the connected to the engine. A car without a supercharger or turbocharger has to suck air in, this is called naturally aspirated. With a super charger the air is being compressed and fed into the engine. This is why turbo and superchargers are called \"Forced Induction\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A supercharger uses the spinning of an engine to create pressure, like a fan. A belt is placed on the engine and is connected to the supercharger. As the engine spins it spins the supercharger and pushes air into the engine. Since there is now more air moving into the engine you need to add more fuel to make more power.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A supercharger pushes air(oxygen) into the intake of the engines increasing the combustion going on in each cylinder. The pressure of the engine is increased as a supercharger works depending on how much 'boost' it is producing.\n\nIt is different from a turbocharger in the sense that it runs off the belt in the engine. So to put it simply, it produces boost at idle where as a turbocharger does not. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7493486", "title": "Supercharger", "section": "Section::::Types of supercharger.:Temperature effects and intercoolers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 475, "text": "One disadvantage of supercharging is that compressing the air increases its temperature. When a supercharger is used on an internal combustion engine, the temperature of the fuel/air charge becomes a major limiting factor in engine performance. Extreme temperatures will cause detonation of the fuel-air mixture (spark ignition engines) and damage to the engine. In cars, this can cause a problem when it is a hot day outside, or when an excessive level of boost is reached.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "170045", "title": "Four-stroke engine", "section": "Section::::Design and engineering principles.:Waste Heat Recovery of an internal combustion engine.:Supercharging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 573, "text": "Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine relative to its displacement. Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but there have been designs that allow it to be cut out or run at varying speeds (relative to engine speed). Mechanically driven supercharging has the disadvantage that some of the output power is used to drive the supercharger, while power is wasted in the high pressure exhaust, as the air has been compressed twice and then gains more potential volume in the combustion but it is only expanded in one stage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7493486", "title": "Supercharger", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 248, "text": "A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the engine more oxygen, letting it burn more fuel and do more work, thus increasing power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "229710", "title": "Centrifugal-type supercharger", "section": "Section::::Standard functionality.:Process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 645, "text": "The centrifugal supercharger draws its power from the movement of the drive where it is attached. At this point, the supercharger powers an impeller – or small rotating wheel. The impeller draws air into a small compressor housing (volute) and centrifugal force sends the air into the diffuser. The result is air that is highly pressurized, but that travels at low speed. The high-pressure, low-speed air is then fed into the engine, where the additional pressure gives the engine the ability to burn more fuel and have a higher level of combustion. This results in a faster, more responsive vehicle due to greater engine volumetric efficiency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7493486", "title": "Supercharger", "section": "Section::::Aircraft.:Turbocharging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 930, "text": "A mechanically driven supercharger has to take its drive power from the engine. Taking a single-stage single-speed supercharged engine, such as an early Rolls-Royce Merlin, for instance, the supercharger uses up about . Without a supercharger, the engine could produce about 750 horsepower (560 kilowatts), but with a supercharger, it produces about —an increase of about 400 hp (750 - 150 + 400 = 1000 hp), or a net gain of . This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent. The engine has to burn extra fuel to provide power to drive the supercharger. The increased air density during the input cycle increases the specific power of the engine and its power-to-weight ratio, but at the cost of an increase in the specific fuel consumption of the engine. In addition to increasing the cost of running the aircraft a supercharger has the potential to reduce its overall range for a specific fuel load.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1999139", "title": "Turbomachinery", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Auto.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 253, "text": "Superchargers- Superchargers are used for engine-power enhancement as well, but only work off the principle of compression. They use the mechanical power from the engine to spin a screw or vane, some way to suck in and compress the air into the engine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7493486", "title": "Supercharger", "section": "Section::::Types of supercharger.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 388, "text": "There are two main types of superchargers defined according to the method of gas transfer: positive displacement and dynamic compressors. Positive displacement blowers and compressors deliver an almost constant level of pressure increase at all engine speeds (RPM). Dynamic compressors do not deliver pressure at low speeds; above a threshold speed, pressure increases with engine speed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "That's basically it.\n\nThe amount actors are paid is based on the previous season's ratings/advertising. So usually the during the first season of the show, the actors aren't paid very much. \n\nThe exception would be for actors who themselves carry aadvertising value and are assumed to bring more viewers to the show. Like Matthew McConaughey... they assume him just being in the show will bring more viewers, and thus more advertisers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6131874", "title": "It's Like, You Know...", "section": "Section::::Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 207, "text": "Ratings for the series were low, due in part to the sudden explosion of reality programming and ABC's decision to dedicate much of its primetime schedule to the then-popular \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55246779", "title": "TV (The Book)", "section": "Section::::Criteria.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 903, "text": "Once a television series passed this criteria, they were ranked on a ten-point scale by either one of or both of the critics in six categories: \"Innovation\" (whether or not it did stuff that had been seen in the medium before), \"Influence\" (how a show served as inspiration for those that came after it), \"Consistency\" (whether or not the show's quality fluctuated season-by-season), \"Performance\" (how good the actors/performers were on the show), \"Storytelling\" (the quality of the writing on the show), and \"Peak\" (how great the show was at its best compared to the rest of American television's history). Shows which aired for only one season were slightly penalized, receiving a maximum of nine points for most categories except for \"Consistency\", where they were only given a seven as a maximum. The series which were among the 100 highest placed in the points tally were counted in the rankings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "796129", "title": "Japanese television drama", "section": "Section::::Importance of ratings.:Rating system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 356, "text": "Finally, rating percentage plays a heavy role in the success of a drama artist. The numbers of an artist's previous work are used by TV producers to determine whether or not the artist is a marketing success. If the ratings drawn by the artist's previous work are good, he or she will receive offers to star in dramas that are better written and produced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2283503", "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Will & Grace", "section": "Section::::Other awards.:Viewers for Quality Television Awards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 376, "text": "Viewers for Quality Television was an American nonprofit organization founded in 1984 to advocate network television series that members of the organization voted to be of the \"highest quality.\" The group's goal was to rescue \"...critically acclaimed programs from cancellation despite their Nielsen program rating.\" \"Will & Grace\" received one award from eleven nominations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42418699", "title": "Mission Sapne", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 433, "text": "The show is about upbringing people who have struggled in their life but never left their spirit to achieve something. The show will help these people to achieve dreams which they've dreamed of. The show will financially help these people by inviting Celebrities who will do the same daily job which these people do like driving auto rickshaw or selling something. The amount which the celebrity will earn will be multiplied by 100.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "480839", "title": "Back to Reality (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Ratings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 346, "text": "The ratings rarely went over 1.6 million despite the show extending its hours (early morning and afternoon live streaming). The lack of ratings was put down to the lack of tabloid interest in the show, despite the sponsoring of the show by popular celebrity magazine 'Heat' and the constant arguments and major events that happened in the house.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5857381", "title": "Sale of the Century (Australian game show)", "section": "Section::::Celebrity Weeks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 288, "text": "Featured stars included the cast members of \"The Sullivans\", \"The Young Doctors\", \"Prisoner\", and \"A Country Practice\". Each celebrity plays for a home viewer, who wins all cash and prizes earned during the show. The ultimate winner's home viewer also wins an extra prize, usually a car.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A poison dart frog kept in captivity will no longer be poisonous when kept on a diet of superworms and crickets. They become poisonous from what they eat. \n\nAluminum becomes harder when it oxidizes to the point that we use aluminum oxides as the grit in sand paper. Maybe the dragon somehow processes natural aluminum and moves it to it's scales and then it oxidizes?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "An insect's exoskeleton is made of chitin, which hardens upon contact with the air. It doesn't continuously harden, it gets to a certain toughness then proceeds no farther.\n\nThe problem with something continuously hardening over time is that as it hardens it will become brittle. Most organic materials require a certain amount of flexibility.\n\nA possible solution is to have the dragon's scales continuously grow over time, so that its armor gets thicker (and thus tougher) over time. The problem is that as the armour gets thicker the dragon gets heavier and movement (especially flying) become more difficult.\n\nIf you're looking for a tough organic substance, the claws of a pistol shrimp and a mantis shrimp are incredibly tough. They can survive cavitation and can punch through aquarium glass. Their claws have a high percentage of calcium and are thicker.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Resin sure as heck does.\n\nIt's about like honey when it comes out of the tree, and when it dries it becomes like hard plastic. \n\nUnder some circumstances it can harden into amber, which is basically a rock. \n\n\\- _URL_2_ \n\n\\- _URL_1_\n\n.\n\nShellac is one produced by an animal -\n\n > Shellac is scraped from the bark of the trees where the female lac bug, \n\n > *Kerria lacca* (order Hemiptera, family Kerriidae, also known as *Laccifer lacca*), \n\n > secretes it to form a tunnel-like tube as it traverses the branches of the tree. \n\nFor example \n\n > Until the advent of vinyl, most gramophone records were pressed from shellac compounds.[14][15] \n\n\\- _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1599216", "title": "Biomagnification", "section": "Section::::Substances that biomagnify.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 403, "text": "There are two main groups of substances that biomagnify. Both are lipophilic and not easily degraded. Novel organic substances are not easily degraded because organisms lack previous exposure and have thus not evolved specific detoxification and excretion mechanisms, as there has been no selection pressure from them. These substances are consequently known as \"persistent organic pollutants\" or POPs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31121305", "title": "Conservation and restoration of metals", "section": "Section::::Deterioration of materials associated with metals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 546, "text": "Associated materials deteriorate depending on the origin whether they are organic or inorganic materials. Organic materials usually fail in a relatively short period of time, primarily due to biodegradation. With inorganic materials are these processes considerably longer and more complex. Amount of gases, humidity, depth and composition of soil are very important. In case of salty and sweet water finds essential are amount of gases dissolved in water, depth of water, direction of currents, and microscopic and macroscopic living organisms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3607910", "title": "Atomic layer deposition", "section": "Section::::Advantages and limitations.:Disadvantages.:Chemical limitations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 504, "text": "Precursors must be volatile, but not subject to decomposition, as most precursors are very sensitive to oxygen/air, thus causing a limitation on the substrates that may be used. Some biological substrates are very sensitive to heat and may have fast decomposition rates that are not favored and yield larger impurity levels. There are a multitude of thin-film substrate materials available, but the important substrates needed for use in microelectronics can be hard to obtain and may be very expensive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26145195", "title": "Plastic", "section": "Section::::Toxicity.:Bisphenol A (BPA).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 120, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 120, "end_character": 304, "text": "Some polymers may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. In 2011, it was reported that \"almost all plastic products\" sampled released chemicals with estrogenic activity, although the researchers identified plastics which did not leach chemicals with estrogenic activity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37201518", "title": "Plastic pollution", "section": "Section::::Reduction efforts.:Biodegradable and degradable plastics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 440, "text": "There are also other types of degradable materials that are not considered to be biopolymers, because they are oil-based, similar to other conventional plastics. These plastics are made to be more degradable through the use of different additives, which help them degrade when exposed to UV rays or other physical stressors. yet, biodegradation-promoting additives for polymers have been shown not to significantly increase biodegradation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1171780", "title": "Body piercing materials", "section": "Section::::Natural Materials.:Fauna.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 489, "text": "Biological Organic Materials are quite common in the world of piercings and are what were used historically by many cultures. Like wood, they seem well suited as body jewelry as they are easily shaped and bone, horn, ivory etc. may be finished to an acceptably smooth surface. Biological organic materials seem to allow your body to \"breathe.\" They get less cold than other hard solid materials due to their insulating properties during winter. However, like wood, they can dry and crack.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6104177", "title": "Biodegradable plastic", "section": "Section::::Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 381, "text": "In addition, oxo-degradable plastics are commonly percieved to be biodegradable. However, they are simply conventional plastics with additives called prodegredants that accelerate the oxidation process. While oxo-degradable plastics rapidly break down through exposure to sunlight and oxygen , they persist as huge quantities of microplastics rather than any biological material. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Here is a [description from the Canadian Space Agency](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't know if you have Netflix, but if you do, watch Part 3 of the Discovery series \"When We Left Earth.\" Go to 28 minutes in and you will see Neil Armstrong (I think, hard to tell) shaving. There's your answer. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58304342", "title": "May 1969", "section": "Section::::May 26, 1969 (Monday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 110, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 110, "end_character": 510, "text": "BULLET::::- Apollo 10 returned to Earth, after a successful 8-day test of all the components needed for the upcoming first manned Moon landing. The aircraft carrier \"USS Princeton\" was within three miles of the splashdown target in the South Pacific and recovered the capsule. The three astronauts— Cernan, Stafford and Young— were the first to have returned from space clean-shaven after demonstrating that they could use an ordinary razor and cream without the danger of hair bristles floating in the cabin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29441", "title": "Skylab", "section": "Section::::Operational history.:Orbital operations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 567, "text": "A typical day began at 6 a.m. Central Time Zone. Although the toilet was small and noisy, both veteran astronauts—who had endured earlier missions' rudimentary waste-collection systems—and rookies complimented it. The first crew enjoyed taking a shower once a week, but found drying themselves in weightlessness and vacuuming excess water difficult; later crews usually cleaned themselves daily with wet washcloths instead of using the shower. Astronauts also found that bending over in weightlessness to put on socks or tie shoelaces strained their stomach muscles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56677683", "title": "Mars suit", "section": "Section::::Other design requirements.:Toilet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 235, "text": "A human consideration for suits is the need to go the bathroom. Various methods have been employed in suits, and in the Shuttle-era NASA used maximum absorbency garments to enable stays of 10 hours in space and partial pressure suits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29441", "title": "Skylab", "section": "Section::::Development.:Habitability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 248, "text": "Each astronaut had a private sleeping area the size of a small walk-in closet, with a curtain, sleeping bag, and locker. Designers also added a shower and a toilet for comfort and to obtain precise urine and feces samples for examination on Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26700735", "title": "Launch Entry Suit", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 489, "text": "Because of the helmet design, which rested on the astronaut's shoulders and allowed them to move their head around freely, astronauts were now required to wear a communications cap similar to those worn by Apollo astronauts, and because they were white (later changed to brown), the suit resembled the Vostok pressure suit worn by Yuri Gagarin. The suits were designed to withstand pressures up to 40,000 feet (12 kilometers), and submersion in the ocean for up to 24 hours at 5°C (40°F).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "897095", "title": "Space and survival", "section": "Section::::Equipment.:Spacesuits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1048, "text": "Spacesuits are required for astronauts to survive in space; they are the most essential piece of equipment with many features to help protect them from the dangers of space. Due to space being a vacuum, the suits are required to have oxygen, which is stored in tanks allowing astronauts to work or remain outside for 6 to 8.5 hours before having to return to the spacecraft. Water is also required to survive in space and the space suits have water supply bags in two sizes, , so astronauts do not suffer dehydration when outside the spacecraft. The suits are made from several layers of material; within these layers there is tubing all around which is filled with chilled water to help cool the suit. The suit is also insulated so the astronaut does not become too cold; the astronaut's body heat is what is keeping them warm. The several layers protect the astronaut from space dust, which can travel faster than a bullet. The visors on the suit helmets are made with a special gold liner which protects the eyes of the astronaut from sunlight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11059398", "title": "Adult diaper", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Astronauts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1179, "text": "Astronauts wear trunklike diapers called \"Maximum Absorbency Garments\", or MAGs, during liftoff and landing. On space shuttle missions, each crew member receives three diapers—for launch, reentry and a spare in case reentry has to be waved off and tried later. The super-absorbent fabric used in disposable diapers, which can hold up to 400 times its weight, was developed so Apollo astronauts could stay on spacewalks and extra-vehicular activity for at least six hours. Originally, only female astronauts would wear Maximum Absorbency Garments, as the collection devices used by men were unsuitable for women; however, reports of their comfort and effectiveness eventually convinced men to start wearing the diapers as well. Public awareness of astronaut diapers rose significantly following the arrest of Lisa Nowak, a NASA astronaut charged with attempted murder, who gained notoriety in the media when the police reported she had driven 900 miles, with an adult diaper so she would not have to stop to urinate. The diapers became fodder for many television comedians, as well as being included in an adaptation of the story in \"\", despite Nowak's denial that she wore them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The phenomenon you are noticing is called \"stratigraphy\", which is the idea that things are built on top of older things, and you can tell which things are older by figuring out the order in which each part was laid down. It's one of the most basic and essential parts of archaeology.\n\nNow, why did people build on top of older ruins? There are several reasons. First, when ancient people had a place they built on, and made a settlement or a city, it was because that place was a really good place to build a city. Take some of the major sites in the southern Levant for example, such as Tel Megiddo, which sits right on one of the only pathways through the Carmel mountain range, and is basically a gatekeeper between anyone coming from the south (such as Egypt) to the north (heading to Lebanon or Syria (aka the Phoenicians or the Arameans)). Or Tel Ashkelon, which was a major trading port between Gaza and Jaffa. When people have a good place to build, they want to stay there. It makes no sense to suddenly move a few miles if your water system is still there, and the trade routes are still there. The economy is much less movable than some dirt. So, why build on top instead of tearing everything down?\n\nThe simple answer is it's easier. It is much easier to knock down a broken down building and level it off with dirt than it is to break up the pieces and take them away. This is way before any heavy machinery, there are no backhoes here. And sometimes buildings are built with big, heavy stones, and its so much easier to just cover it over rather than move it. Also, dirt tends to accumulate among settlements, just from people's waste and all the things they bring into their settlement, and the buildings are a wind trap for airborne sediment, so the dirt level is rising already, people just help it along a little bit sometimes. \n\nYou are exactly right about the level of a city rising as time went on, and people built over older things over and over. At Tel Ashkelon, in one of the excavation areas, which was occupied for about 3500 years, you have at least 24 different major rebuilds (not counting minor ones where they just expand a building or add a few walls), all within about 8 meters of vertical accumulation.\n\nThis method of sediment deposition results in a distinctive shape of the hill. Hills which are basically composed of cities built on top of broken cities and on and on have a special name. They are called *tels*. They often have a flattish top and slightly steeper sides, as you can see in [this picture of Tel Megiddo](_URL_0_) and [this picture of Kedesh, a site in Israel](_URL_1_).\n\nSo basically it's really common in the eastern Mediterranean and most ancient societies, because once a settlement is founded, there are lots of good reasons to live there, and so people keep living there, and it's just easier to knock stuff down and build over it than it is to remove it all.\n\nDoes this answer your question?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52070", "title": "Arch", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 493, "text": "The Romans were the first builders in Europe, perhaps the first in the world, to fully appreciate the advantages of the arch, the vault and the dome. Throughout the Roman empire, their engineers erected arch structures such as bridges, aqueducts, and gates. They also introduced the triumphal arch as a military monument. Vaults began to be used for roofing large interior spaces such as halls and temples, a function that was also assumed by domed structures from the 1st century BC onwards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3684625", "title": "History of architecture", "section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Roman architecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 524, "text": "The Romans widely employed, and further developed, the arch, vault and dome (see the Roman Architectural Revolution), all of which were little used before, particularly in Europe. Their innovative use of Roman concrete facilitated the building of the many public buildings of often unprecedented size throughout the empire. These include Roman temples, Roman baths, Roman bridges, Roman aqueducts, Roman harbours, triumphal arches, Roman amphitheatres, Roman circuses palaces, mausolea and in the late empire also churches.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9309233", "title": "Architecture of Italy", "section": "Section::::Ancient Rome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 727, "text": "Social elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to go discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials, for example, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and perhaps most famously of all, the Colosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, or northern Spain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17326228", "title": "History of structural engineering", "section": "Section::::Early structural engineering developments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 552, "text": "The ancient Romans made great bounds in structural engineering, pioneering large structures in masonry and concrete, many of which are still standing today. They include aqueducts, thermae, columns, lighthouses, defensive walls and harbours. Their methods are recorded by Vitruvius in his De Architectura written in 25 BC, a manual of civil and structural engineering with extensive sections on materials and machines used in construction. One reason for their success is their accurate surveying techniques based on the dioptra, groma and chorobates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3326120", "title": "Roman sculpture", "section": "Section::::Architecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 371, "text": "Compared to the Greeks, the Romans made less use of stone sculpture on buildings, apparently having few friezes with figures. Important pediments, such as the Pantheon for example, originally had sculpture, but hardly any have survived. Terracotta relief panels called Campana reliefs have survived in good numbers. These were used to decorate interior walls, in strips.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1076505", "title": "Roman art", "section": "Section::::Architecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 833, "text": "It was in the area of architecture that Roman art produced its greatest innovations. Because the Roman Empire extended over so great of an area and included so many urbanized areas, Roman engineers developed methods for city building on a grand scale, including the use of concrete. Massive buildings like the Pantheon and the Colosseum could never have been constructed with previous materials and methods. Though concrete had been invented a thousand years earlier in the Near East, the Romans extended its use from fortifications to their most impressive buildings and monuments, capitalizing on the material's strength and low cost. The concrete core was covered with a plaster, brick, stone, or marble veneer, and decorative polychrome and gold-gilded sculpture was often added to produce a dazzling effect of power and wealth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45632133", "title": "History of Roman and Byzantine domes", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 612, "text": "Rounded arches, vaults, and domes distinguish Roman architecture from that of Ancient Greece and were facilitated by the use of concrete and brick. By varying the weight of the aggregate material in the concrete, the weight of the concrete could be altered, allowing lighter layers to be laid at the top of concrete domes. But concrete domes also required expensive wooden formwork, also called shuttering, to be built and kept in place during the curing process, which would usually have to be destroyed to be removed. Formwork for brick domes need not be kept in place as long and could be more easily reused.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Fires are a threat that aircrews are trained to deal with and lie within their response capabilities.\n\nAnti-terrorism forces worry about things that could take down an airplane (fuselage penetrating explosives) or allow a plane to be highjacked and used for terrorism. Fires are neither.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They have fire extinguishers and can monitor people to prevent it from happening.\n\nWhat they're more concerned with is unknown fires starting in the cargo hold which is why you have to put batteries in your carry on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "284770", "title": "Airport security", "section": "Section::::Process and equipment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 779, "text": "Some incidents have been the result of travelers carrying either weapons or items that could be used as weapons on board aircraft so that they can hijack the plane. Travelers are screened by metal detectors and/or millimeter wave scanners. Explosive detection machines used include X-ray machines and explosives trace-detection portal machines (a.k.a. \"puffer machines\"). In the United States, the TSA is working on new scanning machines that are still effective searching for objects that aren't allowed in the airplanes but that don't depict the passengers in a state of undress that some find embarrassing. Explosive detection machines can also be used for both carry-on and checked baggage. These detect volatile compounds given off from explosives using gas chromatography.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2451025", "title": "Hand luggage", "section": "Section::::Commercial air travel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 698, "text": "Studies have found that passengers often pause to retrieve cabin baggage during an emergency evacuation, despite instructions to the contrary in pre-flight safety briefings. This is not a new phenomenon, as it was observed during the evacuation of a Boeing 737 that caught fire in 1984. At least one passenger re-entered a Boeing 777 that crashed in 2008 to retrieve personal belongings. Video of the evacuation of a Sukhoi Superjet that caught fire on landing in 2019 clearly shows passengers on the emergency slides with large suitcases, raising questions as to whether this contributed to the loss of life. Remote locking of overhead baggage bins is being considered as a solution to the issue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "773863", "title": "South African Airways Flight 295", "section": "Section::::History of the flight.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 590, "text": "At some point during the flight, believed to be during the beginning of its landing approach, a fire developed in the cargo section on the main deck which was probably not extinguished before impact. The 'smoke evacuation' checklist calls for the aircraft to be depressurised, and for two of the cabin doors to be opened. No evidence exists that the checklist was followed, or that the doors were opened. A crew member might have gone into the cargo hold to try to fight the fire. A charred fire extinguisher was later recovered from the wreckage on which investigators found molten metal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "375120", "title": "ValuJet Flight 592", "section": "Section::::Investigation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 412, "text": "Smoke detectors in the cargo holds can alert the flight crew of a fire long before the problem becomes apparent in the cabin, and a fire suppression system buys valuable time to land the plane safely. In February 1998, the FAA issued revised standards requiring all Class D cargo holds to be converted by early 2001 to Class C or E; these types of holds have additional fire detection and suppression equipment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1536572", "title": "Emergency evacuation", "section": "Section::::Small scale evacuations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 738, "text": "The most common equipment in buildings to facilitate emergency evacuations are fire alarms, exit signs, and emergency lights. Some structures need special emergency exits or fire escapes to ensure the availability of alternative escape paths. Commercial passenger vehicles such as buses, boats, and aircraft also often have evacuation lighting and signage, and in some cases windows or extra doors that function as emergency exits. Commercial emergency aircraft evacuation is also facilitated by evacuation slides and pre-flight safety briefings. Military aircraft are often equipped with ejection seats or parachutes. Water vessels and commercial aircraft that fly over water are equipped with personal flotation devices and life rafts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42850847", "title": "Aeroflot Flight 2306", "section": "Section::::Investigation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 1173, "text": "The fire on the ground after the plane crashed destroyed most of the aircraft to the point of making study of the remains nearly impossible. The investigation lasted five months, during which the chairman of the investigation commission was replaced before the full report was completed. The official conclusion was that a fire in the rear luggage compartment spread in across the compartment sections before the crew could begin to extinguish it. The attempts to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful, and the smoke and fumes from the fire spread into the cabin, the aircraft was forced to choose an emergency landing. However, due to low visibility, the distance from the airport, and the increasing amount of fumes in the cockpit, the aircraft was forced to make a landing in the forest below. The exact cause of the fire was not discovered, but it was suggested that an incendiary device or contraband flammable materials could have been in passenger baggage because the luggage was not inspected before the flight. The commission was able to exclude the possibility of leakage of hydraulic fluid or damage to the wiring in internal aircraft components causing a fire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2597955", "title": "Aircraft rescue and firefighting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 787, "text": "Due to the mass casualty potential of an aviation emergency, the speed with which emergency response equipment and personnel arrive at the scene of the emergency is of paramount importance. Their arrival and initial mission to secure the aircraft against all hazards, particularly fire, increases the survivability of the passengers and crew on board. Airport firefighters have advanced training in the application of firefighting foams, dry chemical and clean agents used to extinguish burning aviation fuel in and around an aircraft in order to maintain a path for evacuating passengers to exit the fire hazard area. Further, should fire either be encountered in the cabin or extend there from an external fire, the ARFF responders must work to control/extinguish these fires as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This happens because [stress concentration](_URL_0_) occurs around the crack. Even though the average stress throughout the material sample is only slightly higher, the localized stresses at the end(s) of the crack are much higher.\n\nThe maximum stress around a crack is proportional to (a/b)^(1/2), where *a* is the length of the crack and *b* is the width. So, if the crack is very long and narrow (as many are), you can see that the stress concentration at the end of the crack will be very high, which will cause the material to fail and the crack to propagate further. This process repeats as long as the crack is still around.\n\nThis formula for stress concentration can also be used to explain why \"drilling cracks\" is a common temporary solution--it increases the radius of the end of the crack, which has the effect of reducing the stress concentration.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Here is an FEA program](_URL_0_) targeted at cracks. If you look through the user manual, it shows several FEA meshes around cracks. A pretty good one is on page 55. Notice where the high stresses are.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "54175973", "title": "Toughening", "section": "Section::::Toughening in Metals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 595, "text": "In a low yield strength material, crack tip can be blunted easily and larger crack tip radius is formed. Thus, in a given metal glass, toughness in a low-strength metal is usually higher than higher-strength metals because less plasticity is available for toughening. Therefore, some safety-critical structural part such as pressure vessels and pipelines to aluminum alloy air frames are manufactured in relatively low strength version. Nonetheless, toughness should be improved without sacrificing its strength in metal. Designing a new alloy or improving its processing can achieve this goal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1873277", "title": "Residual stress", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 377, "text": "A material having compressive residual stress helps to prevent brittle fracture because the initial crack is formed under compressive (negative tensile) stress. To cause brittle fracture by crack propagation of the initial crack, the external tensile stress must overcome the compressive residual stress before the crack tips experience sufficient tensile stress to propagate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1873277", "title": "Residual stress", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 741, "text": "While uncontrolled residual stresses are undesirable, some designs rely on them. In particular, brittle materials can be toughened by including compressive residual stress, as in the case for toughened glass and pre-stressed concrete. The predominant mechanism for failure in brittle materials is brittle fracture, which begins with initial crack formation. When an external tensile stress is applied to the material, the crack tips concentrate stress, increasing the local tensile stresses experienced at the crack tips to a greater extent than the average stress on the bulk material. This causes the initial crack to enlarge quickly (propagate) as the surrounding material is overwhelmed by the stress concentration, leading to fracture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3905860", "title": "Environmental stress fracture", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 686, "text": "Plastics and plastic-based composites may suffer swelling, debonding and loss of strength when exposed to organic fluids and other corrosive environments, such as acids and alkalies. Under the influence of stress and environment, many structural materials, particularly the high-specific strength ones become brittle and lose their resistance to fracture. While their fracture toughness remains unaltered, their threshold stress intensity factor for crack propagation may be considerably lowered. Consequently, they become prone to premature fracture because of sub-critical crack growth. This article aims to give a brief overview of the various degradation processes mentioned above.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "237876", "title": "Deformation (engineering)", "section": "Section::::Misconceptions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 327, "text": "A popular misconception is that all materials that bend are \"weak\" and those that don't are \"strong\". In reality, many materials that undergo large elastic and plastic deformations, such as steel, are able to absorb stresses that would cause brittle materials, such as glass, with minimal plastic deformation ranges, to break.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3588836", "title": "Hardness", "section": "Section::::Physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 301, "text": "The toughness of a material is the maximum amount of energy it can absorb before fracturing, which is different from the amount of force that can be applied. Toughness tends to be small for brittle materials, because elastic and plastic deformations allow materials to absorb large amounts of energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35659147", "title": "Patterns in nature", "section": "Section::::Types of pattern.:Cracks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 932, "text": "Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. When an elastic material stretches or shrinks uniformly, it eventually reaches its breaking strength and then fails suddenly in all directions, creating cracks with 120 degree joints, so three cracks meet at a node. Conversely, when an inelastic material fails, straight cracks form to relieve the stress. Further stress in the same direction would then simply open the existing cracks; stress at right angles can create new cracks, at 90 degrees to the old ones. Thus the pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or not. In a tough fibrous material like oak tree bark, cracks form to relieve stress as usual, but they do not grow long as their growth is interrupted by bundles of strong elastic fibres. Since each species of tree has its own structure at the levels of cell and of molecules, each has its own pattern of splitting in its bark.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "* _URL_0_\n\nYou can also use the sub search function:\n\n* _URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "99491", "title": "Exponentiation", "section": "Section::::Real exponents.:Limits of rational exponents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 217, "text": "Since any irrational number can be expressed as the limit of a sequence of rational numbers, exponentiation of a positive real number \"b\" with an arbitrary real exponent \"x\" can be defined by continuity with the rule\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3904191", "title": "Copeland–Erdős constant", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 444, "text": "By a similar argument, any constant created by concatenating \"0.\" with all primes in an arithmetic progression \"dn\" + \"a\", where \"a\" is coprime to \"d\" and to 10, will be irrational. E.g. primes of the form 4\"n\" + 1 or 8\"n\" + 1. By Dirichlet's theorem, the arithmetic progression \"dn\"·10 + \"a\" contains primes for all \"m\", and those primes are also in \"cd\" + \"a\", so the concatenated primes contain arbitrarily long sequences of the digit zero.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "579675", "title": "Linear logic", "section": "Section::::The resource interpretation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 561, "text": "Additive disjunction represents alternative occurrence of resources, the choice of which the machine controls. For example, suppose the vending machine permits gambling: insert a dollar and the machine may dispense a candy bar, a packet of chips, or a soft drink. We can express this situation as . The constant 0 represents a product that cannot be made, and thus serves as the unit of ⊕ (a machine that might produce or is as good as a machine that always produces because it will never succeed in producing a 0). So unlike above, we cannot deduce from this.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50964", "title": "Liouville number", "section": "Section::::Irrationality measure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 1060, "text": "The Liouville-Roth irrationality measure (irrationality exponent, approximation exponent, or Liouville–Roth constant) of a real number \"x\" is a measure of how \"closely\" it can be approximated by rationals. Generalizing the definition of Liouville numbers, instead of allowing any \"n\" in the power of \"q\", we find the largest possible value for \"μ\" such that formula_38 is satisfied by an infinite number of integer pairs (\"p\", \"q\") with \"q\" 0. This maximum value of \"μ\" is defined to be the irrationality measure of \"x\". For any value \"μ\" less than this upper bound, the infinite set of all rationals \"p\"/\"q\" satisfying the above inequality yield an approximation of \"x\". Conversely, if \"μ\" is greater than the upper bound, then there are at most finitely many (\"p\", \"q\") with \"q\" 0 that satisfy the inequality; thus, the opposite inequality holds for all larger values of \"q\". In other words, given the irrationality measure \"μ\" of a real number \"x\", whenever a rational approximation \"x\" ≅ \"p\"/\"q\", \"p\",\"q\" ∈ N yields \"n\" + 1 exact decimal digits, we have\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "99491", "title": "Exponentiation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 264, "text": "Exponentiation is a mathematical operation, written as , involving two numbers, the \"base\" and the \"exponent\" or \"power\" . When is a positive integer, exponentiation corresponds to repeated multiplication of the base: that is, is the product of multiplying bases:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8559560", "title": "Algebraic fraction", "section": "Section::::Irrational fractions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 445, "text": "The process of transforming an irrational fraction to a rational fraction is known as rationalization. Every irrational fraction in which the radicals are monomials may be rationalized by finding the least common multiple of the indices of the roots, and substituting the variable for another variable with the least common multiple as exponent. In the example given, the least common multiple is 6, hence we can substitute formula_14 to obtain\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "154616", "title": "Negative number", "section": "Section::::Formal construction of negative integers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 203, "text": "This will lead to an \"additive zero\" of the form (\"a\", \"a\"), an \"additive inverse\" of (\"a\", \"b\") of the form (\"b\", \"a\"), a multiplicative unit of the form (\"a\" + 1, \"a\"), and a definition of subtraction\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There's always room for discussion, but perhaps the section [Travel and contact across the Atlantic before Columbus](_URL_0_) in our FAQ will answer your inquiry.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's [some genetic evidence](_URL_0_) that Native American women (if not men too) reached Iceland, possibly hitching a ride along with the Norse, whether they wanted to or not. This is indicated by the presence of Haplogroup C1 in the Icelandic population. A haplogroup is a genetic marker that can be used to identify particularly lineages (either male or female; female in this case). Haplogroup C1 can be further divided into sub-lineages. C1a is found in indigenous peoples of easternmost Siberia. C1b, C1c, and C1d are found throughout the Americas. Iceland has C1e, which might be descended from C1b-d, because it seems to be relatively recent (only hundreds of years old rather than thousands), but there's a slight chance that it was brought westward into Scandinavia from Siberia, too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "315239", "title": "First Nations", "section": "Section::::History.:European contact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 652, "text": "Even in Columbus' time there was much speculation that other Europeans had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times; Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records accounts of these in his \"General y natural historia de las Indias\" of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus. Aboriginal first contact period is not well defined. The earliest accounts of contact occurred in the late 10th century, between the Beothuk and Norsemen. According to the Sagas of Icelanders, the first European to see what is now Canada was Bjarni Herjólfsson, who was blown off course en route from Iceland to Greenland in the summer of 985 or 986 CE.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "158687", "title": "Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories", "section": "Section::::Claims of African and Middle Eastern contact.:Claims involving African contact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 500, "text": "Brazilian researcher Niede Guidon, who led the Pedra Furada sites excavations \"... said she believed that humans … might have come not overland from Asia but by boat from Africa\", with the journey taking place 100,000 years ago, well before the accepted dates for the earliest human migrations that led to the prehistoric settlement of the Americas. Michael R. Waters, a geoarchaeologist at Texas A&M University, noted the absence of genetic evidence in modern populations to support Guidon's claim.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7375831", "title": "Voyages of Christopher Columbus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 514, "text": "For a long time it was generally believed that Columbus and his crew had been the first Europeans to make landfall in the Americas. In fact they were not the first explorers from Europe to reach the Americas, having been preceded by the Viking expedition led by Leif Erikson in the 11th century; however, Columbus's voyages were the ones that led to ongoing European contact with the Americas, inaugurating a period of exploration, conquest, and colonization whose effects and consequences persist to the present.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "103060", "title": "Culebra, Puerto Rico", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 410, "text": "Some sources claim that Christopher Columbus was the first European to arrive at the island during his second voyage in 1493. It is believed that the island was populated by Carib Indians during the colonization. After Agüeybaná and Agüeybaná II led the Taíno rebellion of 1511, Taíno Indians from the main island sought refuge on Culebra and allied with Caribs to launch random attacks at the island estates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "321956", "title": "List of common misconceptions", "section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages and Renaissance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 763, "text": "BULLET::::- Christopher Columbus was not the first European to visit the Americas: Leif Erikson, and possibly other Vikings before him, explored Vinland, which was either the island of Newfoundland, part of modern Canada, or a term for Newfoundland and parts of the North American mainland. Ruins at L'Anse aux Meadows prove that at least one Norse settlement was built in Newfoundland, confirming a narrative in the Saga of Erik the Red. Columbus also never reached any land that now forms part of the mainland United States of America; most of the landings Columbus made on his four voyages, including the initial October 12, 1492 landing (the anniversary of which forms the basis of Columbus Day), were on Caribbean islands that are now independent countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4929108", "title": "The Skeleton in Armor", "section": "Section::::Identity.:Phoenician, Carthaginian, or Egyptian.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 573, "text": "Phoenicians and later Carthaginians routinely navigated the coasts of the northeastern Atlantic and presumably their trading vessels, blown off course in a storm, could have reached North America. Such accidental one-way contact, as intimated in the last paragraph of Stark's report, could account for the presence of bronze artefacts as well as being compatible with the lack of evidence for a regular settlement, and the absence of indications in Native American oral history (as such shipwrecks would be few in number and just a local curiosity, soon to be forgotten). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "429135", "title": "Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney", "section": "Section::::Fringe theories.:Criticisms of this theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 613, "text": "One primary criticism of this theory is that if either a Sinclair or a Templar voyage reached the Americas, they did not, unlike Columbus, return with a historical record of their findings. In fact, there is no known published documentation from that era to support the theory that such a voyage took place. The physical evidence relies on speculative reasoning to support the theory, and all of it can be interpreted in other ways. For example, according to one historian, the carvings in Rosslyn Chapel may not be of American plants at all but are nothing more than stylized carvings of wheat and strawberries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It depends on who the book is targeted at. Harry Potter for example, wide pages, big letters, lots of spacing, easy for a child to read. Then Game of Thrones, short pages, smaller font, closely spaced. Made to be read by adults. Also, the length of the book. HP books are wide but not a lot of pages. GoT has a lot of pages, so it's better to make small pages. (Wish I could word this better)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2913030", "title": "Book size", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 924, "text": "The size of a book is generally measured by the height against the width of a leaf, or sometimes the height and width of its cover. A series of terms is commonly used by libraries and publishers for the general sizes of modern books, ranging from \"folio\" (the largest), to \"quarto\" (smaller) and \"octavo\" (still smaller). Historically, these terms referred to the format of the book, a technical term used by printers and bibliographers to indicate the size of a leaf in terms of the size of the original sheet. For example, a quarto (from Latin \"quartō\", ablative form of \"quartus\", fourth) historically was a book printed on a sheet of paper folded twice to produce four leaves (or eight pages), each leaf one fourth the size of the original sheet printed. Because the actual format of many modern books cannot be determined from examination of the books, bibliographers may not use these terms in scholarly descriptions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2913030", "title": "Book size", "section": "Section::::Modern book production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 257, "text": "Today, octavo and quarto are the most common book sizes, but many books are produced in larger and smaller sizes as well. Other terms for book size have developed, an \"elephant folio\" being up to tall, an \"atlas folio\" , and a \"double elephant folio\" tall.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11894010", "title": "Margin (typography)", "section": "Section::::History.:The Printed Book.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 561, "text": "With the invention of the printing press, books began to be manufactured in large numbers. As paper began to be produced in bulk, page size and shape were increasingly determined by the size and shape of mould which was most practical for producers. As pages became more standardized, so did the size and shape of margins. In general, margins in books have grown smaller over time. The wide margins common during the Renaissance have given way to much narrower proportions. However, there is still much variation depending on the size and purpose of the book. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2913030", "title": "Book size", "section": "Section::::Paper sizes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 596, "text": "The size and proportions of a book will thus depend on the size of the original sheet of paper used in producing the book. For example, if a sheet by is used to print a quarto, the resulting book will be approximately tall and wide, before trimming. Because the size of paper used has differed over the years and localities, the sizes of books of the same format will also differ. A typical octavo printed in Italy or France in the thus is roughly the size of a modern mass market paperback book, but an English octavo is noticeably larger, more like a modern trade paperback or hardcover novel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2977331", "title": "Japanese books", "section": "Section::::Book sizes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 397, "text": "Edo period paper came in several standard sizes; the size of books was, accordingly, standard. Though there are surely exceptions, larger books generally contained more formal, serious, material, while smaller books were less formal and less serious. For example, many manuscript copies of scholarly texts are found in the \"ōbon\" size, while satirical novels were often produced in smaller sizes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1677322", "title": "Miniature book", "section": "Section::::Notable miniatures.:\"Smallest Book in the World\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 282, "text": "Many books have claim to the title of smallest book in the world at the time of their publication. The title can apply to a variety of accomplishments: smallest overall size, smallest book with movable type, smallest printed book, smallest book legible to the naked eye, and so on.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54610905", "title": "Florence E. Bamberger", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 665, "text": "Size appears to be a factor in book selection. ... The size most acceptable to the children in the primary grades appears to be about seven and one-half inches long by five inches wide and one inch thick. ... Twenty-five percent of the book space seems the minimum amount of space to be devoted to pictures to make a book acceptable for little children. Large, full-page pictures are preferred to smaller ones inserted irregularly in the text. ... Colors preferred by the younger children are rather crude and elementary, having a high degree of saturation and a great deal of brightness. Older children gradually grow into a preference for softer tints and tones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The reason I'm asking is because I was looking at the back of random cereal boxes at the store, and thought it was weird how much of a huge spectrum of vitamins and minerals there are. They have very different choices in different cereals, even by the same makers! \n\nIt even just varies greatly with kid cereals from the same company. Do they choose by flavor or the texture of the cereal or something? Also, why is this common anyway? I'm guessing for marketing to look like some of the kids cereals aren't junk food or something. Thanks!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "82776", "title": "Breakfast cereal", "section": "Section::::Processing of grains.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 403, "text": "Breakfast cereals therefore often are fortified with minerals and vitamins and these additives may be regulated. For example, if breakfast cereal in Canada is fortified, they must contain the following specific amounts per 100 grams of cereal: Thiamine (2.0 mg), Niacin (4.8 mg), Vitamin B6 (0.6 mg), Folic Acid (0.06 mg), Pantothenic Acid (1.6 mg), Magnesium (160.0 mg), Iron (13.3 mg), Zinc (3.5 mg).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37679356", "title": "Infant nutrition", "section": "Section::::Infant nutrition requirements.:Six to twelve months.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 785, "text": "When choosing which solid to introduce first, it is important to understand what the infant actually needs. Iron-fortified infant cereal is typically the first solid introduced due to its high iron content. Cereals can be made of rice, barley, or oatmeal. Foods must be introduced one a time over a five- to seven-day period, to be able to detect any allergic responses. Orange juice is the best thing to mix with the cereal, because the vitamin C enhances the absorption of iron. Juices like apple, pear, prune, peach, and grape need to be avoided because of the risk of gastric upset. Overall, solids can be introduced in any order after the cereal is introduced. It is important to know that solids cannot completely replace formula or breast milk until after twelve months of age.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "287843", "title": "Sprouting", "section": "Section::::Nutrition.:Increases in vitamin content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 317, "text": "According to Chavan and Kadam (1989), most reports agree that sprouting treatment of cereal grains generally improves their vitamin value, especially the B-group vitamins. Certain vitamins such as α-tocopherol (Vitamin-E) and β-carotene (Vitamin-A precursor) are produced during the growth process (Cuddeford, 1989).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1356447", "title": "Product 19", "section": "Section::::Product history and marketing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 818, "text": "Kellogg's introduced Product 19 in 1967 in response to General Mills' Total, which claimed to contain the entire daily nutritional requirement of vitamins and minerals. Like Total, Product 19 was fortified with the US recommended daily allowance of vitamins and minerals. Unlike Total, Product 19 was a multi-grain cereal. It was packaged in a relatively plain red and white box, originally with charts and text, and was marketed to older consumers and the health-conscious. The original slogan was \"Instant Nutrition - New cereal food created especially for working mothers, otherwise busy mothers and everybody in a hurry.\" In the early 1970s ads for Product 19 featured Tom Harmon; the last boxes depicted a person doing yoga. Within Kellogg's range of cereals, it was targeted to customers seeking to lose weight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38992746", "title": "Nesquik (cereal)", "section": "Section::::About.:Ingredients.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 394, "text": "Nesquick Cereal (Original Variety) Ingredients: \"Cereal Grains (whole grain wheat, maize semolina, rice flour), sugar, cocoa powder, dextrose, palm oil, salt, Fat-Reduced Cocoa Powder, trisodium phosphate, Flavouring: Vanillin, Vitamins and Minerals: vitamin C, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, riboflavin (B2), thiamin (B1), folic acid (Folacin), vitamin B12, calcium carbonate and iron.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "235195", "title": "Mineral (nutrient)", "section": "Section::::Dietary nutrition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 667, "text": "Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24998247", "title": "Vitamin D", "section": "Section::::Dietary intake.:Sources.:Food fortification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 256, "text": "Manufactured foods fortified with vitamin D include some fruit juices and fruit juice drinks, meal replacement energy bars, soy protein-based beverages, certain cheese and cheese products, flour products, infant formulas, many breakfast cereals, and milk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The \"Southern Question\" is indeed one of the longstanding dilemmas of Italian Economic History. Research into this topic is not as florid as you might initially think: for much of Italy's unitary history the \"Southern Question\" was perceived as a principally political topic, and it's only in last ten or so years that the \"Question\" has received steady attention from a growing cadre of economic historians, especially from those who are themselves located in the universities of the Italian South. Paolo Malanima at the University of Catanzaro, Emanuele Felice at the University of Chieti, and Claudia Sunna at the University of the Salento, are just some of the economic historians whose recent books and papers have been well received by their academic peers both in Italy and abroad, igniting new interest in Italy's lopsided economic development.\n\nThe present academic consensus is that at the time of unification, the North of Italy was slightly more economically developed than the South of Italy. However, the social and institutional apparatus in the north was better positioned to take advantage of imminent industrialization process that would take place after unity, quickly creating a perceptible gap in development between the two halves of the country. By the turn of the 20th century, a political discourse had already emerged around a \"Southern Question\" which has not existed at the time of unification (the terminology of \"Question\" itself seems to have been coined by the influential politician Giustino Fortunato, who served as member of parliament for Melfi between 1880 and 1900).\n\nOf course there is a lot of nuance tied to the study of historic inequality, especially in a late industrializer like Italy. Unfortunately, there are many difficulties tied to creating precisely assessments economic development in Italy immediately before and after unification. While scholars (notably Vera Negri-Zamagni at the University of Bologna) have attempted to quantify economic development by looking over what little data is available with a careful and critical eye, there are still many possible pitfalls: one of many examples is the fact that as late as 1881, southern women who practiced sewing and weaving at home were classified by local censors as “Textile Workers.” When census norms changed and no longer considered work done in the home as \"Employment,\" this caused a precipitous increase in unemployed women to appear in data coming from the South, even though real economic activity hadn't changed much at all.\n\nOne stand-in for institutional and social development that researchers have found good to work with is literacy and primary education. In this measure, the pre-unitary Southern Italian Kingdom suffers from a lack of public education policy, entirely reliant as it was on the clergy and their parochial schools. As a result, at the moment of unification in 1861 90% of southern Italians were illiterate, and only 20% of children were able or willing to enroll in primary education. This stands in stark contrast with Piedmont and Liguria, the most significant territories of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia (the polity which would go on to unify Italy) where in 1861 literacy stood at 53%, and, 93% children were enrolled in primary education thanks to universal education policies. The estimates (postulated by the aforementioned Negri-Zamagni in \"*La situazione economica e sociale nel meridione negli anni dell’unificazione: Una rivisitazione*” published in 2013) certainly can have some issues, as in both north and south measures of literacy were inconsistent. However, it this disparity is corroborated by other indicators: in 1862 (immediately after unity) 6.1 letters per inhabitant were mailed in the northern region of Piedmont, while only 1.6 letters per inhabitant were mailed in the former territories of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies.\n\nThe mailing of letters is also reflected in the disparity between professionalized industries in north and south, like banking and insurance, who would be making most use of postal correspondence. Between 1827 and 1848 (thus in the pre-unity period) of the 53 banks chartered all over Italy not one was founded in the Kingdom of the two Sicilies. The south would have to wait till 1850 for its only two commercial banks to be founded (the Bank of Naples and the Bank of Sicily). While we have no fair pre-unity estimates for insurance companies, in the post unity period (in 1865) of the 88 insurance companies registered in Italy only 21 were based in the South, against the 67 in the North. And beyond banking and insurance, in 1865 of the 208 joint-stock industrial corporations in existence in Italy, only 17 were registered in the South; a serious marker of lack of development in a country that was just then joining the industrial revolution (my source is, as above, Negri-Zamagni).\n\nSo what stopped the South from developing the hallmarks of an industrial economy, like banks, insurers, and most critically industrial corporations?\n\nThe consensus is attributable to the lack of legal or institutional framework favoring capital accumulation in the Kingdom of two Sicilies. Indeed, it would seem that the southern monarchy was itself disinterested in favoring industrial growth, preferring to award of letters patent to foreign investors for what few industrial endeavors might take place. Even things like military and naval procurement was outsourced. The railroad, hallmark of the industrial revolution, was only built to connect the King's summer palace to the King's winter palace. Cause and consequence of this lack of initiative was the southern moneyed classes' preference for investing in extensive agriculture, rather than industry.\n\nThe attitude in the north, however, was much different. The Kingdom of Piedmont lived a precarious existence sandwiched between the Austrian and French Empires. A finely honed instinct for survival among its political class, in addition to an influx of political dissidents from the Austrian-held parts of Italy (as well as a few thinkers expelled from the South) fomenting political thought, led the Kingdom to do its best to imitate the great powers of Europe in industrial development. Policies weren't always successful or well thought out, but they were successful enough to turn the maritime city of Genoa into a center of naval construction, connecting Genoa to the capital of Turin via a railroad, and even develop plans for a future connection between Turin and Switzerland.\n\nIn Austrian-held Italy too, a political and entrepreneurial class based in and around the city of Milan worked to imitate their peers in Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, in order to foster economic development: milanese entrepreneurs financed railroads, canalization of waterways, and founded a series of technical and vocational schools (a far cry from the southern system, which as mentioned above relied on parochial schools).\n\nIt is worth keeping in mind, though, that Italy at the time of unification was still a fundamentally agricultural economy. France, Great Britain, and parts of Austria were much more developed. The gap between Northern Italy and the industrialized regions of Europe would not close until the 1980s.\n\nBut why did the gap close in the North and not in the South?\n\nThe question is one of the many that Emanuele Felice tries to answer in his concise but ambitious, \"*Ascesa e Declino*.\" The north was certainly helped by the presence of a great river, the Po, whose tributaries could be turned into canals to water farms and power mills, and which could be navigated by barges, creating a large unified marketplace even before the construction of the railroad. The south had no such hydrographic advantage. The north's cities were also geographically closer to the industrialized regions of Europe, and thus exchanging goods, materials, and ideas was much easier than in the South. The north would also benefit, in the long run, from the two world wars: Haphazard and hurried wartime planning meant that production of wartime materials was focused where there already was productive capacity, thus turning the north's marginal advantage into a much more substantial advantage.\n\nBut Felice also identifies policy decisions taken in the post-war era as important factors. In fact, the gap between north and south seemed to be closing in the wake of the second world war, but would begin increasing again following the Italian response to the global economic slowdown of the 1970s: deliberate decisions were made to direct state-sponsored conglomerates as well as government procurement to favor the country's least developed regions. This created a paternalistic and clientelistic relationship between southern entrepreneurship and the government, with entrepreneurs quickly preferring to follow lucrative subcontracts offered by the state and state-sponsored entities, divesting from existing industries that had driven the south's budding economic growth up to that point.\n\nI'm very bad with conclusions, but that's the summary of the leading academic consensus. Feel free to offer any follow ups or additional questions you may have.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1873263", "title": "Roman Italy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 486, "text": "Under Augustus, the peoples of today's Aosta Valley and of the western and northern Alps were subjugated (so the western border of Roman Italy was moved to the Varus river), and the Italian eastern border was brought to the Arsia in Istria. Lastly, in the late 3rd century, Italy came to include the island of Sicily as well as Corsica and Sardinia, followed by Raetia and part of Pannonia to the north. The city of Emona (modern Ljubljana, Slovenia) was the easternmost town of Italy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19140944", "title": "Graziadio Isaia Ascoli", "section": "Section::::Political views.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 248, "text": "Ascoli suggested that northeast Italy was composed by three historically, geographically and culturally interconnected regions, which he called the \"Three Venices\". According to his classification, these three historical-geographical regions were:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "736552", "title": "Via Aemilia", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 510, "text": "The land today known as northern Italy (\"Italia settentrionale\") was known to the ancient Romans during the republican period (to 44 BC) as Gallia Cisalpina (literally: Gaul on the near – i.e. southern – side of the Alps). This is because it was then inhabited by Celtic tribes from Gaul, who had colonised the area in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. \"Italia\" meant the area inhabited by Italic tribes: the border between \"Italia\" and \"Gallia Cisalpina\" was roughly a line between \"Pisae\" (Pisa) and \"Ariminum\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18895005", "title": "Name of Italy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 298, "text": "Dante in the 14th century wrote that the borders of what is geographically and historically called \"Italia\" are clearly defined in the north by the Alps (from the Vare river near Montecarlo to the Arsa River in Istria) and, going down the Italian peninsula, in the south by Sicily and its islands.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14532", "title": "Italy", "section": "Section::::History.:Early Modern.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1291, "text": "In the 14th and 15th centuries, northern-central Italy was divided into a number of warring city-states, the rest of the peninsula being occupied by the larger Papal States and the Kingdom of Sicily, referred to here as Naples. Though many of these city-states were often formally subordinate to foreign rulers, as in the case of the Duchy of Milan, which was officially a constituent state of the mainly Germanic Holy Roman Empire, the city-states generally managed to maintain de facto independence from the foreign sovereigns that had seized Italian lands following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The strongest among these city-states gradually absorbed the surrounding territories giving birth to the Signorie, regional states often led by merchant families which founded local dynasties. War between the city-states was endemic, and primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as \"condottieri\", bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, especially Germany and Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. Decades of fighting eventually saw Florence, Milan and Venice emerged as the dominant players that agreed to the Peace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries. This peace would hold for the next forty years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "897351", "title": "Southern Italy", "section": "Section::::History.:Southern and Northern Italy in 1860.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 394, "text": "The above-mentioned study by Denis Mack Smith is confirmed by the Italian historian and left wing politician Antonio Gramsci in his book \"The Southern Question\", by which the author emphasizes the \"absolutely antithetical conditions\" of Northern and Southern Italy at the time of the Italian Unification in 1861, when South and North united themselves again after more than one thousand years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2075050", "title": "Vallerotonda", "section": "Section::::Geography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 300, "text": "The area is historically tied to the Mezzogiorno, the Italian \"South\", only relatively recently in the 1920s Fascist rule, was it transferred to the \"central\" province of Lazio along with Latina from the Terra di Lavoro, which was a \"giustizierato\" (circumscription) of the former Kingdom of Naples.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Our main problem in space exploration is the cost of launching into orbit. It's in the order of several thousand US$ per kg.\n\nSo, first of all, consider how much fuel you need to achieve orbit. [Here's a picture of a Space Shuttle on the launch pad](_URL_0_). Note how the huge fuel tank is larger than the spaceplane itself. Putting some numbers, it was a total mass of 2000 tons on the launch pad out of which only 80 tons made it to Low Earth Orbit (LEO). It didn't have enough fuel to reach another planet, the Moon or even just geosynchronous orbit - if you want to do that you'll have to increase the mass at liftoff by a significant factor.\n\nThen, when landing, the spaceplane was only able to land itself, at most it could be loaded with an extra 20 tons in its cargo bay. No way it could land a comparable fuel tank to take off again from a foreign planet. Consider also the difficulties of flying in a different atmosphere, or landing without a man-made runway.\n\nSecond, in order to make them lighter and cheaper, spacecraft are usually designed specifically for their mission goals and for the environment they will have to operate in. The Space Shuttle was not able to support human life in missions longer than a few weeks (no significant recycling of life support resources like water or oxygen), was not able to protect astronauts from radiation in the long term, and would not have been able to work correctly in a harsher thermal environment.\n\nIf you do design a spacecraft for a variety of environments or for goals other than the ones intended, in aerospace jargon this is called \"overdesigned\". Basically it means you're using more mass than you actually need. Making things unnecessarily heavy means making them unnecessarily expensive, i.e. wasting the space agency's money. If a company does this then it is unlikely to be chosen for further contracts with the same space agency in the future (but they are actually unlikely to do it because the design is reviewed and negotiated with the agency at all times).\n\nBoth aspects would change if we ever develop a propulsion technology that makes access to space significantly cheaper, using only a small mass of fuel that can fit inside the spaceplane. But today this is not part of the foreseeable future.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "All right. Spaceplanes *might* be efficient as reusable launch vehicles. Jet engines are much more efficient than rockets because they can use outside air for most of the reaction mass. They're heavier for the same thrust, but a spaceplane flying horizontally needs much less thrust, because it can use the energy for list instead. If a spaceplane can accelerate up to mach 5 or so using airbreathing engines, it may be viable for it to reach orbit in a single stage. Yes, mach 5 is only a small fraction of the delta-V required to reach orbit, but the rocket equation is exponential, and most of a launcher's mass is fuel: gaining a massive efficiency boost on the first 15% of your delta-V has a big impact. If you can reduce your vehicle's fuel fraction from, say, 95% to 90%, you DOUBLE the mass of the non-fuel stuff.\n\nThe problem is that jet engines and wings are heavy, especially when they have to be heat-shielded for both reentry and hypersonic airbreathing flight. And to make matters worse, conventional turbojets can only get up to mach 3 or so, and ramjets to mach 6. So you'd normally need to carry three separate sets of engines on one vehicle, which is prohibitively heavy. The most promising solutions to this are combined-cycle engines, like the Reaction Engines \"SABRE\" in development, which can fulfill multiple roles. For example, the SABRE is supposed to operate anywhere from zero to mach 5 as a jet engine, which is achieved by a combination of partially bypassing the compressors and turbines at high speed, combining features of a turbojet and ramjet (this is similar to the engines on the SR71 Blackbird), and cooling the intake air by exchanging the heat with the fuel (liquid hydrogen). But then it can also run on liquid hydrogen and onboard liquid oxygen as a rocket. Will it actually work well enough to make a SSTO orbital spaceplane possible? Who knows.\n\nBut even if a spaceplane is viable for going to and from low earth orbit, it's useless for *interplanetary* travel. Why? Because you need even more delta-V to get out of Earth's gravity well and onto an interplanetary trajectory, and because the rocket engine is, as mentioned, exponential, unless you're refueling your vehicle in LEO you're going to need an extra stage. In principle you could probably refuel a Skylon in orbit and it would have enough delta-V to reach other planets, but that would require dozens of launches carrying the fuel, and it wouldn't have the hardware required to support *itself* for months in orbit (liquid hydrogen tends to boil off after a few days in space), let alone a crew. In practice, *manned* interplanetary flight would require a vehicle more like the ISS than a launch vehicle: a massive spacecraft, assembled in orbit, with landers carried on the sides of the habitat modules.\n\nUnfortunately, the most efficient propulsion systems we can make (and you NEED that efficiency if you want to go to another planet and return) have too little thrust to be useful when launching into orbit. If you start in orbit you can burn for hours, days, or MONTHS to get on the trajectory you want: try that when trying to get into orbit and you'll fall back into the atmosphere and burn up. The one exception is the Orion Drive, but nobody's going to ever use that to get into orbit because it works by *detonating nuclear bombs behind the spacecraft.*\n\nWhat that means is that even those fancy combined-cycle engines are dead weight for your interplanetary flight. In fact, they'll be dead weight at your destination too, and so will your wings. There are only TWO bodies in the solar system where a spaceplane designed for an orbital reentry on Earth could safely perform an atmospheric entry and descent using their wings: Titan and Venus. Mars's atmosphere is too thin, anything designed for Earth reentry would glide like a brick. The giant planets have too strong gravity - entry speeds are so high that half your entry vehicle has to be heat shield, and forget getting back out of the atmosphere. Everywhere else has either no atmosphere or such a thin one (e.g. Triton, Pluto) that you have to land completely propulsively. And then, how do you get back? There have been proposals to build floating habitats in Venus's upper atmosphere, but how are you landing a spaceplane on them? Even if you build one big enough to have a runway, you're basically trying to make a carrier landing in an airliner-sized vehicle that glides like a brick (spaceplanes glide well only by comparison to a capsule). And how are you going to take off again? Airbreathing engines are completely useless on Venus. On Titan, you *might* be able to design an engine to burn liquid oxygen with atmospheric methane, but there's a lot less methane in Titan's atmosphere than there is oxygen in Earth's, and in the upper atmosphere, which is where you want to do your serious acceleration, there's less methane than at the surface. Even if you can burn it, making a jet engine that works in both environments will be a materials science *nightmare.*\n\nNow, concievably if we had a permanent colony on Titan we *could* use a spaceplane to launch crew from Earth, then transfer them to the big interplanetary ship that makes repeated trips between Earth and Saturn, and then in Titan orbit get picked up by a shuttle that ferries people between Titan's surface and Titanian orbit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37415478", "title": "Technologies in 2001: A Space Odyssey", "section": "Section::::Science.:Accuracy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1587, "text": "The general approach to how space travel is engineered is highly accurate; in particular, the design of the ships was based on actual engineering considerations rather than attempts to look aesthetically \"futuristic\". Many other science-fiction films give spacecraft an aerodynamic shape, which is superfluous in outer space (except for craft such as the Pan Am shuttle that are designed to function both in atmosphere and in space). Kubrick's science advisor, Frederick Ordway, notes that in designing the spacecraft \"We insisted on knowing the purpose and functioning of each assembly and component, down to the logical labeling of individual buttons and the presentation on screens of plausible operating, diagnostic and other data.\" Onboard equipment and panels on various spacecraft have specific purposes such as alarm, communications, condition display, docking, diagnostic, and navigation, the designs of which relied heavily on NASA's input. Aerospace specialists were also consulted on the design of the spacesuits and space helmets. The space dock at Moon base Clavius shows multiple underground layers which could sustain high levels of air pressure typical of Earth. The lunar craft design takes into account the lower gravity and lighting conditions on the Moon. The Jupiter-bound \"Discovery\" is meant to be powered by a nuclear reactor at its rear, separated from the crew area at the front by hundreds of feet of fuel storage compartments. Although difficult to be recognized as such, actual nuclear reactor control panel displays appear in the astronaut's control area.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34666187", "title": "SpaceX reusable launch system development program", "section": "Section::::Economics of rocket reuse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 383, "text": "Space industry analyst Ajay Kothari has noted that SpaceX reusable technology could do for space transport \"what jet engines did for air transportation sixty years ago when people never imagined that more than 500 million passengers would travel by airplanes every year and that the cost could be reduced to the level it is—all because of passenger volume and reliable reusability.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15077441", "title": "First Contact (novelette)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 509, "text": "Space travel is routine between planets in the Solar System. Ships function very much like naval warships or research vessels. There are technologies such as \"overdrive\" which allows a ship to travel much faster than light in normal space, and apparently artificial gravity within a ship. Atomic power is used everywhere, even in a space suit propulsion unit. Ships are equipped with \"blasters\", not necessarily for use as weapons, but for destroying space debris which would otherwise collide with the ship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455201", "title": "Spaceplane", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 630, "text": "Three types of spaceplane have successfully launched to orbit, reentered Earth's atmosphere, and landed: the Space Shuttle, Buran, and the X-37. Another, Dream Chaser, is under development. As of 2019 all past, current, and planned orbital vehicles launch vertically on a separate rocket. Orbital spaceflight takes place at high velocities, with orbital kinetic energies typically at least 50 times greater than suborbital trajectories. Consequently, heavy heat shielding is required during reentry as this kinetic energy is shed in the form of heat. Many more spaceplanes have been proposed, but none have reached flight status.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48649553", "title": "The Big Everything", "section": "Section::::Production.:Production Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 340, "text": "The spaceship of the film is very obviously not aerodynamic as it is not made for planetary exploration. It flies through the cosmic void, not through air. In the void there is no resistance and therefore no need for aerodynamics. It is designed for only one purpose, says Nicolas Bazz, interstellar travel, as fast as physically possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455201", "title": "Spaceplane", "section": "Section::::Challenges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 440, "text": "Spaceplanes must operate in space, like traditional spacecraft, but also must be capable of atmospheric flight, like an aircraft. These requirements drive up the complexity, risk, dry mass, and cost of spaceplane designs. The following sections will draw heavily on the US Space Shuttle as the biggest, deadliest, most complex, most expensive, most flown, and only crewed orbital spaceplane, but other designs have been successfully flown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15111", "title": "Interplanetary spaceflight", "section": "Section::::Reasons for interplanetary travel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 388, "text": "Other practical motivations for interplanetary travel are more speculative, because our current technologies are not yet advanced enough to support test projects. But science fiction writers have a fairly good track record in predicting future technologies — for example geosynchronous communications satellites (Arthur C. Clarke) and many aspects of computer technology (Mack Reynolds).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It is interesting how many sites quote these particular lines, but provide no context, or even bother to cite the origin. Most of them do so with the obvious intent of saying that the US is a religious country, and has to be a religious country because John Adams said it had to be religious country. It's useful to look at it in context.\n\nIt's from his [address to the Massachusetts Militia in October of 1798:](_URL_2_)\n\n > While our Country remains untainted with the Principles and manners, which are now producing desolation in so many Parts of the World: while the \\[ USA \\] continues Sincere and incapable of insidious and impious Policy: We shall have the Strongest Reason to rejoice in the local destination assigned Us by Providence. But should the People of America, once become capable of that deep .... simulation towards one another and towards foreign nations, which assumes the Language of Justice and moderation while it is practicing Iniquity and Extravagance; and displays in the most captivating manner the charming Pictures of Candour frankness & sincerity while it is rioting in rapine and Insolence: this Country will be the most miserable Habitation in the World. Because We have no Government armed with Power capable of contending with human Passions unbridled by morality and Religion. Avarice, Ambition ,Revenge or Galantry, would break the strongest Cords of our Constitution as a Whale goes through a Net. Our Constitution was made only for a moral and religious People. It is wholly inadequate to the government of any other\n\nIt is comparatively easy these days to split off \"moral\" from \"religious\". But in this period ( and well into the 20th c.) to say someone was spiritually-guided carried an assumption they were morally-guided as well. Religion was thought to be the main impetus to virtue. Some philosophers like David Hume could argue against that, and show by example that the two did not have to be linked, but the notion of a moral atheist was pretty rare: most people would believe that the only thing that kept humans from doing terrible things was their fear and love of God. Here Adams is using the terms together to make an argument for the Constitution very common to the 1790's: that its success depended upon the active participation in the government by law-abiding honest people. But it also shows one concern that Adams had in particular. Many of the founders, like Madison and Jefferson, thought of Americans as being relatively equal, and content to be equal. Unlike them, Adams ( after the Revolution) thought that humans tended to strive for superiority, and that, even without a hereditary aristocracy in the US, there would arise an aristocratic elite and an unruly mob wishing to loot and supplant it. He was pretty comfortable with the idea of that elite class being a good force ( maybe here, more \"armed with Power\" ) perhaps even thought the US could have the equivalent of a House of Lords. He thought that the balancing of powers in the Constitution also provided some defense against the conflict, but he was always very uneasy about the danger of mob rule. In 1798, he would be quite aware of the French Revolution \"producing desolation\": that certainly would have put him in mind of the possibilities of a populace no longer moral and religious.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nJohn Adams : A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States: [_URL_0_](_URL_1_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "384080", "title": "Non-partisan democracy", "section": "Section::::Historical examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 646, "text": "Historians have frequently interpreted Federalist No. 10 to imply that the Founding Fathers of the United States intended the government to be nonpartisan. James Madison defined a faction as \"a number of citizens, whether amounting to a minority or majority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community.\" As political parties had interests which were adverse to the rights of citizens and to the general welfare of the nation, several Founding Fathers preferred a nonpartisan form of government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46835", "title": "Federalist", "section": "Section::::United States.:Historic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 367, "text": "BULLET::::- \"federalist\": statesmen and public figures supporting the proposed Constitution of the United States between 1787 and 1789. The most prominent advocates were James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay. They published \"The Federalist Papers\", which delineated the tenets of the early federalist movement to promote and adopt the proposed Constitution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15124855", "title": "Samuel Adams", "section": "Section::::Revolution.:Second Continental Congress.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 1022, "text": "Adams returned to Boston in 1779 to attend a state constitutional convention. The Massachusetts General Court had proposed a new constitution the previous year, but voters rejected it, and so a convention was held to try again. Adams was appointed to a three-man drafting committee with his cousin John Adams and James Bowdoin. They drafted the Massachusetts Constitution, which was amended by the convention and approved by voters in 1780. The new constitution established a republican form of government, with annual elections and a separation of powers. It reflected Adams's belief that \"a state is never free except when each citizen is bound by no law whatever that he has not approved of, either directly, or through his representatives\". By modern standards, the new constitution was not \"democratic\"; Adams, like most of his peers, believed that only free males who owned property should be allowed to vote, and that the senate and the governor served to balance any excesses that might result from majority rule.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "168714", "title": "Separation of church and state", "section": "Section::::History of the concept and term.:Jefferson and the Bill of Rights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 609, "text": "Jefferson was describing to the Baptists that the United States Bill of Rights prevents the establishment of a national church, and in so doing they did not have to fear government interference in their right to expressions of religious conscience. The Bill of Rights, adopted in 1791 as ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States, was one of the earliest political expressions of religious freedom. Others were the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, also authored by Jefferson and adopted by Virginia in 1786; and the French Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1789.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10410626", "title": "John Adams", "section": "Section::::Political writings.:\"Defence of the Constitutions\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 136, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 136, "end_character": 337, "text": "Adams first saw the new United States Constitution in late 1787. To Jefferson, he wrote that he read it \"with great satisfaction.\" Adams expressed regret that the president would be unable to make appointments without Senate approval and over the absence of a Bill of Rights. \"Should not such a thing have preceded the model?\" he asked.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3612962", "title": "First Party System", "section": "Section::::Federalists versus Anti-Federalists in 1787–88.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 423, "text": "Leading nationalists, George Washington, Alexander Hamilton and Benjamin Franklin (see \"Annapolis Convention\"), called the Constitutional Convention in 1787. It drew up a new constitution that was submitted to state ratification conventions for approval. (The old Congress of the Confederation approved the process.) James Madison was the most prominent figure; he is often referred to as \"the father of the Constitution\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10410626", "title": "John Adams", "section": "Section::::Political writings.:Massachusetts Constitution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 130, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 130, "end_character": 682, "text": "The Constitution affirmed the \"duty\" of the individual to worship the \"Supreme Being,\" and that he had the right to do so without molestation \"in the manner most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience.\" It established a system of public education that would provide free schooling for three years to the children of all citizens. Adams was a strong believer in good education as one of the pillars of the Enlightenment. He believed that people \"in a State of Ignorance\" were more easily enslaved while those \"enlightened with knowledge\" would be better able to protect their liberties. Adams became one of the founders of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1780.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Absolutely, in many major (and minor) American cities, there were wings of what we would call the \"Black Mafia.\" Typically unrelated but very powerful crime syndicates in the African-American parts of town. Phildelphia, Chicago, New York and Detroit each had their own families, syndicates, brothels, and gangs. I'll outline one of the more prominent groups that existed with The Harlem Mafia. \n\n***The Harlem Mob***\n\nOne of the most famous figures that dominated the Harlem scene was Stephanie \"Madame\" St. Clair. A Creole Black Harlemite who ran several rackets and gangs across Harlem, owned the Black police force, and was known as \"The Tiger of Marseille.\" When notorious gangster Dutch Schultz tried to edge in on the numbers games in Harlem, St. Clair reportedly said: “Ze God-damned Dutchman can keees my ass,” she hissed. “He zinks I’m some stupid nigga? I show him he zinks wrong!” St. Clair would use her enemy in Schultz to leverage favor with the Italian mobster Lucky Luciano, having him act as protection for the Harlem mob while only paying the Italians a pittance, insuring Black Mafia control of Harlem. \n\nFollowing (and working with) St. Clair comes probably the most famous black mobster in Ellsworth \"Bumpy\" Johnson, the Black Kingpin of Harlem. He was a Numbers Game operator, enforcer, drug dealer and Mob Boss who operated in Harlem from the 1930's to the 1960's. He became such a prestigious figure that he appeared in Jet Magazine [once](_URL_0_) after he left the hospital for being shot and [again](_URL_1_) when being arrested for selling heroin. It was under the control of St. Clair and Johnson that famous nightclubs like the Cotton Club were able to flourish in Harlem.\n\n\n**Sources**\n\n*Harlem Godfather: The Rap on My Husband, Ellsworth \"Bumpy\" Johnson* Mayme Johnson\n\n*The Cotton Club* James Haskins\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45470", "title": "Manhattan", "section": "Section::::Government.:Crime and public safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 179, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 179, "end_character": 702, "text": "As Italian immigration grew in the early 20th century many joined ethnic gangs, including Al Capone, who got his start in crime with the Five Points Gang. The Mafia (also known as \"Cosa Nostra\") first developed in the mid-19th century in Sicily and spread to the East Coast of the United States during the late 19th century following waves of Sicilian and Southern Italian emigration. Lucky Luciano established Cosa Nostra in Manhattan, forming alliances with other criminal enterprises, including the Jewish mob, led by Meyer Lansky, the leading Jewish gangster of that period. From 1920–1933, Prohibition helped create a thriving black market in liquor, upon which the Mafia was quick to capitalize.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3897743", "title": "Crime in New York City", "section": "Section::::Specific locations.:Manhattan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 279, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 279, "end_character": 744, "text": "As Italian immigration grew in the early 20th century, many joined ethnic gangs. A prominent example is Al Capone, who got his start in crime with the Five Points Gang. The Mafia (also known as \"Cosa Nostra\") first developed in the mid-19th century in Sicily, and spread to the East Coast of the United States during the late 19th century, following waves of Sicilian and Southern Italian emigration. Lucky Luciano established Cosa Nostra in Manhattan, and formed alliances with other criminal enterprises. This included the Jewish mob, which was led by Meyer Lansky, who was the leading Jewish gangster of that period. From 1920 to 1933, Prohibition helped create a thriving black market in liquor, which the Mafia was quick to capitalize on.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "197015", "title": "Drug cartel", "section": "Section::::Americas.:North America.:United States.:American Mafia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 385, "text": "Italian immigrants to the United States in the early 19th century formed various small-time gangs which gradually evolved into sophisticated crime syndicates which dominated organized crime in America for several decades. Although government crackdowns and a less-tightly knit Italian-American community have largely reduced their power, they remain an active force in the underworld.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1511906", "title": "Black Mafia", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1291, "text": "The \"Black Mafia\" was formed to coordinate and consolidate historic inner-city crime in numbers, prostitution, and extortion of legitimate businesses, while combining with the rising drug demand in Philadelphia. It can be argued that their success drove legitimate black business and capital, such as the numerous successful African American owned banks, medical practices, stores, landlords, and other African American businesses to escape the city as segregation pressures faded. Angelo Bruno, the don of the Philadelphia crime family, discouraged drug dealing in South Philadelphia, but could not prevent deals being made by the New York mafia families such as the Gambino Crime Family, which were doing business with the growing black organized crime that became the Black Mafia until black New York drug lord Frank Mathews became their supplier. Bruno turned a blind eye to many of the renegade Italian gangsters who \"did business\" with, or supplied, the black drug lords, so long as they met their financial obligations to him and to the New York families. In fact, a rough outline of Italian organized crime (OC) east of Broad Street, with Black OC west of Broad Street, became a shorthand to describe South Philadelphia's hidden forces for decades, damning efforts at urban renewal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36085281", "title": "History of Harlem", "section": "Section::::1866–1920.:Italian Harlem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 297, "text": "There were many crime syndicates in Italian Harlem from the early Black Hand to the bigger and more organized Italian gangs that formed the Italian-American Mafia. It was the founding location of the Genovese crime family, one of the Five Families that dominated organized crime in New York City.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28356323", "title": "List of criminal enterprises, gangs and syndicates", "section": "Section::::North American organized crime.:United States.:American Mafia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 154, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 154, "end_character": 384, "text": "Italian immigrants to the United States in the early 20th century formed various small-time gangs which gradually evolved into sophisticated crime syndicates which dominated organized crime in America for several decades. Although government crackdowns and a less-tightly knit Italian-American community have largely reduced their power, they remain an active force in the underworld\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11790066", "title": "Crime in Toronto", "section": "Section::::Organized crime.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 493, "text": "By the early 1900s, the infamous Black Hand had followed Italian immigrants to Toronto as it had in most major North American cities at the time. Italian organized crime remains prevalent, with the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta such as the Siderno Group, as well as the Sicilian Mafia. During prohibition, Toronto became a major centre for bootlegging operations into the United States, which also saw an increased presence of Italian-American organized crime — specifically the Buffalo crime family.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Oh, this is such a good question, I can't believe I let it languish for 25 days! Sorry for not procrastinating on my other work earlier so I could answer this; I mean that sincerely, I love this question :).\n\nFrom the first, I think it's important to mention that Egypt at the very least was aware that Israel had nuclear development, and that it also appeared to have overflown Israel's Dimona nuclear site multiple times even in the 1960s. For a fascinating read on how this might've played into the 1967 tensions before the Six Day War, [Avner Cohen, one of the experts on Israel's nuclear program](_URL_1_), wrote well about it. Another interesting read on that can be found [here, by Ariel Levité and Emily Landau](_URL_0_).\n\nAt any rate, what was known by 1973 was, obviously, different from what was known in 1967. What the Arab states knew, we can only speculate on based on what's been publicly revealed. Secret information has remained secret, for obvious reasons, in both Israeli and Arab archives. However, the nuclear issue is such an open secret by now that we can definitely glean information of use.\n\nFollowing the end of the 1967 war, the Arab states now accepted Israel's conventional military edge. That may explain, to some extent, why they felt powerless to address what they knew was an existing nuclear program, and what many states knew was being developed. Egypt had, in the past, sought to use conventional war as a deterrent and threat to Israel, a sort of last resort in case Israel began to cross the nuclear threshold. They'd also wanted to use their own potential nuclear programs as a deterrent, but that was also out of the question; the war had not only destroyed Egypt militarily, but it was also now suffering an economic issue, and couldn't easily afford a nuclear program. There were no more threats of preventive war that really held water.\n\nThe Arab states thus looked the other way on Israeli development, because they knew Israel's opacity would benefit them. They could do nothing about it, so better to ignore it than afford to look even weaker in the face of that development. That also allowed Israel to adopt its opacity position, using ambiguity in such a way as to ensure that the signals both sides sent to one another didn't lead to escalation neither wanted, but that the Egyptians in particularly really couldn't afford. The primary issue on Israel's nuclear program ceased to be Arab threats, and began to be American pressure instead.\n\nThat is a story of its own, so I'll leave that one out. The important bit is this: by 1970, the nuclear program was largely known. The *New York Times* reported as much in July 1970, revealing that the US government now assumed that Israel either had a nuclear weapon, or could assemble one quickly and easily if needed. The Arab states *knew* in 1973 that Israel possessed nuclear weapons, and they chose to attack anyways. However, that's not to say it had no impact on their decisions. Instead, it appeared to have led to them adopting constrained, limited methods and objectives, as raised by Cohen in *Israel and the Bomb*. At the same time, Egypt miscalculated what Israel would react with to its attack in 1973.\n\nYet Yair Evron in *Israel's Nuclear Dilemma* argues the exact opposite; that Egypt effectively ignored the nuclear issue in 1973, and was limited in its objectives because of its conventional limitations, and that it didn't take nuclear issues into account because it believed their use would not occur. There's also an argument that their actions were consistent with any non-nuclear adversary fighting a war with a nuclear power, and he references the way that China and the Soviet Union acted in relation to the United States before they got their nuclear weapons.\n\nAt any rate, I've seen very few people argue that the Egyptians were unaware of the Israeli capability. Abraham Rabinovich, in *The Yom Kippur War*, mentions quite clearly that Egypt was \"aware of Israel's nuclear potential, but [Egypt's] limited operational goals in Sinai did not threaten Israel's borders and therefore were not seen as risking a doomsday response\".\n\nIt's also important to know that while Egypt and Syria may have seen the public reports, we have no idea what Syria did or did not know beyond that, and whether they had information shared with them by Egypt, at least as far as I've seen. Nevertheless, it's commonly believed that they knew Israel had a nuclear weapon. And it also seems unrealistic that the coordination prior to the war would've left out that Syria would be facing a nuclear power, while Egypt was aware, even if the public reports weren't enough. However, their view of the way to interact knowing that is less understood. How they viewed their war aims was probably shaped by Israel's nuclear policy, but I've seen little knowledge about what that effect was.\n\nHere's the funny thing, and where I'll just go a bit beyond your question: the limited aims, and the way Egypt (and probably Syria) perceived those aims as being a good way to avoid nuclear war, still gave rise to the infamous alleged arming of Israel's nuclear arsenal, as recounted popularly by Seymour Hersh and subsequently investigated/discussed many times over. However, Rabinovich points to many sources saying that the decision to deploy the weapons was greatly overblown. Yuval Ne'eman, a nuclear physicist and former intelligence officer, is quoted saying it would be normal to advance preparedness any time a war occurred, but that there was no deployment for possible use, as was reported. Apparently it was considered during a discussion by generals, but it was also debated quite fiercely, with no resolution. However, it apparently was never debated by the Israeli Cabinet, according to what Rabinovich (a fairly well-respected journalist) called \"reliable Israeli sources\".\n\nAvner Cohen has a different take, citing a source at the war cabinet's meeting on October 9 who apparently claimed that Israel's Defense Minister Moshe Dayan had discussed a nuclear demonstration when the war seemed at its worst. The Israeli atomic head was there and ready to discuss, but other ministers chimed in and it ended there. There are plenty of other rumors, and claims, but this seems like a potential one. Cohen also claims that nuclear alerts were declared, twice in the first week of the war and once on October 17, when Soviet SCUD missiles were put on alert in Egypt. The belief is that the missiles were fueled and mobilized, something that requires only the Prime Minister and Defense Minister to agree (the cabinet doesn't have to make a decision, according to Cohen, just those two), but that the Prime Minister never went further than that.\n\nContinued in a response to my own comment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36880", "title": "Nuclear warfare", "section": "Section::::History.:1970s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 452, "text": "Israel responded to the Arab Yom Kippur War attack on 6 October 1973 by assembling 13 nuclear weapons in a tunnel under the Negev desert when Syrian tanks were sweeping in across the Golan Heights. On 8 October 1973, Israeli Prime Minister Mrs Golda Meir authorized Defense Minister Moshe Dayan to activate the 13 Israeli nuclear warheads and distribute them to Israeli air force units, with the intent that they be used if Israel began to be overrun.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24668735", "title": "Babiker Awadalla", "section": "Section::::United Nations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 220, "text": "During a General Assembly meeting on 23 September 1969, Awadalla warned that the United States's decision of supporting Israel during the Arab-Israel conflict could provoke the use of nuclear weapons in the Middle East.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58568", "title": "Suez Crisis", "section": "Section::::Franco-British-Israeli war plan.:Objectives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 112, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 112, "end_character": 543, "text": "The Israelis were also deeply troubled by Egypt's procurement of large amounts of Soviet weaponry that included 530 armored vehicles, of which 230 were tanks; 500 guns; 150 MiG 15 jet fighters; 50 Ilyushin Il-28 bombers; submarines and other naval craft. The influx of this advanced weaponry altered an already shaky balance of power. Israel was alarmed by the Czech arms deal, and believed it had only a narrow window of opportunity to hit Egypt's army. Additionally, Israel believed Egypt had formed a secret alliance with Jordan and Syria.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32746212", "title": "October 22 Scud missile attack", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 295, "text": "Aman estimated that Egypt would not dare going to war against Israel without first equipping themselves with Scud missiles, which could act as an opposing threat to the IAF's abilities (Aman was still convinced Egypt would not be able to operate the Scud missiles before the beginning of 1974).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12040469", "title": "Nuclear weapons and Israel", "section": "Section::::Development history.:Weapons production, 1966–present.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 633, "text": "By 1969, U.S. Defense Secretary Melvin Laird believed that Israel might have a nuclear weapon that year. Later that year, U.S. President Richard Nixon in a meeting with Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir pressed Israel to \"make no visible introduction of nuclear weapons or undertake a nuclear test program\", so maintaining a policy of nuclear ambiguity. Before the Yom Kippur War, Peres nonetheless wanted Israel to publicly demonstrate its nuclear capability to discourage an Arab attack, and fear of Israeli nuclear weapons may have discouraged Arab military strategy during the war from being as aggressive as it could have been.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "181901", "title": "Camp David Accords", "section": "Section::::Consequences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 744, "text": "The Camp David Accords also prompted the disintegration of a united Arab front in opposition to Israel. Egypt's realignment created a power vacuum that Saddam Hussein of Iraq, at one time only a secondary power, hoped to fill. Because of the vague language concerning the implementation of Resolution 242, the Palestinian problem became the primary issue in the Arab–Israeli conflict immediately following the Camp David Accords (and, arguably, until today). Many of the Arab nations blamed Egypt for not putting enough pressure on Israel to deal with the Palestinian problem in a way that would be satisfactory to them. Syria also informed Egypt that it would not reconcile with the nation unless it abandoned the peace agreement with Israel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6183286", "title": "Protocol of Sèvres", "section": "Section::::Lead-up discussions, motivations and proposals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 631, "text": "\"Conventional scholarship and the testimony of Israeli leaders, particularly Ben-Gurion, was that the large-scale Egyptian arms deal in September 1955 with the Soviet ally, Czechoslovakia, was the catalyst that confirmed that the anticipated \"second round\" of war with Egypt was inevitable and probably in the offing. Israel, fearing that the balance of power with the Arab states would turn against her, began to prepare for conflict, including the possibility of a preemptive strike. Nasser’s decision to limit the rights of passage through the Straits of Tiran and continuing border problems provided justification for action.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The innovations pioneered around that period were arguably more broadly and popularly *impactful* than other periods, but that doesn't mean they were more numerous. The changes in that era were profound - a way of life that had continued fairly unchanged for many centuries was fundamentally altered in developed nations. Previously, one would travel by horse or foot, burn candles for light, communicate verbally or by writing, and poop in a hole. Suddenly, people had cars and trains, electric light and power, radio, and indoor plumbing. (Some of these were older inventions made popular and affordable by industrialization; this too is part of the innovations.) While innovation has continued, and arguably increased, the \"low hanging fruit\" of changing human lifestyles has pretty much been picked. Cell phones and Internet are wonderful, but they are as much *improvements* of the concept of radio as they are inherently revolutionary. A smart car is vastly more complicated than a Model T, but is still a car. Microwaves are neat, but radiating my hot dogs instead of boiling them is hardly earth-shaking. Moon travel and nuclear weapons don't really effect everyday life the way a light bulb does. I'd argue you may have a bias based on the commonplace impact of earlier industrial innovations, the nature of which arguably made them seem more numerous. Material science or computer coding aren't as apparent or basic of changes as previously.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14914", "title": "Industrial Revolution", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 254, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 254, "end_character": 369, "text": "Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine. However, recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply-oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56516812", "title": "20th century in science", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 543, "text": "A massive amount of new technologies were developed in the 20th century. Technologies such as electricity, the incandescent light bulb, the automobile and the phonograph, first developed at the end of the 19th century, were perfected and universally deployed. The first airplane flight occurred in 1903, and by the end of the century large airplanes such as the Boeing 777 and Airbus A330 flew thousands of miles in a matter of hours. The development of the television and computers caused massive changes in the dissemination of information.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18985287", "title": "Culture of the United States", "section": "Section::::Science and technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 767, "text": "There is a regard for scientific advancement and technological innovation in American culture, resulting in the flow of many modern innovations. The great American inventors include Robert Fulton (the steamboat); Samuel Morse (the telegraph); Eli Whitney (the cotton gin, interchangeable parts); Cyrus McCormick (the reaper); and Thomas Edison (with more than a thousand inventions credited to his name). Most of the new technological innovations over the 20th and 21st centuries were either first invented in the United States, first widely adopted by Americans, or both. Examples include the lightbulb, the airplane, the transistor, the atomic bomb, nuclear power, the personal computer, the iPod, video games, online shopping, and the development of the Internet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56516812", "title": "20th century in science", "section": "Section::::Engineering and technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 221, "text": "One of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, engineering, travel, medicine, and war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34558", "title": "20th century", "section": "Section::::Engineering and technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 140, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 140, "end_character": 221, "text": "One of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, engineering, travel, medicine, and war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34558", "title": "20th century", "section": "Section::::Overview.:The nature of innovation and change.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 658, "text": "Due to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the light bulb, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by supertankers, airliners, motorways, radio, television, antibiotics, nuclear power, frozen food, computers and microcomputers, the Internet, and mobile telephones affected people's quality of life across the developed world. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development—much of it motivated by the Cold War arms race—drove changes in everyday life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1610496", "title": "Economic history of the United States", "section": "Section::::Late 19th century.:Commerce, industry and agriculture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 250, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 250, "end_character": 681, "text": "An explosion of new discoveries and inventions took place, a process called the Second Industrial Revolution. The electric light, telephone, steam turbine, internal combustion engine, automobile, phonograph, typewriter and tabulating machine were some of the many inventions of the period. New processes for making steel and chemicals such as dyes and explosives were invented. The pneumatic tire, improved ball bearings, machine tools and newly developed metal stamping techniques enabled the large scale production of bicycles in the 1890s. Another significant development was the widespread introduction of electric street railways (trams, trolleys or streetcars) in the 1890s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is a question that I've pondered for a while too. And seeing that these products practically need to be aged, does that mean you're looking at running at a loss for the first few years before the first batch? Or is it more that these things started out as family affairs as a side project to their barley fields, and eventually became a business?\n\nHow would they know what it might even end up tasting like? Is it a crapshoot? Do they have models to predict how adding things to it and what wood they sit it in will affect the end product upon bottling? \n\nThank you for asking. Upboats for someone to answer please.\n\nedit: Google is our friend. _URL_0_\n\nJack Daniels, being a blended whiskey, probably got their stuff from other distilleries and bottled them and sold them. Sounds like. I'm not an expert.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Whiskey sells on such a large scale, and the market changes so little. A large chunk of big name liquors get sold directly to bars, whose annual usage has very distinct trends. This cuts a huge chunk of unknown out of their sales figures. And while more and more people are turning 21, people in their early 20s are not the primary consumers of whiskey. So the buying habits of Jack Daniels customers shouldn't be difficult to predict four years in advance. The market overall doesn't change much.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Um, wouldn't plain old common sense tell us that since whiskey does not *expire*, at least in any practical time period, one would be safe in making extra, then simply rotating in back stock in years where you have a shortage? It's not like they have to peg 3,981 kegs ahead of time and hit that target exactly.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While others have offered insight as to how they make predictions, they also have the power to increase or decrease the price based on demand. If whiskey gets really popular in the future, the price will shoot up so they don't run out. If it falls out of fashion, the price will likely decrease (or they will keep it barrelled to make an even older stock).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33184007", "title": "Cannibalization (marketing)", "section": "Section::::Cost assessment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 461, "text": "To accurately determine the success of a new product it is important to understand the detriment its sales are having to older products in a company’s line up. The danger is the new products are taking from old products made by the business instead of increasing market share by taking consumers from competing products made by different businesses. A model was created in 2012 to gauge the change in sales. It is Sales change for focal new model (at time t) =\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39284796", "title": "Nano gap", "section": "Section::::SME Succession Planning in Canada.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 610, "text": "According to Alberta Treasury Branch research \"baby boomer SMEs owners/operators are nearing retirement age. In fact, four in ten (42%) of the financial decision makers we talked to are 55 years of age or older. Another ATB survey (ATB Customer Advisory Panel Feb 21, 2013 - Mar 7, 2013) found nearly six in ten (58%) businesses do not have a succession plan in place. And of those 55 years of age or older, almost half (48%) do not have a succession plan. Top reasons cited were: \"it's too early to plan\", \"I don't know\", \"I don't want to think about leaving\", and \"I don't have time to deal with the issue\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5048660", "title": "Restraint of trade", "section": "Section::::History.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 213, "text": "If the only way a new product can be profitably introduced is to restrain the legitimate competition of older products, then one must seriously wonder whether consumers are genuinely benefited by the new product.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46335837", "title": "Mitchel v Reynolds", "section": "Section::::Recent interpretations of the \"Mitchel\" doctrine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 213, "text": "If the only way a new product can be profitably introduced is to restrain the legitimate competition of older products, then one must seriously wonder whether consumers are genuinely benefited by the new product.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7206983", "title": "Long-range planning", "section": "Section::::Proactive management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 571, "text": "While horizons of many corporations have grown shorter, some industries still require long term decision-making by the nature of their work. Examples include energy companies which need to take a view about energy prices over two decades ahead in calculating the potential returns from investing in a new oil field, and the pharmaceutical industry where it can take up to fifteen years to bring a drug to market, requiring a view about what health service demand will be for such a treatment some twenty years hence, and whether governments will be likely to pay for it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "314931", "title": "Wham-O", "section": "Section::::Strategy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 424, "text": "For many years, the company's strategy was to maintain eight to twelve simple, inexpensive products such as Frisbees, Super Balls, and Hula Hoops. New products were developed for tryout periods. Old ones were retired, for a few years or permanently, as their popularity waned. Since the toys were simple and inexpensive, they could be sold by a wide range of retailers, from large Department Stores to five and dime stores.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22554733", "title": "Customer to customer", "section": "Section::::Product or service.:Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 625, "text": "Since products are usually second-hand, surplus, or used there is seldom a long development cycle associated with the products that are marketed via this method. However, in the case of individuals who are looking to sell a product or service they have developed to be sold on the small-scale, there is a product development life cycle. However, even when a product goes through a development life cycle when marketed in this manner, seldom does traditional marketing research occur. Oftentimes individuals are looking to make a quick profit, and simply place their product in the market place in hopes that it will be sold.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I don't see anything besides wind speeds and the altitude of the cloud coming into play. Best bet would probably be to look up the most windy hurricane and find out how far away from the edge of its clouds people felt the rain.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "59416", "title": "Soil erosion", "section": "Section::::Physical processes.:Rainfall and surface runoff.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 254, "text": "In \"splash erosion\", the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil, ejecting soil particles. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m (two feet) vertically and 1.5 m (five feet) horizontally on level ground.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9696", "title": "Erosion", "section": "Section::::Physical processes.:Rainfall and surface runoff.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 254, "text": "In \"splash erosion\", the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil, ejecting soil particles. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m (two feet) vertically and 1.5 m (five feet) horizontally on level ground.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21431739", "title": "Cyathus olla", "section": "Section::::Spore dispersal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 746, "text": "When a raindrop hits the interior of the cup with the proper angle and velocity it can produce considerable force, and can create a splash that drives the water up along the sides of the cup (also known as \"splash cups\"), tearing the funiculus, and ejecting the peridioles. The peridioles are followed by their funicular cord and basal hapteron. When they hit a nearby plant stem or stick, the hapteron sticks to it, and the funicular cord wraps around the stem or stick powered by the force of the still-moving peridiole (similar to a tetherball). The peridiole, attached to the plant, may be eaten by herbivorous mammals, and the subsequent passage through its digestive tract will soften the hard shell enough to facilitate later sporulation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19009110", "title": "Rain", "section": "Section::::Formation.:Raindrop impacts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 214, "text": "Raindrops impact at their terminal velocity, which is greater for larger drops due to their larger mass to drag ratio. At sea level and without wind, drizzle impacts at or , while large drops impact at around or .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41068", "title": "Drop (liquid)", "section": "Section::::Size.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 234, "text": "The largest recorded raindrop was 8.8 mm in diameter, located at the base of a cumulus congestus cloud in the vicinity of Kwajalein Atoll in July 1999. A raindrop of identical size was detected over northern Brazil in September 1995.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "767065", "title": "Rain fade", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 713, "text": "Total rain attenuation is also dependent upon the spatial structure of rain field. Horizontal, as well as vertical, extension of rain again varies for different rain type and location. Limit of the vertical rain region is usually assumed to coincide with 0˚ isotherm and called rain height. Melting layer height is also used as the limits of rain region and can be estimated from the bright band signature of radar reflectivity. The horizontal rain structure is assumed to have a cellular form, called rain cell. Rain cell sizes can vary from a few hundred meters to several kilometers and dependent upon the rain type and location. Existence of very small size rain cells are recently observed in tropical rain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60480730", "title": "The Rain Vortex", "section": "Section::::Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 502, "text": "The Rain Vortex is tall. It spans the height of seven storeys. The roof of the waterfall pumps of rain water, which is the equivalent of 20% of the water inside an Olympic-size swimming pool. Just under the waterfall is a suspended railway track, through which a sky train transporting people through the park passes above ground. The entire waterfall falls free flow from the roof, But once it reaches the ground level, there is a glass cover to prevent it from splashing over in the basement level. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As far as we've been able to test it, the Cosomological principle holds. The universe looks generally the same no matter where you are.\n\nWhen you are is a slightly different story. The universe only because transparent when it was 380 000 years old, so you see a wall at that distance, in all directions. (It looks black to us now because it's so cold.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The universe is believed to be infinite and isotropic. Thus there is no \"leading edge\" of the big bang. The big bang occurred simultaneously at every point in the universe, and was an expansion *of* space, not an explosion *in* space. \n\nGiven all that, someone at the farthest galaxy that we can see would see the same type of things that we ourselves see, including our galaxy at it appeared billions of years ago, as well as galaxies that are too far away for their light to have reached us. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As far as we've been able to test it, the Cosomological principle holds. The universe looks generally the same no matter where you are.\n\nWhen you are is a slightly different story. The universe only because transparent when it was 380 000 years old, so you see a wall at that distance, in all directions. (It looks black to us now because it's so cold.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The universe is believed to be infinite and isotropic. Thus there is no \"leading edge\" of the big bang. The big bang occurred simultaneously at every point in the universe, and was an expansion *of* space, not an explosion *in* space. \n\nGiven all that, someone at the farthest galaxy that we can see would see the same type of things that we ourselves see, including our galaxy at it appeared billions of years ago, as well as galaxies that are too far away for their light to have reached us. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "749810", "title": "VISTA (telescope)", "section": "Section::::Selection of VISTA Images.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 817, "text": "VISTA can also stare far beyond our galaxy. In the example on the left (below the image of the Orion Nebula) the telescope took a family photograph of a cluster of galaxies in the constellation of Fornax (the Chemical Furnace). The wide field allows many galaxies to be captured in a single image including the striking barred-spiral NGC 1365 and the big elliptical galaxy NGC 1399. The image was constructed from images taken through Z, J and Ks filters in the near-infrared part of the spectrum and has captured many of the cluster members in a single image. At the lower-right is the elegant barred-spiral galaxy NGC 1365 and to the left the big elliptical NGC 1399, surrounded by a swarm of faint globular clusters. The image is about 1 degree by 1.5 degrees in extent and the total exposure time was 25 minutes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26656516", "title": "Science and technology in Iran", "section": "Section::::Science in ancient and Medieval Iran (Persia).:Astronomy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 315, "text": "In the tenth century, the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi cast his eyes upwards to the awning of stars overhead and was the first to record a galaxy outside our own. Gazing at the Andromeda galaxy he called it a \"little cloud\" an apt description of the slightly wispy appearance of our galactic neighbour.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12212921", "title": "Galaxy Zoo", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 512, "text": "Chris Lintott commented that: \"One advantage is that you get to see parts of space that have never been seen before. These images were taken by a robotic telescope and processed automatically, so the odds are that when you log on, that first galaxy you see will be one that no human has seen before.\" This was confirmed by Kevin Schawinski: \"Most of these galaxies have been photographed by a robotic telescope, and then processed by computer. So this is the first time they will have been seen by human eyes.\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "198476", "title": "Triangulum Galaxy", "section": "Section::::Visibility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 541, "text": "Under exceptionally good viewing conditions with no light pollution, the Triangulum Galaxy can be seen with the naked eye. It is one of the most distant permanent objects that can be viewed without the aid of a telescope. Being a diffuse object, its visibility is strongly affected by just small amounts of light pollution. It ranges from easily visible by direct vision in dark skies to a difficult averted vision object in rural or suburban skies. For this reason, Triangulum is one of the critical sky marks of the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22669", "title": "Open cluster", "section": "Section::::Historical observations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 852, "text": "The first person to use a telescope to observe the night sky and record his observations was the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1609. When he turned the telescope toward some of the nebulous patches recorded by Ptolemy, he found they were not a single star, but groupings of many stars. For Praesepe, he found more than 40 stars. Where previously observers had noted only 6–7 stars in the Pleiades, he found almost 50. In his 1610 treatise \"Sidereus Nuncius\", Galileo Galilei wrote, \"the galaxy is nothing else but a mass of innumerable stars planted together in clusters.\" Influenced by Galileo's work, the Sicilian astronomer Giovanni Hodierna became possibly the first astronomer to use a telescope to find previously undiscovered open clusters. In 1654, he identified the objects now designated Messier 41, Messier 47, NGC 2362 and NGC 2451.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "306755", "title": "Spitzer Space Telescope", "section": "Section::::Results.:GLIMPSE and MIPSGAL surveys.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 242, "text": "GLIMPSE, the \"Galactic Legacy Infrared Mid-Plane Survey Extraordinaire\", is a survey spanning 300° of the inner Milky Way galaxy. It consists of approximately 444,000 images taken at four separate wavelengths using the Infrared Array Camera.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16458569", "title": "GRB 080319B", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 234, "text": "Until this gamma-ray burst event, the Triangulum Galaxy, at a distance of about 2.9 million light years, was the most distant object visible to the naked eye. The galaxy remains the most distant permanent object viewable without aid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Mercury vapor gives off uv light which is the right wavelength to excite the phosphor coating on the inside of fluorescent tubes. None of the noble gasses emit a white light which is comfortable to the eye. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the other gases fluoresce different colors better suited to other purposes. For instance, neon produces a red glow. This would not work so well for streetlights. But then again street lamps are being phased out for LEDs or metal halides for the most part. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "**Short answer:** mercury just happens to have atomic characteristics that make it useful for producing visible light at high efficiency, and it is superior to other elements to the point that we use it despite the possible dangers. \n\n**More details:** in a [gas discharge lamp](_URL_2_), you pass electrical current through an ionized gas (plasma). This excites electrons in the plasma atoms to a higher energy state, and when they fall back down to a lower energy state they give off photons of light. \n\nDifferent atoms have different energy states for their electrons, and as such produce photons of various energies characteristic to the type of atom. Mercury happens to produce intense ultraviolet light (along with some visible light), and the UV light can be converted into other colors of light by applying a fluorescent coating. The combination produces visible light with good efficiency at reasonable power levels. \n\nAs an example of other technology, [xenon arc lamps](_URL_4_) are also used, and (at high power levels) can produce very bright light that is actually a closer approximation of natural sunlight than fluorescent lamps. However, they are less efficient. [Metal halide lamps](_URL_1_) use mercury vapor plus metal halide vapor to add in other spectral lines. They are effectively a combination mercury-vapor and sodium-vapor bulb, as the most common metal halide is sodium iodide. Note that these two are both \"high-intensity discharge\" lamps, with an electrical arc running between electrodes inside the lamp. They tend to operate at higher power levels, making them less useful for residential lighting. The metal halide lamps also have to (literally) warm up to their full light output, as the metal halide takes some time to heat up and vaporize - not good for residential lighting where they might be turned off and on regularly. Some of them actually cannot be re-lit after being turned off (intentionally or due to interruption of power) without being allowed to cool down for several minutes first. Metal halide lamps have similar efficiency to fluorescent lamps, and are growing more common in large-scale lighting applications where their drawbacks are less relevant and their high power, high [color rendering index](_URL_0_), and high efficiency are useful. [Low-pressure sodium vapor lamps](_URL_3_) are some of the most efficient light sources in existence and use no mercury, but the nearly monochromatic yellow light they produce almost completely destroys the ability to recognize colors, resulting in them being considered unacceptable for most indoor lighting applications. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1125543", "title": "Mercury-vapor lamp", "section": "Section::::Bans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 229, "text": "In the EU the use of low efficiency mercury vapor lamps for lighting purposes was banned in 2015. It does not affect the use of mercury in compact fluorescent lamp, nor the use of mercury lamps for purposes other than lighting. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39632612", "title": "Excimer lamp", "section": "Section::::Environmental contamination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 345, "text": "Mercury lamps are the most common source of UV radiation due to their high efficiency. However, the use of mercury in these lamps poses disposal and environmental problems. On the contrary, excimer lamps based on rare gases are absolutely non-hazardous and the excimer lamps containing halogen are more environmentally benign than mercury ones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39632612", "title": "Excimer lamp", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 662, "text": "Mercury lamps (λ = 253.7 nm) are also used as UV sources, but their production, use and disposal of old lamps are harmful to personal and environment. Besides, compared with commonly used mercury lamps, excimer lamps have a number of advantages. A specific feature of the excimer molecules is their stability in the excited electronic state and the absence of a strong bond in the ground state. Thanks to the absence of an absorbing ground state of excimer molecule high intensity UV radiation can be extracted from the plasma without significant self-absorption. It makes available to the UV radiation efficiently convert energy deposited to the active medium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "487510", "title": "Group 12 element", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 913, "text": "Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some thermometers, especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of the other applications are slowly phased out due to health and safety regulations, and is in some applications replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy. Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine, although they are much less common today than they once were, now that the toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely understood. It is still used as an ingredient in dental amalgams. In the late 20th century the largest use of mercury was in the mercury cell process (also called the Castner-Kellner process) in the production of chlorine and caustic soda.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "877167", "title": "High-intensity discharge lamp", "section": "Section::::Construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 307, "text": "Mercury-vapor lamps were the first commercially available HID lamps. Originally they produced a bluish-green light, but more recent versions can produce light with a less pronounced color tint. However, mercury-vapor lamps are falling out of favor and being replaced by sodium-vapor and metal-halide lamps.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18617142", "title": "Mercury (element)", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 484, "text": "Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some thermometers, especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of the other applications are slowly phased out due to health and safety regulations and is in some applications replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21140", "title": "Noble gas", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 878, "text": "Noble gases are commonly used in lighting because of their lack of chemical reactivity. Argon, mixed with nitrogen, is used as a filler gas for incandescent light bulbs. Krypton is used in high-performance light bulbs, which have higher color temperatures and greater efficiency, because it reduces the rate of evaporation of the filament more than argon; halogen lamps, in particular, use krypton mixed with small amounts of compounds of iodine or bromine. The noble gases glow in distinctive colors when used inside gas-discharge lamps, such as \"neon lights\". These lights are called after neon but often contain other gases and phosphors, which add various hues to the orange-red color of neon. Xenon is commonly used in xenon arc lamps, which, due to their nearly continuous spectrum that resembles daylight, find application in film projectors and as automobile headlamps.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "At about 2pm ET the President was in the Yellow Oval Room on the second floor of the White House with friend and aide Harry Hopkins when Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox called and first told him if the reports from Pearl. He was called again a few minutes later by Admiral Stark the Chief of Naval Operations to confirm and expand the reports. Final confirmation came then when Hawaii Governor John Poindexter was put through to the President and the second wave of the attack descended during the conversation.\n\nFDR used the room as a personal study and private space mostly. He kept naval prints and model ships there along with his stamp collection, but would also work out of it. Earlier in the day he had sent regrets to Mrs Roosevelt that he could not attend a reception downstairs, though he would later try to use the attack as his reason for missing out vs just wanting some free time.\n\nThrough the rest of the day he would stay there while his senior military leader's assembled, then in the evening address leader's from Congress, and his full Cabinet. All the while his secretaries had set themselves up in the adjoining rooms with phones and typewriters to deliver copies of the latest news from the Pacific.\n\nIt was also here late in the evening that he would draft the speech he would give to Congress and also spoke to Prime Minister Churchill briefly to confirm that both nation's had been attacked by Japan and reaffirm their support for each other.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2796916", "title": "Robert Stinnett", "section": "Section::::\"Day of Deceit\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 585, "text": "In 1982 Stinnett read \"At Dawn We Slept, The Untold Story Of Pearl Harbor\" by World War II veteran and historian Professor Gordon Prange. Stinnett went to Pearl Harbor to investigate and write a news story. His research continued for 17 years and culminated in \"Day of Deceit\", which challenges the orthodox historiography on the attack on Pearl Harbor. Stinnett claimed to have found information showing that the attacking fleet was detected through radio and intelligence intercepts, but that the information was deliberately withheld from Admiral Kimmel, the commander of the base.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5365615", "title": "James Wolfenden", "section": "Section::::8th term.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 252, "text": "On September 22, Roosevelt, in replying to Republican charges about advance knowledge within the administration regarding the attack on Pearl Harbor, said anyone with such knowledge should notify the military boards who were conducting investigations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13869376", "title": "Consequences of the attack on Pearl Harbor", "section": "Section::::Investigations and blame.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 1231, "text": "President Roosevelt appointed the Roberts Commission, headed by U.S. Supreme Court Justice Owen Roberts, to investigate and report facts and findings with respect to the attack on Pearl Harbor. It was the first of many official investigations (nine in all). Both the Fleet commander, Rear Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, and the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short (the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attack), were relieved of their commands shortly thereafter. They were accused of \"dereliction of duty\" by the Roberts Commission for not making reasonable defensive preparations. None of the investigations conducted during the War, nor the Congressional investigation afterward, provided enough reason to reverse those actions. The decisions of the Navy and War Departments to relieve both was controversial at the time and has remained so. However, neither was court-martialed as would normally have been the result of dereliction of duty. On May 25, 1999, the U.S. Senate voted to recommend both officers be exonerated on all charges, citing \"denial to Hawaii commanders of vital intelligence available in Washington\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6145339", "title": "Robert Alfred Theobald", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Post-World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 335, "text": "After World War II, Theobald gained considerable notoriety with his 1954 book \"The Final Secret of Pearl Harbor: The Washington Background of the Pearl Harbor Attack\", which accused the administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt of suppressing intelligence about the attack in order to bring the United States into the war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12956454", "title": "Henry Clausen", "section": "Section::::Bibliography.:Books by Other Authors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 226, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Pearl Harbor: Selected Testimonies, Fully Indexed, from the Congressional Hearings (1945-1946) and Prior Investigations of the Events Leading up to the Attack\" (McFarland & Co., 1993) 402 pages (Internet Archive)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2127720", "title": "Day of Deceit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 475, "text": "Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor is a book by Robert Stinnett. It alleges that Franklin Roosevelt and his administration deliberately provoked and allowed the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor to bring the United States into World War II. Stinnett argues that the attacking fleet was detected by radio and intelligence intercepts, but the information was deliberately withheld from Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, the commander of the Pacific Fleet at that time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25220674", "title": "James Rusbridger", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 293, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Betrayal at Pearl Harbor:\" Churchill concealed warnings about Pearl Harbor from Roosevelt in order to get America in the war. But In a 1991 interview on Japanese television his co-author Eric Nave \"repudiated a large slice of what Rusbridger had written, calling it speculation.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You *are* getting hit by gamma rays all the time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One? Nothing.\n\nNot only are you getting hit by gamma rays all the time, you're probably producing a few. The radioactive decay of the potassium in your body will occasionally produce a positron, which will annihilate with a nearby electron and spit out a gamma ray. Other radioactive events in your body can produce gamma rays as well.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As already mentioned gamma rays are hitting us all the time. In principle a gamma ray can damage cellular structures or DNA in cells by breaking molecular bonds, but it takes a fair amount of radiation to do this. For context typical gamma rays usually have energies around an MeV on the higher end. In Joules, this is 1.6 x 10^-13 Joules -- an extremely tiny energy. Even TeV scale gamma rays like those observed in exotic astronomical events have energies of 10^-7 Joules. So it would take quite a large number of gamma rays to even do sizeable damage; this is the danger of being near to radiating materials, since those materials will give off many particles in a short amount of time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22549887", "title": "GRB 090423", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 516, "text": "A gamma-ray burst is an extremely luminous event flash of gamma rays that occurs as the result of an explosion, and is thought to be associated with the formation of a black hole. The burst itself typically only lasts for a few seconds, but gamma-ray bursts frequently produce an \"afterglow\" at longer wavelengths that can be observed for many hours or even days after the burst. Measurements at these wavelengths, which include X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio, enable follow up study of the event.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21779590", "title": "GRB 970508", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 305, "text": "A gamma-ray burst is a highly luminous flash associated with an explosion in a distant galaxy and producing gamma rays, the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, and often followed by a longer-lived \"afterglow\" emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "183256", "title": "Nuclear isomer", "section": "Section::::Decay processes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 321, "text": "The gamma ray may transfer its energy directly to one of the most tightly bound electrons, causing that electron to be ejected from the atom, a process termed the photoelectric effect. This should not be confused with the internal conversion process, in which no gamma-ray photon is produced as an intermediate particle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5468844", "title": "Stanford E. Woosley", "section": "Section::::Research interest.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 214, "text": "According to Woosley's collapsar model, gamma-ray bursts arise from the collapse of stars that are too massive to successfully explode as supernovae. Instead, they result in a hypernova, which produce black holes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21221594", "title": "Global catastrophic risk", "section": "Section::::Potential sources of risk.:Non-anthropogenic.:Cosmic threats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 712, "text": "Another cosmic threat is a gamma-ray burst, typically produced by a supernova when a star collapses inward on itself and then \"bounces\" outward in a massive explosion. Under certain circumstances, these events are thought to produce massive bursts of gamma radiation emanating outward from the axis of rotation of the star. If such an event were to occur oriented towards the Earth, the massive amounts of gamma radiation could significantly affect the Earth's atmosphere and pose an existential threat to all life. Such a gamma-ray burst may have been the cause of the Ordovician–Silurian extinction events. Neither this scenario nor the destabilization of Mercury's orbit are likely in the foreseeable future.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13632049", "title": "Gamma-ray burst emission mechanisms", "section": "Section::::Jet effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 1263, "text": "Gamma-ray burst emission is believed to be released in jets, not spherical shells. Initially the two scenarios are equivalent: the center of the jet is not \"aware\" of the jet edge, and due to relativistic beaming we only see a small fraction of the jet. However, as the jet slows down, two things eventually occur (each at about the same time): First, information from the edge of the jet that there is no pressure to the side propagates to its center, and the jet matter can spread laterally. Second, relativistic beaming effects subside, and once Earth observers see the entire jet the widening of the relativistic beam is no longer compensated by the fact that we see a larger emitting region. Once these effects appear the jet fades very rapidly, an effect that is visible as a power-law \"break\" in the afterglow light curve. This is the so-called \"jet break\" that has been seen in some events and is often cited as evidence for the consensus view of GRBs as jets. Many GRB afterglows do not display jet breaks, especially in the X-ray, but they are more common in the optical light curves. Though as jet breaks generally occur at very late times (~1 day or more) when the afterglow is quite faint, and often undetectable, this is not necessarily surprising.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48803", "title": "Gamma-ray burst", "section": "Section::::Energetics and beaming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 1049, "text": "Because their energy is strongly focused, the gamma rays emitted by most bursts are expected to miss the Earth and never be detected. When a gamma-ray burst is pointed towards Earth, the focusing of its energy along a relatively narrow beam causes the burst to appear much brighter than it would have been were its energy emitted spherically. When this effect is taken into account, typical gamma-ray bursts are observed to have a true energy release of about 10 J, or about 1/2000 of a Solar mass () energy equivalent—which is still many times the mass-energy equivalent of the Earth (about 5.5 × 10 J). This is comparable to the energy released in a bright type Ib/c supernova and within the range of theoretical models. Very bright supernovae have been observed to accompany several of the nearest GRBs. Additional support for focusing of the output of GRBs has come from observations of strong asymmetries in the spectra of nearby type Ic supernova and from radio observations taken long after bursts when their jets are no longer relativistic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There was a fairly flourishing US publishing industry by the 1850s. For example, Melville published with Harper and Brothers (which is is extant as HarperCollins), Poe with Putnam (also still extant as an imprint of Penguin), Hawthorne and Thoreau with Ticknor and Fields, Emerson with Philips, Samson.\n\nSource: William Charvat, *Literary Publishing in America, 1790-1850*. U of Massachusetts, 1993", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16983322", "title": "American Book Company (1890)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 282, "text": "The American Book Company (ABC) was an educational book publisher in the United States that specialized in elementary school, secondary school and collegiate-level textbooks. It is best known for publishing the McGuffey Readers, which sold 120 million copies between 1836 and 1960.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10740018", "title": "Book peddler", "section": "Section::::United States.:Book canvassers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 354, "text": "Door-to-door book peddlers of the 18th and 19th centuries, also known as \"book canvassers\", used to carry special \"sample books\", a kind of \"preview\", with a table of contents, sample illustrations and some text, designed to advertise the book in question. Canvassing subscription sales were the only way to deliver books to many rural areas of America.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3384551", "title": "List of New Hampshire historical markers (1–25)", "section": "Section::::Markers 1 to 25.:. Winston Churchill 1871–1947.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 321, "text": "\"American author of best-selling novels, such as 'Coniston', written between 1898-1941 and partly based upon actual experience in New Hampshire politics. His nearby residence, 'Harlakenden House', was built in 1898 and burned in 1923. It also served as a summer home for President Woodrow Wilson in 1913, 1914 and 1915.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4774149", "title": "RR Donnelley", "section": "Section::::The Four American Books Campaign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 608, "text": "Donnelley launched a \"Four American Books\" campaign in 1926 which culminated with their publication in 1930. The aim was to establish that the company's modern commercial machinery could produce illustrated books to rival high-quality presses in Europe and to establish a reputation as a printer of fine trade editions in order to enter the mass-market book industry. The choice of American authors reflected a growing pride in and market for American literature. C. G. Littell, vice president and treasurer, and William A. Kittredge, head of the department of design and typography, organized the campaign.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21778947", "title": "American Book Company (1996)", "section": "Section::::Company history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 248, "text": "American Book Company was founded in 1996 by Dr. Frank Pintozzi, a professor of reading and English as a Second Language at Kennesaw State University, and Colleen Pintozzi, a math teacher and supervisor of General Educational Development programs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60747482", "title": "Moses Polock", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 707, "text": "As a publisher, he issued many books in fiction, drama and in general literature. Polock published new versions of \"Pike's Arithmetic\" and Oliver Goldsmith's \"A History of the Earth, and Animated Nature.\" In 1857, he published the first collected edition of the works of Charles Brockden Brown. The seven volumes were titled \"The first American Novelist.\" About this time Polock engaged in selling old and rare books and was the first dealer in the United States to exclusively deal in them, particularly in Americana. Polock was an authority on this subject and was a useful resource for both bibliographers and historians who sought his knowledge of early of Pennsylvania, in particular of Philadelphia. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5532499", "title": "Acres of Books", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 331, "text": "The business was founded in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1927 by Bertrand Smith. In 1934 Smith moved to California and established the store in Long Beach; he moved to the current address in 1960. Acres of Books was the largest and oldest family-owned second-hand bookstore in California, claiming to have in stock over one million books.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes even bacteria can exhibit [circadian rhythms](_URL_0_) \n \n[Here](_URL_1_) is an example that is especially intriguing. The Viking Mars lander of 1976 tested labeled elements on Mars soils samples. They found the soil \"consumed\" the elements and detection of exactly the same (labeled) elements in the exhaust gas was proof of some sort of consumption/exhalation like an organism. However, because organic compounds were not detected in the samples, it is assumed by most researchers that the reaction was purely chemical and not biological. \n \nMiller and others have found evidence of circadian rhythms in the Viking data. If there is strong statistical support that the rhythm is temperature independent, then this is considered evidence toward some form of bacteria-like life.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9015", "title": "DNA replication", "section": "Section::::Regulation.:Bacteria.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 559, "text": "Most bacteria do not go through a well-defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrence of multiple rounds of replication. In \"E. coli\", the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein DnaA. All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56566", "title": "Chronobiology", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 792, "text": "The variations of the timing and duration of biological activity in living organisms occur for many essential biological processes. These occur (a) in animals (eating, sleeping, mating, hibernating, migration, cellular regeneration, etc.), (b) in plants (leaf movements, photosynthetic reactions, etc.), and in microbial organisms such as fungi and protozoa. They have even been found in bacteria, especially among the cyanobacteria (aka blue-green algae, see bacterial circadian rhythms). The best studied rhythm in chronobiology is the circadian rhythm, a roughly 24-hour cycle shown by physiological processes in all these organisms. The term \"circadian\" comes from the Latin \"circa\", meaning \"around\" and \"dies\", \"day\", meaning \"approximately a day.\" It is regulated by circadian clocks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38607749", "title": "Sulfurimonas", "section": "Section::::Biotic Interactions.:Predation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 303, "text": "It was found that in the absence of other possible predictors, bacteria belonging to the genus \"Sulfurimonas\" grow in a unimodal relationship, suggesting they increase in bacterial diversity and productivity. This means that without predictors, these bacteria can differentiate and grow exponentially .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40114", "title": "Escherichia coli", "section": "Section::::Biology and biochemistry.:Cell cycle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 734, "text": "The bacterial cell cycle is divided into three stages. The B period occurs between the completion of cell division and the beginning of DNA replication. The C period encompasses the time it takes to replicate the chromosomal DNA. The D period refers to the stage between the conclusion of DNA replication and the end of cell division. The doubling rate of \"E. coli\" is higher when more nutrients are available. However, the length of the C and D periods do not change, even when the doubling time becomes less than the sum of the C and D periods. At the fastest growth rates, replication begins before the previous round of replication has completed, resulting in multiple replication forks along the DNA and overlapping cell cycles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9028799", "title": "Bacteria", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Movement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 814, "text": "Bacteria can use flagella in different ways to generate different kinds of movement. Many bacteria (such as \"E. coli\") have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to reorient and makes their movement a three-dimensional random walk. Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface; some have a single flagellum (\"monotrichous\"), a flagellum at each end (\"amphitrichous\"), clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell (\"lophotrichous\"), while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell (\"peritrichous\"). The flagella of a unique group of bacteria, the spirochaetes, are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive helical body that twists about as it moves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34067938", "title": "Bacterial stress response", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 413, "text": "The bacterial stress response enables bacteria to survive adverse and fluctuating conditions in their immediate surroundings. Various bacterial mechanisms recognize different environmental changes and mount an appropriate response. A bacterial cell can react simultaneously to a wide variety of stresses and the various stress response systems interact with each other by a complex of global regulatory networks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25275445", "title": "Evolution in Variable Environment", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 450, "text": "Modeling these type of behaviors of even simple bacteria poses certain challenges. Given the diversity of biological systems, it would appear that the number of behavior responses to an environmental change would be nearly infinite. However, recent studies have shown that biological systems are optimized for a certain environment and will thus respond relatively specific ways to stimuli. This specificity simplifies the computations considerably.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[dust corrosion](_URL_0_) \n\nDust contains all kinds of different elements, including some salts. The accumulation of these minerals over time paired with humidity, creates a salty solution, which then does what a salty solution does and eats into the material. \n\nI knew about this immediately because I work with structural fasteners, the kind that hold bridges and ships and buildings together. In storage they’re required to be covered to protect them from dust for this very reason. The dust can diminish any plating on the fasteners through the same process. \n\nEdit: added context\nEdit 2: added a related story ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "56009963", "title": "Fugitive dust", "section": "Section::::Other types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 429, "text": "Dust emitted from processing equipment that may not contain typical soil components is also considered fugitive dust. In this context, fugitive dust is dust that has \"escaped\" during any mechanical process and entered the atmosphere. Fugitive dust emissions within a structure can not only cause respiratory problems but, when generated during the processing of combustible materials, can cause fire and blast damage if ignited.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1839752", "title": "Electrostatic precipitator", "section": "Section::::Collection efficiency (\"R\").:Dust layer resistance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 590, "text": "Resistance affects electrical conditions in the dust layer by a potential electric field (voltage drop) being formed across the layer as negatively charged particles arrive at its surface and leak their electrical charges to the collection plate. At the metal surface of the electrically grounded collection plate, the voltage is zero, whereas at the outer surface of the dust layer, where new particles and ions are arriving, the electrostatic voltage caused by the gas ions can be quite high. The strength of this electric field depends on the resistance and thickness of the dust layer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9396111", "title": "Preservation (library and archival science)", "section": "Section::::Practices.:Storage environment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 312, "text": "Particulate and gaseous pollutants, such as soot, ozone, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, can cause dust, soiling, and irreversible molecular damage to materials. Pollutants are exceedingly small and not easily detectable or removable. A special filtration system in the building's HVAC is a helpful defense.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60933", "title": "Triboelectric effect", "section": "Section::::Risks and counter-measures.:In the workplace.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 503, "text": "Means have to be provided to discharge static from carts which may carry volatile liquids, flammable gasses, or oxygen in hospitals. Even where only a small charge is produced, it can result in dust particles being attracted to the rubbed surface. In the case of textile manufacture this can lead to a permanent grimy mark where the cloth comes in contact with dust accumulations held by a static charge. Dust attraction may be reduced by treating insulating surfaces with an antistatic cleaning agent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1839752", "title": "Electrostatic precipitator", "section": "Section::::Collection efficiency (\"R\").:High resistivity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 635, "text": "If the voltage drop across the dust layer becomes too high, several adverse effects can occur. First, the high voltage drop reduces the voltage difference between the discharge electrode and collection electrode, and thereby reduces the electrostatic field strength used to drive the gas ion-charged particles over to the collected dust layer. As the dust layer builds up, and the electrical charges accumulate on the surface of the dust layer, the voltage difference between the discharge and collection electrodes decreases. The migration velocities of small particles are especially affected by the reduced electric field strength.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1793107", "title": "Static cling", "section": "Section::::Cause and prevention.:Electronic devices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1042, "text": "Dust accumulation caused by static cling is a significant issue for computers and other electronic devices with heat generating components that need to be cooled by airflow. Dust is carried into the computer by the airflow created by case- and component fans. The accumulated dust covers metal surfaces and clogs the empty space between the fins of heatsinks, diminishing the dissipation of heat and interrupting the outward flow of warm air. Especially for critical components such as microprocessors and memory banks, this raises the risk of them overheating which can ultimately damage or destroy them. To compensate, automatically controlled fans will raise their speed, generating more noise and shortening their lifespan. An additional risk is the (small) electrical conductivity of dust which, given enough accumulation of dust, can cause critical damage to the device's internal components. Dust accumulation grows exponentially, since the accumulated dust creates new static surfaces and physical bloccades for new dust to cling to.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1246810", "title": "Humidifier", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 243, "text": "In addition, static electricity may become a problem in conditions of low humidity, destroying semiconductor devices, causing static cling of textiles, and causing dust and small particles to stick stubbornly to electrically charged surfaces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Not to put off any further answers or follow-up questions, but [this healthy discussion](_URL_0_) may be of help to you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20015427", "title": "Origins of Judaism", "section": "Section::::Development of Rabbinic Judaism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 926, "text": "For centuries, the traditional understanding has been that Judaism came before Christianity and that Christianity separated from Judaism some time after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Starting in the latter half of the 20th century, some scholars have begun to argue that the historical picture is quite a bit more complicated than that. In the 1st century, many Jewish sects existed in competition with each other, see Second Temple Judaism. The sects which eventually became Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity were but two of these. Some scholars have begun to propose a model which envisions a twin birth of Christianity and Judaism rather than a separation of the former from the latter. For example, Robert Goldenberg (2002) asserts that it is increasingly accepted among scholars that \"at the end of the 1st century CE there were not yet two separate religions called 'Judaism' and 'Christianity'\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50562575", "title": "Judeo-Christian ethics", "section": "Section::::Criticism and responses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 350, "text": "Two notable books addressed the relations between contemporary Judaism and Christianity. Abba Hillel Silver's \"Where Judaism Differs\" and Leo Baeck's \"Judaism and Christianity\" were both motivated by an impulse to clarify Judaism's distinctiveness \"in a world where the term Judeo-Christian had obscured critical differences between the two faiths.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30536", "title": "Tiberius", "section": "Section::::Legacy.:Gospels, Jews, and Christians.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 297, "text": "There is considerable debate among historians as to when Christianity was differentiated from Judaism. Most scholars believe that Roman distinction between Jews and Christians took place around 70 AD. Tiberius most likely viewed Christians as a Jewish sect rather than a separate, distinct faith.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16395", "title": "Judeo-Christian", "section": "Section::::Jewish responses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 965, "text": "Two notable books addressed the relations between contemporary Judaism and Christianity, Abba Hillel Silver's \"Where Judaism Differs\" and Leo Baeck's \"Judaism and Christianity\", both motivated by an impulse to clarify Judaism's distinctiveness \"in a world where the term Judeo-Christian had obscured critical differences between the two faiths.\" Reacting against the blurring of theological distinctions, Rabbi Eliezer Berkovits wrote that \"Judaism is Judaism because it rejects Christianity, and Christianity is Christianity because it rejects Judaism.\" Theologian and author Arthur A. Cohen, in \"The Myth of the Judeo-Christian Tradition\", questioned the theological validity of the Judeo-Christian concept and suggested that it was essentially an invention of American politics, while Jacob Neusner, in \"Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition\", writes, \"The two faiths stand for different people talking about different things to different people.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "823743", "title": "Jewish Christian", "section": "Section::::Split of early Christianity and Judaism.:Emergence as separate religious communities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 865, "text": "As Christianity grew throughout the gentile world, the developing Christian tradition diverged from its Jewish and Jerusalem roots. Historians continue to debate the precise moment when early Christianity established itself as a new religion, apart and distinct from Judaism. It is difficult to trace the process by which the two separated or to know exactly when this began. Jewish Christians continued to worship in synagogues together with contemporary Jews for centuries. Some scholars have found evidence of continuous interactions between Jewish-Christian and Rabbinic movements from the mid-to late second century CE to the fourth century CE. Philip S. Alexander characterizes the question of when Christianity and Judaism parted company and went their separate ways as \"one of those deceptively simple questions which should be approached with great care\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22765761", "title": "Ante-Nicene period", "section": "Section::::Development of the Christian Canon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 650, "text": "Some theorize that the split of early Christianity and Judaism in the mid-2nd century eventually led to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging rabbinic movement, though, even as of today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set. For example, some scholars argue that the Jewish canon was fixed earlier, by the Hasmonean dynasty (140–137 BC). There is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the 2nd century Christians held onto a strong preference for oral tradition as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as Papias.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25955086", "title": "Jews", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Religion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 1191, "text": "The Hebrew Bible, a religious interpretation of the traditions and early history of the Jews, established the first of the Abrahamic religions, which are now practiced by 54% of the world. Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a \"way of life,\" which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world, in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah), in Islamic Spain and Portugal, in North Africa and the Middle East, India, China, or the contemporary United States and Israel, cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, and still others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because you are more used to seeing an Asian guy wearing a suit then a white guy wearing a kimono.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Western suit? I don't really know, but I think it's safe to assume that suits in general is a general worldwide thing. Its just business attire. Where as, a Kimono has to do with culture. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most people from japan don't consider it unacceptable. My mother is white and of german & British heritage yet my fathers Japanese business associates have brought her a kiminono before. \n\nKiminos aren't held in the same regard they were in the 1800's when america \"opened\" japan. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm speculating a bit here. But I think it's because japan post WW2 adopted a lot of american culture and integrated it in to its own. Including corporate structure and business practices. The western world, being the winner of WW2 and further ahead both in weapons and capitalistic progress had no reason to import culture from Japan.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16873", "title": "Kimono", "section": "Section::::Styles.:Men's kimono.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 489, "text": "In the modern era, the principal distinctions between men's kimono are in the fabric. The typical men's kimono is a subdued, dark color; black, dark blues, greens, and browns are common. Fabrics are usually matte. Some have a subtle pattern, and textured fabrics are common in more casual kimono. More casual kimono may be made in slightly brighter colors, such as lighter purples, greens and blues. Sumo wrestlers have occasionally been known to wear quite bright colors such as fuchsia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "148846", "title": "Japanese clothing", "section": "Section::::Types of traditional clothing.:Kimono.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 331, "text": "The Kimono (着物), labelled the \"national costume of Japan\", is the most formal and well-known form of traditional fashion. Japanese kimono are wrapped around the body, sometimes in several layers, and are secured in place by sashes with a wide obi to complete it. There are accessories and ties needed to wear the kimono correctly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39512776", "title": "Ancient Chinese clothing", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 373, "text": "Han Chinese clothing has influenced many of its neighbouring cultural costumes, such as the Japanese kimono and yukata, Korean hanbok and the Vietnamese Áo giao lĩnh. Elements of Han Chinese clothing have also been influenced by neighbouring cultural costumes, especially by the nomadic peoples to the north, and Central Asian cultures to the west by way of the Silk Road.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18384789", "title": "Taqiyah (cap)", "section": "Section::::Muslim world.:Countries.:China.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 790, "text": "Hui men wear a white prayer cap with traditional Chinese clothing including the Chinese suit and a robe called a changshan. (See Islam in China). Uyghur men wear a cap that can be of almost any color and graphic design, but formed into four corners at the top. In the United States, the Chinese robe is sold as a \"men's cheongsam\". For formal wear, the robe is made of silk, because silk is the traditional Chinese fabric. The rule of men not wearing silk for Muslims is ignored in China, because in China silk clothings are unisex while in the Arab world it is a feminine fabric. Cotton robes and kung fu suits are worn to jumu'ah. In China, the Hui people developed Muslim Chinese martial arts. Recently, the Chinese government has adopted the Tangzhuang as the national costume for men.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38180", "title": "Clothing", "section": "Section::::Contemporary clothing.:Ethnic and cultural heritage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 454, "text": "People may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or in certain roles or occupations. For example, most Korean men and women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but still wear traditional hanboks on special occasions, like weddings and cultural holidays. Items of Western dress may also appear worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "232420", "title": "Changshan", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 288, "text": "\"Changshan\" was considered formal dress for Chinese men before Western-style suits were widely adopted in China. The male \"changshan\" could be worn under a western overcoat, and topped with a fedora and scarf. This combination expressed an East Asian modernity in the early 20th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16873", "title": "Kimono", "section": "Section::::Styles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 711, "text": "Kimonos range from extremely formal to casual. The level of formality of women's kimono is determined mostly by the pattern of the fabric, and color. Young women's kimonos have longer sleeves, signifying that they are not married, and tend to be more elaborate than similarly formal older women's kimono. Men's kimonos are usually one basic shape and are mainly worn in subdued colors. Formality is also determined by the type and color of accessories, the fabric, and the number or absence of \"kamon\" (family crests), with five crests signifying extreme formality. Silk is the most desirable, and most formal, fabric. Kimonos made of fabrics such as cotton and polyester generally reflect a more casual style.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The main, overarching reason was that the Netherlands were just too small. They tried quite hard, and for a while, quite successfully, to be a great naval and colonial power, but England and France and Spain had just too many men and resources for them to compete with. Eventually, They were forced from N. America.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's no really a case of decline but more a case of being surpassed in economic growth. This had a number of reasons: \n \n- Mercantilism/Colbertisme (other country's protecting their own trade) Example: Act of Navigation (1651) Banned foreign ships from trading in English ports. \n\n- high wages/ low productivity \n\n- Costly wars and disastrous wars.\n In 1672 an alliance of France, England, Sweden, Munster and Cologne Invaded the Netherlands and almost conquered it. This year is dubbed rampjaar (\"disaster year\") in Dutch. \n\n- Political Corruptness/Laziness\n\n the Netherlands where a republic and governed by a group of people called 'regenten' they where members of rich and influenced families, the most important regent was the *raadpensionaris van het gewest Holland* of *Landsadvocaat* the most important military role was *de Stadhouder* *de facto* was this a hereditary position hold by a member of the House of Orange. \n\n There was always a power struggle between the *Staatsgezinden* ( people who supported the Landsadvocaat ) and the *Prinsgezinden* ( people who supported the Stadhouders ) in times of peace and prosperity the *landsadvocaat* held the most power, between 1650 and 1672 there was no *stadhouders*. when in 1672 the french invaded the people blamed the regents for the state of the army and demanded a *stadhouder*. William III was made *stadhouder* and defended the republic. William had ambitions to become king! and in 1689 he became king of England, this meant safety for the Nederlands but the Bill of Rights prevented that William revoked bills like The Acts of Navigation. But it also meant that The Netherlands needed support England in some large wars, with peace deals that clearly favored British interests. (I'am looking a you Peace of Utrecht (1713)) \n\n In the same period ( early to late 18th centenary) the ruling class became corrupted and lazy they where more busy protecting their interests than protection the Dutch interest, they where becoming also more of a aristocracy/Plutocracy. They where appointing important jobs to each other, it was increasingly harder to join their class.\n\n- Political stability in the rest of Europe\n\n One of the most important factors in the decline of the republic is the growth of other countries. The Netherlands is a small country ( DUH ) and can't produce the same amount of goods than the economic power house France, the same is with manpower and military strength. The Dutch Republic most successful years where in the period that England, France and The Holy Roman Empire where weak. \n \n England had to deal with their civil wars (1639-1651) and the political aftermath. From 1688 there was a fast economic growth. \n\n France became a powerhouse under the rule of Louis XIV (1643-1715) he gave France the largest army in the world, this forced the Dutch to invest in their army what raided the tax burden in the Netherlands.\n\n between 1618-1648 their was the 30 year war in the HRE which devastated much of what is now Germany. The Netherlands where involved in this war, but the war didn't affect the Netherlands that much. After the war the HRE could rebuild them self.\n\n**TL;DR: The rest of Europe gets their shit together and simply out growth the Dutch. While the Dutch lost their edge they didn't had an answer**", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As a side question, is \"golden age\" a valid term anymore? It seems really vague.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As several have pointed out - being small and having your larger neighbors get their houses in order is a big part of it.\n\nBut another part of it would be the fact that the Netherlands were rich but not powerful enough to defend it against their rivals (England and France, primarily). The Anglo-Dutch wars drained the Dutch economy and stripped away valuable colonies and trading rights, followed by a right thumping from France.\n\nPart of having a golden age means you are doing something better than everyone else - and after the late 1600's, the source of Dutch dominance (trade) was usurped by the English. They were still rich and influential...just simply less so.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is an interesting school of thought that claims that the tolerance shown by the Dutch was key to their rise (ex: accepting Jewish merchants was a significant contributor to the rise of modern finance).\n\nBy the same token, as their political and economic fortunes ebbed and flowed there was a movement to return to a more 'pure' time when it was believed things were better. This created slow but steady flight to other more friendly locales (primarily England) which not only welcomed them with open arms but had the size and global scale to magnify their impacts.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nWhy the West Rules--for Now: The Patterns of History, and What They Reveal About the Future by Ian Morris has a discussion of this as well.\n\nI think its more complex but its an interesting perspective and analysis. Ian Morris puts real #'s to it and maps it to specific political and cultural milestones. The Digital Commons article talks about tolerance and the gradual change in the 18th century.\n\nThis is my first top level post to askhistorians. Sorry if I internet wrong.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I believe the spice trade became less lucrative as well. The Dutch East India company made their money from the spice trade.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "241517", "title": "Dutch Golden Age", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 377, "text": "The Dutch Golden Age ( ) was a period in the history of the Netherlands, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. The first section is characterized by the Eighty Years' War, which ended in 1648. The Golden Age continued in peacetime during the Dutch Republic until the end of the century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "180963", "title": "Peace of Ryswick", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 290, "text": "The Dutch Republic ended the Nine Years' War with huge debts, forcing them to reduce expenditure on the navy and further weakening their economy. This and the huge additional investment required to win the 1701-1714 War of the Spanish Succession would bring the Dutch Golden Age to an end.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17042296", "title": "Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)", "section": "Section::::Stages of development.:Retrenchment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 869, "text": "The main defensive response of the Dutch economy was in capital investment. The enormous capital stock amassed during the Golden Age was redirected away from investment in commerce, agricultural land (where rents went down appreciably in a short period of time), and real estate (house rents also sharply declined), and instead in the direction of other, rather high-risk investments. One of these was the whaling industry in which the \"Noordsche Compagnie\" had held a Dutch monopoly in the first half of the century. After its charter expired other companies entered this market, leading to an expansion of the Dutch whaling fleet from about 75 ships to 200 ships after 1660. The results were disappointing, however, due to overfishing, a high price elasticity of demand due to substitutability of vegetable oils for whale oil, and the competition of foreign whalers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57680", "title": "Culture of the Netherlands", "section": "Section::::Art and media.:Architecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1585, "text": "The Dutch Golden Age roughly spanned the 17th century. Due to the thriving economy, cities expanded greatly. New town halls and storehouses were built, and many new canals were dug out in and around various cities such as Delft, Leiden and Amsterdam for defence and transport purposes. Many wealthy merchants had a new house built along these canals. These houses were generally very narrow and had ornamented façades that befitted their new status. The reason they were narrow was because a house was taxed on the width of the façade. The architecture of the first republic in Northern Europe was marked by sobriety and restraint, and was meant to reflect democratic values by quoting extensively from classical antiquity. In general, architecture in the Low Countries, both in the Counter-Reformation-influenced south and Protestant-dominated north, remained strongly invested in northern Italian Renaissance and Mannerist forms that predated the Roman High Baroque style of Borromini and Bernini. Instead, the more austere form practiced in the Dutch Republic was well suited to major building patterns: palaces for the House of Orange and new civic buildings, uninfluenced by the Counter-Reformation style that made some headway in Antwerp. At the end of the 19th century there was a remarkable neo-gothic stream or Gothic Revival both in church and in public architecture, notably by the Roman Catholic Pierre Cuypers, who was inspired by the Frenchman Viollet le Duc. The Amsterdam Rijksmuseum (1876–1885) and Amsterdam Centraal Station (1881–1889) belong to his main buildings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12594723", "title": "History of the North Sea", "section": "Section::::Early modern history.:The Netherlands.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 513, "text": "During the Eighty Years' War, the Dutch began a heavily invested worldwide trade - hunting whales around Svalbard, trading spices from India and Indonesia, founding colonies in Brazil, South Africa, North America (New Netherlands), and the Caribbean. The empire, which they accumulated through trade, led to the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century. The Dutch fishing industry peaked in the early 17th century. The Herring Buss improved harvest of herring, and the Dutch also expanded to cod and whale fisheries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1027184", "title": "Rampjaar", "section": "Section::::Effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 436, "text": "The Dutch economy never fully recovered from the severe crisis, although the Dutch Golden Age is sometimes said to have continued until the end of the century. The art market was as severely affected as other trades. A famous comment by Jan Vermeer's widow described how he was unable to sell work thereafter. The leading maritime artists, Willem van de Velde the Elder and his son Willem II, both emigrated to London, never to return.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21163", "title": "Foreign relations of the Netherlands", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 317, "text": "In the Dutch Golden Age, which had its zenith around 1667, there was a flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences. A rich worldwide Dutch empire developed and the Dutch East India Company became one of the earliest and most important of national mercantile companies based on entrepreneurship and trade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you have thousands of trucks, avoiding the time spent waiting to make left turns across traffic can add up, especially if your planning routes with dozens of stupid. In your personal life, where you only have two or three destinations, your never notice the difference or even travel further.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A computer determines the optimum route. It tries to avoid lefts because of safety and time savings. It does not mean they never turn left. If a left is the best choice, it will be mapped. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the USA, left hand turns means crossing the line of incomong traffic, UPS trucks are not known for their quick acceleration so left hamd turns often means waiting, and idleing the engine.\n\nengines at idle burn more gas then when they are actually movimg the vehicle (in most cases). it isnt a lot of fuel savings individually, but across their fleet of trucks it adds up.\n\nadds up to the tune of 200 or 300 million dollars\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10846179", "title": "Driving in Singapore", "section": "Section::::Roads in Singapore.:Left turn or right turn at a red traffic light.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 343, "text": "In Singapore, it is illegal to turn left (into the nearest lane, due to the left-hand driving) during a red light. This rule, however, does not apply if a \"Left Turn on Red\" sign is present at the junction, allowing left turning motorists to turn left, provided they stop before the stop line and give way to pedestrians and incoming traffic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2637732", "title": "Lefty-righty switch", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 656, "text": "In baseball, the left right switch is a maneuver by which a player that struggles against left- or right-handed players is replaced by a player who excels in the situation, usually only for the duration of the situation in question. For instance, a right-handed pitcher who is weak against left-handed hitting and is facing a left-handed hitter would be replaced with a pitcher, usually left-handed, who does a superior job of getting a left-handed hitter out. Similarly, a batter who has difficulty hitting against a left-handed pitcher will sometimes be pinch hit for by a batter who does well, even if the original player is superior in other respects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "284258", "title": "Michigan left", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Australia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 412, "text": "In Australia, where traffic drives on the left, the Victorian state government introduced the \"P-turn\", similar to the Michigan left, at one intersection in 2009. This requires right-turning vehicles to turn left then make a U-turn. As of May 2015, the intersection in the southeastern Melbourne suburb of Frankston remains the only one of its kind in the state, and local residents have called for its removal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2729303", "title": "Continuous-flow intersection", "section": "Section::::Operational details.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 364, "text": "Part of the delay at a typical high-volume right-hand drive intersection is to accommodate left-turns; through-traffic must wait for the traffic turning left because it crosses the path of the through traffic. The continuous flow intersection moves the left-turn conflict out of the intersection and synchronizes it with the signal cycle of the intersecting road.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "397390", "title": "Bottom bracket", "section": "Section::::Sizes.:Shell diameters and threading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 328, "text": "Most (except for Italian and French) designs use right-hand (normal) threading for the left side and left-hand (reverse) threading for the right (drive) side. This is opposite of most pedal threading and is done for the same reason: to keep the bottom bracket cup from backing out of the bottom bracket shell due to precession.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4514305", "title": "Yellow trap", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 708, "text": "In right-hand traffic, the yellow trap is a potentially dangerous scenario in traffic flow through a traffic light relating to permissive left turns. It occurs when a circular yellow light is displayed to a movement with permissive left turns, while at the same time, opposing through traffic still has a circular green light. Some drivers facing the circular yellow (then red) lights will assume the opposite direction faces the same color display, and that oncoming traffic will stop. This leads to potential traffic conflict if drivers attempt to complete a left turn when it is not safe to do so. The left-turning driver may legally be at fault, for failure to yield, but made an understandable mistake.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "354679", "title": "Road traffic safety", "section": "Section::::Mortality.:Built-up areas.:Turning across traffic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 570, "text": "There is no presumption of negligence which arises from the bare fact of a collision at an intersection, and circumstances may dictate that a left turn is safer than to turn right. The American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) recommends in their publication Geometric Design of Highways and Streets that left or right turns are to be provided the \"same\" time gap. Some states have recognized this in statute, and a presumption of negligence is only raised \"because\" of the \"turn\" if and only if the turn was prohibited by an erected sign.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are notable cases of people surviving a bullet that actually enters the skull and penetrates the brain. Malala Yousafzai, Gabrielle Giffords, and although it's not a bullet, you have to remember Phineas Gage, who survive a steel bar through the head. So yes, it's survivable, although the degree of deficits you have is often a matter of where it penetrates, and how young you are. \n\nMore often though, a headshot is survivable because the bullet doesn't penetrate the skull and track through the brain. *Most* of the time that you get a bullet in your brain, you're not going to live, or live well. Most of the times that a bullet hits an unarmored head, it's going to kill you. \n\nVariables to consider in all of this are: Caliber of the bullet, velocity of the bullet when it hits (was it a long rifle at a 100 yards, or a 9mm pistol at 100 yards?), and the angle of the impact. That last only really matters if the bullet is relatively light, slow, and/or in the terminal portion of its flight. \n\nThe thing is, the head is a small target, and it moves a lot relatively to the body; it's quite hard to hit on a human target without training, and a good rifle... or close range. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14477912", "title": "H.E.D.Z.", "section": "Section::::Head Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 244, "text": "BULLET::::- Medic - Takes the damage from the other headcase heads onto itself until its reached near 0 hit points, this effect grows more efficient with later medic type heads(taking more damage quickly while sustaining slower damage to self)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11705863", "title": "Jackson Memorial Hospital", "section": "Section::::Other notability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 604, "text": "BULLET::::- On June 7, 2012, 16-year-old Yasser Lopez made national news when he successfully underwent a delicate 3-hour neurosurgical operation to remove a spear that a speargun had fired into his skull when it was accidentally discharged during a fishing trip; 3 feet of the spear protruded from the wound above his eye socket, and that part had to be specially cut off so he could get a brain CT scan. Miraculously, no major blood vessels were harmed and the only impairments thus far are amnesia for the period during and around the event, which is somewhat normal, and some sluggishness in a hand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34146799", "title": "Suicide of Danny Chen", "section": "Section::::Death at base.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 210, "text": "\"Three days after his death, a military official told Ms. Chen and her husband, Yan Tao Chen, that investigators had not yet determined whether the shot to the head was self-inflicted or fired by someone else.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21601490", "title": "Osa (handgun)", "section": "Section::::Non-lethality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 214, "text": "A person shot from about 1 meter with an 18x45T OSA pistol to the temporal region of the head suffered a penetrative injury, with the bullet traversing most of the brain, reducing the victim to a vegetative state.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54578591", "title": "Arun Loganathan", "section": "Section::::Records.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 227, "text": "BULLET::::- Fastest Water escape, from a trap in which his limbs were tied and he was suspended upside down with a water tank kept below his head. He successfully escaped without his head completely submerging, in 2.5 minutes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53116300", "title": "The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons", "section": "Section::::Contents/Synopsis.:Part V: Consciousness.:Chapter 11: Left, Right, and Center.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 271, "text": "The first story is one in which a man shoots himself in the head, but misses his brain completely, blowing part of his skull off and exposing his brain. He went to the doctor, who in turn pressed the man's brain with a spatula to get a reaction out of him, which he did.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1351086", "title": "Marc Cohn", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Personal life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 593, "text": "On August 7, 2005, Cohn was shot in the head during an attempted carjacking in Denver, Colorado, while on a concert tour with Suzanne Vega. The bullet \"barely missed Cohn's eye and lodged near his skull\"; Cohn was hospitalized for observation but released after 8 hours, and is quoted as saying, \"doctors told me I was the luckiest unlucky guy they had met in a long, long time.\" A police spokesperson surmised that the car's windshield may have significantly impeded the bullet's force, and added: \"Frankly, I can't tell you how he survived\". The shooter was sentenced to 36 years in prison.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So the most spectacular example of this going terribly comes in June of 1916.\n\nField Marshall the Lord Kitchener of Khartoum, who was serving as Secretary State for War was traveling to Russia in order to participate in negotiations and planning in person with the distressed Czar's government. He planned to take a RN cruiser up around Scandinavia to Arkhangelsk. He arrived in Scapa Flow in the Orkney's, which was the home base of the Grand Fleet.\n\nAfter meeting with Admiral Jellicoe aboard the Iron Duke he transferred to the cruiser HMS Hampshire. Owing to a terrible gale her 2 escort destroyers were sent back, the idea being ti was unsafe for them and U-Boats were unlikely to be a threat.\n\nUnfortunately about a week before, in the run up to Jutland, U-75 had put down a minefield and she struck one of these. Nearly all of her 700 passengers and crew were lost in the incident. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a few similar questions in the archives that might be of interest, I'll draw on some of my previous comments to particularly focus on Churchill's journey to Moscow in 1942:\n\n* [How did Churchill get to El Alamein in 1942?] (_URL_2_) \n* [How did world leaders travel to conferences during WWII?] (_URL_7_) \n* [How did the major world leaders travel to the conferences such as the Yalta conference safely?] (_URL_0_) \n\nFor the 1942 journey to Moscow, stopping off in North Africa for a week or so, the aircraft Churchill flew in was a modified B-24 Liberator [named \"Commando\"] (_URL_5_), subject of [an article on the Smithsonian website] (_URL_6_). The long range of the B-24 was important, as the usual route for Allied aircraft to the North African theatre (and the original route proposed for Churchill) started from Takoradi in Ghana (the Gold Coast, as was) and took five or six days travelling across central Africa before heading north to Cairo (as illustrated on [this map] (_URL_3_)). The B-24 could fly directly from Gibraltar to Cairo.\n\nThe first leg of the journey was Lyneham to Gibraltar, arriving the morning August 3rd, which Churchill describes as uneventful in *The Hinge of Fate*. That evening they took off at 6pm, cutting across Spanish and Vichy territory with an escort of four Beaufighters, flying across North Africa largely in darkness, seeing \"in the pale, glimmering dawn the endless winding silver ribbon of the Nile\" (ibid) on the morning of August 4th. Churchill visited the Alamein positions on the 5th, and appointed General Gott to command the Eighth Army. On August 10th Churchill departed Cairo for Tehran, then on to Moscow, arriving on the 12th. The conference lasted until the 17th, the return journey followed the same route in reverse, again including some time on the desert front.\n\nIn general there was little risk of coincidental interception for aircraft avoiding combat zones, especially at night; integrated air defences, radar and night fighters were concentrated in the UK and Germany, and to a lesser extent other active theatres. Air travel always carried an element of risk, though; on August 7th the newly appointed Gott was flying in to Cairo, on a similar route to the one taken by Churchill on the 5th, when his aircraft was shot down and strafed on the ground, killing most of the passengers (somewhat ironic, given Gott's nickname of \"Strafer\"); this resulted in Montgomery being appointed to command the Eighth Army. Knowledge of exact routes was limited as far as possible to the aircrew themselves, as intelligence leaks were a risk (e.g. Yamamoto's aircraft was shot down in 1943 by USAAF P-38s acting on \"Magic\" intelligence). Also in 1943 a BOAC DC-3 airliner was shot down as it flew from Lisbon to Britain, one of the passengers was the actor Leslie Howard; there are [numerous theories] (_URL_4_) that the aircraft may have been deliberated targeted in the belief that Churchill was on board, or that Howard himself was the target due to his work with British Intelligence, or that it was merely a mistake. Air accidents were probably the main danger, numerous high ranking officers were lost in air crashes (e.g. Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory, Lieutenant General Frank Andrews, Major-General Orde Wingate etc.)\n\nChurchill continued to use \"Commando\" until 1943, when it was replaced by an Avro York (a design derived from the Lancaster) named \"Ascalon\" with a few more creature comforts including a heated lavatory seat (though apparently it was disconnected as it was too hot), then in 1944 he switched to a C-54B Skymaster received via lend-lease; an article [in Flight magazine from November 1945] (_URL_1_) outlines how it was fitted out with rather luxurious passenger compartments, a conference room (with cocktail cabinet) and a well-furnished galley.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31769", "title": "United Nations", "section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1185, "text": "In 1914, a political assassination in Sarajevo set off a chain of events that led to the outbreak of World War I. As more and more young men were sent down into the trenches, influential voices in the United States and Britain began calling for the establishment of a permanent international body to maintain peace in the postwar world. President Woodrow Wilson became a vocal advocate of this concept, and in 1918 he included a sketch of the international body in his 14-point proposal to end the war. In November 1918, the Central Powers agreed to an armistice to halt the killing in World War I. Two months later, the Allies met with Germany and Austria-Hungary at Versailles to hammer out formal peace terms. President Wilson wanted peace, but the United Kingdom and France disagreed, forcing harsh war reparations on their former enemies. The League of Nations was approved, and in the summer of 1919 Wilson presented the Treaty of Versailles and the Covenant of the League of Nations to the US Senate for ratification. On January 10, 1920, the League of Nations formally comes into being when the Covenant of the League of Nations, ratified by 42 nations in 1919, takes effect. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19704038", "title": "Overman Committee", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 253, "text": "World War I, in which the United States and its allies fought - among other Central Powers - the German Empire, raised concern about the German threat to the United States. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 were passed in response.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13682", "title": "Herbert Hoover", "section": "Section::::World War I and aftermath.:Relief in Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 758, "text": "World War I broke out in June 1914, pitting the Allied Powers (France, Russia, Britain, and other countries) against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and other countries). Hoover and other London-based American businessmen established a committee to organize the return of the roughly 100,000 Americans stranded in Europe. Hoover was appointed as the committee's chair and, with the assent of Congress and the executive branch, took charge of the distribution of relief to Americans in Europe. Hoover later stated, \"I did not realize it at the moment, but on August 3, 1914, my career was over forever. I was on the slippery road of public life.\" By early October 1914, Hoover's organization had distributed relief to at least 40,000 Americans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63876", "title": "History of the United States", "section": "Section::::20th century.:World War I.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 178, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 178, "end_character": 1073, "text": "As World War I raged in Europe from 1914, President Woodrow Wilson took full control of foreign policy, declaring neutrality but warning Germany that resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against American ships supplying goods to Allied nations would mean war. Germany decided to take the risk and try to win by cutting off supplies to Britain through the sinking of ships such as the RMS Lusitania; the U.S. declared war in April 1917 mainly from the threat of the Zimmermann telegram. American money, food, and munitions arrived quickly, but troops had to be drafted and trained; by summer 1918 American soldiers under General John J. Pershing's American Expeditionary Forces arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day, while Germany was unable to replace its losses. Dissent against the war was suppressed by the Sedition Act of 1918 & Espionage Act of 1917, German language, leftist & pacifist publications were suppressed, and over 2,000 were imprisoned for speaking out against the war, the political prisoners were later released by U.S President Warren G. Harding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35861774", "title": "Chantilly Conferences", "section": "Section::::First Chantilly Conference.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 933, "text": "Held from July 7, 1915, The first inter-allied military conference of the First World War was convened at \"Grand Quartier Général\" (GQG) Chantilly, France shortly after Italy entered the war against the Central Powers. Attending were representatives from Britain (including the Commander-in-Chief Sir John French and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff William Robertson), France (Alexandre Millerand, the Minister of War and Joseph Joffre, the Commander-in-Chief), Belgium, Italy, Serbia and Russia. Joffre told the delegates that concerted, coordinated action would create the most favourable conditions for an Allied victory to present themselves. No specific undertakings were agreed upon as a consequence of the conference. A later conference at Chantilly about five months later, was more ambitious in its aims and led to a commitment by the Allies to begin an offensive should an Ally be endangered by the Central Powers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1257011", "title": "United States non-interventionism", "section": "Section::::20th century non-interventionism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1373, "text": "The President of the United States Woodrow Wilson, after winning reelection with the slogan \"He kept us out of war,\" was able to navigate neutrality in World War I for about three years. Early on, their historic shunning of foreign entanglements, and the presence in the US of immigrants with divided loyalties in the conflict helped maintain neutrality. Various causes compelled American entry into World War I, and Congress would vote to declare war on Germany; this would involve the nation on the side of the Triple Entente, but only as an \"associated power\" fighting the same enemy, not one officially allied with them. A few months after the declaration of War, Wilson gave a speech to congress outlining his aims to end the conflict, labeled the Fourteen Points. While this American proclamation was less triumphalist than the aims of some of its allies, it did propose in the final point, that a \"general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.\" After the war, Wilson traveled to Europe and stayed for months to labor on the post-war treaty; no president had previously enjoined such sojourn outside of the country. In that Treaty of Versailles, Wilson's \"association\" was formulated as the League of Nations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2173813", "title": "Ture Nerman", "section": "Section::::World War I and Zimmerwald.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 359, "text": "Therefore, the outbreak of World War I in 1914, and the collapse of the Socialist International, came as a shock to Ture Nerman. Almost all the leaders of the European Socialist Parties suddenly sided with their bourgeoisie governments in support of the war, and turned against their former Socialist allies. Workers were killing workers on the battlefields.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > I have a single socket in my room, and I use a series of extension chords to run a few ~~high~~low-power appliances such as a laptop, monitor, PS3, lampshades, speakers, LEDs etc.\n\nFixed that for you\n\nEverything you listed consumes 200W or less. The laptop is probably around 30W while the monitors may be closer to 50W\n\nA standard US outlet/breaker can support up to 1800 W of power(15A). If you load it up to that level or beyond you run the risk of the breaker tripping and turning off all your connected devices. Based on your loads, you're probably drawing less than 500W on a regular basis(i doubt you have everything at max power at the same time)\n\nDon't add a toaster or hairdryer to the mix and you'll be good", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm assuming you are in North America, where we use 120v power.\n\nThe key is to look at the wattage of each device you want to plug in. \n\nYour circuit breaker is either 15 amps or 20 amps, probably 20. Check the panel to make sure. \n\nNext find out how many outlets are hooked to that circuit breaker, turn it off and then find out how many outlets don't have power. Several rooms may be running off that one circuit breaker. \n\nNext, find out the total wattage of all the devices plugged into all those outlets. There will be a sticker on every device which lists either the amps or watts it uses. 20 amps = 2400 watts, and 15 amps = 1800 watts. So you could plug in 24 hundred watt lightbulbs before it would trip the circuit breaker.\n\nIf the device has the listing on the sticker in amps, then multiply that by the wall voltage (120v) to get watts. So a 120 watt light bulb running off of 120 volts, uses one amp. A 10 amp space heater would be using 1200 watts (10 amps x 120v).\n\nSo you have probably 2400 watts to use, and as long as you don't exceed that, you won't have any problems. Just remember that the power strips might also have a circuit breaker, so they could be limited to ten or 15 amps (1200 or 1800 watts).\n\nA good way to check is just to touch the power strip/power plug/power cord in several places. If it gets warm, thats okay. If it get so hot it's about to burn your hand when you grab it, that is NOT okay and you are overloading things. Same thing if you smell burnt plastic smell. You are overloading something and it's beginning to melt. \n\nYou can also buy a device at any hardware store called a WattMinder or WattMeter or something like that. I forget the exact name. You plug it into the wall outlet and plug the power strip into that and it gives you a digital readout of exactly how many watts you are using. Very handy thing to have around.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41546457", "title": "AC power plugs and sockets: British and related types", "section": "Section::::BS 1363 three-pin (rectangular) plugs and sockets.:BS 1363-3 \"Adaptors\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 131, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 131, "end_character": 604, "text": "Plug adaptors permit two or more plugs to share one socket-outlet, or allow the use of a plug of different type. There are several common types, including double- and triple-socket blocks, shaver adaptors, and multi-socket strips. Adaptors which allow the use of non-BS 1363 plugs, or more than two BS 1363 plugs, must be fused. Appliances are designed not to draw more power than their plug is rated for; the use of such adaptors, and also multi-socketed extension leads, makes it possible for several appliances to be connected through a single outlet, with the potential to cause dangerous overloads.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152654", "title": "Electrical connector", "section": "Section::::Methods of connection.:Plug and socket connectors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 269, "text": "Plug and socket connectors are usually made up of a male plug (typically pin contacts) and a female socket (typically receptacle contacts). Often, but not always, sockets are permanently fixed to a device as in a chassis connector , and plugs are attached to a cable. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "773271", "title": "AC power plugs and sockets", "section": "Section::::Types in present use.:Australian/New Zealand standard AS/NZS 3112 (Type I), used in Australasia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 492, "text": "There are several AS/NZS 3112 plug variants, including ones with larger or differently shaped pins used for devices drawing 15, 20, 25 and 32 A. These sockets accept plugs of equal or of a lower current capacity, but not of higher capacity. For example, a 10 A plug will fit all sockets but a 20 A plug will fit only 20, 25 and 32 A sockets. In New Zealand PDL 940 \"Tap-on\" or Piggy-back plugs are available which allow a second 10 A plug, or a charger, to be fitted to the rear of the plug.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1105982", "title": "Electrical wiring in the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Outlets and accessories.:Plug and accessory fuses (or, \"cartridge fuse\").\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 425, "text": "In the case of non-permanently connected domestic equipment, a BS 1363-2 socket rated at 13 A is attached to the ring circuit, into which a fused plug may be inserted. (Note, it is not intended that the fuse should protect the appliance itself, for which it is still necessary for the appliance designer to take the necessary precautions.) Multiple socket accessories may be protected with a fuse within the socket assembly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "974207", "title": "Ring circuit", "section": "Section::::Installation rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 610, "text": "Where loads other than BS 1363 sockets are connected to a ring circuit or it is desired to place more than one socket for low power equipment on a spur, a BS 1363 fused connection unit (FCU) is used. In the case of fixed appliances this will be a switched fused connection unit (SFCU) to provide a point of isolation for the appliance, but in other cases such as feeding multiple lighting points (putting lighting on a ring though is generally considered bad practice in new installation but is often done when adding lights to an existing property) or multiple sockets, an unswitched one is often preferable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "976663", "title": "Industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets", "section": "Section::::Concepts and terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 932, "text": "Generally the plug is the movable connector attached to an electrically operated device's mains cable, and the socket is fixed on equipment or a building structure and connected to an energised electrical circuit. The plug has protruding pins or, in US terminology, blades (referred to as \"male\") that fit into matching slots or holes (called \"female\") in the sockets. A plug is defined in IEC 60050 as an \"accessory having pins designed to engage with the contacts of a socket-outlet, also incorporating means for the electrical connection and mechanical retention of flexible cables or cords\", a plug does not contain components which modify the electrical output from the electrical input (except where a switch or fuse is provided as a means of disconnecting the output from input). In this article, the term 'plug' is used in the sense defined by IEC 60050. Sockets are designed to prevent exposure of bare energised contacts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "976663", "title": "Industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets", "section": "Section::::Australia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 442, "text": "Within each size group, the plugs and sockets are keyed with certain \"lugs\" protruding on the outside of the plugs. Higher current plugs have more lugs to prevent them from being inserted into a lower current socket outlet, while still allowing them to be inserted into a socket outlet of the same size group rated for a higher current. For example, a 32 A 4-pin plug without neutral can plug into a 50 A 5-pin socket with neutral available.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "When the car is in cruise control it is monitoring and attempting, as you said, to maintain the speed it was set to. When you go up hill the car faces more resistance as it has to work against gravity more, so when in cruise control this causes the car to slow down, the car notices this and then attempts to accelerate, like if you pushed down on the gas, to maintain the speed. You are likely hearing the engine rev up which we usually associate with 'going fast,' but the car is just maintaining.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In my car (Pontiac Vibe), it's because the stupid cruise control is actually speeding you up. It'll accelerate up to 5 mph above what you set it, for reasons I can't divine. It likes to do this around bends too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7039", "title": "Control theory", "section": "Section::::Open-loop and closed-loop (feedback) control.:Other examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 585, "text": "A primitive way to implement cruise control is simply to lock the throttle position when the driver engages cruise control. However, if the cruise control is engaged on a stretch of flat road, then the car will travel slower going uphill and faster when going downhill. This type of controller is called an \"open-loop controller\" because there is no feedback; no measurement of the system output (the car's speed) is used to alter the control (the throttle position.) As a result, the controller cannot compensate for changes acting on the car, like a change in the slope of the road.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1678822", "title": "Perceptual control theory", "section": "Section::::Example.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1055, "text": "If the speed of the car starts to drop below the goal-speed, for example when climbing a hill, the small increase in the error signal, amplified, causes engine output to increase, which keeps the error very nearly at zero. If the speed begins to exceed the goal, e.g. when going down a hill, the engine is throttled back so as to act as a brake, so again the speed is kept from departing more than a barely detectable amount from the goal speed (brakes being needed only if the hill is too steep). The result is that the cruise control system maintains a speed close to the goal as the car goes up and down hills, and as other disturbances such as wind affect the car's speed. This is all done without any planning of specific actions, and without any blind reactions to stimuli. Indeed, the cruise control system does not sense disturbances such as wind pressure at all, it only senses the controlled variable, speed. Nor does it control the power generated by the engine, it uses the 'behavior' of engine power as its means to control the sensed speed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7990266", "title": "Wipeout (ride)", "section": "Section::::Ride cycle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 461, "text": "During the duration of the ride, the ride changes speeds. When the ride is fluctuating in its wavelike manner, the person will feel like the ride is not going that fast. However, when the ride is almost over, the person will feel forces on their body, and get pushed toward the outside of the cars. This happens when the ride starts lowering to the ground in a non-wavelike manner. When the ride moves in this way, it acts like a Himalaya / Musik Express ride.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "426955", "title": "Suspension (vehicle)", "section": "Section::::Armoured fighting vehicle suspension.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 174, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 174, "end_character": 525, "text": "As with cars, wheel travel and spring rate affect the bumpiness of the ride and the speed at which rough terrain can be negotiated. It may be significant that a smooth ride, which is often associated with comfort, increases the accuracy when firing on the move (analogously to battle ships with reduced stability, due to reduced metacentric height). It also reduces shock on optics and other equipment. The unsprung weight and track link weight may limit speed on roads and affect the life of the track and other components.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "236721", "title": "Crumple zone", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 664, "text": "When a vehicle and all its contents, including passengers and luggage are travelling at speed, they have inertia / momentum, which means that they will continue forward with that direction and speed (Newton's first law of motion). In the event of a sudden deceleration of a rigid framed vehicle due to impact, unrestrained vehicle contents will continue forwards at their previous speed due to inertia, and impact the vehicle interior, with a force equivalent to many times their normal weight due to gravity. The purpose of crumple zones is to slow down the collision and to absorb energy to reduce the difference in speeds between the vehicle and its occupants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "267555", "title": "Cruise control", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 285, "text": "Cruise control (sometimes known as speed control or autocruise, or tempomat in some countries) is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle. The system is a servomechanism that takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27945098", "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)", "section": "Section::::Great Depression and World War II (1929–1945).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 472, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 472, "end_character": 612, "text": "Cruise control automatically controls the rate of motion of a motor vehicle. The driver sets the speed and the system will take over the throttle of the car to maintain the same speed. Cruise control was invented in 1945 by a blind inventor and mechanical engineer named Ralph Teetor. His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer, who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked. The first car with Teetor's system was the Chrysler Imperial in 1958. This system calculated ground speed based on driveshaft rotations and used a solenoid to vary throttle position as needed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Water is important because it is a potent solvent and is liquid in a temperature range that is conducive to organic chemical reactions.\n\nCarbon is important because it is fairly inert once in molecules so you can form many long complex molecules off the same more or less inert back bone. this has to do with the electron structure of carbon, so a chemist can expand on the specialness of carbon.\n\nAs for silicon based life, the short answer is no. the waste produce for most life is CO2 via cellular respiration this is a gas that can be easily dissolved into water. for silicon the waste product would be SO2 or sand/quartz and is very inert and highly stable. So the SO2 lockes down resources (like oxygene) much more than CO2 and as a solid is much more difficult to move around.\n\n\nthe long answer for silicon is maybe, but it would be at very high temperatures and be a bio chemistry very different, even on an mechanical basis (resembling more inorganic chemistry), than what we have on earth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We KNOW for sure that life like ours exists and therefore CAN exist. There are zillions of other theoretical possibilities, but they're all just pure speculation. For now, it makes sense to stick with what we know is possible.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7316", "title": "Hypothetical types of biochemistry", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Non-water solvents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 657, "text": "In addition to carbon compounds, all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. This has led to discussions about whether water is the only liquid capable of filling that role. The idea that an extraterrestrial life-form might be based on a solvent other than water has been taken seriously in recent scientific literature by the biochemist Steven Benner, and by the astrobiological committee chaired by John A. Baross. Solvents discussed by the Baross committee include ammonia, sulfuric acid, formamide, hydrocarbons, and (at temperatures much lower than Earth's) liquid nitrogen, or hydrogen in the form of a supercritical fluid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11322595", "title": "Extraterrestrial liquid water", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 368, "text": "Extraterrestrial liquid water (from the Latin words: \"extra\" [\"outside of, beyond\"] and \"terrestris\" [\"of or belonging to Earth\"]) is water in its liquid state that naturally occurs outside Earth. It is a subject of wide interest because it is recognized as one of the key prerequisites for life as we know it and thus surmised as essential for extraterrestrial life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2592906", "title": "Planetary habitability", "section": "Section::::Planetary characteristics.:Geochemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 1383, "text": "It is generally assumed that any extraterrestrial life that might exist will be based on the same fundamental biochemistry as found on Earth, as the four elements most vital for life, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are also the most common chemically reactive elements in the universe. Indeed, simple biogenic compounds, such as very simple amino acids such as glycine, have been found in meteorites and in the interstellar medium. These four elements together comprise over 96% of Earth's collective biomass. Carbon has an unparalleled ability to bond with itself and to form a massive array of intricate and varied structures, making it an ideal material for the complex mechanisms that form living cells. Hydrogen and oxygen, in the form of water, compose the solvent in which biological processes take place and in which the first reactions occurred that led to life's emergence. The energy released in the formation of powerful covalent bonds between carbon and oxygen, available by oxidizing organic compounds, is the fuel of all complex life-forms. These four elements together make up amino acids, which in turn are the building blocks of proteins, the substance of living tissue. In addition, neither sulfur, required for the building of proteins, nor phosphorus, needed for the formation of DNA, RNA, and the adenosine phosphates essential to metabolism, is rare.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15155395", "title": "Habitability of natural satellites", "section": "Section::::Presumed conditions.:Liquid water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 337, "text": "Liquid water is thought by most astrobiologists to be an essential prerequisite for extraterrestrial life. There is growing evidence of subsurface liquid water on several moons in the Solar System orbiting the gas giants Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. However, none of these subsurface bodies of water has been confirmed to date.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33306", "title": "Water", "section": "Section::::Distribution in nature.:Water and habitable zone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 160, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 160, "end_character": 419, "text": "The existence of liquid water, and to a lesser extent its gaseous and solid forms, on Earth are vital to the existence of life on Earth as we know it. The Earth is located in the habitable zone of the solar system; if it were slightly closer to or farther from the Sun (about 5%, or about 8 million kilometers), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43126", "title": "Callisto (moon)", "section": "Section::::Potential habitability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 498, "text": "The basic ingredients for life—what we call 'pre-biotic chemistry'—are abundant in many solar system objects, such as comets, asteroids and icy moons. Biologists believe liquid water and energy are then needed to actually support life, so it's exciting to find another place where we might have liquid water. But, energy is another matter, and currently, Callisto's ocean is only being heated by radioactive elements, whereas Europa has tidal energy as well, from its greater proximity to Jupiter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2787", "title": "Astrobiology", "section": "Section::::Methodology.:Elements of astrobiology.:Biology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 1284, "text": "Biologists have found extremophiles that thrive in ice, boiling water, acid, alkali, the water core of nuclear reactors, salt crystals, toxic waste and in a range of other extreme habitats that were previously thought to be inhospitable for life. This opened up a new avenue in astrobiology by massively expanding the number of possible extraterrestrial habitats. Characterization of these organisms, their environments and their evolutionary pathways, is considered a crucial component to understanding how life might evolve elsewhere in the universe. For example, some organisms able to withstand exposure to the vacuum and radiation of outer space include the lichen fungi \"Rhizocarpon geographicum\" and \"Xanthoria elegans\", the bacterium \"Bacillus safensis\", \"Deinococcus radiodurans\", \"Bacillus subtilis\", yeast \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\", seeds from \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" ('mouse-ear cress'), as well as the invertebrate animal Tardigrade. While tardigrades are not considered true extremophiles, they are considered extremotolerant microorganisms that have contributed to the field of astrobiology. Their extreme radiation tolerance and presence of DNA protection proteins may provide answers as to whether life can survive away from the protection of the Earth's atmosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "According to Eric Arnesen in *The Black Worker: Race, Labor, and Civil Rights since Emancipation* and Richard Valelly in *The Two Reconstructions: the Struggle for Black Enfranchisement*, slaves so despised their masters that one of the first things they did as freemen was change given names. Instead, they adopted names taken from places, trades, and even African relatives. Keeping the master's name was considered a last resort as a means to escape the rampant violence visited on newly freed blacks.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5339004", "title": "Slavery in ancient Rome", "section": "Section::::Emancipation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 468, "text": "Freeing a slave was called \"manumissio\", which literally means \"sending out from the hand\". The freeing of the slave was a public ceremony, performed before some sort of public official, usually a judge. The owner touched the slave on the head with a staff and he was free to go. Simpler methods were sometimes used, usually with the owner proclaiming a slave's freedom in front of friends and family, or just a simple invitation to recline with the family at dinner.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11930181", "title": "Slavery in Brazil", "section": "Section::::Slave identities.:African-born ex-slaves.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 637, "text": "One of the most important markers of the freedom of a slave was the adoption of a last name upon being freed. These names would often be the family names of their ex-owners, either in part or in full. Since many slaves had the same or similar Christian name assigned from their baptism, it was common for a slave to be called both their Portuguese or Christian name as well as the name of their master. \"Maria, for example, became known as Sr. Santana's Maria\". Thus, it was mostly a matter of convenience when a slave was freed for him or her to adopt the surname of their ex-owner for assimilation into the community as a free person.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13604900", "title": "History of slavery in New York", "section": "Section::::Dutch rule.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1391, "text": "These first 11 slaves in New Netherland, owned by the Dutch East Indies Company ( called the VOC ), had a life different from that of other slaves in other colonies. By definition, they were owned by a master, could not leave their master, and could be bought and sold. This is different than an indentured servant who may have chosen to \"indenture\" themselves. This is usually when the indentured servant contracts themselves to a master for a specific length of time, after which they would be free to lead their own lives. Slaves do not have contracts, only their master determines when they will be freed. These first 11 slaves were \"originally captured by the Portuguese along the West African coast and on the islands in the Gulf of Guinea...\" They were on a Spanish slave ship which would transport them to the West Indies when the VOC's navy had taken them as prizes. Many of the original New Netherland slaves have Iberian (Portuguese) names. They were given living quarters 5 miles north of the town of New Amsterdam, after which they were moved to a large building at the southern end of William Street next to the fort. \"The men were employed as field hands by the Company, as well as in building and road construction and other public works projects.\" Women were placed as domestic servants in homes of company officials. \"Their servitude was involuntary and unremunerated...\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8904631", "title": "Long Look Estate", "section": "Section::::Currently.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 329, "text": "The freed slaves (as was common at the time) took the surname of their last owners, and went by the family name of Nottingham. Although many other former slave owners' descendants are still well represented within the Territory, by the twenty-first century no Nottinghams appeared on the voter's roll or the telephone directory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5876413", "title": "Sasanian Empire", "section": "Section::::Society.:Slavery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 134, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 134, "end_character": 203, "text": "The master of a slave was allowed to free the person when he wanted to, which, no matter what faith the slave believed in, was considered a good deed. A slave could also be freed if his/her master died.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48976032", "title": "Slavery in Malta", "section": "Section::::Before 1530.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 374, "text": "Emancipation was a relatively commonplace practice, probably depending on human relationships. The emancipated slave would usually take the name of their former master, adding a mark of provenance to avoid any ambiguity: for example, it would be understood that Franciscus de Vaccaro had been emancipated by the Vaccaro family, or Giorgius de Mazarra by the Mazarra family.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "133263", "title": "Manumission", "section": "Section::::Ancient Rome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 381, "text": "A freed slave customarily took the former owner's family name, which was the \"nomen\" (see Roman naming conventions) of the master's \"gens\". The former owner became the patron \"(patronus)\" and the freed slave became a client (\"cliens\") and retained certain obligations to the former master, who owed certain obligations in return. A freed slave could also acquire multiple patrons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They are actually charged every time you drive. This happens with a machine called an alternator. \n\nWhen your car engine is running, it also turns a little electrical generator that helps keep the car battery charged. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Car batteries are kept charged by the alternator, which is turned by the engine. 12-volts DC is the nominal voltage of a car battery. If it falls about 10% below this, your car won't work. So the battery isn't completely dead when it doesn't work, it just isn't near 12-volts DC. \n\nThis is true of even household batteries that you use in electronics. When they no longer work, they aren't completely void of any power, they're just not near their nominal rating for the device to work properly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2885000", "title": "Battery charger", "section": "Section::::Prolonging battery life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 763, "text": "Motor vehicles, such as boats, RVs, ATVs, motorcycles, cars, trucks, etc have used lead–acid batteries. These batteries employ a sulfuric acid electrolyte and can generally be charged and discharged without exhibiting memory effect, though sulfation (a chemical reaction in the battery which deposits a layer of sulfates on the lead) will occur over time. Typically sulfated batteries are simply replaced with new batteries, and the old ones recycled. Lead–acid batteries will experience substantially longer life when a maintenance charger is used to \"float charge\" the battery. This prevents the battery from ever being below 100% charge, preventing sulfate from forming. Proper temperature compensated float voltage should be used to achieve the best results.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "726915", "title": "Alkaline battery", "section": "Section::::Leaks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 276, "text": "All batteries gradually self-discharge (whether installed in a device or not) and dead batteries will eventually leak. Extremely high temperatures can also cause batteries to rupture and leak (such as in a car during summer) as well as decrease the shelf life of the battery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "298814", "title": "Jump start (vehicle)", "section": "Section::::Hazards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 282, "text": "A fully depleted battery will not draw more power if the cables are reversed, but reverse-charging a dead battery can damage its chemistry so that it loses charge capacity, and reverse voltage applied to the vehicle electronics may also damage them, resulting in expensive repairs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1164345", "title": "Automotive battery", "section": "Section::::Environmental impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 1010, "text": "Battery recycling of automotive batteries reduces the need for resources required for the manufacture of new batteries, diverts toxic lead from landfills, and prevents the risk of improper disposal. Once a lead acid battery ceases to hold a charge, it is deemed a used lead-acid battery (ULAB), which is classified as hazardous waste under the Basel Convention. The 12-volt car battery is the most recycled product in the world, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In the U.S. alone, about 100 million auto batteries a year are replaced, and 99 percent of them are turned in for recycling. However the recycling may be done incorrectly in unregulated environments. As part of global waste trade ULABs are shipped from industrialized countries to developing countries for disassembly and recuperation of the contents. About 97 percent of the lead can be recovered. Pure Earth estimates that over 12 million third world people are affected by lead contamination from ULAB processing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "203197", "title": "Memory effect", "section": "Section::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Permanent loss of capacity.:Deep discharge.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 446, "text": "Some rechargeable batteries can be damaged by repeated deep discharge. Batteries are composed of multiple similar, but not identical, cells. Each cell has its own charge capacity. As the battery as a whole is being deeply discharged, the cell with the smallest capacity may reach zero charge and will \"reverse charge\" as the other cells continue to force current through it. The resulting loss of capacity is often ascribed to the memory effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20761049", "title": "IUoU battery charging", "section": "Section::::Special cases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 217, "text": "If a battery is connected to a significant load during charging, the end of the Uo-phase may never be reached and the battery will gas and be damaged, depending on the charge current relative to the battery capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41382162", "title": "Battery regenerator", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 410, "text": "When batteries are stored in an uncharged state for an extended period, lead-sulfur deposits form and harden on the lead plates inside the battery. This causes what is known as a \"sulfated battery\", which will no longer charge to its original capacity. Regenerators send pulses of electric current through the battery, which in some cases may cause the sulfate to flake off the plates and eventually dissolve.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I got allergy shots for six years. Granted most of mine were seasonal or at least flared up in spring/fall. Now I’m very glad to get those because I rarely have to even take meds for it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes when i was younger i was very allergic to dust, well actually allergic to dustmite shit, and i've gotten something called \"Hyposensibilisierung\" (thats the german word no idea whats the english one) where you get a shot of the thing you're allergic against at a small does kinda like a vaccine but you get it multiple times with bigger gaps between the longer you do it until you wait like 6 months for your last shot. And it actually helped me its not gone but it's greatly reduced", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Immunotherapy is the process of getting micro doses of what causes allergies in the form of shots. Slowly over time your body builds up antibodies and you no longer have reactions to the allergens. At the clinic near me the process takes about 3 years.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58859", "title": "Allergen", "section": "Section::::Seasonal allergy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 996, "text": "Recent research has suggested that humans might develop allergies as a defense to fight off parasites. According to Yale University Immunologist Dr Ruslan Medzhitov, protease allergens cleave the same sensor proteins that evolved to detect proteases produced by the parasitic worms. Additionally, a new report on seasonal allergies called “Extreme allergies and Global Warming”, have found that many allergy triggers are worsening due to climate change. 16 states in the United States were named as “Allergen Hotspots” for large increases in allergenic tree pollen if global warming pollution keeps increasing. Therefore, researchers on this report claimed that global warming is bad news for millions of asthmatics in the United States whose asthma attacks are triggered by seasonal allergies. Indeed, seasonal allergies are one of the main triggers for asthma, along with colds or flu, cigarette smoke and exercise. In Canada, for example, up to 75% of asthmatics also have seasonal allergies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58859", "title": "Allergen", "section": "Section::::Seasonal allergy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 898, "text": "If both parents suffered from allergies in the past, there is a 66% chance for the individual to suffer from seasonal allergies, and the risk lowers to 60% if just one parent had suffered from allergies. The immune system also has strong influence on seasonal allergies, since it reacts differently to diverse allergens like pollen. When an allergen enters the body of an individual that is predisposed to allergies, it triggers an immune reaction and the production of antibodies. These allergen antibodies migrate to mast cells lining the nose, eyes and lungs. When an allergen drifts into the nose more than once, mast cells release a slew of chemicals or histamines that irritate and inflame the moist membranes lining the nose and produce the symptoms of an allergic reaction: scratchy throat, itching, sneezing and watery eyes. Some symptoms that differentiate allergies from a cold include:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58859", "title": "Allergen", "section": "Section::::Seasonal allergy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 659, "text": "Among seasonal allergies, there are some allergens that fuse together and produce a new type of allergy. For instance, grass pollen allergens cross-react with food allergy proteins in vegetables such as onion, lettuce, carrots, celery and corn. Besides, the cousins of birch pollen allergens, like apples, grapes, peaches, celery and apricots, produce severe itching in the ears and throat. The cypress pollen allergy brings a cross reactivity between diverse species like olive, privet, ash and Russian olive tree pollen allergens. In some rural areas there is another form of seasonal grass allergy, combining airborne particles of pollen mixed with mold. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5558520", "title": "Milk allergy", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 1028, "text": "With the passage of mandatory labeling laws, food allergy awareness has definitely increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the U.S., the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALPA) causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "722360", "title": "Latex allergy", "section": "Section::::Types.:Latex-fruit syndrome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 447, "text": "People who have latex allergy also may have or develop an allergic response to some plants and/or products of these plants such as fruits. This is known as the \"latex-fruit syndrome\". Fruits (and seeds) involved in this syndrome include banana, pineapple, avocado, chestnut, kiwi fruit, mango, passionfruit, fig, strawberry, papaya, apple, melon, celery, potato, tomato, carrot, and soy. Some, but not all of these fruits contain a form of latex.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4642616", "title": "Lotion", "section": "Section::::Potential health risks.:Allergens.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 274, "text": "The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology warns that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6945843", "title": "Tree nut allergy", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 1168, "text": "Whether food allergy prevalence is increasing or not, food allergy awareness has increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. The Culinary Institute of America, a premier school for chef training, has courses in allergen-free cooking and a separate teaching kitchen. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]