Unnamed: 0
int64 0
7.84k
| id
stringlengths 1
79
| raw_text
stringlengths 15
171k
| vw_text
stringlengths 51
47.3k
|
|---|---|---|---|
7,400 | Cauchy_sequence | The plot of a Cauchy sequence shown in blue, as versus If the space containing the sequence is complete, the "ultimate destination" of this sequence, that is, the limit, exists. A sequence that is not Cauchy. The elements of the sequence fail to get close to each other as the sequence progresses. In mathematics, a Cauchy sequence, named after Augustin Cauchy, is a sequence whose elements become arbitrarily close to each other as the sequence progresses. To be more precise, by dropping enough (but still only a finite number of) terms from the start of the sequence, it is possible to make the maximum of the distances from any of the remaining elements to any other such element smaller than any preassigned, necessarily positive, value. In other words, suppose a pre-assigned positive real value is chosen. However small is, starting from a Cauchy sequence and eliminating terms one by one from the start, after a finite number of steps, any pair chosen from the remaining terms will be within distance of each other. The utility of Cauchy sequences lies in the fact that in a complete metric space (one where all such sequences are known to converge to a limit), they give a criterion for convergence which depends only on the terms of the sequence itself. This is often exploited in algorithms, both theoretical and applied, where an iterative process can be shown relatively easily to produce a Cauchy sequence, consisting of the iterates. The notions above are not as unfamiliar as they might at first appear. The customary acceptance of the fact that any real number x has a decimal expansion is an implicit acknowledgment that a particular Cauchy sequence of rational numbers (whose terms are the successive truncations of the decimal expansion of x) has the real limit x. In some cases it may be difficult to describe x independently of such a limiting process involving rational numbers. Generalizations of Cauchy sequences in more abstract uniform spaces exist in the form of Cauchy filter and Cauchy net. Real numbers A sequence of real numbers is called Cauchy, if for every positive real number ε, there is a positive integer N such that for all natural numbers m,n > N where the vertical bars denote the absolute value. In a similar way one can define Cauchy sequences of complex numbers. In a metric space To define Cauchy sequences in any metric space, the absolute value is replaced by the distance between and . Formally, given a metric space (M, d), a sequence is Cauchy, if for every positive real number ε > 0 there is a positive integer N such that for all natural numbers m,n > N, the distance is less than ε. Roughly speaking, the terms of the sequence are getting closer and closer together in a way that suggests that the sequence ought to have a limit in M. Nonetheless, such a limit does not always exist within M. Completeness A metric space X in which every Cauchy sequence has a limit (in X) is called complete. Examples The real numbers are complete, and one of the standard constructions of the real numbers involves Cauchy sequences of rational numbers. A rather different type of example is afforded by a metric space X which has the discrete metric (where any two distinct points are at distance 1 from each other). Any Cauchy sequence of elements of X must be constant beyond some fixed point, and converges to the eventually repeating term. Counter-example: rational numbers The rational numbers Q are not complete (for the usual distance): There are sequences of rationals that converge (in R) to irrational numbers; these are Cauchy sequences having no limit in Q. In fact, if a real number x is irrational, then the sequence (xn), whose n-th term is the truncation to n decimal places of the decimal expansion of x, gives Cauchy sequence of rational numbers with irrational limit x. Irrational numbers certainly exist, for example: The sequence defined by x0 = 1, xn+1 = (xn + 2/xn)/2 consists of rational numbers (1, 3/2, 17/12,...), which is clear from the definition; however it converges to the irrational square root of two, see Babylonian method of computing square root. The sequence of ratios of consecutive Fibonacci numbers which, if it converges at all, converges to a limit satisfying , and no rational number has this property. If one considers this as a sequence of real numbers, however, it converges to the real number , the Golden ratio, which is irrational. The values of the exponential, sine and cosine functions, exp(x), sin(x), cos(x), are known to be irrational for any rational value of x≠0, but each can be defined as the limit of a rational Cauchy sequence, using, for instance, the Maclaurin series. Counter-example: open interval The open interval X=(0, 2) in the set of real numbers with an ordinary distance in R is not a complete space: there is a sequence xn=1/n in it, which is Cauchy (for arbitrarily small distance bound d>0 all terms xn of n>1/d fit in the (0, d) interval), however does not converge in X—its 'limit', number 0, does not belong to the space X. Other properties Every convergent sequence (with limit s, say) is a Cauchy sequence, since, given any real number r > 0, beyond some fixed point, every term of sequence is within distance r/2 of s, so any two terms of the sequence are within distance r of each other. Every Cauchy sequence of real (or complex) numbers is bounded (since for some N, all terms of the sequence from the N-th onwards are within distance 1 of each other, and if M is the largest absolute value of the terms up to and including the N-th, then no term of the sequence has absolute value greater than M+1). In any metric space, a Cauchy sequence which has a convergent subsequence with limit s is itself convergent (with the same limit), since, given any real number r > 0, beyond some fixed point in the original sequence, every term of the subsequence is within distance r/2 of s, and any two terms of the original sequence are within distance r/2 of each other, so every term of the original sequence is within distance r of s. These last two properties, together with a lemma used in the proof of the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem, yield one standard proof of the completeness of the real numbers, closely related to both the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem and the Heine–Borel theorem. The lemma in question states that every bounded sequence of real numbers has a convergent subsequence. Given this fact, every Cauchy sequence of real numbers is bounded, hence has a convergent subsequence, hence is itself convergent. It should be noted, though, that this proof of the completeness of the real numbers implicitly makes use of the least upper bound axiom. The alternative approach, mentioned above, of constructing the real numbers as the of the rational numbers, makes the completeness of the real numbers tautological. One of the standard illustrations of the advantage of being able to work with Cauchy sequences and make use of completeness is provided by consideration of the summation of an infinite series of real numbers (or, more generally, of elements of any complete normed linear space, or Banach space). Such a series is considered to be convergent if and only if the sequence of partial sums is convergent, where . It is a routine matter to determine whether the sequence of partial sums is Cauchy or not, since for positive integers p > q, . If is a uniformly continuous map between the metric spaces M and N and (xn) is a Cauchy sequence in M, then is a Cauchy sequence in N. If and are two Cauchy sequences in the rational, real or complex numbers, then the sum and the product are also Cauchy sequences. Generalizations In topological vector spaces There is also a concept of Cauchy sequence for a topological vector space : Pick a local base for about 0; then () is a Cauchy sequence if for all members of , there is some number such that whenever is an element of . If the topology of is compatible with a translation-invariant metric , the two definitions agree. In topological groups Since the topological vector space definition of Cauchy sequence only requires that there is a continuous "subtraction" operation, it can just as well be stated in the context of a topological group: A sequence in a topological group is a Cauchy sequence if for every open neighbourhood of the identity in there exists some number such that whenever it follows that . As above, it is sufficient to check this for the neighbourhoods in any local base of the identity in . As in the construction of the completion of a metric space, one can furthermore define the binary relation on Cauchy sequences in that and are equivalent if there for every open neighbourhood of the identity in exists some number such that whenever it follows that . This relation is an equivalence relation. More precisely, it is reflexive since the sequences are Cauchy sequences. It is symmetric since which by continuity of the inverse is another open neighbourhood of the identity. It is transitive since where and are open neighbourhoods of the identity such that ; such pairs exist by the continuity of the group operation. In groups There is also a concept of Cauchy sequence in a group : Let be a decreasing sequence of normal subgroups of of finite index. Then a sequence in is said to be Cauchy (w.r.t. ) if and only if for any there is such that . Technically, this is the same thing as a topological group Cauchy sequence for a particular choice of topology on , namely that for which is a local base. The set of such Cauchy sequences forms a group (for the componentwise product), and the set of null sequences (s.th. ) is a normal subgroup of . The factor group is called the completion of with respect to . One can then show that this completion is isomorphic to the inverse limit of the sequence . An example of this construction, familiar in number theory and algebraic geometry is the construction of the p-adic completion of the integers with respect to a prime p. In this case, G is the integers under addition, and Hr is the additive subgroup consisting of integer multiples of pr. If is a cofinal sequence (i.e., any normal subgroup of finite index contains some ), then this completion is canonical in the sense that it is isomorphic to the inverse limit of , where varies over all normal subgroups of finite index. For further details, see ch. I.10 in Lang's "Algebra". In constructive mathematics In constructive mathematics, Cauchy sequences often must be given with a modulus of Cauchy convergence to be useful. If is a Cauchy sequence in the set , then a modulus of Cauchy convergence for the sequence is a function from the set of natural numbers to itself, such that . Clearly, any sequence with a modulus of Cauchy convergence is a Cauchy sequence. The converse (that every Cauchy sequence has a modulus) follows from the well-ordering property of the natural numbers (let be the smallest possible in the definition of Cauchy sequence, taking to be ). However, this well-ordering property does not hold in constructive mathematics (it is equivalent to the principle of excluded middle). On the other hand, this converse also follows (directly) from the principle of dependent choice (in fact, it will follow from the weaker AC00), which is generally accepted by constructive mathematicians. Thus, moduli of Cauchy convergence are needed directly only by constructive mathematicians who (like Fred Richman) do not wish to use any form of choice. That said, using a modulus of Cauchy convergence can simplify both definitions and theorems in constructive analysis. Perhaps even more useful are regular Cauchy sequences, sequences with a given modulus of Cauchy convergence (usually or ). Any Cauchy sequence with a modulus of Cauchy convergence is equivalent (in the sense used to form the completion of a metric space) to a regular Cauchy sequence; this can be proved without using any form of the axiom of choice. Regular Cauchy sequences were used by Errett Bishop in his Foundations of Constructive Analysis, but they have also been used by Douglas Bridges in a non-constructive textbook (ISBN 978-0-387-98239-7). However, Bridges also works on mathematical constructivism; the concept has not spread far outside of that milieu. See also Modes of convergence (annotated index) References (for uses in constructive mathematics) | Cauchy_sequence |@lemmatized plot:1 cauchy:58 sequence:83 show:3 blue:1 versus:1 space:19 contain:2 complete:7 ultimate:1 destination:1 limit:16 exist:7 element:7 fail:1 get:2 close:2 progress:2 mathematics:5 name:1 augustin:1 whose:3 become:1 arbitrarily:2 precise:1 drop:1 enough:1 still:1 finite:5 number:46 term:17 start:3 possible:2 make:4 maximum:1 distance:14 remain:2 small:4 preassigned:1 necessarily:1 positive:7 value:8 word:1 suppose:1 pre:1 assign:1 real:24 choose:2 however:6 eliminate:1 one:10 step:1 pair:2 within:8 utility:1 lie:1 fact:5 metric:12 know:2 converge:6 give:8 criterion:1 convergence:9 depend:1 often:2 exploit:1 algorithm:1 theoretical:1 apply:1 iterative:1 process:2 relatively:1 easily:1 produce:1 consist:2 iterates:1 notion:1 unfamiliar:1 might:1 first:1 appear:1 customary:1 acceptance:1 x:18 decimal:4 expansion:3 implicit:1 acknowledgment:1 particular:2 rational:13 successive:1 truncation:2 case:2 may:1 difficult:1 describe:1 independently:1 limiting:1 involve:2 generalization:2 abstract:1 uniform:1 form:5 filter:1 net:1 call:3 every:13 ε:3 integer:6 n:15 natural:4 vertical:1 bar:1 denote:1 absolute:4 similar:1 way:2 define:5 complex:3 replace:1 formally:1 less:1 roughly:1 speak:1 closer:2 together:2 suggest:1 ought:1 nonetheless:1 always:1 completeness:5 examples:1 standard:3 construction:4 rather:1 different:1 type:1 example:5 afford:1 discrete:1 two:7 distinct:1 point:4 must:2 constant:1 beyond:3 fixed:3 converges:2 eventually:1 repeating:1 counter:2 q:3 usual:1 r:10 irrational:7 xn:7 th:4 place:1 certainly:1 consists:1 clear:1 definition:5 square:2 root:2 see:3 babylonian:1 method:1 compute:1 ratio:2 consecutive:1 fibonacci:1 satisfying:1 property:5 consider:2 golden:1 exponential:1 sine:1 cosine:1 function:2 exp:1 sin:1 co:1 use:10 instance:1 maclaurin:1 series:3 open:6 interval:3 set:5 ordinary:1 bound:5 fit:1 belong:1 convergent:8 say:3 since:8 onwards:1 large:1 include:1 great:1 subsequence:4 original:3 last:1 lemma:2 proof:3 bolzano:2 weierstrass:2 theorem:4 yield:1 closely:1 relate:1 heine:1 borel:1 question:1 state:2 hence:2 note:1 though:1 implicitly:1 least:1 upper:1 axiom:2 alternative:1 approach:1 mention:1 construct:1 tautological:1 illustration:1 advantage:1 able:1 work:2 provide:1 consideration:1 summation:1 infinite:1 generally:2 normed:1 linear:1 banach:1 partial:2 sum:3 routine:1 matter:1 determine:1 whether:1 p:3 uniformly:1 continuous:2 map:1 product:2 also:7 topological:7 vector:3 concept:3 pick:1 local:3 base:3 member:1 whenever:3 topology:2 compatible:1 translation:1 invariant:1 agree:1 group:9 require:1 subtraction:1 operation:2 well:3 context:1 neighbourhood:5 identity:5 follow:5 sufficient:1 check:1 completion:6 furthermore:1 binary:1 relation:3 equivalent:3 equivalence:1 precisely:1 reflexive:1 symmetric:1 continuity:2 inverse:3 another:1 transitive:1 let:2 decreasing:1 normal:4 subgroup:5 index:4 w:1 technically:1 thing:1 choice:4 namely:1 componentwise:1 null:1 factor:1 respect:2 isomorphic:2 familiar:1 theory:1 algebraic:1 geometry:1 adic:1 prime:1 g:1 addition:1 hr:1 additive:1 multiple:1 pr:1 cofinal:1 e:1 canonical:1 sense:2 varies:1 detail:1 ch:1 lang:1 algebra:1 constructive:9 modulus:8 useful:2 clearly:1 converse:2 order:2 take:1 hold:1 principle:2 excluded:1 middle:1 hand:1 directly:2 dependent:1 weak:1 accept:1 mathematician:2 thus:1 need:1 like:1 fred:1 richman:1 wish:1 simplify:1 analysis:2 perhaps:1 even:1 regular:3 usually:1 prove:1 without:1 errett:1 bishop:1 foundation:1 douglas:1 bridge:2 non:1 textbook:1 isbn:1 mathematical:1 constructivism:1 spread:1 far:1 outside:1 milieu:1 mode:1 annotated:1 reference:1 us:1 |@bigram cauchy_sequence:43 augustin_cauchy:1 cauchy_filter:1 xn_xn:2 consecutive_fibonacci:1 golden_ratio:1 sine_cosine:1 convergent_subsequence:3 weierstrass_theorem:2 closely_relate:1 heine_borel:1 borel_theorem:1 summation_infinite:1 banach_space:1 uniformly_continuous:1 equivalence_relation:1 normal_subgroup:4 algebraic_geometry:1 constructive_mathematics:4 modulus_cauchy:7 cauchy_convergence:7 principle_excluded:1 excluded_middle:1 axiom_choice:1 |
7,401 | Nuclear_winter | Nuclear winter is a term that describes the predicted climatic effects of nuclear war. Severely cold weather and reduced sunlight for a period of months or years would be caused by detonating large numbers of nuclear weapons, especially over flammable targets such as cities, where large amounts of smoke and soot would be injected into the Earth's stratosphere. The term has also been applied to one of the after-effects of a comet or asteroid impact Comet Caused Nuclear Winter A Fiery Death for Dinosaurs? , also sometimes termed an impact winter, or of a supervolcano eruption, known as a volcanic winter. Supervolcanoes could trigger global freeze Mechanism The nuclear winter scenario predicts that the huge fires caused by nuclear explosions (particularly from burning urban areas) would loft massive amounts of dark smoke and aerosol particles from the fires into the upper troposphere / stratosphere. At 10-15 kilometers (6-9 miles) above the Earth's surface, the absorption of sunlight would further heat the smoke, lifting it into the stratosphere where the smoke would persist for years, with no rain to wash it out. This would block out much of the sun's light from reaching the surface, causing surface temperatures to drop drastically. Consequences Climatic effects A study presented at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in December 2006 found that even a small-scale, regional nuclear war could produce as many direct fatalities as all of World War II and disrupt the global climate for a decade or more. In a regional nuclear conflict scenario where two opposing nations in the subtropics would each use 50 Hiroshima-sized nuclear weapons (about 15 kiloton each) on major populated centres, the researchers estimated fatalities from 2.6 million to 16.7 million per country. Also, as much as five million tons of soot would be released, which would produce a cooling of several degrees over large areas of North America and Eurasia, including most of the grain-growing regions. The cooling would last for years and could be "catastrophic" according to the researchers. Regional Nuclear War Could Devastate Global Climate, Science Daily, December 11, 2006 The published papers that were first presented at the AGU Meeting. Ozone depletion A 2008 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science found that a nuclear weapons exchange between Pakistan and India using their current arsenals could create a near- global ozone hole, triggering human health problems and wreaking environmental havoc for at least a decade. Mills et al., 2008, "Massive global ozone loss predicted following regional nuclear conflict," PNAS, doi:10.1073/pnas.0710058105. The computer-modeling study looked at a nuclear war between the two countries involving 50 Hiroshima-sized nuclear devices on each side, producing massive urban fires and lofting as much as five million metric tons of soot about 50 miles (80km) into the stratosphere. The soot would absorb enough solar radiation to heat surrounding gases, setting in motion a series of chemical reactions that would break down the stratospheric ozone layer protecting Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Column ozone losses could exceed 20% globally, 25-45% at mid-latitudes, and 50-70% at northern high latitudes persisting for 5 years, with substantial losses continuing for 5 additional years. Column ozone amounts would remain near or below 220 Dobson units at all altitudes even after three years, constituting an extra-tropical “ozone hole”. Human health ailments like cataracts and skin cancer, as well as damage to plants, animals and ecosystems at mid-latitudes would likely rise sharply as ozone levels decreased and allowed more harmful UV light to reach Earth, according to the PNAS study. This study demonstrates that a small-scale, regional nuclear conflict is capable of triggering ozone losses even larger than losses that were predicted in the 1980s following a full-scale nuclear war. The missing piece back then was that the models at the time could not account for the rise of the smoke plume and consequent heating of the stratosphere. Recent modelling Based on new work published in 2007 and 2008 by some of the pioneers of nuclear winter research who worked on the original studies, several things can now be said about this topic. New Science: A minor nuclear war (such as between India and Pakistan or in the Middle East), with each country using 50 Hiroshima-sized atom bombs as airbursts on urban areas, could produce climate change unprecedented in recorded human history. This is only 0.03% of the explosive power of the current global arsenal. This same scenario would produce global ozone depletion, because the heating of the stratosphere would enhance the chemical reactions that destroy ozone. A nuclear war between the United States and Russia today could produce nuclear winter, with temperatures plunging below freezing in the summer in major agricultural regions, threatening the food supply for most of the planet. The climatic effects of the smoke from burning cities and industrial areas would last for several years, much longer than previously thought. New climate model simulations, that have the capability of including the entire atmosphere and oceans, show that the smoke would be lofted by solar heating to the upper stratosphere, where it would remain for years. New Modelling The climatic effects of smoke from fires started by nuclear war depend on the amount of smoke. For 50 nuclear weapons dropped on two countries, on the targets that would produce the maximum amount of smoke, about 5 megatons (Tg) of black smoke would be produced, accounting for the amount emitted from the fires and the amount immediately washed out in rain. As the smoke is lofted into the stratosphere, it would be transported around the world by the prevailing winds. Two scenarios of war between the two superpowers who still maintain large nuclear arsenals, the United States and Russia were calculated. In one scenario, 50 Tg of black smoke would be produced and in another, 150 Tg of black smoke would be produced. The number of nuclear weapons required to produce this much smoke depends on the targets, but there are enough weapons in the current arsenals to produce either amount. In fact, there are only so many targets, once they are all hit by weapons, additional weapons would not produce much more smoke at all. Even after the current nuclear weapons reduction treaty between these superpowers is played out in 2012, with each having about 2,000 weapons, 150 Tg of smoke could still be produced. These new results were made possible by the use of a state-of-the-art general circulation model of the climate. For the first time a complete calculation of not only atmospheric but also oceanic circulation was conducted, including the entire atmosphere from the surface up through the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere, to an elevation of 80 kilometers (50 miles). Previous calculations had not been run for the 10 year simulations here, and had not allowed the smoke to be lofted into the upper stratosphere, where it would persist for many years. The climate response to the above scenarios was calculated. Compared to the global warming observed for the past century, all three scenarios show massive cooling. Compared to the climate change for the Northern Hemisphere for the past 1,000 years, the famous hockey stick diagram, the climate change from any of these scenarios is unprecedented. Compared to climate change for the past millennium, even the 5 Tg case (a war between India and Pakistan) would plunge the planet into temperatures colder than the Little Ice Age (approximately 1600-1850). This would be essentially take effect instantly, and agriculture would be severely threatened. Larger amounts of smoke would produce larger climate changes, and for the 150 Tg case produce a true nuclear winter, making agriculture impossible for years. In both cases, new climate model simulations show that the effects would last for more than a decade. Climatic Consequences of Nuclear Conflict: Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University http://envsci.rutgers.edu/%7Erobock 2007 study on global nuclear war A study published in the Journal of Geophysical Research in July 2007, Nuclear winter revisited with a modern climate model and current nuclear arsenals: Still catastrophic consequences, used current climate models to look at the consequences of a global nuclear war involving most or all of the world's current nuclear arsenals (which the authors described as being only about a third the size of the world's arsenals twenty years earlier). The authors used a global circulation model, ModelE from the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, which they noted "has been tested extensively in global warming experiments and to examine the effects of volcanic eruptions on climate." The model was used to investigate the effects of a war involving the entire current global nuclear arsenal, projected to release about 150 Tg of smoke into the atmosphere (1 Tg is equal to 1012 grams), as well as a war involving about one third of the current nuclear arsenal, projected to release about 50 Tg of smoke. In the 150 Tg case they found that: In addition, they found that this cooling caused a weakening of the global hydrological cycle, reducing global precipitation by about 45%. As for the 50 Tg case involving 1/3 of current nuclear arsenals, they said that the simulation "produced climate responses very similar to those for the 150 Tg case, but with about half the amplitude", but that "the time scale of response is about the same." They did not discuss the implications for agriculture in depth, but noted that a 1986 study which assumed no food production for a year projected that "most of the people on the planet would run out of food and starve to death by then" and commented that their own results show that "this period of no food production needs to be extended by many years, making the impacts of nuclear winter even worse than previously thought." Kuwait wells in the first Gulf War The burning of 526 Kuwaiti oil wells during the Persian Gulf War showed the effects of vast emissions of particulate matter into the atmosphere in a geographically limited area; directly underneath the smoke plume constrained model calculations suggested that daytime temperature may have dropped by ~10°C within ~200 km of the source. Environmental effects from burning oil wells in Kuwait by K. A. Browning, R. J. Allam, S. P. Ballard, R. T. H. Barnes, D. A. Bennetts, R. H. Maryon, P. J. Mason, D. McKenna, J. F. B. Mitchell, C. A. Senior, A. Slingo & F. B. Smith, Nature Publishing Group, 30 May 1991 Cornell Professor Carl Sagan of the TTAPS study warned in January 1991 that so much smoke from the fires "might get so high as to disrupt agriculture in much of South Asia...." Sagan later conceded in his book The Demon-Haunted World that this prediction did not turn out to be correct: "it was pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4°-6°C over the Persian Gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and Asia was spared." Sagan, Carl. The Demon-Haunted World. p. 257. The 2007 study discussed above noted that modern computer models have been applied to the Kuwait oil fires, finding that individual smoke plumes are not able to loft smoke into the stratosphere, but that smoke from fires covering a large area, like some forest fires In-situ observations of mid-latitude forest fire plumes deep in the stratosphere EO Newsroom: New Images - Smoke Soars to Stratospheric Heights Observations of Boreal Forest Fire Smoke in the Stratosphere Fromm et al., 2006, Smoke in the Stratosphere: What Wildfires have Taught Us About Nuclear Winter, Eos Trans. AGU, 87(52), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract U14A-04 or the burning of cities that would be expected to follow a nuclear strike, would loft significant amounts of smoke into the stratosphere: History In 1982 a special issue of the journal AMBIO was devoted to the possible environmental consequences of nuclear war; it included an article by Paul Crutzen and J. Birks presenting the rudiments of the nuclear winter scenario ("The atmosphere after a nuclear war: Twilight at noon"; Ambio, 11, 114-125). The issue re-assessed and re-affirmed the consequences for the ozone layer noted in the 1975 National Academies of Science report (up to 70% of the ozone layer might be destroyed) and first raised by Hampson in 1974; Possible ozone depletions following nuclear explosions and drew attention for the first time to the likelihood that large amounts of smoke and dust would be created. 1983 In 1982 astrophysicist Carl Sagan and his colleagues undertook a computational modeling study of the atmospheric consequences of nuclear war. The report was dubbed "TTAPS" study from the initials of the last names of its authors, R.P. Turco, O.B. Toon, T.P. Ackerman, J.B. Pollack, and C. Sagan. In December 1983 the "TTAPS" study was published in Science Nuclear Winter: Global Consequences of Multple Nuclear Explosions, R. P. Turco, O. B. Toon, T. P. Ackerman, J. B. Pollack 2, and Carl Sagan, Science, vol. 23, December 1983, Vol. 222. no. 4630, pp. 1283 - 1292 . The study was partly inspired to write the paper both by the suggestions of one Dr. A.M. Salzberg (who, unlike the TTAPS authors, believed that the initial dust thrown into the air would be primarily responsible for the climate changes) and by cooling effects due to dust storms on Mars . To carry out a calculation of the effect they used a very simplified two-dimensional model of the Earth's atmosphere that assumed that conditions at a given latitude were constant. The model also assumed a solid, smooth Earth. 1986 In 1984 the WMO commissioned G. S. Golitsyn and N. A. Phillips to review the state of the science. They found that studies generally assumed a scenario that half of the world's nuclear weapons would be used, ~5000 Mt, destroying approximately 1,000 cities, and creating large quantities of carbonaceous smoke - 1–2 × 1014 grams being mostly likely, with a range of 0.2 – 6.4 × 1014 grams (NAS; TTAPS assumed 2.25 × 1014). The smoke resulting would be largely opaque to solar radiation but transparent to infra-red, thus cooling by blocking sunlight but not causing warming from enhancing the greenhouse effect. The optical depth of the smoke can be much greater than unity. Forest fires resulting from non-urban targets could increase aerosol production further. Dust from near-surface explosions against hardened targets also contributes; each Mt-equivalent of explosion could release up to 5 million tons of dust, but most would quickly fall out; high altitude dust is estimated at 0.1-1 million tons per Mt-equivalent of explosion. Burning of crude oil could also contribute substantially. The 1-D radiative-convective models used in these studies produced a range of results, with coolings up to 15-42 °C between 14 and 35 days after the war, with a "baseline" of about 20 °C. Somewhat more sophisticated calculations using 3-D GCMs (Alexandrov and Stenchikov (1983); Covey, Schneider and Thompson (1984); which would be considered primitive by modern standards) produced similar results: temperature drops of between 20 and 40 °C, though with regional variations. All calculations show large heating (up to 80 °C) at the top of the smoke layer at about 10 km; this implies a substantial modification of the circulation there and the possibility of advection of the cloud into low latitudes and the southern hemisphere. The report made no attempt to compare the likely human impacts of the post-war cooling to the direct deaths from explosions. 1990 In 1990, in a paper entitled "Climate and Smoke: An Appraisal of Nuclear Winter" , TTAPS give a more detailed description of the short- and long-term atmospheric effects of a nuclear war using a three-dimensional model "Nuclear Winter Theorists Pull Back" The New York Times, January 23, 1990 : First 1 to 3 months: 10 to 25 % of soot injected is immediately removed by precipitation, while the rest is transported over the globe in 1 to 2 weeks SCOPE figures for July smoke injection: 22°C drop in mid-latitudes 10°C drop in humid climates 75 % decrease in rainfall in mid-latitudes Light level reduction of 0 % in low latitudes to 90 % in high smoke injection areas SCOPE figures for winter smoke injection: Temperature drops between 3° and 4°C Following 1 to 3 years: 25 to 40 % of injected smoke is stabilised in atmosphere (NCAR). Smoke stabilised for approximately 1 year. Land temperatures of several degrees below normal Ocean surface temperature between 2 and 6°C Ozone depletion of 50% leading to 200% increase in UV radiation incident on surface. Scientific debate The TTAPS study was widely reported and criticized in the media. Later model runs in some cases predicted less severe effects, but continued to support the overall conclusion of significant global cooling. Nuclear winter: science and politics Does Anybody Remember The Nuclear Winter? Recent studies (2006) substantiate that smoke from urban firestorms in a regional war would lead to long lasting global cooling but in a less dramatic manner than the nuclear winter scenario, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions (ACPD): Abstracts, by O. B. Toon, R. P. Turco, A. Robock, C. Bardeen, L. Oman, G. L. Stenchikov, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 2006. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions (ACPD): Abstracts, by A. Robock, L. Oman, G. L. Stenchikov, O. B. Toon, C. Bardeen, R. P. Turcos, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 2006 while a 2007 study of the effects of global nuclear war supported the conclusion that it would lead to full-scale nuclear winter. Policy implications In contrast to the obvious direct dangers of nuclear warfare, there is no clear evidence that the indirect dangers of nuclear winter made any substantial difference to policy. In response to the comment "In the 1980s, you warned about the unprecedented dangers of nuclear weapons and took very daring steps to reverse the arms race," in an interview in 2000, Mikhail Gorbachev said "Models made by Russian and American scientists showed that a nuclear war would result in a nuclear winter that would be extremely destructive to all life on Earth; the knowledge of that was a great stimulus to us, to people of honor and morality, to act in that situation." Mikhail Gorbachev explains what's rotten in Russia Criticism of nuclear winter theory 1980s criticisms The original work by Sagan and others was criticized as a "myth" and "discredited theory" in the 1987 book Nuclear War Survival Skills, a civil defense manual by Cresson Kearny for the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Kearny described nuclear winter mostly as a propaganda story, and said the maximum estimated temperature drop would be only about by 20 degrees Fahrenheit, and that this amount of cooling would last only a few days (though he did not address the question of whether a lesser amount of global cooling might linger for years, or whether there might be greater localized cooling in agricultural areas, as predicted by the 2007 study). He suggested that a global nuclear war would indeed result in millions of deaths from hunger, but primarily due to cessation of international food supplies, rather than due to climate changes. Kearny, who was not a climate scientist himself, based his conclusions almost entirely on the 1986 paper "Nuclear Winter Reappraised" by Starley Thompson and Stephen Schneider. However, a 1988 article by Brian Martin in Science and Public Policy states that although their paper concluded the effects would be less severe then originally thought, with the authors describing these effects as a "nuclear autumn", other statements by Thompson and Schneider Stephen H. Schneider, letter, Wall Street Journal, 25 November 1986. 'Severe global-scale nuclear war effects reaffirmed', statement resulting from SCOPE-ENUWAR workshop in Bangkok, 9-12 February 1987. show that they "resisted the interpretation that this means a rejection of the basic points made about nuclear winter". In addition, the authors of the 2007 study state that "because of the use of the term 'nuclear autumn' by Thompson and Schneider [1986], even though the authors made clear that the climatic consequences would be large, in policy circles the theory of nuclear winter is considered by some to have been exaggerated and disproved [e.g., Martin, 1988]." Abstract on Journal of Geophysical Research website paper available online from Rutgers University website And in 2007 Schneider emphasized the danger of serious climate changes from a limited nuclear war of the kind analyzed in the 2006 study below, saying "The sun is much stronger in the tropics than it is in mid-latitudes. Therefore, a much more limited war [there] could have a much larger effect, because you are putting the smoke in the worst possible place." Climate scientist Stephen Schneider describes chilling consequences of a nuclear war A 1986 article by Russell Seitz in The National Interest reported that prominent physicist Freeman Dyson said of the TTAPS study that it was "an absolutely atrocious piece of science, but I quite despair of setting the public record straight....Who wants to be accused of being in favor of nuclear war?" The Melting of 'Nuclear Winter' However, the Brian Martin article mentioned above reported that Dyson had no memory of making this comment, and had said "I don't believe I ever said what Russell Seitz said I said, but I can't prove it." Seitz also mentioned that the Jan. 23, 1986 issue of Nature included a comment that nuclear winter research "has become notorious for its lack of scientific integrity." Steitz's assessment also introduced politics, stating that nuclear disarmament would lend an advantage to the Soviet Union, which harbored strong conventional forces. See also Nuclear weapon Doomsday device Nuclear summer Volcanic winter Impact event Supervolcano References Budyko, M. I., G. S. Golitsyn, Y. A. Izrael Global Climatic Catastrophes Springer, 99 pages, September 1988, ISBN 0-387-18647-6 Paul J. Crutzen and John W. Birks, The Atmosphere After a Nuclear War: Twilight at Noon, Ambio, Vol 11, No 2-3, p 114, 1982. Golitsyn, G.S. and Phillips, N.A. WCRP, Possible climatic consequences of a major nuclear war, WCP-113, WMO/TD #99, 1986. R.P. Turco, O.B. Toon, T.P. Ackerman, J.B. Pollack, C. Sagan, Nuclear Winter: Global Consequences of Multiple Nuclear Explosions, Science, V. 222, No; 4630, December 23, 1983. Mark A. Harwell Nuclear Winter: The Human and Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War Springer, 179 pages , November 1984, ISBN 0-387-96093-7 Mills, Michael J., Owen B. Toon, Richard P. Turco, Douglas E. Kinnison, Rolando R. Garcia, 2008, "Massive global ozone loss predicted following regional nuclear conflict," PNAS, doi:10.1073/pnas.0710058105. N. N. Moiseev, Man, nature and the future of civilization: "nuclear winter" and the problem of a "permissible threshold" Novosti Press Agency Pub. House, Moscow, 92 pages, January 1986, Guide to Nuclear Winter Study Papers, 1972-1993. Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Robock, Alan, Luke Oman, Georgiy L. Stenchikov, Owen B. Toon, Charles Bardeen, and Richard P. Turco, 2007a: Climatic consequences of regional nuclear conflicts. Atm. Chem. Phys., 7, 2003-2012. Robock, Alan, Luke Oman, and Georgiy L. Stenchikov, 2007b: Nuclear winter revisited with a modern climate model and current nuclear arsenals: Still catastrophic consequences. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D13107, doi:10.1029/2006JD008235. Toon, Owen B., Richard P. Turco, Alan Robock, Charles Bardeen, Luke Oman, and Georgiy L. Stenchikov, 2007a: Atmospheric effects and societal consequences of regional scale nuclear conflicts and acts of individual nuclear terrorism. Atm. Chem. Phys., 7, 1973-2002. Toon, Owen B., Alan Robock, Richard P. Turco, Charles Bardeen, Luke Oman, and Georgiy L. Stenchikov, 2007b: Consequences of regional-scale nuclear conflicts. Science, 315, 1224-1225. Toon, Owen B., Alan Robock, Richard P. Turco, 2008: Environmental consequences of nuclear war. Physics Today, December, 37-42. Turco, R.P., Toon, A.B., Ackerman, T.P., Pollack, J.B., Sagan, C. (TTAPS) (1990) "Climate and Smoke: An Appraisal of Nuclear Winter", Science, volume 247, pp. 167-168, January. Footnotes External links The Encyclopedia of Earth, Nuclear Winter Lead Author: Alan Robock. Last Updated: July 31, 2008 Global Atmospheric Consequences of Nuclear War, the 1983 study conducted by TTAPS. Nuclear Winter Simulation Animation New studies of climatic consequences of regional nuclear conflict from Alan Robock, including links to new studies published in 2007. | Nuclear_winter |@lemmatized nuclear:98 winter:38 term:5 describe:4 predicted:1 climatic:10 effect:22 war:38 severely:2 cold:2 weather:1 reduced:1 sunlight:3 period:2 month:2 year:18 would:50 cause:6 detonate:1 large:13 number:2 weapon:13 especially:1 flammable:1 target:6 city:4 amount:13 smoke:45 soot:5 inject:2 earth:8 stratosphere:15 also:10 apply:2 one:4 comet:2 asteroid:1 impact:5 fiery:1 death:4 dinosaur:1 sometimes:1 supervolcano:2 eruption:2 know:1 volcanic:3 supervolcanoes:1 could:14 trigger:3 global:26 freeze:2 mechanism:1 scenario:11 predict:6 huge:1 fire:12 explosion:8 particularly:1 burn:3 urban:5 area:8 loft:7 massive:5 dark:1 aerosol:2 particle:1 upper:3 troposphere:2 kilometer:2 mile:3 surface:7 absorption:1 far:2 heat:2 lift:1 persist:3 rain:2 wash:2 block:2 much:13 sun:2 light:3 reach:3 temperature:10 drop:9 drastically:1 consequence:20 study:29 present:3 annual:1 meeting:2 american:2 geophysical:3 union:2 december:6 find:6 even:7 small:2 scale:8 regional:12 produce:19 many:4 direct:3 fatality:2 world:7 ii:1 disrupt:2 climate:24 decade:3 conflict:9 two:6 oppose:1 nation:1 subtropics:1 use:13 hiroshima:3 size:4 kiloton:1 major:3 populated:1 centre:1 researcher:2 estimate:2 million:7 per:2 country:4 five:2 ton:4 release:4 cooling:10 several:4 degree:3 north:1 america:1 eurasia:1 include:6 grain:1 grow:1 region:2 last:6 catastrophic:3 accord:2 devastate:1 science:14 daily:1 publish:6 paper:7 first:6 agu:2 ozone:16 depletion:4 proceeding:1 national:4 academy:2 exchange:1 pakistan:3 india:3 current:11 arsenal:11 create:3 near:3 hole:2 human:5 health:2 problem:2 wreak:1 environmental:6 havoc:1 least:1 mill:2 et:2 al:2 loss:6 follow:6 pnas:5 doi:3 computer:2 modeling:2 look:2 involve:5 device:2 side:1 metric:1 absorb:1 enough:2 solar:3 radiation:4 surround:1 gas:1 set:2 motion:1 series:1 chemical:2 reaction:2 break:1 stratospheric:3 layer:4 protect:1 harmful:2 ultraviolet:1 column:2 exceed:1 globally:1 mid:6 latitude:9 northern:2 high:4 substantial:3 continue:2 additional:2 remain:2 dobson:1 unit:1 altitude:3 three:3 constitute:1 extra:1 tropical:1 ailment:1 like:2 cataract:1 skin:1 cancer:1 well:5 damage:1 plant:1 animal:1 ecosystem:1 likely:3 rise:2 sharply:1 level:2 decrease:2 allow:2 uv:2 demonstrate:1 capable:1 full:2 miss:1 piece:2 back:2 model:19 time:5 account:2 plume:4 consequent:1 heating:4 recent:2 base:2 new:10 work:3 pioneer:1 research:4 original:2 thing:1 say:10 topic:1 minor:1 middle:1 east:1 atom:1 bomb:1 airburst:1 change:8 unprecedented:3 recorded:1 history:2 explosive:1 power:1 enhance:2 destroy:3 united:2 state:7 russia:3 today:2 plunge:2 summer:2 agricultural:2 threaten:2 food:5 supply:2 planet:3 industrial:1 long:3 previously:2 think:3 simulation:5 capability:1 entire:3 atmosphere:8 ocean:2 show:8 start:1 depend:2 maximum:2 megaton:1 tg:12 black:4 emit:1 immediately:2 transport:2 around:1 prevailing:1 wind:1 superpower:2 still:4 maintain:1 calculate:2 another:1 require:1 either:1 fact:1 hit:1 reduction:2 treaty:1 play:1 result:9 make:9 possible:5 art:1 general:1 circulation:4 complete:1 calculation:6 atmospheric:9 oceanic:1 conduct:2 mesosphere:1 elevation:1 previous:1 run:3 response:4 compare:4 warming:2 observe:1 past:3 century:1 hemisphere:2 famous:1 hockey:1 stick:1 diagram:1 millennium:1 case:7 little:1 ice:1 age:1 approximately:3 essentially:1 take:2 instantly:1 agriculture:4 true:1 impossible:1 department:1 rutgers:3 university:2 http:1 envsci:1 edu:1 journal:4 july:3 revisit:2 modern:4 author:8 third:2 twenty:1 earlier:1 modele:1 nasa:1 goddard:1 institute:1 space:1 note:4 test:1 extensively:1 experiment:1 examine:1 investigate:1 project:3 equal:1 gram:3 addition:2 weakening:1 hydrological:1 cycle:1 reduce:1 precipitation:2 similar:2 half:2 amplitude:1 discuss:2 implication:2 depth:2 assume:5 production:3 people:2 starve:1 comment:4 need:1 extend:1 bad:2 kuwait:3 gulf:3 burning:3 kuwaiti:1 oil:4 persian:2 vast:1 emission:1 particulate:1 matter:1 geographically:1 limited:3 directly:1 underneath:1 constrain:1 suggest:2 daytime:1 may:2 c:16 within:1 km:2 source:1 k:1 browning:1 r:10 j:11 allam:1 p:19 ballard:1 h:3 barnes:1 bennett:1 maryon:1 mason:1 mckenna:1 f:2 b:17 mitchell:1 senior:1 slingo:1 smith:1 nature:3 publishing:1 group:1 cornell:1 professor:1 carl:4 sagan:9 ttaps:10 warn:2 january:4 might:4 get:1 south:1 asia:2 later:2 concede:1 book:2 demon:2 haunt:2 prediction:1 turn:1 correct:1 pitch:1 noon:3 spar:1 individual:2 able:1 cover:1 forest:4 situ:1 observation:2 deep:1 eo:1 newsroom:1 image:1 soar:1 height:1 boreal:1 fromm:1 wildfires:1 teach:1 u:2 eos:1 trans:1 fall:2 meet:1 suppl:1 abstract:4 expect:1 strike:1 significant:2 special:1 issue:3 ambio:3 devote:1 article:4 paul:2 crutzen:2 birks:2 rudiment:1 twilight:2 assess:1 affirm:1 report:6 raise:1 hampson:1 draw:1 attention:1 likelihood:1 dust:6 astrophysicist:1 colleague:1 undertake:1 computational:1 dub:1 initial:2 name:1 turco:10 toon:11 ackerman:4 pollack:4 multple:1 vol:3 pp:2 partly:1 inspire:1 write:1 suggestion:1 dr:1 salzberg:1 unlike:1 believe:2 throw:1 air:1 primarily:2 responsible:1 cool:3 due:3 storm:1 mar:1 carry:1 simplified:1 dimensional:2 condition:1 give:2 constant:1 solid:1 smooth:1 wmo:2 commission:1 g:6 golitsyn:3 n:4 phillips:2 review:1 generally:1 mt:3 quantity:1 carbonaceous:1 mostly:2 range:2 na:1 largely:1 opaque:1 transparent:1 infra:1 red:1 thus:1 warm:1 greenhouse:1 optical:1 great:3 unity:1 non:1 increase:2 harden:1 contribute:2 equivalent:2 quickly:1 crude:1 substantially:1 radiative:1 convective:1 day:2 baseline:1 somewhat:1 sophisticated:1 gcms:1 alexandrov:1 stenchikov:7 covey:1 schneider:7 thompson:4 consider:2 primitive:1 standard:1 though:3 variation:1 top:1 imply:1 modification:1 possibility:1 advection:1 cloud:1 low:2 southern:1 attempt:1 post:1 entitle:1 appraisal:2 detailed:1 description:1 short:1 theorist:1 pull:1 york:1 remove:1 rest:1 globe:1 week:1 scope:3 figure:2 injection:3 latitudes:1 humid:1 rainfall:1 injected:1 stabilise:2 ncar:1 land:1 normal:1 lead:4 incident:1 scientific:2 debate:1 widely:1 criticize:2 medium:1 less:4 severe:3 support:2 overall:1 conclusion:3 politics:2 anybody:1 remember:1 substantiate:1 firestorm:1 lasting:1 dramatic:1 manner:1 chemistry:4 physic:5 discussion:2 acpd:2 robock:9 bardeen:5 l:8 oman:6 turcos:1 policy:4 contrast:1 obvious:1 danger:4 warfare:1 clear:2 evidence:1 indirect:1 difference:1 daring:1 step:1 reverse:1 arm:1 race:1 interview:1 mikhail:2 gorbachev:2 russian:1 scientist:3 extremely:1 destructive:1 life:1 knowledge:1 stimulus:1 honor:1 morality:1 act:2 situation:1 explain:1 rotten:1 criticism:1 theory:3 criticisms:1 others:1 myth:1 discredit:1 survival:1 skill:1 civil:1 defense:1 manual:1 cresson:1 kearny:3 oak:1 ridge:1 laboratory:2 described:1 propaganda:1 story:1 estimated:1 fahrenheit:1 address:1 question:1 whether:2 linger:1 localize:1 indeed:1 hunger:1 cessation:1 international:1 rather:1 almost:1 entirely:1 reappraise:1 starley:1 stephen:3 however:2 brian:2 martin:3 public:2 although:1 conclude:1 originally:1 autumn:2 statement:2 letter:1 wall:1 street:1 november:2 reaffirm:1 enuwar:1 workshop:1 bangkok:1 february:1 resist:1 interpretation:1 mean:1 rejection:1 basic:1 point:1 circle:1 exaggerated:1 disprove:1 e:2 website:2 available:1 online:1 emphasize:1 serious:1 kind:1 analyze:1 strong:2 tropic:1 therefore:1 put:1 place:1 chill:1 russell:2 seitz:3 interest:1 prominent:1 physicist:1 freeman:1 dyson:2 absolutely:1 atrocious:1 quite:1 despair:1 record:1 straight:1 want:1 accuse:1 favor:1 melting:1 mention:2 memory:1 ever:1 prove:1 jan:1 become:1 notorious:1 lack:1 integrity:1 steitz:1 assessment:1 introduce:1 disarmament:1 lend:1 advantage:1 soviet:1 harbor:1 conventional:1 force:1 see:1 doomsday:1 event:1 reference:1 budyko:1 izrael:1 catastrophe:1 springer:2 page:3 september:1 isbn:2 john:1 w:1 wcrp:1 wcp:1 td:1 multiple:1 v:1 mark:1 harwell:1 michael:1 owen:5 richard:5 douglas:1 kinnison:1 rolando:1 garcia:1 moiseev:1 man:1 future:1 civilization:1 permissible:1 threshold:1 novosti:1 press:1 agency:1 pub:1 house:1 moscow:1 guide:1 lawrence:1 livermore:1 alan:7 luke:4 georgiy:4 charles:3 atm:2 chem:2 phys:2 geophys:1 res:1 societal:1 terrorism:1 volume:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:2 encyclopedia:1 updated:1 animation:1 |@bigram nuclear_weapon:9 ozone_depletion:4 et_al:2 metric_ton:1 stratospheric_ozone:1 ozone_layer:3 ultraviolet_radiation:1 prevailing_wind:1 global_warming:2 northern_hemisphere:1 volcanic_eruption:1 persian_gulf:2 particulate_matter:1 daytime_temperature:1 carl_sagan:3 demon_haunt:2 sagan_carl:1 boreal_forest:1 paul_crutzen:1 computational_modeling:1 dust_storm:1 infra_red:1 crude_oil:1 southern_hemisphere:1 uv_radiation:1 l_stenchikov:6 mikhail_gorbachev:2 oak_ridge:1 degree_fahrenheit:1 freeman_dyson:1 nuclear_disarmament:1 soviet_union:1 lawrence_livermore:1 chem_phys:2 alan_robock:5 external_link:1 |
7,402 | Megadeth | Megadeth is an American heavy metal band from Los Angeles, California, formed in 1983. Founded by Dave Mustaine and bass player David Ellefson following Mustaine's departure from Metallica, the band has since released eleven studio albums, six live albums, two EPs, thirty singles, thirty-two music videos, and three compilations. As a pioneer of the American thrash metal movement, Megadeth rose to international fame in the 1980s, but experienced numerous line-up changes, due partly to the band's notorious substance abuse problems. From 1983 to 2002, Mustaine and Ellefson were the only continuous members of the band. After finding sobriety and securing a stable line-up, Megadeth went on to release a string of platinum and gold albums, including the platinum-selling landmark Rust in Peace in 1990 and the Grammy nominated, multi-platinum Countdown to Extinction in 1992. Megadeth disbanded in 2002 after Mustaine suffered a severe nerve injury to his left arm. However, following extensive physical therapy, Mustaine reformed the band in 2004 and released The System Has Failed, followed by United Abominations in 2007; the albums debuted on the Billboard Top 200 chart at #18 and #8, respectively. Megadeth, along with their new lead Guitarist Chris Broderick, are currently working on their 12th studio album which is scheduled for release in September 2009. Megadeth is known for a distinctive guitar style, often involving complex, intricate musical passages, and trade off guitar solos. Mustaine is also known for his original "snarling" vocal style, as well as his recurring lyrical themes, often involving politics, war, addiction, and personal relationships. As one of the most commercially successful of all heavy metal bands, Megadeth has sold more than 20 million albums worldwide, with six consecutive albums being certified platinum in the USA. The band has also received great critical acclaim with seven consecutive Grammy nominations for Best Metal Performance. In the band's 24 active years, Megadeth has had 20 official members, with Dave Mustaine remaining as the driving force, main songwriter, and sole original member following the end of his musical partnership with David Ellefson in 2002, due to personal disagreements. Megadeth is hailed as one of the bands among the "Big Four of Thrash," along with Metallica, Slayer, and Anthrax, who were responsible for creating and popularizing the genre in the 1980s. History Early days (1983–1984) Just two months after lead guitarist Dave Mustaine was fired from Metallica due to drinking, drug use, violent behavior and personality conflicts, Cecolini, Vinny. "Foreclosure of a Team", November 1998, Metal Hammer, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed January 20, 2007. Mustaine, bassist David Ellefson, guitarist Greg Handevidt, and drummer Dijon Carruthers formed Megadeth in Los Angeles. Mustaine later said, "After getting fired from Metallica, all I remember is that I wanted blood. Theirs. I wanted to be faster and heavier than them". "Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good" remastered album notes. May 2002, Loud Records, 9046-2.</ref> Fueled by the desire for revenge, Ling, Dave. "At the Start It Was About Revenge", September 1999, Metal Hammer, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed November 28, 2006. Mustaine elevated the intensity of Megadeth's music, speeding up existing songs such as "The Mechanix", which Metallica's new line-up adapted into the much slower paced "The Four Horsemen". After unsuccessfully searching for a vocalist for nearly six months, Mustaine decided to handle lead vocal duties himself, while also serving as the band's primary lyricist, main songwriter, and co-lead and rhythm guitarist. Early in 1984 Megadeth recorded a three song demo, featuring Mustaine, Ellefson, and Rausch, which contained early versions of "Last Rites/Loved to Death", () "Skull Beneath the Skin", and "Mechanix". Kerry King (of Slayer fame), covered a handful of live dates while a permanent replacement was sought. After just a few shows in 1984, Lee Rausch was replaced by fusion drummer Gar Samuelson. On the strength of their three song demo, Megadeth signed with the New York based independent label Combat Records, and in December added second guitarist Chris Poland, a friend of Gar's from the fusion scene. Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! (1985–1986) Megadeth, 1984-1986, 1986-1987 line-up: Chris Poland, Dave Mustaine, Gar Samuelson, David Ellefson Early in 1985, the band was given $8,000 by Combat Records to record and produce their debut album. However, after spending half of the album's budget on drugs, alcohol, and food the band was forced to fire their original producer and produce the album themselves. Despite the resulting poor production, Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!, released in May 1985, was a well-received effort that blended elements of thrash, and speed metal. Huey, Steve. "Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! AMG Review", at AMG.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. Bregman, Adam. "Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!" Remastered version AMG Review, at AMG.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. The album features the first of many cover songs performed by Megadeth; a speed metal version of Nancy Sinatra's classic "These Boots Are Made For Walking" (), with lyrics altered by Mustaine. The song sparked controversy in later years when the song's original author, Lee Hazlewood, deemed Mustaine's changes to be "vile and offensive", and demanded that the song be removed from the album. Under threat of legal action, the song was removed from all pressings released after 1995. In 2002, however, the album was re-released with a partial version of the song, though with the altered lyrics censored by a "beep". In the Killing Is My Business... deluxe edition liner notes, Mustaine is strongly critical of Hazlewood, and notes he received royalties for almost 10 years before objecting to the altered version.<ref name=autogenerated3>"Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good" remastered album notes. May 2002, Loud Records, 9046-2. In the summer of 1985, the group toured the United States and Canada for the first time, supporting Killing Is My Business... with Exciter. During the tour, new guitarist Chris Poland abruptly left the band, and was replaced by touring guitarist Mike Albert. Poland later rejoined Megadeth in October 1985 however, shortly before they began work on their second album with Combat Records. Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? (1986–1987) Originally completed in March 1986, Megadeth's second album again suffered from Combat Records small recording budget, and the band was initially unhappy with the final mixed product. Frustrated by the small independent label's financial insufficiencies, Megadeth signed to major label Capitol Records, who also bought the rights to the new album. Capitol hired producer Paul Lani to remix the recordings, and in November 1986, more than a year after recording began, Capitol released Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?. The album marked Megadeth's commercial and critical breakthrough, Huey, Steve. "Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? Review, at AMG.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. eventually selling more than a million copies in the US alone. Considered to be a landmark thrash metal album, Allmusic cited Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? as "One of the most influential metal albums of its decade, and certainly one of the few truly definitive thrash albums". Birchmeier, Jason. "Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?" Remastered version AMG Review, at Allmusic; last accessed November 23, 2006. The album's title track "Peace Sells" () was chosen to be the band's first music video, receiving regular airplay on MTV's Headbangers Ball. "Peace Sells" ranked #11 on VH1's 40 Greatest Metal Songs "VH1 40 Greatest Metal Songs", May 1-4 2006, VH1 Channel, reported by VH1.com; last accessed September 10, 2006. and the opening bass line was used for years as the theme for MTV News. Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? was the first Megadeth album to feature art by Ed Repka, who redesigned the band's mascot Vic Rattlehead to the current standard, and designed much of the band's artwork in later years. In February 1987 Megadeth was added as the opening band on Alice Cooper's Constrictor tour, followed by a brief tour supporting Mercyful Fate in the US. Cooper, alarmed by the band's drug habits, summoned them to his bus one night to warn against constant excessive drug use. YouTube - Megadeth documentary (Part 5 of 11) In March of that year, Megadeth began their first world tour as a headlining act in the United Kingdom, which featured support bands Overkill and Necros. After years of problems stemming from substance abuse, both Gar Samuelson and Chris Poland were fired from Megadeth in July 1987, following the final show of the tour in Hawaii. Mustaine claimed that Samuelson had become too much to handle when intoxicated, and even had replacement drummer Chuck Behler flown out for the last few dates of the tour, fearing that Samuelson would not be able to finish with the band's commitments. Mustaine claimed that Poland had sold band equipment to fund his increasing drug habit, detailed in the song "Liar", which is also dedicated to Poland. He was initially replaced by Jay Reynolds of Malice, but as the band began work on their next album, Reynolds was replaced by his own guitar teacher Jeff Young, who joined Megadeth six weeks into the recording of their third album. Gomes, Celesete. "So Far, So Good for Megadeth", August 1988, Rock, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 13, 2006. So Far, So Good... So What! (1987–1989) With a major label recording budget, and producer Paul Lani behind the desk, Megadeth spent five months recording their third album, So Far, So Good... So What! The recording process was again plagued with problems from the beginning, due in part to Mustaine's ongoing battle with addiction. Mustaine later said: "The production (of So Far, So Good...) was horrible, mostly due to substances and the priorities we had or didn't have at the time". Birchmeier, Jason. "So Far, So Good... So What! Remastered Review", Allmusic, at AMG.com; last accessed November 15, 2006. Mustaine also clashed with Lani, beginning with Lani's insistence that the drums be recorded separate from the cymbals (an unheard of process for rock drummers). During the mixing process, Mustaine and Lani had a falling out, and Lani was replaced by producer Michael Wagener, who remixed the album. Megadeth, 1987-1989 line-up Chuck Behler, David Ellefson, Jeff Young, Dave Mustaine In January 1988 Megadeth released So Far, So Good... So What!, and while the album was eventually certified platinum in the US, it was initially panned by critics, with Allmusic complaining that the album "lacked conceptual unity and musical bite", and that it "wants to sound threatening but mostly comes off as forced and somewhat juvenile". Huey, Steve. "So Far, So Good... So What! Review", Allmusic, at AMG.com; last accessed November 15, 2006. So Far, So Good... featured the single "In My Darkest Hour", () with music written by Mustaine as a tribute to fallen Metallica bassist Cliff Burton. The song remains a fan favorite, and has been performed at nearly every Megadeth show since. So Far, So Good... also featured a cover version of the Sex Pistols' "Anarchy in the UK", with lyrics altered by Mustaine (who later admitted to hearing them wrong). In June 1988, Megadeth appeared in Penelope Spheeris' documentary film The Decline of Western Civilization II: The Metal Years, which chronicled the Los Angeles heavy metal scene of the late 1980s, mostly focusing on glam metal. The video for In My Darkest Hour was filmed by Spheeris (who also directed the "Wake Up Dead" and "Anarchy in the UK" videos), and appears in the final scene of the movie. In Megadeth's 1991 Rusted Pieces VHS, Mustaine recalls the movie as a disappointment, which aligned Megadeth with "a bunch of shit bands". Megadeth: Rusted Pieces VHS, released January 1, 1991 by Capitol Records/EMI, Inc, UPC 077774001335, at UPC Database; last accessed November 20, 2006. Megadeth began their world tour in support of So Far, So Good... opening for Dio in Europe in February 1988, later joining Iron Maiden's Seventh Son of a Seventh Son summer tour in the US. Noticing problems developing with drummer Chuck Behler, Mustaine brought drummer Nick Menza in to act as Behler's drum technician. As with Gar Samuelson before him, Menza was to be ready to take over for Behler in the event that he could not continue with the tour. Doreian, Robyn. "The Big Four", September 1990, Hot Metal Magazine, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed November 16, 2006. In August 1988, Megadeth appeared at the Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donnington in the UK, alongside Kiss, Iron Maiden, Helloween, Guns N' Roses, and David Lee Roth, performing to an audience of more than 300,000 people. The band was soon added to the "Monsters of Rock" European tour, but dropped out after the first show. Shortly after that appearance, Mustaine fired both Chuck Behler and guitarist Jeff Young, and canceled their scheduled 1988 Australian tour. "On the road, things escalated from a small border skirmish into a full-on raging war" he later recalled, "I think a lot of us were inconsistent (on the 1988 tour) because of the guy we were waiting for after the show". Niles, Eric. "Rust in Peace", September 1990, Music Connection, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 13, 2006. In July 1989, Nick Menza was hired to replace Behler on the drums. Unable to find a suitable lead guitarist in time, Megadeth recorded a cover version of Alice Cooper's "No More Mr. Nice Guy" () as a three piece band. The version later appeared on the soundtrack to the 1989 Wes Craven horror movie Shocker. While the band was holding auditions for the new lead guitarist in the summer of 1989, Mustaine was arrested for driving while intoxicated and possession of narcotics, having crashed into a parked vehicle occupied by an off-duty police officer. He entered court ordered rehab soon after, and got sober for the first time in ten years. Rust in Peace (1990–1991) Following Mustaine's new found sobriety, Megadeth began a lengthy search for a new lead guitarist. Lee Altus of Heathen was among those who auditioned, as was Eric Meyer of Dark Angel fame, who had been invited to join the band following Chris Poland's departure in 1987, but had declined to remain in Dark Angel, which was on its last legs by the 1990's, with Meyer the only remaining original member. "Dimebag" Darrell Abbott of then-obscure Pantera also auditioned, and was initially offered the spot. Darrell, however, would not join without his brother, Pantera drummer Vinnie Paul Abbott, and, having already hired Nick Menza, the band was forced to turn Darrell down. A young Jeff Loomis (later of Nevermore) also auditioned. Afterwards, Mustaine thanked Loomis and told him that one day he would become a great guitar player, but rejected his bid to join the band because he was too young and inexperienced. Metal-Rules.com, Nevermore Interview with Jeff Loomis at Metal-Rules.com; last accessed April 28, 2007. Loomis then saw Cacophony with Marty Friedman and Jason Becker on tour, and told Friedman, who had just released his first solo effort, Dragon's Kiss, of the experience. Friedman auditioned for the spot, but was initially rejected by Mustaine for having multicolored hair, however, after undergoing what Mustaine called "Rock Star 101," Friedman officially joined Megadeth in February 1990. Stix, John. "A Founding Forefather of Thrash", 1990, Guitar for the Practicing Musician, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 13, 2006. A revitalized Megadeth entered Rumbo Studios in March 1990 with co-producer Mike Clink to begin work on what would become their most critically acclaimed album to date, Rust In Peace. For the first time in their career, the band worked sober in the studio, alleviating many of the problems faced recording previous albums. Clink was also the first producer to successfully produce a Megadeth album from start to finish, without being fired. "Dave the Human, Mustaine the Artist", September 1990, Holy Wars... The Punishment Due single, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 13, 2006. Released worldwide on September 24, 1990, Rust In Peace was a hit with fans and critics alike, debuting at #23 on the Billboard Top 200 in the US, and #8 in the UK. Rock Detector's Official website. "Rust in Peace chart positions", at Rock Detector.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. The album showcased a much tighter sound, with Mustaine's writing style adopting a rhythmically complex progressive edge, prompting Allmusic to cite Rust in Peace as "Megadeth's strongest musical effort". Huey, Steve. "Rust In Peace Review", Allmusic, at AMG.com; last accessed November 15, 2006. The album featured the singles "Holy Wars... The Punishment Due", () and "Hangar 18", () both of which received music videos, and remain live staples. Rust in Peace went on to sell more than a million copies in the US, and received Grammy nominations in 1991 and 1992 for Best Metal Performance. In September 1990, Megadeth joined Slayer, Testament and Suicidal Tendencies for the European "Clash of the Titans" tour, and in October, they were added as the opening band on Judas Priest's Painkiller tour, culminating with a performance to 140,000 people in January 1991 at Rock in Rio 2 festival in Brazil. Following the success of the European tour, a "Clash of the Titans" US tour began in May 1991, featuring Megadeth, Slayer, Anthrax and opener Alice in Chains. In July, Megadeth's "Go to Hell" () was featured on the Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey soundtrack, and shortly after "Breakpoint" was featured on the Super Mario Bros soundtrack. In 1991, Megadeth also released their first home video, Rusted Pieces, which contained six of the band's music videos, along with a video interview with the band. Countdown to Extinction (1992–1993) In January 1992, Megadeth entered Enterprise Studios in Burbank, California with co-producer Max Norman. Norman, who had mixed Rust in Peace, would be integral in Megadeth's resulting musical makeover, pushing for shorter, less complicated, and more radio-friendly songs. Huey, Steve. "Countdown To Extinction" AMG review, at Allmusic; last accessed November 20, 2006. The band spent four months in the studio with Norman, writing and recording what would become Megadeth's most commercially successful effort, Countdown to Extinction. The album was the first to feature writing contributions from each band member, and was even named by drummer Nick Menza. Summers, Jodi. "Deth Metal!", March 1992, Metal Hammer, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 22, 2006. On July 14, 1992, Capitol Records released Countdown to Extinction. The album was an instant hit, debuting at #2 on the Billboard Top 200 album charts in the US, and #5 in the UK. Billboard's Official website. "Megadeth album chart positions", at Billboard.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. Anchored by the Mainstream Rock hits "Symphony of Destruction" (#29), "Foreclosure of a Dream" (#30), and "Sweating Bullets" (#27), Billboard's Official website. "Megadeth singles chart positions", at Billboard.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. the album quickly went double platinum in the US, and received a Grammy nomination for Best Metal Performance in 1993. The album's title song, "Countdown to Extinction" also gave Megadeth the distinction of being the only metal band to ever win the "Doris Day Music Award", presented to the band by the Humane Society of the United States in 1993 for "spotlighting species destruction and the horrific 'sport' of canned hunts". Humane Society of the United States' Official website. "1993 Genesis Awards", at HSUS.org; last accessed October 13, 2006. The band released their second home video Exposure of a Dream, in November 1992, continuing in a similar to fashion to Rusted Pieces, the release featured all music videos previously released from Countdown. Megadeth began their world tour in support of Countdown to Extinction in December 1992 with Pantera and Suicidal Tendencies, followed by a North American tour beginning in January 1993 with Stone Temple Pilots. Just one month into the North American tour, however, the band were forced to cancel all remaining shows, including dates scheduled in Japan, as Mustaine again fell into substance abuse, and ended up in the hospital emergency room. Chirazi, Steffan. "Trial by Fire", October 1993, RIP, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 13, 2006. After a seven week stint in rehab, Mustaine emerged clean once again, and the band returned to the studio to record "Angry Again", () a song which was featured in the 1993 film Last Action Hero, and later nominated for a Grammy in 1994. In June 1993 Megadeth returned to the stage, appearing as "special guests" at Metallica's Milton Keynes Bowl Festival, marking the first time the former bandmates played the same stage in ten years. The pairing prompted Mustaine's on stage announcement that "The ten years of bullshit is over between Metallica and Megadeth!", although problems would later resurface between the long-feuding bands. In July, Megadeth was added as the opening act for Aerosmith's Get A Grip US tour, but due to contractual disputes, and on stage remarks made by Mustaine about Aerosmith's "advancing" age, Megadeth was removed from the tour after just seven dates. Ling, Dave. "Get in the Van", January 1998, Metal Hammer, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 21, 2006. Following their canceled US tour, Megadeth returned to the studio to record "99 Ways to Die", () a song that appeared on The Beavis and Butt-Head Experience, a compilation album featuring songs intercut with commentary by Beavis and Butt-head, released in November 1993. The song was later nominated for a Grammy in 1995 for Best Metal Performance. Youthanasia (1994–1995) Early in 1994, Megadeth again teamed up with co-producer Max Norman to begin work on the follow up to Countdown to Extinction. With three members of the band now residing in Arizona, initial work began at Phase Four Studios in Phoenix. A few days into pre-production, problems with Phase Four's equipment forced the band to seek out an alternative studio. Mustaine, however, insisted on recording at his home state of Arizona, and no suitable recording facility could be found in time. At the request of co-producer Norman, the band opted to construct their own recording studio inside of a rented warehouse in Phoenix, Arizona, later dubbed "Fat Planet in Hangar 18". For the first time in their career, the band wrote and arranged the entire album in studio, and included basic tracks recorded live by the whole band at the same time. Recording of the album was captured on video, and later released as Evolver: The Making of Youthanasia. Following eight months in the studio, Youthanasia was released on November 1, 1994, debuting at #4 on the Billboard Top 200 album chart in the US. The album was certified gold in Canada in just thirty minutes, and was certified platinum in the US faster than any other Megadeth album. With producer Max Norman still pushing for a slower, more commercial sound, Youthanasia followed the stylistic shift that began with Countdown to Extinction. Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. "Youthanasia" AMG Review, at AMG.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. While still retaining core metal elements, the album focused on stronger vocal melodies and more accessible, radio friendly arrangements. Birchmeier, Jason. "Youthanasia" Remastered version AMG Review, at AMG.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. The band even enlisted noted fashion photographer Richard Avedon to further their new image, dropping their jeans and t-shirts for a more style conscious look. Merkle, P.J. "Megadeth: Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered", May 1995, Hit Parader, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 22, 2006. A sticker on initial releases of Youthanasia advertised the then-new concept of a band website, affectionately known as "Megadeth, Arizona". Fans could chat in the "Mega-diner", correspond with the band through email, request songs to be played live, and read columns and tour diaries written by band members. Youthanasia's first single, "Train of Consequences",() reached #29 on Billboard's Mainstream Rock charts, and in November 1994, Megadeth appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman, performing the album's second single, "À Tout Le Monde". () Boerio, Jeff. "Megadeth: Online and Onstage", 1995, On Eleven Magazine, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 22, 2006. "À Tout Le Monde" also received a music video, which MTV refused to play, thinking its lyrics were an endorsement of suicide. Live support for Youthanasia began in South America in November 1994, and would span eleven months, becoming Megadeth's most extensive tour to date. The band was joined by Corrosion of Conformity in both Europe and the US, and Flotsam and Jetsam, Korn and Fear Factory in the US. The tour culminated with an appearance at the Monsters of Rock festival in Brazil, co-headlining alongside Alice Cooper and Ozzy Osbourne. In January 1995, Megadeth appeared on the soundtrack to the horror film Tales from the Crypt Presents: Demon Knight with the song "Diadems". Megadeth also contributed a cover version of "Paranoid" () to Nativity in Black, the first Black Sabbath tribute album. The band's version of "Paranoid" was nominated for a Grammy in 1996 for Best Metal Performance, Megadeth's sixth nomination in as many years. In March 1995, Megadeth released a special edition of Youthanasia in Europe, containing a bonus disc entitled Hidden Treasures. The bonus disc featured every one-off song by Megadeth, from film soundtracks, compilations, and tribute albums, including a new recording of the Sex Pistols' "Problems". Due to fan demand, the bonus disc was released as its own EP in the United States and Japan in July 1995. Megadeth in 1996, 1989-1998 line-up David Ellefson, Marty Friedman, Dave Mustaine, Nick Menza Cryptic Writings (1996–1998) Following an extensive world tour in support of Youthanasia, Megadeth took time off late in 1995. Mustaine began work on MD.45, a side project with vocalist Lee Ving of Fear. The band underwent changes on the business side, signing with ESP Management, and hired a new "creative manager" Bud Prager, a previous manager of both Foreigner and Bad Company. Nalbandian, Bob. "David Ellefson & Marty Friedman Interview", 1998, Hard Radio.com's Shockwaves, reported by Hard Radio.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. As with Max Norman before him, Prager would go on to be highly influential in shaping the direction of the band. He pushed Megadeth further into the "commercial rock" field, and convinced the band work with Nashville pop producer and former Giant guitarist Dann Huff. In September 1996, Megadeth began working on songs for their next album in Nashville, tentatively titled Needles and Pins. The writing process was closely supervised by new manager Bud Prager, who also contributed musical ideas and lyrics to the songs. Many lyrics, and even song titles were changed at the request of Prager. Regarding Prager's writing influence, Mustaine later wrote "I figured maybe this guy (Prager) could help me get that intangible 'Number One' record I so badly wanted" Due to a problem with the album's original artwork, the album cover was replaced with a "voodoo symbol", and renamed Cryptic Writings. On June 17, 1997, Capitol Records released Cryptic Writings. The album debuted at #10 on the Billboard Top 200, and was Megadeth's sixth consecutive studio album to be certified gold in the United States. Blabbermouth.net Official website. "Megadeth - Album Sales Update", at Blabbermouth.net; last accessed November 16, 2006. Cryptic Writings scored Megadeth their highest charting single to date, the #5 Mainstream Rock Track, "Trust", () which was also nominated for a Best Metal Performance Grammy in 1998. Press response to the album was mixed, Wiederhorn, Jon. "Cryptic Writings" Rolling Stone Review, at Rolling Stone.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. "Cryptic Writings" AMG Review, at AMG.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. Birchmeier, Jason. "Cryptic Writings" Remastered version AMG Review, at AMG.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. but the album would go on to score four top 20 Mainstream Rock Tracks, including "Almost Honest" (#8), "Use The Man" (#15), and "A Secret Place" (#19) . When asked about the eclectic nature of the album, Mustaine later said "We divided it into thirds. One part of the record was really fast and aggressive, one third of it was the really melodic, in between stuff, and then the final third was really radio orientated music like Youthanasia". Wiederhorn, Jon. "Last Men Standing", June 1998, Guitar World, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 13, 2006. After more than a year away from the stage, Megadeth returned as a live act in June 1997, beginning a world tour with The Misfits, and later touring in the United States with Life of Agony and Coal Chamber. In July Megadeth joined Ozzfest 98, but halfway through the tour, drummer Nick Menza discovered a tumor on his knee, and was forced to leave the tour to undergo surgery. He was replaced by Jimmy DeGrasso, temporarily at first. Following the tour, however, DeGrasso replaced Menza permanently, after Mustaine claimed that Menza had "lied about having cancer". Ferres, Nick. "An Ugly American", March 2001, Rockmetal.pl, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed November 16, 2006. In 1998, computer game development company 3D Realms announced that they would be using two unreleased Megadeth tracks on their promotional album Duke Nukem: Music to Score By. First was a rendition of the Duke Nukem theme song "Grabbag", originally composed by Lee Jackson, and second was a Megadeth song originally recorded in 1995, "New World Order", which later appeared on the remastered edition of Youthanasia. Duke Nukem: Music to Score By; 3D Realms, August 9, 1999; last accessed 12 March, 2009. Risk (1999–2000) Following the band's first real radio success with Cryptic Writings, Megadeth opted to again work with country pop producer Dann Huff in Nashville on their eighth studio album, which began in January 1999. The writing of the album was again supervised by manager Bud Prager, credited with co-writing on five of the album's twelve songs. "Risk" album notes. August 31, 1999, Capitol Records, 7243-4-99134-0-0.</ref> Prager convinced Mustaine to grant producer Dan Huff more control over the recording process. "When it comes to Risk," Mustaine later wrote, "there'd been people in there playing and I wouldn't even know who they were or where the parts came from, and I'm not used to that. I was a little bit intimidated by the success we had with Cryptic Writings, so when it came to creating new material after that, it's like being "power-drunk" - you want more. After the success with "Trust", I thought to myself "wow, we've had a number one hit". We'd had four top five hits in a row, so why would I not want to give Dan even more control when it comes to the producing part on the next record? So I did, and it backfired". Hjelm, Fredrik. "It Wasn't Fun Anymore", 2001, Shockwaves Online, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 21, 2006. Released on August 31, 1999, Risk was both a critical and commercial failure, and led to a backlash from many longtime fans. Birchmeier, Jason. "Risk" Remastered version AMG Review, at AMG.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. Metal-Observer.com. "Risk" Album Review, at Metal-Observer.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. Billerey-Mosier, Roger. "Risk" Album Review, September 1999, at ssmt-reviews.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. Although recent Megadeth albums had incorporated mainstream rock elements alongside a more traditional heavy metal sound, Risk was virtually devoid of metal, featuring instead dance, electronica, and disco influences. Risk was Megadeth's first release since 1985 not to be certified gold or higher in the US. The album's lead-off single, "Crush Em", () appeared on the Universal Soldier: The Return soundtrack, temporarily as World Championship Wrestling's entrance theme for Bill Goldberg and later became an official NHL song, played during hockey games. Music-Reviewer.com. "Risk" Album Review, November 1999, at Music-Reviewer.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. In July 1999, Megadeth recorded a cover version of the Black Sabbath song "Never Say Die", which appeared on the second Nativity in Black tribute album. They began their world tour in support of Risk in September 1999, playing alongside Iron Maiden during the European leg. Three months into the tour, longtime guitarist Marty Friedman announced that he would be leaving the band, citing musical differences. As Mustaine later explained: "I told (Marty) after Risk that we had to go back to our roots and play metal, and he quit". Blabbermouth.net. "Dave Mustaine Slams Former Bandmates, Defends His Current 'Boys' ", at Blabbermouth.net; last accessed November 16, 2006. Megadeth enlisted guitarist Al Pitrelli, formerly of Savatage, Alice Cooper, and currently of Trans-Siberian Orchestra, as Friedman's replacement in January 2000. Megadeth returned to the studio in April 2000, to begin work on their ninth studio release. However, one month into production the band was given the opportunity to join the "Maximum Rock" tour, alongside Anthrax and Mötley Crüe. Megadeth put the recording on hold, and toured North America throughout the summer of 2000. Megadeth and Capitol Records parted ways in October 2000, after fourteen years. The label returned the band's newest recordings, and in return released a greatest hits record, Capitol Punishment: The Megadeth Years. The album also featured two new tracks, "Kill the King", and "Dread and the Fugitive Mind", () both of which showcased the band's return to their metal roots following Risk. The World Needs a Hero (2001–2002) In November 2000, Megadeth signed with new label Sanctuary Records. The band returned to the studio in October to put the finishing touches on their next album, which had been near completion before the band joined the "Maximum Rock" tour six months earlier. Following the overwhelming negative response to Risk, Huey, Steve. "The World Needs A Hero" AMG review, at Allmusic; last accessed November 20, 2006. Mustaine fired manager Bud Prager, and decided to self-produce Megadeth's next album. The World Needs a Hero, the first Megadeth album since Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? to be written entirely by Mustaine (with one contribution from Al Pitrelli on "Promises"), was released on May 15, 2001 to mixed reviews. Engels, John. "The World Needs A Hero" Review, June 14, 2001, at OrlandoWeekly; last accessed November 19, 2006. While the album marked a return to form following the attempted mainstream rock direction featured on Risk, some critics felt the album fell short of expectations. Eldefors, Vincent. "The World Needs A Hero" Review, 2001, at Tartarean Desire.com; last accessed November 19, 2006. Chandrasekhar, Chaitra. "The World Needs A Hero" Review, Published In "The Tech" newspaper on May 15, 2001, Volume 121, Number 26, archived at The Tech official site; last accessed November 19, 2006. Megadeth, 2000-02 (L-R) Pitrelli, DeGrasso, Ellefson, Mustaine. Final line-up before breakup. Mustaine himself likened the album to be the first major turn of a huge ship at sea, trying to right itself and get back on course. The album's lead off single, "Moto-Psycho", () reached #22 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock charts, also receiving regular airplay on VH1's Rock Show. Touring in support of The World Needs a Hero began in the summer of 2001 in Europe supporting AC/DC, followed by an American tour with Iced Earth and Endo in September. The tour was cut short however, following the attacks on America on September 11, the band were forced to cancel all scheduled dates, including a DVD shoot set in Argentina. Instead the band played two shows in Arizona in November, which were filmed and later released as Rude Awakening, Megadeth's first official live release. The DVD went gold on July 23, 2002. In February 2002, Mustaine remixed and remastered Megadeth's first album, Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!, with modern mixing and mastering techniques used on modern metal albums, and added bonus tracks. Megadeth's Official website, "Timeline", 2006, at Megadeth.com; last accessed October 11, 2006. Breakup (2002–2004) In January 2002, Mustaine was admitted to the hospital to remove a kidney stone. While undergoing treatment, he was administered pain medication, which triggered a relapse. Following his hospital stay, he immediately checked himself into a treatment center in Texas. While at the treatment center, Mustaine suffered a freak injury causing severe nerve damage to his left arm. The injury, induced by falling asleep with his left arm over the back of a chair, caused compression of the radial nerve. He was diagnosed with radial neuropathy, which left him unable to grasp or even make a fist with his left hand (a condition known as Saturday Night Palsy). On April 3, 2002, Mustaine announced in a press release that he was disbanding Megadeth, officially due to his arm injury. Megadeth's Official website, "Megadeth Disbands Press Release", 2006, at ; last accessed November 15, 2006. For the next four months, Mustaine underwent intense physical therapy five days a week. Epstein, Dan. "Die Another Day", August 2003, Guitar World, reported by The Realms of Deth; last accessed October 21, 2006. Slowly, Mustaine began to play again, but was forced to "re-teach" his left hand. In order to fulfill contract obligations with Sanctuary Records, Megadeth released a compilation album, Still Alive... and Well? on September 10, 2002. The first half of the album contains live tracks recorded at the Web Theatre in Phoenix, Arizona, on November 17, 2001. The second half of the album contains studio recordings taken from The World Needs a Hero. Following nearly a year of recovery, including physical and electric shock therapy, Mustaine began work on what was to be his first solo album. The new material was recorded with session musicians Vinnie Colaiuta and Jimmy Sloas in October 2003, but the project was put on hold when Mustaine agreed to remix and remaster Megadeth's eight album back catalog with Capitol Records. Mustaine re-recorded some parts that were lost over time, or altered without his knowledge in the initial mixing process. The System Has Failed (2004–2005) In May 2004 Mustaine returned to his newest recordings, intended as a solo effort, but due to outstanding contractual obligations with the band's European label EMI, he was forced to release one more album under the "Megadeth" name. Nalbandian, Bob. "Dave Mustaine Interview", August 28, 2004, Hard Radio.com, reported by Hard Radio.com; last accessed November 19, 2006. Mustaine decided to reform the band, and contacted the fan favorite "Rust in Peace line-up" to re-record backing tracks on his latest songs. While drummer Nick Menza initially signed on, Marty Friedman and David Ellefson were both unable to come to an agreement with Mustaine. Nalbandian, Bob. "Dave Mustaine Interview", August 28, 2004, Hard Radio.com, reported by Hard Radio.com; last accessed November 19, 2006. Regarding longtime bassist Ellefson not returning to the band, Mustaine said: "David lied to me in the press, he said that my arm injury was fake, went around town and slandered me. We made him a really good offer (to rejoin the band) and he said no. I mean, if I give you an offer and you don't take it, it means no, right?" "Interview with Dave Mustaine of Megadeth", July 20, 2004, Metal-Temple.com, reported by Metal Temple.com; last accessed November 19, 2006. The new album would be the first ever Megadeth recording not to feature Ellefson. Original lead guitarist Chris Poland (from the 'Killing is My Business' and 'Peace Sells' era) was hired by Mustaine to contribute guitar solos to the new album; the first time the two musicians had worked together since Poland's dismissal from the band in the 1980s. Poland opted to serve as a studio musician only, as he wished to remain focused on his own jazz fusion project OHM. On September 14, 2004 Megadeth released their comeback album, The System Has Failed on Sanctuary Records in the US and EMI in Europe. Heralded as a return to form, Birchmeier, Jason. "The System Has Failed" AMG Review, at Allmusic; last accessed November 19, 2006. Revolver magazine gave the album four stars, calling The System Has Failed "Megadeth's most vengeful, poignant and musically complex offering since Countdown to Extinction". Megadeth's Official website press release "Megadeth: Announce dates for "BLACKMAIL THE UNIVERSE TOUR" and band line-up as new CD ‘THE SYSTEM HAS FAILED' hits stores", September, 2004, reported by Megadeth.com; last accessed November 19, 2006. The album debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at #18, and was led by the radio single "Die Dead Enough", () which reached #21 on the US Mainstream Rock charts. Mustaine announced that the album would be the band's last, followed by a farewell tour, after which he would focus on a solo career.Megadeth (June 2005) 2004-06 line-up. (l-r) Shawn Drover, MacDonough, Mustaine, Glen Drover Megadeth began the Blackmail the Universe world tour in October 2004, enlisting touring bassist James MacDonough (Iced Earth), and guitarist Glen Drover (Eidolon, King Diamond). While in rehearsal for the tour, newly returned drummer Nick Menza once again parted ways with the band, as he was unable to prepare for the physical demands of a full US tour. Brave Words.com "MEGADETH Tour Manager Talks About Drummer Nick Menza's Departure", November 5, 2004, reported by Brave Words.com; last accessed November 19, 2006. He was replaced just five days before the first show by Shawn Drover (Eidolon), brother to new guitarist Glen Drover, and also a member of the Canadian thrash metal band Eidolon. The band toured the US with Exodus, and later in Europe with Diamond Head and Dungeon. In June 2005, Capitol Records released a greatest hits album to replace the now out of print Capitol Punishment, entitled Greatest Hits: Back to the Start, which featured the new remixed and remastered versions of songs from the first eight albums. Gigantour (2005–2006) In the summer of 2005, Mustaine organized an annual heavy metal festival tour, dubbed Gigantour. Megadeth headlined the inaugural run with Dream Theater, Anthrax, Fear Factory, Dillinger Escape Plan, Life of Agony, Symphony X, Dry Kill Logic and Bobaflex. Performances from the Montreal and Vancouver shows were filmed and recorded for a live DVD and CD, both of which were released in the summer of 2006. LoMenzo at Metalmania 2008. On October 9, 2005, following the successes of The System Has Failed and the Blackmail the Universe world tour, Mustaine announced on stage in Argentina to a sold out crowd at the Pepsi Music Rock Festival that Megadeth would continue to record and tour with the line "...And we will be back!". This concert was officially released on DVD as That One Night: Live in Buenos Aires in March of 2007. The DVD went gold on July 19, 2007. The 2 CD version was released on September 4, 2007. In February, 2006 bass player James MacDonough parted ways with the band for what MacDonough called "personal differences". Blabbermouth.net "Ex-MEGADETH Bassist MACDONOUGH: 'There Is No Animosity Here' ", February 20, 2006, at Blabbermouth.net; last accessed November 20, 2006. He was replaced by bassist James Lomenzo, who had previously worked with David Lee Roth, White Lion and Black Label Society. On March 16, 2006 the new Megadeth line-up made their live debut headlining the Dubai Desert Rock festival held in the United Arab Emirates, alongside Testament and 3 Doors Down. On March 21, 2006, Capitol Records released a two disc DVD titled Arsenal of Megadeth, which included archive footage, interviews, live shows, and many of the band's music videos. Due to licensing issues, movie soundtrack videos, as well as videos not released by Capitol Records were not included on the DVD. The DVD went gold on July 27, 2007. Second installment of the Gigantour was launched in fall of 2006, Megadeth headlining the inaugural run with Lamb of God, Opeth, Arch Enemy, Overkill, Into Eternity, Sanctity and The SmashUp. Gigantour 2006 also continued with 3 dates in Australia, line up included Soulfly, Arch Enemy and Caliban. Performances from the Sunrise, Florida show were filmed and recorded for a live DVD and CD, both of which were released in the spring of 2008. http://www.videostatic.com/vs/2006/week42/index.html#entry-13525962 United Abominations (2006–2008) In May 2006 Megadeth announced their eleventh studio album, entitled United Abominations, was near completion. Originally scheduled for release by Roadrunner Records in October 2006, Mustaine announced in August 2006 that the band were "putting the finishing touches on it," and it was rescheduled for release on May 15, 2007. Blabbermouth.net "MEGADETH: New Album Pushed Back To 2007", 23 August 2006, at Blabbermouth.net; last accessed November 27, 2006. United Abominations is the band's first studio release to feature members Glen Drover, Shawn Drover, and James Lomenzo. In March 2007 Dave Mustaine announced at the Megadeth forums that a new version of "À Tout le Monde (Set Me Free)" would be released on the album. It features a duet with Cristina Scabbia of the band Lacuna Coil, and was to be the first single from the album Forums.megadeth.com "À Tout le monde (Set Me Free)", 3 March 2007, at until it was replaced by "Washington Is Next!". Broderick at Metalmania 2008.United Abominations was released on May 15, 2007. It debuted a week later at #8 in the US, the band's highest charting position since 1994's Youthanasia, and sold 54,000 copies in its first week. In March 2007 Megadeth commenced a tour through Canada and the United States as an opening act for the newly-reformed Heaven and Hell, along with Down on Canadian dates and Machine Head on US dates, followed by a summer festival tour through Europe. In September 2007 Megadeth returned to the United States as the headline act on their Tour Of Duty tour, which also included the Pacific rim and the third installment of Gigantour which was launched in Australia in November 2007, line up included Static-X, Lacuna Coil, DevilDriver and Bring Me the Horizon. On January 13, 2008, Dave Mustaine confirmed that Glen Drover had quit Megadeth to focus on his family, and was replaced by Chris Broderick (formerly of Nevermore and Jag Panzer). The new line-up made its live debut in Finland on February 4, went on Tour Of Duty tour in Europe as the headline act and returned to UK the same month and US in the spring for Gigantour 2008. Dave Mustaine wanted a shorter lineup so each band had a good chance to put on a show. The 2008 installment of the tour featured In Flames, Children of Bodom, Job for a Cowboy, and High on Fire (and Evile for the UK and Scandinavia tour). megadeth.com "Press Release", 14 January 2008, at Also Megadeth did Tour Of Duty tour in South America and Mexico in May and June of 2008. Commenting on leaving the band, Drover said "I am aware of the rumors that I left Megadeth to focus on family life. My family life has always been my priority. In the end, I was unhappy with the situation, which magnified me wanting to spend more time with my family and realizing that it's time for me to move on to the next chapter in my musical career, I have a lot of great memories and met a ton of great people along the way, both fans and people in the industry." www.komodorock.com Mustaine said he is happy with Drover's decision and is pleased that his replacement is Broderick. Mustaine also said "Chris is doing just fine". Former Nevermore bandmate Van Williams commented that Megadeth is "getting one hell of a good player, more importantly they're getting a great guy to hang out with and a true friend." Broderick said "I realize I have some big shoes to fill and I will do my best." With regards to what kind of an addition Chris Broderick will be for Megadeth, Dave Mustaine in an interview said "...thoroughly thrilled with Chris... it reminds me a lot like when Ozzy found Randy Rhoads." Headbangers Blog » Exclusive Podcast: Megadeth Ringleader Dave Mustaine Discusses Gigantour, Politics, Coffee, More A compilation album called Anthology: Set The World Afire was released on September 30, 2008. BLABBERMOUTH.NET - MEGADETH: 'Anthology: Set The World Afire' Track Listing Corrected Untitled twelfth studio album (2008 onward) Dave Mustaine stated that a new studio had been built named "Vic's Garage" and that pre-production for a new album started in late September 2008, with Andy Sneap producing. Dave also mentioned he expected the album to be completed by September 2009, and that a new tour promoting the album was to start in March 2009, but due to difficulties with Andy Sneap's visa, the release day was pushed back. However, in February 2009, Mustaine told on The Live Line Dave Mustaine's answering machine on The Live Line that he had finished his rhythm guitar and lead vocal parts for the new album. It will be Chris Broderick's first album with Megadeth. Andy Sneap will also be mixing the band's forthcoming DVD titled Blood in the Water: Live in San Diego that will contain a complete concert recorded on May 20, 2008 at the Cox Arena in San Diego during Gigantour 2008; the other acts on the bill were offered a chance to be part of the DVD but declined. Megadeth embarked on the "Priest Feast" European tour with headliners Judas Priest and openers Testament in February and March of 2009. BLABBERMOUTH.NET - 'Priest Feast' Featuring JUDAS PRIEST, MEGADETH, TESTAMENT: Dutch Date Added One new song title for the album was named "1,320", the subject matter of which is drag racing. Other confirmed track titles include "The Hardest Part of Letting Go", "Endgame", "Headcrusher", “This Day We Fight” and “How The Story Ends", although this final title is subject to change, as confirmed by Mustaine. . The new album is also set to include an instrumental track, similar to that of "Into the Lungs of Hell" from the album So Far, So Good... So What!. Dave Mustaine was invited by Metallica to attend their Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction; Mustaine congratulated them respectfully and stated due to winding down European tour with Judas Priest he would be unable to attend the ceremony. Megadeth and Slayer will co-Headline Canadian Carnage, this will be first time they will perform together in more than 15 years when they co-headline four shows in Canada in late June with openers Machine Head and Suicide Silence. http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.Net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=118898 As of May 19, 2009, Dave Mustaine issued the following studio update at their official site : "I'm at the studio right now, Vic's Garage, and we are done! We're just right now finishing the last couple of notes on the new record, and Andy's getting ready to pack his bags and head up to Los Angeles tomorrow to get ready to fly back home on Thursday. Man, this has been a long, grueling, enduring process but it's been so worth it, and I'm so excited. I'm more excited about this record then I've been in any record since back in the 1980's. I would say, probably since, well definitely since "Rust In Peace" there's nothing that's excited me this much - maybe "Countdown", but this is just absolutely insane." http://www.theliveline.com/EntertainerProfile.aspx?entertainerId=144175 As of May 19, Megadeth has finished recording the album and is yet untitled. http://www.sputnikmusic.com/news.php?newsid=9414 On May 26 2009, Chris Broderick posted the following on their official website : "As for the CD, I can’t believe the way the whole thing came together. It has a unique and original sound that I don’t think could have come together with any other group of people. From Dave’s snarling vocals, to James’ huge bass sound and Shawn’s dead accurate drumming it is just relentless, and with Andy producing, it focused the sound and direction of the CD. I feel lucky to be a part of it, for one thing it definitely did, was make me expand and play in different styles. I can’t wait for the release, and I hope all of you find something in it you like." http://forums.megadeth.com/showthread.php?t=380001 On May 27 2009, Dave Mustaine confirmed all 12 songs are complete and they are currently mixing and mastering the record. http://forums.megadeth.com/showthread.php?t=380109 Lyrical themes As Megadeth's primary lyricist, Mustaine is known for his often controversial, political, and more recently, personal lyrics. War and nuclear war are common topics, including the military-industrial complex ("Architecture of Aggression", "Hangar 18", "Return to Hangar" "Take No Prisoners"), and the aftermath of war ("Dawn Patrol" "Ashes In Your Mouth"). The name Megadeth is a deliberate misspelling of the word megadeath, a term coined in 1953 by RAND military strategist Herman Kahn to describe one million deaths, popularized in his 1960 book On Thermonuclear War. Kahn, Herman. On Thermonuclear War (Princeton University Press), ISBN 0-313-20060-2 Politics are also a common theme to many Megadeth songs, such as Mustaine's scathing assessment of Tipper Gore, the PMRC, and music censorship in the song "Hook In Mouth". Birchmeier, Jason. "So Far, So Good... So What!" Remastered version AMG Review, at Allmusic; last accessed November 20, 2006. Mustaine takes an environmentalist stance in "Countdown to Extinction" and "Dawn Patrol", Palmer, Robert. "Rust in Peace Rolling Stone Review, at Rolling Stone.com; last accessed November 16, 2006. and shuns dictators in songs like "Warhorse", and "Symphony of Destruction". Mustaine's general cynicism regarding politics shines through on tracks like "Peace Sells", "The World Needs A Hero" and "Blackmail the Universe". Controversial and misunderstood lyrics have also caused problems for the band, as the music video for "In My Darkest Hour" was banned from MTV in 1988 when the music channel deemed the song to be pro-suicide.<ref name="So Far, So Good... remastered album notes">"So Far, So Good, So What!" remastered album notes. July 24, 2004, Capitol Records, 72435-98626-2-0. The music video for "À Tout le Monde" was later banned by MTV, again wrongly interpreted as being pro- suicide, when in fact it was written from the perspective of a dying man, saying his last words to his loved ones. "Youthanasia" remastered album notes. July 24, 2004, Capitol Records, 72435-98623-2-3.</ref> Addiction is also a common theme, as in "Use the Man", "Burnt Ice", and "Addicted to Chaos", about a former substance abuse counselor who died of a drug overdose.<ref name="Cryptic Writings album notes">"Cryptic Writings" remastered album notes. July 24, 2004, Capitol Records, 72435-98625-2-1. Recently, some lyrics have taken on religious themes, including "Truth Be Told", which tells the biblical story of Cain and Abel, and "Shadow of Deth", with spoken lyrics taken directly from Psalm 23 of the King James Bible. Controversy For more details on this topic, see Dave Mustaine feuds and rivalries. Dave Mustaine is notorious for making inflammatory statements in the press, usually regarding feuds and problems with former bandmates and other bands, including Slayer and Metallica. Perhaps most well known is his long standing feud with Metallica members James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich, stemming from his ejection from the band, and the method in which it was conducted, as well as disagreements on songwriting credits. The Realms of Deth. "Megadeth Vs. Metallica", at The Realms Of Death; last accessed November 16, 2006. In April 1988, at a concert in Antrim, Northern Ireland, Mustaine "unknowingly" dedicated the final song to the IRA. ... And Bootlegs For All "Megadeth — Live in Antrim, Ireland, 1988", at ... And Bootlegs For All contactmusic.com "Mustaine's Terrorist Blunder", December 11, 2005, reported by contactmusic.com. Before the final song, "Anarchy in the UK", Mustaine said, "This one's for The Cause!". A fight amongst the audience ensued, as Protestants took offense and, according to Mustaine, the band had to travel in a "bulletproof bus" for the remainder of the tour of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Mustaine later alleged that he had been misled as to the meaning of the expression "the cause" by T-Shirt bootleggers outside the venue where they were performing. This incident served as inspiration for one of Megadeth's most well-known songs, "Holy Wars... The Punishment Due". In July 2004, former bassist David Ellefson sued Mustaine for $18.5 million in Manhattan Federal Court. Ellefson alleged that Mustaine short changed him on profits and backed out of a deal to turn Megadeth over to him when the band broke up in 2002. Blabbermouth.net "Former MEGADETH Bassist Sues DAVE MUSTAINE For $18.5 Million", July 15, 2004, reported by Blabbermouth.net; last accessed November 20, 2006. Ellefson also accused Mustaine of locking him out of merchandise and publishing royalties. The suit was dismissed in 2005, Blabbermouth.net "MEGADETH: DAVID ELLEFSON's $18.5 Million Lawsuit Dismissed ", January 16, 2005, reported by Blabbermouth.net; last accessed November 20, 2006. and Mustaine filed a countersuit, which was later settled out of court. Also sparking minor controversy was Mustaine's announcement that Megadeth will not play certain songs live anymore, due to Mustaine's new identification as a Christian. Blabbermouth.net "DAVE MUSTAINE Says He Won't Play PISTOLS' 'Anarchy' Because Of 'Anti-Christ' Reference", August 1, 2005, reported by Blabbermouth.net; last accessed November 20, 2006. MEGADETH's DAVE MUSTAINE: 'I Experimented With Black Magic And Witchcraft' In recent years Dave Mustaine has become a Born again Christian. In May 2005 Mustaine also allegedly threatened to cancel shows in Greece and Israel with extreme metal bands Rotting Christ and Dissection, due to the bands' perceived anti-Christian beliefs, which in turn caused the two bands to cancel their appearances. Kerby, Jeff. "Dave Mustaine Speaks to KNAC.com From Gigantour", 24 July 2005, at KNAC.com; last accessed October 11, 2006. Legacy With over 20 million albums sold worldwide, Accessed 19 August 2007 nine top 40 albums (including 4 top 10 albums), 18 top 40 Mainstream Rock singles, and seven Grammy nominations, Rock On The Net's Official website. "Grammy Awards: Best Metal Performance", at Rockonthenet.com; last accessed October 13, 2006. Megadeth remains one of the most successful heavy metal bands of all time. Megadeth's Official website, "Megadeth Behind the Music Press Release", 2001, at Megadeth.com; last accessed November 15, 2006. Of the "Big Four" thrash metal bands (Megadeth, Metallica, Anthrax, and Slayer), Megadeth is second only to Metallica in sales and commercial success. As an early pioneer of thrash metal, Megadeth helped pave the way for the burgeoning extreme metal movement of the late 1980s and early 1990s, and is often cited as an influence by later metal acts, including Pantera, Arch Enemy, Lamb of God, Blabbermouth.net, "MEGADETH, ARCH ENEMY, LAMB OF GOD Members Discuss GIGANTOUR", September 16, 2006, at Blabbermouth.net; last accessed November 23, 2006. and In Flames. Blabbermouth.net, and "IN FLAMES Bassist Says Meeting RONNIE JAMES DIO Has Been An Inspiration", October 19, 2006, at Blabbermouth.net; last accessed November 23, 2006. Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? is considered a landmark in the history of thrash metal, with Allmusic calling the album "One of the most influential metal albums of its decade, and certainly one of the few truly definitive thrash albums," as well as "one of the best beginning-to-end metal albums ever". In May 2006 VH1 ranked "Peace Sells" #11 on the 40 Greatest Metal Songs of all time countdown. In 2004, Guitar World magazine ranked Dave Mustaine and Marty Friedman together at #19 on the 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists of All Time. "Guitar World's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists of All Time", January 23, 2004, Guitar World Magazine, reported by Blabbermouth.net; last accessed November 23, 2006. Awards and nominations Award Year Nominated work Category Result Genesis Awards 1993 Megadeth Doris Day Music Award Grammy Awards Rust in Peace Best Metal Performance "Hangar 18" Best Metal Vocal Performance Countdown to Extinction "Angry Again" "99 Ways to Die" Best Metal Performance "Paranoid" "Trust" Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards 2007 Dave Mustaine Riff Lord 2008 Megadeth Best Live Band Revolver Golden Gods Awards 2009 Dave Mustaine Golden God Popular culture Megadeth has been mentioned in many films and television shows, including The Simpsons when they displayed the "diepod" and the options were instant death, slow-painful death & "Megadeth", Northern Exposure when the character Shelly Tambo proclaims that somebody's wound "Looks like a Megadeth album cover", Mad About You, The Drew Carey Show (Dave Mustaine performs a solo in a scene), The X Files (Mulder mentions Megadeth to Scully), and Duck Dodgers, where the band made an appearance (in cartoon form) on the 2005 episode In Space, Nobody Can Hear You Rock with the song Back in The Day. Perhaps the earliest Megadeth reference occurred in the 1988 Oliver Stone film Talk Radio in a famous scene where Michael Wincott, playing a heavy metal stoner, sings the chorus to "Peace Sells" to an exasperated Eric Bogosian after ranting anarchically about the downfall of society. Another early movie that featured Megadeth was the 1988 film "The Decline of Western Civilization Part II: The Metal Years" by Penelope Spheeris. This humorous documentary was mainly about the negative effects of mainstream "hair-metal" bands on western culture. However, Megadeth was included in the film to represent a new revolution in metal music. The film also features the band performing "In My Darkest Hour". The fictional cartoon band Dethklok poses the same way as in one of Megadeth's pictures. Megadeth is mentioned in the film Wayne's World 2, Honey Hornee (Kim Basinger) asks Garth (Dana Carvey) "Don't you just love music?" to which Garth replies "Got any Megadeth?". Stephen Frears' 1996 film "The Van" (based on the Irish novel by Roddy Doyle), starring Colm Meaney and Donal O'Kelly, includes a clip where the two "fish & chips van" owners wait outside a Megadeth concert selling fast food to metalheads. The band is mentioned in the 1991 film Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey, when the two are in Hell, Bill (Alex Winter) says "Ted, you know, if I die, you can have my Megadeth collection". Internet Movie Database "Memorable Quotes from Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey", reported by IMDB.com; last accessed November 20, 2006. In School of Rock, Jack Black's former band is named "MaggotDeth" in reference to Megadeth. In the 1993 movie Airborne, when the main character walks into Wiley's (Seth Green) room, you see a large poster of Countdown to Extinction album cover. IMDB . In the 2007 New Zealand film "Eagle vs Shark" http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0494222/ featuring Jemaine Clement of Flight of the Conchords http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0863046/ , a family member of the lead character can be seen in almost every scene wearing a different Megadeth t-shirt. In the 1991 movie Cape Fear Danielle has a poster of the Rust In Peace album cover on her wall. Scorsese, Martin (Director), Wesley Strick (writer) : Cape Fear, 1991, Universal Pictures Megadeth is featured on the soundtracks Shocker, Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey, Last Action Hero, Tales from the Crypt Presents: Demon Knight, Super Mario Bros., Universal Soldier: The Return and Mortal Kombat: Annihilation, and the band's music has also appeared in video games, one being the Ultimate Fighting Championship. Peace Sells is featured on the radio station V-Rock in the 2002 video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, as well as in the 2003 video game True Crime: Streets of LA. A cover version of "Symphony of Destruction" appears in the Playstation 2 video games Guitar Hero and WWE SmackDown! vs. RAW 2006, as well as Flatout 2. A cover version of "Hangar 18" appears in the PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 video game Guitar Hero II. Internet Movie Database "Dave Mustaine IMDB webpage", reported by IMDB.com; last accessed November 20, 2006. The video game NFL Street 3 features a remix of Megadeth's Symphony of Destruction during gameplay. Megadeth's song Peace Sells is on Rock Band 2 in addition to the rest of the album Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?. The song Sleepwalker was added to the Rock Band series as a downloadable song. The song "Gears of War" appears on the game Gears of War as an instrumental. Band members Current members Dave Mustaine – lead vocals, guitar (1983–present) Chris Broderick – guitar, backing vocals (2008–present) James Lomenzo – bass guitar, backing vocals (2006–present) Shawn Drover – drums, percussion (2004–present) Former members David Ellefson – bass guitar, backing vocals (1983–2002) Gar Samuelson – drums, percussion (1984–1987) Chris Poland – guitar, backing vocals (1984–1987, 2004) Chuck Behler – drums, percussion (1987–1988) Jeff Young – guitar, backing vocals (1988–1990) Nick Menza – drums, percussion (1989–1998, 2004) Marty Friedman – guitar, backing vocals (1990–2000) Jimmy DeGrasso – drums, percussion (1998–2002) Al Pitrelli – guitar, backing vocals (2002–2004) Vinnie Colaiuta – drums, percussion (2004) Jimmy Sloas – bass guitar, backing vocals (2004) James MacDonough – bass guitar, backing vocals (2004–2006) Glen Drover – guitar, backing vocals (2004–2008) Discography 1985: Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! 1986: Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? 1988: So Far, So Good... So What! 1990: Rust in Peace 1992: Countdown to Extinction 1994: Youthanasia 1997: Cryptic Writings 1999: Risk 2001: The World Needs a Hero 2004: The System Has Failed 2007: United Abominations 2009: Currently Untitled References External links Official website | Megadeth |@lemmatized megadeth:179 american:6 heavy:10 metal:60 band:105 los:4 angeles:4 california:2 form:5 found:2 dave:38 mustaine:120 bass:8 player:4 david:15 ellefson:18 follow:28 departure:3 metallica:14 since:10 release:54 eleven:3 studio:26 album:126 six:6 live:21 two:11 eps:1 thirty:3 single:13 music:26 video:22 three:6 compilation:5 pioneer:2 thrash:11 movement:2 rise:1 international:1 fame:4 experience:3 numerous:1 line:18 change:6 due:18 partly:1 notorious:2 substance:5 abuse:4 problem:11 continuous:1 member:15 find:6 sobriety:2 secure:1 stable:1 go:13 string:1 platinum:7 gold:7 include:22 selling:1 landmark:3 rust:20 peace:34 grammy:11 nominate:6 multi:1 countdown:17 extinction:14 disband:3 suffer:3 severe:2 nerve:3 injury:5 left:5 arm:5 however:13 extensive:3 physical:4 therapy:3 reform:3 system:8 fail:8 united:16 abomination:6 debut:10 billboard:12 top:10 chart:12 respectively:1 along:5 new:39 lead:15 guitarist:19 chris:15 broderick:9 currently:4 work:16 schedule:3 september:22 know:9 distinctive:1 guitar:25 style:5 often:4 involve:2 complex:4 intricate:1 musical:8 passage:1 trade:1 solo:7 also:35 original:8 snarl:2 vocal:17 well:11 recur:1 lyrical:2 theme:8 politics:4 war:12 addiction:3 personal:4 relationship:1 one:29 commercially:2 successful:3 sell:26 million:8 worldwide:3 consecutive:3 certify:5 usa:1 receive:9 great:13 critical:4 acclaim:2 seven:4 nomination:6 best:13 performance:13 active:1 year:21 official:17 remain:8 driving:1 force:10 main:3 songwriter:2 sole:1 end:5 partnership:1 disagreement:2 hail:1 among:2 big:4 four:12 slayer:7 anthrax:5 responsible:1 create:2 popularize:2 genre:1 history:2 early:9 day:11 month:12 fire:8 drinking:1 drug:6 use:8 violent:1 behavior:1 personality:1 conflict:1 cecolini:1 vinny:1 foreclosure:2 team:2 november:65 hammer:5 report:30 realm:20 deth:19 last:81 access:21 january:15 bassist:9 greg:1 handevidt:1 drummer:12 dijon:1 carruthers:1 later:26 say:18 get:11 remember:1 want:8 blood:2 faster:1 killing:9 business:20 good:26 remastered:16 note:11 may:20 loud:2 record:59 ref:6 fuel:1 desire:2 revenge:2 ling:2 start:5 accessed:52 elevate:1 intensity:1 speed:3 exist:1 song:48 mechanix:2 adapt:1 much:5 slow:3 paced:1 horseman:1 unsuccessfully:1 search:2 vocalist:2 nearly:3 decide:3 handle:2 duty:5 serve:3 primary:2 lyricist:2 co:9 rhythm:2 demo:2 feature:30 rausch:2 contain:6 version:21 rite:1 love:2 death:5 skull:1 beneath:1 skin:1 kerry:1 king:4 cover:12 handful:1 date:13 permanent:1 replacement:4 seek:2 show:18 lee:7 replace:14 fusion:3 gar:6 samuelson:7 strength:1 sign:5 york:1 base:2 independent:2 label:8 combat:4 december:3 add:8 second:10 poland:12 friend:2 scene:6 give:6 produce:7 spend:3 half:3 budget:3 alcohol:1 food:2 producer:13 despite:1 result:3 poor:1 production:5 kill:4 effort:5 blend:1 element:3 huey:6 steve:6 amg:23 review:26 com:56 bregman:1 adam:1 first:35 many:8 perform:8 nancy:1 sinatra:1 classic:1 boot:1 make:9 walk:2 lyric:10 alter:3 spark:2 controversy:3 late:10 author:1 hazlewood:2 deem:2 vile:1 offensive:1 demand:3 remove:4 threat:1 legal:1 action:3 pressing:1 partial:1 though:1 altered:2 censor:1 beep:1 deluxe:1 edition:3 liner:1 strongly:1 royalty:2 almost:3 object:1 name:9 summer:9 group:2 tour:67 state:11 canada:4 time:19 support:10 exciter:1 abruptly:1 leave:6 mike:2 albert:1 rejoin:2 october:26 shortly:3 begin:25 buying:10 originally:4 complete:4 march:15 small:3 initially:6 unhappy:2 final:8 mixed:4 product:1 frustrate:1 financial:1 insufficiency:1 major:3 capitol:17 buy:1 right:5 hire:5 paul:3 lani:6 remix:3 recording:10 mark:3 commercial:5 breakthrough:1 eventually:2 copy:3 u:24 alone:1 consider:2 allmusic:12 cite:4 influential:3 decade:2 certainly:2 truly:2 definitive:2 birchmeier:7 jason:8 title:11 track:13 choose:1 regular:2 airplay:2 mtv:5 headbangers:2 ball:1 rank:3 channel:2 opening:5 news:3 art:1 ed:1 repka:1 redesign:1 mascot:1 vic:3 rattlehead:1 current:3 standard:1 design:1 artwork:2 february:9 alice:5 cooper:5 constrictor:1 brief:1 mercyful:1 fate:1 alarm:1 habit:2 summon:1 bus:2 night:3 warn:1 constant:1 excessive:1 youtube:1 documentary:3 part:13 world:28 headlining:2 act:9 kingdom:1 overkill:2 necros:1 stem:2 july:18 hawaii:1 claim:3 become:7 intoxicate:2 even:7 chuck:5 behler:8 fly:2 fear:6 would:20 able:1 finish:5 commitment:1 equipment:2 fund:1 increase:1 detail:2 liar:1 dedicate:2 jay:1 reynolds:2 malice:1 next:8 teacher:1 jeff:8 young:6 join:11 week:5 third:6 gomes:1 celesete:1 far:16 august:12 rock:31 behind:2 desk:1 spent:1 five:5 process:7 plague:1 beginning:2 ongoing:1 battle:1 horrible:1 mostly:3 priority:2 clash:3 insistence:1 drum:10 separate:1 cymbal:1 unheard:1 mixing:3 fall:4 michael:2 wagener:1 remixed:3 certified:1 pan:1 critic:3 complain:1 lack:1 conceptual:1 unity:1 bite:1 sound:7 threaten:2 come:8 somewhat:1 juvenile:1 dark:6 hour:4 write:12 tribute:4 cliff:1 burton:1 fan:7 favorite:2 every:3 sex:2 pistol:3 anarchy:4 uk:8 admit:2 hear:2 wrong:1 june:10 appear:15 penelope:2 spheeris:3 film:17 decline:4 western:3 civilization:2 ii:3 chronicle:1 focus:6 glam:1 direct:1 wake:1 dead:3 movie:9 piece:5 vhs:2 recall:2 disappointment:1 align:1 bunch:1 shit:1 emi:3 inc:1 upc:2 database:3 open:1 dio:2 europe:8 iron:3 maiden:3 seventh:2 son:2 notice:1 develop:1 bring:2 nick:11 menza:13 technician:1 ready:3 take:9 event:1 could:5 continue:4 doreian:1 robyn:1 hot:1 magazine:5 monster:3 festival:8 castle:1 donnington:1 alongside:6 kiss:2 helloween:1 gun:1 n:1 rose:1 roth:2 audience:2 people:6 soon:2 european:7 drop:2 appearance:4 cancel:6 scheduled:2 australian:1 road:1 thing:3 escalate:1 border:1 skirmish:1 full:2 rag:1 think:4 lot:3 inconsistent:1 guy:4 wait:3 nile:1 eric:3 connection:1 unable:5 suitable:2 mr:1 nice:1 soundtrack:8 wes:1 craven:1 horror:2 shocker:2 hold:4 audition:5 arrest:1 drive:1 possession:1 narcotic:1 crash:1 parked:1 vehicle:1 occupy:1 police:1 officer:1 enter:3 court:3 order:3 rehab:2 sober:2 ten:3 lengthy:1 altus:1 heathen:1 meyer:2 angel:2 invite:2 leg:2 dimebag:1 darrell:3 abbott:2 obscure:1 pantera:4 offer:4 spot:2 without:3 brother:2 vinnie:3 already:1 turn:4 loomis:4 nevermore:4 afterwards:1 thank:1 tell:6 reject:2 bid:1 inexperienced:1 rule:2 interview:8 april:4 saw:1 cacophony:1 marty:8 friedman:11 becker:1 dragon:1 multicolored:1 hair:2 undergo:3 call:5 star:3 officially:3 stix:1 john:2 forefather:1 practicing:1 musician:4 revitalized:1 rumbo:1 clink:2 critically:1 career:4 alleviate:1 face:1 previous:2 successfully:1 human:1 artist:1 holy:3 punishment:5 hit:10 alike:1 detector:2 website:13 position:4 showcased:2 tight:1 adopt:1 rhythmically:1 progressive:1 edge:1 prompt:2 strong:2 hangar:6 staple:1 testament:4 suicidal:2 tendency:2 titan:2 juda:2 priest:6 painkiller:1 culminate:2 rio:1 brazil:2 success:6 opener:3 chain:1 hell:5 bill:7 ted:5 bogus:4 journey:4 breakpoint:1 super:2 mario:2 bros:2 home:4 enterprise:1 burbank:1 max:4 norman:7 integral:1 makeover:1 push:5 short:5 less:1 complicate:1 radio:13 friendly:2 contribution:2 jodi:1 instant:2 anchor:1 mainstream:10 symphony:5 destruction:5 dream:3 sweat:1 bullet:1 quickly:1 double:1 distinction:1 ever:3 win:2 doris:2 award:10 present:7 humane:2 society:4 spotlight:1 specie:1 horrific:1 sport:1 canned:1 hunt:1 genesis:2 hsus:1 org:1 exposure:2 similar:2 fashion:2 videos:1 previously:2 north:3 stone:7 temple:3 pilot:1 japan:2 fell:2 hospital:3 emergency:1 room:2 chirazi:1 steffan:1 trial:1 rip:1 stint:1 emerge:1 clean:1 return:19 angry:2 hero:14 stage:6 special:2 guest:1 milton:1 keynes:1 bowl:1 former:10 bandmates:3 play:13 pairing:1 announcement:2 bullshit:1 although:3 resurface:1 long:3 feuding:1 aerosmith:2 grip:1 contractual:2 dispute:1 remark:1 advance:1 age:1 van:4 way:9 die:8 beavis:2 butt:2 head:6 intercut:1 commentary:1 youthanasia:16 reside:1 arizona:6 initial:3 phase:2 phoenix:3 pre:2 alternative:1 insist:1 facility:1 request:3 opt:3 construct:1 inside:1 rent:1 warehouse:1 dub:2 fat:1 planet:1 arrange:1 entire:1 basic:1 whole:2 capture:1 evolver:1 making:1 eight:3 minute:1 fast:3 still:3 stylistic:1 shift:1 erlewine:2 stephen:3 thomas:2 retain:1 core:1 melody:1 accessible:1 arrangement:1 enlist:2 noted:1 photographer:1 richard:1 avedon:1 image:1 jean:1 shirt:3 conscious:1 look:2 merkle:1 p:1 j:1 bewitch:1 bother:1 bewilder:1 parader:1 sticker:1 advertise:1 concept:1 affectionately:1 chat:1 mega:1 diner:1 correspond:1 email:1 read:1 column:1 diary:1 train:1 consequence:1 reach:3 letterman:1 à:5 tout:5 le:5 monde:5 boerio:1 online:2 onstage:1 refuse:1 endorsement:1 suicide:4 south:2 america:4 span:1 corrosion:1 conformity:1 flotsam:1 jetsam:1 korn:1 factory:2 ozzy:2 osbourne:1 tale:2 crypt:2 demon:2 knight:2 diadems:1 contribute:3 paranoid:3 nativity:2 black:7 sabbath:2 sixth:2 bonus:4 disc:4 entitle:3 hidden:1 treasure:1 ep:1 cryptic:12 writing:14 md:1 side:2 project:3 ving:1 underwent:2 esp:1 management:1 creative:1 manager:6 bud:4 prager:9 foreigner:1 bad:1 company:2 nalbandian:3 bob:3 hard:7 shockwaves:2 highly:1 shape:1 direction:3 field:1 convince:2 nashville:3 pop:2 giant:1 dann:2 huff:3 tentatively:1 needle:1 pin:1 closely:1 supervise:2 idea:1 regard:5 influence:3 figure:1 maybe:2 help:2 intangible:1 number:3 badly:1 voodoo:1 symbol:1 rename:1 blabbermouth:22 net:23 sale:2 update:2 score:4 high:4 trust:3 press:9 response:2 wiederhorn:2 jon:2 roll:5 honest:1 man:4 secret:1 place:1 ask:2 eclectic:1 nature:1 divide:1 really:4 aggressive:1 melodic:1 stuff:1 orientate:1 like:7 men:1 stand:1 away:1 misfit:1 life:4 agony:2 coal:1 chamber:1 ozzfest:1 halfway:1 discover:1 tumor:1 knee:1 surgery:1 jimmy:4 degrasso:4 temporarily:2 permanently:1 lie:2 cancer:1 ferres:1 ugly:1 rockmetal:1 pl:1 computer:1 game:9 development:1 announce:9 unreleased:1 promotional:1 duke:3 nukem:3 rendition:1 grabbag:1 compose:1 jackson:1 risk:16 real:1 country:1 eighth:1 credit:2 twelve:1 grant:1 dan:3 control:2 little:1 bit:1 intimidate:1 material:2 power:1 drunk:1 wow:1 row:1 backfire:1 hjelm:1 fredrik:1 fun:1 anymore:2 failure:1 backlash:1 longtime:3 observer:2 billerey:1 mosier:1 roger:1 ssmt:1 recent:2 incorporate:1 traditional:1 virtually:1 devoid:1 instead:2 dance:1 electronica:1 disco:1 crush:1 em:1 universal:3 soldier:2 championship:2 wrestle:1 entrance:1 goldberg:1 nhl:1 hockey:1 reviewer:2 never:1 difference:2 explain:1 back:22 root:2 quit:2 slam:1 defend:1 boy:1 enlisted:1 al:3 pitrelli:4 formerly:2 savatage:1 trans:1 siberian:1 orchestra:1 ninth:1 opportunity:1 maximum:2 mötley:1 crüe:1 put:5 throughout:1 fourteen:1 dread:1 fugitive:1 mind:1 need:10 sanctuary:3 finishing:2 touch:2 near:2 completion:2 earlier:1 overwhelming:1 negative:2 fired:1 self:1 entirely:1 promise:1 engels:1 orlandoweekly:1 attempted:1 felt:1 expectation:1 eldefors:1 vincent:1 tartarean:1 chandrasekhar:1 chaitra:1 publish:1 tech:2 newspaper:1 volume:1 archive:2 site:2 l:2 r:2 breakup:2 liken:1 huge:2 ship:1 sea:1 try:1 course:1 moto:1 psycho:1 ac:1 dc:1 iced:2 earth:2 endo:1 cut:1 attack:1 dvd:11 shoot:1 set:6 argentina:2 rude:1 awakening:1 modern:2 master:2 technique:1 timeline:1 kidney:1 treatment:3 administer:1 pain:1 medication:1 trigger:1 relapse:1 stay:1 immediately:1 check:1 center:2 texas:1 freak:1 cause:6 damage:1 induce:1 asleep:1 chair:1 compression:1 radial:2 diagnose:1 neuropathy:1 grasp:1 fist:1 hand:2 condition:1 saturday:1 palsy:1 intense:1 epstein:1 another:2 slowly:1 teach:1 fulfill:1 contract:1 obligation:2 alive:1 web:1 theatre:1 recovery:1 electric:1 shock:1 session:1 colaiuta:2 sloas:2 agree:1 remaster:1 catalog:1 lose:1 knowledge:1 intend:1 outstanding:1 contact:1 backing:1 agreement:1 fake:1 around:1 town:1 slander:1 mean:2 era:1 together:5 dismissal:1 wish:1 focused:1 jazz:1 ohm:1 comeback:1 herald:1 revolver:2 vengeful:1 poignant:1 musically:1 offering:1 blackmail:4 universe:4 cd:6 store:1 enough:1 farewell:1 shawn:5 drover:12 macdonough:6 glen:6 james:7 eidolon:3 diamond:2 rehearsal:1 newly:2 parted:1 prepare:1 brave:2 word:4 talk:2 canadian:3 exodus:1 dungeon:1 print:1 gigantour:10 organize:1 annual:1 headline:7 inaugural:2 run:2 theater:1 dillinger:1 escape:1 plan:1 x:3 dry:1 logic:1 bobaflex:1 montreal:1 vancouver:1 lomenzo:4 metalmania:2 crowd:1 pepsi:1 concert:4 buenos:1 aire:1 ex:1 animosity:1 white:1 lion:1 dubai:1 desert:1 arab:1 emirate:1 door:1 arsenal:1 footage:1 license:1 issue:2 installment:3 launch:2 lamb:3 god:6 opeth:1 arch:4 enemy:4 eternity:1 sanctity:1 smashup:1 australia:2 soulfly:1 caliban:1 sunrise:1 florida:1 spring:2 http:8 www:7 videostatic:1 v:5 index:1 html:1 entry:1 eleventh:1 roadrunner:1 reschedule:1 forum:4 free:2 duet:1 cristina:1 scabbia:1 lacuna:2 coil:2 washington:1 commence:1 heaven:1 machine:3 pacific:1 rim:1 static:1 devildriver:1 horizon:1 confirm:4 family:5 jag:1 panzer:1 finland:1 lineup:1 chance:2 flame:3 child:1 bodom:1 job:1 cowboy:1 evile:1 scandinavia:1 mexico:1 comment:2 aware:1 rumor:1 always:1 situation:1 magnify:1 realizing:1 move:1 chapter:1 memory:1 meet:1 ton:1 industry:1 komodorock:1 happy:1 decision:1 please:1 fine:1 bandmate:1 williams:1 importantly:1 hang:1 true:2 realize:1 shoe:1 fill:1 kind:1 addition:2 thoroughly:1 thrill:1 remind:1 randy:1 rhoads:1 blog:1 exclusive:1 podcast:1 ringleader:1 discus:1 coffee:1 anthology:2 afire:2 listing:1 correct:1 untitled:3 twelfth:1 onward:1 build:1 garage:2 andy:5 sneap:3 mention:5 expect:1 promote:1 difficulty:1 visa:1 answer:1 mix:2 forthcoming:1 water:1 san:2 diego:2 cox:1 arena:1 embark:1 feast:2 headliner:1 judas:2 dutch:1 subject:2 matter:1 drag:1 race:1 let:1 endgame:1 headcrusher:1 fight:2 story:2 instrumental:2 lung:1 attend:2 hall:1 induction:1 congratulate:1 respectfully:1 wind:1 ceremony:1 carnage:1 silence:1 roadrunnerrecords:1 aspx:2 mode:1 article:1 newsitemid:1 following:1 couple:1 pack:1 bag:1 tomorrow:1 thursday:1 grueling:1 endure:1 worth:1 excited:2 probably:1 definitely:2 nothing:1 excite:1 absolutely:1 insane:1 theliveline:1 entertainerprofile:1 entertainerid:1 yet:1 sputnikmusic:1 php:3 newsid:1 post:1 believe:1 unique:1 jam:3 accurate:1 relentless:1 feel:1 lucky:1 expand:1 different:2 hope:1 something:1 showthread:2 controversial:2 political:1 recently:2 nuclear:1 common:3 topic:2 military:2 industrial:1 architecture:1 aggression:1 prisoner:1 aftermath:1 dawn:2 patrol:2 ash:1 mouth:2 deliberate:1 misspelling:1 megadeath:1 term:1 coin:1 rand:1 strategist:1 herman:2 kahn:2 describe:1 book:1 thermonuclear:2 princeton:1 university:1 isbn:1 scathing:1 assessment:1 tipper:1 gore:1 pmrc:1 censorship:1 hook:1 environmentalist:1 stance:1 palmer:1 robert:1 shuns:1 dictator:1 warhorse:1 general:1 cynicism:1 shine:1 misunderstood:1 ban:2 pro:2 wrongly:1 interpret:1 fact:1 perspective:1 loved:1 burnt:1 ice:1 addict:1 chaos:1 counselor:1 overdose:1 religious:1 truth:1 biblical:1 cain:1 abel:1 shadow:1 spoken:1 directly:1 psalm:1 bible:1 see:3 feud:3 rivalry:1 inflammatory:1 statement:1 usually:1 perhaps:2 standing:1 hetfield:1 lars:1 ulrich:1 ejection:1 method:1 conduct:1 songwriting:1 antrim:2 northern:3 ireland:4 unknowingly:1 ira:1 bootleg:2 contactmusic:2 terrorist:1 blunder:1 amongst:1 ensue:1 protestant:1 offense:1 accord:1 travel:1 bulletproof:1 remainder:1 republic:1 allege:2 mislead:1 meaning:1 expression:1 bootlegger:1 outside:2 venue:1 incident:1 inspiration:2 sue:2 manhattan:1 federal:1 profit:1 deal:1 break:1 accuse:1 lock:1 merchandise:1 publishing:1 suit:1 dismiss:2 lawsuit:1 file:2 countersuit:1 settle:1 minor:1 certain:1 identification:1 christian:3 anti:2 christ:2 reference:4 experiment:1 magic:1 witchcraft:1 born:1 allegedly:1 greece:1 israel:1 extreme:2 rot:1 dissection:1 perceive:1 belief:1 kerby:1 speaks:1 knac:2 legacy:1 nine:1 rockonthenet:1 pave:1 burgeon:1 discuss:1 meeting:1 ronnie:1 category:1 golden:3 riff:1 lord:1 popular:1 culture:2 television:1 simpson:1 display:1 diepod:1 option:1 painful:1 character:3 shelly:1 tambo:1 proclaims:1 somebody:1 wound:1 mad:1 drew:1 carey:1 mulder:1 scully:1 duck:1 dodger:1 cartoon:2 episode:1 space:1 nobody:1 occur:1 oliver:1 famous:1 wincott:1 stoner:1 sing:1 chorus:1 exasperate:1 bogosian:1 rant:1 anarchically:1 downfall:1 humorous:1 mainly:1 effect:1 represent:1 revolution:1 fictional:1 dethklok:1 pose:1 picture:2 wayne:1 honey:1 hornee:1 kim:1 basinger:1 garth:2 dana:1 carvey:1 reply:1 frears:1 irish:1 novel:1 roddy:1 doyle:1 colm:1 meaney:1 donal:1 kelly:1 clip:1 fish:1 chip:1 owner:1 metalhead:1 alex:1 winter:1 collection:1 internet:2 memorable:1 quote:1 imdb:6 school:1 jack:1 maggotdeth:1 airborne:1 wiley:1 seth:1 green:1 large:1 poster:2 zealand:1 eagle:1 shark:1 jemaine:1 clement:1 flight:1 conchords:1 wear:1 cape:2 danielle:1 wall:1 scorsese:1 martin:1 director:1 wesley:1 strick:1 writer:1 mortal:1 kombat:1 annihilation:1 ultimate:1 fighting:1 station:1 grand:1 theft:1 auto:1 vice:1 city:1 crime:1 street:2 la:1 playstation:2 wwe:1 smackdown:1 raw:1 flatout:1 xbox:1 webpage:1 nfl:1 gameplay:1 rest:1 sleepwalker:1 series:1 downloadable:1 gear:2 percussion:6 discography:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram los_angeles:4 dave_mustaine:33 david_ellefson:11 thrash_metal:6 platinum_selling:1 countdown_extinction:14 chris_broderick:6 lyrical_theme:2 commercially_successful:2 certify_platinum:2 critical_acclaim:1 grammy_nomination:4 realm_deth:17 deth_last:16 rhythm_guitarist:1 gar_samuelson:5 huey_steve:6 amg_review:12 deluxe_edition:1 liner_note:1 birchmeier_jason:7 alice_cooper:4 chuck_behler:5 cliff_burton:1 glam_metal:1 iron_maiden:3 nick_menza:10 wes_craven:1 marty_friedman:7 critically_acclaim:1 suicidal_tendency:2 juda_priest:2 ted_bogus:4 bogus_journey:4 super_mario:2 mario_bros:2 burbank_california:1 nominate_grammy:3 milton_keynes:1 former_bandmates:3 beavis_butt:2 butt_head:2 phoenix_arizona:2 erlewine_stephen:2 david_letterman:1 à_tout:5 tout_le:5 le_monde:5 ozzy_osbourne:1 tale_crypt:2 black_sabbath:2 hidden_treasure:1 cryptic_writing:12 blabbermouth_net:22 roll_stone:4 duke_nukem:3 trans_siberian:1 mötley_crüe:1 finishing_touch:2 ac_dc:1 bonus_track:1 fall_asleep:1 saturday_night:1 contractual_obligation:1 billboard_chart:1 glen_drover:6 buenos_aire:1 arab_emirate:1 http_www:6 heaven_hell:1 pacific_rim:1 child_bodom:1 san_diego:2 judas_priest:2 hall_fame:1 showthread_php:2 herman_kahn:1 james_hetfield:1 hetfield_lars:1 lars_ulrich:1 contactmusic_com:2 grammy_award:2 award_nomination:1 drew_carey:1 kim_basinger:1 stephen_frears:1 imdb_com:4 www_imdb:2 mortal_kombat:1 grand_theft:1 theft_auto:1 playstation_xbox:1 bass_guitar:4 drum_percussion:6 external_link:1 |
7,403 | MySQL | MySQL is a relational database management system (RDBMS) which has more than 6 million installations. Charles Babcock The program runs as a server providing multi-user access to a number of databases. The project's source code is available under terms of the GNU General Public License, as well as under a variety of proprietary agreements. MySQL is owned and sponsored by a single for-profit firm, the Swedish company MySQL AB, now a subsidiary of Sun Microsystems, Sun Microsystems Announces Completion of MySQL Acquisition; Paves Way for Secure, Open Source Platform to Power the Network Economy, Sun Microsystems Press release, February 26, 2008 which holds the copyright to most of the codebase. On April 20th, 2009 Oracle Corp., which develops and sells the proprietary Oracle database, announced a deal to acquire Sun Microsystems. Pronunciation The name "MySQL" is officially (My S Q L), not "My sequel" . This adheres to the official ANSI pronunciation; SEQUEL was an earlier IBM database language, a predecessor to the SQL language. However, the developers do not take issue with the pronunciation "My Sequel" or other local variations. Uses MySQL is popular for web applications and acts as the database component of the LAMP software stack. Its popularity for use with web applications is closely tied to the popularity of PHP, which is often combined with MySQL. Several high-traffic web sites (including Flickr, Facebook, Wikipedia, Google, not for searching Nokia and YouTube) use MySQL for its data storage and logging of user data. Platforms and interfaces The MySQL Administrator in Linux MySQL is written in C and C++. The SQL parser uses yacc and a home-brewed lexer, sql_lex.cc MySQL Internals Manual MySQL works on many different system platforms, including AIX, BSDi, FreeBSD, HP-UX, i5/OS, Linux, Mac OS X, NetBSD, Novell NetWare, OpenBSD, OpenSolaris, eComStation, OS/2 Warp, QNX, IRIX, Solaris, Symbian, SunOS, SCO OpenServer, SCO UnixWare, Sanos, Tru64 and Microsoft Windows. A port of MySQL to OpenVMS is also available. PCSI Kits of Open Source Software for OpenVMS Libraries for accessing MySQL databases are available in all major programming languages with language-specific APIs. In addition, an ODBC interface called MyODBC allows additional programming languages that support the ODBC interface to communicate with a MySQL database, such as ASP or ColdFusion. The MySQL server and official libraries are mostly implemented in ANSI C/ANSI C++. To administer MySQL databases one can use the included command-line tool (commands: mysql and mysqladmin). Also downloadable from the MySQL site are GUI administration tools: MySQL Administrator and MySQL Query Browser. Both of the GUI tools are now included in one package called tools/5.0.html MySQL GUI Tools. In addition to the above-mentioned tools developed by MySQL AB, there are several other commercial and non-commercial tools available. Examples include Navicat Free Lite Edition or SQLyog Community Edition, they are free desktop based GUI tools and phpMyAdmin, a free Web-based administration interface implemented in PHP. Features , MySQL offers MySQL 5.1 in two different variants: the MySQL Community Server and Enterprise Server. They have a common code base and include the following features: A broad subset of ANSI SQL 99, as well as extensions Cross-platform support Stored procedures Triggers Cursors Updatable Views True VARCHAR support INFORMATION_SCHEMA Strict mode X/Open XA distributed transaction processing (DTP) support; two phase commit as part of this, using Oracle's InnoDB engine Independent storage engines (MyISAM for read speed, InnoDB for transactions and referential integrity, MySQL Archive for storing historical data in little space) Transactions with the InnoDB, BDB and Cluster storage engines; savepoints with InnoDB SSL support Query caching Sub-SELECTs (i.e. nested SELECTs) Replication with one master per slave, many slaves per master, no automatic support for multiple masters per slave. Full-text indexing and searching using MyISAM engine Embedded database library Partial Unicode support (UTF-8 sequences longer than 3 bytes are not supported; UCS-2 encoded strings are also limited to the BMP) ACID compliance using the InnoDB, BDB and Cluster engines Shared-nothing clustering through MySQL Cluster The MySQL Enterprise Server is released once per month and the sources can be obtained either from MySQL's customer-only Enterprise site or from MySQL's Bazaar repository, both under the GPL license. The MySQL Community Server is published on an unspecified schedule under the GPL and contains all bug fixes that were shipped with the last MySQL Enterprise Server release. Binaries are no longer provided by MySQL for every release of the Community Server. Peter Zaitsev's blog Kaj Arnö's reply Replication support (i.e. Master-Master Replication & Master-Slave Replication) Distinguishing features The following features are implemented by MySQL but not by some other RDBMS software: Multiple storage engines, allowing you to choose the one that is most effective for each table in the application (in MySQL 5.0, storage engines must be compiled in; in MySQL 5.1, storage engines can be dynamically loaded at run time): Native storage engines (MyISAM, Falcon, Merge, Memory (heap), Federated, Archive, CSV, Blackhole, Cluster, Berkeley DB, EXAMPLE, and Maria) Partner-developed storage engines (InnoDB, solidDB, NitroEDB, Infobright (formerly Brighthouse), Infobright (Open Source)) Community-developed storage engines (memcached, httpd, PBXT, Revision Engine) Custom storage engines Commit grouping, gathering multiple transactions from multiple connections together to increase the number of commits per second. Server compilation type There are 3 types of MySQL Server Compilations for Enterprise and Community users: Standard: The MySQL-Standard binaries are recommended for most users, and include the InnoDB storage engine. Max: (not MaxDB, which is a cooperation with SAP AG) is mysqld-max Extended MySQL Server. The MySQL-Max binaries include additional features that may not have been as extensively tested or are not required for general usage. The MySQL-Debug binaries have been compiled with extra debug information, and are not intended for production use, because the included debugging code may cause reduced performance. Beginning with MySQL 5.1, MySQL AB has stopped providing these different package variants. There will only be one MySQL server package, which includes a mysqld binary with all functionality and storage engines enabled. Instead of providing a separate debug package, a server binary with extended debugging information is also included in the standard package. MySQL Max Build Policy History Milestones in MySQL development include: MySQL was originally developed by Michael Widenius and David Axmark beginning in 1994 Five Questions With Michael Widenius - Founder And Original Developer Of MySQL MySQL was first released internally on 23 May 1995 Windows version was released on 8 January 1998 for Windows 95 and NT Version 3.23: beta from June 2000, production release January 2001 Version 4.0: beta from August 2002, production release March 2003 (unions) Version 4.01: beta from August 2003, Jyoti adopts MySQL for database tracking Version 4.1: beta from June 2004, production release October 2004 (R-trees and B-trees, subqueries, prepared statements) Version 5.0: beta from March 2005, production release October 2005 (cursors, stored procedures, triggers, views, XA transactions) Sun Microsystems acquired MySQL AB on 26 February 2008. Version 5.1: production release 27 November 2008 (event scheduler, partitioning, plugin API, row-based replication, server log tables) Future releases The MySQL 6 roadmap outlines support for: Referential integrity and Foreign key support for all storage engines is targeted for release in MySQL 6.1 (although it has been present since version 3.23.44 for InnoDB). Support for supplementary Unicode characters, beyond the 65,536 characters of the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP) is announced for MySQL 6.0. A new storage engine is also in the works, called Falcon. A preview of Falcon is available on MySQL's website. Support for parallelization is also part of the roadmap for future versions. Does MySQL support query parallelisation? Support and licensing Via MySQL Enterprise MySQL AB offers support itself, including a 24/7 service with 30-minute response time, the support team has direct access to the developers as necessary to handle problems. In addition it hosts forums and mailing lists, employees and other users are often available in several IRC channels providing assistance. Buyers of MySQL Enterprise have access to binaries and software that is certified for their particular operating system, and access to monthly binary updates with the latest bug fixes. Several levels of Enterprise membership are available, with varying response times and features ranging from how to and emergency support through server performance tuning and system architecture advice. The MySQL Network Monitoring and Advisory Service monitoring tool for database servers is available only to MySQL Enterprise customers. MySQL Server is available as free software under the GNU General Public License (GPL), and the MySQL Enterprise subscriptions include a GPL version of the server, with a traditional proprietary version available on request at no additional cost for cases where the intended use is incompatible with the GPL. Both the MySQL server software itself and the client libraries are distributed under a dual-licensing format. Users may choose the GPL, MySQL AB :: MySQL Open Source License which MySQL has extended with a FLOSS License Exception. It allows Software licensed under other OSI-compliant Open Source licenses, which are not compatible to the GPL, to link against the MySQL client libraries. MySQL AB :: FLOSS License Exception Customers that do not wish to be bound to the terms of the GPL may choose to purchase a proprietary license. MySQL AB :: MySQL Commercial License Like many open-source programs, the name "MySQL" is trademarked and may only be used with the trademark holder's permission. Criticism MySQL recently (2008) released version 5.1 with 20 known crashing and wrong result bugs in addition to the 35 present in version 5.0. Critical bugs sometimes do not get fixed for long periods of time. What's Drizzle? An example is a bug with status critical existing since 2003. MySQL shows poor performance when used for data warehousing; this is partly due to inability to utilize multiple CPU cores for processing a single query. TPC-H Run on MySQL 5.1 and 6.0 | MySQL Performance Blog MySQL does not offer a single table type ("storage engine") offering all features; the two most common types, MyISAM and InnoDB, do not completely overlap in their feature sets. http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.1/en/storage-engines.html Previous versions of MySQL did not support many standard SQL features, with the manual claiming that they were unnecessary or would hurt performance. (see sections 5.2, 5.6, 18.8) Even now, MySQL has many limitations that other RDBMS software (e.g. PostgreSQL) do not, such as the inability to refer to a temporary table twice in one query http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.0/en/temporary-table-problems.html and extremely poor subselect performance. http://bugs.mysql.com/bug.php?id=9090 The developer of the Federated Storage Engine states that "The Federated Storage Engine is a proof-of-concept storage engine", though it was included and turned on by default in the main distributions of MySQL version 5.0. Some of the short-comings are documented in the "MySQL Federated Tables: The Missing Manual". Competition In October 2005, Oracle Corporation acquired Innobase OY, the Finnish company that developed the InnoDB storage engine that allows MySQL to provide such functionality as transactions and foreign keys. A press release by Oracle that was issued after the acquisition, mentioned that the contracts that make the company's software available to MySQL AB would be due for renewal (and presumably renegotiation) some time in 2006. During the MySQL Users Conference in April 2006, MySQL issued a press release which confirmed that MySQL and Innobase OY agreed to a "multi-year" extension of their licensing agreement. In February 2006, Oracle Corporation acquired Sleepycat Software, makers of the Berkeley DB, a database engine onto which another MySQL storage engine was built. In April 2009, Oracle Corporation entered into an agreement to purchase Sun Microsystems, current owners of the MySQL intellectual property. Although the deal was approved by Sun's board of directors, it has not yet been finalized. See also Comparison of relational database management systems Drizzle HSQLDB PostgreSQL References External links MySQL database website MySQL site at Sun.com Planet MySQL - an aggregation of MySQL-related blogs Interview with David Axmark, MySQL co-founder Video | MySQL |@lemmatized mysql:97 relational:2 database:13 management:2 system:5 rdbms:3 million:1 installation:1 charles:1 babcock:1 program:2 run:3 server:19 provide:6 multi:2 user:7 access:5 number:2 project:1 source:8 code:3 available:11 term:2 gnu:2 general:3 public:2 license:10 well:2 variety:1 proprietary:4 agreement:3 sponsor:1 single:3 profit:1 firm:1 swedish:1 company:3 ab:9 subsidiary:1 sun:8 microsystems:6 announce:3 completion:1 acquisition:2 pave:1 way:1 secure:1 open:7 platform:4 power:1 network:2 economy:1 press:3 release:16 february:3 hold:1 copyright:1 codebase:1 april:3 oracle:7 corp:1 develop:6 sell:1 deal:2 acquire:4 pronunciation:3 name:2 officially:1 q:1 l:1 sequel:3 adhere:1 official:2 ansi:4 early:1 ibm:1 language:5 predecessor:1 sql:4 however:1 developer:4 take:1 issue:3 local:1 variation:1 us:1 popular:1 web:4 application:3 act:1 component:1 lamp:1 software:10 stack:1 popularity:2 use:11 closely:1 tie:1 php:3 often:2 combine:1 several:4 high:1 traffic:1 site:4 include:13 flickr:1 facebook:1 wikipedia:1 google:1 search:2 nokia:1 youtube:1 data:4 storage:21 logging:1 interfaces:1 administrator:2 linux:2 write:1 c:4 parser:1 yacc:1 home:1 brew:1 lexer:1 cc:1 internals:1 manual:3 work:2 many:5 different:3 aix:1 bsdi:1 freebsd:1 hp:1 ux:1 mac:1 x:2 netbsd:1 novell:1 netware:1 openbsd:1 opensolaris:1 ecomstation:1 os:1 warp:1 qnx:1 irix:1 solaris:1 symbian:1 sunos:1 sco:2 openserver:1 unixware:1 sanos:1 microsoft:1 window:3 port:1 openvms:2 also:7 pcsi:1 kit:1 library:5 major:1 programming:2 specific:1 apis:1 addition:4 odbc:2 interface:3 call:3 myodbc:1 allow:4 additional:3 support:19 communicate:1 asp:1 coldfusion:1 mostly:1 implement:3 administer:1 databases:1 one:6 included:2 command:2 line:1 tool:9 mysqladmin:1 downloadable:1 gui:4 administration:2 query:5 browser:1 package:5 html:3 mentioned:1 commercial:3 non:1 example:3 navicat:1 free:4 lite:1 edition:2 sqlyog:1 community:6 desktop:1 base:4 phpmyadmin:1 feature:9 offer:4 two:3 variant:2 enterprise:10 common:2 following:2 broad:1 subset:1 extension:2 cross:1 store:3 procedure:2 trigger:2 cursor:2 updatable:1 view:2 true:1 varchar:1 strict:1 mode:1 xa:2 distribute:2 transaction:6 processing:1 dtp:1 phase:1 commit:2 part:2 innodb:10 engine:25 independent:1 myisam:4 read:1 speed:1 referential:2 integrity:2 archive:2 historical:1 little:1 space:1 bdb:2 cluster:5 savepoints:1 ssl:1 cache:1 sub:1 selects:2 e:3 nested:1 replication:5 master:6 per:5 slave:4 automatic:1 multiple:5 full:1 text:1 indexing:1 embed:1 partial:1 unicode:2 utf:1 sequence:1 long:2 byte:1 ucs:1 encoded:1 string:1 limit:1 bmp:2 acid:1 compliance:1 share:1 nothing:1 month:1 obtain:1 either:1 customer:3 bazaar:1 repository:1 gpl:8 publish:1 unspecified:1 schedule:1 contain:1 bug:7 fix:3 ship:1 last:1 binary:8 longer:1 every:1 peter:1 zaitsev:1 blog:3 kaj:1 arnö:1 reply:1 distinguishing:1 choose:3 effective:1 table:6 must:1 compile:2 dynamically:1 load:1 time:5 native:1 falcon:3 merge:1 memory:1 heap:1 federate:2 csv:1 blackhole:1 berkeley:2 db:2 maria:1 partner:1 soliddb:1 nitroedb:1 infobright:2 formerly:1 brighthouse:1 memcached:1 httpd:1 pbxt:1 revision:1 custom:1 group:1 gather:1 connection:1 together:1 increase:1 commits:1 second:1 compilation:2 type:4 standard:4 recommend:1 max:4 maxdb:1 cooperation:1 sap:1 ag:1 mysqld:2 extend:2 may:6 extensively:1 test:1 require:1 usage:1 debug:4 extra:1 information:2 intend:2 production:6 debugging:1 cause:1 reduced:1 performance:6 begin:2 stop:1 functionality:2 enable:1 instead:1 separate:1 extended:1 build:2 policy:1 history:1 milestone:1 development:1 originally:1 michael:2 widenius:2 david:2 axmark:2 five:1 question:1 founder:2 original:1 first:1 internally:1 version:15 january:2 nt:1 beta:5 june:2 august:2 march:2 union:1 jyoti:1 adopts:1 track:1 october:3 r:1 tree:2 b:1 subqueries:1 prepared:1 statement:1 november:1 event:1 scheduler:1 partitioning:1 plugin:1 api:1 row:1 log:1 future:2 roadmap:2 outline:1 foreign:2 key:2 target:1 although:2 present:2 since:2 supplementary:1 character:2 beyond:1 basic:1 multilingual:1 plane:1 new:1 preview:1 website:2 parallelization:1 parallelisation:1 licensing:3 via:1 service:2 minute:1 response:2 team:1 direct:1 necessary:1 handle:1 problem:2 host:1 forum:1 mail:1 list:1 employee:1 irc:1 channel:1 assistance:1 buyer:1 certify:1 particular:1 operating:1 monthly:1 update:1 late:1 level:1 membership:1 vary:1 range:1 emergency:1 tuning:1 architecture:1 advice:1 monitoring:2 advisory:1 subscription:1 traditional:1 request:1 cost:1 case:1 incompatible:1 client:2 dual:1 format:1 floss:2 exception:2 osi:1 compliant:1 compatible:1 link:2 wish:1 bind:1 purchase:2 like:1 trademark:2 holder:1 permission:1 criticism:1 recently:1 known:1 crashing:1 wrong:1 result:1 critical:2 sometimes:1 get:1 period:1 drizzle:2 status:1 exist:1 show:1 poor:2 warehouse:1 partly:1 due:2 inability:2 utilize:1 cpu:1 core:1 process:1 tpc:1 h:1 completely:1 overlap:1 set:1 http:3 dev:2 com:4 doc:2 refman:2 en:2 previous:1 claiming:1 unnecessary:1 would:2 hurt:1 see:2 section:1 even:1 limitation:1 g:1 postgresql:2 refer:1 temporary:2 twice:1 extremely:1 subselect:1 id:1 federated:2 state:1 proof:1 concept:1 though:1 turn:1 default:1 main:1 distribution:1 short:1 coming:1 document:1 miss:1 competition:1 corporation:3 innobase:2 oy:2 finnish:1 mention:1 contract:1 make:1 renewal:1 presumably:1 renegotiation:1 conference:1 confirm:1 agree:1 year:1 sleepycat:1 maker:1 onto:1 another:1 enter:1 current:1 owner:1 intellectual:1 property:1 approve:1 board:1 director:1 yet:1 finalize:1 comparison:1 hsqldb:1 reference:1 external:1 planet:1 aggregation:1 relate:1 interview:1 co:1 video:1 |@bigram relational_database:2 mysql_ab:9 sun_microsystems:6 hp_ux:1 novell_netware:1 os_warp:1 microsoft_window:1 referential_integrity:2 mysql_enterprise:6 gpl_license:1 bug_fix:2 distinguishing_feature:1 berkeley_db:2 window_nt:1 license_gpl:1 data_warehouse:1 php_id:1 oracle_corporation:3 external_link:1 |
7,404 | House_music | House music is a style of electronic dance music that originated in Chicago, Illinois, USA in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It was initially popularized in mid-1980s discothèques catering to the African-American, Latino, and gay communities, first in Chicago, then in New York City and Detroit. It eventually reached Europe before becoming infused in mainstream pop & dance music worldwide. House music is strongly influenced by elements of soul- and funk-infused varieties of disco. House music generally mimics disco's percussion, especially the use of a prominent bass drum on every beat, but may feature a prominent synthesizer bassline, electronic drums, electronic effects, funk and pop samples, and reverb- or delay-enhanced vocals. Musical elements House music is uptempo music for dancing, although by modern dance music standards it is mid-tempo, generally ranging between 118 and 135 bpm. Tempos were slower in house music's early years. The common element of house music is a prominent kick drum on every beat (also known as a four-to-the-floor beat), usually generated by a drum machine or sampler. The kick drum sound is augmented by various kick fills and extended dropouts. The drum track is filled out with hi-hat cymbal patterns that nearly always include an open hi-hat on eighth note off-beats between each kick, and a snare drum or clap sound on beats two and four of every bar. This pattern is derived from so-called "four-on-the-floor" dance drumbeats of the 1960s and especially the 1970s disco drummers. Producers commonly layer sampled drum sounds to achieve a more complex sound, and they tailor the mix for large club sound systems, de-emphasizing lower mid-range frequencies (where the fundamental frequencies of the human voice and other instruments lie) in favor of bass and hi-hats. Producers use many different sound sources for bass sounds in house music, from continuous, repeating electronically-generated lines sequenced on a synthesizer, such as a Roland SH-101 or TB-303, to studio recordings or samples of live electric bassists, or simply filtered-down samples from whole stereo recordings of classic funk tracks or any other songs. House bass lines tend to favor notes that fall within a single-octave range, whereas disco bass lines often alternated between octave-separated notes and would span greater ranges. Some early house productions used parts of bass lines from earlier disco tracks. For example, producer Mark "Hot Rod" Trollan copied bass line sections from the 1983 Italo disco song "Feels Good (Carrots & Beets)" (by Electra featuring Tara Butler) to form the basis of his 1986 production of "Your Love" by Jamie Principle. Frankie Knuckles used the same notes in his more famous 1987 version of "Your Love", which also featured Principle on vocals. Electronically-generated sounds and samples of recordings from genres such as jazz, blues and synth pop are often added to the foundation of the drum beat and synth bass line. House songs may also include disco, soul-style, or gospel vocals and additional percussion such as tambourine. Many house mixes also include repeating, short, syncopated, staccato chord loops that are usually composed of 5-7 chords in a 4-beat measure. Techno and trance, which developed alongside house music, share this basic beat infrastructure, but they usually eschew house's live-music-influenced feel and Black or Latin music influences in favor of more synthetic sound sources and approach. History Precursors The Paradise Garage nightclub in New York City House music is a descendant of disco, which blended soul, R&B, funk, with celebratory messages about dancing, love, and sexuality, all underpinned with repetitive arrangements and a steady bass drum beat. Some disco songs incorporated sounds produced with synthesizers and drum machines, and some compositions were entirely electronic; examples include Giorgio Moroder late 1970s productions such as Donna Summer's hit single "I Feel Love" from 1977, and several early 1980s disco-pop productions by the Hi-NRG group Lime. House was also influenced by mixing and editing techniques earlier explored by disco DJs, producers, and audio engineers like Walter Gibbons, Tom Moulton, Jim Burgess, Larry Levan, Ron Hardy, M & M and others who produced longer, more repetitive and percussive arrangements of existing disco recordings. Early house music producers like Frankie Knuckles created similar compositions from scratch, using samplers, synthesizers, sequencers, and drum machines. The hypnotic electronic dance song "On and On", produced in 1984 by Chicago DJ Jesse Saunders, had elements that became staples of the early house music sound, such as the 303 bass synthesizer and minimal vocals. It is sometimes cited as the 'first house music record', Marshell Jefferson - 4clubbers.net http://www.flyglobalmusic.com/fly/archives/uscanada_features/finding_jesse_-.html although other examples from the same time period, such as J.M. Silk's "Music is the Key" (1985) have also been cited. Etymology The origins of the term "house music" are disputed. The term may have its origin from a club called the The Warehouse, which was one of the nightclubs that became popular among the teenagers living in the Chicago area in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Warehouse was patronized primarily by gay black and Latino men, who came to dance to DJ Frankie Knuckles's mix of classic disco. Knuckles released his dance tracks and mixes on D.J. International Records as well as on the Trax Records label. These dance tracks became known as house music. The club gained considerable fame in the mid '70s and grew tremendously towards the end of the '70s. Knuckles's productions increased at that time, and his mix of the Jamie Principle song "Your Love" is considered by many the track that was the launching pad for house music. Chip E.'s recording "It's House" may also have helped to define this new form of electronic music. Chip E. claims the name came from methods of labelling records at the Imports Etc. record store, where he worked in the early 1980s; music that DJ Knuckles played at the Warehouse nightclub was labelled in the store "As Heard At The Warehouse", which was shortened to simply "House music". Larry Heard, aka "Mr. Fingers", claims that the term "house" reflected the fact that many early DJs created music in their own homes, using synthesizers and drum machines, including the Roland TR-808, TR-909, and the TB 303 Bassline synthesizer-sequencer. These synthesizers were used to create a house music subgenre called acid house. Juan Atkins, an originator of Detroit techno music, claims the term "house" reflected the exclusive association of particular tracks with particular DJs; those tracks were their "house" records (much like a restaurant might have a "house" salad dressing). Chicago years: early 1980s – late 1980s House music was developed in the houses, garages and clubs of Chicago initially for local club-goers in the "underground" club scenes, rather than for widespread commercial release. As a result, the recordings were much more conceptual, longer than the music usually played on commercial radio. House musicians used analog synthesizers and sequencers to create and arrange the electronic elements and samples on their tracks, combining live traditional instruments and percussion and soulful vocals with preprogrammed electronic synthesizers and "beat-boxes". Main stream record stores often did not carry these 12 inch vinyl singles, as they were not available through the major record distributors. In Chicago, records stores such as Importes Etc., State Street Records, JR’s Music shop and Gramaphone Records were the primary suppliers of this music. The record-store Importes Etc, is believed to be where the term “house” was introduced as a shortening of "Warehouse". The music was still essentially disco until the early 1980s when the first stand-alone drum machines were invented. House tracks could now be given an edge with the use of a mixer and drum machine. This was an added boost to the prestige of the individual DJs. Underground club DJs like Ron Hardy and radio jocks the Hot Mix 5 played Italo Disco tracks like "Dirty Talk" and the "MBO Theme" by Klein M.B.O., Early B-Boy Hip Hop tracks such as Man Parrish's "Hip Hop, Be Bop (Don't Stop)" and Afrika Bambaataa and the Soul Sonic Force's Planet Rock and Looking for the Perfect Beat as well as electronic music by Kraftwerk; these genres were influential to the Chicago genre of House. Jesse Saunders “Jes Say Records” who had club hits with more “B-boy Hip Hop” oriented tracks like “Come to Me” by Gwendolyn and “Dum Dum” as well as the Italo Disco influenced “Under Cover” by Dr. Derelict released the first Chicago home made house hit, “On and On” (1984) which had hypnotic lyrics, driving bassline, and percussion. This was the first house record pressed and sold to the general public. In 1985, Mr Fingers's landmark "Can You Feel It?"/"Washing Machine"/"Mystery of Love" showed a jazz-influenced, lush, sound that was created using a Roland TR-707 and Juno 6 synthesizer. This song helped to start the trend for the Deep house genre, which had a slower beat of 110-125 bpm. In the same year, Chip E.'s "It's House" is a good example of the Chicago House Music style. In 1986, Phuture's "Acid Trax" (1986) showed the development of a house music subgenre called acid house which arose from experiments with a 303 machine by Chicago musicians such as DJ Pierre. Early house recordings were Jamie Principle and Frankie Knuckles' "Your Love"; "On and On" by Jesse Saunders (1985) and Chip E.'s "The Jack Trax" featuring the songs “It’s House” and “Time to Jack”, which used complex rhythms, simple bassline, sampling technology, and minimalist vocals. By 1985, house music dominated the clubs of Chicago, largely in part due to the radio play the music received on 102.7 FM WBMX which was the brainchild of Program director Lee Michaels through WBMX's resident DJ team, the Hot Mix 5. The Roland TB-303 bass synthesizer The music and movement was also aided by the electronic music revolution - the arrival of cheap and compact music sequencers, drum machines (the Roland TR-909, TR-808 and TR-707, and Latin percussion machine the TR-727) and bass modules (such as the Roland TB-303) gave House music creators even wider possibilities in creating their own sound. The acid house subgenre was developed from the experiments by DJ Pierre, Larry Heard (Mr. Fingers), and Marshall Jefferson with the new drum and rhythm machines. Many of the songs that defined the Chicago house music sound were released by DJ International Records and Trax Records. In 1985, Trax released "Jack the Bass" and "Funkin' with the Drums Again" by Farley Jackmaster Funk. In 1986, Trax released "No Way Back" by Adonis, Larry Heard's (as Fingers Inc.) "Can You Feel It?" and "Washing Machine", and an early house anthem in 1986, "Move Your Body" by Marshall Jefferson, which helped to boost the popularity of the style outside of Chicago. In 1987, Steve 'Silk' Hurley's "Jack Your Body" was the first House track to reach No.1 in the UK Top 40 pop chart. 1987 also saw M/A/R/R/S' "Pump Up The Volume" reach No.1 in the UK Top 40 pop chart. In 1989 Hurley transformed Roberta Flack's soft ballad "Uh Oh Look Out" into a boisterous dance track. S'Express's "Theme from S'Express" (1988)is an example of a disco-influenced, funky acid house tune. It uses samples from Rose Royce's song "Is it Love You're After" over a Roland 303 bassline. In 1989, Black Box - "Ride on time" (which sampled Loleatta Holloway's 1980 disco hit, Love Sensation) hit number 1 in the UK top 40 and Technotronic's song "Pump Up the Jam" (1989) was one of the early house records to break the top 10 on the U.S. pop charts. A year later, Madonna's "Vogue" went to number one on charts worldwide, becoming the highest selling single on WEA up to that time. In 1992, Leftfield's song "Release the Pressure" helped to introduce a new subgenre of house called progressive house. House music also had an influence of relaying political messages to people who were considered to be outcast of society. It offered for those who didn't fit into mainstream American society, especially celebrated by many black gays. Frankie Knuckles made a good comparison of House saying it was like "church for people who have fallen from grace" and Marshall Jefferson compared it to "old-time religion in the way that people just get happy and screamin'" (30). Deep house was similar to many of the messages of freedom for the black community. Both House CDs by Joe Smooth, "Promised Land" and Db "I Have a Dream" give similar messages of Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" speech."Someday" by CeCe Rogers, would move house further into the gospel stream later titled "Gospel House". House was also very sexual and had much mystic in it. It went so far as to have a "eroto-mystic delirium" (31). Jamie Principle's "Baby Wants to Ride" begins in a prayer but surprisingly is about a dominatrix who seduces a man to "ride" her through the rest of the song. House dance itself is a lot older than house music, which arose in the late 1970s upon the end of the disco era during the times of such nightclubs as Chicago's Warehouse and New York's Loft and Paradise Garage. House dance takes from many different dance elements such as the Lindy era, African, Latin, Brazilian, jazz, tap, and even modern. House dance has been debatingly broken down in three styles: Footwork, Jacking, and Lofting. It includes a variety of techniques and sub-styles that include skating, stomping, and shuffling. It also incorporates movements from many other sources such as whacking, voguing, Capoeira, tap, and Latin dances such as salsa. A wide variety of the movements came from jazz and bebop styles and even from African and Latin descent. One of the primary elements in house dancing is a technique that came from Chicago that involves moving the torso forward and backward in a rippling motion, as if a wave were passing through it. When this movement is repeated and sped up to match the beat of a song it is called jacking, or "the jack." All footwork in house dancing is said to initiate from the way the jack moves the center of gravity through space. House music especially Deep House was a jarring kind of genre in music which brought the immoral and different aspect of the sexual and minority in the forefront. House was definitely concerned with the sensuality of the body and setting oneself free-- without the worry of outside barriers. Reynolds, Simon. Generation Ecstasy Detroit techno: mid 1980s – early 1990s See also Techno Detroit techno was developed in the mid 1980s. Though Detroit techno is a distinct musical form, its pioneers were also instrumental in spreading house music internationally. Detroit techno developed as the legendary disc jockey The Electrifying Mojo conducted his own radio program at this time, influencing the fusion of eclectic sounds into the signature Detroit techno sound. Juan Atkins released "NO UFO's" on Metroplex Records, which was very well received in Chicago and is considered a classic. He followed with the 1986 release of the track "Technicolor". Derrick May aka "MAYDAY" released "Nude Photo" in 1986 on his label "Transmat Records", which helped kickstart the Detroit techno music scene and was put in heavy rotation on Chicago's Hot Mix 5 Radio dj mix show and in many Chicago clubs. A year later releasing what was to become one of techno's classic anthems, the seminal track "Strings of Life", "Transmat Records" went on to have many more successful releases such as 1988's "Wiggin". As well, Derrick May had successful releases on Kool Kat Records and many remixes for a host of underground and mainstream recording artist. Kevin Saunderson's company KMS Records contributed many releases that were as much House Music as they were Techno, these tracks were well received in Chicago and played on Chicago radio and in clubs. Blake Baxter's 1986 recording, "When we Used to Play / Work your Body", 1987's "Bounce Your Body to the Box" and "Force Field", "The Sound / How to Play our Music" and “the Groove that Won't Stop” and a remix of "Grooving Without a Doubt". In 1988, as house music became more popular among general audiences, Kevin Saunderson’s group Inner City with Paris Gray released the 1988 hits "Big Fun" and "Good Life", which eventually were picked up by Virgin Records. Each EP / 12 inch single sported remixes by Mike "Hitman" Wilson and Steve "Silk" Hurley of Chicago and Derrick "Mayday" May and Juan Atkins of Detroit. In 1989, KMS had another hit release of "Rock to the Beat" which was a theme in Chicago dance clubs. UK: late 1980s – early 1990s In Britain the growth of house can be divided around the "Summer of Love" in 1988/9. House had a presence in Britain almost as early as it appeared in Chicago; however there was a strong divide between the House music as part of the gay scene and "straight" music. House grew in northern England, the Midlands and the South East. Founded in 1982 by Factory Records, The Haçienda in Manchester became an extension of the "Northern Soul" genre and was one of the early, key English dance music clubs. Until 1986 the club was financially troubled; the crowds only started to grow when the resident DJs (Pickering, Park and Da Silva) started to play house music. Many underground venues and DJ nights also took place across the UK, such as the private parties hosted by an early Miss Moneypenny's contingent in Birmingham and many London venues. House was boosted in the UK by the tour in the same year of Knuckles, Jefferson, Fingers Inc. (Heard) and Adonis as the DJ International Tour. One of the early anthemic tunes, "Promised Land" by Joe Smooth, was covered and charted within a week by the Style Council. The first English House tune came out in 1986 - "Carino" by T-Coy. Europeans embraced house music, and began booking legendary American House DJs to play at the big clubs, such as Ministry of Sound, whose resident, DJ Harvey brought in Larry Levan. The house scene in cities such as Birmingham, Manchester and London were also provided with many underground Pirate Radio stations and DJs alike which helped bolster an already contagious, but otherwise ignored by the mainstream, music genre. One of the earliest and most influential UK house and techno record labels was Network Records (otherwise known as Kool Kat records) who helped introduce Italian and U.S. dance music to Britain as well as promoting select UK dance music acts. But house was also developing on Ibiza. In the 1970s Ibiza was a hippie stop-over for the rich party crowd. By the mid-1980s a distinct Balearic mix of house was discernible. Several clubs like Amnesia with DJ Alfredo were playing a mix of rock, pop, disco and house. These clubs, fueled by their distinctive sound and Ecstasy, began to have an influence on the British scene. By late 1987 DJs like Paul Oakenfold and Danny Rampling were bringing the Ibiza sound to UK clubs like Shoom in Southwark (London), Heaven, Future, Spectrum and Purple Raines in Birmingham. In the U.S., the music was being developed to create a more sophisticated sound, moving beyond just drum loops and short samples. New York-based performers such as Mateo & Matos and Blaze had slickly produced disco-house crossover tracks. In Chicago, Marshall Jefferson had formed the house group Ten City (from "intensity"). In Detroit a proto-techno music sound began to emerge with the recordings of Juan Atkins, Derrick May and Kevin Saunderson. Atkins, a former member of Cybotron, released Model 500 "No UFOs" in 1985, which became a regional hit, followed by dozens of tracks on Transmat, Metroplex and Fragile. One of the most unusual was "Strings of Life" by Derrick May, a darker, more intellectual strain of house. "Techno-Scratch" was released by the Knights Of The Turntable in 1984 which had a similar techno sound to Cybotron. The manager of the Factory nightclub, Tony Wilson, also promoted acid house culture on his weekly TV show. The Midlands also embraced the late 1980s House scene with underground venues such as multi storey car parks and more legal dance stations such as the Digbeth Institute (now the 'Sanctuary' and home to Sundissential). US: late 1980s – early 1990s Back in America the scene had still not progressed beyond a small number of clubs in Chicago, Detroit and New York. Paradise Garage in New York City was still a top club, although they now had Todd Terry, his cover of Class Action's Larry Levan mixed "Weekend" demonstrated the continuum from the underground disco to a new House sound with hip-hop influences evident in the quicker sampling and the more rugged bass-line. While hip-hop had made it onto radio play-lists, the only other choices were Rock, Country & Western or R & B. Other influences from New York came from the hip-hop, reggae, and Latin community, and many of the New York City super producers/DJs began surfacing for the first time (Erick Morillo, Roger Sanchez, Junior Vasquez, Danny Tenaglia, Jonathan Peters) with unique sounds that would evolve into other genres (tribal house, progressive house, funky house). Producers such as Masters At Work and Kerri Chandler also started pioneering a richer Garage sound that was picked up on by 'outsiders' from the worlds of jazz, hip-hop and downbeat as much as it was by House aficionados. In the late 80's Nu Groove Records prolonged, if not launched the careers of Rheji Burrell & Rhano Burrell, collectively known as Burrell (after a brief stay on Virgin America via Timmy Registford and Frank Mendez), along with basically every relevant DJ and Producer in the NY underground scene. The Burrell's are responsible for the "New York Underground" sound and are the undisputed champions of this style of house music. Their 30+ releases on this label alone seems to support that fact. In today's market Nu Groove Record releases like the Burrells' enjoy a cult-like following and mint vinyl can fetch $100 U.S. or more in the open market. Influential gospel/R&B-influenced Aly-us released "Time Passes On" in 1993 (Strictly Rhythm), then later, "Follow Me" which received radio airplay as well as being played in clubs. Another U.S. hit which received radio play was the single "Time for the Perculator" by Cajmere, which became the prototype of ghetto house sub-genre. Cajmere started the Cajual and Relief labels (amongst others). By the early 1990s artists such as Cajmere himself (under that name as well as Green Velvet and as producer for Dajae), DJ Sneak, Glenn Underground and others did many recordings. The 1990s saw new Chicago house music artists emerge such as DJ Funk, who operates a Chicago house record label called Dance Mania, which primarily distributes ghetto house. Ghetto house, along with acid house, were house music styles that were started in Chicago. UK: early 1990s – mid-1990s In Britain, further experiments in the genre boosted its appeal. House and rave clubs like Lakota, Miss Moneypenny's and Cream emerged across Britain, hosting house and dance scene events. The 'chilling out' concept developed in Britain with ambient house albums such as The KLF's Chill Out and Analogue Bubblebath by Aphex Twin. Chillout music is often defined as a fusion of different genres, such as Ambient, Trip hop or downtempo (later on) or New Age (older). The unifying feature of Chill Out electronica is long sustained tones and a smoother sound, rather than the noisy, percussive sound of other styles. At the same time, a new indie dance scene emerged. In New York, bands such as Deee-Lite furthered house music's international influence. Two distinctive tracks from this era were the Orb's "Little Fluffy Clouds" (with a distinctive vocal sample from Rickie Lee Jones) and the Happy Mondays' "Wrote for Luck" ("WFL") which was transformed into a dance hit by Paul Oakenfold. The UK Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 was a government attempt to ban large rave dance events featuring music with "repetitive beats". There were a number of abortive "Kill the Bill" demonstrations. Although the bill became law, in November 1994, it had little effect. The music continued to grow and change, as typified by the emergence of acts like Leftfield with "Release the Pressure", which introduced dub and reggae into the house music sound. In more commercial recordings, a mix of R&B with stronger basslines was used. The house music scene was shaped by a variety of inflences, including the club culture scene. Like the 1970s disco club scene, the house music club scene was associated with a number of drugs which club-goers used to enhance the dancing experience, such as amyl nitrite "poppers", MDMA, ketamine, and GHB. As well, like the disco scene that preceded it, the house music club scene attracted a mix of cultural and racial groups. Tunes like "The Bouncer" from Kicks Like a Mule used sped-up hip-hop breakbeats. With SL2's "On A Ragga Tip" they gave the foundations to what would become drum and bass and jungle. Initially called breakbeat hardcore, it found popularity in London clubs like Rage as an "inner city" music. Labels like Moving Shadow and Reinforced became underground favorites. "London Hardcore Techno" was a style of music that Moonshine music released with an increased tempo of around 160 bpm. UK garage developed later. Originally an underground style combining house beats with pitched up RnB vocals and the ragga MCing and warping bass of jungle, it broke into the mainstream via artists like The Artful Dodger and 187 Lockdown, and influenced pop acts like Liberty X and Victoria Beckham. The 4 Hero subgenre adopted soul and jazz influences, and some used a full orchestral section to create a more "sophisticated" sound. Later, this led directly to the West London scene known as Broken beat or Breakbeat. A new generation of clubs like Miss Moneypenny's, Liverpool's Cream (as opposed to the original underground night, C.R.E.A.M.) and the Ministry of Sound were opened to provide a venue for more commercial sounds. Major record companies began to open "superclubs" promoting their own acts. These superclubs entered into sponsorship deals initially with fast food, soft drinks, and clothing companies. Flyers in clubs in Ibiza often sported many corporate logos. A new sub-genre, Chicago Hard House, was developed by DJs such as Bad Boy Bill, DJ Lynnwood, DJ Irene, Richard "Humpty" Vission and DJ Enrie. 2000s Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley proclaimed August 10, 2005 to be "House Unity Day" in Chicago, in celebration of the "21st anniversary of house music" (actually the 21st anniversary of the founding of Trax Records). The proclamation recognized Chicago as "the original home of house music" and that the music's original creators "were inspired by the love of their city, with the dream that someday their music would spread a message of peace and unity throughout the world". DJs such as Frankie Knuckles, Marshall Jefferson, Paul Johnson and Mickey Oliver celebrated the proclamation at the Summer Dance Series, an event organized by Chicago's Department of Cultural Affairs. In the mid-2000s, fusion genres such as electro house, dark house, and tech house emerged. This fusion is apparent in the crossover of musical styles by artists such as Dennis Ferrer and Booka Shade, with the former's production style having evolved from the New York soulful house scene and the latter's roots in techno. Another genre known as Fidget House started making some noise by Djs and Producers, Switch and Jesse Rose, who considered it an "accident". DJs today can be heard blending all sub-genres of house as many of the best musical elements are shared across these sub-genres. As of the late 2000s, house music remains popular in clubs throughout the world. Further reading Sean Bidder 2002 Pump Up the Volume: A History of House Music, MacMillan. ISBN 0-7522-1986-3 Sean Bidder 1999 The Rough Guide to House Music, Rough Guides. ISBN 1-85828-432-5 Bill Brewster & Frank Broughton 2000 Last Night a DJ Saved My Life: The History of the Disc Jockey, Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3688-5 and in UK: 1999 / 2006, Headline. Kai Fikentscher 2000 "'You Better Work!' Underground Dance Music in New York City". Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0-8195-6404-4 Hewitt, Michael. Music Theory for Computer Musicians. 1st Ed. U.S. Cengage Learning, 2008. ISBN 978-1-59863-503-4 Chris Kempster (Ed) 1996 History of House, Castle Communications. ISBN 1-86074-134-7 (A reprinting of magazine articles from the 1980s and 90s) Simon Reynolds 1998 Energy Flash: a Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture, (UK title, Pan Macmillan. ISBN 0-330-35056-0), also released in U.S. as Generation Ecstasy : Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture (U.S. title, Routledge, 1999, ISBN 0-415-92373-5) Hillegonda C. Rietveld 1998 This is our House: House Music, Cultural Spaces and Technologies, Ashgate. ISBN 1-85742-242-2 Silcott Mireille. Rave America: New School Dancescapes (1999), ECW Press. ISBN 1550223836 See also Styles of house music List of house music artists House dance List of electronic music genres Notes References Peter Shapiro (2000) Modulations: A History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound. ISBN 1-891024-06-X The History of House (2004) HouseKeeping: Funky House DJs from the UK External links Scaruffi's history of rap, techno and house be-x-old:Гаўс | House_music |@lemmatized house:136 music:91 style:16 electronic:12 dance:29 originate:1 chicago:34 illinois:1 usa:1 late:11 early:26 initially:4 popularize:1 mid:9 discothèques:1 cater:1 african:3 american:3 latino:2 gay:4 community:3 first:8 new:22 york:12 city:10 detroit:11 eventually:2 reach:3 europe:1 become:13 infuse:1 mainstream:5 pop:9 worldwide:2 strongly:1 influence:16 element:8 soul:6 funk:6 infused:1 variety:4 disco:24 generally:2 mimic:1 percussion:5 especially:4 use:17 prominent:3 bass:16 drum:20 every:4 beat:17 may:9 feature:6 synthesizer:12 bassline:5 effect:2 sample:11 reverb:1 delay:1 enhanced:1 vocal:8 musical:4 uptempo:1 although:4 modern:2 standard:1 tempo:3 range:4 bpm:3 slow:2 year:6 common:1 kick:5 also:22 know:6 four:3 floor:2 usually:4 generate:3 machine:12 sampler:2 sound:34 augment:1 various:1 fill:2 extend:1 dropout:1 track:21 hi:4 hat:3 cymbal:1 pattern:2 nearly:1 always:1 include:8 open:4 eighth:1 note:5 snare:1 clap:1 two:2 bar:1 derive:1 call:8 drumbeat:1 drummer:1 producer:10 commonly:1 layer:1 achieve:1 complex:2 tailor:1 mix:14 large:2 club:31 system:1 de:1 emphasize:1 low:1 frequency:2 fundamental:1 human:1 voice:1 instrument:2 lie:1 favor:3 many:20 different:4 source:3 continuous:1 repeat:3 electronically:2 line:7 sequence:1 roland:7 sh:1 tb:4 studio:1 recording:10 live:4 electric:1 bassist:1 simply:2 filtered:1 whole:1 stereo:1 classic:4 song:14 tend:1 fall:2 within:2 single:6 octave:2 whereas:1 often:5 alternate:1 separate:1 would:5 span:1 great:1 production:6 part:3 example:5 mark:1 hot:4 rod:1 trollan:1 copy:1 section:2 italo:3 feel:5 good:5 carrot:1 beet:1 electra:1 tara:1 butler:1 form:4 basis:1 love:11 jamie:4 principle:5 frankie:6 knuckle:10 famous:1 version:1 genre:17 jazz:6 blue:1 synth:2 add:1 foundation:2 gospel:4 additional:1 tambourine:1 short:2 syncopate:1 staccato:1 chord:2 loop:2 compose:1 measure:1 techno:19 trance:1 develop:10 alongside:1 share:2 basic:1 infrastructure:1 eschew:1 black:5 latin:6 synthetic:1 approach:1 history:7 precursor:1 paradise:3 garage:6 nightclub:5 descendant:1 blend:2 r:7 b:7 celebratory:1 message:5 dancing:4 sexuality:1 underpinned:1 repetitive:3 arrangement:2 steady:1 incorporate:2 produce:4 composition:2 entirely:1 giorgio:1 moroder:1 donna:1 summer:3 hit:10 several:2 nrg:1 group:4 lime:1 edit:1 technique:3 earlier:1 explore:1 dj:34 audio:1 engineer:1 like:23 walter:1 gibbon:1 tom:1 moulton:1 jim:1 burgess:1 larry:6 levan:3 ron:2 hardy:2 others:3 long:3 percussive:2 exist:1 create:8 similar:4 scratch:2 sequencer:4 hypnotic:2 jesse:4 saunders:3 staple:1 minimal:1 sometimes:1 cite:2 record:34 marshell:1 jefferson:7 net:1 http:1 www:1 flyglobalmusic:1 com:1 fly:1 archive:1 html:1 time:12 period:1 j:2 silk:3 key:2 etymology:1 origin:2 term:5 dispute:1 warehouse:6 one:9 popular:3 among:2 teenager:1 area:1 patronize:1 primarily:2 men:1 come:7 release:24 international:4 well:10 trax:7 label:8 gain:1 considerable:1 fame:1 grow:4 tremendously:1 towards:1 end:2 increase:2 consider:4 launching:1 pad:1 chip:4 e:5 help:7 define:3 claim:3 name:2 method:1 labelling:1 import:1 etc:3 store:5 work:4 play:13 heard:3 shorten:1 aka:2 mr:3 finger:5 reflect:2 fact:2 home:4 tr:7 subgenre:5 acid:7 juan:4 atkins:5 originator:1 exclusive:1 association:1 particular:2 much:5 restaurant:1 might:1 salad:1 dress:1 local:1 goer:2 underground:14 scene:18 rather:2 widespread:1 commercial:4 result:1 conceptual:1 radio:10 musician:3 analog:1 arrange:1 combine:2 traditional:1 soulful:2 preprogrammed:1 box:3 main:1 stream:2 carry:1 inch:2 vinyl:2 available:1 major:2 distributor:1 importes:2 state:1 street:1 jr:1 shop:1 gramaphone:1 primary:2 supplier:1 believe:1 introduce:4 shortening:1 still:3 essentially:1 stand:1 alone:2 invent:1 could:1 give:4 edge:1 mixer:1 added:1 boost:4 prestige:1 individual:1 jock:1 dirty:1 talk:1 mbo:1 theme:3 klein:1 boy:3 hip:8 hop:9 man:2 parrish:1 bop:1 stop:3 afrika:1 bambaataa:1 sonic:1 force:2 planet:1 rock:4 look:2 perfect:1 kraftwerk:1 influential:3 jes:1 say:3 orient:1 gwendolyn:1 dum:2 cover:3 dr:1 derelict:1 make:4 lyric:1 drive:1 press:4 sell:1 general:2 public:2 landmark:1 wash:2 mystery:1 show:4 lush:1 juno:1 start:7 trend:1 deep:3 phuture:1 development:1 arise:2 experiment:3 pierre:2 jack:6 rhythm:3 simple:1 technology:2 minimalist:1 dominate:1 largely:1 due:1 receive:5 fm:1 wbmx:2 brainchild:1 program:2 director:1 lee:2 michael:2 resident:3 team:1 movement:4 aid:1 revolution:1 arrival:1 cheap:1 compact:1 module:1 creator:2 even:3 wide:2 possibility:1 hear:3 marshall:5 funkin:1 farley:1 jackmaster:1 way:3 back:2 adonis:2 inc:2 anthem:2 move:6 body:5 popularity:2 outside:2 steve:2 hurley:3 uk:15 top:5 chart:5 saw:2 pump:3 volume:2 transform:2 roberta:1 flack:1 soft:2 ballad:1 uh:1 oh:1 boisterous:1 express:2 funky:3 tune:4 rise:2 royce:1 ride:3 loleatta:1 holloway:1 sensation:1 number:5 technotronic:1 jam:1 break:3 u:10 later:7 madonna:1 vogue:1 go:3 high:1 selling:1 wea:1 leftfield:2 pressure:2 progressive:2 relay:1 political:1 people:3 outcast:1 society:2 offer:1 fit:1 celebrate:2 comparison:1 church:1 grace:1 compare:1 old:4 religion:1 get:1 happy:2 screamin:1 freedom:1 cd:1 joe:2 smooth:2 promise:2 land:2 db:1 dream:3 martin:1 luther:1 king:1 speech:1 someday:2 cece:1 rogers:1 far:2 title:3 sexual:2 mystic:2 eroto:1 delirium:1 baby:1 want:1 begin:6 prayer:1 surprisingly:1 dominatrix:1 seduce:1 rest:1 lot:1 upon:1 era:3 loft:2 take:2 lindy:1 brazilian:1 tap:2 debatingly:1 three:1 footwork:2 jacking:2 sub:5 skate:1 stomp:1 shuffle:1 whacking:1 voguing:1 capoeira:1 salsa:1 bebop:1 descent:1 involve:1 torso:1 forward:1 backward:1 rippling:1 motion:1 wave:1 pass:2 speed:2 match:1 initiate:1 center:1 gravity:1 space:2 jarring:1 kind:1 bring:3 immoral:1 aspect:1 minority:1 forefront:1 definitely:1 concern:1 sensuality:1 set:1 oneself:1 free:1 without:2 worry:1 barrier:1 reynolds:2 simon:2 generation:3 ecstasy:3 see:2 though:1 distinct:2 pioneer:2 instrumental:1 spread:2 internationally:1 legendary:2 disc:2 jockey:2 electrify:1 mojo:1 conduct:1 fusion:4 eclectic:1 signature:1 ufo:1 metroplex:2 follow:4 technicolor:1 derrick:5 mayday:2 nude:1 photo:1 transmat:3 kickstart:1 put:1 heavy:1 rotation:1 seminal:1 string:2 life:4 successful:2 wiggin:1 kool:2 kat:2 remixes:2 host:3 artist:4 kevin:3 saunderson:3 company:3 km:2 contribute:1 blake:1 baxter:1 bounce:1 field:1 groove:4 win:1 remix:1 doubt:1 audience:1 inner:2 paris:1 gray:1 big:2 fun:1 pick:2 virgin:2 ep:1 sport:2 mike:1 hitman:1 wilson:2 another:3 britain:6 growth:1 divide:2 around:2 presence:1 almost:1 appear:1 however:1 strong:2 straight:1 northern:2 england:1 midland:2 south:1 east:1 found:1 factory:2 haçienda:1 manchester:2 extension:1 english:2 financially:1 troubled:1 crowd:2 pickering:1 park:2 da:1 silva:1 venue:4 night:3 place:1 across:3 private:1 party:2 miss:3 moneypenny:3 contingent:1 birmingham:3 london:6 tour:2 anthemic:1 week:1 council:1 carino:1 coy:1 european:1 embrace:2 book:1 ministry:2 whose:1 harvey:1 provide:2 pirate:1 station:2 alike:1 bolster:1 already:1 contagious:1 otherwise:2 ignore:1 network:1 italian:1 promote:3 select:1 act:5 ibiza:4 hippie:1 rich:2 balearic:1 discernible:1 amnesia:1 alfredo:1 fuel:1 distinctive:3 british:1 paul:3 oakenfold:2 danny:2 rampling:1 shoom:1 southwark:1 heaven:1 future:1 spectrum:1 purple:1 raines:1 sophisticated:2 beyond:2 base:1 performer:1 mateo:1 matos:1 blaze:1 slickly:1 crossover:2 ten:1 intensity:1 proto:1 emerge:5 former:2 member:1 cybotron:2 model:1 ufos:1 regional:1 dozen:1 fragile:1 unusual:1 darker:1 intellectual:1 strain:1 knight:1 turntable:1 manager:1 tony:1 culture:4 weekly:1 tv:1 multi:1 storey:1 car:1 legal:1 digbeth:1 institute:1 sanctuary:1 sundissential:1 america:3 progress:1 small:1 todd:1 terry:1 class:1 action:1 mixed:1 weekend:1 demonstrate:1 continuum:1 evident:1 quicker:1 sampling:1 rugged:1 onto:1 list:3 choice:1 country:1 western:1 reggae:2 super:1 surface:1 erick:1 morillo:1 roger:1 sanchez:1 junior:1 vasquez:1 tenaglia:1 jonathan:1 peter:2 unique:1 evolve:2 tribal:1 master:1 kerri:1 chandler:1 outsider:1 world:4 downbeat:1 aficionado:1 nu:2 prolong:1 launch:1 career:1 rheji:1 burrell:4 rhano:1 collectively:1 brief:1 stay:1 via:2 timmy:1 registford:1 frank:2 mendez:1 along:2 basically:1 relevant:1 ny:1 responsible:1 undisputed:1 champion:1 seem:1 support:1 today:2 market:2 burrells:1 enjoy:1 cult:1 mint:1 fetch:1 aly:1 strictly:1 airplay:1 perculator:1 cajmere:3 prototype:1 ghetto:3 cajual:1 relief:1 amongst:1 green:1 velvet:1 dajae:1 sneak:1 glenn:1 artists:2 operate:1 mania:1 distribute:1 appeal:1 rave:5 lakota:1 cream:2 event:3 chill:3 concept:1 ambient:2 album:1 klf:1 analogue:1 bubblebath:1 aphex:1 twin:1 chillout:1 trip:1 downtempo:1 age:1 unifying:1 electronica:1 sustain:1 tone:1 smoother:1 noisy:1 indie:1 band:1 deee:1 lite:1 orb:1 little:2 fluffy:1 cloud:1 rickie:1 jones:1 monday:1 write:1 luck:1 wfl:1 criminal:1 justice:1 order:1 government:1 attempt:1 ban:1 abortive:1 kill:1 bill:4 demonstration:1 law:1 november:1 continue:1 change:1 typify:1 emergence:1 dub:1 basslines:1 shape:1 inflences:1 associate:1 drug:1 enhance:1 experience:1 amyl:1 nitrite:1 popper:1 mdma:1 ketamine:1 ghb:1 precede:1 attract:1 cultural:3 racial:1 bouncer:1 mule:1 breakbeats:1 ragga:2 tip:1 jungle:2 breakbeat:2 hardcore:2 find:1 rage:1 shadow:1 reinforce:1 favorite:1 moonshine:1 originally:1 pitch:1 rnb:1 mcing:1 warp:1 artful:1 dodger:1 lockdown:1 liberty:1 x:3 victoria:1 beckham:1 hero:1 adopt:1 full:1 orchestral:1 lead:1 directly:1 west:1 broken:1 liverpool:1 oppose:1 original:3 c:2 superclubs:2 enter:1 sponsorship:1 deal:1 fast:1 food:1 drink:1 clothing:1 flyer:1 corporate:1 logo:1 hard:1 bad:1 lynnwood:1 irene:1 richard:2 humpty:1 vission:1 enrie:1 mayor:1 daley:1 proclaim:1 august:1 unity:2 day:1 celebration:1 anniversary:2 actually:1 founding:1 proclamation:2 recognize:1 inspire:1 peace:1 throughout:2 johnson:1 mickey:1 oliver:1 series:1 organize:1 department:1 affair:1 electro:1 dark:1 tech:1 apparent:1 dennis:1 ferrer:1 booka:1 shade:1 latter:1 root:1 fidget:1 noise:1 switch:1 accident:1 best:1 remain:1 read:1 sean:2 bidder:2 macmillan:2 isbn:11 rough:2 guide:2 brewster:1 broughton:1 last:1 save:1 grove:1 headline:1 kai:1 fikentscher:1 middletown:1 ct:1 wesleyan:1 university:1 hewitt:1 theory:1 computer:1 ed:2 cengage:1 learning:1 chris:1 kempster:1 castle:1 communication:1 reprinting:1 magazine:1 article:1 energy:1 flash:1 journey:1 pan:1 routledge:1 hillegonda:1 rietveld:1 ashgate:1 silcott:1 mireille:1 school:1 dancescapes:1 ecw:1 reference:1 shapiro:1 modulation:1 throbbing:1 word:1 housekeeping:1 external:1 link:1 scaruffi:1 rap:1 гаўс:1 |@bigram chicago_illinois:1 hi_hat:3 hat_cymbal:1 snare_drum:1 frankie_knuckle:6 synth_pop:1 paradise_garage:3 giorgio_moroder:1 tom_moulton:1 larry_levan:3 synthesizer_sequencer:3 http_www:1 tr_tr:3 juan_atkins:4 detroit_techno:7 hip_hop:8 afrika_bambaataa:1 martin_luther:1 forward_backward:1 disc_jockey:2 kevin_saunderson:3 da_silva:1 multi_storey:1 radio_airplay:1 aphex_twin:1 percussive_sound:1 amyl_nitrite:1 soft_drink:1 richard_daley:1 ecw_press:1 external_link:1 |
7,405 | Ordinary_language | The phrase ordinary language is often used in philosophy and logic to distinguish between ordinary, unsurprising uses of terms and their more specialized uses in theorizing, or jargon. For example, the statements "I find that class of person very annoying" and "Birds fall into a different class from bees" might be said to contain ordinary English uses of class. By contrast, when Bertrand Russell writes, in The Principles of Mathematics, "A class [...] is neither a predicate nor a class-concept, for different predicates and different class-concepts may correspond to the same class." Russell uses the word class in a sense that might or might not correspond neatly to any identifiable ordinary English use of the word; so we might say that he is not using ordinary language, but jargon. The so called ordinary language philosophy held that many philosophical problems arose due to confused and inappropriate uses of language that deviated from ordinary language. On their view, philosophers should always attempt to frame their problems in terms of, and to respect the "intuitions" of, ordinary language. Often this point was made by referring to "ordinary English," since the school of philosophy that most vigorously promoted this meta-philosophy was Oxford. This same phrase is still used, occasionally, by (broadly understood) analytic philosophers in supporting or criticizing philosophical positions. Even those who do not hold with the tenets of ordinary language philosophy sometimes regard it a damning criticism of a philosophical view if it involves the use of some term that deviates too widely from ordinary English (ordinary language). A relatively well understood failure of ordinary language, in terms of its inability to fully describe reality without jargon (in this case mathematics), is quantum mechanics. | Ordinary_language |@lemmatized phrase:2 ordinary:13 language:9 often:2 use:6 philosophy:5 logic:1 distinguish:1 unsurprising:1 us:4 term:4 specialized:1 theorize:1 jargon:3 example:1 statement:1 find:1 class:8 person:1 annoy:1 bird:1 fall:1 different:3 bee:1 might:4 say:2 contain:1 english:4 contrast:1 bertrand:1 russell:2 write:1 principle:1 mathematics:2 neither:1 predicate:2 concept:2 may:1 correspond:2 word:2 sense:1 neatly:1 identifiable:1 called:1 hold:2 many:1 philosophical:3 problem:2 arise:1 due:1 confused:1 inappropriate:1 deviate:2 view:2 philosopher:2 always:1 attempt:1 frame:1 respect:1 intuition:1 point:1 make:1 refer:1 since:1 school:1 vigorously:1 promote:1 meta:1 oxford:1 still:1 occasionally:1 broadly:1 understand:1 analytic:1 support:1 criticize:1 position:1 even:1 tenet:1 sometimes:1 regard:1 damn:1 criticism:1 involve:1 widely:1 relatively:1 well:1 understood:1 failure:1 inability:1 fully:1 describe:1 reality:1 without:1 case:1 quantum:1 mechanic:1 |@bigram bertrand_russell:1 quantum_mechanic:1 |
7,406 | Calculator | A calculator is a device for performing mathematical calculations, distinguished from a computer by having a limited problem solving ability and an interface optimized for interactive calculation rather than programming. Calculators can be hardware or software, and mechanical or electronic, and are often built into devices such as PDAs or mobile phones. A basic calculatorAn old mechanical calculator.A scientific calculator. Modern electronic calculators are generally small, digital, (often pocket-sized) and usually inexpensive. In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets; for example, there are scientific calculators which focus on advanced math like trigonometry and statistics, or even have the ability to do computer algebra. Also graphing calculators can be used to graph equations. Modern calculators are more portable than most computers, though most PDAs are comparable in size to handheld calculators. Use in education In most countries, students use calculators for schoolwork. There was some initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic arithmetic skills would suffer. There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations "in the head", with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching estimation techniques and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in. Thomas J. Bing, Edward F. Redish, Symbolic Manipulators Affect Mathematical Mindsets, December 2007 Others have argued that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts. There are other concerns - for example, that a pupil could use the calculator in the wrong fashion but believe the answer because that was the result given. Teachers try to combat this by encouraging the student to make an estimate of the result manually and ensuring it roughly agrees with the calculated result. Also, it is possible for a child to type in −1 × −1 and obtain the correct answer '1' without realizing the principle involved. In this sense, the calculator becomes a crutch rather than a learning tool, and it can slow down students in exam conditions as they check even the most trivial result on a calculator. Overview In the past, mechanical clerical aids such as abaci, comptometers, Napier's bones, books of mathematical tables, slide rules, or mechanical adding machines were used for numeric work. This semi-manual process of calculation was tedious and error-prone. Modern calculators are electrically powered (usually by battery and/or solar cell) and vary from cheap, give-away, credit-card sized models to sturdy adding machine-like models with built-in printers. They first became popular in the late 1960s as decreasing size and cost of electronics made possible devices for calculations, avoiding the use of scarce and expensive computer resources. By the 1980s, calculator prices had reduced to a point where a basic calculator was affordable to most. By the 1990s they had become common in math classes in schools, with the idea that students could be freed from basic calculations and focus on the concepts. Computer operating systems as far back as early Unix have included interactive calculator programs such as dc and hoc, and calculator functions are included in almost all PDA-type devices (save a few dedicated address book and dictionary devices). Other concerns on usage Errors are not restricted to school pupils. Any user could carelessly rely on the calculator's output without double-checking the magnitude of the result — i.e., where the decimal point is positioned. This problem was all but nonexistent in the era of slide rules and pencil-and-paper calculations, when the task of establishing the magnitudes of results had to be done by the user. In addition, algorithmic flaws and rounding techniques can sometimes lead to minor precision errors. Mike Sebastian's calculator forensics algorithm is an example of such rounding errors -- the algorithm's arcsin(arccos(arctan(tan(cos(sin(9)))))) should come out 9 on standard floating point hardware, but for CORDIC it's a pathological case that produces different rounding errors on each chip that it is implemented on. The algorithm is primarily used to identify the manufacturer of a particular calculator's CPU, since it is usually reproducible between chips of the same model. Some fractions such as are awkward to display on a calculator display as they are usually rounded to . Also, some fractions such as which is (to fourteen significant figures) can be difficult to recognize in decimal form; as a result, many scientific calculators are able to work in vulgar fractions and/or mixed numbers. Calculating vs. computing The fundamental difference between calculators and computers is that computers can be programmed to perform different tasks while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions built in, for example addition, multiplication, logarithms, etc. While computers may be used to handle numbers, they can also manipulate words, images or sounds and other tasks they have been programmed to handle. However, the distinction between the two is quite blurred; some calculators have built-in programming functions, ranging from simple formula entry to full programming languages such as RPL or TI-BASIC. Graphing calculators in particular can, along with PDAs, be viewed as direct descendants of the 1980s pocket computers, essentially calculators with full keyboards and programming capability. The market for calculators is extremely price-sensitive, to an even greater extent than the personal computer market; typically the user desires the least expensive model having a specific feature set, but does not care much about speed (since speed is constrained by how fast the user can press the buttons). Thus designers of calculators strive to minimize the number of logic elements on the chip, not the number of clock cycles needed to do a computation. For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement floating point mathematics with code in ROM, and compute trigonometric functions with the CORDIC algorithm because CORDIC does not require hardware floating-point. Bit serial logic designs are more common in calculators whereas bit parallel designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes the languages chip complexity, but takes many more clock cycles. (Again, the line blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, particularly the Z80, MC68000, and ARM architectures, as well as some custom designs specifically made for the calculator market.) Personal computers and personal digital assistants can perform general calculations in a variety of ways: Most computer operating systems, at least those that support some kind of multitasking, include calculator programs, both text mode (such as the Unix bc (1) language) and graphical mode (Mac OS Calculator, Microsoft Calculator, KCalc, Grapher). Most, though not all, imitate the interface of a physical calculator. Some shell programs and interpreted programming languages also provide interactive calculation functions. For more complex calculations requiring large amounts of organized data, spreadsheet programs such as Excel or OpenOffice.org Calc provide calculation and sometimes reporting functions. Computer algebra programs such as Mathematica, and others can handle advanced calculations. Client-side scripting can be used for calculations, e.g. by entering "javascript:alert('calculation written in JavaScript')" in a web browser's address bar (as opposed to "http://website name"). Such calculations can be embedded in a separate Javascript or HTML file as well. Online calculators such as the calculator feature of the Google search engine can perform calculations server-side. History Origin: the abacus Greek abacus. The first calculators were abathia, and were often constructed as a wooden frame with beads sliding on wires. Abathias were in use centuries before the adoption of the written Arabic numerals system and are still used by some merchants, fishermen and clerks in Asia, Africa and elsewhere. Other early calculators Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, using one-to-one correspondence with our fingers. Georges Ifrah notes that humans learned to count on their hands. Ifrah shows, for example, a picture of Boethius (who lived 480–524 or 525) reckoning on his fingers in . The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included clay shapes, which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in containers. According to , these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, marks were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 4000 years) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. The abacus was used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money (this is the origin of "Exchequer" as a term for a nation's treasury). A number of analog computers were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. These include the Antikythera mechanism and the astrolabe from ancient Greece (c. 150-100 BC), which are generally regarded as the first mechanical analog computers. Other early versions of mechanical devices used to perform some type of calculations include the planisphere and other mechanical computing devices invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (c. AD 1000); the equatorium and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (c. AD 1015); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval Muslim astronomers and engineers; and the astronomical clock tower of Su Song (c. AD 1090) during the Song Dynasty. The "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is considered to be the earliest programmable analog computer. Scottish mathematician and physicist John Napier noted multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by addition and subtraction, respectively, of logarithms of those numbers. While producing the first logarithmic tables Napier needed to perform many multiplications, and it was at this point that he designed Napier's bones, an abacus-like device used for multiplication and division. A Spanish implementation of Napier's bones (1617), is documented in . Since real numbers can be represented as distances or intervals on a line, the slide rule was invented in the 1620s to allow multiplication and division operations to be carried out significantly faster than was previously possible. Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically inclined professional workers, until the invention of the pocket calculator. The engineers in the Apollo program that sent a man to the moon made many of their calculations on slide rules, which were accurate to three or four significant figures. , as log(2)=.3010, or 4 places. German polymath Wilhelm Schickard built the first digital mechanical calculator in 1623, and thus became the father of the computing era. Since his calculator used techniques such as cogs and gears first developed for clocks, it was also called a 'calculating clock'. It was put to practical use by his friend Johannes Kepler, who revolutionized astronomy when he condensed decades of astronomical observations into algebraic expressions. An original calculator by Pascal (1640) is preserved in the Zwinger Museum. Machines by Blaise Pascal (the Pascaline, 1642) and Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1671) followed. Leibniz once said "It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used." As quoted in The 17th century In 1622 William Oughtred invented the slide rule, which was revealed by his student Richard Delamain in 1630. Slide Rules Wilhelm Schickard built what may have been the first mechanical calculator in 1623. He called it the "Calculating Clock". Smart Computing Article - Calculating Clock to Carnegie Mellon University Some 20 years later, in 1643, French philosopher Blaise Pascal invented the calculation device later known as the Pascaline, which was used for taxes in France until 1799. The German philosopher G.W.v. Leibniz also produced a calculating machine. The 19th century The London Science Museum's working difference engine, built from Charles Babbage's design. In 1822 Charles Babbage designed a mechanical calculator, called a difference engine, which was capable of holding and manipulating seven numbers of 31 decimal digits each. Babbage produced two designs for the difference engine and a further design for a more advanced mechanical programmable computer called an analytical engine. None of these designs were completely built by Babbage. In 1991 the London Science Museum followed Babbage's plans to build a working difference engine using the technology and materials available in the 19th century. In 1853 Per Georg Scheutz completed a working difference engine based on Babbage's design. The machine was the size of a piano, and was demonstrated at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1855. It was used to create tables of logarithms. In 1872, Frank Baldwin in the U.S. invented the pinwheel calculator, which was also independently invented two years later by W.T. Odhner in Russia. The Odhner models, and similar designs from other companies, sold many thousands into the 1970s. In 1875 Martin Wiberg re-designed the Babbage/Scheutz difference engine and built a version that was the size of a sewing machine. Dorr E. Felt, in the U.S., invented the Comptometer in 1884, the first successful key-driven adding and calculating machine ["key-driven" refers to the fact that just pressing the keys causes the result to be calculated, no separate lever has to be operated]. In 1886 he joined with Robert Tarrant to form the Felt & Tarrant Manufacturing Company which went on to make thousands of Comptometers. In 1891 William S. Burroughs began commercial manufacture of his printing adding calculator. Burroughs Corporation became one of the leading companies in the accounting machine and computer businesses. The "Millionaire" calculator was introduced in 1893. It allowed direct multiplication by any digit - "one turn of the crank for each figure in the multiplier". 1900s to 1960s Mechanical calculators reach their zenith Mechanical calculator from 1914 The first half of the 20th century saw the gradual development of the mechanical calculator mechanism. The Dalton adding-listing machine introduced in 1902 was the first of its type to use only ten keys, and became the first of many different models of "10-key add-listers" manufactured by many companies. An Addiator could be used for addition and subtraction. In 1948 the miniature Curta calculator, which was held in one hand for operation, was introduced after being developed by Curt Herzstark in 1938. This was an extreme development of the stepped-gear calculating mechanism. From the early 1900s through the 1960s, mechanical calculators dominated the desktop computing market (see History of computing hardware). Major suppliers in the USA included Friden, Monroe, and SCM/Marchant. (Some comments about European calculators follow below.) These devices were motor-driven, and had movable carriages where results of calculations were displayed by dials. Nearly all keyboards were full — each digit that could be entered had its own column of nine keys, 1..9, plus a column-clear key, permitting entry of several digits at once. (See the illustration of a 1914 mechanical calculator.) One could call this parallel entry, by way of contrast with ten-key serial entry that was commonplace in mechanical adding machines, and is now universal in electronic calculators. (Nearly all Friden calculators had a ten-key auxiliary keyboard for entering the multiplier when doing multiplication.) Full keyboards generally had ten columns, although some lower-cost machines had eight. Most machines made by the three companies mentioned did not print their results, although other companies, such as Olivetti, did make printing calculators. In these machines, addition and subtraction were performed in a single operation, as on a conventional adding machine, but multiplication and division were accomplished by repeated mechanical additions and subtractions. Friden made a calculator that also provided square roots, basically by doing division, but with added mechanism that automatically incremented the number in the keyboard in a systematic fashion. Friden and Marchant (Model SKA) made calculators with square root. Handheld mechanical calculators such as the 1948 Curta continued to be used until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s. Facit NTK (1954) Triumphator CRN1 (1958) Walther WSR160 (1960) Olivetti Divisumma 24 (1964) The Facit, Triumphator, and Walther calculators are typical European machines. Similar-looking machines included the Odhner and Brunsviga. Although these are operated by handcranks, there were motor-driven versions. Most machines that look like these use the Odhner mechanism, or variations of it. The Olivetti Divisumma did all four basic operations of arithmetic, and has a printer. Full-keyboard machines, including motor-driven ones, were also used in Europe for many decades. Some European machines had as many as 20 columns in their full keyboards. The development of electronic calculators The first mainframe computers, using firstly vacuum tubes and later transistors in the logic circuits, appeared in the late 1940s and 1950s. This technology was to provide a stepping stone to the development of electronic calculators. In 1954, IBM, in the U.S., demonstrated a large all-transistor calculator and, in 1957, the company released the first commercial all-transistor calculator, the IBM 608, though it was housed in several cabinets and cost about $80,000. IBM Archives: IBM 608 calculator The Casio Computer Co., in Japan, released the Model 14-A calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric "compact" calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on relay technology, and was built into a desk. In October 1961, the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator, the Bell Punch/Sumlock Comptometer ANITA (A New Inspiration To Arithmetic/Accounting) was announced. "Simple and Silent", Office Magazine, December 1961, p1244 "'Anita' der erste tragbare elektonische Rechenautomat" [trans: "the first portable electronic computer"], Buromaschinen Mechaniker, November 1961, p207 This British designed-and-built machine used vacuum tubes, cold-cathode tubes and Dekatrons in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode "Nixie"-type tubes for its display. Two models were displayed, The Mk VII for continental Europe and the Mk VIII for Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication and was soon dropped in favour of the simpler Mark VIII version. The ANITA had a full keyboard, similar to mechanical Comptometers of the time, a feature that was unique to it and the later Sharp CS-10A among electronic calculators. Bell Punch had been producing key-driven mechanical calculators of the Comptometer type under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", and had realised in the mid-1950s that the future of calculators lay in electronics. They employed the young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on the early British Pilot ACE computer project, to lead the development. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963, by the U.S. manufactured Friden EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, 13-digit capacity on a 5-inch CRT, and introduced reverse Polish notation (RPN) to the calculator market for a price of $2200, which was about triple the cost of an electromechanical calculator of the time. Like Bell Punch, Friden was a manufacturer of mechanical calculators that had decided that the future lay in electronics. In 1964 more all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced: Sharp introduced the CS-10A, which weighed 25 kg (55 lb) and cost 500,000 yen (~US$2500), and Industria Macchine Elettroniche of Italy introduced the IME 84, to which several extra keyboard and display units could be connected so that several people could make use of it (but apparently not at the same time). There followed a series of electronic calculator models from these and other manufacturers, including Canon, Mathatronics, Olivetti, SCM (Smith-Corona-Marchant), Sony, Toshiba, and Wang. The early calculators used hundreds of Germanium transistors, since these were then cheaper than Silicon transistors, on multiple circuit boards. Display types used were CRT, cold-cathode Nixie tubes, and filament lamps. Memory technology was usually based on the delay line memory or the magnetic core memory, though the Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 appears to use an early form of dynamic RAM built from discrete components. Already there was a desire for smaller and less power-hungry machines. The Olivetti Programma 101 was introduced in late 1965; it was a stored program machine which could read and write magnetic cards and displayed results on its built-in printer. Memory, implemented by an acoustic delay line, could be partitioned between program steps, constants, and data registers. Programming allowed conditional testing and programs could also be overlaid by reading from magnetic cards. It is regarded as the first personal computer produced by a company (that is, a desktop electronic calculating machine programmable by non-specialists for personal use). The Olivetti Programma 101 won many industrial design awards. The Monroe Epic programmable calculator came on the market in 1967. A large, printing, desk-top unit, with an attached floor-standing logic tower, it was capable of being programmed to perform many computer-like functions. However, the only branch instruction was an implied unconditional branch (GOTO) at the end of the operation stack, returning the program to its starting instruction. Thus, it was not possible to include any conditional branch (IF-THEN-ELSE) logic. During this era, the absence of the conditional branch was sometimes used to distinguish a programmable calculator from a computer. The first handheld calculator was developed by Texas Instruments in 1967. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape. Texas Instruments Celebrates the 35th Anniversary of Its Invention of the Calculator Texas Instruments press release, 15 August 2002. Electronic Calculator Invented 40 Years Ago All Things Considered, NPR, 30 September 2007. Audio interview with one of the inventors. 1970s to mid-1980s Early calculator LED display. The electronic calculators of the mid-1960s were large and heavy desktop machines due to their use of hundreds of transistors on several circuit boards with a large power consumption that required an AC power supply. There were great efforts to put the logic required for a calculator into fewer and fewer integrated circuits (chips) and calculator electronics was one of the leading edges of semiconductor development. U.S. semiconductor manufacturers led the world in Large Scale Integration (LSI) semiconductor development, squeezing more and more functions into individual integrated circuits. This led to alliances between Japanese calculator manufacturers and U.S. semiconductor companies: Canon Inc. with Texas Instruments, Hayakawa Electric (later known as Sharp Corporation) with North-American Rockwell Microelectronics, Busicom with Mostek and Intel, and General Instrument with Sanyo. Pocket calculators Adler 81S pocket calculator with vacuum fluorescent display from the mid 1970s. The CASIO CM-602 Mini Electronic Calculator provided basic functions in the 1970s By 1970 a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. The first portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, and were soon marketed around the world. These included the Sanyo ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", the Canon Pocketronic, and the Sharp QT-8B "micro Compet". The Canon Pocketronic was a development of the "Cal-Tech" project which had been started at Texas Instruments in 1965 as a research project to produce a portable calculator. The Pocketronic has no traditional display; numerical output is on thermal paper tape. As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project Texas instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators. Sharp put in great efforts in size and power reduction and introduced in January 1971 the Sharp EL-8, also marketed as the Facit 1111, which was close to being a pocket calculator. It weighed about one pound, had a vacuum fluorescent display, rechargeable NiCad batteries, and initially sold for $395. However, the efforts in integrated circuit development culminated in the introduction in early 1971 of the first "calculator on a chip", the MK6010 by Mostek,<ref>"Single Chip Calculator Hits the Finish Line", Electronics's', February 1 1971, p19</ref> followed by Texas Instruments later in the year. Although these early hand-held calculators were very expensive, these advances in electronics, together with developments in display technology (such as the vacuum fluorescent display, LED, and LCD), lead within a few years to the cheap pocket calculator available to all. The first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator was the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY", which was marketed early in 1971 "The one-chip calculator is here, and it's only the beginning", Electronic Design, February 18 1971, p34. . Made in Japan, this was also the first calculator to use an LED display, the first hand-held calculator to use a single integrated circuit (then proclaimed as a "calculator on a chip"), the Mostek MK6010, and the first electronic calculator to run off replaceable batteries. Using four AA-size cells the LE-120A measures 4.9x2.8x0.9 in (124x72x24 mm). The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly referred to as The Bowmar Brain), measuring 5.2×3.0×1.5 in (131×77×37 mm), came out in the fall of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red LED display, for $240, while in August 1972 the four-function Sinclair Executive became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring 5.4×2.2×0.35 in (138×56×9 mm) and weighing 2.5 oz (70g). It retailed for around $150 (GB£79). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than $10 (GB£5). The first Soviet-made pocket-sized calculator, the "Elektronika B3-04" was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the beginning of 1974. One of the first low-cost calculators was the Sinclair Cambridge, launched in August 1973. It retailed for £29.95, or some £5 less in kit form. The Sinclair calculators were successful because they were far cheaper than the competition; however, their design was flawed and their accuracy in some functions was questionable. The scientific programmable models were particularly poor in this respect, with the programmability coming at a heavy price in transcendental accuracy. Meanwhile Hewlett Packard (HP) had been developing its own pocket calculator. Launched in early 1972 it was unlike the other basic four-function pocket calculators then available in that it was the first pocket calculator with scientific functions that could replace a slide rule. The $395 HP-35, along with all later HP engineering calculators, used reverse Polish notation (RPN), also called postfix notation. A calculation like "8 plus 5" is, using RPN, performed by pressing "8", "Enter↑", "5", and "+"; instead of the algebraic infix notation: "8", "+", "5", "="). The first Soviet scientific pocket-sized calculator the "B3-18" was completed by the end of 1975. In 1973, Texas Instruments(TI) introduced the SR-10, (SR signifying slide rule) an algebraic entry pocket calculator for $150. It was followed the next year by the SR-50 which added log and trig functions to compete with the HP-35, and in 1977 the mass-marketed TI-30 line which is still produced. Programmable calculators The HP-65, the first programmable pocket calculator The first programmable pocket calculator was the HP-65, in 1974; it had a capacity of 100 instructions, and could store and retrieve programs with a built-in magnetic card reader. A year later the HP-25C introduced continuous memory, i.e. programs and data were retained in CMOS memory during power-off. In 1979, HP released the first alphanumeric, programmable, expandable calculator, the HP-41C. It could be expanded with RAM (memory) and ROM (software) modules, as well as peripherals like bar code readers, microcassette and floppy disk drives, paper-roll thermal printers, and miscellaneous communication interfaces (RS-232, HP-IL, HP-IB). The first Soviet programmable calculator Elektronika "B3-21" was developed by the end of 1977 and sold at the beginning of 1978. The successor of B3-21, the Elektronika B3-34 wasn't backward compatible with B3-21, even if it kept the reverse Polish notation (RPN). Thus B3-34 defined a new command set, which later was used in all programmable soviet calculators. There are hundreds of developed programs for science, business and even games for these machines. The Elektronika MK-52 calculator (using the extended B3-34 command set, and featuring internal EEPROM memory for storing programs and external interface for EEPROM cards and other periphery) was used in soviet spacecraft program (for Soyuz TM-7 flight) as a backup of the board computer. Mechanical calculators Mechanical calculators continued to be sold, though in rapidly decreasing numbers, into the early 1970s, with many of the manufacturers closing down or being taken over. Comptometer type calculators were often retained for much longer to be used for adding and listing duties, especially in accounting, since a trained and skilled operator could enter all the digits of a number in one movement of the hands on a Comptometer quicker than was possible serially with a 10-key electronic calculator. The spread of the computer rather than the simple electronic calculator put an end to the Comptometer. Also, by the end of the 1970s, the slide rule had become obsolete. Technical improvements A calculator which runs on solar power. Through the 1970s the hand-held electronic calculator underwent rapid development. The red LED and blue/green vacuum fluorescent displays consumed a lot of power and the calculators either had a short battery life (often measured in hours, so rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries were common) or were large so that they could take larger, higher capacity batteries. In the early 1970s liquid crystal displays (LCDs) were in their infancy and there was a great deal of concern that they only had a short operating lifetime. Busicom introduced the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY" calculator, the first pocket-sized calculator and the first with an LED display, and announced the Busicom LC with LCD display. However, there were problems with this display and the calculator never went on sale. The first successful calculators with LCDs were manufactured by Rockwell International and sold from 1972 by other companies under such names as: Dataking LC-800, Harden DT/12, Ibico 086, Lloyds 40, Lloyds 100, Prismatic 500 (aka P500), Rapid Data Rapidman 1208LC. The LCDs were an early form with the numbers appearing as silver against a dark background. To present a high-contrast display these models illuminated the LCD using a filament lamp and solid plastic light guide, which negated the low power consumption of the display. These models appear to have been sold only for a year or two. A more successful series of calculators using the reflective LCD display was launched in 1972 by Sharp Inc with the Sharp EL-805, which was a slim pocket calculator. This, and another few similar models, used Sharp's "COS" (Crystal on Substrate) technology. This used a glass-like circuit board which was also an integral part of the LCD. In operation the user looked through this "circuit board" at the numbers being displayed. The "COS" technology may have been too expensive since it was only used in a few models before Sharp reverted to conventional circuit boards, though all the models with the reflective LCD displays are often referred to as "COS". In the mid-1970s the first calculators appeared with the now "normal" LCDs with dark numerals against a grey background, though the early ones often had a yellow filter over them to cut out damaging UV rays. The advantage of the LCD is that it is passive and reflects light, which requires much less power than generating light. This led the way to the first credit-card-sized calculators, such as the Casio Mini Card LC-78 of 1978, which could run for months of normal use on button cells. There were also improvements to the electronics inside the calculators. All of the logic functions of a calculator had been squeezed into the first "Calculator on a chip" integrated circuits in 1971, but this was leading edge technology of the time and yields were low and costs were high. Many calculators continued to use two or more integrated circuits (ICs), especially the scientific and the programmable ones, into the late 1970s. The power consumption of the integrated circuits was also reduced, especially with the introduction of CMOS technology. Appearing in the Sharp "EL-801" in 1972, the transistors in the logic cells of CMOS ICs only used any apreciable power when they changed state. The LED and VFD displays had often required additional driver transistors or ICs, whereas the LCD displays were more amenable to being driven directly by the calculator IC itself. With this low power consumption came the possibility of using solar cells as the power source, realised around 1978 by such calculators as the Royal Solar 1, Sharp EL-8026, and Teal Photon. A pocket calculator for everyone At the beginning of the 1970s hand-held electronic calculators were very expensive, costing two or three weeks' wages, and so were a luxury item. The high price was due to their construction requiring many mechanical and electronic components which were expensive to produce, and production runs were not very large. Many companies saw that there were good profits to be made in the calculator business with the margin on these high prices. However, the cost of calculators fell as components and their production techniques improved, and the effect of economies of scale were felt. By 1976 the cost of the cheapest 4-function pocket calculator had dropped to a few dollars, about one twentieth of the cost five years earlier. The consequences of this were that the pocket calculator was affordable, and that it was now difficult for the manufacturers to make a profit out of calculators, leading to many companies dropping out of the business or closing down altogether. The companies that survived making calculators tended to be those with high outputs of higher quality calculators, or producing high-specification scientific and programmable calculators. Mid-1980s to present The first calculator capable of symbolic computation was the HP-28, released in 1987. It was able to, for example, solve quadratic equations symbolically. The first graphing calculator was the Casio FX-7000G released in 1985. The two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released increasingly feature-laden calculators during the 1980s and 1990s. At the turn of the millennium, the line between a graphing calculator and a handheld computer was not always clear, as some very advanced calculators such as the TI-89, the Voyage 200 and HP-49G could differentiate and integrate functions, solve differential equations, run word processing and PIM software, and connect by wire or IR to other calculators/computers. The HP 12c financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with few changes. The HP 12c featured the reverse Polish notation mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of the HP 12c, the "HP 12c platinum edition" which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry. Online calculators are programs designed to work just like a normal calculator does. Usually the keyboard (or the mouse clicking a virtual numpad) is used, but other means of input (e.g. slide bars) are possible. Thanks to the Internet, many new types of calculators are possible for calculations that would otherwise be much more difficult or impossible, such as for real time currency exchange rates, loan rates and statistics. See also General interest :Category:Calculators :Category:Programmable calculators History of computing hardware Beghilos Formula calculator Mechanical calculators Abacus Napier's bones Comptometer Mercedes (calculator) Adding machine Addiator Curta Slide rule Difference Engine El Justos calculator Volvelle Electronic calculators Sumlock ANITA calculator Machinist calculator Scientific calculator Programmable calculators Texas Instruments calculators HP calculators References Reprinted by Arno Press, 1972 ISBN 0-405-04730-4. Patents From United States Patent Office www.uspto.gov – Complex computer – G. R. Stibitz, Bell Laboratories, 1954 (filed 1941, refiled 1944), electromechanical (relay) device that could calculate complex numbers, record, and print results by teletype – Miniature electronic calculator – J. S. Kilby, Texas Instruments, 1974 (originally filed 1967), handheld (3 lb, 1.4 kg) battery operated electronic device with thermal printer The Japanese Patent Office granted a patent in June 1978 to Texas Instruments (TI) based on US patent 3819921, notwithstanding objections from 12 Japanese calculator manufacturers. This gave TI the right to claim royalties retroactively to the original publication of the Japanese patent application in August 1974. A TI spokesman said that it would actively seek what was due, either in cash or technology cross-licensing agreements. Nineteen other countries, including the United Kingdom, had already granted a similar patent to Texas Instruments. – New Scientist, 17 August 1978 p455, and Practical Electronics (British publication), October 1978 p1094. – Floating Point Calculator With RAM Shift Register - 1977 (originally filed GB March 1971, US July 1971), very early single chip calculator claim. – Extended Numerical Keyboard with Structured Data-Entry Capability'' – J. H. Redin, 1997 (originally filed 1996), Usage of Verbal Numerals as a way to enter a number. From European Patent Office Database ep.espacenet.com Many patents about mechanical calculators are in classifications G06C15/04, G06C15/06, G06G3/02, G06G3/04 External links Programmable calculators Specifications and description of many (programmable) calculators On TI's US Patent No. 3819921 – From TI's own website 30th Anniversary of the Calculator – From Sharp's web presentation of its history; including a picture of the CS-10A desktop calculator The Old Calculator Web Museum - Documents the technology of desktop calculators, mainly early electronics History of Mechanical Calculators Vintage Calculators Web Museum - Shows the development from mechanical calculators to pocket electronic calculators The Museum of HP calculators (slide rules/mech. section) Soviet Calculators Collection - A big collection of Soviet made calculators MyCalcDB - Database for 1970s and 1980s calculators Microprocessor and single chip calculator history; foundations in Glenrothes, Scotland HP-35 - A thorough analysis of the HP-35 firmware including the Cordic algorithms and the bugs in the early ROM Bell Punch Company and the development of the Anita calculator - The story of the first electronic desktop calculator Busicom LE-120A "HANDY" electronic calculator Handheld mechanical calculator photos and manuals | Calculator |@lemmatized calculator:214 device:15 perform:12 mathematical:5 calculation:24 distinguish:2 computer:33 limited:1 problem:4 solve:3 ability:3 interface:4 optimize:1 interactive:3 rather:3 program:23 hardware:6 software:3 mechanical:30 electronic:31 often:8 build:15 pda:4 mobile:1 phone:1 basic:8 calculatoran:1 old:2 scientific:9 modern:3 generally:3 small:2 digital:3 pocket:24 size:11 usually:6 inexpensive:1 addition:8 general:5 purpose:2 design:23 specific:3 market:11 example:6 focus:2 advanced:5 math:2 like:11 trigonometry:1 statistic:2 even:6 algebra:2 also:19 graph:3 use:64 equation:3 portable:6 though:7 comparable:1 handheld:6 education:1 country:2 student:6 schoolwork:1 initial:1 resistance:1 idea:2 fear:1 arithmetic:4 skill:2 would:4 suffer:1 remain:1 disagreement:1 importance:1 head:1 curriculum:1 restrict:3 certain:2 level:1 proficiency:1 obtain:2 others:3 concentrate:1 teach:1 estimation:1 technique:4 solving:1 research:2 suggest:1 inadequate:1 guidance:1 calculate:10 tool:2 kind:2 thinking:1 engage:1 thomas:1 j:3 bing:1 edward:1 f:1 redish:1 symbolic:2 manipulator:1 affect:1 mindset:1 december:2 argue:1 cause:2 core:2 atrophy:1 prevent:1 understanding:1 algebraic:5 concept:2 concern:3 pupil:2 could:23 wrong:1 fashion:2 believe:1 answer:2 result:13 give:3 teacher:1 try:1 combat:1 encourage:1 make:19 estimate:2 manually:1 ensure:1 roughly:1 agree:1 calculated:1 possible:7 child:1 type:9 correct:1 without:2 realize:1 principle:1 involve:1 sense:1 become:8 crutch:1 learning:1 slow:1 exam:1 condition:1 check:2 trivial:1 overview:1 past:1 clerical:1 aid:4 abacus:7 comptometers:3 napier:6 bone:4 book:3 table:5 slide:14 rule:13 add:13 machine:27 numeric:1 work:6 semi:1 manual:2 process:1 tedious:1 error:5 prone:1 electrically:1 power:16 battery:8 solar:4 cell:5 vary:1 cheap:5 away:1 credit:2 card:7 model:18 sturdy:1 printer:5 first:43 popular:1 late:7 decrease:2 cost:11 electronics:9 avoid:2 scarce:1 expensive:6 resource:1 price:7 reduce:2 point:7 affordable:2 common:3 class:1 school:2 free:1 operate:5 system:4 far:2 back:1 early:23 unix:2 include:16 dc:1 hoc:1 function:19 almost:1 save:1 dedicated:1 address:2 dictionary:1 usage:2 user:5 carelessly:1 rely:1 output:4 double:1 magnitude:2 e:5 decimal:3 position:1 nonexistent:1 era:3 pencil:1 paper:4 task:4 establish:1 algorithmic:1 flaw:2 round:3 sometimes:3 lead:16 minor:1 precision:1 mike:1 sebastian:1 forensics:1 algorithm:5 rounding:1 arcsin:1 arccos:1 arctan:1 tan:1 co:5 sin:1 come:5 standard:1 float:4 cordic:4 pathological:1 case:1 produce:11 different:3 chip:14 implement:3 primarily:1 identify:1 manufacturer:9 particular:2 cpu:1 since:9 reproducible:1 fraction:3 awkward:1 display:28 fourteen:1 significant:2 figure:3 difficult:3 recognize:1 form:7 many:20 able:2 vulgar:1 mixed:1 number:16 v:2 compute:8 fundamental:1 difference:8 pre:1 multiplication:9 logarithm:3 etc:1 may:3 handle:3 manipulate:2 word:2 image:1 sound:1 however:6 distinction:1 two:8 quite:1 blur:2 range:1 simple:3 formula:2 entry:8 full:7 programming:2 language:4 rpl:1 ti:10 along:2 view:1 direct:2 descendant:1 essentially:1 keyboard:11 capability:2 extremely:1 sensitive:1 great:4 extent:1 personal:5 typically:1 desire:2 least:2 feature:6 set:3 care:1 much:4 speed:2 constrain:1 fast:2 press:5 button:2 thus:5 designer:1 strive:1 minimize:2 logic:9 element:1 clock:9 cycle:2 need:3 computation:3 instance:1 instead:2 multiplier:3 might:1 mathematics:1 code:2 rom:3 trigonometric:1 require:7 bite:1 serial:3 whereas:2 bit:2 parallel:2 dominate:2 complexity:1 take:4 line:7 high:9 end:8 processor:1 associate:1 embed:2 particularly:2 arm:1 architecture:1 well:4 custom:1 specifically:1 assistant:1 variety:1 way:4 support:1 multitasking:1 text:1 mode:5 bc:4 graphical:1 mac:1 microsoft:1 kcalc:1 grapher:1 imitate:1 physical:1 shell:1 interpret:1 provide:5 complex:3 large:9 amount:1 organize:1 data:7 spreadsheet:1 excel:1 openoffice:1 org:1 calc:1 report:1 mathematica:1 client:1 side:2 scripting:1 g:4 enter:6 javascript:3 alert:1 write:3 web:4 browser:1 bar:3 oppose:1 http:1 website:2 name:3 separate:2 html:1 file:5 online:2 google:1 search:1 engine:9 server:1 history:6 origin:2 greek:1 abathia:1 construct:2 wooden:1 frame:1 bead:1 wire:2 abathias:1 century:5 adoption:1 arabic:1 numeral:3 still:4 merchant:1 fisherman:1 clerk:1 asia:1 africa:1 elsewhere:1 thousand:3 year:11 one:16 correspondence:1 finger:2 george:1 ifrah:2 note:2 human:1 learn:1 count:6 hand:7 show:2 picture:2 boethius:1 live:1 reckon:2 counting:2 probably:2 tally:1 stick:1 later:8 record:2 keep:2 throughout:1 fertile:1 crescent:1 clay:4 shape:1 represent:2 item:2 livestock:1 grain:1 seal:1 container:7 accord:2 contain:1 token:1 total:1 object:1 transfer:1 serve:1 bill:1 lade:1 account:1 order:1 break:1 open:1 mark:4 place:3 outside:2 eventually:1 schmandt:1 besserat:1 convey:1 evolve:1 tablet:1 roman:1 babylonia:1 board:7 invent:10 medieval:3 house:2 checkered:1 cloth:1 marker:1 move:1 around:4 sum:1 money:1 exchequer:1 term:1 nation:1 treasury:1 analog:4 ancient:2 time:6 astronomical:5 antikythera:1 mechanism:5 astrolabe:2 greece:1 c:7 regard:2 version:5 planisphere:1 abū:2 rayhān:1 al:3 bīrūnī:1 ad:3 equatorium:1 universal:2 latitude:1 independent:1 ishāq:1 ibrāhīm:1 zarqālī:1 muslim:1 astronomer:1 engineer:3 tower:2 su:1 song:2 dynasty:1 castle:1 jazari:1 consider:2 programmable:18 scottish:1 mathematician:1 physicist:1 john:1 division:5 subtraction:4 respectively:1 logarithmic:1 spanish:1 implementation:1 document:2 real:2 distance:1 interval:1 allow:4 operation:6 carry:1 significantly:1 previously:1 generation:1 mathematically:1 inclined:1 professional:1 worker:1 invention:2 apollo:1 send:1 man:1 moon:1 accurate:1 three:3 four:6 log:2 german:2 polymath:1 wilhelm:3 schickard:2 father:1 cog:1 gear:2 develop:6 call:6 put:4 practical:2 friend:1 johannes:1 kepler:1 revolutionize:1 astronomy:1 condense:1 decade:3 observation:1 expression:1 original:2 pascal:3 preserve:1 zwinger:1 museum:6 blaise:2 pascaline:2 gottfried:1 von:1 leibniz:3 follow:6 say:2 unworthy:1 excellent:1 men:1 lose:1 hour:2 slave:1 labour:1 safely:1 relegate:1 anyone:1 else:2 quote:1 william:2 oughtred:1 reveal:1 richard:1 delamain:1 smart:1 article:1 carnegie:1 mellon:1 university:1 french:1 philosopher:2 know:2 tax:1 france:1 w:2 calculating:2 london:2 science:3 charles:2 babbage:7 capable:3 hold:2 seven:1 digit:7 analytical:1 none:1 completely:1 plan:1 working:1 technology:12 material:1 available:4 per:1 georg:1 scheutz:2 complete:2 base:4 piano:1 demonstrate:2 exposition:1 universelle:1 paris:1 create:1 frank:1 baldwin:1 u:10 pinwheel:1 independently:1 odhner:4 russia:1 similar:6 company:14 sell:8 martin:1 wiberg:1 sewing:1 dorr:1 felt:3 comptometer:7 successful:4 key:11 driven:5 drive:3 refers:1 fact:1 lever:1 join:1 robert:1 tarrant:2 manufacturing:1 go:2 burroughs:2 begin:1 commercial:2 manufacture:4 printing:3 corporation:2 accounting:3 business:4 millionaire:1 introduce:13 turn:2 crank:1 reach:1 zenith:1 half:1 saw:2 gradual:1 development:13 dalton:1 listing:1 ten:4 lister:1 addiator:2 miniature:2 curta:3 curt:1 herzstark:1 extreme:1 stepped:1 desktop:8 see:3 major:1 supplier:1 usa:1 friden:6 monroe:2 scm:2 marchant:3 comment:1 european:4 motor:3 movable:1 carriage:1 dial:1 nearly:2 column:3 nine:1 plus:3 clear:2 permit:1 several:6 illustration:1 contrast:2 commonplace:1 auxiliary:1 columns:1 although:4 low:6 eight:2 mention:1 print:2 olivetti:6 single:5 conventional:2 accomplish:1 repeated:1 square:2 root:2 basically:1 added:1 automatically:1 incremented:1 systematic:1 ska:1 continue:3 displace:1 facit:3 ntk:1 triumphator:2 walther:2 divisumma:2 typical:1 look:3 brunsviga:1 handcranks:1 variation:1 europe:2 mainframe:1 firstly:1 vacuum:6 tube:6 transistor:10 circuit:14 appear:7 step:2 stone:1 ibm:4 release:8 cabinet:1 archive:1 casio:4 japan:3 world:5 electric:2 compact:1 relay:2 desk:2 october:2 bell:5 punch:4 sumlock:3 anita:7 new:5 inspiration:1 announce:2 silent:2 office:4 magazine:1 der:1 erste:1 tragbare:1 elektonische:1 rechenautomat:1 trans:1 buromaschinen:1 mechaniker:1 november:1 british:3 cold:3 cathode:3 dekatrons:1 nixie:2 mk:4 vii:2 continental:1 viii:2 britain:1 rest:1 delivery:1 slightly:1 earlier:2 complicated:1 soon:2 drop:3 favour:1 simpler:1 unique:1 sharp:13 among:1 realise:2 mid:6 future:2 lay:2 employ:1 young:1 graduate:1 norbert:1 kitz:1 pilot:1 ace:1 project:4 quick:1 supersede:1 june:2 ec:1 capacity:3 inch:1 crt:2 reverse:4 polish:4 notation:6 rpn:4 triple:1 electromechanical:2 decide:1 weigh:3 kg:2 lb:2 yen:1 industria:1 macchine:1 elettroniche:1 italy:1 ime:1 extra:1 unit:2 connect:2 people:1 apparently:1 series:2 canon:4 mathatronics:1 smith:1 corona:1 sony:1 toshiba:2 wang:1 hundred:3 germanium:1 silicon:1 multiple:1 filament:2 lamp:2 memory:9 delay:2 magnetic:4 toscal:1 dynamic:1 ram:3 discrete:1 component:3 already:2 less:4 hungry:1 programma:2 stored:1 read:2 acoustic:1 partition:1 constant:1 register:2 conditional:3 testing:1 overlay:1 non:1 specialist:1 win:1 industrial:1 award:1 epic:1 top:1 attached:1 floor:1 stand:1 branch:4 instruction:3 implied:1 unconditional:1 goto:1 stack:1 return:1 start:2 absence:1 texas:12 instrument:13 multiply:1 subtract:1 divide:1 tape:2 celebrate:1 anniversary:2 august:5 ago:1 thing:1 npr:1 september:1 audio:1 interview:1 inventor:1 heavy:2 due:3 consumption:5 ac:1 supply:1 effort:3 integrate:4 edge:2 semiconductor:4 scale:2 integration:1 lsi:1 squeeze:2 individual:1 integrated:4 alliance:1 japanese:4 inc:2 hayakawa:1 north:1 american:2 rockwell:2 microelectronics:1 busicom:6 mostek:3 intel:1 sanyo:2 adler:1 fluorescent:4 cm:1 mini:3 rechargeable:3 icc:1 pocketronic:3 qt:1 micro:1 compet:1 cal:2 tech:2 traditional:1 numerical:2 thermal:3 grant:3 master:1 patent:11 reduction:1 january:1 el:5 close:3 pound:1 nicad:1 initially:1 culminate:1 introduction:2 ref:2 hit:1 finish:1 february:2 held:4 advance:1 together:1 lcd:12 within:1 truly:1 le:4 handy:3 beginning:4 led:2 proclaim:1 run:5 replaceable:1 aa:1 measure:4 mm:3 sized:3 bowmar:2 popularly:1 refer:2 brain:1 fall:1 red:2 sinclair:3 executive:1 slimline:1 oz:1 retail:2 gb:3 soviet:7 elektronika:4 cambridge:1 launch:3 kit:1 competition:1 accuracy:2 questionable:1 poor:1 respect:1 programmability:1 transcendental:1 meanwhile:1 hewlett:1 packard:1 hp:22 unlike:1 replace:1 engineering:1 postfix:1 infix:1 sr:3 signify:1 next:1 trig:1 compete:1 mass:1 store:2 retrieve:1 reader:2 continuous:1 retain:2 cmos:3 alphanumeric:1 expandable:1 expand:1 modules:1 peripheral:1 microcassette:1 floppy:1 disk:1 roll:1 miscellaneous:1 communication:1 rs:1 il:1 ib:1 successor:1 backward:1 compatible:1 define:1 command:2 developed:1 game:1 extended:1 internal:1 eeprom:2 external:2 periphery:1 spacecraft:1 soyuz:1 tm:1 flight:1 backup:1 rapidly:1 long:1 list:1 duty:1 especially:3 trained:1 skilled:1 operator:1 movement:1 quicker:1 serially:1 spread:1 obsolete:1 technical:1 improvement:2 underwent:1 rapid:2 blue:1 green:1 consume:1 lot:1 either:2 short:2 life:1 nickel:1 cadmium:1 liquid:1 crystal:2 infancy:1 deal:1 operating:1 lifetime:1 lc:3 never:1 sale:1 international:1 dataking:1 harden:1 dt:1 ibico:1 lloyds:2 prismatic:1 aka:1 rapidman:1 silver:1 dark:2 background:2 present:2 illuminate:1 solid:1 plastic:1 light:3 guide:1 negate:1 reflective:2 slim:1 another:1 substrate:1 glass:1 integral:1 part:1 revert:1 normal:3 grey:1 yellow:1 filter:1 cut:1 damage:1 uv:1 ray:1 advantage:1 passive:1 reflect:1 generate:1 month:1 inside:1 yield:1 ic:4 apreciable:1 change:2 state:2 vfd:1 additional:1 driver:1 amenable:1 directly:1 possibility:1 source:1 royal:1 teal:1 photon:1 everyone:1 week:1 wage:1 luxury:1 construction:1 production:2 good:1 profit:2 margin:1 fell:1 improve:1 effect:1 economy:1 dollar:1 twentieth:1 five:1 consequence:1 altogether:1 survive:1 tend:1 quality:1 specification:2 quadratic:1 symbolically:1 graphing:2 fx:1 increasingly:1 laden:1 millennium:1 always:1 voyage:1 differentiate:1 differential:1 processing:1 pim:1 ir:1 financial:1 improved:1 platinum:1 edition:1 built:1 mouse:1 click:1 virtual:1 numpad:1 mean:1 input:1 thanks:1 internet:1 otherwise:1 impossible:1 currency:1 exchange:1 rate:2 loan:1 interest:1 category:2 beghilos:1 mercedes:1 justos:1 volvelle:1 machinist:1 reference:1 reprint:1 arno:1 isbn:1 united:2 www:1 uspto:1 gov:1 r:1 stibitz:1 laboratory:1 refiled:1 teletype:1 kilby:1 originally:3 notwithstanding:1 objection:1 right:1 claim:2 royalty:1 retroactively:1 publication:2 application:1 spokesman:1 actively:1 seek:1 cash:1 cross:1 licensing:1 agreement:1 nineteen:1 kingdom:1 scientist:1 shift:1 march:1 july:1 extend:1 structure:1 h:1 redin:1 verbal:1 database:2 ep:1 espacenet:1 com:1 classification:1 link:1 description:1 presentation:1 mainly:1 vintage:1 mech:1 section:1 collection:2 big:1 mycalcdb:1 microprocessor:1 foundation:1 glenrothes:1 scotland:1 thorough:1 analysis:1 firmware:1 bug:1 story:1 photo:1 |@bigram mobile_phone:1 mechanical_calculator:19 problem_solving:1 napier_bone:4 vulgar_fraction:1 trigonometric_function:1 openoffice_org:1 web_browser:1 arabic_numeral:1 george_ifrah:1 tally_stick:1 fertile_crescent:1 clay_tablet:1 antikythera_mechanism:1 abū_rayhān:1 rayhān_al:1 al_bīrūnī:1 al_jazari:1 addition_subtraction:4 pocket_calculator:16 wilhelm_schickard:2 johannes_kepler:1 blaise_pascal:2 gottfried_wilhelm:1 anyone_else:1 carnegie_mellon:1 charles_babbage:2 decimal_digit:1 exposition_universelle:1 william_burroughs:1 reach_zenith:1 vacuum_tube:2 weigh_kg:1 kg_lb:1 filament_lamp:2 programmable_calculator:9 celebrate_anniversary:1 integrate_circuit:3 integrated_circuit:4 rechargeable_battery:1 hewlett_packard:1 packard_hp:1 postfix_notation:1 infix_notation:1 sr_sr:1 floppy_disk:1 backward_compatible:1 soyuz_tm:1 nickel_cadmium:1 cadmium_battery:1 lcd_display:4 transistor_ic:1 quadratic_equation:1 differential_equation:1 hp_hp:1 electromechanical_relay:1 lb_kg:1 external_link:1 |
7,407 | History_of_Palestine | REDIRECT History of the Southern Levant | History_of_Palestine |@lemmatized redirect:1 history:1 southern:1 levant:1 |@bigram |
7,408 | Estrogen | Estriol. Note two hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to the D ring (rightmost ring). Estradiol. Note one hydroxyl group attached to the D ring. The 'di' refers both to this hydroxyl and the one on the A ring (leftmost). Estrone. Note the ketone (=O) group attached to the D ring. Estrogens (U.S., otherwise oestrogens or œstrogens) are a group of steroid compounds, named for their importance in the estrous cycle, and functioning as the primary female sex hormone. Estrogens are used as part of some oral contraceptives, in estrogen replacement therapy of postmenopausal women, and in hormone replacement therapy for transwomen. Like all steroid hormones, estrogens readily diffuse across the cell membrane; inside the cell, they interact with estrogen receptors. Nussey and Whitehead: Endocrinology, an integrated approach, Taylor and Francis 2001 Additionally, estrogens have been shown to activate a G protein-coupled receptor, GPR30. Types Steroidal The three major naturally occurring estrogens in women are estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3). Estradiol (E2) is the predominate form in nonpregnant females, estrone is produced during menopause, and estriol is the primary estrogen of pregnancy. In the body these are all produced from androgens through actions of enzymes. From menarche to menopause the primary estrogen is 17β-estradiol. In postmenopausal women more estrone is present than estradiol. Estradiol is produced from testosterone by aromatase and estrone from androstenedione. Estrone is weaker than estradiol. Premarin, a commonly prescribed estrogenic drug, contains the steroidal estrogens equilin and equilenin, in addition to estrone sulfate but due to its health risk, more genetic estrogen named Progynova (estradiol valerate) are now more often prescribed. Nonsteroidal A range of synthetic and natural substances have been identified that also possess estrogenic activity. Synthetic substances of this kind are known as xenoestrogens. Plant products with estrogenic activity are called phytoestrogens. Those produced by fungi are known as mycoestrogens. Unlike estrogens produced by mammals, these substances are not necessarily steroids. Estrogen production Estrogens are produced primarily by developing follicles in the ovaries, the corpus luteum, and the placenta. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulate the production of estrogen in the ovaries. Some estrogens are also produced in smaller amounts by other tissues such as the liver, adrenal glands, and the breasts. These secondary sources of estrogens are especially important in postmenopausal women. Synthesis of estrogens starts in theca interna cells in the ovary, by the synthesis of androstenedione from cholesterol. Androstenedione is a substance of moderate androgenic activity. This compound crosses the basal membrane into the surrounding granulosa cells, where it is converted to estrone or estradiol, either immediately or through testosterone. The conversion of testosterone to estradiol, and of androstenedione to estrone, is catalyzed by the enzyme aromatase. Estradiol levels vary through the menstrual cycle, with levels highest just before ovulation. Functions While estrogens are present in both men and women, they are usually present at significantly higher levels in women of reproductive age. They promote the development of female secondary sex characteristics, such as breasts, and are also involved in the thickening of the endometrium and other aspects of regulating the menstrual cycle. In males, estrogen regulates certain functions of the reproductive system important to the maturation of sperm and may be necessary for a healthy libido. Furthermore, there are several other structural changes induced by estrogen in addition to other functions. In dentistry, it reduces hyperkeratinization of the gingiva and increase vascular permeability, exudation, and edema. Structural promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics decelerate height growth accelerate metabolism (burn fat) reduce muscle mass stimulate endometrial growth increase uterine growth increase vaginal lubrication thicken the vaginal wall maintenance of vessel and skin reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation morphic change (endomorphic -> mesomorphic -> ectomorphic) protein synthesis increase hepatic production of binding proteins coagulation increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, plasminogen decrease antithrombin III increase platelet adhesiveness Lipid increase HDL, triglyceride decrease LDL, fat deposition Fluid balance salt (sodium) and water retention Hormones increase cortisol, SHBG Gastrointestinal tract reduce bowel motility increase cholesterol in bile Melanin increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin Cancer support hormone-sensitive breast cancers (see section below) Lung function promotes lung function by supporting alveoli (in rodents but probably in humans). Sexual desire is dependent on androgen levels rather than estrogen levels. Estrogen and breast cancer About 80% of breast cancers, once established, rely on supplies of the hormone estrogen to grow: they are known as hormone-sensitive or hormone-receptor-positive cancers. Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers. Recently researchers have discovered that the common table mushroom has anti-aromatase properties and therefore possible anti-estrogen activity. Clinical trials have begun in the United States looking into whether the table mushroom can prevent breast cancer in people. A recent study has highlighted the importance of this research. In 2009, a case-control study of the eating habits of 2,018 women, revealed that women who consumed mushrooms had an approximately 50% lower incidence of breast cancer. Women who consumed mushrooms and green tea had a 90% lower incidence of breast cancer. Fetal development Estrogen plays a vital role in the sex differentiation of the brain in men. In men, testosterone is converted to estrogen via the protein aromatase. And the presence of estrogen in the brain masculinizes the neurons in the brain. Alpha-fetoprotein is a protein that binds to estradiol (an estrogen) and prevents estrogen from binding with estrogen receptors found in certain cells in various areas of the brain. Such areas include the pituitary, hypothalamus, and the preoptic area. Estrogen fails to enter the nucleus of these brain neurons, and prevents masculinized neurons. It is the role of estrogen and alpha-fetoprotein that establishes sex differentiation of the brain. Diethystilbesterol (DES), a drug given to women in the past to maintain their pregnancy resulted in masculinized females. This is because, DES is an artificial estrogen that alpha-fetoprotein does not bind to. Diethystilbesterol mimics estrogen and due to the non-binding of alpha-fetoprotein, the synthetic drug is free to enter the nucleus of both male and female neurons in the brain, and masculinizes the cells. Thus, females showed higher levels of masculinity. People in the past have associated estrogen as solely a female hormone, when in fact it plays a vital role in both sexes. See also Diethylstilbestrol Medical applications Since estrogen circulating in the blood can negatively feed-back to reduce circulating levels of FSH and LH, most oral contraceptives contain a synthetic estrogen, along with a synthetic progestin. Even in men, the major hormone involved in LH feedback is estradiol, not testosterone. As more fully discussed in the article on Hormone replacement therapy, estrogen and other hormones are given to postmenopausal women in order to prevent osteoporosis as well as treat the symptoms of menopause such as hot flashes, vaginal dryness, urinary stress incontinence, chilly sensations, dizziness, fatigue, irritability, and sweating. Fractures of the spine, wrist, and hips decrease by 50-70% and spinal bone density increases by ~5% in those women treated with estrogen within 3 years of the onset of menopause and for 5–10 years thereafter. Before the specific dangers of conjugated equine estrogens were well understood, standard therapy was 0.625 mg/day of conjugated equine estrogens (such as Premarin). There are, however, risks associated with conjugated equine estrogen therapy. Among the older postmenopausal women studied as part of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI), an orally-administered conjugated equine estrogen supplement was found to be associated with an increased risk of dangerous blood clotting. The WHI studies used one type of estrogen supplement, a high oral dose of conjugated equine estrogens (Premarin alone and with medroxyprogesterone acetate as PremPro). In a study by the NIH, esterified estrogens were not proven to pose the same risks to health as conjugated equine estrogens. Hormone replacement therapy has favorable effects on serum cholesterol levels, and when initiated immediately upon menopause may reduce the incidence of cardiovascular disease, although this hypothesis has yet to be tested in randomized trials. Estrogen appears to have a protector effect on atherosclerosis : it lowers LDL and triglycerides, it raises HDL levels and has endothelial vasodilatation properties plus an anti-inflammatory component. Research is underway to determine if risks of estrogen supplement use are the same for all methods of delivery. In particular, estrogen applied topically may have a different spectrum of side-effects than when administered orally, and transdermal oestrogens do not affect clotting as they are absorbed directly into the systemic circulation, avoiding first-pass metabolism in the liver. This route of administration is thus preferred in women with a history of thrombo-embolic disease. Estrogen is also used in the therapy of vaginal atrophy, hypoestrogenism (as a result of hypogonadism, castration, or primary ovarian failure), amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and oligomenorrhea. Estrogens can also be used to suppress lactation after child birth. Hormone-receptor-positive breast cancers are treated with drugs which suppress production in the body of estrogen. This technique, in the context of treatment of breast cancer, is known variously as hormonal therapy, hormone therapy, or anti-estrogen therapy (not to be confused with hormone replacement therapy). Certain foods such as soy may also suppress the proliferative effects of estrogen and are used as an alternative to hormone therapy. In humans and mice, estrogen promotes wound healing. At one time, estrogen was used to induce growth attenuation in tall girls. Recently, estrogen-induced growth attenuation was used as part of the controversial Ashley Treatment to keep a developmentally disabled girl from growing to adult size. Under certain circumstances, estrogen may also be used in males for treatment of prostate cancer. Most recently, estrogen has been used in experimental research as a way to treat patients suffering from bulimia nervosa, in addition to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, which is the established standard for treatment in bulimia cases. The estrogen research hypothesizes that the disease may be linked to a hormonal imbalance in the brain. Estrogen has also been used in studies which indicate that it may be an effective drug for use in the treatment of traumatic liver injury. Mental health Estrogen is considered to play a significant role in women’s mental health. A conceptual model of how estrogen affects mood was suggested by Douma et al. 2005 based on their extensive literature review relating activity of endogenous, bio-identical and synthetic estrogen with mood and well-being. They concluded the sudden estrogen withdrawal, fluctuating estrogen, and periods of sustained estrogen low levels correlated with significant mood lowering. Clinical recovery from depression postpartum, perimenopause, and postmenopause was shown to be effective after levels of estrogen were stabilized and/or restored. In 2005 Prince Henry's Institute of Medical Research of Australia published an article where it was found that a low Estrogen level in male lab mice may be one cause of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Research has found that when Estrogen levels were raised through the increased activity of the enzyme Aromatase in male lab mice, OCD rituals were dramatically decreased. Hypothalamic protein levels in the gene COMT are enhanced by increasing Estrogen levels which is believed to return lab mice that displayed OCD rituals to normal activity. Aromatase deficiency is ultimately suspected which is involved in the synthesis of Estrogen in humans and has therapeutic implications in humans having Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Health risks and warning labels The labeling of estrogen-only products in the U.S. includes a boxed warning that unopposed estrogen (without progestagen) therapy increases the risk of endometrial cancer. Based on a review of data from the WHI, on January 8, 2003 the FDA changed the labeling of all estrogen and estrogen with progestin products for use by postmenopausal women to include a new boxed warning about cardiovascular and other risks. The estrogen-alone substudy of the WHI reported an increased risk of stroke and deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in postmenopausal women 50 years of age or older and an increased risk of dementia in postmenopausal women 65 years of age or older using 0.625 mg of Premarin conjugated equine estrogens (CEE). The estrogen-plus-progestin substudy of the WHI reported an increased risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, invasive breast cancer, pulmonary emboli and DVT in postmenopausal women 50 years of age or older and an increased risk of dementia in postmenopausal women 65 years of age or older using PremPro, which is 0.625 mg of CEE with 2.5 mg of the progestin medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA). Estrogens in cosmetics Some hair shampoos on the market include estrogens and placental extracts; others contain phytoestrogens. There are case reports of young children developing breasts after exposure to these shampoos. These products are often marketed to African-American consumers. On September 9, 1993, the FDA determined that not all topically-applied hormone-containing drug products for OTC human use are generally recognized as safe and effective and are misbranded. An accompanying proposed rule deals with cosmetics, concluding that any use of natural estrogens in a cosmetic product makes the product an unapproved new drug and that any cosmetic using the term "hormone" in the text of its labeling or in its ingredient statement makes an implied drug claim, subjecting such a product to regulatory action. In addition to being considered misbranded drugs, products claiming to contain placental extract may also be deemed to be misbranded cosmetics if the extract has been prepared from placentas from which the hormones and other biologically active substances have been removed and the extracted substance consists principally of protein. The FDA recommends that this substance be identified by a name other than "placental extract" and describing its composition more accurately because consumers associate the name "placental extract" with a therapeutic use of some biological activity. History The existence and effects of estrogen were established from 1923 to 1938 in which the formulation was led by a group of scientists instead of pharmaceutical companies. Thereafter, the market for hormonal drug research opened up. The “first orally effective estrogen”, Emmenin, derived from the late-pregnancy urine of Canadian women, was introduced in 1930 by Collip and Ayerst Laboratories. Estrogens are not water-soluble and cannot be given orally, but the urine was found to contain estriol glucuronide which is water soluble and becomes active in the body after hydrolization. Scientists continued to search for new sources of estrogen because of concerns associated with the practicality of introducing the drug into the market. At the same time, a German pharmaceutical drug company, formulated a similar product as Emmenin that was introduced to German women to treat menopausal symptoms. In 1938, British scientists obtained a patent on a newly formulated nonsteroidal estrogen, Diethylstilbestrol (DES), that was cheaper and more powerful than the previously manufactured estrogens. Soon after, concerns over the side effects of DES were raised in scientific journals while the drug manufacturers came together to lobby for governmental approval of DES. It was only until 1941 when estrogen therapy was finally approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of menopausal symptoms. Hyperestrogenemia Hyperestrogenemia (elevated levels of estrogen) may be a result of exogenous administration of estrogen or estrogen-like substances, or may be a result of physiologic conditions such as pregnancy. Any of these causes is linked with an increase in the risk of thrombosis. Chapter 4 in: 8th edition. See also List of steroid abbreviations References See also Female Atrophic vaginitis Endocrinology Equol Equilin Estradiol Estrogen receptor Hormone Replacement Therapy Progesterone Progestin Testosterone Endocrine disruptor for the effect of oestrogen-like compounds in the environment. External links and further reading It's wise to be wary of the pill Nussey and Whitehead: Endocrinology, an integrated approach, Taylor and Francis 2001. Free online textbook. | Estrogen |@lemmatized estriol:4 note:3 two:1 hydroxyl:3 oh:1 group:5 attach:3 ring:5 rightmost:1 estradiol:14 one:5 di:1 refers:1 leftmost:1 estrone:9 ketone:1 estrogen:95 u:2 otherwise:1 oestrogen:3 œstrogens:1 steroid:4 compound:3 name:4 importance:2 estrous:1 cycle:3 function:6 primary:4 female:9 sex:6 hormone:23 use:19 part:3 oral:3 contraceptive:2 replacement:6 therapy:16 postmenopausal:10 woman:23 transwomen:1 like:3 readily:1 diffuse:1 across:1 cell:6 membrane:2 inside:1 interact:1 receptor:6 nussey:2 whitehead:2 endocrinology:3 integrated:2 approach:2 taylor:2 francis:2 additionally:1 show:3 activate:1 g:1 protein:7 couple:1 type:2 steroidal:2 three:1 major:2 naturally:1 occur:1 predominate:1 form:1 nonpregnant:1 produce:7 menopause:5 pregnancy:4 body:4 androgen:2 action:2 enzyme:3 menarche:1 present:3 testosterone:6 aromatase:6 androstenedione:4 weak:1 premarin:4 commonly:1 prescribed:1 estrogenic:3 drug:14 contain:6 estrogens:1 equilin:2 equilenin:1 addition:4 sulfate:1 due:2 health:6 risk:13 genetic:1 progynova:1 valerate:1 often:2 prescribe:1 nonsteroidal:2 range:1 synthetic:6 natural:2 substance:8 identify:2 also:12 possess:1 activity:8 kind:1 know:4 xenoestrogens:1 plant:1 product:10 call:1 phytoestrogens:2 fungi:1 mycoestrogens:1 unlike:1 mammal:1 necessarily:1 production:5 primarily:1 develop:2 follicle:2 ovary:3 corpus:1 luteum:1 placenta:2 stimulate:3 fsh:2 luteinizing:1 lh:3 small:1 amount:1 tissue:1 liver:3 adrenal:1 gland:1 breast:12 secondary:3 source:2 especially:1 important:2 synthesis:4 start:1 theca:1 interna:1 cholesterol:3 moderate:1 androgenic:1 cross:1 basal:1 surround:1 granulosa:1 convert:2 either:1 immediately:2 conversion:1 catalyze:1 level:17 vary:1 menstrual:2 high:4 ovulation:1 men:4 usually:1 significantly:1 reproductive:2 age:5 promote:3 development:2 characteristic:2 involve:3 thickening:1 endometrium:1 aspect:1 regulate:1 male:5 regulates:1 certain:4 system:1 maturation:1 sperm:1 may:11 necessary:1 healthy:1 libido:1 furthermore:1 several:1 structural:2 change:3 induce:2 dentistry:1 reduce:7 hyperkeratinization:1 gingiva:1 increase:20 vascular:1 permeability:1 exudation:1 edema:1 formation:2 decelerate:1 height:1 growth:5 accelerate:1 metabolism:2 burn:1 fat:2 muscle:1 mass:1 endometrial:2 uterine:1 vaginal:4 lubrication:1 thicken:1 wall:1 maintenance:1 vessel:1 skin:1 bone:3 resorption:1 morphic:1 endomorphic:1 mesomorphic:1 ectomorphic:1 hepatic:1 bind:4 coagulation:1 circulate:2 factor:1 plasminogen:1 decrease:4 antithrombin:1 iii:1 platelet:1 adhesiveness:1 lipid:1 hdl:2 triglyceride:2 ldl:2 deposition:1 fluid:1 balance:1 salt:1 sodium:1 water:3 retention:1 cortisol:1 shbg:1 gastrointestinal:1 tract:1 bowel:1 motility:1 bile:1 melanin:1 pheomelanin:1 eumelanin:1 cancer:14 support:2 sensitive:2 see:4 section:1 lung:2 alveolus:1 rodent:1 probably:1 human:5 sexual:1 desire:1 dependent:1 rather:1 establish:3 rely:1 supply:1 grow:2 positive:2 suppression:1 treatment:7 recently:3 researcher:1 discover:1 common:1 table:2 mushroom:4 anti:4 property:2 therefore:1 possible:1 clinical:2 trial:2 begin:1 united:1 state:1 look:1 whether:1 prevent:2 people:2 recent:1 study:6 highlight:1 research:7 case:3 control:1 eat:1 habit:1 reveal:1 consume:2 approximately:1 low:4 incidence:3 green:1 tea:1 fetal:1 play:3 vital:2 role:4 differentiation:2 brain:8 via:1 presence:1 masculinize:3 neuron:4 alpha:4 fetoprotein:4 prevents:2 find:5 various:1 area:3 include:4 pituitary:1 hypothalamus:1 preoptic:1 fail:1 enter:2 nucleus:2 diethystilbesterol:2 de:4 give:3 past:2 maintain:1 result:4 masculinized:1 artificial:1 mimic:1 non:1 binding:1 free:2 thus:2 masculinity:1 associate:5 solely:1 fact:1 diethylstilbestrol:2 medical:2 application:1 since:1 circulating:1 blood:2 negatively:1 fee:1 back:1 along:1 progestin:5 even:1 feedback:1 fully:1 discuss:1 article:2 order:1 osteoporosis:1 well:3 treat:5 symptom:3 hot:1 flash:1 dryness:1 urinary:1 stress:1 incontinence:1 chilly:1 sensation:1 dizziness:1 fatigue:1 irritability:1 sweat:1 fracture:1 spine:1 wrist:1 hip:1 spinal:1 density:1 within:1 year:6 onset:1 thereafter:2 specific:1 danger:1 conjugated:6 equine:7 understood:1 standard:2 mg:4 day:1 however:1 among:1 old:5 initiative:1 whi:5 orally:4 administer:2 supplement:3 dangerous:1 clotting:1 dose:1 alone:2 medroxyprogesterone:2 acetate:2 prempro:2 nih:1 esterify:1 prove:1 pose:1 favorable:1 effect:7 serum:1 initiate:1 upon:1 cardiovascular:2 disease:3 although:1 hypothesis:1 yet:1 test:1 randomized:1 appear:1 protector:1 atherosclerosis:1 lower:2 raise:3 endothelial:1 vasodilatation:1 plus:2 inflammatory:1 component:1 underway:1 determine:2 method:1 delivery:1 particular:1 apply:2 topically:2 different:1 spectrum:1 side:2 transdermal:1 affect:2 clot:1 absorb:1 directly:1 systemic:1 circulation:1 avoid:1 first:2 pas:1 route:1 administration:3 prefer:1 history:2 thrombo:1 embolic:1 atrophy:1 hypoestrogenism:1 hypogonadism:1 castration:1 ovarian:1 failure:1 amenorrhea:1 dysmenorrhea:1 oligomenorrhea:1 suppress:3 lactation:1 child:2 birth:1 technique:1 context:1 variously:1 hormonal:3 confuse:1 food:2 soy:1 proliferative:1 alternative:1 mouse:4 promotes:1 wound:1 heal:1 time:2 attenuation:2 tall:1 girl:2 induced:1 controversial:1 ashley:1 keep:1 developmentally:1 disabled:1 adult:1 size:1 circumstance:1 prostate:1 experimental:1 way:1 patient:1 suffer:1 bulimia:2 nervosa:1 cognitive:1 behavioral:1 established:1 hypothesize:1 link:3 imbalance:1 indicate:1 effective:4 traumatic:1 injury:1 mental:2 consider:2 significant:2 conceptual:1 model:1 mood:3 suggest:1 douma:1 et:1 al:1 base:2 extensive:1 literature:1 review:2 relate:1 endogenous:1 bio:1 identical:1 conclude:2 sudden:1 withdrawal:1 fluctuate:1 period:1 sustained:1 correlate:1 recovery:1 depression:1 postpartum:1 perimenopause:1 postmenopause:1 stabilize:1 restore:1 prince:1 henry:1 institute:1 australia:1 publish:1 lab:3 cause:2 obsessive:2 compulsive:2 disorder:2 increased:1 ocd:2 ritual:2 dramatically:1 hypothalamic:1 gene:1 comt:1 enhance:1 believe:1 return:1 display:1 normal:1 deficiency:1 ultimately:1 suspected:1 therapeutic:2 implication:1 warn:1 label:1 labeling:3 boxed:2 warning:2 unopposed:1 without:1 progestagen:1 data:1 january:1 fda:4 new:3 substudy:2 report:3 stroke:2 deep:1 vein:1 thrombosis:2 dvt:2 dementia:2 conjugate:1 cee:2 myocardial:1 infarction:1 invasive:1 pulmonary:1 embolus:1 mpa:1 cosmetic:5 hair:1 shampoo:2 market:4 placental:4 extract:5 others:1 young:1 exposure:1 african:1 american:1 consumer:2 september:1 otc:1 generally:1 recognize:1 safe:1 misbranded:3 accompany:1 proposed:1 rule:1 deal:1 make:2 unapproved:1 term:1 text:1 ingredient:1 statement:1 implied:1 claim:2 subject:1 regulatory:1 deem:1 prepare:1 biologically:1 active:2 remove:1 extracted:1 consist:1 principally:1 recommend:1 describe:1 composition:1 accurately:1 biological:1 existence:1 formulation:1 lead:1 scientist:3 instead:1 pharmaceutical:2 company:2 open:1 emmenin:2 derive:1 late:1 urine:2 canadian:1 introduce:3 collip:1 ayerst:1 laboratory:1 soluble:2 cannot:1 glucuronide:1 become:1 hydrolization:1 continue:1 search:1 concern:2 practicality:1 german:2 formulate:2 similar:1 menopausal:2 british:1 obtain:1 patent:1 newly:1 des:1 cheap:1 powerful:1 previously:1 manufacture:1 soon:1 scientific:1 journal:1 manufacturer:1 come:1 together:1 lobby:1 governmental:1 approval:1 finally:1 approve:1 hyperestrogenemia:2 elevated:1 exogenous:1 physiologic:1 condition:1 chapter:1 edition:1 list:1 abbreviation:1 reference:1 atrophic:1 vaginitis:1 equol:1 progesterone:1 endocrine:1 disruptor:1 environment:1 external:1 reading:1 wise:1 wary:1 pill:1 online:1 textbook:1 |@bigram hydroxyl_oh:1 estrous_cycle:1 hormone_estrogen:3 oral_contraceptive:2 postmenopausal_woman:10 steroid_hormone:1 estrogen_receptor:3 taylor_francis:2 corpus_luteum:1 follicle_stimulate:1 stimulate_hormone:1 adrenal_gland:1 catalyze_enzyme:1 menstrual_cycle:2 bone_resorption:1 gastrointestinal_tract:1 breast_cancer:9 hormone_receptor:2 clinical_trial:1 incidence_breast:2 alpha_fetoprotein:4 male_female:1 conjugated_equine:6 equine_estrogen:7 orally_administer:1 blood_clotting:1 cardiovascular_disease:1 randomized_trial:1 anti_inflammatory:1 administer_orally:1 prostate_cancer:1 bulimia_nervosa:1 cognitive_behavioral:1 behavioral_therapy:1 mental_health:2 et_al:1 obsessive_compulsive:2 compulsive_disorder:2 myocardial_infarction:1 biologically_active:1 administration_fda:1 external_link:1 |
7,409 | Final_Fantasy | is a media franchise created by Hironobu Sakaguchi, and is developed and owned by Square Enix (formerly Squaresoft). The franchise centers on a series of console role-playing games (RPGs), but includes motion pictures, anime, printed media, and other merchandise. The series began in 1987 as an eponymous video game developed to save Square from bankruptcy; the game was a success and spawned sequels. The video game series has since branched into other genres and platforms, such as tactical RPGs, portable games, a massively multiplayer online role-playing game, and games for mobile phones. Although most Final Fantasy installments are independent stories with various different settings and main characters, they feature common elements that define the franchise. Such recurring elements include plot themes, character names, and game mechanics. Plots center on a group of heroes battling a great evil while exploring the characters' internal struggles and relationships. Character names are often derived from the history, languages, and mythologies of cultures worldwide. The series has been commercially and critically successful; it is Square Enix's best selling video game franchise, with more than 85 million units sold, and the fifth-best-selling video game franchise. Second to Final Fantasy among Square Enix franchises is Dragon Quest. It was awarded a star on the Walk of Game in 2006, and holds seven Guinness World Records in the Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008. The series is well known for its innovation, visuals, and music, such as the inclusion of full motion videos, photo-realistic character models, and orchestrated music by Nobuo Uematsu. Final Fantasy has been a driving force in the video game industry. The video game series has affected Square's business practices and its relationships with other video game developers. It has also introduced many features now common in console RPGs and has been credited with helping to popularize RPGs in markets outside Japan. Titles Games The first installment of the series premiered in Japan on December 18, 1987. Subsequent titles are numbered and given a story unrelated to previous games; consequently, the numbers refer more to volumes than to sequels. Many Final Fantasy games have been localized for markets in North America, Europe, and Australia on numerous video game consoles, personal computers, and mobile phones. Future installments will appear on seventh generation video game consoles; two upcoming titles include Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy Versus XIII. As of March 2007, there are 28 games in the franchise; this number includes the main installments from Final Fantasy to Final Fantasy XII, as well as direct sequels and spin-offs. Most of the older titles have been remade or re-released on multiple platforms. Main series Three Final Fantasy installments were released on the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). Final Fantasy was released in Japan in 1987 and in North America in 1990. It introduced many concepts to the console RPG genre, and has since been remade on several platforms. Final Fantasy II, released in 1988 in Japan, has been bundled with Final Fantasy in several re-releases. The last of the NES installments, Final Fantasy III, was released in Japan in 1990; however, it was not released elsewhere until a Nintendo DS remake in 2006. The Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) also featured three installments of the main series, all of which have been re-released on several platforms. Final Fantasy IV was released in 1991; in North America, it was released as Final Fantasy II. It introduced the "Active Time Battle" system. Final Fantasy V, released in 1992 in Japan, was first in the series to spawn a sequel: a short anime series titled Final Fantasy: Legend of the Crystals. Final Fantasy VI was released on in Japan in 1994, but it was titled Final Fantasy III in North America. The PlayStation console saw the release of three main Final Fantasy games. The 1997 title Final Fantasy VII moved away from the two-dimensional (2D) graphics used in the first six games to three-dimensional (3D) computer graphics; the game features polygonal characters on pre-rendered backgrounds. It also introduced a more modern setting, a style that was carried over to the next game. The eighth installment was published in 1999, and was the first to consistently use realistically proportioned characters and feature a vocal piece as its theme music. Final Fantasy IX, released in 2000, returned to the series' roots by revisiting a more traditional Final Fantasy setting rather than the more modern worlds of VII and VIII. Three main installments, including one online game, were published for the PlayStation 2 (PS2). The 2001 title Final Fantasy X introduced full 3D areas and voice acting to the series, and was the first to spawn a direct video game sequel (Final Fantasy X-2). Final Fantasy XI was released on the PS2 and PC in 2002, and later on the Xbox 360. The first massive multi-player online role-playing game (MMORPG) in the series, Final Fantasy XI also introduced real-time battles instead of random encounters. The twelfth installment, published in 2006, also includes real-time battles in large, interconnected playfields. Final Fantasy XIII is in development for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, and will be released in 2009 in Japan, and in 2010 in North America and Europe. It will be the flagship installment of the Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy XIII compilation. Sequels and spin-offs Final Fantasy has spawned numerous spin-offs and metaseries. Three Square games were released in North America with their titles changed to include "Final Fantasy": The Final Fantasy Legend and its two sequels. The games, however, are part of Square's Saga series and feature few similarities to Final Fantasy. Final Fantasy Adventure is a spin-off that spawned the Mana series. Final Fantasy Mystic Quest was developed for a United States audience, and Final Fantasy Tactics is a tactical RPG that features many references and themes found in the series. The spin-off Chocobo series, Crystal Chronicles series, and Kingdom Hearts series also include multiple Final Fantasy elements. In 2003, the video game series' first direct sequel, Final Fantasy X-2, was released. Other spin-offs have taken the form of compilations—Compilation of Final Fantasy VII, Ivalice Alliance, and Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy XIII. Other media Square Enix has expanded the Final Fantasy series into various mediums. Multiple anime and computer-generated imagery (CGI) films have been produced that are based either on individual Final Fantasy games or on the series as a whole. The first was an original video animation (OVA) titled Final Fantasy: Legend of the Crystals, a sequel to Final Fantasy V. The story was set on the same world as the game though 200 years in the future. It was released as four 30-minute episodes first in Japan in 1994 and later released in the United States by Urban Vision in 1998. In 2001, Square Pictures released its first feature film, Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within. The film is set on a future-Earth invaded by alien life forms. The Spirits Within was the first animated feature to seriously attempt to portray photorealistic CGI humans, but was considered a box office bomb. 2001 also saw the release of Final Fantasy: Unlimited, a 25 episode anime series based on the common elements of the Final Fantasy series. It was broadcast in Japan by TV Tokyo and released in North America by ADV Films. In 2005, Final Fantasy VII Advent Children and Last Order: Final Fantasy VII were released as part of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII. Several video games have either been adapted into or have had spin-offs in the form of manga and novels. The first was the novelization of Final Fantasy II in 1989, and was followed by a manga adaptation of Final Fantasy III in 1992. The past decade has seen an increase in the number of non-video game adaptations and spin-offs. Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within has been adapted into a novel, the spin-off game Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles has been adapted into a manga, and Final Fantasy XI has had a novel and manga set in its continuity. Two novellas based on the Final Fantasy VII universe have also been released. The Final Fantasy: Unlimited story was partially continued in novels and a manga after the anime series ended. Two titles, Final Fantasy Tactics Advance and Final Fantasy: Unlimited, have been adapted into radio dramas. Common elements Although most Final Fantasy installments are independent, many themes and elements of gameplay recur throughout the series. Most titles feature recycled names often inspired from various cultures' history and languages including Japanese, Hebrew, and Latin. Examples include weapon names like Excalibur and Masamune—derived from Arthurian legend and the Japanese swordsmith Masamune respectively—as well as the spell names Holy, Meteor, and Ultima. Beginning with Final Fantasy IV, the main series adopted its current logo style that features the same typeface and an emblem designed by manga artist Yoshitaka Amano. The emblem relates to a title's respective plot and typically portrays a character or object in the story. Subsequent remakes of the first three games have replaced the previous logos with ones similar to the rest of the series. Plot and themes The central conflict in many Final Fantasy games focuses on a group of characters battling an evil, and sometimes ancient, antagonist that dominates the game's world. Stories frequently involve a sovereign state in rebellion, with the protagonists taking part in the rebellion. The heroes are often destined to defeat the evil, and occasionally gather as a direct result of the antagonist's malicious actions. Another staple of the series is the existence of two villains; the main villain is not always who it appears to be, as the primary antagonist may actually be subservient to another character or entity. The main antagonist introduced at the beginning of the game is not always the final enemy, and the characters must continue their quest beyond what appears to be the final fight. Stories in the series frequently emphasize the internal struggles, passions, and tragedies of the characters, and the main plot often recedes into the background as the focus shifts to their personal lives. Games also explore relationships between characters, ranging from love to rivalry. Other recurring situations that drive the plot include amnesia, a hero corrupted by an evil force, mistaken identity, and altruistic suicide. Magical orbs and crystals are recurring in-game items that are frequently connected the themes of the games' plots. Crystals often play a central role in the creation of the world, and a majority of the Final Fantasy games link crystals and orbs to the planet's life force. As such, control over these crystals drive the main conflict. The classical elements are a recurring theme in the series related to the heroes, villains, and items. Other common plot and setting themes include the Gaia hypothesis, an apocalypse, and conflicts between advanced technology and nature. Characters In recent years, the series has featured several males with androgynous or effeminate characteristics. Character names are another recurring theme. Since Final Fantasy II, a character named Cid has appeared in different capacities: a non-playable ally, party member, and villain. Though Cid's appearance and personality differ between titles, the character is normally related to the in-game airships. Biggs and Wedge, inspired by two Star Wars characters by the same name, appear in titles as minor characters, sometimes as comic relief. Recurring creatures include Chocobos and Moogles. Chocobos are large, flightless birds often appearring as a means of long-distance travel for characters. Moogles are white, stout creatures resembling teddy bears with wings and a single antenna with a pom-pom on the tip. They serve different capacities in games including mail delivery, weapon smiths, and party members. Chocobo and Moogle appearances are often accompanied by specific themes that have been arranged differently for separate titles. Gameplay In Final Fantasy games, players command a party of characters as they progress through the game's story by exploring the game world and defeating opponents. Enemies are typically encountered randomly through exploring, a trend which changed in Final Fantasy XI and Final Fantasy XII. The player issues combat orders—like Fight", "Magic", and "Item"—to individual characters via a menu-driven interface while engaging in battles. Throughout the series, the games have used different battle systems. Prior to Final Fantasy XI, battles were turn-based with the protagonists and antagonists on different sides of the battlefield. Final Fantasy IV introduced the "Active Time Battle System" that augmented the turn-based nature with a perpetual time-keeping system. Designed by Hiroyuki Itō, it injected urgency and excitement into combat by requiring the player to act before an enemy attacks, and was used until Final Fantasy X, which implemented the Conditional Turn-Based system. The new system returned to the previous turn-based system, but added nuances to offer players more challenge. Final Fantasy XI adopted a real-time battle system where characters continuously act depending on the issued command. Final Fantasy XII continued this gameplay with the "Active Dimension Battle" system. Like most RPGs, the Final Fantasy installments use an experience level system for character advancement, in which experience points are accumulated by killing enemies. Character classes, specific jobs that enable unique abilities for characters, are another recurring theme. Introduced in the first game, character classes have been used differently in each title. Some restrict a character to a single job to integrate it into the story, while other games feature dynamic job systems that allow the player to chose from multiple classes and switch throughout the game. Though used heavily in many games, such systems have become less prevalent in favor of characters that are more versatile; characters still match an archetype, but are able to learn skills outside their class. Magic is another common RPG element in the series. It is generally divided into classes, which are organized by color: "White magic", which is focuses on spells that assist teammates; "Black magic", which focuses on harming enemies; "Red magic", which is a combination of white and black magic; and "Blue magic", which mimics enemy attacks. Other magic includes summoning legendary creatures to aid in battle, and has persisted since Final Fantasy III. These creatures, often referred to as "Summons", have been inspired by mythologies from Arabic, Hindu, Norse, and Greek cultures. Different means of transportation have appeared through the series. The most common is the airship, but others include sea and land vessels. Following Final Fantasy VII, more modern and futuristic vehicle designs have been included. Development and history Origin In the mid 1980s, Square entered the Japanese video game industry with simple RPGs, racing games, and platformers for Nintendo's Famicom Disk System. Though a couple games were successful in North America, most were not popular and the company faced bankruptcy. In 1987, Square designer Hironobu Sakaguchi headed development of a game to prevent the company's financial ruin. Sakaguchi chose to create a new fantasy role-playing game for the cartridge-based Famicom, and drew inspiration from popular fantasy games: Enix's Dragon Quest, Nintendo's The Legend of Zelda, and Origin Systems's Ultima series. As Sakaguchi planned to retire after completing the project, he named it Final Fantasy. Despite his explanation, publications have also attributed the name to the company's hopes that the project would solve its financial troubles. The game indeed reversed Square's lagging fortunes, and it became the company's flagship franchise. Following the success, Square immediately developed a second installment. Because Sakaguchi assumed Final Fantasy would be a stand-alone title, its story was not designed to be expanded by a sequel. The developers instead chose to carrying over only thematic similarities to its predecessor, and some of the gameplay elements, such as the character advancement system, were overhauled. This approach has continued throughout the series; each major Final Fantasy game features a new setting, a new cast of characters, and an upgraded battle system. Design For the original Final Fantasy, Sakaguchi required a larger production team than Square's previous titles. He began crafting the game's story while experimenting with gameplay ideas. Once the gameplay system and game world size was established, Sakaguchi integrated his story ideas into the available resources. A different approach has been taken for subsequent titles; the story is completed first and the game built around it. Designers have never been restricted by consistency, though most feel each title should have a minimum amount of common elements. The development teams strive to create completely new worlds for each title, and avoid making new games too similar to previous ones. Game locations are conceptualized early in development and design details like building parts are fleshed out as a base for entire structures. The first five games were directed by Sakaguchi, who also provided the original concepts. He served as a producer for subsequent games until he left Square in 2001. Yoshinori Kitase took over directing the games until Final Fantasy VIII, and has been followed by a new director for each new title. Hiroyuki Itō designed several gameplay systems, including Final Fantasy Vs Job System, Final Fantasy VIIIs Junction System and the Active Time Battle concept, which was used from Final Fantasy IV until Final Fantasy IX. Itō also co-directed Final Fantasy VI with Kitase. Kenji Terada was the scenario writer for the first four games; Kitase took over as scenario writer for Final Fantasy V through Final Fantasy VII. Kazushige Nojima became the series' primary scenario writer from Final Fantasy VII until his resignation in October 2003; he has since formed his own company, Stellavista. Nojima partially or completely wrote the stories for Final Fantasy VII, Final Fantasy VIII, Final Fantasy X, and Final Fantasy X-2. He also worked as the scenario writer for the spin off series, Kingdom Hearts. Artistic design, including character and monster creations, was handled by Japanese artist Yoshitaka Amano from Final Fantasy through Final Fantasy VI. Amano also handled title logo designs for all of the main series and the image illustrations from Final Fantasy VII onward. Tetsuya Nomura was chosen to replace Amano because Nomura's designs were more adaptable to 3D graphics. He worked with the series from Final Fantasy VII through Final Fantasy X; for Final Fantasy IX, however, character designs were handled by Shukou Murase, Toshiyuki Itahana, and Shin Nagasawa. Nomura is also the character designer of the Kingdom Hearts series, Compilation of Final Fantasy VII, and the upcoming Fabula Nova Crystallis: Final Fantasy XIII. Other designers include Nobuyoshi Mihara and Akihiko Yoshida. Mihara was the character designer for Final Fantasy XI, and Yoshida served as character designer for Final Fantasy Tactics, the Square-produced Vagrant Story, and Final Fantasy XII. Graphics and technology The first titles on the NES feature small sprite representations of the leading party members on the main world screen because of graphical limitations. Battle screens use more detailed, full versions of characters in a side-view perspective. This practice was used until Final Fantasy VI, which uses detailed versions for both screens. The NES sprites are 26 pixels high and use a color palette of 4 colors. 6 frames of animation are used to depict different character statuses like "healthy" and "fatigued". The SNES installments use updated graphics and effects, as well as higher quality audio than in previous games, but are otherwise similar to their predecessors in basic design. The SNES sprites are 2 pixels shorter, but have larger palettes and feature more animation frames: 11 colors and 40 frames respectively. The upgrade allowed designers to have characters be more detailed in appearance and express more emotions. The first title includes non-player characters (NPCs) the player could interact with, but are mostly static in-game objects. Beginning with the second title, Square used predetermined pathways for NPCs to create more dynamic scenes that include comedy and drama. In 1995, Square showed an interactive SGI technical demonstration of Final Fantasy for the then next generation of consoles. The demonstration used Silicon Graphics's prototype Nintendo 64 workstations to create 3D graphics. Fans believed the demo was of a new Final Fantasy title for the Nintendo 64 console; however, 1997 saw the release of Final Fantasy VII for the Sony PlayStation. The switch was due to a dispute with Nintendo over its use of faster and more expensive cartridges, as opposed to the slower, cheaper, and much higher capacity compact discs used on rival systems. Final Fantasy VII introduced 3D graphics with fully pre-rendered backgrounds. It was because of this switch to 3D that a CD-ROM format was chosen over a cartridge format. The switch also led to increased production costs and a greater subdivision of the creative staff for Final Fantasy VII and subsequent 3D titles in the series. Starting with Final Fantasy VIII, the series adopted a more photo-realistic look. Like Final Fantasy VII, full motion video (FMV) sequences would have video playing in the background, with the polygonal characters composited on top. Final Fantasy IX returned briefly to the more stylized design of earlier games in the series. It still maintained, and in many cases slightly upgraded, most of the graphical techniques used in the previous two games in the series. Final Fantasy X was released on the PlayStation 2, and used the more powerful hardware to render graphics in real-time instead of using pre-rendered material to obtain a more dynamic look; the game features full 3D environments, rather than have 3D character models move about pre-rendered backgrounds. It is also the first Final Fantasy game to introduce voice acting, occurring throughout the majority of the game, even with many minor characters. This aspect added a whole new dimension of depth to the character's reactions, emotions, and development. Taking a temporary divergence, Final Fantasy XI used the PlayStation 2's online capabilities as an MMORPG. Initially released for PlayStation 2 with a PC port arriving 6 months later, Final Fantasy XI was also released on the Xbox 360 nearly four years after its original release in Japan. This was the first Final Fantasy game to use a free rotating camera. Final Fantasy XII was released in 2006 for the PlayStation 2 and uses only half as many polygons as Final Fantasy X in exchange for more advanced textures and lighting. It also retains the freely rotating camera from Final Fantasy XI. Final Fantasy XIII was shown at E3 2006 and will make use of Crystal Tools, a middleware engine developed by Square Enix. Music The titles in the series feature a variety of music, but frequently reuse themes. Most of the games open with a piece called "Prelude", which has evolved from a simple, 2-voice arpeggio in the early games to a complex, melodic arrangement in recent installments. Victories in combat are often accompanied by a victory fanfare, a theme that has become one of the most recognized pieces of music in the series. The basic theme that accompanies Chocobo appearances has been rearranged in a different musical style for each installment. A piece called "Prologue" (and sometimes "Final Fantasy"), originally featured in the first game, is often played during the ending credits. Although leitmotifs are common in the more character-driven installments, theme music is typically reserved for main characters and recurring plot elements. Nobuo Uematsu was the chief music composer of the Final Fantasy series until his resignation from Square Enix in November 2004. Other composers include Masashi Hamauzu and Hitoshi Sakimoto. Uematsu was allowed to create much of the music with little direction from the production staff. Sakaguchi, however, would request pieces to fit specific game scenes including battles and exploring different areas of the game world. Technical limitations were prevalent in earlier titles; Sakaguchi would sometimes instruct Uematsu to only use specific notes. It wasn't until Final Fantasy IV on the SNES that Uematsu was able to add more subtlety to the music. Reception Overall, the Final Fantasy series has been critically acclaimed and commercially successful, though each installment has seen different levels of success. The series has seen a steady increase in total sales; it sold 45 million units worldwide by August 2003 and 63 million units by December 2005. As of July 7, 2008, the series has sold over 85 million units worldwide. Its high sales numbers have ranked it as one of the best-selling video game franchises in the industry; in January 2007, the series was listed as number three, and later in July as number four. Several games within the series have been become best-selling titles. At the end of 2007, the seventh, eighth, and ninth best-selling RPGs were Final Fantasy VII, Final Fantasy VIII, and Final Fantasy X respectively. Final Fantasy VII has sold more than 9.5 million copies worldwide, earning it the position of the best-selling Final Fantasy title. Within two days of Final Fantasy VIIIs North American release on September 9, 1999, it became the top-selling video game in the United States, a position it held for more than three weeks. Final Fantasy X sold over 1.4 million Japanese units in pre-orders alone, which set a record for the fastest-selling console RPG. Final Fantasy XII sold more than 1,764,000 copies in its first week in Japan. By November 6, 2006—one week after its release—Final Fantasy XII had shipped approximately 1.5 million copies in North America. Critical response The series has been praised for the quality of its visuals and soundtracks. It was awarded a star on the Walk of Game in 2006, making it the first franchise to win a star on the event (other winners were individual games, not franchises). WalkOfGame.com commented that the series has sought perfection as well as been a risk taker in innovation. IGN has commented the menu system used by the series is a major detractor for many and is a "significant reason why they haven't touched the series." The site has also heavily criticized the use of random encounters in the series' battle systems. IGN further stated the various attempts to bring the series into film and animation have either been unsuccessful, unremarkable, or did not live up to the standards of the games. In July 2007, UK-based Edge magazine criticized the series for a number of related titles that include the phrase "Final Fantasy" in their titles, which are considered to be not of the same quality as previous titles. It also commented that with the departure of Hironobu Sakaguchi, the series might be in danger of growing stale. Many Final Fantasy games have been included in various lists of top games. Several games have been listed on multiple IGN "Top Games" lists. Eleven games were listed on Famitsu'''s 2006 "Top 100 Favorite Games of All Time", four of which were in the top ten, with Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy VII being first and second, respectively. The series holds seven Guinness World Records in the Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008, which include the "Most Games in an RPG Series" (13 main titles, 7 enhanced titles, and 32 spin-off titles), the "Longest Development Period" (the production of Final Fantasy XII took five years), and the "Fastest-Selling Console RPG in a Single Day" (Final Fantasy X). The 2009 edition listed two titles from the series among the top 50 consoles games: Final Fantasy XII at number 8 and Final Fantasy VII at number 20. Several individual Final Fantasy titles have garnered extra attention; some for their positive reception and others for their negative reception. Despite the success of Final Fantasy VII, it is sometimes criticized as being overrated. In 2003, GameSpy listed it as the 7th most overrated game of all time, a comment echoed by IGN. Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII shipped 392,000 units in its first week of release, but received review scores that were much lower than that of other Final Fantasy games. A delayed, negative review after the Japanese release of Dirge of Cerberus from Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu hinted at a controversy between the magazine and Square Enix. The MMORPG, Final Fantasy XI, reached over 200,000 active daily players in March 2006 and had reached over half a million subscribers by July 2007. Though Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within was praised for its visuals, the plot was criticized and was considered a box office bomb. Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles for the GameCube received overall positive review scores, but reviews stated that the use of Game Boy Advances as controllers was a big detractor. Legacy The Final Fantasy series and several specific games within it have been credited for introducing and popularizing many concepts widely used in console RPGs. The original title is often cited as one of the most influential early console RPGs, and played a major role in legitimizing and popularizing the genre. Prior to the series, RPGs featured one-on-one battles against monsters from a first person perspective. Final Fantasy introduced a side view perspective with groups of monsters against a group of characters that has been frequently imitated. Final Fantasy II was the first sequel in the industry to omit characters and locations from the previous title. Final Fantasy VII is credited with allowing console role-playing games to find a place in markets outside Japan. The series' level of success affected Square's business on several levels. The financial success of the first game saved Square from bankruptcy, while the commericial failure of Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within resulted in hesitation and delays from Enix during merger discussions. Square's decision to produce games exclusively for the Sony PlayStation—a move followed by Enix's decision with the Dragon Quest series—severed their relationship with Nintendo. Final Fantasy games were absent from Nintendo consoles, specifically the Nintendo 64, for seven years. Critics attribute the switch of strong third-party titles, like Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest games, from the Nintendo 64 to the PlayStation as one of the reasons behind the systems' decline and success, respectively. The release of the Nintendo GameCube, which used optical disc media, in 2001 caught the attention of Square. To produce games for the system, Square created the shell company The Game Designers Studio and released Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles, which spawned its own metaseries within the main franchise. The series' popularity has resulted in its appearance and reference in numerous facets of popular culture like anime, TV series, and webcomics. Music from the series has been permeated into different areas of culture. Final Fantasy IVs "Theme of Love" was integrated into the curriculum of Japanese school children and has been performed live by orchestras and metal bands. In 2003, Uematsu became involved with the The Black Mages, a rock group independent of Square that has released albums of arranged Final Fantasy tunes. Bronze medalists Alison Bartosik and Anna Kozlova performed their synchronized swimming routine at the 2004 Summer Olympics to music from Final Fantasy VIII. Final Fantasy XI''s lack of an online method of subscription cancellation prompted the creation of legislation in Illinois that requires internet gaming services to provide such a method to the state's residents. Many of the titles' official soundtracks have been released for sale as well. Numerous companion books, which normally provide in-depth game information, have been published. In Japan, they are published by Square and are called Ultimania books. In North America, they take the form of standard strategy guides. References External links Square Enix's official Final Fantasy website Square Enix's official Final Fantasy website Final Fantasy Wiki | Final_Fantasy |@lemmatized medium:5 franchise:12 create:7 hironobu:3 sakaguchi:11 develop:5 square:30 enix:12 formerly:1 squaresoft:1 center:2 series:73 console:15 role:7 playing:5 game:111 rpgs:10 include:27 motion:3 picture:2 anime:6 print:1 merchandise:1 begin:4 eponymous:1 video:20 save:2 bankruptcy:3 success:7 spawned:1 sequel:10 since:5 branch:1 genre:3 platform:4 tactical:2 portable:1 massively:1 multiplayer:1 online:5 mobile:2 phone:2 although:3 final:166 fantasy:166 installment:19 independent:3 story:15 various:5 different:12 setting:3 main:16 character:49 feature:20 common:9 element:11 define:1 recurring:1 plot:10 theme:16 name:8 mechanic:1 group:5 hero:4 battle:18 great:2 evil:4 explore:4 internal:2 struggle:2 relationship:4 often:11 derive:2 history:3 language:1 mythology:2 culture:5 worldwide:4 commercially:2 critically:2 successful:3 best:6 sell:13 million:8 unit:6 fifth:1 second:4 among:2 dragon:4 quest:6 award:2 star:4 walk:2 hold:3 seven:3 guinness:4 world:13 record:5 gamer:2 edition:3 well:6 know:1 innovation:2 visuals:3 music:12 inclusion:1 full:5 photo:2 realistic:2 model:2 orchestrate:1 nobuo:2 uematsu:6 drive:3 force:3 industry:4 affect:2 business:2 practice:2 developer:2 also:21 introduce:13 many:14 credit:4 help:1 popularize:3 market:3 outside:3 japan:14 title:44 first:29 premier:1 december:2 subsequent:5 numbered:1 give:1 unrelated:1 previous:9 consequently:1 number:9 refer:2 volume:1 sequels:1 localize:1 north:11 america:10 europe:2 australia:1 numerous:4 personal:2 computer:3 future:3 appear:6 seventh:2 generation:2 two:10 upcoming:2 xiii:7 versus:1 march:2 xii:9 direct:7 spin:11 offs:6 old:1 remake:4 release:39 multiple:5 three:9 nintendo:13 entertainment:2 system:27 nes:1 concept:4 rpg:6 several:11 ii:5 bundle:1 last:2 ne:3 iii:4 however:5 elsewhere:1 super:1 snes:4 iv:6 active:5 time:10 v:4 spawn:5 short:1 legend:5 crystal:11 vi:4 playstation:10 saw:3 vii:25 move:3 away:1 dimensional:2 graphic:9 use:31 six:1 polygonal:2 pre:5 rendered:3 background:5 modern:3 style:3 carry:2 next:2 eighth:2 publish:5 consistently:1 realistically:1 proportioned:1 vocal:1 piece:5 ix:4 return:3 root:1 revisit:1 traditional:1 set:6 rather:2 viii:7 one:10 x:13 area:3 voice:3 act:4 xi:12 pc:2 later:4 xbox:3 massive:1 multi:1 player:9 mmorpg:3 real:4 instead:3 random:2 encounter:2 twelfth:1 large:4 interconnected:1 playfields:1 development:7 flagship:2 fabula:3 nova:3 crystallis:3 compilation:5 metaseries:2 change:2 part:4 saga:1 similarity:2 adventure:1 mana:1 mystic:1 united:3 state:7 audience:1 tactic:3 reference:3 find:2 chocobo:3 chronicle:4 kingdom:3 heart:2 take:8 form:5 ivalice:1 alliance:1 expand:2 generate:1 imagery:1 cgi:2 film:5 produce:4 base:10 either:3 individual:4 whole:2 original:5 animation:4 ovum:1 though:7 year:5 four:5 minute:1 episode:2 urban:1 vision:1 spirit:5 within:9 earth:1 invade:1 alien:1 life:3 animated:1 seriously:1 attempt:2 portray:2 photorealistic:1 human:1 consider:3 box:2 office:2 bomb:2 unlimited:3 broadcast:1 tv:2 tokyo:1 adv:1 advent:1 child:2 order:3 adapt:4 manga:6 novel:4 novelization:1 follow:5 adaptation:2 past:1 decade:1 see:3 increase:3 non:3 continuity:1 novella:1 universe:1 partially:2 continue:4 end:3 advance:2 radio:1 drama:2 gameplay:7 recur:8 throughout:5 titles:1 recycle:1 names:2 inspire:3 languages:1 japanese:8 hebrew:1 latin:1 example:1 weapon:2 like:8 excalibur:1 masamune:2 arthurian:1 swordsmith:1 respectively:5 spell:2 holy:1 meteor:1 ultima:2 adopt:3 current:1 logo:3 typeface:1 emblem:2 design:13 artist:2 yoshitaka:2 amano:4 relate:3 respective:1 typically:3 object:2 replace:2 similar:3 rest:1 central:2 conflict:3 focus:4 sometimes:5 ancient:1 antagonist:5 dominate:1 frequently:5 involve:1 sovereign:1 rebellion:2 protagonist:2 destine:1 defeat:2 occasionally:1 gather:1 result:3 malicious:1 action:1 another:5 staple:1 existence:1 villain:4 always:2 primary:2 may:1 actually:1 subservient:1 entity:1 beginning:1 enemy:6 must:1 beyond:1 fight:2 emphasize:1 passion:1 tragedy:1 recede:1 shift:1 range:1 love:2 rivalry:1 situation:1 amnesia:1 corrupt:1 mistaken:1 identity:1 altruistic:1 suicide:1 magical:1 orb:2 item:3 connect:1 play:4 creation:3 majority:2 link:2 planet:1 control:1 classical:1 gaia:1 hypothesis:1 apocalypse:1 advanced:2 technology:2 nature:2 recent:2 male:1 androgynous:1 effeminate:1 characteristic:1 cid:2 capacity:3 playable:1 ally:1 party:5 member:3 appearance:5 personality:1 differ:1 normally:2 airship:2 biggs:1 wedge:1 war:1 minor:2 comic:1 relief:1 creature:4 chocobos:2 moogles:2 flightless:1 bird:1 appearring:1 mean:2 long:2 distance:1 travel:1 white:3 stout:1 resemble:1 teddy:1 bear:1 wing:1 single:3 antenna:1 pom:2 tip:1 serve:3 mail:1 delivery:1 smith:1 moogle:1 accompany:3 specific:5 arrange:1 differently:2 separate:1 command:2 progress:1 opponent:1 encountered:1 randomly:1 exploring:1 trend:1 issue:2 combat:3 magic:8 via:1 menu:2 driven:2 interface:1 engage:1 prior:2 turn:4 side:3 battlefield:1 augment:1 perpetual:1 keep:1 hiroyuki:2 itō:3 inject:1 urgency:1 excitement:1 require:3 attack:2 implement:1 conditional:1 new:10 add:3 nuance:1 offer:1 challenge:1 continuously:1 depend:1 dimension:2 experience:2 level:4 advancement:2 point:1 accumulate:1 kill:1 class:5 job:4 enable:1 unique:1 ability:1 restrict:2 integrate:3 dynamic:3 allow:4 choose:4 switch:5 heavily:2 become:7 less:1 prevalent:2 favor:1 versatile:1 still:2 match:1 archetype:1 able:2 learn:1 skill:1 generally:1 divide:1 organize:1 color:4 assist:1 teammate:1 black:3 harm:1 red:1 combination:1 blue:1 mimic:1 summon:1 legendary:1 aid:1 persist:1 summons:1 arabic:1 hindu:1 norse:1 greek:1 transportation:1 others:2 sea:1 land:1 vessel:1 futuristic:1 vehicle:1 origin:2 mid:1 enter:1 simple:2 race:1 platformers:1 famicom:2 disk:1 couple:1 popular:3 company:6 face:1 designer:7 head:1 prevent:1 financial:3 ruin:1 chose:1 cartridge:3 draw:1 inspiration:1 zelda:1 plan:1 retire:1 complete:2 project:2 despite:2 explanation:1 publication:1 attribute:2 hop:1 would:5 solve:1 trouble:1 indeed:1 reverse:1 lag:1 fortune:1 immediately:1 assume:1 stand:1 alone:2 thematic:1 predecessor:2 overhaul:1 approach:2 major:3 cast:1 upgraded:1 production:4 team:2 craft:1 experiment:1 idea:2 size:1 establish:1 available:1 resource:1 build:1 around:1 never:1 consistency:1 feel:1 minimum:1 amount:1 strive:1 completely:2 avoid:1 make:3 location:2 conceptualize:1 early:5 detail:1 building:1 flesh:1 entire:1 structure:1 five:2 provide:3 producer:1 leave:1 yoshinori:1 kitase:3 director:1 junction:1 co:1 kenji:1 terada:1 scenario:4 writer:4 kazushige:1 nojima:2 resignation:2 october:1 stellavista:1 write:1 work:2 artistic:1 monster:3 handle:3 image:1 illustration:1 onward:1 tetsuya:1 nomura:3 adaptable:1 shukou:1 murase:1 toshiyuki:1 itahana:1 shin:1 nagasawa:1 hearts:1 nobuyoshi:1 mihara:2 akihiko:1 yoshida:2 vagrant:1 small:1 sprite:3 representation:1 lead:2 screen:3 graphical:2 limitation:2 detailed:3 version:2 view:2 perspective:3 pixel:2 high:4 palette:2 frame:3 depict:1 status:1 healthy:1 fatigue:1 updated:1 effect:1 quality:3 audio:1 otherwise:1 basic:2 shorter:1 upgrade:2 express:1 emotion:2 npc:2 could:1 interact:1 mostly:1 static:1 predetermine:1 pathway:1 scene:2 comedy:1 show:2 interactive:1 sgi:1 technical:2 demonstration:2 silicon:1 prototype:1 workstation:1 fan:1 believe:1 demo:1 sony:2 due:1 dispute:1 faster:1 expensive:1 oppose:1 slow:1 cheap:1 much:3 compact:1 disc:2 rival:1 fully:1 cd:1 rom:1 format:2 cost:1 subdivision:1 creative:1 staff:2 start:1 look:2 fmv:1 sequence:1 composited:1 top:7 briefly:1 stylized:1 maintain:1 case:1 slightly:1 technique:1 powerful:1 hardware:1 render:2 material:1 obtain:1 environment:1 occur:1 even:1 aspect:1 depth:2 reaction:1 temporary:1 divergence:1 capability:1 initially:1 port:1 arrive:1 month:1 nearly:1 free:1 rotating:1 camera:2 half:2 polygon:1 exchange:1 texture:1 light:1 retain:1 freely:1 rotate:1 tool:1 middleware:1 engine:1 variety:1 reuse:1 open:1 call:3 prelude:1 evolve:1 arpeggio:1 complex:1 melodic:1 arrangement:1 victory:2 fanfare:1 recognized:1 rearrange:1 musical:1 prologue:1 originally:1 leitmotif:1 reserve:1 chief:1 composer:2 november:2 masashi:1 hamauzu:1 hitoshi:1 sakimoto:1 little:1 direction:1 request:1 fit:1 instruct:1 note:1 subtlety:1 reception:3 overall:2 acclaim:1 steady:1 total:1 sale:3 august:1 july:4 rank:1 january:1 list:7 selling:2 ninth:1 copy:3 earn:1 position:2 day:2 viiis:1 american:1 september:1 week:4 fast:2 ship:2 approximately:1 critical:1 response:1 praise:2 soundtrack:2 win:1 event:1 winner:1 walkofgame:1 com:1 comment:4 seek:1 perfection:1 risk:1 taker:1 ign:4 detractor:2 significant:1 reason:2 touch:1 site:1 criticize:4 far:1 bring:1 unsuccessful:1 unremarkable:1 live:2 standard:2 uk:1 edge:1 magazine:3 related:1 phrase:1 departure:1 might:1 danger:1 grow:1 stale:1 eleven:1 famitsu:2 favorite:1 ten:1 enhance:1 period:1 garner:1 extra:1 attention:2 positive:2 negative:2 overrate:1 gamespy:1 overrated:1 echo:1 dirge:2 cerberus:2 receive:2 review:4 score:2 low:1 delayed:1 hint:1 controversy:1 reach:2 daily:1 subscriber:1 gamecube:2 boy:1 controller:1 big:1 legacy:1 widely:1 cite:1 influential:1 legitimize:1 person:1 imitate:1 omit:1 place:1 commericial:1 failure:1 hesitation:1 delay:1 merger:1 discussion:1 decision:2 exclusively:1 sever:1 absent:1 specifically:1 critic:1 strong:1 third:1 behind:1 decline:1 optical:1 catch:1 shell:1 designers:1 studio:1 popularity:1 facet:1 webcomics:1 permeate:1 curriculum:1 school:1 perform:2 orchestra:1 metal:1 band:1 involved:1 mages:1 rock:1 album:1 arranged:1 tune:1 bronze:1 medalist:1 alison:1 bartosik:1 anna:1 kozlova:1 synchronized:1 swimming:1 routine:1 summer:1 olympics:1 lack:1 method:2 subscription:1 cancellation:1 prompt:1 legislation:1 illinois:1 internet:1 service:1 resident:1 official:3 companion:1 book:2 information:1 ultimania:1 strategy:1 guide:1 external:1 website:2 wiki:1 |@bigram hironobu_sakaguchi:3 square_enix:9 motion_picture:1 massively_multiplayer:1 multiplayer_online:1 mobile_phone:2 nobuo_uematsu:2 spin_offs:6 nintendo_entertainment:2 playstation_console:1 playstation_xbox:1 manga_anime:1 arthurian_legend:1 mistaken_identity:1 recur_theme:3 gaia_hypothesis:1 flightless_bird:1 teddy_bear:1 nintendo_famicom:1 famicom_disk:1 legend_zelda:1 color_palette:1 nintendo_console:2 sony_playstation:2 compact_disc:1 cd_rom:1 critically_acclaim:1 commercially_successful:1 best_selling:2 nintendo_gamecube:1 summer_olympics:1 external_link:1 |
7,410 | Maurice_Merleau-Ponty | Maurice Merleau-Ponty ( in French; March 14, 1908 – May 3, 1961) was a French phenomenological philosopher, strongly influenced by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger in addition to being closely associated with Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir. At the core of Merleau-Ponty's philosophy is a sustained argument for the foundational role that perception plays in understanding the world as well as engaging with the world. Like the other major phenomenologists Merleau-Ponty expressed his philosophical insights in writings on art, literature, and politics; however Merleau-Ponty was the only major phenomenologist of the first half of the Twentieth Century to engage extensively with the sciences, and especially with descriptive psychology. Because of this engagement, his writings have become influential with the recent project of naturalizing phenomenology in which phenomenologists utilize the results of psychology and cognitive science. Life Merleau-Ponty was born in Rochefort-sur-Mer, Charente-Maritime. His father died in 1913 when Merleau-Ponty was 3. Thomas Baldwin in Introduction to Merleau-Ponty's The World of Perception (New York: Routledge, 2008): 2. After secondary schooling at the lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, Maurice Merleau-Ponty became a student at the École Normale Supérieure, where he studied alongside Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Simone Weil. He passed the agrégation in philosophy in 1930. Merleau-Ponty first taught at Chartres, then became a tutor at the École Normale Supérieure, where he was awarded his doctorate on the basis of two important books: La structure du comportement (1942) and Phénoménologie de la Perception (1945). After teaching at the University of Lyon from 1945 to 1948, Merleau-Ponty lectured on child psychology and education at the Sorbonne from 1949 to 1952. He was awarded the Chair of Philosophy at the Collège de France from 1952 until his death in 1961, making him the youngest person to have been elected to a Chair. Besides his teaching, Merleau-Ponty was also political editor for Les Temps Modernes from the founding of the journal in October 1945 until December 1952. Aged 53, he died suddenly of a stroke in 1961, apparently while preparing for a class on Descartes. He was buried in Le Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. Work In his Phenomenology of Perception (first published in French in 1945), Merleau-Ponty developed the concept of the body-subject as an alternative to the Cartesian "cogito." This distinction is especially important in that Merleau-Ponty perceives the essences of the world existentially, as opposed to the Cartesian idea that the world is merely an extension of our own minds. Consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined and mutually "engaged." The phenomenal thing is not the unchanging object of the natural sciences, but a correlate of our body and its sensorimotor functions. Taking up and "communing with" (Merleau-Ponty's phrase) the sensible qualities it encounters, the body as incarnated subjectivity intentionally elaborates things within an ever-present world frame, through use of its preconscious, prepredicative understanding of the world's makeup. The elaboration, however, is "inexhaustible" (the hallmark of any perception according to Merleau-Ponty). Things are that upon which our body has a "grip" (prise), while the grip itself is a function of our connaturality with the world's things. The world and the sense of self are emergent phenomena in an ongoing "becoming." The essential partiality of our view of things, their being given only in a certain perspective and at a certain moment in time does not diminish their reality, but on the contrary establishes it, as there is no other way for things to be copresent with us and with other things than through such "Abschattungen" (profiles, adumbrations). The thing transcends our view, but is manifest precisely by presenting itself to a range of possible views. The object of perception is immanently tied to its background--to the nexus of meaningful relations among objects within the world. Because the object is inextricably within the world of meaningful relations, each object reflects the other (much in the style of Leibniz's monads). Through involvement in the world -- being-in-the-world -- the perceiver tacitly experiences all the perspectives upon that object coming from all the surrounding things of its environment, as well as the potential perspectives that that object has upon the beings around it. Each object is a "mirror of all others." Our perception of the object through all perspectives is not that of a propositional, or clearly delineated, perception. Rather, it is an ambiguous perception founded upon the body's primordial involvement and understanding of the world and of the meanings that constitute the landscape's perceptual gestalt. Only after we have been integrated within the environment so as to perceive objects as such can we turn our attention toward particular objects within the landscape so as to define them more clearly. (This attention, however, does not operate by clarifying what is already seen, but by constructing a new Gestalt oriented toward a particular object.) Because our bodily involvement with things is always provisional and indeterminate, we encounter meaningful things in a unified though ever open-ended world. Some critics have remarked that while Merleau-Ponty makes a great effort to break away from Cartesian dualism, in the end Phenomenology of Perception still starts out from the opposition of consciousness and its objects. Merleau-Ponty himself also acknowledged this and in his later work attempted to proceed from a standpoint of our existential unity with what he called the "flesh" (chair) of the world. Thematic overview of his works The primacy of perception From the time of writing Structure of Behavior and Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-Ponty wanted to show, in opposition to the idea that drove the tradition beginning with John Locke, that perception was not the causal product of atomic sensations. This atomist-causal conception was being perpetuated in certain psychological currents of the time, particularly in behaviourism. According to Merleau-Ponty, perception has an active dimension, in that it is a primordial openness to the life world (to the 'Lebenswelt') This primordial openness is at the heart of his thesis of the primacy of perception. The slogan of the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl is "all consciousness is consciousness of something", which implies a distinction between "acts of thought" (the noesis) and "intentional objects of thought" (the noema). Thus, the correlation between noesis and noema becomes the first step in the constitution of analyses of consciousness. However, in studying the posthumous manuscripts of Husserl, who remained one of his major influences, Merleau-Ponty remarked that, in their evolution, Husserl's work brings to light phenomena which are not assimilable to noetic-noematic correlation. This is particularly the case when one attends to the phenomena of the body (which is at once body-subject and body-object), subjective time (the consciousness of time is neither an act of consciousness nor an object of thought) and the other (the first considerations of the other in Husserl led to solipsism). The distinction between "acts of thought" (noesis) and "intentional objects of thought" (noema) does not seem, therefore, to constitute an irreducible ground. It appears rather at a higher level of analysis. Thus, Merleau-Ponty does not postulate that "all consciousness is consciousness of something", which supposes at the outset a noetic-noematic ground. Instead, he develops the thesis according to which "all consciousness is perceptual consciousness". In doing so, he establishes a significant turn in the development of phenomenology, indicating that its conceptualisations should be re-examined in the light of the primacy of perception, in weighing up the philosophical consequences of this thesis. Corporeity René Descartes Taking the study of perception as his point of departure, Merleau-Ponty was led to recognize that one's own body (le corps propre) is not only a thing, a potential object of study for science, but is also a permanent condition of experience, a constituent of the perceptual openness to the world. He therefore underlines the fact that there is an inherence of consciousness and of the body of which the analysis of perception should take account. The primacy of perception signifies a primacy of experience, so to speak, insofar as perception becomes an active and constitutive dimension. Merleau-Ponty demonstrates a corporeity of consciousness as much as an intentionality of the body, and so stands in contrast with the dualist ontology of mind and body in René Descartes, a philosopher to whom Merleau-Ponty continually returned, despite the important differences that separate them. In the Phenomenology of Perception Merleau-Ponty wrote: “Insofar as I have hands, feet; a body, I sustain around me intentions which are not dependent on my decisions and which affect my surroundings in a way that I do not choose” (1962, p. 440). The question concerning corporeity connects also with Merleau-Ponty's reflections on space (l'espace) and the primacy of the dimension of depth (la profondeur) as implied in the notion of being in the world (être au monde; to echo Heidegger's In-der-Welt-sein) and of one's own body (le corps propre). For a recent investigation of this question see: Nader El-Bizri, "A Phenomenological Account of the ‘Ontological Problem of Space’," Existentia Meletai-Sophias, Vol. XII, Issue 3-4 (2002), pp. 345-364; also refer to a related analysis of space qua depth in: Nader El-Bizri, "La perception de la profondeur: Alhazen, Berkeley et Merleau-Ponty," Oriens-Occidens: sciences, mathématiques et philosophie de l’antiquité à l’âge classique (Cahiers du Centre d’Histoire des Sciences et des Philosophies Arabes et Médiévales, CNRS), Vol. 5 (2004), pp. 171-184 Language The highlighting of the fact that corporeity intrinsically has a dimension of expressivity which proves to be fundamental to the constitution of the ego is one of the conclusions of The Structure of Behavior that is constantly reiterated in Merleau-Ponty's later works. Following this theme of expressivity, he goes on to examine how an incarnate subject is in a position to undertake actions that transcend the organic level of the body, such as in intellectual operations and the products of one's cultural life. Ferdinand de Saussure He carefully considers language, then, as the core of culture, by examining in particular the connections between the unfolding of thought and sense - enriching his perspective not only by an analysis of the acquisition of language and the expressivity of the body, but also by taking into account pathologies of language, painting, cinema, literature, poetry and song. One can see a certain preoccupation with language, beginning with the reflection on artistic expression in The Structure of Behavior - which contains a passage on El Greco (p. 203ff) that prefigures the remarks that he develops in "Cézanne's Doubt" (1945), which itself follows the discussion in Phenomenology of Perception. To this extent, the work undertaken while he occupied the Chair of Child Psychology and Pedagogy at the University of the Sorbonne is not an interlude in his philosophical and phenomenological preoccupations, representing, rather, a not insignificant moment in the overall development of his thought. As the course outlines of his Sorbonne lectures indicate, during this period he continues a dialogue between phenomenology and the diverse work carried out in psychology, all in order to return to the study of the acquisition of language in children, as well as to broadly take advantage of the contribution of Ferdinand de Saussure to linguistics, and to work on the notion of structure through a discussion of work in psychology, linguistics and social anthropology. Art It is important to clarify, and indeed emphasize, that the attention Merleau-Ponty pays to diverse forms of art (visual, plastic, literary, poetic, etc) should not be attributed to a concern with beauty per se. Nor is his work an attempt to elaborate normative criteria for "art." Thus, one does not find in his work a theoretical attempt to discern what constitutes a major work or a work of art, or even handicraft. Still, it is useful to note that, while he does not establish any normative criteria for art as such, there is nonetheless in his work a prevalent distinction between primary and secondary modes of expression. This distinction appears in Phenomenology of Perception (p 207, 2nd note {Fr. ed.}) and is sometimes repeated in terms of spoken and speaking language (le langage parlé et le langage parlant) (The Prose of the World, p. 10). Spoken language (le langage parlé), or secondary expression, returns to our linguistic baggage, to the cultural heritage that we have acquired, as well as the brute mass of relationships between signs and significations. Speaking language (le langage parlant), or primary expression, such as it is, is language in the production of a sense, language at the advent of a thought, at the moment where it makes itself an advent of sense. It is speaking language, that is to say, primary expression, that interests Merleau-Ponty and which keeps his attention through his treatment of the nature of production and the reception of expressions, a subject which also overlaps with an analysis of action, of intentionality, of perception, as well as the links between freedom and external conditions. The notion of style occupies an important place in "Indirect Language and the Voices of Silence". In spite of certain similarities with André Malraux, Merleau-Ponty distinguishes himself from Malraux in respect to three conceptions of style, the last of which is employed in Malraux's The Voices of Silence. Merleau-Ponty remarks that in this work "style" is sometimes used by Malraux in a highly subjective sense, understood as a projection of the artist's individuality. Sometimes it is used, on the contrary, in a very metaphysical sense (in Merleau-Ponty's opinion, a mystical sense), in which style is connected with a conception of an "über-artist" expressing "the Spirit of Painting". Finally, it sometimes is reduced to simply designating a categorization of an artistic school or movement. For Merleau-Ponty, it is these uses of the notion of style that lead Malraux to postulate a cleavage between the objectivity of Italian Renaissance painting and the subjectivity of painting in his own time, a conclusion that Merleau-Ponty disputes. According to Merleau-Ponty, it is important to consider the heart of this problematic, by recognizing that style is first of all a demand owed to the primacy of perception, which also implies taking into consideration the dimensions of historicity and intersubjectivity. Science In his essay "Cézanne's Doubt", in which he identifies Cézanne's impressionistic theory of painting as analogous to his own concept of radical reflection, the attempt to return to, and reflect on, prereflective consciousness, Merleau-Ponty identifies science as the opposite of art. In Merleau-Ponty's account, while art is an attempt to capture an individual's perception, science is anti-individualistic. In the preface to his Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-Ponty presents a phenomenological objection to positivism: that it can tell us nothing about human subjectivity. All that a scientific text can explain is the particular individual experience of that scientist, which cannot be transcended. For Merleau-Ponty, science neglects the depth and profundity of the phenomena that it endeavors to explain. Merleau-Ponty understood science to be an ex post facto abstraction. Causal and physiological accounts of perception, for example, explain perception in terms that are only arrived at after abstracting from the phenomenon itself. Merleau-Ponty chastized science for taking itself to be the area in which a complete account of nature may be given. The subjective depth of phenomena cannot be given in science as it is. Thus characterizes Merleau-Ponty's attempt to ground science in phenomenological objectivity and, in essence, institute a "return to the phenomena". Contemporary influence Anticognitivist cognitive science Despite Merleau-Ponty's own critical position with respect to science - he describes scientific points of view as "always both naive and at the same time dishonest" in his Preface to the Phenomenology - his work has become a touchstone for the "anti-cognitivist" strands of cognitive science, largely through the influence of Hubert Dreyfus. Dreyfus's seminal critique of cognitivism (or the computational account of the mind), What Computers Can't Do, consciously replays Merleau-Ponty's critique of intellectualist psychology to argue for the irreducibility of corporeal know-how to discrete, syntactic processes. Through the influence of Dreyfus's critique, and neurophysiological alternative, Merleau-Ponty became associated with neurophysiological, connectionist accounts of cognition. With the publication in 1991 of The Embodied Mind by Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch, this association was extended, if only partially, to another strand of "anti-cognitivist" or post-representationalist cognitive science: embodied or enactive cognitive science, and later in the decade, to neurophenomenology. It was through this relationship with Merleau-Ponty's work that cognitive science's affair with phenomenology was born, which is represented by a growing number of works, including Andy Clark's Being There (1997), the collection Naturalizing Phenomenology edited by Petitot et al. (1999), Alva Noë's Action in Perception (2004), Shaun Gallagher's How the Body Shapes the Mind (2005), and the journal Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences. Feminist philosophy Merleau-Ponty has also been picked up by Australian and Nordic philosophers inspired by the French feminist tradition, including Rosalyn Diprose and Sara Heinämaa. Rosalyn Diprose's recent work takes advantage of Merleau-Ponty conception of an intercorporeity, or indistinction of perspectives, to critique individualistic identity politics from a feminist perspective and to ground the irreducibility of generosity as a virtue, where generosity has a dual sense of giving and being given. Sara Heinämaa has argued for a rereading of Merleau-Ponty's influence on Simone de Beauvoir. (She has also challenged Hubert Dreyfus's reading of Merleau-Ponty as behaviorist, and as neglecting the importance of the phenomenological reduction to Merleau-Ponty's thought.) Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of the body has also been taken up by Iris Young in her renowned essay "Throwing Like a Girl," and its follow-up, "'Throwing Like a Girl': Twenty Years Later." Young analyzes the particular modalities of feminine bodily comportment as they differ from that of men. Young observes that while a man who throws a ball puts his whole body into the motion, a woman throwing a ball generally restricts her own movements as she makes them, and that, generally, in sports, women move in a more tentative, reactive way. Merleau-Ponty argues that we experience the world in terms of the "I can" -- that is, oriented towards certain projects based on our capacity and habituality. Young's thesis is that in women, this intentionality is inhibited and ambivalent, rather than confident, experienced as an "I cannot." Ecophenomenology Ecophenomenology can be described as the pursuit of the relationalities of worldly engagement, both human and those of other creatures (Brown & Toadvine 2003). This engagement is situated in a kind of middle ground of relationality, a space that is neither purely objective, since it is reciprocally constituted by a diversity of lived experiences motivating the movements of countless organisms, nor purely subjective, since it is nonetheless a field of material relationships between bodies. It is governed exclusively neither by causality, nor by intentionality. In this space of in-betweenness phenomenology can overcome its inaugural opposition to naturalism. David Abram explains Merleau-Ponty's concept of "flesh" (chair) as "the mysterious tissue or matrix that underlies and gives rise to both the perceiver and the perceived as interdependent aspects of its spontaneous activity," and he identifies this elemental matrix with the interdependent web of earthly life. This concept unites subject and object dialectically as determinations within a more primordial reality, which Merleau-Ponty calls "the flesh," and which Abram refers to variously as "the animate earth," "the breathing biosphere," or "the more-than-human natural world." Yet this is not nature or the biosphere conceived as a complex set of objects and objective processes, but rather "the biosphere as it is experienced and lived from within by the intelligent body — by the attentive human animal who is entirely a part of the world that he, or she, experiences. Merleau-Ponty himself refers to "that primordial being which is not yet the subject-being nor the object-being and which in every respect baffles reflection. From this primordial being to us, there is no derivation, nor any break..." Among the many working notes found on his desk at the time of his death, and published with the half-complete manuscript of The Visible and the Invisible, several make evident that Merleau-Ponty himself recognized a deep affinity between his notion of a primordial "flesh" and a radically transformed understanding of "nature." Hence in November of 1960 he writes: "Do a psychoanalysis of Nature: it is the flesh, the mother." And in the last published working note, written in March 1961, he writes: "Nature as the other side of humanity (as flesh, nowise as 'matter')." Bibliography The following table gives a selection of Merleau-Ponty's works in French and English translation. A much more comprehensive bibliography can be found on this page, at the Merleau-Ponty Circle website linked below. Year Original French English Translation 1942 La Structure du comportement (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1942) The Structure of Behavior trans. by Alden Fisher, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963; London: Methuen, 1965). 1945 Phénoménologie de la perception (Paris: Gallimard, 1945) Phenomenology of Perception trans. by Colin Smith, (New York: Humanities Press, 1962) and (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962) translation revised by Forrest Williams, 1981; reprinted, 2002) 1947 Humanisme et terreur, essai sur le problème communiste (Paris: Gallimard, 1947) Humanism and Terror: An Essay on the Communist Problem trans. by John O'Neill, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969) 1948 Sens et non-sens (Paris: Nagel, 1948, 1966) Sense and Non-Sense trans. by Hubert Dreyfus and Patricia Allen Dreyfus, (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964). 1949-50 Conscience et l'acquisition du langage (Paris: Bulletin de psychologie, 236, vol. XVIII, 3-6, Nov. 1964) Merleau-Ponty a la Sorbonne, resume de cours 1949-1952) Consciousness and the Acquisition of Language trans. by Hugh J. Silverman (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973). 1951 Les Relations avec autrui chez l’enfant (Paris: Centre de Documentation Universitaire, 1951, 1975) 'The Child’s Relations with Others' trans. by William Cobb, in The Primacy of Perception ed. by James Edie (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 96-155. 1953 Éloge de la Philosophie, Lecon inaugurale faite au Collége de France, Le jeudi 15 janvier 1953 (Paris: Gallimard, 1953) In Praise of Philosophy trans. by John Wild and James M. Edie, (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1963) 1955 Les aventures de la dialectique (Paris: Gallimard, 1955) Adventures of the Dialectic trans. by Joseph Bien, (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973; London: Heinemann, 1974) 1958 Les Sciences de l’homme et la phénoménologie (Paris: Centre de Documentation Universitaire, 1958, 1975) 'Phenomenology and the Sciences of Man' trans. by John Wild in The Primacy of Perception ed. by James Edie (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 43-95. 1960 Éloge de la Philosophie et autres essais (Paris: Gallimard, 1960) - 1960 Signes (Paris: Gallimard, 1960) Signs trans. by Richard McCleary, (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964). 1961 L’Œil et l’esprit (Paris: Gallimard, 1961) 'Eye and Mind' trans. by Carleton Dallery in The Primacy of Perception ed. by James Edie (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 159-190. Revised translation by Michael Smith in The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader (1993), 121-149. 1964 Le Visible et l’invisible, suivi de notes de travail Edited by Claude Lefort (Paris: Gallimard, 1964) The Visible and the Invisible, Followed by Working Notes trans. by Alphonso Lingis, (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968). 1968 Résumés de cours, Collège de France 1952-1960 (Paris: Gallimard, 1968) Themes from the Lectures at the Collège de France, 1952-1960 trans. by John O’Neill, (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970). 1969 La Prose du monde (Paris: Gallimard, 1969) The Prose of the World trans. by John O’Neill (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973; London: Heinemann, 1974 References Clark, A. 1997. Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Gallagher, Shaun 2003. How the Body Shapes the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Noë, A. Action in Perception. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Petitot, J., Varela, F., Pachoud, B. and Roy, J-M. (eds.). 1999. Naturalizing Phenomenology: Issues in Contemporary Phenomenology and Cognitive Science. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. and Rosch, E. 1991. The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience. Cambridge: MIT Press. Abram, D. (1988) "Merleau-Ponty and the Voice of the Earth." Environmental Ethics 10, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 101-20. Notes External links English Translations of Merleau-Ponty's Work: "". Maurice Merleau-Ponty at 18: "" from French Gov't. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Maurice Merleau-Ponty" by Jack Reynolds. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Maurice Merleau-Ponty" by Bernard Flynn. The Merleau-Ponty Circle- Association of scholars interested in the works of Merleau-Ponty. 100 Years Merleau-Ponty. European home page. Maurice Merleau-Ponty page at Mythos & Logos. Chiasmi International- Trilingual Studies Concerning the Thought of Maurice Merleau-Ponty O’Loughlin, Marjorie, 1995, "Intelligent Bodies and Ecological Subjectivities: Merleau-Ponty’s Corrective to Postmodernism’s “Subjects” of Education." Popen, Shari, 1995, "Merleau-Ponty Confronts Postmodernism: A Reply to O’Loughlin." A bibliography of Eco-Phenomenology. Merleau-Ponty: Reckoning with the Possibility of an 'Other.' The Journal of French Philosophy - the online home of the Bulletin de la Société Américaine de Philosophie de Langue Française | Maurice_Merleau-Ponty |@lemmatized maurice:7 merleau:75 ponty:75 french:8 march:2 may:2 phenomenological:6 philosopher:3 strongly:1 influence:6 edmund:2 husserl:5 martin:1 heidegger:2 addition:1 closely:1 associate:2 jean:1 paul:2 sartre:2 simone:4 de:30 beauvoir:3 core:2 philosophy:9 sustained:1 argument:1 foundational:1 role:1 perception:37 play:1 understand:1 world:26 well:5 engage:3 like:3 major:4 phenomenologists:2 express:2 philosophical:3 insight:1 writing:2 art:8 literature:2 politics:2 however:4 phenomenologist:1 first:6 half:2 twentieth:1 century:1 extensively:1 science:25 especially:2 descriptive:1 psychology:7 engagement:3 become:8 influential:1 recent:3 project:2 naturalize:3 phenomenology:22 utilize:1 result:1 cognitive:9 life:4 bear:2 rochefort:1 sur:2 mer:1 charente:1 maritime:1 father:1 die:2 thomas:1 baldwin:1 introduction:1 new:3 york:2 routledge:2 secondary:3 schooling:1 lycée:1 louis:1 le:12 grand:1 paris:17 student:1 école:2 normale:2 supérieure:2 study:6 alongside:1 weil:1 pass:1 agrégation:1 teach:2 chartres:1 tutor:1 award:2 doctorate:1 basis:1 two:1 important:6 book:1 la:14 structure:7 du:5 comportement:2 phénoménologie:3 university:15 lyon:1 lecture:3 child:4 education:2 sorbonne:4 chair:5 collège:3 france:5 death:2 make:5 young:5 person:1 elect:1 besides:1 teaching:1 also:11 political:1 editor:1 temp:1 modernes:1 founding:1 journal:3 october:1 december:1 age:1 suddenly:1 stroke:1 apparently:1 prepare:1 class:1 descartes:3 bury:1 père:1 lachaise:1 cemetery:1 work:24 publish:2 develop:3 concept:4 body:25 subject:7 alternative:2 cartesian:3 cogito:1 distinction:5 perceive:3 essence:2 existentially:1 oppose:1 idea:2 merely:1 extension:1 mind:8 consciousness:15 human:6 perceiving:1 thing:13 intricately:1 intertwine:1 mutually:1 phenomenal:1 unchanging:1 object:21 natural:2 correlate:1 sensorimotor:1 function:2 take:9 commune:1 phrase:1 sensible:1 quality:1 encounter:2 incarnated:1 subjectivity:4 intentionally:1 elaborate:2 within:7 ever:2 present:3 frame:1 use:3 preconscious:1 prepredicative:1 understanding:3 makeup:1 elaboration:1 inexhaustible:1 hallmark:1 accord:4 upon:4 grip:2 prise:1 connaturality:1 sense:10 self:1 emergent:1 phenomenon:7 ongoing:1 essential:1 partiality:1 view:4 give:7 certain:6 perspective:7 moment:3 time:8 diminish:1 reality:2 contrary:2 establishes:1 way:3 copresent:1 u:3 abschattungen:1 profile:1 adumbration:1 transcend:3 manifest:1 precisely:1 range:1 possible:1 immanently:1 tie:1 background:1 nexus:1 meaningful:3 relation:4 among:2 inextricably:1 reflect:2 much:3 style:7 leibniz:1 monad:1 involvement:3 perceiver:2 tacitly:1 experience:9 come:1 surround:1 environment:2 potential:2 around:2 mirror:1 others:2 propositional:1 clearly:2 delineate:1 rather:5 ambiguous:1 found:1 primordial:7 meaning:1 constitute:4 landscape:2 perceptual:3 gestalt:2 integrate:1 turn:2 attention:4 toward:2 particular:5 define:1 operate:1 clarify:2 already:1 see:3 construct:1 orient:2 bodily:2 always:2 provisional:1 indeterminate:1 unified:1 though:1 open:1 end:2 critic:1 remark:4 great:1 effort:1 break:2 away:1 dualism:1 still:2 start:1 opposition:3 acknowledge:1 late:1 attempt:6 proceed:1 standpoint:1 existential:1 unity:1 call:2 flesh:6 thematic:1 overview:1 primacy:10 write:5 behavior:4 want:1 show:1 drive:1 tradition:2 begin:2 john:6 locke:1 causal:3 product:2 atomic:1 sensation:1 atomist:1 conception:4 perpetuate:1 psychological:1 current:1 particularly:2 behaviourism:1 active:2 dimension:5 openness:3 lebenswelt:1 heart:2 thesis:4 slogan:1 something:2 imply:3 act:3 thought:9 noesis:3 intentional:2 noema:3 thus:4 correlation:2 step:1 constitution:2 analysis:6 posthumous:1 manuscript:2 remain:1 one:8 evolution:1 brings:1 light:2 assimilable:1 noetic:2 noematic:2 case:1 attend:1 subjective:4 neither:3 consideration:2 lead:3 solipsism:1 seem:1 therefore:2 irreducible:1 ground:4 appear:2 high:1 level:2 postulate:2 suppose:1 outset:1 instead:1 establish:2 significant:1 development:2 indicate:2 conceptualisation:1 examine:3 weigh:1 consequence:1 corporeity:4 rené:2 point:2 departure:1 recognize:3 corp:2 propre:2 permanent:1 condition:2 constituent:1 underline:1 fact:2 inherence:1 account:8 signifies:1 speak:4 insofar:2 constitutive:1 demonstrate:1 intentionality:4 stand:1 contrast:1 dualist:1 ontology:1 continually:1 return:5 despite:2 difference:1 separate:1 hand:1 foot:1 sustain:1 intention:1 dependent:1 decision:1 affect:1 surroundings:1 choose:1 p:4 question:2 concern:3 connects:1 reflection:4 space:5 l:9 espace:1 depth:4 profondeur:2 notion:5 être:1 au:2 monde:2 echo:1 der:1 welt:1 sein:1 investigation:1 nader:2 el:3 bizri:2 ontological:1 problem:2 existentia:1 meletai:1 sophias:1 vol:3 xii:1 issue:2 pp:2 refer:2 related:1 qua:1 alhazen:1 berkeley:1 et:13 oriens:1 occidens:1 mathématiques:1 philosophie:4 antiquité:1 à:1 âge:1 classique:1 cahiers:1 centre:3 histoire:1 arabes:1 médiévales:1 cnrs:1 language:14 highlighting:1 intrinsically:1 expressivity:3 prove:1 fundamental:1 ego:1 conclusion:2 constantly:1 reiterate:1 later:3 follow:5 theme:2 go:1 incarnate:1 position:2 undertake:1 action:4 organic:1 intellectual:1 operation:1 cultural:2 ferdinand:2 saussure:2 carefully:1 consider:2 culture:1 connection:1 unfolding:1 enrich:1 acquisition:4 pathology:1 painting:2 cinema:1 poetry:1 song:1 preoccupation:2 artistic:2 expression:6 contain:1 passage:1 greco:1 prefigure:1 cézanne:3 doubt:2 discussion:2 extent:1 undertaken:1 occupy:1 pedagogy:1 interlude:1 represent:2 insignificant:1 overall:1 course:1 outline:1 period:1 continue:1 dialogue:1 diverse:2 carry:1 order:1 broadly:1 advantage:2 contribution:1 linguistics:2 social:1 anthropology:1 indeed:1 emphasize:1 pay:1 form:1 visual:1 plastic:1 literary:1 poetic:1 etc:1 attribute:1 beauty:1 per:1 se:1 normative:2 criterion:2 find:3 theoretical:1 discern:1 even:1 handicraft:1 useful:1 note:7 nonetheless:2 prevalent:1 primary:3 mode:1 fr:1 ed:5 sometimes:4 repeat:1 term:3 spoken:1 speaking:1 langage:5 parlé:2 parlant:2 prose:3 linguistic:1 baggage:1 heritage:1 acquire:1 brute:1 mass:1 relationship:3 sign:2 signification:1 production:2 advent:2 say:1 interest:1 keep:1 treatment:1 nature:6 reception:1 overlap:1 link:3 freedom:1 external:2 occupies:1 place:1 indirect:1 voice:3 silence:2 spite:1 similarity:1 andré:1 malraux:5 distinguishes:1 respect:3 three:1 last:2 employ:1 highly:1 understood:2 projection:1 artist:2 individuality:1 metaphysical:1 opinion:1 mystical:1 connect:1 über:1 spirit:1 paint:3 finally:1 reduce:1 simply:1 designate:1 categorization:1 school:1 movement:3 us:1 cleavage:1 objectivity:2 italian:1 renaissance:1 dispute:1 problematic:1 demand:1 owe:1 historicity:1 intersubjectivity:1 essay:3 identify:2 impressionistic:1 theory:1 analogous:1 radical:1 prereflective:1 identifies:1 opposite:1 capture:1 individual:2 anti:3 individualistic:2 preface:2 objection:1 positivism:1 tell:1 nothing:1 scientific:2 text:1 explain:4 scientist:1 cannot:3 neglect:2 profundity:1 endeavor:1 ex:1 post:2 facto:1 abstraction:1 physiological:1 example:1 arrive:1 abstract:1 chastized:1 area:1 complete:2 characterize:1 institute:1 contemporary:2 anticognitivist:1 critical:1 describe:2 naive:1 dishonest:1 touchstone:1 cognitivist:2 strand:2 largely:1 hubert:3 dreyfus:6 seminal:1 critique:4 cognitivism:1 computational:1 computer:1 consciously:1 replay:1 intellectualist:1 argue:3 irreducibility:2 corporeal:1 know:1 discrete:1 syntactic:1 process:2 neurophysiological:2 connectionist:1 cognition:1 publication:1 embody:2 francisco:1 varela:3 evan:1 thompson:2 eleanor:1 rosch:2 association:2 extend:1 partially:1 another:1 representationalist:1 enactive:1 decade:1 neurophenomenology:1 affair:1 grow:1 number:1 include:2 andy:1 clark:2 collection:1 edit:2 petitot:2 al:1 alva:1 noë:2 shaun:2 gallagher:2 shape:2 feminist:3 pick:1 australian:1 nordic:1 inspire:1 rosalyn:2 diprose:2 sara:2 heinämaa:2 intercorporeity:1 indistinction:1 identity:1 grind:1 generosity:2 virtue:1 dual:1 rereading:1 challenge:1 reading:1 behaviorist:1 importance:1 reduction:1 think:1 iris:1 renowned:1 throw:4 girl:2 twenty:1 year:3 analyzes:1 modality:1 feminine:1 comportment:1 differ:1 men:1 observes:1 man:2 ball:2 put:2 whole:1 motion:1 woman:3 generally:2 restrict:1 sport:1 move:1 tentative:1 reactive:1 towards:1 base:1 capacity:1 habituality:1 inhibit:1 ambivalent:1 confident:1 ecophenomenology:2 pursuit:1 relationalities:1 worldly:1 creature:1 brown:1 toadvine:1 situate:1 kind:1 middle:1 relationality:1 purely:2 objective:2 since:2 reciprocally:1 diversity:1 lived:1 motivate:1 countless:1 organism:1 field:1 material:1 govern:1 exclusively:1 causality:1 betweenness:1 overcome:1 inaugural:1 naturalism:1 david:1 abram:3 mysterious:1 tissue:1 matrix:2 underlies:1 rise:1 interdependent:2 aspect:1 spontaneous:1 activity:1 elemental:1 web:1 earthly:1 unite:1 dialectically:1 determination:1 refers:1 variously:1 animate:1 earth:2 breathing:1 biosphere:3 yet:2 conceive:1 complex:1 set:1 experienced:1 live:1 intelligent:2 attentive:1 animal:1 entirely:1 part:1 every:1 baffle:1 derivation:1 many:1 working:1 desk:1 visible:3 invisible:3 several:1 evident:1 deep:1 affinity:1 radically:1 transform:1 hence:1 november:1 psychoanalysis:1 mother:1 published:1 side:1 humanity:2 nowise:1 matter:1 bibliography:3 table:1 selection:1 english:3 translation:5 comprehensive:1 page:3 circle:2 website:1 original:1 press:20 universitaires:1 trans:14 alden:1 fisher:1 boston:2 beacon:2 london:4 methuen:1 gallimard:10 colin:1 smith:2 kegan:1 revise:2 forrest:1 williams:1 reprint:1 humanisme:1 terreur:1 essai:1 problème:1 communiste:1 humanism:1 terror:1 communist:1 neill:3 sens:1 non:2 sen:1 nagel:1 patricia:1 allen:1 evanston:11 northwestern:11 conscience:1 bulletin:2 psychologie:1 xviii:1 nov:1 resume:1 cours:2 hugh:1 j:4 silverman:1 les:3 avec:1 autrui:1 chez:1 enfant:1 documentation:2 universitaire:2 william:1 cobb:1 james:4 edie:4 éloge:2 lecon:1 inaugurale:1 faite:1 collége:1 jeudi:1 janvier:1 praise:1 wild:2 aventures:1 dialectique:1 adventure:1 dialectic:1 joseph:1 bien:1 heinemann:2 homme:1 autres:1 essais:1 signes:1 richard:1 mccleary:1 œil:1 esprit:1 eye:1 carleton:1 dallery:1 michael:1 aesthetic:1 reader:1 suivi:1 travail:1 claude:1 lefort:1 alphonso:1 lingis:1 résumés:1 reference:1 brain:1 together:1 cambridge:3 mit:3 oxford:2 f:2 pachoud:1 b:1 roy:1 stanford:3 e:2 embodied:1 environmental:1 ethic:1 summer:1 gov:1 internet:1 encyclopedia:2 jack:1 reynolds:1 bernard:1 flynn:1 scholar:1 interested:1 european:1 home:2 mythos:1 logo:1 chiasmi:1 international:1 trilingual:1 loughlin:2 marjorie:1 ecological:1 corrective:1 postmodernism:2 popen:1 shari:1 confronts:1 reply:1 eco:1 reckoning:1 possibility:1 online:1 société:1 américaine:1 langue:1 française:1 |@bigram maurice_merleau:7 merleau_ponty:75 edmund_husserl:2 martin_heidegger:1 paul_sartre:1 de_beauvoir:3 twentieth_century:1 sur_mer:1 école_normale:2 normale_supérieure:2 le_temp:1 père_lachaise:1 lachaise_cemetery:1 phenomenology_perception:8 clearly_delineate:1 cartesian_dualism:1 primacy_perception:8 rené_descartes:2 der_welt:1 nader_el:2 el_bizri:2 bizri_phenomenological:1 cahiers_du:1 per_se:1 andré_malraux:1 hubert_dreyfus:3 dreyfus_dreyfus:1 francisco_varela:1 et_al:1 visible_invisible:2 press_universitaires:1 universitaires_de:1 boston_beacon:2 london_methuen:1 paris_gallimard:10 routledge_kegan:1 kegan_paul:1 essai_sur:1 sur_le:1 le_problème:1 evanston_northwestern:11 l_enfant:1 la_philosophie:2 l_homme:1 et_autres:1 l_œil:1 l_esprit:1 du_monde:1 stanford_stanford:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 la_société:1 langue_française:1 |
7,411 | Abdomen | The abdomen in a human and in an ant. In vertebrates such as mammals the abdomen (belly) constitutes the part of the body between the thorax (chest) and pelvis. The region enclosed by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity. In arthropods it is the most distal section of the body which lies behind the thorax or cephalothorax Abdomen. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). URL: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/abdomen [Accessed: 22 Oct 2007] Abdomen. Dictionary.com. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition. URL: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/abdomen [Accessed: 22 October 2007]. . Vertebrates In vertebrates, the abdomen is a large cavity enclosed by the abdominal muscles, ventraly and lateraly, and by the vertebral column dorsally. Lower ribs can also enclose ventral and lateral walls. The abdominal cavity is continuous with the pelvic cavity. It is separated from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm. Structures such as the aorta, inferior vena cava and esophagus pass through the diaphragm. Both the abdominal and pelvic cavities are lined by a serous membrane known as the parietal peritoneum. This membrane is continuous with the visceral peritoneum lining the organs Peritoneum. The Veterinary Dictionary. Elsevier, 2007. http://www.answers.com/topic/peritoneum [Accessed: 22 Oct 2007) . The abdomen in vertebrates contains a number of organs belonging, for instance, to the digestive tract and urinary system. Abdominal organs Digestive tract: Stomach, small intestine, large intestine with cecum and appendix Accessory organs of the digestive tract: Liver, gallbladder and pancreas Urinary system: Kidneys and ureters Other organs: Spleen Abdominal organs can be highly specialized in some animals. For example the stomach of ruminants (a suborder of mammals) is divided into four chambers - rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. "Ruminant." The Veterinary Dictionary. Elsevier, 2007. http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant [Accessed: 22 Oct 2007]. Invertebrates In the worker ant, the abdomen consists of the propodeum fused to the thorax and the metasoma, itself divided into the narrow petiole and bulbous gaster. The invertebrate abdomen is built up of a series of concave upper plates known as tergites and convex lower plates known as sternites, the whole being held together by a tough yet stretchable membrane. The abdomen contains the insect's digestive tract and reproductive organs, it consists of eleven segments in most orders of insects though the eleventh segment is absent in the adult of most higher orders. The number of these segments does vary from species to species with the number of segments visible reduced to only seven in the common honeybee. In the Collembola (Springtails) the abdomen has only six segments. The abdomen is sometimes highly modified. In ants, the first segment of the abdomen is fused to the thorax and called the propodeum. The second segment forms the narrow petiole. Some ants have an additional postpetiole segment, and the remaining segments form the bulbous gaster. The petiole and gaster (abdominal segments 2 and onward) are collectively called the metasoma. Unlike other Arthropods, insects possess no legs on the abdomen in adult form, though the Protura do have rudimentary leg-like appendages on the first three abdominal segments, and Archaeognatha possess small, articulated "styli" which are sometimes considered to be rudimentary appendages. Many larval insects including the Lepidoptera and the Symphyta (Sawflies) have fleshy appendages called prolegs on their abdominal segments (as well as their more familiar thoracic legs), which allow them to grip onto the edges of plant leaves as they walk around. See also Human abdomen Opisthosoma Metasoma Abdominal trauma Abdominal fat References | Abdomen |@lemmatized abdomen:17 human:2 ant:4 vertebrate:4 mammal:2 belly:1 constitute:1 part:1 body:2 thorax:4 chest:1 pelvis:1 region:1 enclose:3 term:1 abdominal:11 cavity:6 arthropod:2 distal:1 section:1 lie:1 behind:1 cephalothorax:1 n:1 dictionary:7 com:6 unabridged:1 v:1 url:2 http:4 reference:3 browse:2 access:4 oct:3 american:1 heritage:1 english:1 language:1 edition:1 october:1 large:2 muscle:1 ventraly:1 lateraly:1 vertebral:1 column:1 dorsally:1 low:2 rib:1 also:2 ventral:1 lateral:1 wall:1 continuous:2 pelvic:2 separate:1 thoracic:2 diaphragm:2 structure:1 aorta:1 inferior:1 vena:1 cava:1 esophagus:1 pas:1 line:2 serous:1 membrane:3 know:3 parietal:1 peritoneum:4 visceral:1 organ:7 veterinary:2 elsevier:2 www:2 answer:2 topic:2 contain:2 number:3 belong:1 instance:1 digestive:4 tract:4 urinary:2 system:2 stomach:2 small:2 intestine:2 cecum:1 appendix:1 accessory:1 liver:1 gallbladder:1 pancreas:1 kidney:1 ureter:1 spleen:1 highly:2 specialize:1 animal:1 example:1 ruminant:3 suborder:1 divide:2 four:1 chamber:1 rumen:1 reticulum:1 omasum:1 abomasum:1 invertebrate:2 worker:1 consist:2 propodeum:2 fuse:2 metasoma:3 narrow:2 petiole:3 bulbous:2 gaster:3 build:1 series:1 concave:1 upper:1 plate:2 tergites:1 convex:1 sternites:1 whole:1 hold:1 together:1 tough:1 yet:1 stretchable:1 insect:4 reproductive:1 eleven:1 segment:12 order:2 though:2 eleventh:1 absent:1 adult:2 high:1 vary:1 specie:2 visible:1 reduce:1 seven:1 common:1 honeybee:1 collembola:1 springtail:1 six:1 sometimes:2 modify:1 first:2 call:3 second:1 form:3 additional:1 postpetiole:1 remain:1 onward:1 collectively:1 unlike:1 possess:1 leg:3 protura:1 rudimentary:2 like:1 appendage:3 three:1 archaeognatha:1 posse:1 articulated:1 stylus:1 consider:1 many:1 larval:1 include:1 lepidoptera:1 symphyta:1 sawfly:1 fleshy:1 prolegs:1 well:1 familiar:1 allow:1 grip:1 onto:1 edge:1 plant:1 leaf:1 walk:1 around:1 see:1 opisthosoma:1 trauma:1 fat:1 |@bigram abdominal_cavity:2 abdominal_muscle:1 vertebral_column:1 thoracic_cavity:1 http_www:2 digestive_tract:4 reproductive_organ:1 abdominal_segment:3 |
7,412 | Plato | For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation). Plato (Greek: , Plátōn, "broad") Diogenes Laertius 3.4; p. 21, David Sedley, Plato's Cratylus, Cambridge University Press 2003 (428/427 BC – 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of natural philosophy, science, and Western philosophy. Plato was originally a student of Socrates, and was as much influenced by his thinking as by what he saw as his teacher's unjust death. Plato's sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters have traditionally been ascribed to him, although modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. For example, some were excluded from Thrasyllus' tetralogies. See e.g. the table of contents to John M. Cooper (ed.), Plato: Complete Works, Hackett, 1997. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. Although there is little question that Plato lectured at the Academy that he founded, the pedagogical function of his dialogues, if any, is not known with certainty. The dialogues since Plato's time have been used to teach a range of subjects, mostly including philosophy, logic, rhetoric, mathematics, and other subjects about which he wrote. Biography Early life Birth and family Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars estimate that he was born in Athens or Aegina between 429 and 423 BC His father was Ariston. According to a disputed tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus. Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III* D. Nails, "Ariston", 53* U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 46 Plato's mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet Solon. Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I Perictione was sister of Charmides and niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants, the brief oligarchic regime, which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (404-403 BC).<ref name="TW1">W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, IV, 10* A.E. Taylor, Plato, xiv* U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 47</ref> Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of his philosophical Academy). According to the Republic, Adeimantus and Glaucon were older than Plato. Plato, Republic, 2.368a* U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 47 Nevertheless, in his Memorabilia, Xenophon presents Glaucon as younger than Plato. Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.6.1 Ariston tried to force his attentions on Perictione, but failed of his purpose; then the ancient Greek god Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and, as a result of it, Ariston left Perictione unmolested. Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1* Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I Another legend related that, while he was sleeping as an infant, bees had settled on the lips of Plato; an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse philosophy. Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36 Ariston appears to have died in Plato's childhood, although the precise dating of his death is difficult. D. Nails, "Ariston", 53* A.E. Taylor, Plato, xiv Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mother's brother, Plato, Charmides, 158a* D. Nails, "Perictione", 53 who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader of the democratic faction in Athens. Plato, Charmides, 158a* Plutarch, Pericles, IV Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty. Plato, Gorgias, 481d and 513b* Aristophanes, Wasps, 97 Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes' second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato, who appears in Parmenides. Plato, Parmenides, 126c In contrast to his reticence about himself, Plato used to introduce his distinguished relatives into his dialogues, or to mention them with some precision: Charmides has one named after him; Critias speaks in both Charmides and Protagoras; Adeimantus and Glaucon take prominent parts in the Republic. W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, IV, 11 From these and other references one can reconstruct his family tree, and this suggests a considerable amount of family pride. According to Burnet, "the opening scene of the Charmides is a glorification of the whole [family] connection ... Plato's dialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates, but also the happier days of his own family". C.H. Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue, 186 Name According to Diogenes Laërtius, the philosopher was named Aristocles after his grandfather, but his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed him "Platon", meaning "broad," on account of his robust figure. Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV According to the sources mentioned by Diogenes (all dating from the Alexandrian period), Plato derived his name from the breadth (platytês) of his eloquence, or else because he was very wide (platýs) across the forehead. Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV* A. Notopoulos, The Name of Plato, 135 In the 21st century some scholars disputed Diogenes, and argued that the legend about his name being Aristocles originated in the Hellenistic age. Education Apuleius informs us that Speusippus praised Plato's quickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the "first fruits of his youth infused with hard work and love of study". Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 2 Plato must have been instructed in grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers of his time. Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV* W. Smith, Plato, 393 Dicaearchus went so far as to say that Plato wrestled at the Isthmian games. Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, V Plato had also attended courses of philosophy; before meeting Socrates, he first became acquainted with Cratylus (a disciple of Heraclitus, a prominent pre-Socratic Greek philosopher) and the Heraclitean doctrines. Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1.987a Later life Plato may have traveled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt and Cyrene. Said to have returned to Athens at the age of forty, Plato founded one of the earliest known organized schools in Western Civilization on a plot of land in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus. Huntington Cairns, Introduction to Plato: The Collected Dialogues, p. xiii. The Academy was "a large enclosure of ground which was once the property of a citizen at Athens named Academus... some, however, say that it received its name from an ancient hero", Robinson, Arch. Graec. I i 16. and it operated until AD 529, when it was closed by Justinian I of Byzantium, who saw it as a threat to the propagation of Christianity. Many intellectuals were schooled in the Academy, the most prominent one being Aristotle. Plato and Socrates Plato and Socrates in a medieval depiction Plato makes it clear, especially in his Apology of Socrates, that he was one of Socrates' devoted young followers. In that dialogue, Socrates is presented as mentioning Plato by name as one of those youths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and questioning why their fathers and brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime (33d-34a). Later, Plato is mentioned along with Crito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay a fine of 30 minas on Socrates' behalf, in lieu of the death penalty proposed by Meletus (38b). In the Phaedo, the title character lists those who were in attendance at the prison on Socrates' last day, explaining Plato's absence by saying, "Plato was ill" (Phaedo 59b). The relationship between Plato and Socrates is problematic, however. Aristotle, for example, attributes a different doctrine with respect to the ideas to Plato and Socrates (Metaphysics 987b1–11), but Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues. In the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new" (341c); if the Letter is Plato's, the final qualification seems to call into question the dialogues' historical fidelity. In any case, Xenophon and Aristophanes seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates than Plato paints. Some have called attention to the problem of taking Plato's Socrates to be his mouthpiece, given Socrates' reputation for irony. Leo Strauss, The City and Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 50–1. The precise relationship between Plato and Socrates remains an area of contention among scholars. Philosophy Recurrent Themes Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms Plato often discusses the father-son relationship and the "question" of whether a father's interest in his sons has much to do with how well his sons turn out. A boy in ancient Athens was socially located by his family identity, and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of their paternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates was not a family man, and saw himself as the son of his mother, who was apparently a midwife. A divine fatalist, Socrates mocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and trainers for their sons, and repeatedly ventures the idea that good character is a gift from the gods. Crito reminds Socrates that orphans are at the mercy of chance, but Socrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is found recruiting as a disciple a young man whose inheritance has been squandered. Socrates twice compares the relationship of the older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship (Lysis 213a, Republic 3.403b), and in the Phaedo, Socrates' disciples, towards whom he displays more concern than his biological sons, say they will feel "fatherless" when he is gone. Many dialogues, like these, suggest that man-boy love (which is "spiritual") is a wise man's substitute for father-son biology (which is "bodily"). In several dialogues, Socrates floats the idea that Knowledge is a matter of recollection, and not of learning, observation, or study. He maintains this view somewhat at his own expense, because in many dialogues, Socrates complains of his forgetfulness. Socrates is often found arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and that it comes from divine insight. He is quite consistent in believing in the immortality of the soul, and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining the afterlife. More than one dialogue contrasts knowledge and opinion, perception and reality, nature and custom, and body and soul. The only contrast to this is his Parmenides. Several dialogues tackle questions about art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus (265a–c), and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literature that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. On politics and art, religion and science, justice and medicine, virtue and vice, crime and punishment, pleasure and pain, rhetoric and rhapsody, human nature and sexuality, love and wisdom, Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say. Metaphysics "Platonism" is a term coined by scholars to refer to the intellectual consequences of denying, as Socrates often does, the reality of the material world. In several dialogues, most notably the Republic, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such people are "eu a-mousoi", an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses" (Theaetetus 156a). In other words, such people live without the divine inspiration that gives him, and people like him, access to higher insights about reality. Socrates's idea that reality is unavailable to those who use their senses is what puts him at odds with the common man, and with common sense. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind, and this idea is most famously captured in his allegory of the cave, and more explicitly in his description of the divided line. The allegory of the cave (begins Republic 7.514a) is a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible ("noeton") and that the visible world ("(h)oraton") is the least knowable, and the most obscure. (This is exactly the opposite of what Socrates says to Euthyphro in the soothsayer's namesake dialogue. There, Socrates tells Euthyphro that people can agree on matters of logic and science, and are divided on moral matters, which are not so easily verifiable.) Socrates says in the Republic that people who take the sun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance. Socrates admits that few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when they go back down for a visit or to help other people up, they find themselves objects of scorn and ridicule. According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are "shadows" of their ideal or perfect forms, and exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary, inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere instances. For example, Socrates thinks that perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where) and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it. The allegory of the cave (often said by scholars to represent Plato's own epistemology and metaphysics) is intimately connected to his political ideology (often said to also be Plato's own), that only people who have climbed out of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodness are fit to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened men of society must be forced from their divine contemplations and compelled to run the city according to their lofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power thrust upon him by the people who are wise enough to choose a good master. This is the main thesis of Socrates in the Republic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is the wise choice of a ruler. The word metaphysics derives from the fact that Aristotle's musings about divine reality came after ("meta") his lecture notes on his treatise on nature ("physics"). The term is in fact applied to Aristotle's own teacher, and Plato's "metaphysics" is understood as Socrates' division of reality into the warring and irreconcilable domains of the material and the spiritual. The theory has been of incalculable influence in the history of Western philosophy and religion. Theory of Forms The Theory of Forms typically refers to Plato's belief that the material world as it seems to us is not the real world, but only a shadow of the real world. Plato spoke of forms in formulating his solution to the problem of universals. The forms, according to Plato, are roughly speaking archetypes or abstract representations of the many types and properties (that is, of universals) of things we see all around us. Epistemology Many have interpreted Plato as stating that knowledge is justified true belief, an influential view which informed future developments in modern analytic epistemology. This interpretation is based on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein Plato argues that belief is to be distinguished from knowledge on account of justification. Many years later, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the problems of the justified true belief account of knowledge. This interpretation, however, imports modern analytic and empiricist categories onto Plato himself and is better read on its own terms than as Plato's view. Really, in the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, and the Parmenides Plato himself associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise" in Dialectic). More explicitly, Plato himself argues in the Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives their account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. And opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives their account of something by way of the non-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. It is only in this sense that Plato uses the term "knowledge." In the Meno, Socrates uses a geometrical example to expound Plato's view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be present, Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-experiential form. The State Papirus Oxyrhynchus, with fragment of Plato's Republic Plato's philosophical views had many societal implications, especially on the idea of an ideal state or government. There is some discrepancy between his early and later views. Some of the most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic during his middle period, as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. However, because Plato wrote dialogues, it is assumed that Socrates is often speaking for Plato. This assumption may not be true in all cases. Plato, through the words of Socrates, asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason stand for different parts of the body. The body parts symbolize the castes of society. Productive Which represents the abdomen.(Workers) — the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul. Protective Which represents the chest.(Warriors or Guardians) — those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul. Governing Which represents the head. (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) — those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Plato says reason and wisdom should govern. As Plato puts it: "Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophise, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human race." (Republic 473c-d) Plato in his academy, drawing after a painting by Swedish painter Carl Johan Wahlbom Plato describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth" (Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. Sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. However, it must be taken into account that the ideal city outlined in the Republic is qualified by Socrates as the ideal luxurious city, examined to determine how it is that injustice and justice grow in a city (Republic 372e). According to Socrates, the "true" and "healthy" city is instead the one first outlined in book II of the Republic, 369c–372d, containing farmers, craftsmen, merchants, and wage-earners, but lacking the guardian class of philosopher-kings as well as delicacies such as "perfumed oils, incense, prostitutes, and pastries", in addition to paintings, gold, ivory, couches, a multitude of occupations such as poets and hunters, and war. In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illuminate the state of one's soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Plato has made interesting arguments. For instance he asks which is better - a bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than be a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual commitiing many bad deeds.) This is emphasised within the Republic as Plato describes the event of mutiny onboard a ship The Republic; p282 . Plato suggests the ships crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. Plato's description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherant problems that arise. According to Plato, a state which is made up of different kinds of souls, will overall decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant). Unwritten Doctrine For a long time Plato's unwritten doctrine Rodriguez- Grandjean, Pablo. Philosophy and Dialogue: Plato's Unwritten Doctrines from a Hermeneutical Point of View, Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy, in Boston, Massachusetts from August 10-15, 1998. Reale, Giovanni, and Catan, John R., A History of Ancient Philosophy, SUNY Press, 1990. ISBN 0791405168. Cf. p.14 and onwards. Krämer, Hans Joachim, and Catan, John R., Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics: A Work on the Theory of the Principles and Unwritten Doctrines of Plato with a Collection of the Fundamental Documents, (Translated by John R. Catan), SUNY Press, 1990. ISBN 0791404331, Cf. pp.38-47 had been considered unworthy of attention. Most of the books on Plato seem to diminish its importance. Nevertheless the first important witness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in his Physics (209 b) writes: "It is true, indeed, that the account he gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is different from what he says in his so-called unwritten teaching (ἄγραφα δόγματα)." The term ἄγραφα δόγματα literally means unwritten doctrine and it stands for the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato which he disclosed only to his most trusted fellows and kept secret from the public. The reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in Phaedrus (276 c) where Plato criticizes the written transmission of knowledge as faulty, favoring instead the spoken logos: "he who has knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the truth effectually." The same argument is repeated in Plato's Seventh Letter (344 c): "every serious man in dealing with really serious subjects carefully avoids writing." In the same letter he writes (341 c): "I can certainly declare concerning all these writers who claim to know the subjects which I seriously study ... there does not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise of mine dealing therewith." Such secrecy is necessary in order not "to expose them to unseemly and degrading treatment" (344 d). It is however said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture On the Good (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ), in which the Good (τὸ ἀγαθόν) is identified with the One (the Unity, τὸ ἕν), the fundamental ontological principle. The content of this lecture has been transmitted by several witnesses, among others Aristoxenus who describes the event in the following words: "Each came expecting to learn something about the things which are generally considered good for men, such as wealth, good health, physical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happiness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came, including numbers, geometrical figures and astronomy, and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, I imagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some belittled the matter, while others rejected it." Simplicius quotes Alexander of Aphrodisias who states that "according to Plato, the first principles of everything, including the Forms themselves are One and Indefinite Duality (ἡ ἀόριστος δυάς) which he called Large and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν) ... one might also learn this from Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others who were present at Plato's lecture on the Good" Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle's description of Plato's metaphysical doctrine. In Metaphysics he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elements are the elements of all things. Accordingly the material principle is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and the essence is the One (τὸ ἕν), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the One" (987 b). "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms - that it is this the duality (the Dyad, ἡ δυάς), the Great and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good and of evil" (988 a). The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology - which should rather be called Plotinus' henology - is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of Plato's unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser." or Ficino In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: "The main goal of the divine Plato ... is to show one principle of things which he called the One (τὸ ἕν)", cf. Marsilio Ficino, Briefe des Mediceerkreises, Berlin, 1926, p. 147. which has been considered erroneous by many but may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of Plato's doctrine. The first scholar who recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato was Heinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech during the 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930.<ref>H. Gomperz, Plato's System of Philosophy, in: G. Ryle (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Philosophy], London 1931, pp. 426-431. Reprinted in: H. Gomperz, Philosophical Studies, Boston, 1953, pp. 119-24.</ref> All the sources related to the ἄγραφα δόγματα have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Testimonia Platonica. K. Gaiser, Testimonia Platonica. Le antiche testimonianze sulle dottrine non scritte di Platone, Milan, 1998. First published as Testimonia Platonica. Quellentexte zur Schule und mündlichen Lehre Platons as an appendix to Gaiser's Platons Ungeschriebene Lehre, Stuttgart, 1963. These sources have subsequently been interpreted by scholars from the German Tübingen School such as Hans Joachim Krämer or Thomas A. Szlezák. For a bried description of the problem see for example K. Gaiser, Plato's enigmatic lecture "On the Good", Phronesis 25 (1980), pp. 5-37. A detailed analysis is given by Krämer in his Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics: A Work on the Theory of the Principles and Unwritten Doctrines of Plato With a Collection of the Fundamental Documents, Albany: SUNY Press, 1990. Another good description is by Giovanni Reale: Toward a New Interpretation of Plato, Washington, D.C.: CUA Press, 1997. Reale summarizes the results of his research in A History of Ancient Philosophy: Plato and Aristotle, Albany: SUNY Press, 1990. However the most complete analysis of the consequences of such an approach is given by Thomas A. Szlezak in his fundamental Reading Plato, New York: Routledge, 1999. Another supporter of this interpretation is the german philosopher Karl Albert, cf. Griechische Religion und platonische Philosophie, Hamburg, 1980 or Einführung in die philosophische Mystik, Darmstadt, 1996. Hans-Georg Gadamer is also sympathetic towards it, cf. J. Grondin, Gadamer and the Tübingen School and Gadamer's 1968 article Plato's Unwritten Dialectic reprinted in his Dialogue and Dialectic. Gadamer's final position on the subject is stated in his introduction to La nuova interpretazione di Platone. Un dialogo tra Hans-Georg Gadamer e la scuola di Tubinga, Milano 1998. Works Plato's The Republic, Latin edition cover, 1713 Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. The usual system for making unique references to sections of the text by Plato derives from a 16th century edition of Plato's works by Henricus Stephanus. An overview of Plato's writings according to this system can be found in the Stephanus pagination article. One tradition regarding the arrangement of Plato's texts is according to tetralogies. This scheme is ascribed by Diogenes Laertius to an ancient scholar and court astrologer to Tiberius named Thrasyllus. In the list below, works by Plato are marked (1) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (2) if scholars generally agree that Plato is not the author of the work. Unmarked works are assumed to have been written by Plato. I. Euthyphro, (The) Apology (of Socrates), Crito, Phaedo II. Cratylus, Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman III. Parmenides, Philebus, (The) Symposium, Phaedrus IV. First Alcibiades (1), Second Alcibiades (2), Hipparchus (2), (The) (Rival) Lovers (2) V. Theages (2), Charmides, Laches, Lysis VI. Euthydemus, Protagoras, Gorgias, Meno VII. (Greater) Hippias (major) (1), (Lesser) Hippias (minor), Ion, Menexenus VIII. Clitophon (1), (The) Republic, Timaeus, Critias IX. Minos (2), (The) Laws, Epinomis (2), Epistles (1). The remaining works were transmitted under Plato's name, most of them already considered spurious in antiquity, and so were not included by Thrasyllus in his tetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled as Notheuomenoi ("spurious") or Apocrypha. Axiochus (2), Definitions (2), Demodocus (2), Epigrams, Eryxias (2), Halcyon (2), On Justice (2), On Virtue (2), Sisyphus (2). Plato's Dialogues The exact order in which Plato's dialogues were written is not known, nor is the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. Lewis Campbell was the first p. 9, John Burnet, Platonism, University of California Press 1928. to make exhaustive use of stylometry to prove objectively that the Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman were all clustered together as a group, while the Parmenides, Phaedrus, Republic, and Theaetetus belong to a separate group, which must be earlier (given Aristotle's statement in his Politics 1264b24-27 that the Laws was written after the Republic; cf. Diogenes Laertius Lives 3.37). What is remarkable about Campbell's conclusions is that, in spite of all the stylometric studies that have been conducted since his time, perhaps the only chronological fact about Plato's works that can now be said to be proven by stylometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman are the latest of Plato's dialogues, the others earlier. p. xiv, J. Cooper (ed.), Plato: Complete Works, Hackett 1997. Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writers are skeptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision, Richard Kraut, "Plato", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed 24 June 2008; Malcolm Schofield (1998, 2002), "Plato", in E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/A088, accessed 24 June 2008; Christopher Rowe, "Interpreting Plato", in H. Benson (ed.), A Companion to Plato, Blackwell 2006. though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups. T. Brickhouse & N. Smith, "Plato", The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed 24 June 2008. The following represents one such division which is relatively common. See W. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 4, Cambridge University Press 1975; G. Vlastos, Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher, Cambridge University Press 1991; T. Penner, "Socrates and the Early Dialogues", in R. Kraut (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato, Cambridge University Press 1992; C. Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue, Cambridge University Press 1996; G. Fine, Plato 2: Ethics, Politics, Religion, and the Soul, Oxford University Press 1999. It should, however, be kept in mind that many of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted. Early dialogues Socrates figures in all of these, and they are considered the most faithful representations of the historical Socrates; hence they are also called the Socratic dialogues. Most of them consist of Socrates discussing a subject, often an ethical one (friendship, piety) with a friend or with someone presumed to be an expert on it. Through a series of questions he will show that apparently they do not understand it at all. It is left to the reader to figure out if "he" really understands "it". This makes these dialogues "indirect" teachings. Apology Charmides Crito Euthyphro Ion Laches Lesser Hippias Lysis Menexenus Protagoras is often considered one of the last of these "earlier" dialogues. The following are often considered "transitional" or "pre-middle" dialogues: Euthydemus Gorgias Meno Middle dialogues Late in the early dialogues Plato's Socrates actually begins supplying answers to some of the questions he asks, or putting forth positive doctrines. This is generally seen as the first appearance of Plato's own views. The first of these, that goodness is wisdom and that no one does evil willingly, was perhaps Socrates' own view. What becomes most prominent in the middle dialogues is the idea that knowledge comes of grasping unchanging forms or essences, paired with the attempts to investigate such essences. The immortality of the soul, and specific doctrines about justice, truth, and beauty, begin appearing here. The Symposium and the Republic are considered the centerpieces of Plato's middle period. The Parmenides and Theaetetus are often considered to come late in this period and transitional to the next, as they seem to treat the Theory of Forms critically (Parmenides) or not at all (Theaetetus). Cratylus Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Republic Symposium TheaetetusLate dialogues Early modern Latin incunabulum of Plato's Timaeus, 1491 The Parmenides presents a series of criticisms of the theory of Forms which are widely taken to indicate Plato's abandonment of the doctrine. Some recent publications (e.g., Meinwald (1991)) have challenged this characterisation. In most of the remaining dialogues the theory is either absent or at least appears under a different guise in discussions about kinds or classes of things (the Timaeus may be an important, and hence controversially placed, exception). Socrates is either absent or a minor figure in the discussion. An apparently new method for doing dialectic known as "collection and division" is also featured, most notably in the Sophist and Statesman, explicitly for the first time in the Phaedrus, and possibly in the Philebus. A basic description of collection and division would go as follows: interlocutors attempt to discern the similarities and differences among things in order to get clear idea about what they in fact are. One understanding, suggested in some passages of the Sophist, is that this is what philosophy is always in the business of doing, and is doing even in the early dialogues. The late dialogues are also an important place to look for Plato's mature thought on most of the issues dealt with in the earlier dialogues. There is much work still to be done by scholars on the working out of what these views are. The later works are agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy. On the whole they are more sober and logical than earlier works, but may hold out the promise of steps towards a solution to problems which were systematically laid out in prior works. Critias Laws Philebus Sophist Statesman TimaeusNarration of the dialogues Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the Apology, there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a pure "dramatic" form (examples: Meno, Gorgias, Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narrated by Socrates, wherein he speaks in first person (examples: Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue, Protagoras, begins in dramatic form but quickly proceeds to Socrates' narration of a conversation he had previously with the sophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narration continues uninterrupted till the dialogue's end. Plato's Symposium (Anselm Feuerbach, 1873) The three dialogues, Phaedo, Symposium, and Theaetetus, also begin in dramatic form but then proceed to virtually uninterrupted narration by followers of Socrates, and all, apparently, based on their distant memory or secondhand reports. Phaedo, an account of Socrates' final conversation and hemlock drinking, is narrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a foreign city many years after the execution took place. The Symposium is narrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is recounting the story, which took place when he himself was an infant, not from his own memory, but as remembered by Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago. In the beginning of the Theaetetus (142c-143b), Euclides says that he compiled the conversation from notes he took based on what Socrates told him of his conversation with the title character. The rest of the Theaetetus is presented as a "book" written in dramatic form and read by one of Euclides' slaves (143c). Some scholars take this as an indication that Plato had by this date wearied of the narrated form. sect. 177, J. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, MacMillan 1950. With the exception of the Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indication as to how these orally transmitted conversations came to be written down. Other dialogues, such as the Phaedo, Symposium, and Parmenides, do suggest that such conversations were faithfully recalled and transmitted by Socrates' followers. pp. 23-24, W. K. C. Guthrie, Socrates, Cambridge 1971. Trial of Socrates The trial of Socrates is the central, unifying event of the great Platonic dialogues. Because of this, Plato's Apology is perhaps the most often read of the dialogues. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumors that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens. Unity and Diversity of the Dialogues If Plato's important dialogues do not refer to Socrates' execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus (210d) and the Euthyphro (2a–b) Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruption charges. In the Meno (94e–95a), one of the men who brings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing important people. In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctor's bitter medicine and the cook's tasty treats (521e–522a). In the Republic (7.517e), Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom situation. The Apology is Socrates' defense speech, and the Crito and Phaedo take place in prison after the conviction. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on sophists' fees. Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and the Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters. In the Apology (19b, c), Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death. In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant in the Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing between dialogues can be further multiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic associates. In the dialogues for which Plato is most celebrated and admired, Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who "travel" with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically in the Apology, yet tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. In Cratylus (384b-c), Socrates says that he studied with Cratylus, and took his one-drachma course because he could not afford the full fifty-drachma course. Socrates' ideas are also not consistent within or between or among dialogues. Platonic Scholarship Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, Aristotle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Ages so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholastic philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Plato continued. The Medieval scholastic philosophers did not have access to the works of Plato, nor the knowledge of Greek needed to read them. Plato's original writings were essentially lost to Western civilization until they were brought from Constantinople in the century of its fall, by George Gemistos Plethon. It is believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialogues to Cosimo de' Medici when in 1438 the Council of Ferrara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches, was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lectured on the relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, and fired Cosimo with his enthusiasm. Medieval scholars knew of Plato only through translations into Latin from the translations into Arabic by Persian and Arab scholars. These scholars not only translated the texts of the ancients, but expanded them by writing extensive commentaries and interpretations on Plato's and Aristotle's works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes). Only in the Renaissance, with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, did knowledge of Plato's philosophy become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo de Medici, saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Notable Western philosophers have continued to draw upon Plato's work since that time. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. He helped to distinguish between pure and applied mathematics by widening the gap between "arithmetic", now called Number Theory and "logistic", now called arithmetic. He regarded logistic as appropriate for business men and men of war who "must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops," while arithmetic was appropriate for philosophers "because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being." Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Frege and his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and Alfred Tarski; the last of these summarised his approach by reversing Aristotle's famous declaration of sedition from the Nicomachean Ethics (1096a15: Amicus Plato sed magis amica veritas - "Plato is a friend, but truth is a greater friend") to Inimicus Plato sed magis inimica falsitas ("Plato is an enemy, but falsehood is a greater enemy"). Albert Einstein drew on Plato's understanding of an immutable reality that underlies the flux of appearances for his objections to the probabilistic picture of the physical universe propounded by Niels Bohr in his interpretation of quantum mechanics. Conversely, thinkers that diverged from ontological models and moral ideals in their own philosophy, have tended to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Thus Friedrich Nietzsche attacked Plato's moral and political theories, Martin Heidegger argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of Being, and Karl Popper argued in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Plato's alleged proposal for a government system in the Republic was prototypically totalitarian. Leo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker involved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more political, and less metaphysical, form. Deeply influenced by Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects their condemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for a solution to what all three thinkers acknowledge as 'the crisis of the West.' Text history The oldest surviving manuscript for about half of Plato's dialogues is the Clarke Plato (MS. E. D. Clarke 39), which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquired by the Oxford University in 1809. Manuscripts - Philosophy Faculty Library See also Alexander Nehamas Cambridge Platonists Eric A. Havelock Jacob Klein (philosopher) Platonic love Platonic Realism Mitchell Miller Seth Benardete Seventh Letter (Plato) Notes a. The grammarian Apollodorus argues in his Chronicles that Plato was born in the first year of the eighty-eighth Olympiad (427 BC), on the seventh day of the month Thargelion; according to this tradition the god Apollo was born this day. Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, II According to another biographer of him, Neanthes, Plato was eighty-four years of age at his death. If we accept Neanthes' version, Plato was younger than Isocrates by six years, and therefore he was born in the second year of the 87th Olympiad, the year Pericles died (429 BC). F.W. Nietzsche, Werke, 32 According to the Suda, Plato was born in Aegina in the 88th Olympiad amid the preliminaries of the Peloponnesian war, and he lived 82 years. Sir Thomas Browne also believes that Plato was born in the 88th Olympiad. T. Browne, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, XII Renaissance Platonists celebrated Plato's birth on November 7. D. Nails, The Life of Plato of Athens, 1 Wilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that Plato was born when Diotimos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29 428 BC and July 24 427 BC. U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 46 Greek philologist Ioannis Kalitsounakis believes that the philosopher was born on May 26 or 27 427 BC, while Jonathan Barnes regards 428 BC as year of Plato's birth. * For her part, Debra Nails asserts that the philosopher was born in 424/423 BC. b. Diogenes Laertius mentions that Plato "was born, according to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidiades the son of Thales". Diogenes mentions as one of his sources the Universal History of Favorinus. According to Favorinus, Ariston, Plato's family, and his family were sent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retaining their Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, from which they were expelled by the Spartans after Plato's birth there. Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III Nails points out, however, that there is no record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians from Aegina between 431-411 BC. D. Nails, "Ariston", 54 On the other hand, at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left under Athens' control, and it was not until the summer of 411 that the Spartans overran the island. Thucydides, 5.18* Thucydides, 8.92 Therefore, Nails concludes that "perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhaps he went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was born on Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating of Ariston's death (or Plato's birth). Aegina is regarded as Plato's place of birth by Suda as well. c. Plato was a common name, of which 31 instances are known at Athens alone. W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, IV, 10* L. Tarán, Plato's Alleged Epitaph, 61 Notes References Primary sources (Greek and Roman) <div class="references-small"> Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, I. See original text in [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/apuleius/apuleius.dog1.shtml Latin Library. Aristophanes, The Wasps. See original text in Perseus program. Aristotle, Metaphysics. See original text in Perseus program. Cicero, De Divinatione, I. See original text in Latin library. Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato. Translated by C.D. Yonge. . See original text in Perseus program. . See original text in Perseus program. Plato, Parmenides. See original text in Perseus program. . See original text in Perseus program. Plutarch, Pericles. See original text in Perseus program. , V, VIII. See original text in Perseus program. Xenophon, Memorabilia. See original text in Perseus program. </div> Secondary sources Further reading Allen, R.E. (2006). Studies in Plato's Metaphysics II. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-18-6 Ambuel, David (2006). Image and Paradigm in Plato's Sophist. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-004-9 Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Cadame, Claude (1999). Indigenous and Modern Perspectives on Tribal Initiation Rites: Education According to Plato, pp. 278–312, in Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society", Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Plato's Dialogues. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-02-5 Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissémination, Paris: Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon, 69-199) ISBN 2-02-001958-2 Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN 0-19-875206-7 Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato - The Man & His Dialogues - Earlier Period), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2 Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0 Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8 Irwin, Terence (1995). Plato's Ethics, Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN 0-19-508645-7 Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset. Foreword by Julien Gracq Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset. Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson. Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et de l'amour , Paris, Grasset. Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in Plato's Statesman. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2 Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato - and other Essays in Plato's Metaphysics. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8 Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy Insights Series. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-1-84760-047-9 Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). "Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy", Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052148264X Sayre, Kenneth M. (2006). Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-09-4 Seung, T. K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: Human Value and Social Order. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0847681122 Taylor, A. E. (2001). Plato: The Man and His Work, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-41605-4 Vlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7 Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Plato's Universe - with a new Introducution by Luc Brisson, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-1 Zuckert, Catherine (2009). Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 9780226993355 Oxford University Press publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the Oxford Classical Texts series, and some translations in the Clarendon Plato Series. Harvard University Press publishes the hardbound series Loeb Classical Library, containing Plato's works in Greek, with English translations on facing pages. Thomas Taylor has translated Plato's complete works. Aspects of antiquity: Discoveries and Controversies by M.I. Finley, issued 1969 by The Viking Press, Inc.Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues as Drama'' by James A. Arieti, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8476-7662-5 External links Works available on-line: - Greek & English hyperlinked text Works of Plato (Jowett, 1892) Spurious and doubtful works at Project Gutenberg Plato complete works, annotated and searchable, at ELPENOR Euthyphro LibriVox recording Ion LibriVox recording Quick Links to Plato's Dialogues (English, Greek, French, Spanish) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Plato Plato's Ethics Friendship and Eros Middle Period Metaphysics and Epistemology Plato on Utopia Rhetoric and Poetry Other Articles: Excerpt from W.K.C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. IV, Plato: the man and his dialogues, earlier period, Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp. 8-38 Website on Plato and his works: Plato and his dialogues by Bernard Suzanne Are there really Platonic forms? "Plato and Totalitarianism: A Documentary Study" The New Academy Plato Bibliography at PlatoGeek Online library "Vox Philosophiae" Comprehensive Research Materials: Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues be-x-old:Платон | Plato |@lemmatized us:1 see:20 plato:251 disambiguation:2 platon:3 greek:23 plátōn:1 broad:2 diogenes:19 laertius:15 p:6 david:2 sedley:1 cratylus:7 cambridge:12 university:20 press:26 bc:12 classical:4 philosopher:25 mathematician:1 writer:5 philosophical:5 dialogue:78 founder:1 academy:8 athens:14 first:15 institution:1 high:2 learning:2 western:8 world:12 along:2 mentor:1 socrates:89 student:3 aristotle:20 help:3 lay:3 foundation:3 natural:1 philosophy:36 science:5 originally:1 much:3 influence:5 thinking:1 saw:4 teacher:3 unjust:1 death:6 sophistication:1 evident:1 socratic:7 thirty:3 five:3 thirteen:2 letter:8 traditionally:2 ascribe:3 although:5 modern:9 scholarship:4 doubt:2 authenticity:2 least:6 example:9 exclude:1 thrasyllus:3 tetralogy:2 e:13 g:5 table:1 content:2 john:5 cooper:2 ed:6 complete:5 work:30 hackett:2 writing:6 publish:11 several:9 fashion:2 lead:3 convention:2 regard:6 naming:2 referencing:2 text:20 little:1 question:7 lecture:7 found:2 pedagogical:1 function:2 know:9 certainty:1 since:7 time:8 use:10 teach:2 range:1 subject:7 mostly:1 include:4 logic:3 rhetoric:4 mathematics:3 write:16 biography:1 early:15 life:14 birth:7 family:10 base:4 ancient:10 source:7 scholar:14 estimate:2 bear:12 aegina:9 father:6 ariston:13 accord:22 dispute:3 tradition:3 report:2 trace:1 descent:1 king:10 codrus:1 messenia:1 melanthus:1 iii:3 nail:8 u:8 von:4 wilamowitz:5 moellendorff:5 mother:4 perictione:8 whose:3 boast:1 relationship:8 famous:5 athenian:4 lawmaker:1 lyric:1 poet:2 solon:1 sister:1 charmides:10 niece:1 critias:7 prominent:5 figure:6 tyrant:6 brief:1 oligarchic:1 regime:1 follow:3 collapse:1 end:3 peloponnesian:2 war:4 ref:4 name:14 w:10 k:10 c:18 guthrie:8 history:13 iv:9 taylor:4 xiv:3 besides:1 three:4 child:2 two:5 son:13 adeimantus:3 glaucon:5 daughter:1 potone:1 speusippus:3 nephew:1 successor:1 head:2 republic:30 old:4 nevertheless:2 memorabilia:3 xenophon:4 present:11 young:5 try:2 force:3 attention:3 fail:1 purpose:1 god:5 apollo:2 appear:5 vision:2 result:2 leave:4 unmolested:1 apuleius:6 de:12 dogmate:3 platonis:3 another:6 legend:2 relate:2 sleep:1 infant:2 bee:1 settle:2 lip:1 augury:1 sweetness:1 style:1 would:3 discourse:1 cicero:2 divinatione:2 die:3 childhood:1 precise:3 dating:3 difficult:2 marry:1 pyrilampes:3 brother:3 serve:1 many:18 ambassador:1 persian:2 court:2 friend:7 pericles:4 leader:1 democratic:2 faction:1 plutarch:2 previous:1 marriage:1 demus:1 beauty:2 gorgias:5 aristophanes:5 wasp:2 give:9 second:4 antiphon:1 half:2 parmenides:19 contrast:3 reticence:1 introduce:1 distinguished:2 relative:1 mention:7 precision:2 one:39 speak:6 protagoras:9 take:12 part:10 reference:4 reconstruct:1 tree:1 suggest:6 considerable:1 amount:2 pride:1 burnet:3 opening:1 scene:1 glorification:1 whole:2 connection:1 memorial:1 also:16 happy:1 day:5 h:5 kahn:2 laërtius:1 aristocles:2 grandfather:1 wrestling:1 coach:1 argo:1 dub:1 meaning:1 account:11 robust:1 alexandrian:1 period:7 derive:6 breadth:1 platytês:1 eloquence:1 else:3 wide:1 platýs:1 across:1 forehead:1 notopoulos:1 century:4 argue:8 originate:1 hellenistic:1 age:4 education:3 informs:1 praise:2 quickness:1 mind:3 modesty:1 boy:6 fruit:1 youth:3 infuse:1 hard:1 love:8 study:10 must:6 instruct:1 grammar:1 music:1 gymnastics:1 smith:2 dicaearchus:1 go:6 far:4 say:26 wrestle:1 isthmian:1 game:1 v:3 attend:1 course:3 meeting:1 become:4 acquaint:1 disciple:4 heraclitus:1 pre:2 heraclitean:1 doctrine:17 metaphysics:15 late:8 may:8 travel:2 italy:1 sicily:1 egypt:1 cyrene:1 return:1 forty:1 organized:1 school:5 civilization:3 plot:1 land:1 grove:1 hecademus:1 academus:2 huntington:1 cairn:1 introduction:2 collected:1 xiii:1 large:4 enclosure:1 ground:1 property:2 citizen:1 however:11 receive:1 hero:1 robinson:1 arch:1 graec:1 operate:1 ad:1 close:2 justinian:1 byzantium:1 threat:1 propagation:1 christianity:1 intellectual:2 medieval:3 depiction:1 make:9 clear:4 especially:3 apology:10 devote:1 follower:4 enough:2 corrupt:2 fact:9 guilty:2 step:2 forward:1 testify:1 indeed:2 crime:2 later:5 crito:6 critobolus:1 apollodorus:4 offer:1 pay:1 fine:3 mina:1 behalf:1 lieu:1 penalty:1 propose:1 meletus:1 phaedo:10 title:2 character:10 list:2 attendance:1 prison:2 last:4 explain:3 absence:1 ill:1 problematic:1 attribute:1 different:8 respect:1 idea:11 never:2 voice:1 exists:2 ever:2 exist:6 beautiful:2 new:6 final:4 qualification:1 seem:5 call:12 historical:2 fidelity:1 case:3 somewhat:2 portrait:1 paint:1 problem:6 mouthpiece:1 reputation:4 irony:1 leo:2 strauss:3 city:12 man:16 chicago:3 remain:3 area:1 contention:1 among:5 recurrent:1 theme:3 right:2 detail:1 fresco:1 raphael:1 gesture:2 earth:1 represent:7 belief:7 knowledge:19 empirical:2 observation:2 experience:1 hold:4 copy:3 nicomachean:2 ethic:5 hand:4 timaeus:8 heaven:1 form:28 often:14 discuss:3 whether:2 interest:2 well:9 turn:1 socially:1 locate:1 identity:1 refer:4 term:6 paternal:1 fraternal:1 apparently:5 midwife:1 divine:8 fatalist:1 mock:1 men:7 spend:1 exorbitant:1 fee:2 tutor:1 trainer:1 repeatedly:1 venture:1 good:15 gift:1 remind:1 orphan:1 mercy:1 chance:1 unconcerned:1 theaetetus:14 find:4 recruit:1 inheritance:1 squander:1 twice:1 compare:2 lover:3 lysis:4 towards:3 display:1 concern:5 biological:1 feel:1 fatherless:1 like:4 spiritual:2 wise:5 substitute:1 biology:1 bodily:1 float:1 matter:4 recollection:2 maintain:1 view:11 expense:1 complains:1 forgetfulness:1 come:7 insight:3 quite:1 consistent:3 believe:4 immortality:2 soul:12 long:3 speech:3 imagine:2 afterlife:1 opinion:3 perception:1 reality:7 nature:5 custom:1 body:4 tackle:1 art:4 poetry:3 inspire:2 mus:2 rational:2 approvingly:1 madness:1 drunkenness:1 eroticism:1 dream:1 phaedrus:10 yet:2 want:1 outlaw:1 homer:3 great:11 laughter:1 ion:5 hint:1 disapproval:1 express:1 iliad:1 bible:1 today:1 christian:1 divinely:1 inspired:2 literature:2 provide:1 moral:5 guidance:1 properly:1 interpret:6 politics:3 religion:5 justice:5 medicine:3 virtue:3 vice:1 punishment:1 pleasure:1 pain:1 rhapsody:1 human:8 sexuality:1 wisdom:9 company:1 disputant:1 something:5 platonism:3 coin:1 consequence:2 deny:1 material:7 notably:2 invert:1 common:5 intuition:1 knowable:2 real:7 people:14 object:5 sens:3 anything:1 contemptuous:1 think:4 graspable:1 eu:1 mousoi:1 expression:1 mean:3 literally:2 happily:1 without:2 word:6 live:4 inspiration:1 access:5 unavailable:1 put:4 odds:2 sense:4 eye:2 blind:1 famously:3 capture:1 allegory:3 cave:5 explicitly:4 description:6 divided:1 line:4 begin:5 paradoxical:1 analogy:2 wherein:4 invisible:1 intelligible:1 noeton:1 visible:1 oraton:1 obscure:1 exactly:1 opposite:1 euthyphro:9 soothsayer:1 namesake:2 tell:5 agree:3 divide:1 easily:1 verifiable:1 sun:1 lit:1 pitifully:1 den:2 evil:4 ignorance:2 admits:1 climb:2 terrible:1 struggle:1 attain:2 height:1 back:1 visit:1 scorn:1 ridicule:1 physical:6 event:5 shadow:3 ideal:8 perfect:3 extent:2 instantiate:1 version:2 temporary:1 inconsequential:1 epiphenomenon:1 produce:2 fleeting:1 phenomenon:1 cause:9 substantial:1 mere:2 instance:3 trial:5 cheap:1 epistemology:5 intimately:1 connect:1 political:6 ideology:1 cast:1 goodness:2 fit:2 rule:11 claim:2 enlightened:1 society:6 contemplation:1 compel:1 run:1 lofty:1 thus:2 person:3 accept:3 power:2 thrust:1 upon:2 choose:2 master:1 main:4 thesis:1 mass:1 muster:1 choice:1 ruler:3 musing:1 meta:1 note:4 treatise:2 physic:2 apply:2 understood:1 division:4 warring:1 irreconcilable:1 domain:1 theory:10 incalculable:1 typically:1 refers:1 spoke:1 formulate:1 solution:3 universal:3 roughly:2 archetype:1 abstract:1 representation:2 type:1 thing:8 around:1 state:12 justified:2 true:6 influential:1 inform:1 future:1 development:1 analytic:2 interpretation:8 reading:3 distinguish:2 justification:1 year:10 edmund:1 gettier:1 demonstrate:1 import:1 empiricist:1 category:1 onto:1 read:4 really:4 sophist:12 statesman:8 associate:2 apprehension:1 unchanging:3 expertise:1 dialectic:4 always:2 proportionate:1 realm:1 gain:1 experientially:1 flux:2 therein:1 characterize:2 lack:3 necessity:1 stability:1 way:1 non:3 sensible:2 meno:5 geometrical:3 expound:1 latter:1 acquire:2 elicit:1 construction:1 slave:3 could:2 otherwise:1 due:1 concludes:1 eternal:1 experiential:1 papirus:1 oxyrhynchus:1 fragment:2 societal:1 implication:1 government:2 discrepancy:1 contain:4 middle:8 law:6 assume:2 assumption:1 assert:2 tripartite:1 class:4 structure:2 correspond:4 appetite:3 spirit:3 reason:8 individual:3 stand:3 symbolize:1 caste:1 productive:1 abdomen:1 worker:1 labourer:1 carpenter:1 plumber:1 mason:1 merchant:2 farmer:2 rancher:1 etc:2 protective:1 chest:1 warrior:1 guardian:3 adventurous:1 strong:2 brave:1 armed:1 govern:2 intelligent:1 self:1 control:2 suit:1 decision:1 community:1 model:2 principle:7 democracy:5 reject:3 instead:3 persuasion:1 genuinely:1 adequately:1 philosophise:1 entirely:1 coincide:1 pursue:1 either:3 exclusively:1 forcibly:1 prevent:1 rest:2 race:1 draw:3 painting:2 swedish:1 painter:1 carl:1 johan:1 wahlbom:1 describe:6 sight:1 truth:4 support:2 captain:2 ship:3 doctor:3 sailing:1 health:2 everyone:2 qualify:2 practice:1 address:1 educational:1 system:5 set:1 outline:2 luxurious:1 examine:1 determine:1 injustice:1 grow:1 healthy:1 book:3 ii:4 craftsman:1 wage:1 earner:1 delicacy:1 perfume:1 oil:1 incense:1 prostitute:1 pastry:1 addition:2 gold:1 ivory:1 couch:1 multitude:1 occupation:1 hunter:1 image:4 illuminate:1 desire:2 combine:1 attempt:3 rightly:1 order:6 kind:6 observe:1 money:2 various:1 promote:1 magnify:1 justify:1 personal:1 philosophic:1 unite:1 virtuous:1 harmony:1 moderate:1 courage:1 act:1 relation:2 interesting:1 argument:3 ask:3 bad:5 country:1 reign:1 responsible:1 action:1 rather:3 commitiing:1 deed:1 emphasise:1 within:3 mutiny:1 onboard:1 crew:1 inhibit:1 ailment:1 parallel:1 inherant:1 arise:2 overall:1 decline:1 aristocracy:1 best:1 timocracy:1 honorable:1 oligarchy:1 finally:2 tyranny:1 unwritten:10 rodriguez:1 grandjean:1 pablo:1 hermeneutical:1 point:2 twentieth:1 congress:3 boston:2 massachusetts:1 august:1 reale:3 giovanni:2 catan:3 r:5 suny:4 isbn:24 cf:6 onwards:1 krämer:4 hans:1 joachim:2 collection:4 fundamental:5 document:2 translate:5 pp:7 consider:10 unworthy:1 diminish:1 importance:2 important:7 witness:2 existence:1 b:4 participant:3 teaching:4 ἄγραφα:3 δόγματα:3 metaphysical:3 disclose:2 trusted:1 fellow:2 keep:2 secret:1 public:2 reveal:1 partially:1 criticize:2 transmission:2 faulty:1 favor:1 spoken:1 logo:1 earnest:1 ink:1 sow:1 pen:1 cannot:2 defend:2 effectually:1 repeat:1 seventh:4 every:1 serious:2 deal:3 carefully:1 avoids:1 certainly:1 declare:1 seriously:1 mine:1 therewith:1 secrecy:1 necessary:1 expose:1 unseemly:1 degrade:1 treatment:1 περὶ:2 τἀγαθοῦ:2 τὸ:8 ἀγαθόν:1 identify:1 unity:2 ἕν:3 ontological:2 transmit:3 others:4 aristoxenus:1 following:2 expect:1 learn:3 generally:4 wealth:1 strength:1 altogether:1 wonderful:1 happiness:1 mathematical:1 demonstration:1 number:4 astronomy:1 statement:2 seemed:1 utterly:1 unexpected:1 strange:1 hence:3 belittle:1 simplicius:1 quote:1 alexander:2 aphrodisia:1 everything:3 indefinite:1 duality:2 ἡ:2 ἀόριστος:1 δυάς:2 small:5 μέγα:2 καὶ:2 μικρόν:2 might:2 xenocrates:1 full:2 agreement:1 suppose:1 element:3 accordingly:1 dyad:2 essence:5 participation:1 employ:1 substrate:1 predicate:1 assign:1 respectively:1 causation:1 aspect:3 continuity:1 neoplatonic:1 plotinus:4 ennead:1 vi:2 entitle:1 ἢ:1 τοῦ:1 ἑνός:1 jens:1 halfwassen:1 der:1 aufstieg:1 zum:1 einen:1 ontology:2 henology:1 accurate:1 renewal:1 continuation:1 rediscover:2 gaiser:5 ficino:3 epistolae:1 goal:1 show:2 marsilio:1 briefe:1 mediceerkreises:1 berlin:1 erroneous:1 directly:1 oral:1 recognize:1 heinrich:1 gomperz:3 international:2 ryle:1 proceeding:1 london:2 reprint:2 collect:1 konrad:1 testimonia:3 platonica:3 le:2 antiche:1 testimonianze:1 sulle:1 dottrine:1 scritte:1 di:3 platone:2 milan:1 quellentexte:1 zur:1 schule:1 und:2 mündlichen:1 lehre:2 platons:2 appendix:1 ungeschriebene:1 stuttgart:1 subsequently:1 german:2 tübingen:2 han:3 thomas:4 szlezák:1 bried:1 enigmatic:1 phronesis:1 detailed:1 analysis:3 albany:2 toward:1 washington:1 cua:1 summarize:1 research:2 approach:3 szlezak:1 york:1 routledge:3 supporter:1 karl:2 albert:2 griechische:1 platonische:1 philosophie:1 hamburg:1 einführung:1 philosophische:1 mystik:1 darmstadt:1 georg:2 gadamer:5 sympathetic:1 j:4 grondin:1 article:4 position:2 la:4 nuova:1 interpretazione:1 un:1 dialogo:1 tra:1 scuola:1 tubinga:1 milano:1 latin:6 edition:3 cover:1 though:2 usual:1 unique:1 section:1 derives:1 henricus:1 stephanus:2 overview:1 pagination:1 arrangement:2 scheme:1 astrologer:1 tiberius:1 mark:2 consensus:1 author:2 scholars:1 unmarked:1 philebus:5 symposium:12 alcibiades:2 hipparchus:1 rival:1 theages:1 laches:2 euthydemus:2 vii:1 hippias:3 major:1 less:3 minor:2 menexenus:2 viii:2 clitophon:1 ix:1 minos:1 epinomis:1 epistle:1 already:1 spurious:3 antiquity:2 tetralogical:1 label:1 notheuomenoi:1 apocrypha:1 axiochus:1 definition:1 demodocus:1 epigram:1 eryxias:1 halcyon:1 sisyphus:1 dialogues:2 exact:1 revise:1 rewrite:1 lewis:1 campbell:2 california:1 exhaustive:1 stylometry:2 prove:2 objectively:1 cluster:1 together:2 group:3 belong:1 separate:1 remarkable:1 conclusion:1 spite:1 stylometric:1 conduct:1 perhaps:6 chronological:1 earlier:2 increasingly:1 recent:2 skeptical:1 notion:2 establish:1 richard:2 kraut:2 stanford:2 encyclopedia:4 june:3 malcolm:1 schofield:1 craig:1 http:2 www:2 rep:1 com:2 christopher:1 rowe:1 benson:1 companion:2 blackwell:1 still:3 fall:2 brickhouse:1 n:1 internet:1 relatively:1 vol:2 vlastos:3 ironist:1 penner:1 oxford:6 ordering:1 highly:1 ordered:1 universally:1 faithful:1 consist:1 ethical:1 friendship:2 piety:1 someone:1 presume:1 expert:1 series:6 understand:1 reader:1 understands:1 indirect:1 lesser:1 transitional:2 actually:1 supply:1 answer:1 forth:1 positive:1 appearance:2 willingly:1 grasp:1 pair:1 investigate:1 specific:1 centerpiece:1 next:1 treat:2 critically:1 theaetetuslate:1 incunabulum:1 criticism:1 widely:1 indicate:1 abandonment:1 publication:2 meinwald:1 challenge:1 characterisation:1 absent:2 guise:1 discussion:3 controversially:1 place:6 exception:4 method:1 feature:1 possibly:1 basic:1 interlocutor:1 discern:1 similarity:1 difference:2 get:2 understanding:2 passage:2 business:2 even:1 look:3 mature:1 issue:2 challenging:1 piece:1 sober:1 logical:1 promise:1 systematically:1 prior:1 timaeusnarration:1 suggestion:1 hear:1 firsthand:1 narrator:1 pure:2 dramatic:4 narrate:3 quickly:1 proceeds:1 narration:3 conversation:6 previously:1 continue:3 uninterrupted:2 till:1 anselm:1 feuerbach:1 proceed:1 virtually:1 distant:1 memory:2 secondhand:1 hemlock:1 drinking:1 echecrates:1 foreign:1 execution:2 assure:1 listener:1 recount:1 story:3 remember:1 aristodemus:1 ago:1 beginning:1 euclides:2 compile:1 indication:2 date:1 weary:1 narrated:1 sect:1 macmillan:1 explicit:1 orally:1 transmitted:1 faithfully:1 recall:1 central:1 unifying:1 platonic:7 dismiss:1 rumor:1 charge:4 disbelief:1 corruption:2 insists:1 slander:2 demise:1 legal:2 essentially:2 false:1 denies:1 launch:1 oracle:2 delphi:1 quest:1 resolve:2 riddle:2 mistake:1 menace:1 diversity:1 allude:1 play:2 foreshadow:1 tells:1 face:2 bring:2 anytus:1 warn:1 trouble:1 stop:1 prosecute:1 cook:2 jury:1 bitter:1 tasty:1 enlighten:1 presumably:1 stumble:1 courtroom:1 situation:1 defense:1 conviction:1 guest:1 home:2 callias:2 hipponicus:1 disparages:1 waste:1 link:5 storyline:1 comic:1 blame:1 ultimately:1 drink:1 emissary:1 strongly:1 formal:1 speaker:1 cross:1 multiply:1 gathering:1 celebrated:1 admire:2 distinctive:1 personality:1 enemy:4 adversary:1 mockery:1 fool:1 disparage:2 prodicus:2 specifically:1 direct:1 pupil:1 drachma:2 afford:1 fifty:1 thought:2 completely:1 eclipse:1 scholastic:2 byzantine:1 empire:1 need:1 original:12 lose:1 constantinople:2 george:1 gemistos:1 plethon:3 pass:1 cosimo:2 medici:2 council:1 ferrara:1 unify:1 church:2 adjourn:1 florence:1 fire:1 enthusiasm:1 translation:4 arabic:1 arab:1 expand:1 extensive:1 commentary:1 al:1 farabi:1 avicenna:1 averroes:1 renaissance:3 general:1 resurgence:2 widespread:1 west:2 scientist:1 artist:1 break:1 scholasticism:1 foster:1 flowering:1 lorenzo:1 basis:1 progress:1 restore:1 par:1 notable:1 widen:1 gap:1 arithmetic:3 logistic:2 appropriate:2 array:1 troop:1 sea:1 change:1 advance:1 primarily:1 gottlob:1 frege:1 kurt:1 gödel:1 alonzo:1 alfred:1 tarski:1 summarise:1 reverse:1 declaration:1 sedition:1 amicus:1 sed:2 magi:2 amica:1 veritas:1 inimicus:1 inimica:1 falsitas:1 falsehood:1 einstein:1 immutable:1 underlie:1 objection:1 probabilistic:1 picture:1 universe:2 propound:1 niels:1 bohr:1 quantum:1 mechanic:1 conversely:1 thinker:3 diverge:1 tend:1 informed:1 perspective:2 friedrich:1 nietzsche:3 attack:1 martin:1 heidegger:2 allege:3 obfuscation:1 popper:1 open:1 proposal:1 prototypically:1 totalitarian:1 prime:1 involve:1 recovery:1 deeply:1 nonetheless:1 condemnation:1 acknowledge:1 crisis:1 surviving:1 manuscript:2 clarke:2 faculty:1 library:5 nehamas:1 platonist:2 eric:2 havelock:2 jacob:1 klein:1 realism:1 mitchell:2 miller:2 seth:1 benardete:1 grammarian:1 argues:1 chronicle:1 eighty:2 eighth:1 olympiad:4 month:1 thargelion:1 biographer:1 neanthes:2 four:1 isocrates:1 six:1 therefore:2 f:1 werke:1 suda:2 amid:1 preliminary:1 sir:1 browne:2 pseudodoxia:1 epidemica:1 xii:1 celebrate:1 november:1 diotimos:1 archon:1 eponymous:1 namely:1 july:2 philologist:1 ioannis:1 kalitsounakis:1 jonathan:2 barnes:1 debra:1 house:1 phidiades:1 thales:2 favorinus:2 send:1 cleruchs:1 colonist:1 retain:1 citizenship:1 island:2 expel:1 spartan:3 record:3 expulsion:1 peace:1 nicias:1 silently:1 summer:1 overrun:1 thucydides:2 conclude:1 cleruch:1 none:1 enable:1 alone:1 l:3 tarán:1 epitaph:1 primary:1 roman:1 div:2 thelatinlibrary:1 shtml:1 perseus:9 program:9 yonge:1 secondary:1 allen:1 ambuel:1 paradigm:1 bakalis:1 nikolaos:1 handbook:1 stoic:1 trafford:1 publishing:2 cadame:1 claude:1 indigenous:1 tribal:1 initiation:1 rite:2 padilla:1 william:1 editor:1 greece:1 bucknell:1 x:2 corlett:1 angelo:1 derrida:1 jacques:1 dissémination:1 paris:5 seuil:1 esp:1 cap:1 pharmacie:1 gail:1 usa:2 preface:1 belknap:1 irwin:1 terence:1 lilar:3 suzanne:4 journal:1 analogiste:1 éditions:1 julliard:1 reedited:1 grasset:3 foreword:2 julien:1 gracq:1 couple:1 griffin:1 thames:1 hudson:1 propos:1 sartre:1 et:1 amour:1 mohr:1 essay:1 moore:1 edward:1 insights:1 tirril:1 humanities:1 ebooks:1 nightingale:1 andrea:1 wilson:1 genre:1 construct:1 sayre:1 kenneth:1 seung:1 value:1 social:1 rowman:2 littlefield:2 dover:1 gregory:2 princeton:1 introducution:1 luc:1 brisson:1 zuckert:1 catherine:1 coherence:1 publishes:1 scholarly:1 clarendon:1 harvard:1 hardbound:1 loeb:1 english:3 page:1 discovery:1 controversy:1 finley:1 viking:1 inc:2 drama:1 james:1 arieti:1 publisher:1 external:1 available:1 hyperlinked:1 jowett:1 doubtful:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 annotate:1 searchable:1 elpenor:1 librivox:2 quick:1 french:1 spanish:1 eros:1 utopia:1 excerpt:1 website:1 bernard:1 totalitarianism:1 documentary:1 bibliography:1 platogeek:1 online:1 vox:1 philosophiae:1 comprehensive:1 guide:1 платон:1 |@bigram diogenes_laertius:15 plato_cratylus:1 socratic_dialogue:4 traditionally_ascribe:2 doubt_authenticity:2 von_wilamowitz:4 wilamowitz_moellendorff:5 peloponnesian_war:2 plato_gorgias:1 aristophanes_wasp:2 diogenes_laërtius:1 pre_socratic:1 aristotle_metaphysics:2 plato_socrates:7 socrates_plato:2 leo_strauss:2 recurrent_theme:1 nicomachean_ethic:2 immortality_soul:2 homer_iliad:1 divinely_inspired:1 allegory_cave:3 intimately_connect:1 sophist_statesman:6 athenian_democracy:1 wage_earner:1 unwritten_doctrine:8 boston_massachusetts:1 suny_press:4 hans_joachim:1 alexander_aphrodisia:1 everything_else:2 marsilio_ficino:1 albany_suny:2 plato_aristotle:3 einführung_die:1 georg_gadamer:2 timaeus_critias:1 stanford_encyclopedia:2 http_www:2 universally_accept:1 plato_timaeus:1 plato_symposium:1 oracle_delphi:1 dialogue_platonic:1 al_farabi:1 avicenna_averroes:1 gottlob_frege:1 kurt_gödel:1 alonzo_church:1 alfred_tarski:1 albert_einstein:1 niels_bohr:1 quantum_mechanic:1 friedrich_nietzsche:1 martin_heidegger:1 karl_popper:1 platonic_realism:1 thales_stoic:1 trafford_publishing:1 initiation_rite:1 derrida_jacques:1 paris_seuil:1 metaphysics_epistemology:2 belknap_press:1 paris_éditions:1 thames_hudson:1 rowman_littlefield:2 dover_publication:1 loeb_classical:1 littlefield_publisher:1 external_link:1 project_gutenberg:1 |
7,413 | Lebesgue_integration | The integral of a positive function can be interpreted as the area under a curve. In mathematics, Lebesgue integration refers to both the general theory of integration of a function with respect to a general measure, and to the specific case of integration of a function defined on a sub-domain of the real line or a higher dimensional Euclidean space with respect to the Lebesgue measure. This article focuses on the more general concept. Lebesgue integration plays an important role in real analysis, the axiomatic theory of probability, and many other fields in the mathematical sciences. The integral of a non-negative function can be regarded in the simplest case as the area between the graph of that function and the x-axis. The Lebesgue integral is a construction that extends the integral to a larger class of functions defined over spaces more general than the real line. For non-negative functions with a smooth enough graph (such as continuous functions on closed bounded intervals), the area under the curve is defined as the integral and computed using techniques of approximation of the region by polygons (see Simpson's rule). For more irregular functions (such as the limiting processes of mathematical analysis and probability theory), better approximation techniques are required in order to define a suitable integral. Introduction The integral of a function f between limits a and b can be interpreted as the area under the graph of f. This is easy to understand for familiar functions such as polynomials, but what does it mean for more exotic functions? In general, what is the class of functions for which "area under the curve" makes sense? The answer to this question has great theoretical and practical importance. As part of a general movement toward rigour in mathematics in the nineteenth century, attempts were made to put the integral calculus on a firm foundation. The Riemann integral, proposed by Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866), is a broadly successful attempt to provide such a foundation. Riemann's definition starts with the construction of a sequence of easily-calculated areas which converge to the integral of a given function. This definition is successful in the sense that it gives the expected answer for many already-solved problems, and gives useful results for many other problems. However, Riemann integration does not interact well with taking limits of sequences of functions, making such limiting processes difficult to analyze. This is of prime importance, for instance, in the study of Fourier series, Fourier transforms and other topics. The Lebesgue integral is better able to describe how and when it is possible to take limits under the integral sign. The Lebesgue definition considers a different class of easily-calculated areas than the Riemann definition, which is the main reason the Lebesgue integral is better behaved. The Lebesgue definition also makes it possible to calculate integrals for a broader class of functions. For example, the Dirichlet function, which is 0 where its argument is irrational and 1 otherwise, has a Lebesgue integral, but it does not have a Riemann integral. Construction of the Lebesgue integral The discussion that follows parallels the most common expository approach to the Lebesgue integral. In this approach, the theory of integration has two distinct parts: A theory of measurable sets and measures on these sets. A theory of measurable functions and integrals on these functions. Measure theory Measure theory was initially created to provide a useful abstraction of the notion of length of subsets of the real line and, more generally, area and volume of subsets of Euclidean spaces. In particular, it provided a systematic answer to the question of which subsets of R have a length. As was shown by later developments in set theory (see non-measurable set), it is actually impossible to assign a length to all subsets of R in a way which preserves some natural additivity and translation invariance properties. This suggests that picking out a suitable class of measurable subsets is an essential prerequisite. Of course, the Riemann integral uses the notion of length explicitly. Indeed, the element of calculation for the Riemann integral is the rectangle [a, b] × [c, d], whose area is calculated to be (b − a)(d − c). The quantity b − a is the length of the base of the rectangle and d − c is the height of the rectangle. Riemann could only use planar rectangles to approximate the area under the curve because there was no adequate theory for measuring more general sets. In the development of the theory in most modern textbooks (after 1950), the approach to measure and integration is axiomatic. This means that a measure is any function μ defined on a certain class X of subsets of a set E, which satisfies a certain list of properties. These properties can be shown to hold in many different cases. Integration We start with a measure space (E, X, μ) where E is a set, X is a σ-algebra of subsets of E and μ is a (non-negative) measure on X of subsets of E. For example, E can be Euclidean n-space Rn or some Lebesgue measurable subset of it, X will be the σ-algebra of all Lebesgue measurable subsets of E, and μ will be the Lebesgue measure. In the mathematical theory of probability, we confine our study to a probability measure μ, which satisfies . In Lebesgue's theory, integrals are defined for a class of functions called measurable functions. A function ƒ is measurable if the pre-image of every closed interval is in X: It can be shown that this is equivalent to requiring that the pre-image of any Borel subset of R be in X. We will make this assumption henceforth. The set of measurable functions is closed under algebraic operations, but more importantly the class is closed under various kinds of pointwise sequential limits: are measurable if the original sequence (ƒk)k, where k ∈ N, consists of measurable functions. We build up an integral for measurable real-valued functions ƒ defined on E in stages: Indicator functions: To assign a value to the integral of the indicator function of a measurable set S consistent with the given measure μ, the only reasonable choice is to set: Notice that the result may be equal to +∞, unless μ is a finite measure. Simple functions: A finite linear combination of indicator functions where the coefficients ak are real numbers and the sets Sk are measurable, is called a measurable simple function. We extend the integral by linearity to non-negative measurable simple functions. When the coefficients ak are non-negative, we set The convention 0 × ∞ = 0 must be used, and the result may be infinite. Even if a simple function can be written in many ways as a linear combination of indicator functions, the integral will always be the same. Some care is needed when defining the integral of a real-valued simple function, in order to avoid the undefined expression ∞ − ∞: one assumes that the representation is such that μ(Sk) < ∞ whenever ak ≠ 0. Then the above formula for the integral of ƒ makes sense, and the result does not depend upon the particular representation of ƒ satisfying the assumptions. If B is a measurable subset of E and s a measurable simple function one defines Non-negative functions: Let ƒ be a non-negative measurable function on E which we allow to attain the value +∞, in other words, ƒ takes non-negative values in the extended real number line. We define We need to show this integral coincides with the preceding one, defined on the set of simple functions. When E is a segment [a, b], there is also the question of whether this corresponds in any way to a Riemann notion of integration. It is possible to prove that the answer to both questions is yes. We have defined the integral of ƒ for any non-negative extended real-valued measurable function on E. For some functions, this integral ∫E ƒ dμ will be infinite. Signed functions: To handle signed functions, we need a few more definitions. If ƒ is a measurable function of the set E to the reals (including ± ∞), then we can write where Note that both ƒ+ and ƒ− are non-negative measurable functions. Also note that If then ƒ is called Lebesgue integrable. In this case, both integrals satisfy and it makes sense to define It turns out that this definition gives the desirable properties of the integral. Complex valued functions can be similarly integrated, by considering the real part and the imaginary part separately. Intuitive interpretation To get some intuition about the different approaches to integration, let us imagine that it is desired to find a mountain's volume (above sea level). The Riemann-Darboux approach: Divide the base of the mountain into a grid of 1 meter squares (a cadaster, in the language of land surveyors). Measure the altitude of the mountain at the center of each square. The volume on a single grid square is approximately 1x1x(altitude), so the total volume is the sum of the altitudes. The Lebesgue approach: Draw a contour map of the mountain, where each contour is 1 meter of altitude apart. The volume of earth contained in a single contour is approximately that contour's area times its height. So the total volume is the sum of these volumes. Folland Gerald B. Folland, Real Analysis: Modern Techniques and Their Applications, 1984, p. 56. summarizes the difference between the Riemann and Lebesgue approaches thus: "to compute the Riemann integral of f, one partitions the domain [a, b] into subintervals", while in the Lebesgue integral, "one is in effect partitioning the range of f ". See also Properties of simple functions. Example Consider the indicator function of the rational numbers, 1Q. This function is nowhere continuous. is not Riemann-integrable on [0,1]: No matter how the set [0,1] is partitioned into subintervals, each partition will contain at least one rational and at least one irrational number, since rationals and irrationals are both dense in the reals. Thus the upper Darboux sums will all be one, and the lower Darboux sums will all be zero. is Lebesgue-integrable on [0,1] using the Lebesgue measure: Indeed it is the indicator function of the rationals so by definition since is countable. Limitations of the Riemann integral Here we discuss the limitations of the Riemann integral and the greater scope offered by the Lebesgue integral. We presume a working understanding of the Riemann integral. With the advent of Fourier series, many analytical problems involving integrals came up whose satisfactory solution required interchanging limit processes and integral signs. However, the conditions under which the integrals and are equal proved quite elusive in the Riemann framework. There are some other technical difficulties with the Riemann integral. These are linked with the limit taking difficulty discussed above. Failure of monotone convergence. As shown above, the indicator function 1Q on the rationals is not Riemann integrable. In particular, the Monotone convergence theorem fails. To see why, let {ak} be an enumeration of all the rational numbers in [0,1] (they are countable so this can be done.) Then let The function gk is zero everywhere except on a finite set of points, hence its Riemann integral is zero. The sequence gk is also clearly non-negative and monotonically increasing to 1Q, which is not Riemann integrable. Unsuitability for unbounded intervals. The Riemann integral can only integrate functions on a bounded interval. It can however be extended to unbounded intervals by taking limits, so long as this doesn't yield an answer such as . What about integrating on structures other than Euclidean space? The Riemann integral is inextricably linked to the order structure of the line. How do we free ourselves of this limitation? Basic theorems of the Lebesgue integral The Lebesgue integral does not distinguish between functions which differ only on a set of μ-measure zero. To make this precise, functions f and g are said to be equal almost everywhere (a.e.) if If f, g are non-negative measurable functions (possibly assuming the value +∞) such that f = g almost everywhere, then To wit, the integral respects the equivalence relation of almost-everywhere equivalence. If f, g are functions such that f = g almost everywhere, then f is Lebesgue integrable if and only if g is Lebesgue integrable and the integrals of f and g are the same. The Lebesgue integral has the following properties: Linearity: If f and g are Lebesgue integrable functions and a and b are real numbers, then af + bg is Lebesgue integrable and Monotonicity: If f ≤ g, then Monotone convergence theorem: Suppose {fk}k ∈ N is a sequence of non-negative measurable functions such that Then Note: The value of any of the integrals is allowed to be infinite. Fatou's lemma: If {fk}k ∈ N is a sequence of non-negative measurable functions, then Again, the value of any of the integrals may be infinite. Dominated convergence theorem: If {fk}k ∈ N is a sequence of complex measurable functions with pointwise limit f, and if there is a Lebesgue integrable function g (i.e, g belongs to the space L1) such that |fk| ≤ g for all k, then f is Lebesgue integrable and Proof techniques To illustrate some of the proof techniques used in Lebesgue integration theory, we sketch a proof of the above mentioned Lebesgue monotone convergence theorem. Let {fk}k ∈ N be a non-decreasing sequence of non-negative measurable functions and put By the monotonicity property of the integral, it is immediate that: and the limit on the right exists, since the sequence is monotonic. We now prove the inequality in the other direction. It follows from the definition of integral that there is a non-decreasing sequence (gn) of non-negative simple functions such that gn ≤ f and Therefore, it suffices to prove that for each n ∈ N, We will show that if g is a simple function and almost everywhere, then By breaking up the function g into its constant value parts, this reduces to the case in which g is the indicator function of a set. The result we have to prove is then Suppose A is a measurable set and {fk}k ∈ N is a nondecreasing sequence of non-negative measurable functions on E such that for almost all x ∈ A. Then To prove this result, fix ε > 0 and define the sequence of measurable sets By monotonicity of the integral, it follows that for any k ∈ N, Because of the fact that almost every x will be in Bk for large enough k, we have up to a set of measure 0. Thus by countable additivity of μ, and since Bk increases with k, As this is true for any positive ε the result follows. Alternative formulations It is possible to develop the integral with respect to the Lebesgue measure without relying on the full machinery of measure theory. One such approach is provided by Daniell integral. There is also an alternative approach to developing the theory of integration via methods of functional analysis. The Riemann integral exists for any continuous function f of compact support defined on Rn (or a fixed open subset). Integrals of more general functions can be built starting from these integrals. Let Cc be the space of all real-valued compactly supported continuous functions of R. Define a norm on Cc by Then Cc is a normed vector space (and in particular, it is a metric space.) All metric spaces have Hausdorff completions, so let L1 be its completion. This space is isomorphic to the space of Lebesgue integrable functions modulo the subspace of functions with integral zero. Furthermore, the Riemann integral ∫ is a uniformly continuous functional with respect to the norm on Cc, which is dense in L1. Hence ∫ has a unique extension to all of L1. This integral is precisely the Lebesgue integral. This approach can be generalised to build the theory of integration with respect to Radon measures on locally compact spaces. It is the approach adopted by Bourbaki (2004); for more details see Radon measures on locally compact spaces. Applications, e.g. in functional analysis Finally one should of course mention that many statements on topological vector spaces (e.g. Hilbert or Banach spaces) and on limiting procedures therein (e.g. strong or weak convergence) are essentially simplified by using from the beginning the Lebesgue integral. See also Henri Lebesgue, for a non-technical description of Lebesgue integration null set integration measure sigma-algebra Lebesgue space Lebesgue-Stieltjes integration Henstock-Kurzweil integral Notes References Very thorough treatment, particularly for probabilists with good notes and historical references. A classic, though somewhat dated presentation. Includes a presentation of the Daniell integral. Good treatment of the theory of outer measures. Known as Little Rudin, contains the basics of the Lebesgue theory, but does not treat material such as Fubini's theorem. Known as Big Rudin. A complete and careful presentation of the theory. Good presentation of the Riesz extension theorems. However, there is a minor flaw (in the first edition) in the proof of one of the extension theorems, the discovery of which constitutes exercise 21 of Chapter 2. Emphasizes the Daniell integral. | Lebesgue_integration |@lemmatized integral:69 positive:2 function:73 interpret:2 area:11 curve:4 mathematics:2 lebesgue:42 integration:16 refers:1 general:8 theory:20 respect:6 measure:24 specific:1 case:5 define:16 sub:1 domain:2 real:15 line:5 high:1 dimensional:1 euclidean:4 space:18 article:1 focus:1 concept:1 play:1 important:1 role:1 analysis:5 axiomatic:2 probability:4 many:7 field:1 mathematical:3 science:1 non:21 negative:17 regard:1 simple:11 graph:3 x:10 axis:1 construction:3 extend:3 large:2 class:8 smooth:1 enough:2 continuous:5 closed:2 bound:1 interval:5 compute:2 use:7 technique:5 approximation:2 region:1 polygon:1 see:6 simpson:1 rule:1 irregular:1 limiting:2 process:3 good:4 require:3 order:3 suitable:2 introduction:1 f:17 limit:10 b:9 easy:1 understand:1 familiar:1 polynomial:1 mean:2 exotic:1 make:8 sense:4 answer:5 question:4 great:2 theoretical:1 practical:1 importance:2 part:5 movement:1 toward:1 rigour:1 nineteenth:1 century:1 attempt:2 put:2 calculus:1 firm:1 foundation:2 riemann:26 propose:1 bernhard:1 broadly:1 successful:2 provide:4 definition:9 start:3 sequence:12 easily:2 calculate:4 converge:1 give:5 expected:1 already:1 solve:1 problem:3 useful:2 result:7 however:4 interact:1 well:3 take:5 difficult:1 analyze:1 prime:1 instance:1 study:2 fourier:3 series:2 transforms:1 topic:1 able:1 describe:1 possible:4 sign:3 consider:3 different:3 main:1 reason:1 behave:1 also:7 broad:1 example:3 dirichlet:1 argument:1 irrational:3 otherwise:1 discussion:1 follow:4 parallel:1 common:1 expository:1 approach:11 two:1 distinct:1 measurable:30 set:22 initially:1 create:1 abstraction:1 notion:3 length:5 subset:13 generally:1 volume:7 particular:4 systematic:1 r:4 show:6 late:1 development:2 actually:1 impossible:1 assign:2 way:3 preserve:1 natural:1 additivity:2 translation:1 invariance:1 property:7 suggest:1 pick:1 essential:1 prerequisite:1 course:2 explicitly:1 indeed:2 element:1 calculation:1 rectangle:4 c:3 whose:2 quantity:1 base:2 height:2 could:1 planar:1 approximate:1 adequate:1 modern:2 textbook:1 μ:10 certain:2 e:20 satisfy:4 list:1 hold:1 σ:2 algebra:3 n:10 rn:2 confine:1 call:3 ƒ:12 pre:2 image:2 every:2 equivalent:1 borel:1 assumption:2 henceforth:1 close:2 algebraic:1 operation:1 importantly:1 various:1 kind:1 pointwise:2 sequential:1 original:1 ƒk:1 k:11 consist:1 build:3 value:12 stage:1 indicator:8 consistent:1 reasonable:1 choice:1 notice:1 may:3 equal:3 unless:1 finite:3 linear:2 combination:2 coefficient:2 ak:4 number:6 sk:2 linearity:2 convention:1 must:1 infinite:4 even:1 write:2 always:1 care:1 need:3 avoid:1 undefined:1 expression:1 one:11 assume:2 representation:2 whenever:1 formula:1 depend:1 upon:1 let:7 allow:2 attain:1 word:1 extended:2 coincides:1 precede:1 segment:1 whether:1 corresponds:1 prove:5 yes:1 dμ:1 handle:1 signed:1 include:2 note:5 integrable:12 turn:1 desirable:1 complex:2 similarly:1 integrate:3 imaginary:1 separately:1 intuitive:1 interpretation:1 get:1 intuition:1 u:1 imagine:1 desire:1 find:1 mountain:4 sea:1 level:1 darboux:3 divide:1 grid:2 meter:2 square:3 cadaster:1 language:1 land:1 surveyor:1 altitude:4 center:1 single:2 approximately:2 total:2 sum:4 draw:1 contour:4 map:1 apart:1 earth:1 contain:3 time:1 folland:2 gerald:1 application:2 p:1 summarize:1 difference:1 thus:3 partition:4 subintervals:2 effect:1 range:1 rational:6 nowhere:1 matter:1 least:2 since:4 dense:2 upper:1 low:1 zero:5 countable:3 limitation:3 discuss:2 scope:1 offer:1 presume:1 work:1 understanding:1 advent:1 analytical:1 involve:1 come:1 satisfactory:1 solution:1 interchanging:1 condition:1 proved:1 quite:1 elusive:1 framework:1 technical:2 difficulty:2 link:2 failure:1 monotone:4 convergence:6 theorem:7 fail:1 enumeration:1 gk:2 everywhere:6 except:1 point:1 hence:2 clearly:1 monotonically:1 increase:2 unsuitability:1 unbounded:2 bounded:1 long:1 yield:1 structure:2 inextricably:1 free:1 basic:2 distinguish:1 differ:1 precise:1 g:18 say:1 almost:7 possibly:1 wit:1 equivalence:2 relation:1 following:1 af:1 bg:1 monotonicity:3 suppose:2 fk:6 fatou:1 lemma:1 dominate:1 belongs:1 proof:4 illustrate:1 sketch:1 mention:2 decrease:2 immediate:1 right:1 exists:2 monotonic:1 inequality:1 direction:1 gn:2 therefore:1 suffice:1 break:1 constant:1 reduce:1 nondecreasing:1 fix:1 ε:2 fact:1 bk:2 true:1 alternative:2 formulation:1 develop:2 without:1 rely:1 full:1 machinery:1 daniell:3 via:1 method:1 functional:3 compact:3 support:2 fixed:1 open:1 cc:4 compactly:1 norm:2 normed:1 vector:2 metric:2 hausdorff:1 completion:2 isomorphic:1 modulo:1 subspace:1 furthermore:1 uniformly:1 unique:1 extension:3 precisely:1 generalise:1 radon:2 locally:2 adopt:1 bourbaki:1 detail:1 finally:1 statement:1 topological:1 hilbert:1 banach:1 procedure:1 therein:1 strong:1 weak:1 essentially:1 simplify:1 begin:1 henri:1 description:1 null:1 sigma:1 stieltjes:1 henstock:1 kurzweil:1 reference:2 thorough:1 treatment:2 particularly:1 probabilists:1 historical:1 classic:1 though:1 somewhat:1 dated:1 presentation:4 outer:1 know:2 little:1 rudin:2 treat:1 material:1 fubini:1 big:1 complete:1 careful:1 riesz:1 minor:1 flaw:1 first:1 edition:1 theorems:1 discovery:1 constitute:1 exercise:1 chapter:1 emphasize:1 |@bigram lebesgue_integration:4 dimensional_euclidean:1 lebesgue_measure:4 lebesgue_integral:13 nineteenth_century:1 riemann_integral:14 bernhard_riemann:1 fourier_transforms:1 measurable_subset:4 σ_algebra:2 lebesgue_measurable:2 closed_interval:1 ƒ_ƒ:1 lebesgue_integrable:9 riemann_integrable:3 rational_irrational:1 unbounded_interval:2 inextricably_link:1 integral_lebesgue:1 equivalence_relation:1 integrable_function:3 fk_k:5 cc_cc:1 normed_vector:1 uniformly_continuous:1 radon_measure:2 locally_compact:2 banach_space:1 |
7,414 | Helsingborg_Municipality | Helsingborg Municipality (Helsingborgs kommun) is a municipality in Skåne County in Sweden. Its seat is located in the city of Helsingborg, which is Sweden's eighth largest city. The municipality had a population of 126.754 in December 2008, and the population is increasing with roughly 1500 people annually. The present municipality was created in 1971 through the amalgamation of the City of Hälsingborg with four surrounding rural municipalities. At the same time the spelling of the name was changed back to the version used up until 1912. Since the 1990-es the municipality styles itself Helsingborgs stad (City of Helsingborg). This usage is only nominal and has no effect on the status of the municipality. Localities There are 15 urban areas (also called a Tätort or locality) in Helsingborg Municipality. In the table they are listed according to the size of the population as of December 31, 2005. The municipal seat is in bold characters. # Locality Population 1 Helsingborg 91,457 2 Ödåkra 4,771 3 Rydebäck 1) 4,485 4 Hittarp 3,837 5 Påarp 2,728 6 Bårslöv 2,682 7 Mörarp 1,744 8 Gantofta 1,387 9 Kattarp 706 10 Allerum 628 11 Vallåkra 594 12 Domsten 566 13 Hasslarp 447 14 Tånga och Rögle 230 15 Utvälinge 213 1) Rydebäck is bimunicipal locality as a minor part of it (with about 40 inhabitants) is located in Landskrona Municipality. See also Municipalities of Sweden European route E4 References Statistics Sweden External links Helsingborg Municipality - Official site The local daily newspaper | Helsingborg_Municipality |@lemmatized helsingborg:6 municipality:11 helsingborgs:2 kommun:1 skåne:1 county:1 sweden:4 seat:2 locate:2 city:4 eighth:1 large:1 population:4 december:2 increase:1 roughly:1 people:1 annually:1 present:1 create:1 amalgamation:1 hälsingborg:1 four:1 surround:1 rural:1 time:1 spelling:1 name:1 change:1 back:1 version:1 use:1 since:1 es:1 style:1 stad:1 usage:1 nominal:1 effect:1 status:1 locality:4 urban:1 area:1 also:2 call:1 tätort:1 table:1 list:1 accord:1 size:1 municipal:1 bold:1 character:1 ödåkra:1 rydebäck:2 hittarp:1 påarp:1 bårslöv:1 mörarp:1 gantofta:1 kattarp:1 allerum:1 vallåkra:1 domsten:1 hasslarp:1 tånga:1 och:1 rögle:1 utvälinge:1 bimunicipal:1 minor:1 part:1 inhabitant:1 landskrona:1 see:1 european:1 route:1 reference:1 statistic:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 local:1 daily:1 newspaper:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
7,415 | Corroborating_evidence | Corroborating evidence is evidence that tends to support a proposition that is already supported by some evidence. For example, W, a witness, testifies that she saw X drive his automobile into a green car. Y, another witness, testifies that when he examined X's car later that day he noticed green paint on its fender. For more information on this type of reasoning see casuistry. Another type of corroborating evidence comes from using the Baconian method, i.e. the method of agreement, method of difference, and method of concomitant variations. These are followed in experimental design. They were codified by Francis Bacon, and developed further by John Stuart Mill and consist of controlling several variables in turn to establish which variables are causally connected. These principles are widely used intuitively in various kinds of proofs, demonstrations and investigations, in addition to being fundamental to experimental design. In law, corroboration refers to the requirement in some jurisdictions, such as Scotland, that any evidence adduced be backed up by at least one other source. References Plutchik, Robert (1983) Foundations of Experimental Research Harper's Experimental Psychology Series. | Corroborating_evidence |@lemmatized corroborate:2 evidence:5 tend:1 support:2 proposition:1 already:1 example:1 w:1 witness:2 testifies:2 saw:1 x:2 drive:1 automobile:1 green:2 car:2 another:2 examine:1 later:1 day:1 notice:1 paint:1 fender:1 information:1 type:2 reason:1 see:1 casuistry:1 come:1 use:2 baconian:1 method:4 e:1 agreement:1 difference:1 concomitant:1 variation:1 follow:1 experimental:4 design:2 codify:1 francis:1 bacon:1 develop:1 far:1 john:1 stuart:1 mill:1 consist:1 control:1 several:1 variable:2 turn:1 establish:1 causally:1 connect:1 principle:1 widely:1 intuitively:1 various:1 kind:1 proof:1 demonstration:1 investigation:1 addition:1 fundamental:1 law:1 corroboration:1 refers:1 requirement:1 jurisdiction:1 scotland:1 adduce:1 back:1 least:1 one:1 source:1 reference:1 plutchik:1 robert:1 foundation:1 research:1 harper:1 psychology:1 series:1 |@bigram francis_bacon:1 stuart_mill:1 |
7,416 | Grapheme | In typography, a grapheme (from the , gráphō, "write") is the fundamental unit in written language. Graphemes include alphabetic letters, Chinese characters, numerical digits, punctuation marks, and all the individual symbols of any of the world's writing systems. In a phonemic orthography, a grapheme corresponds to one phoneme. In spelling systems that are non-phonemic such as the spellings used most widely for written English multiple graphemes may represent a single phoneme. These are called digraphs (two graphemes for a single phoneme) and trigraphs (three graphemes). For example, the word ship contains four graphemes (s, h, i, and p) but only three phonemes, because sh is a digraph. Conversely, a single grapheme can represent multiple phonemes: the English word "box" has three graphemes, but four phonemes: . Different glyphs can represent the same grapheme, meaning they are allographs. For example, the lower case letter a can be seen in two variants, with a hook at the top <a>, and without <ɑ>. Not all glyphs are graphemes in the phonological sense; for example the logogram ampersand (&) represents the Latin word et (English ‘and’), which contains two phonemes. See also Allography Digraph (orthography) Character (computing) Glyph Letter (alphabet) Sign (semiotics) Trigraph (orthography) | Grapheme |@lemmatized typography:1 grapheme:11 gráphō:1 write:4 fundamental:1 unit:1 language:1 include:1 alphabetic:1 letter:3 chinese:1 character:2 numerical:1 digit:1 punctuation:1 mark:1 individual:1 symbol:1 world:1 system:2 phonemic:2 orthography:3 correspond:1 one:1 phoneme:7 spell:1 non:1 spelling:1 use:1 widely:1 english:3 multiple:2 may:1 represent:4 single:3 call:1 digraph:3 two:3 trigraphs:1 three:3 example:3 word:3 ship:1 contain:2 four:2 h:1 p:1 sh:1 conversely:1 box:1 different:1 glyph:3 mean:1 allographs:1 low:1 case:1 see:2 variant:1 hook:1 top:1 without:1 ɑ:1 phonological:1 sense:1 logogram:1 ampersand:1 latin:1 et:1 also:1 allography:1 compute:1 alphabet:1 sign:1 semiotics:1 trigraph:1 |@bigram punctuation_mark:1 phonemic_orthography:1 |
7,417 | Daedalus | This article is about the mythological character. For other uses see Daedalus (disambiguation). Daedalus constructs wings for his son, Icarus, after a Roman relief in the Villa Albani, Rome (Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1888) In Greek mythology, Daedalus (Latin, also Hellenized Latin Daedalos, Greek Daidalos (Δαίδαλος) meaning "cunning worker", and Etruscan Taitle) was a most skillful artificer, or craftsman, so skillful that he was said to have invented images that seemed to move about. "This is the workshop of Daidalos," wrote Philostratus in Immagines (1.16), "and about it are statues, some with forms blocked out, others in a quite complete state in that they are already stepping forward and give promise of walking about. Before the time of Daidalos, you know, the art of making statues had not yet conceived such a thing." Daedalus had two sons: Icarus and Iapyx, along with a nephew, whose name varies. He is first mentioned by Homer as the creator of a wide dancing-ground for Ariadne Iliad xviii.591 . Homer refers to Ariadne by her Cretan title, the "Lady of the Labyrinth" Iliad xviii.96 . The Labyrinth on Crete in which the Minotaur (part man, part bull) was kept, was also created by the artificer Daedalus. The story of the labyrinth is told where Theseus is challenged to kill the Minotaur, finding his way with the help of Ariadne's thread. Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the labyrinth as an edifice rather than a single path to the center and out again, and gave it numberless winding passages and turns that opened into one another, seeming to have neither beginning nor end (see labyrinth as opposed to maze). Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, suggests that Daedalus constructed the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it. Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages, p 36, ISBN 0-8014-8000-0 Daedalus built the labyrinth for King Minos, who needed it to imprison his wife's son the Minotaur. The story is told that Poseidon had given a white bull to Minos so that he might use it as a sacrifice. Instead, Minos kept it for himself; and in revenge, Poseidon made his wife lust for the bull. Edith Hamilton, Mythology, p 151, ISBN 0-451-62702-4 For Minos' wife, Pasiphaë, Daedalus also built the wooden cow so she could mate with the bull, for the Greeks imagined the Minoan bull of the sun to be an actual, earthly bull. Athenians transferred Cretan Daedalus to make him Athenian-born, the grandson of the ancient king Erechtheus, who fled to Crete, having killed his nephew. Over time, other stories were told of Daedalus. In the nineteenth century, Thomas Bulfinch combined these into a single synoptic view of material which Andrew Stewart calls a "historically-intractable farrago of 'evidence', heavily tinged with Athenian cultural chauvinism" (Stewart). Daedalus and Icarus, by Frederick, Lord Leighton, ca 1869 Daedalus and Icarus Among these anecdotes, one is told in Ovid's Metamorphoses (VIII:183-235) that Daedalus was shut up in a tower to prevent his knowledge of the labyrinth from spreading to the public. He could not leave Crete by sea, as the king kept strict watch on all vessels, permitting none to sail without being carefully searched. Since Minos controlled the land and sea routes, Daedalus set to work to fabricate wings for himself and his young son Icarus. He tied feathers together, from smallest to largest so as to form an increasing surface. The larger ones he secured with thread and the smaller with wax, and gave the whole a gentle curvature like the wings of a bird. When the work was finally done, the artist, waving his wings, found himself buoyed upward and hung suspended, poising himself on the beaten air. He next equipped his son in the same manner, and taught him how to fly. When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the wax, nor too low because the sea foam would make the wings wet and they would no longer fly. Thus the father and son flew away. Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (detail) by Peter Brueghel the Elder, ca. 1558 Ovid: ' Some angler catching fish with a quivering rod, or a shepherd leaning on his crook, or a ploughman resting on the handles of his plough, saw them, perhaps, and stood there amazed, believing them to be gods able to travel the sky.". They had passed Samos, Delos and Lebynthos when the boy began to soar upward as if to reach heaven. The blazing sun softened the wax which held the feathers together and they came off. Icarus fell into the sea. His father cried, bitterly lamenting his own arts, and called the land near the place where Icarus fell into the ocean Icaria in memory of his child. Eventually Daedalus arrived safely in Sicily, in the care of King Cocalus, where he built a temple to Apollo, and hung up his wings, an offering to the god. In an alternative version given by Virgil in Book 6 of the Aeneid, Daedalus flies to Cumae, and founds his temple there, rather than in Sicily. Minos, meanwhile, searched for Daedalus by travelling from city to city asking a riddle. He presented a spiral seashell and asked for a string to be run through it. When he reached Camicus, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, privately fetched the old man to him. He tied the string to an ant which, lured by a drop of honey at one end, walked through the seashell stringing it all the way through. Minos then knew Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and demanded he be handed over. Cocalus managed to convince Minos to take a bath first, where Cocalus' daughters killed Minos. In some versions, Daedalus himself poured boiling water on Minos and killed him. ipright|Daedalus and Pasiphaë. First century AD Roman fresco in the House of the Vettii, Pompeii Daedalus and his nephew Daedalus was so proud of his achievements that he could not bear the idea of a rival. His sister had placed her son, named multiply as Perdix, Talos, or Calos, under his charge to be taught the mechanical arts. He was an apt scholar and showed striking evidence of ingenuity. Walking on the seashore, he picked up the spine of a fish. Some versions say it is a serpent's jaw that is used as the basis for the saw Imitating it, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge, and thus invented the saw. He put two pieces of iron together, connecting them at one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends, and made a pair of compasses. It is also said that he invented a way to transfer the soul of a human being into a machine, therefore creating a machine with a soul and rendering the soul immortal. Daedalus was so envious of his nephew's accomplishments that he took an opportunity, when they were together one day on the top of a high tower, to push him off. But Athena, who favors ingenuity, saw him falling and arrested his fate by changing him into a bird called after his name, the partridge. This bird does not build his nest in the trees, nor take lofty flights, but nestles in the hedges, and mindful of his fall, avoids high places. For this crime, Daedalus was tried and banished. The innovator Such anecdotal details as these were embroideries upon the reputation of Daedalus as an innovator in many arts. In Pliny's Natural History (7.198) he is credited with inventing carpentry "and with it the saw, axe, plumb-line, drill, glue, and isinglass". Pausanias, in travelling around Greece, attributed to Daedalus numerous archaic wooden cult figures (see xoana) that impressed him: "All the works of this artist, though somewhat uncouth to look at, nevertheless have a touch of the divine in them." Description of Greece 2.4.5. Pausanias listed existing works that were attributed to Daedalus in the second century AD, Description 9.40.3 . Daedalus gave his name, eponymously, to any Greek artificer and to many Greek contraptions that represented dextrous skill. At Plataea there was a festival, the Daedala, in which a temporary wooden altar was fashioned, an effigy was made from an oak-tree and dressed in bridal attire. It was carried in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image was called Daedale and the archaic ritual given an explanation through a myth to the purpose. In the period of Romanticism, Daedalus came to denote the classic artist, a skilled mature craftsman, while Icarus symbolized the romantic artist, an undisputed prototype of the classic artist, whose impetuous, passionate and rebellious nature, as well as his defiance of formal aesthetic and social conventions, may ultimately prove to be self-destructive. Stephen Dedalus, in Joyce's Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man envisages his future artist-self "a hawklike man flying above the waves”. In popular culture Daedalus is a British progressive thrash metal band hailing from Ayrshire, Scotland, with much of their material based on the mythological stories told of Daedalus and his son, Icarus. Daedalus is one of the main characters in the Percy Jackson & The Olympians-series novel called The Battle of the Labyrinth by Rick Riordan. The books credits Daedalus with the creation of bronze wings and the Labyrinth itself. Thrice has a song entitled "Daedalus" on their album The Alchemy Index Vols. III & IV "III - Air", which tells the story of Icarus from Daedalus's perspective. Thrice also have a previously written a song titled, "The Melting Point of Wax" from their album The Artist in the Ambulance which also features the story of Daedalus, but from Icarus' point of view. James Joyce has a main protagonist named Stephen Daedalus in both his novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and his magnum opus Ulysses, considered classic novels of the Modernist literary movement. Death in June have a song entitled "Daedalus Rising" on their album But, What Ends When the Symbols Shatter?. Michael Ayrton wrote the novel The Maze Maker about Deadalus and the myth was a theme of his work. Daedalus is a character in the science fiction suspense anime Ergo Proxy. He creates a winged clone of the series main character, who then flies towards the sun and is incinerated. In Stargate Atlantis and Stargate SG-1, Daedalus is the name of one of Earth's battleships. Daedalus is the name chosen by a computer AI in the video game Deus Ex. In the game Resistance 2, the final boss and main antagonist is called Daedalus. Daedalus is the name of the fictional space station in the movie SpaceCamp. Daedalus is the name of a section of the tower that houses the Minotaur in Megami Tensei. Dedalus Diggle is the name of a wizard who is a member of the Order of the Phoenix in the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling. A modified version of the Icarus anecdote is used in "Doomsday", an episode of the TV show Hercules, the Legendary Journeys. One of Quake II's Strogg enemies is named Daedalus, which resembled an armless humanoid which can levitate, and fires hyperblasters from the shoulders. A similar, but smaller version of this enemy is named, incidentally, as Icarus. Daedalus is the name of both the fictitious 1950's experimental flight program and the modern space shuttle program in the 2000 movie Space Cowboys. There is a monster named after him in [Final Fantasy] series See also List of things named Daedalus Volund Notes Sources Thomas Bulfinch's Mythology'' Encyclopaedia Britannica Daedalus Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works. Begins with Daedalus. Peter Hunt, "Ekphrasis or Not? Ovid (Met. 8.183-235 ) in Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s Landscape with the Fall of Icarus" Essay on Brueghel's visualisation of Ovid. | Daedalus |@lemmatized article:1 mythological:2 character:4 us:1 see:4 daedalus:51 disambiguation:1 construct:2 wing:7 son:8 icarus:16 roman:2 relief:1 villa:1 albani:1 rome:1 meyers:1 konversationslexikon:1 greek:6 mythology:3 latin:2 also:7 hellenized:1 daedalos:1 daidalos:3 δαίδαλος:1 mean:1 cunning:1 worker:1 etruscan:1 taitle:1 skillful:2 artificer:3 craftsman:2 say:3 invent:4 image:2 seem:2 move:1 workshop:1 write:3 philostratus:1 immagines:1 statue:2 form:2 block:1 others:1 quite:1 complete:1 state:1 already:1 step:1 forward:1 give:7 promise:1 walk:3 time:2 know:3 art:4 make:6 yet:1 conceive:1 thing:2 two:2 iapyx:1 along:1 nephew:4 whose:2 name:15 varies:1 first:3 mention:1 homer:3 creator:1 wide:1 dance:1 ground:1 ariadne:3 iliad:2 xviii:2 refers:1 cretan:2 title:2 lady:1 labyrinth:11 crete:3 minotaur:4 part:2 man:5 bull:6 keep:3 create:3 story:6 tell:6 theseus:1 challenge:1 kill:4 find:2 way:3 help:1 thread:2 ignore:1 later:1 writer:1 envisage:2 edifice:1 rather:2 single:2 path:1 center:1 numberless:1 wind:1 passage:1 turn:1 open:1 one:10 another:1 neither:1 begin:3 end:5 oppose:1 maze:2 ovid:5 metamorphosis:2 suggest:1 cunningly:1 could:4 barely:1 escape:1 build:5 penelope:1 reed:1 doob:1 idea:2 classical:1 antiquity:1 middle:1 age:1 p:2 isbn:2 king:6 minos:10 need:1 imprison:1 wife:3 poseidon:2 white:1 might:1 use:3 sacrifice:1 instead:1 revenge:1 lust:1 edith:1 hamilton:1 pasiphaë:2 wooden:3 cow:1 mate:1 imagine:1 minoan:1 sun:4 actual:1 earthly:1 athenian:3 transfer:2 born:1 grandson:1 ancient:1 erechtheus:1 flee:1 nineteenth:1 century:3 thomas:2 bulfinch:2 combine:1 synoptic:1 view:2 material:2 andrew:2 stewart:3 call:6 historically:1 intractable:1 farrago:1 evidence:2 heavily:1 ting:1 cultural:1 chauvinism:1 frederick:1 lord:1 leighton:1 ca:2 among:1 anecdote:2 viii:1 shut:1 tower:3 prevent:1 knowledge:1 spread:1 public:1 leave:1 sea:4 strict:1 watch:1 vessel:1 permit:1 none:1 sail:1 without:1 carefully:1 search:2 since:1 control:1 land:2 route:1 set:1 work:6 fabricate:1 young:3 tie:2 feather:2 together:4 small:3 large:2 increase:1 surface:1 secure:1 wax:4 whole:1 gentle:1 curvature:1 like:1 bird:3 finally:1 artist:9 wave:2 buoy:1 upward:2 hung:1 suspend:1 poise:1 beaten:1 air:2 next:1 equip:1 manner:1 teach:2 fly:7 prepare:1 flight:3 warn:1 high:3 heat:1 would:4 melt:2 low:1 foam:1 wet:1 longer:1 thus:2 father:2 away:1 landscape:2 fall:4 detail:2 peter:2 brueghel:2 elder:2 angler:1 catch:1 fish:2 quivering:1 rod:1 shepherd:1 leaning:1 crook:1 ploughman:1 resting:1 handle:1 plough:1 saw:5 perhaps:1 stand:1 amaze:1 believe:1 god:2 able:2 travel:3 sky:1 pass:1 samos:1 delos:1 lebynthos:1 boy:1 soar:1 reach:2 heaven:1 blazing:1 soften:1 hold:1 come:2 fell:2 cry:1 bitterly:1 lament:1 near:1 place:3 ocean:1 icaria:1 memory:1 child:1 eventually:1 arrive:1 safely:1 sicily:2 care:1 cocalus:5 temple:2 apollo:1 hang:1 offering:1 alternative:1 version:5 virgil:1 book:2 aeneid:1 cumae:1 found:1 meanwhile:1 city:2 ask:2 riddle:2 present:1 spiral:1 seashell:2 string:3 run:1 camicus:1 solve:1 privately:1 fetch:1 old:1 ant:1 lure:1 drop:1 honey:1 court:1 demand:1 hand:1 manage:1 convince:1 take:4 bath:1 daughter:1 pour:1 boil:1 water:1 ipright:1 ad:2 fresco:1 house:2 vettii:1 pompeii:1 proud:1 achievement:1 bear:1 rival:1 sister:1 multiply:1 perdix:1 talos:1 calos:1 charge:1 mechanical:1 apt:1 scholar:1 show:2 striking:1 ingenuity:2 seashore:1 pick:1 spine:1 serpent:1 jaw:1 basis:1 imitate:1 piece:2 iron:2 notch:1 edge:1 put:1 connect:1 rivet:1 sharpen:1 pair:1 compass:1 soul:3 human:1 machine:2 therefore:1 render:1 immortal:1 envious:1 accomplishment:1 opportunity:1 day:1 top:1 push:1 athena:1 favor:1 arrest:1 fate:1 change:1 partridge:1 nest:1 tree:2 lofty:1 nestle:1 hedge:1 mindful:1 avoids:1 crime:1 try:1 banish:1 innovator:2 anecdotal:1 embroidery:1 upon:1 reputation:1 many:2 pliny:1 natural:1 history:1 credit:2 carpentry:1 axe:1 plumb:1 line:1 drill:1 glue:1 isinglass:1 pausanias:2 around:1 greece:2 attribute:2 numerous:1 archaic:2 cult:1 figure:1 xoana:1 impress:1 though:1 somewhat:1 uncouth:1 look:1 nevertheless:1 touch:1 divine:1 description:2 list:2 exist:1 second:1 eponymously:1 contraption:1 represent:1 dextrous:1 skill:1 plataea:1 festival:1 daedala:1 temporary:1 altar:1 fashion:1 effigy:1 oak:1 dress:1 bridal:1 attire:1 carry:1 cart:1 woman:1 act:1 bridesmaid:1 daedale:1 ritual:1 explanation:1 myth:2 purpose:1 period:1 romanticism:1 denote:1 classic:3 skilled:1 mature:1 symbolize:1 romantic:1 undisputed:1 prototype:1 impetuous:1 passionate:1 rebellious:1 nature:1 well:1 defiance:1 formal:1 aesthetic:1 social:1 convention:1 may:1 ultimately:1 prove:1 self:2 destructive:1 stephen:2 dedalus:2 joyce:2 portrait:2 future:1 hawklike:1 popular:1 culture:1 british:1 progressive:1 thrash:1 metal:1 band:1 hail:1 ayrshire:1 scotland:1 much:1 base:1 main:4 percy:1 jackson:1 olympian:1 series:4 novel:4 battle:1 rick:1 riordan:1 creation:1 bronze:1 thrice:2 song:3 entitle:2 album:3 alchemy:1 index:1 vols:1 iii:2 iv:1 perspective:1 previously:1 point:2 ambulance:1 feature:1 james:1 protagonist:1 magnum:1 opus:1 ulysses:1 consider:1 modernist:1 literary:1 movement:1 death:1 june:1 rise:1 symbol:1 shatter:1 michael:1 ayrton:1 maker:1 deadalus:1 theme:1 science:1 fiction:1 suspense:1 anime:1 ergo:1 proxy:1 winged:1 clone:1 towards:1 incinerate:1 stargate:2 atlantis:1 sg:1 earth:1 battleship:1 choose:1 computer:1 ai:1 video:1 game:2 deus:1 ex:1 resistance:1 final:2 bos:1 antagonist:1 fictional:1 space:3 station:1 movie:2 spacecamp:1 section:1 megami:1 tensei:1 diggle:1 wizard:1 member:1 order:1 phoenix:1 harry:1 potter:1 j:1 k:1 rowling:1 modified:1 doomsday:1 episode:1 tv:1 hercules:1 legendary:1 journey:1 quake:1 ii:1 strogg:1 enemy:2 resemble:1 armless:1 humanoid:1 levitate:1 fire:1 hyperblasters:1 shoulder:1 similar:1 incidentally:1 fictitious:1 experimental:1 program:2 modern:1 shuttle:1 cowboy:1 monster:1 fantasy:1 volund:1 note:1 source:1 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:1 hundred:1 sculptor:1 career:1 extant:1 hunt:1 ekphrasis:1 meet:1 pieter:1 bruegel:1 essay:1 visualisation:1 |@bigram iliad_xviii:2 ovid_metamorphosis:2 nineteenth_century:1 thomas_bulfinch:2 daedalus_icarus:3 stephen_dedalus:1 thrash_metal:1 ayrshire_scotland:1 james_joyce:1 magnum_opus:1 science_fiction:1 stargate_atlantis:1 stargate_sg:1 deus_ex:1 harry_potter:1 k_rowling:1 space_shuttle:1 bulfinch_mythology:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 |
7,418 | Lars_Magnus_Ericsson | Bust of L. M. Ericsson at Telefonplan in Stockholm Lars Magnus Ericsson (May 5, 1846 - December 17, 1926) was a Swedish inventor, entrepreneur and founder of telephone equipment manufacturer Ericsson (incorporated as Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson). Lars Magnus was born in Värmskog, Värmland and grew up in the small village of Vegerbol, between Karlstad and Arvika. At the age of twelve his father died, and he had to start working as a miner. He worked until he had money enough to leave the village and move to Stockholm in 1867. He then worked for six years for an instrument maker named Öllers & Co. who mainly created telegraph equipment. Because of his skills, he was given two state scholarships to study instrument making abroad between 1872 and 1875. One of the companies he worked at was Siemens & Halske. Upon his return to Sweden in 1876, he founded a small mechanical workshop together with his friend Carl Johan Andersson who had also worked at Öllers & Co.. This workshop was actually a former kitchen of some 13 m2 situated at Drottninggatan 15 in the most central part of Stockholm. Here, he started a telephone company by analyzing Bell company and Siemens telephones and creating his own copies in their image. It was not until they started cooperating with Henrik Tore Cedergren in 1883 that the company would start to grow into the Ericsson corporation as we know it today. In the year 1900 Lars Magnus retired from Ericsson at the age of 54. He kept his shares in the company until 1905 and then sold them all. He is said to have been a demanding person, and disliked any direct publicity about his personality and did not wish to be idolized. He was, however, deeply respected by his employees. He was always a skeptic and cautious in business. He was also somewhat opposed to patents, as many of the products he made would not have been possible to do if the patent legislation had been overly effective. When his phones were copied by Norwegian companies he did not care, as his phones were in turn largely copied from Siemens. He initially did not believe in a mass market for telephones, and saw it as a toy for the leisure class. After his death in 1926, he was buried at Hågelby gård in Botkyrka. At his explicit request, there is no headstone marking his grave. | Lars_Magnus_Ericsson |@lemmatized bust:1 l:1 ericsson:6 telefonplan:1 stockholm:3 lars:3 magnus:3 may:1 december:1 swedish:1 inventor:1 entrepreneur:1 founder:1 telephone:4 equipment:2 manufacturer:1 incorporate:1 telefonaktiebolaget:1 lm:1 bear:1 värmskog:1 värmland:1 grow:2 small:2 village:2 vegerbol:1 karlstad:1 arvika:1 age:2 twelve:1 father:1 die:1 start:4 work:5 miner:1 money:1 enough:1 leave:1 move:1 six:1 year:2 instrument:2 maker:1 name:1 öllers:2 co:2 mainly:1 create:2 telegraph:1 skill:1 give:1 two:1 state:1 scholarship:1 study:1 make:2 abroad:1 one:1 company:6 siemens:3 halske:1 upon:1 return:1 sweden:1 found:1 mechanical:1 workshop:2 together:1 friend:1 carl:1 johan:1 andersson:1 also:2 actually:1 former:1 kitchen:1 situate:1 drottninggatan:1 central:1 part:1 analyze:1 bell:1 copy:3 image:1 cooperate:1 henrik:1 tore:1 cedergren:1 would:2 corporation:1 know:1 today:1 retire:1 keep:1 share:1 sell:1 say:1 demand:1 person:1 dislike:1 direct:1 publicity:1 personality:1 wish:1 idolize:1 however:1 deeply:1 respect:1 employee:1 always:1 skeptic:1 cautious:1 business:1 somewhat:1 oppose:1 patent:2 many:1 product:1 possible:1 legislation:1 overly:1 effective:1 phone:2 norwegian:1 care:1 turn:1 largely:1 initially:1 believe:1 mass:1 market:1 saw:1 toy:1 leisure:1 class:1 death:1 bury:1 hågelby:1 gård:1 botkyrka:1 explicit:1 request:1 headstone:1 mark:1 grave:1 |@bigram siemens_halske:1 |
7,419 | Constantin_von_Tischendorf | Constantin von Tischendorf, around 1870 Lobegott Friedrich Constantin (von) Tischendorf (January 18, 1815 – December 7, 1874) was a noted German Biblical scholar. He deciphered the Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, a 5th century Greek manuscript of the New Testament, in the 1840s, and rediscovered the Codex Sinaiticus, a 4th century New Testament manuscript, in 1859. Tischendorf exemplified the buccaneer image of 19th century archaeology in his pursuit of unknown manuscripts. Alongside his industry in collecting and collating manuscripts, Tischendorf pursued a constant course of editorial labours, mainly on the New Testament, until he was broken down by overwork in 1873. Life Tischendorf was born in Lengenfeld, Saxony, near Plauen, the son of a physician. Beginning in 1834, he spent his scholarly career at the University of Leipzig where he was mainly influenced by JGB Winer, and he began to take special interest in New Testament criticism. In 1838 he took the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, then became master at a school near Leipzig. After a journey through southern Germany and Switzerland, and a visit to Strassburg, he returned to Leipzig, and set to work upon a critical study of the New Testament text. In 1840 he qualified as university lecturer in theology with a dissertation on the recensions of the New Testament text — the main part of which reappeared the following year in the prolegomena to his first edition of the Greek New Testament. His critical apparatus included variant readings from earlier scholars — Elsevier, Knapp, Scholz, and as recent as Lachmann — whereby his researches were emboldened to depart from the received text as used in churches. These early textual studies convinced him of the absolute necessity of new and more exact collations of manuscripts. From October 1840 until January 1843 he was in Paris, busy with the treasures of the Bibliothèque Nationale, eking out his scanty means by making collations for other scholars, and producing for the publisher, Firmin Didot, several editions of the Greek New Testament — one of them exhibiting the form of the text corresponding most closely to the Vulgate. His second edition retracted the more precarious readings of the first, and included a statement of critical principles that is a landmark for evolving critical studies of Biblical texts. Bible Researcher. From Paris, he had paid short visits to the Netherlands (1841) and England (1842). In 1843 he visited Italy, and after a stay of thirteen months, went on to Egypt, Sinai, and the Levant, returning by Vienna and Munich. In 1844, he paid his first visit to the convent of Saint Catherine's Monastery, on Mount Sinai, where he found, in a basket, forty-four pages of what was the then oldest known copy of the Septuagint. He deposited them at the University of Leipzig, under the title of the Codex Frederico-Augustanus, a name given in honour of his patron, Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, king of Saxony. The fragments were published in 1846 although he kept the place of discovery a secret. A great triumph of these laborious months was the decipherment of the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Syri Rescriptus, of which the New Testament part was printed before he left Paris, and the Old Testament in 1845. His success in dealing with a manuscript that, having been rewritten with other works of Ephrem the Syrian, had been mostly illegible to earlier collators, made him more well known, and gained support for more extended critical expeditions. He now became professor extraordinarius at Leipzig, and married (1845). He also began to publish an account of his travels in the East (2 vols., 1845–46). In the winter of 1849 appeared the great work now titled Novum Testamentum Graece. Ad antiquos testes recensuit, Apparatum Criticum multis modis canons of criticism, adding examples of their application that are applicable to students today: Basic rule: "The text is only to be sought from ancient evidence, and especially from Greek manuscripts, but without neglecting the testimonies of versions and fathers." "A reading altogether peculiar to one or another ancient document is suspicious; as also is any, even if supported by a class of documents, which seems to evince that it has originated in the revision of a learned man." "Readings, however well supported by evidence, are to be rejected, when it is manifest (or very probable) that they have proceeded from the errors of copyists." "In parallel passages, whether of the New or Old Testament, especially in the Synoptic Gospels, which ancient copyists continually brought into increased accordance, those testimonies are preferable, in which precise accordance of such parallel passages is not found; unless, indeed, there are important reasons to the contrary." "In discrepant readings, that should be preferred which may have given occasion to the rest, or which appears to comprise the elements of the others." "Those readings must be maintained which accord with New Testament Greek, or with the particular style of each individual writer." These were partly the result of the tireless travels he had begun in 1839 in search of unread manuscripts of the New Testament, "to clear up in this way," he wrote, "the history of the sacred text, and to recover if possible the genuine apostolic text which is the foundation of our faith." In 1850 appeared his edition of the Codex Amiatinus and of the Septuagint version of the Old Testament (7th ed., 1887); in 1852, amongst other works, his edition of the Codex Claromontanus. In 1853, he made a second trip to the Syrian monastery but made no new discoveries. He returned a third time in January 1859 under the patronage of Czar Alexander II of Russia to find more of the Codex Frederico-Augustanus or similar ancient Biblical texts. On February 4, the last day of his visit, he was shown a text which he recognized as significant — the Codex Sinaiticus — a Greek manuscript of the complete New Testament and parts of the Old Testament dating to the 4th century. In 1859 he made a third voyage to the East. There, with the active aid of the Russian government, he at length got access to the remainder of the precious Sinaitic codex, and persuaded the monks to present it to the tsar, at whose cost it was published in 1862 (in four folio volumes). By those ignorant of the details of his discovery of the Codex Sinaiticus, Tischendorf was accused of buying manuscripts from ignorant monastery librarians at low prices. Indeed he was never rich, but he staunchly defended the rights of the monks at St. Catherine's Monastery when he persuaded them eventually to send the manuscript to the tsar. Even so, the monks of Mt. Sinai still display a letter from Tischendorf promising to return the manuscript to them. In 1869 the tsar awarded him the style of "von" Tischendorf as a Russian noble. Meanwhile, also in 1859, he had been made professor ordinarius of theology and of Biblical paleography, this latter professorship being specially created for him; and another book of travel, Aus dem heiligen Lande, appeared in 1862. Tischendorf's Eastern journeys were rich enough in other discoveries to merit the highest praise. Besides his fame as a scholar, he was a friend of both Robert Schumann, with whom he corresponded, and Felix Mendelssohn, who dedicated a song to him. His text critical colleague Samuel Prideaux Tregelles wrote warmly of their mutual interest in textual scholarship. His personal library, purchased after his death, eventually came to the University of Glasgow Tischendorf at the University of Glasgow, Scotland. , where a commemorative exhibition of books from his library was held in 1974. He died in Leipzig. Works His magnum opus was the "Critical Edition of the New Testament." The great edition, of which the text and apparatus appeared in 1869 and 1872, was called by himself editio viii; but this number is raised to twenty or twenty-one, if mere reprints from stereotype plates and the minor editions of his great critical texts are included; posthumous prints bring the total to forty-one. Four main recensions of Tischendorf's text may be distinguished, dating respectively from his editions of 1841, 1849, 1859 (ed. vii), and 1869–72 (ed. viii). The edition of 1849 may be regarded as historically the most important, from the mass of new critical material it used; that of 1859 is distinguished from Tischendorf's other editions by coming nearer to the received text; in the eighth edition, the testimony of the Sinaitic manuscript received great (probably too great) weight. The readings of the Vatican manuscript were given with more exactness and certainty than had been possible in the earlier editions, and the editor had also the advantage of using the published labours of his colleague and friend Samuel Prideaux Tregelles. Of relatively lesser importance was Tischendorf's work on the Greek Old Testament. His edition of the Roman text, with the variants of the Alexandrian manuscript, the Codex Ephraemi, and the Friderico-Augustanus, was of service when it appeared in 1850, but, being stereotyped, was not greatly improved in subsequent issues. Its imperfections, even within the limited field it covers, may be judged by the aid of Eberhard Nestle's appendix to the 6th issue (1880). Besides this may be mentioned editions of the New Testament apocrypha, De Evangeliorum apocryphorum origine et usu (1851); Acta Apostolorum apocrypha (1851); Evangelia apocrypha (1853; 2nd ed., 1876); Apocalypses apocryphae (1866), and various minor writings, partly of an apologetic character, such as Wann wurden unsere Evangelien verfasst? (1865; 4th ed., 1866), Haben wir den echten Schrifttext der Evangelisten und Apostel? (1873), and Synopsis evangelica (7th ed., 1898). See also List of New Testament papyri List of New Testament uncials Footnotes References Black, Matthew, and Robert Davidson, Constantin von Tischendorf and the Greek New Testament Glasgow: University of Glasgow Press, 1981. In addition to the handbooks on New Testament criticism, Carl Bertheau's article on Tischendorf in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie (3rd ed., 1907) External links Klaus Zehnder-Tischendorf, "Constantine von Tischendorf" 2002 Works by Von Tischendorf in English Tischendorf's eighth Greek New Testament with morphological tags and lemmas Comparison of Tischendorf's 8th GNT text with other manuscript editions on the Manuscript Comparator An digital edition of the Evangelia Apocrypha [document written in Latin and Greek], in pdf format. | Constantin_von_Tischendorf |@lemmatized constantin:3 von:6 tischendorf:20 around:1 lobegott:1 friedrich:1 january:3 december:1 noted:1 german:1 biblical:4 scholar:4 decipher:1 codex:11 ephraemi:3 rescriptus:2 century:4 greek:10 manuscript:17 new:23 testament:24 rediscover:1 sinaiticus:3 exemplify:1 buccaneer:1 image:1 archaeology:1 pursuit:1 unknown:1 alongside:1 industry:1 collect:1 collate:1 pursue:1 constant:1 course:1 editorial:1 labour:2 mainly:2 break:1 overwork:1 life:1 bear:1 lengenfeld:1 saxony:3 near:2 plauen:1 son:1 physician:1 begin:4 spend:1 scholarly:1 career:1 university:6 leipzig:6 influence:1 jgb:1 winer:1 take:2 special:1 interest:2 criticism:3 degree:1 doctor:1 philosophy:1 become:2 master:1 school:1 journey:2 southern:1 germany:1 switzerland:1 visit:5 strassburg:1 return:4 set:1 work:7 upon:1 critical:9 study:3 text:17 qualify:1 lecturer:1 theology:2 dissertation:1 recensions:2 main:2 part:3 reappear:1 following:1 year:1 prolegomenon:1 first:3 edition:17 apparatus:2 include:3 variant:2 reading:7 early:3 elsevier:1 knapp:1 scholz:1 recent:1 lachmann:1 whereby:1 research:1 embolden:1 depart:1 received:1 use:3 church:1 textual:2 convince:1 absolute:1 necessity:1 exact:1 collation:2 october:1 paris:3 busy:1 treasure:1 bibliothèque:1 nationale:1 eking:1 scanty:1 mean:1 make:6 produce:1 publisher:1 firmin:1 didot:1 several:1 one:4 exhibit:1 form:1 correspond:2 closely:1 vulgate:1 second:2 retract:1 precarious:1 statement:1 principle:1 landmark:1 evolve:1 bible:1 researcher:1 pay:2 short:1 netherlands:1 england:1 italy:1 stay:1 thirteen:1 month:2 go:1 egypt:1 sinai:3 levant:1 vienna:1 munich:1 convent:1 saint:1 catherine:2 monastery:4 mount:1 find:3 basket:1 forty:2 four:3 page:1 old:6 know:2 copy:1 septuagint:2 deposit:1 title:2 frederico:2 augustanus:3 name:1 give:3 honour:1 patron:1 frederick:1 augustus:1 ii:2 king:1 fragment:1 publish:4 although:1 keep:1 place:1 discovery:4 secret:1 great:6 triumph:1 laborious:1 decipherment:1 palimpsest:1 syri:1 print:2 leave:1 success:1 deal:1 rewrite:1 ephrem:1 syrian:2 mostly:1 illegible:1 earlier:1 collators:1 well:2 gain:1 support:3 extended:1 expedition:1 professor:2 extraordinarius:1 marry:1 also:5 account:1 travel:3 east:2 vols:1 winter:1 appear:6 novum:1 testamentum:1 graece:1 ad:1 antiquos:1 testes:1 recensuit:1 apparatum:1 criticum:1 multis:1 modis:1 canon:1 add:1 example:1 application:1 applicable:1 student:1 today:1 basic:1 rule:1 seek:1 ancient:4 evidence:2 especially:2 without:1 neglect:1 testimony:3 version:2 father:1 altogether:1 peculiar:1 another:2 document:3 suspicious:1 even:3 class:1 seem:1 evince:1 originate:1 revision:1 learned:1 man:1 however:1 reject:1 manifest:1 probable:1 proceed:1 error:1 copyist:2 parallel:2 passage:2 whether:1 synoptic:1 gospel:1 continually:1 bring:2 increase:1 accordance:2 preferable:1 precise:1 unless:1 indeed:2 important:2 reason:1 contrary:1 discrepant:1 prefer:1 may:5 occasion:1 rest:1 comprise:1 element:1 others:1 must:1 maintain:1 accord:1 particular:1 style:2 individual:1 writer:1 partly:2 result:1 tireless:1 search:1 unread:1 clear:1 way:1 write:3 history:1 sacred:1 recover:1 possible:2 genuine:1 apostolic:1 foundation:1 faith:1 amiatinus:1 ed:7 amongst:1 claromontanus:1 trip:1 third:2 time:1 patronage:1 czar:1 alexander:1 russia:1 similar:1 february:1 last:1 day:1 show:1 recognize:1 significant:1 complete:1 date:2 voyage:1 active:1 aid:2 russian:2 government:1 length:1 get:1 access:1 remainder:1 precious:1 sinaitic:2 persuade:2 monk:3 present:1 tsar:3 whose:1 cost:1 folio:1 volume:1 ignorant:2 detail:1 accuse:1 buy:1 librarian:1 low:1 price:1 never:1 rich:2 staunchly:1 defend:1 right:1 st:1 eventually:2 send:1 mt:1 still:1 display:1 letter:1 promise:1 award:1 noble:1 meanwhile:1 ordinarius:1 paleography:1 latter:1 professorship:1 specially:1 create:1 book:2 aus:1 dem:1 heiligen:1 lande:1 eastern:1 enough:1 merit:1 high:1 praise:1 besides:2 fame:1 friend:2 robert:2 schumann:1 felix:1 mendelssohn:1 dedicate:1 song:1 colleague:2 samuel:2 prideaux:2 tregelles:2 warmly:1 mutual:1 scholarship:1 personal:1 library:2 purchase:1 death:1 come:2 glasgow:4 scotland:1 commemorative:1 exhibition:1 hold:1 die:1 magnum:1 opus:1 call:1 editio:1 viii:2 number:1 raise:1 twenty:2 mere:1 reprint:1 stereotype:2 plate:1 minor:2 posthumous:1 total:1 distinguish:2 respectively:1 vii:1 regard:1 historically:1 mass:1 material:1 nearer:1 receive:2 eighth:2 probably:1 weight:1 vatican:1 exactness:1 certainty:1 editor:1 advantage:1 relatively:1 less:1 importance:1 roman:1 alexandrian:1 friderico:1 service:1 greatly:1 improve:1 subsequent:1 issue:2 imperfection:1 within:1 limited:1 field:1 cover:1 judge:1 eberhard:1 nestle:1 appendix:1 mention:1 apocrypha:4 de:1 evangeliorum:1 apocryphorum:1 origine:1 et:1 usu:1 acta:1 apostolorum:1 evangelia:2 apocalypse:1 apocryphae:1 various:1 writing:1 apologetic:1 character:1 wann:1 wurden:1 unsere:1 evangelien:1 verfasst:1 haben:1 wir:1 den:1 echten:1 schrifttext:1 der:1 evangelisten:1 und:1 apostel:1 synopsis:1 evangelica:1 see:1 list:2 papyri:1 uncial:1 footnote:1 reference:1 black:1 matthew:1 davidson:1 press:1 addition:1 handbook:1 carl:1 bertheau:1 article:1 herzog:1 hauck:1 realencyklopädie:1 external:1 link:1 klaus:1 zehnder:1 constantine:1 english:1 morphological:1 tag:1 lemmas:1 comparison:1 gnt:1 comparator:1 digital:1 latin:1 pdf:1 format:1 |@bigram constantin_von:3 von_tischendorf:6 codex_sinaiticus:3 bibliothèque_nationale:1 mount_sinai:1 ephrem_syrian:1 novum_testamentum:1 testamentum_graece:1 synoptic_gospel:1 mt_sinai:1 aus_dem:1 robert_schumann:1 felix_mendelssohn:1 glasgow_scotland:1 magnum_opus:1 testament_apocrypha:1 herzog_hauck:1 external_link:1 |
7,420 | Declination | In astronomy, declination (abbrev. dec or δ) is one of the two coordinates of the equatorial coordinate system, the other being either right ascension or hour angle. Dec is comparable to latitude, projected onto the celestial sphere, and is measured in degrees north and south of the celestial equator. Therefore, points north of the celestial equator have positive declinations, while those to the south have negative declinations. An object on the celestial equator has a dec of 0°. An object at the celestial north pole has a dec of +90°. An object at the celestial south pole has a dec of −90°. The sign is customarily included even if it is positive. Any unit of angle can be used for declination, but it is often expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc. A celestial object that passes over zenith has a declination equal to the observer's latitude, with northern latitudes yielding positive declinations. A pole star therefore has the declination +90° or -90°. Conversely, at northern latitudes φ > 0, celestial objects with a declination greater than 90° - φ, are always visible. Such stars are called circumpolar stars, while the phenomenon of a sun not setting is called midnight sun. If instead of measuring from and along the equator the angles are measured from and along the horizon, the angles are called azimuth and altitude (elevation). Stars Because a star lies in a nearly constant direction as viewed from earth, its declination is approximately constant from year to year. However, both the right ascension and declination do change gradually due to the effects of precession of the equinoxes and proper motion. Varying declination The declinations of all solar system objects change much more quickly than those of stars. Sun The declination of the Sun (δ) is the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the earth's equator. Since the angle between the earth axis and the plane of the earth orbit is nearly constant, δ varies with the seasons and its period is one year, that is the time needed by the earth to complete its revolution around the sun. When the projection of the earth axis on the plane of the earth orbit is on the same line linking the earth and the sun, the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the earth equator is maximum and its value is 23°27'. This happens at the solstices. Therefore δ = +23°27' at the northern hemisphere summer solstice and δ = -23°27' at the northern hemisphere winter solstice. Due to the changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis, the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the earth equator is slightly decreasing. When the projection of the earth axis on the plane of the earth orbit is perpendicular to the line linking the earth and the sun, the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the earth equator is null. This happens at the equinoxes. Therefore δ is 0° at the equinoxes. Sun's declination is equal to inverse sine of the product of sine of Sun's maximum declination and sine of Sun's tropical longitude at any given moment. Instead of computing sun's tropical longitude, if we need sun's declination in terms of days, following procedure is used. Since the eccentricity of the earth orbit is quite low, it can be approximated to a circle, and δ is approximately given by the following expression: where cos operates on degrees; if cos operates on radians, 360° in the equation needs to be replaced with 2π and will still output δ in degree; is Day of the Year, that is the number of days spent since January 1. An alternative form is given as: Solar Declination A more precise formula is given by: Spencer, J.W. 1971: Fourier series representation of the position of the Sun. Search, 2(5), 172. where is the fractional year in radians. More accurate daily values from averaging the four years of a leap-year cycle are given in the Table of the Declination of the Sun. A diagram demonstrating how the Sun's path over the celestial sphere changes with the varying declination during the year, marking the Azimuths in °N where the sun rises and sets at summer and winter solstice at a place of 56°N latitude. Moon Declination of the Moon is computed by adding Sun's declination (which is called Declination of Place while computing declination of other planets and Moon) to Moon's latitude. Sun's declination (± 23.44°) is much larger in magnitude than Moon's latitude (± 5.14°). Therefore Moon's declination can be said to have an annual cycle synchronous with that of the Sun starting with the vernal equinox. Moon's latitude is a function of the difference between True Moon and its ascending node. Since lunar nodes make one revolution in nearly 19 years, lunar latitude has an approximately 19 year long cycle. Lunar latitude is equal to inverse sine of the product of sine of maximum lunar latitude and sine of difference between Moon and its node. For greater accuracy, Reduced Latitude is used instead of Moon's true latitude, which is obtained by multiplying lunar latitude with a multiplier having a maximum value of 1 for tropical Moon at 180° and 0.91745 for tropical Moon at 0°. This is caused by a third cycle in lunar declination which has a period of one lunar month and a maximum range of ± 0.425°. Summing all three components gives a range of maximum declination from +28°35' to +18°18' and the minimum from -18°18' to -28°35' for lunar declination. The third component of lunar declination is computed from following formula : Multiplier = Cos D / [Cos {Sin¯(Sin M * Sin D)}] where D is Sun's maximum declination (± 23.44°) and M is Moon's tropical longitude. This multiplier is multiplied into Moon's latitude to get Reduced Latitude. The minimum value of Multiplier is for tropical Moon at zero longitude, which is equal to cosine of Sun's maximum declination, being equal to 0.91745. This multiplier is used to determine the reduced latitude of other planets as well. See also right ascension, celestial coordinate system geographic coordinates, ecliptic Setting circles Declination is used in some contexts that rule out astronomical declination, to mean the same as magnetic declination. Declination is occasionally and erroneously used to refer to the linguistic term declension. References External links Table of the Declination of the Sun: Mean Value for the Four Years of a Leap-Year Cycle Declination function for Excel, CAD or your other programs. The Sun API is free and extremely accurate. For Windows computers. | Declination |@lemmatized astronomy:1 declination:37 abbrev:1 dec:5 δ:8 one:4 two:1 coordinate:4 equatorial:1 system:3 either:1 right:3 ascension:3 hour:1 angle:9 comparable:1 latitude:17 project:1 onto:1 celestial:10 sphere:2 measure:3 degree:4 north:3 south:3 equator:8 therefore:5 point:1 positive:3 negative:1 object:6 pole:3 sign:1 customarily:1 include:1 even:1 unit:1 use:6 often:1 express:1 minute:1 second:1 arc:1 pass:1 zenith:1 equal:5 observer:1 northern:4 yield:1 star:6 conversely:1 φ:2 great:2 always:1 visible:1 call:4 circumpolar:1 phenomenon:1 sun:27 set:2 midnight:1 instead:3 along:2 horizon:1 azimuth:2 altitude:1 elevation:1 lie:1 nearly:3 constant:3 direction:1 view:1 earth:16 approximately:3 year:12 however:1 change:4 gradually:1 due:2 effect:1 precession:1 equinox:4 proper:1 motion:1 vary:2 solar:2 much:2 quickly:1 ray:4 plane:7 since:4 axis:4 orbit:4 varies:1 season:1 period:2 time:1 need:3 complete:1 revolution:2 around:1 projection:2 line:2 link:3 maximum:8 value:5 happen:2 solstice:4 hemisphere:2 summer:2 winter:2 tilt:1 slightly:1 decrease:1 perpendicular:1 null:1 inverse:2 sine:6 product:2 tropical:6 longitude:4 give:6 moment:1 compute:4 term:2 day:3 follow:2 procedure:1 eccentricity:1 quite:1 low:1 approximate:1 circle:2 following:1 expression:1 co:3 operate:2 cos:1 radian:2 equation:1 replace:1 still:1 output:1 number:1 spend:1 january:1 alternative:1 form:1 precise:1 formula:2 spencer:1 j:1 w:1 fourier:1 series:1 representation:1 position:1 search:1 fractional:1 accurate:2 daily:1 average:1 four:2 leap:2 cycle:5 table:2 diagram:1 demonstrate:1 path:1 mark:1 n:2 rise:1 place:2 moon:15 add:1 planet:2 large:1 magnitude:1 say:1 annual:1 synchronous:1 start:1 vernal:1 function:2 difference:2 true:2 ascending:1 node:3 lunar:9 make:1 long:1 accuracy:1 reduce:2 obtain:1 multiply:2 multiplier:5 cause:1 third:2 month:1 range:2 sum:1 three:1 component:2 minimum:2 sin:3 get:1 zero:1 cosine:1 determine:1 reduced:1 well:1 see:1 also:1 geographic:1 ecliptic:1 setting:1 context:1 rule:1 astronomical:1 mean:2 magnetic:1 occasionally:1 erroneously:1 refer:1 linguistic:1 declension:1 reference:1 external:1 excel:1 cad:1 program:1 api:1 free:1 extremely:1 windows:1 computer:1 |@bigram celestial_sphere:2 celestial_equator:3 precession_equinox:1 northern_hemisphere:2 summer_solstice:1 winter_solstice:2 inverse_sine:2 vernal_equinox:1 geographic_coordinate:1 external_link:1 |
7,421 | Noam_Chomsky | Avram Noam Chomsky (; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, "Noam Chomsky", by Zoltán Gendler Szabó, in Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, 1860-1960, ed. Ernest Lepore (2004). "Chomsky's intellectual life had been divided between his work in linguistics and his political activism, philosophy coming as a distant third. Nonetheless, his influence among analytic philosophers has been enormous because of three factors. First, Chomsky contributed substantially to a major methodological shift in the human sciences, turning away from the prevailing empiricism of the middle of the twentieth century: behaviorism in psychology, structuralism in linguistics and positivism in philosophy. Second, his groundbreaking books on syntax (Chomsky (1957, 1965)) laid a conceptual foundation for a new, cognitivist approach to linguistics and provided philosophers with a new framework for thinking about human language and the mind. And finally, he has persistently defended his views against all takers, engaging in important debates with many of the major figures in analytic philosophy..." "Noam Chomsky", in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1998), Norbert Hornstein. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (1999), "Chomsky, Noam," Cambridge University Press, pg. 138. "Chomsky, Noam (born 1928), preeminent American linguist, philosopher, and political activist...Many of Chomsky's most significant contributions to philosophy, such as his influential rejection of behaviorism...stem from his elaborations and defenses of the above consequences..." cognitive scientist, political activist, author, and lecturer. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. MIT Faculty website Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics. Thomas Tymoczko, Jim Henle, James M. Henle, Sweet Reason: A Field Guide to Modern Logic, Birkhäuser, 2000, p. 101. Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident, an anarchist, Noam Chomsky, Chomsky on Anarchism (2005), AK Press, pg. 5 and a libertarian socialist intellectual. In the 1950s, Chomsky began developing his theory of generative grammar, which has undergone numerous revisions and has had a profound influence on linguistics. His approach to the study of language emphasizes "an innate set of linguistic principles shared by all humans" known as universal grammar, "the initial state of the language learner," and discovering an "account for linguistic variation via the most general possible mechanisms." The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (1999), "Chomsky, Noam," Cambridge University Press, pg. 138 He also established the Chomsky hierarchy, a classification of formal languages in terms of their generative power. In 1959, Chomsky published a widely influential review of B. F. Skinner's theoretical book Verbal Behavior, which was the first attempt by a behaviorist to provide a functional, operant analysis of language. Chomsky used this review to broadly and aggressively challenge the behaviorist approaches to studies of behavior dominant at the time, and contributed to the cognitive revolution in psychology. His naturalistic Language & Communication: the problem of naturalizing semantics, Language & Communication, April 2000 approach to the study of language has influenced the philosophy of language and mind. Randy Harris, author of The Linguistics Wars (1995), has described him as "a hero of Homeric proportions, belonging solidly in the pantheon of our country's finest minds, with all the powers and qualities thereof. First, foremost, and initially he is staggeringly smart. The speed, scope, and synthetic abilities of his intellect are legendary. He is, too, a born leader, able to marshal support, fierce and uncompromising support, for positions he develops or adopts. Often, it seems, he shapes linguistics by sheer force of will." Randy Harris, The Linguistics Wars, Oxford University Press, 1995, pg. 54. Beginning with his opposition to the Vietnam War, Chomsky established himself as a prominent critic of US foreign and domestic policy. He is a self-declared adherent of libertarian socialism which he regards as "the proper and natural extension of classical liberalism into the era of advanced industrial society." According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992, Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar during the 1980–92 period, and was the eighth most-cited source. He is also considered a prominent cultural figure. Matt Dellinger, "Sounds and Sites: Noam Chomsky," The New Yorker, Link, 3-31-03, accessed 1-26-09 At the same time, his status as a leading critic of US foreign policy has made him controversial. "The Accidental Bestseller, Publishers Weekly, 5-5-03, accessed 10-11-08. "Chomsky's controversial political works...became mainstream bestsellers." Biography Chomsky was born on the morning of December 7, 1928 to Jewish parents in the East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of a Hebrew scholar and IWW(Industrial Workers of the World) member, William Chomsky (1896–1977), a native of Ukraine. His mother, Elsie Chomsky (née Simonofsky), a native of what is present-day Belarus, grew up in the United States and, unlike her husband, spoke "ordinary New York English." Their first language was Yiddish, but Chomsky said it was "taboo" in his family to speak it. He describes his family as living in a sort of "Jewish ghetto," split into a "Yiddish side" and "Hebrew side," with his family aligning with the latter and bringing him up "immersed in Hebrew culture and literature." Chomsky also describes tensions he personally experienced with Irish Catholics and German Catholics and anti-semitism in the mid-1930s. He recalls German-American "Beer parties" celebrating the fall of Paris to the Nazis . In a discussion of the irony of his staying in the 1980s in a Jesuit House in Central America, Chomsky explained that during his childhood, "We were the only Jewish family around. I grew up with a visceral fear of Catholics. They're the people who beat you up on your way to school. So I knew when they came out of that building down the street, which was the Jesuit school, they were raving anti-Semites. So childhood memories took a long time to overcome." The Chomsky Tapes [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Chomsky/Chomsky_Tapes_MAlbert.html "The Chomsky Tapes: Conversations with Michael Albert"], November 2001, Z magazine transcripts of 1993 interview tapes Chomsky remembers the first article he wrote was at age 10 while a student at Oak Lane Country Day School about the threat of the spread of fascism, following the fall of Barcelona in the Spanish Civil War. From the age of 12 or 13, he identified more fully with anarchist politics. Kreisler (2002), A graduate of Central High School of Philadelphia, Chomsky began studying philosophy and linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania in 1945, taking classes with philosophers such as C. West Churchman and Nelson Goodman and linguist Zellig Harris. Harris's teaching included his discovery of transformations as a mathematical analysis of language structure (mappings from one subset to another in the set of sentences). Chomsky referred to the morphophonemic rules in his 1951 Master's Thesis, The Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew, as transformations in the sense of Carnap's 1938 notion of rules of transformation (vs. rules of formation), and subsequently reinterpreted the notion of grammatical transformations in a very different way from Harris, as operations on the productions of a context-free grammar (derived from Post production systems). Harris's political views were instrumental in shaping those of Chomsky. Chomsky earned a BA in 1949 and an MA in 1951. In 1949, he married linguist Carol Schatz. They remained married for 59 years until her death from cancer in December 2008.<ref> {{cite web |last=Marquard |first=Bryan |title=Carol Chomsky; at 78; Harvard language professor was wife of MIT linguist" |publisher=Boston Globe|date=2008-12-20 |url=http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2008/12/20/carol_chomsky_at_78_harvard_language_professor_was_wife_of_mit_linguist/ |accessdate=2008-12-20}} </ref> The couple had two daughters, Aviva (b. 1957) and Diane (b. 1960), and a son, Harry (b. 1967). Chomsky received his PhD in linguistics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1955. He conducted part of his doctoral research during four years at Harvard University as a Harvard Junior Fellow. In his doctoral thesis, he began to develop some of his linguistic ideas, elaborating on them in his 1957 book Syntactic Structures, his best-known work in linguistics. Chomsky joined the staff of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1955 and in 1961 was appointed full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics (now the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy). From 1966 to 1976 he held the Ferrari P. Ward Professorship of Modern Languages and Linguistics, and in 1976 he was appointed Institute Professor. As of 2008, Chomsky has taught at MIT continuously for 53 years. In February 1967, Chomsky became one of the leading opponents of the Vietnam War with the publication of his essay, "The Responsibility of Intellectuals", in The New York Review of Books. This was followed by his 1969 book, American Power and the New Mandarins, a collection of essays which established him at the forefront of American dissent. His far-reaching criticisms of US foreign policy and the legitimacy of US power have made him a controversial figure: largely shunned by the mainstream media in the United States, Barsky (1997), Barsky quotes an excerpt of Edward Herman examining why "one of America's most well-known intellectuals and dissidents would be thus ignored and even ostracized by the mainstream press." For example, "Chomsky has never had an Op Ed column in the Washington Post, and his lone opinion piece in the New York Times was not an original contribution but rather excerpts from testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee." he is frequently sought out for his views by publications and news outlets worldwide. Chomsky has received death threats because of his criticisms of US foreign policy. He was also on a list of planned targets created by Theodore Kaczynski, better known as the Unabomber; during the period that Kaczynski was at large, Chomsky had all of his mail checked for explosives. He states that he often receives undercover police protection, in particular while on the MIT campus, although he does not agree with the police protection. Chomsky resides in Lexington, Massachusetts and travels often, giving lectures on politics. Contributions to linguistics Chomskyan linguistics, beginning with his Syntactic Structures, a distillation of his Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955, 75), challenges structural linguistics and introduces transformational grammar. This theory takes utterances (sequences of words) to have a syntax which can be characterized by a formal grammar; in particular, a context-free grammar extended with transformational rules. Children are hypothesized to have an innate knowledge of the basic grammatical structure common to all human languages (i.e., they assume that any language which they encounter is of a certain restricted kind). This innate knowledge is often referred to as universal grammar. It is argued that modeling knowledge of language using a formal grammar accounts for the "productivity" of language: with a limited set of grammar rules and a finite set of terms, humans are able to produce an infinite number of sentences, including sentences no one has previously said. He has always acknowledged his debt to Pāṇini for his modern notion of an explicit generative grammar. This is related to Rationalist ideas of a priori knowledge, in that it is not due to experience. The Principles and Parameters approach (P&P)—developed in his Pisa 1979 Lectures, later published as Lectures on Government and Binding (LGB)—make strong claims regarding universal grammar: that the grammatical principles underlying languages are innate and fixed, and the differences among the world's languages can be characterized in terms of parameter settings in the brain (such as the pro-drop parameter, which indicates whether an explicit subject is always required, as in English, or can be optionally dropped, as in Spanish), which are often likened to switches. (Hence the term principles and parameters, often given to this approach.) In this view, a child learning a language need only acquire the necessary lexical items (words, grammatical morphemes, and idioms), and determine the appropriate parameter settings, which can be done based on a few key examples. Proponents of this view argue that the pace at which children learn languages is inexplicably rapid, unless children have an innate ability to learn languages. The similar steps followed by children all across the world when learning languages, and the fact that children make certain characteristic errors as they learn their first language, whereas other seemingly logical kinds of errors never occur (and, according to Chomsky, should be attested if a purely general, rather than language-specific, learning mechanism were being employed), are also pointed to as motivation for innateness. More recently, in his Minimalist Program (1995), while retaining the core concept of "principles and parameters," Chomsky attempts a major overhaul of the linguistic machinery involved in the LGB model, stripping from it all but the barest necessary elements, while advocating a general approach to the architecture of the human language faculty that emphasizes principles of economy and optimal design, reverting to a derivational approach to generation, in contrast with the largely representational approach of classic P&P. In 1999, research done at the Grabscheid Clinical and Research Center for Voice Disorders at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City showed that slow tonic muscle fibers in the muscles of human vocal cords do not exist in other mammals, creating support and a possible explanation for Chomsky's theories. Niss, Barbara. This House of Noble Deeds: The Mount Sinai Hospital, 1852–2002, New York: NYU Press, 2002, ISBN 0814705006 Chomsky's ideas have had a strong influence on researchers investigating the acquisition of language in children, though some researchers who work in this area today do not support Chomsky's theories, instead advocating emergentist or connectionist theories reducing language to an instance of general processing mechanisms in the brain. He also theorizes that unlimited extension of a language such as English is possible only by the recursive device of embedding sentences in sentences. His best-known work in phonology is The Sound Pattern of English (1968), written with Morris Halle (and often known as simply SPE). This work has had a great significance for the development in the field. While phonological theory has since moved beyond "SPE phonology" in many important respects, the SPE system is considered the precursor of some of the most influential phonological theories today, including autosegmental phonology, lexical phonology and optimality theory. Chomsky no longer publishes on phonology. Generative grammar The Chomskyan approach towards syntax, often termed generative grammar, studies grammar as a body of knowledge possessed by language users. Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that much of this knowledge is innate, implying that children need only learn certain parochial features of their native languages. The innate body of linguistic knowledge is often termed Universal Grammar. From Chomsky's perspective, the strongest evidence for the existence of Universal Grammar is simply the fact that children successfully acquire their native languages in so little time. Furthermore, he argues that there is an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic knowledge which they attain (the "poverty of the stimulus" argument). The knowledge of Universal Grammar would serve to bridge that gap. Chomsky's theories are popular, particularly in the United States, but they have never been free from controversy. Criticism has come from a number of different directions. Chomskyan linguists rely heavily on the intuitions of native speakers regarding which sentences of their languages are well-formed. This practice has been criticized both on general methodological grounds, and because it has (some argue) led to an overemphasis on the study of English. As of now, hundreds of different languages have received at least some attention in the generative grammar literature, Available online . Available online . Available online Available online . but some critics nonetheless perceive this overemphasis, and a tendency to base claims about Universal Grammar on an overly small sample of languages. Some psychologists and psycholinguists, though sympathetic to Chomsky's overall program, have argued that Chomskyan linguists pay insufficient attention to experimental data from language processing, with the consequence that their theories are not psychologically plausible. More radical critics have questioned whether it is necessary to posit Universal Grammar in order to explain child language acquisition, arguing that domain-general learning mechanisms are sufficient. Today there are many different branches of generative grammar; one can view grammatical frameworks such as head-driven phrase structure grammar, lexical functional grammar and combinatory categorial grammar as broadly Chomskyan and generative in orientation, but with significant differences in execution. Cultural anthropologist and linguist Daniel Everett of Illinois State University has proposed that the language of the Pirahã people of the northwestern rainforest of Brazil resists Chomsky's theories of generative grammar. Everett asserts that the Pirahã language does not have any evidence of recursion, one of the key properties of generative grammar. Additionally, it is claimed that the Pirahan have no fixed words for colors or numbers, speak in single phonemes, and often speak in prosody. The New Yorker, John Colapinto. April 16, 2007. p. 119. However, Everett's claims have themselves been criticized. David Pesetsky of MIT, Andrew Nevins of Harvard, and Cilene Rodrigues of the Universidade Estadual de Campinas in Brazil have argued in a joint paper that all of Everett's major claims contain serious deficiencies. http://ling.auf.net/lingbuzz/000411 Chomsky himself has commented that "The reports are interesting, but do not bear on the work of mine (along with many others). No one has proposed that languages must have subordinate clauses, number words, etc. Many structures of our language (and presumably that of the Piraha) are rarely if ever used in ordinary speech because of extrinsic constraints." The Independent interview with Kevin Rodgers. August 28, 2006. The dispute continues. Chomsky hierarchy Chomsky is famous for investigating various kinds of formal languages and whether or not they might be capable of capturing key properties of human language. His Chomsky hierarchy partitions formal grammars into classes, or groups, with increasing expressive power, i.e., each successive class can generate a broader set of formal languages than the one before. Interestingly, Chomsky argues that modeling some aspects of human language requires a more complex formal grammar (as measured by the Chomsky hierarchy) than modeling others. For example, while a regular language is powerful enough to model English morphology, it is not powerful enough to model English syntax. In addition to being relevant in linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy has also become important in computer science (especially in compiler construction and automata theory). Contributions to psychology Chomsky's work in linguistics has had profound implications for modern psychology. The Cognitive Science Millennium Project For Chomsky, linguistics is a branch of cognitive psychology; genuine insights in linguistics imply concomitant understandings of aspects of mental processing and human nature. His theory of a universal grammar was seen by many as a direct challenge to the established behaviorist theories of the time and had major consequences for understanding how language is learned by children and what, exactly, the ability to use language is. Many of the more basic principles of this theory (though not necessarily the stronger claims made by the principles and parameters approach described above) are now generally accepted in some circles. In 1959, Chomsky published an influential critique of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, a book in which Skinner offered a theoretical account of language in functional, behavioral terms. "Verbal behavior" he defined as learned behavior which has its characteristic consequences being delivered through the learned behavior of others; this makes for a view of communicative behaviors much larger than that usually addressed by linguists. Skinner's approach focused on the circumstances in which language was used; for example, asking for water was functionally a different response than labeling something as water, responding to someone asking for water, etc. These functionally different kinds of responses, which required in turn separate explanations, sharply contrasted both with traditional notions of language and Chomsky's psycholinguistic approach. Chomsky thought that a functionalist explanation restricting itself to questions of communicative performance ignored important questions. (Chomsky-Language and Mind, 1968). He focused on questions concerning the operation and development of innate structures for syntax capable of creatively organizing, cohering, adapting and combining words and phrases into intelligible utterances. In the review Chomsky emphasized that the scientific application of behavioral principles from animal research is severely lacking in explanatory adequacy and is furthermore particularly superficial as an account of human verbal behavior because a theory restricting itself to external conditions, to "what is learned", cannot adequately account for generative grammar. Chomsky raised the examples of rapid language acquisition of children, including their quickly developing ability to form grammatical sentences, and the universally creative language use of competent native speakers to highlight the ways in which Skinner's view exemplified under-determination of theory by evidence. He argued that to understand human verbal behavior such as the creative aspects of language use and language development, one must first postulate a genetic linguistic endowment. The assumption that important aspects of language are the product of universal innate ability runs counter to Skinner's radical behaviorism. Chomsky's 1959 review has drawn fire from a number of critics, the most famous criticism being that of Kenneth MacCorquodale's 1970 paper On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, volume 13, pages 83–99). This and similar critiques have raised certain points not generally acknowledged outside of behavioral psychology, such as the claim that Chomsky did not possess an adequate understanding of either behavioral psychology in general, or the differences between Skinner's behaviorism and other varieties; consequently, it is argued that he made several serious errors. On account of these perceived problems, the critics maintain that the review failed to demonstrate what it has often been cited as doing. As such, it is averred that those most influenced by Chomsky's paper probably either already substantially agreed with Chomsky or never actually read it. Chomsky has maintained that the review was directed at the way Skinner's variant of behavioral psychology "was being used in Quinean empiricism and naturalization of philosophy". Barsky (1997), It has been claimed that Chomsky's critique of Skinner's methodology and basic assumptions paved the way for the "cognitive revolution", the shift in American psychology between the 1950s through the 1970s from being primarily behavioral to being primarily cognitive. In his 1966 Cartesian Linguistics and subsequent works, Chomsky laid out an explanation of human language faculties that has become the model for investigation in some areas of psychology. Much of the present conception of how the mind works draws directly from ideas that found their first persuasive author of modern times in Chomsky. There are three key ideas. First is that the mind is "cognitive", or that the mind actually contains mental states, beliefs, doubts, and so on. Second, he argued that most of the important properties of language and mind are innate. The acquisition and development of a language is a result of the unfolding of innate propensities triggered by the experiential input of the external environment. The link between human innate aptitude to language and heredity has been at the core of the debate opposing Noam Chomsky to Jean Piaget at the Abbaye de Royaumont in 1975 (Language and Learning. The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky, Harvard University Press, 1980). Although links between the genetic setup of humans and aptitude to language have been suggested at that time and in later discussions, we are still far from understanding the genetic bases of human language. Work derived from the model of selective stabilization of synapses set up by Jean-Pierre Changeux, Philippe Courrège and Antoine Danchin, and more recently developed experimentally and theoretically by Jacques Mehler and Stanislas Dehaene in particular in the domain of numerical cognition lend support to the Chomskyan "nativism". It does not, however, provide clues about the type of rules that would organize neuronal connections to permit language competence. Subsequent psychologists have extended this general "nativist" thesis beyond language. Lastly, Chomsky made the concept of "modularity" a critical feature of the mind's cognitive architecture. The mind is composed of an array of interacting, specialized subsystems with limited flows of inter-communication. This model contrasts sharply with the old idea that any piece of information in the mind could be accessed by any other cognitive process (optical illusions, for example, cannot be "turned off" even when they are known to be illusions). Opinion on cultural criticism of science Chomsky strongly disagrees with post-structuralist and postmodern criticisms of science: I have spent a lot of my life working on questions such as these, using the only methods I know of; those condemned here as "science", "rationality," "logic," and so on. I therefore read the papers with some hope that they would help me "transcend" these limitations, or perhaps suggest an entirely different course. I'm afraid I was disappointed. Admittedly, that may be my own limitation. Quite regularly, "my eyes glaze over" when I read polysyllabic discourse on the themes of poststructuralism and postmodernism; what I understand is largely truism or error, but that is only a fraction of the total word count. True, there are lots of other things I don't understand: the articles in the current issues of math and physics journals, for example. But there is a difference. In the latter case, I know how to get to understand them, and have done so, in cases of particular interest to me; and I also know that people in these fields can explain the contents to me at my level, so that I can gain what (partial) understanding I may want. In contrast, no one seems to be able to explain to me why the latest post-this-and-that is (for the most part) other than truism, error, or gibberish, and I do not know how to proceed. Chomsky believes that science is a good way to start understanding history and human affairs: I think studying science is a good way to get into fields like history. The reason is, you learn what an argument means, you learn what evidence is, you learn what makes sense to postulate and when, what's going to be convincing. You internalize the modes of rational inquiry, which happen to be much more advanced in the sciences than anywhere else. On the other hand, applying relativity theory to history isn't going to get you anywhere. So it's a mode of thinking. Kreisler (2002), Chomsky has also commented on critiques of "white male science," stating that they are much like the antisemitic and politically motivated attacks against "Jewish physics" used by the Nazis to denigrate research done by Jewish scientists during the Deutsche Physik movement: In fact, the entire idea of "white male science" reminds me, I'm afraid, of "Jewish physics." Perhaps it is another inadequacy of mine, but when I read a scientific paper, I can't tell whether the author is white or is male. The same is true of discussion of work in class, the office, or somewhere else. I rather doubt that the non-white, non-male students, friends, and colleagues with whom I work would be much impressed with the doctrine that their thinking and understanding differ from "white male science" because of their "culture or gender and race." I suspect that "surprise" would not be quite the proper word for their reaction. Debates Chomsky has been known to vigorously defend and debate his views and opinions, in philosophy, linguistics, and politics. He has had notable debates with such varied intellectuals as Jean Piaget, Massimo Piatelli-Palmarini, ed., Language and Learning: The Debate Between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky, Routledge, 1975. Michel Foucault, The Chomsky-Foucault Debate on Human Nature, WW Norton, 2006 William F. Buckley, Jr., William F. Buckley vs. Noam Chomsky, YouTube Richard Perle, Hilary Putnam, Hilary Putnam, "Externalism: Its Motivation and Its Critics", Harvard University, 2007. WVO Quine, KU Leuven, "An Epistemological Reading of the Debate between Quine and Chomsky", October 2003. and Alan Dershowitz, "Noam Chomsky v. Alan Dershowitz: A Debate on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict", Democracy Now!, 23 December 2005. to name a very few. Political views Chomsky at the World Social Forum (Porto Alegre) in 2003. Chomsky has stated that his "personal visions are fairly traditional anarchist ones, with origins in The Enlightenment and classical liberalism" Chomsky (1996), pp. 71. and he has praised libertarian socialism. Chomsky, Noam, "Notes on Anarchism" … "Libertarian socialism is properly to be regarded as the inheritor of the liberal ideals of the Enlightenment." He is a sympathizer of anarcho-syndicalism Chomsky wrote the preface to an edition of Rudolf Rocker's book Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. In it Chomsky wrote: "I felt at once, and still feel, that Rocker was pointing the way to a much better world, one that is within our grasp, one that may well be the only alternative to the 'universal catastrophe' towards which 'we are driving on under full sail'…" Book Citation: Rudolph Rocker. Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. AK Press. p. ii. 2004. and a member of the IWW union. Industrial Workers of the World IWW Member Biographies He has published a book on anarchism titled, "Chomsky on Anarchism", which was published by the anarchist book collective, AK Press, in 2006. Noam Chomsky has been engaged in political activism all of his adult life and expressed opinions on politics and world events which are widely cited, publicized and discussed. Chomsky has in turn argued that his views are those which the powerful do not want to hear, and for this reason he is considered an American political dissident. Some highlights of his political views: Power, unless justified, is inherently illegitimate. The burden of proof is on those in authority to demonstrate why their elevated position is justified. If this burden can't be met, the authority in question should be dismantled. Authority for its own sake is inherently unjustified. An example of a legitimate authority is that exerted by an adult to prevent a young child from wandering into traffic. Anarchism 101 with Noam Chomsky That there isn't much difference between slavery, and renting one's self to an owner, or "wage slavery." He feels that it is an attack on personal integrity that destroys and undermines our freedoms. He holds workers should own and control their own workplace, a view held (as he notes) by the Lowell Mill Girls. Conversation with Noam Chomsky, p. 2 of 5 Very strong criticisms of the foreign policy of the United States. Specifically, he claims double standards in a foreign policy preaching democracy and freedom for all, while promoting, supporting and allying itself with non-democratic and repressive organizations and states such as Chile under Augusto Pinochet, and argues that this results in massive human rights violations. He often argues that America's intervention in foreign nations, including the secret aid given to the Contras in Nicaragua, an event of which he has been very critical, fits any standard description of terrorism. An Evening With Noam Chomsky He has argued that the mass media in the United States largely serve as a propaganda arm and "bought priesthood" Chomsky on Democracy & Education of the U.S. government and U.S. corporations, with the three parties all largely intertwined through common interests. In a famous reference to Walter Lippmann, Chomsky along with his coauthor, Edward S. Herman has written that the American media manufactures consent among the public. He has opposed the U.S. global "war on drugs", claiming its language to be misleading, and referring to it as "the war on certain drugs." He favors education and prevention rather than military or police action as a means of reducing drug use. In an interview in 1999, Chomsky argued that, whereas crops such as tobacco receive no mention in governmental exposition, other non-profitable crops, such as marijuana, are specifically targeted because of the effect achieved by persecuting the poor: "US domestic drug policy does not carry out its stated goals, and policymakers are well aware of that. If it isn't about reducing substance abuse, what is it about? It is reasonably clear, both from current actions and the historical record, that substances tend to be criminalized when they are associated with the so-called dangerous classes, that the criminalization of certain substances is a technique of social control." Critical of the American capitalist system and big business, he describes himself as a libertarian socialist who sympathizes with anarcho-syndicalism and is also critical of Leninist branches of socialism. He also believes that libertarian socialist values exemplify the rational and morally consistent extension of original unreconstructed classical liberal and radical humanist ideas to an industrial context. Specifically he believes that society should be highly organized and based on democratic control of communities and work places. He believes that the radical humanist ideas of his two major influences, Bertrand Russell and John Dewey, were "rooted in the Enlightenment and classical liberalism, and retain their revolutionary character." Chomsky (1996), p. 77. Chomsky has stated that he believes the United States remains the "greatest country in the world", "Interview with Noam Chomsky, Bill Bennett", May 30, 2002 American Morning with Paula Zahn CNN a comment that he later clarified by saying, "Evaluating countries is senseless and I would never put things in those terms, but that some of America's advances, particularly in the area of free speech, that have been achieved by centuries of popular struggle, are to be admired." He has also said "In many respects, the United States is the freest country in the world. I don't just mean in terms of limits on state coercion, though that's true too, but also in terms of individual relations. The United States comes closer to classlessness in terms of interpersonal relations than virtually any society." Chomsky, Noam. 2003. Chomsky on Democracy & Education. Routledge. p. 399 Chomsky is scathing in his opposition to the view that anarchism is inconsistent with support for 'welfare state' measures, stating in part that One can, of course, take the position that we don't care about the problems people face today, and want to think about a possible tomorrow. OK, but then don't pretend to have any interest in human beings and their fate, and stay in the seminar room and intellectual coffee house with other privileged people. Or one can take a much more humane position: I want to work, today, to build a better society for tomorrow -- the classical anarchist position, quite different from the slogans in the question. That's exactly right, and it leads directly to support for the people facing problems today: for enforcement of health and safety regulation, provision of national health insurance, support systems for people who need them, etc. That is not a sufficient condition for organizing for a different and better future, but it is a necessary condition. Anything else will receive the well-merited contempt of people who do not have the luxury to disregard the circumstances in which they live, and try to survive. http://www.zmag.org/chomsky_repliesana.htm 'Answers by Noam Chomsky' to questions about anarchism According to Chomsky: "I'm a boring speaker and I like it that way…. I doubt that people are attracted to whatever the persona is…. People are interested in the issues, and they're interested in the issues because they are important." Chomsky Rebel "We don't want to be swayed by superficial eloquence, by emotion and so on." Chomsky, Noam. "False, False, False, and False: Noam Chomsky interviewed by Ray Suarez", January 20, 1999 Chomsky.info He holds views that can be summarized as anti-war but not strictly pacifist. He prominently opposed the Vietnam War and most other wars in his lifetime. He expressed these views through a variety of protest methods, such as withholding taxes and peace walks. He published a number of articles about the war in Vietnam, including "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". However, he maintains that U.S. involvement in World War II was probably justified, with the caveat that a preferable outcome would have been to end or prevent the war through earlier diplomacy. In particular, he believes that the dropping of nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were "among the most unspeakable crimes in history". An Exchange on "The Responsibility of Intellectuals", Noam Chomsky debates with Fryar Calhoun, E. B. Murray, and Arthur Dorfman He has a broad view of free-speech rights, especially in the mass media; he opposes censorship and refuses to take legal action against those who may have libeled him. Free speech in a Democracy, by Noam Chomsky (Daily Camera) He has made major criticisms of Israel and supporters of Israel, arguing that "supporters of Israel are in reality supporters of its moral degeneration and probable ultimate destruction", and that "Israel's very clear choice of expansion over security may well lead to that consequence" On the Future of Israel and Palestine Chomsky has frequently stated that there is no connection between his work in linguistics and his political views, and is generally critical of the idea that competent discussion of political topics requires expert knowledge in academic fields. In a 1969 interview, he said regarding the connection between his politics and his work in linguistics: I still feel myself that there is a kind of tenuous connection. I would not want to overstate it but I think it means something to me at least. I think that anyone's political ideas or their ideas of social organization must be rooted ultimately in some concept of human nature and human needs. (New Left Review, 57, Sept. – Oct. 1969, p. 21) Influence in other fields Chomskyan models have been used as a theoretical basis in several other fields. The Chomsky hierarchy is often taught in fundamental computer science courses as it confers insight into the various types of formal languages. This hierarchy can also be discussed in mathematical terms and has generated interest among mathematicians, particularly combinatorialists. Some arguments in evolutionary psychology are derived from his research results. The 1984 Nobel Prize laureate in Medicine and Physiology, Niels K. Jerne, used Chomsky's generative model to explain the human immune system, equating "components of a generative grammar … with various features of protein structures". The title of Jerne's Stockholm Nobel lecture was "The Generative Grammar of the Immune System". Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in animal language acquisition at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability. Famous computer scientist Donald Knuth admits to reading Syntactic Structures during his honeymoon and being greatly influenced by it. "…I must admit to taking a copy of Noam Chomsky's Syntactic Structures along with me on my honeymoon in 1961 … Here was a marvelous thing: a mathematical theory of language in which I could use a computer programmer's intuition!". Another focus of Chomsky's political work has been an analysis of mainstream mass media (especially in the United States), its structures and constraints, and its perceived role in supporting big business and government interests. Edward S. Herman and Chomsky's book Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988) explores this topic in depth, presenting their "propaganda model" of the news media with numerous detailed case studies demonstrating it. According to this propaganda model, more democratic societies like the U.S. use subtle, non-violent means of control, unlike totalitarian systems, where physical force can readily be used to coerce the general population. In an often-quoted remark, Chomsky states that "propaganda is to a democracy what the bludgeon is to a totalitarian state." (Media Control) The model attempts to explain this perceived systemic bias of the mass media in terms of structural economic causes rather than a conspiracy of people. It argues the bias derives from five "filters" that all published news must "pass through" which combine to systematically distort news coverage. The first filter, ownership, notes that most major media outlets are owned by large corporations. The second, funding, notes that the outlets derive the majority of their funding from advertising, not readers. Thus, since they are profit-oriented businesses selling a product—readers and audiences—to other businesses (advertisers), the model would expect them to publish news which would reflect the desires and values of those businesses. In addition, the news media are dependent on government institutions and major businesses with strong biases as sources (the third filter) for much of their information. Flak, the fourth filter, refers to the various pressure groups which attack the media for supposed bias. Norms, the fifth filter, refer to the common conceptions shared by those in the profession of journalism. (Note: in the original text, published in 1988, the fifth filter was "anticommunism". However, with the fall of the Soviet Union, it has been broadened to allow for shifts in public opinion.) The model describes how the media form a decentralized and non-conspiratorial but nonetheless very powerful propaganda system, that is able to mobilize an élite consensus, frame public debate within élite perspectives and at the same time give the appearance of democratic consent. Chomsky and Herman test their model empirically by picking "paired examples"—pairs of events that were objectively similar except for the alignment of domestic élite interests. They use a number of such examples to attempt to show that in cases where an "official enemy" does something (like murder of a religious official), the press investigates thoroughly and devotes a great amount of coverage to the matter, thus victims of "enemy" states are considered "worthy". But when the domestic government or an ally does the same thing (or worse), the press downplays the story, thus victims of US or US client states are considered "unworthy." They also test their model against the case that is often held up as the best example of a free and aggressively independent press, the media coverage of the Tet Offensive during the Vietnam War. Even in this case, they argue that the press was behaving subserviently to élite interests. Academic achievements, awards and honors In the spring of 1969, he delivered the John Locke Lectures at Oxford University; in January 1970, the Bertrand Russell Memorial Lecture at University of Cambridge; in 1972, the Nehru Memorial Lecture in New Delhi; in 1977, the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden; in 1988 the Massey Lectures at the University of Toronto, titled "Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies"; in 1997, The Davie Memorial Lecture on Academic Freedom in Cape Town, Van Zyl Slabbert to present TB Davie Memorial Lecture and many others. The Current Crisis in the Middle East: About the Lecture. MIT World. Chomsky has received many honorary degrees from universities around the world, including from the following: <div class="references-small"> University of London University of Chicago Loyola University of Chicago Swarthmore College University of Delhi Bard College University of Massachusetts University of Pennsylvania Georgetown University Amherst College University of Cambridge <div class="references-small"> University of Buenos Aires McGill University Universitat Rovira i Virgili Columbia University Villanova University University of Connecticut University of Maine Scuola Normale Superiore University of Western Ontario University of Toronto Harvard UniversityUniversidad de Chile University of Bologna Universidad de la Frontera University of Calcutta Universidad Nacional de Colombia Vrije Universiteit Brussel Santo Domingo Institute of Technology Uppsala University University of Athens University of Cyprus He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. In addition, he is a member of other professional and learned societies in the United States and abroad, and is a recipient of the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the American Psychological Association, the Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the Helmholtz Medal, the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award, the Ben Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science, and others. Noam Chomsky, MIT Linguistics Program He is twice winner of The Orwell Award, granted by The National Council of Teachers of English for "Distinguished Contributions to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language" (in 1987 and 1989). Past Recipients of the NCTE Orwell Award He is a member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Department of Social Sciences. Department of Social Sciences. Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. Chomsky is a member of the Faculty Advisory Board of MIT Harvard Research Journal. In 2005, Chomsky received an honorary fellowship from the Literary and Historical Society. In 2007, Chomsky received The Uppsala University (Sweden) Honorary Doctor's degree in commemoration of Carolus Linnaeus. In February 2008, he received the President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the National University of Ireland, Galway. Chomsky has an Erdős number of four. Chomsky was voted the leading living public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll conducted by the British magazine Prospect. He reacted, saying "I don't pay a lot of attention to polls". In a list compiled by the magazine New Statesman in 2006, he was voted seventh in the list of "Heroes of our time". Actor Viggo Mortensen with avant-garde guitarrist Buckethead dedicated their 2006 album, called Pandemoniumfromamerica to Chomsky. Criticism Much of the criticism of Chomsky revolves around his political views. His status as a key intellectual figure within the left wing of American politics has resulted in a great deal of criticism from all across the political spectrum and has led to a number of notable controversies. Bibliography Filmography Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media, Director: Mark Achbar and Peter Wintonick (1992) Last Party 2000, Director: Rebecca Chaiklin and Donovan Leitch (2001) Power and Terror: Noam Chomsky in Our Times, Director: John Junkerman (2002) Distorted Morality—America's War On Terror?, Director: John Junkerman (2003) Noam Chomsky: Rebel Without a Pause (TV), Director: Will Pascoe (2003) The Corporation, Directors: Mark Achbar and Jennifer Abbott; Writer: Joel Bakan (2003) Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land, Directors: Sut Jhally and Bathsheba Ratzkoff (2004) On Power, Dissent and Racism: A discussion with Noam Chomsky, Journalist: Nicolas Rossier; Producers: Eli Choukri, Baraka Productions (2004) Lake of Fire, Director: Tony Kaye (2006)Chomsky et compagnie Director: Olivier Azam (out in 2008) An Inconvenient Tax, Director: Christopher P. Marshall (out in 2009) The Money Fix,'' Director: Alan Rosenblith (2009) See also Chomsky hierarchy Chomsky normal form Chomskybot Chomsky-Schützenberger theorem Colorless green ideas sleep furiously English studies Important publications in computability Intellectual worker Language acquisition Nim Chimpsky Politics of Noam Chomsky Propaganda model References External links Noam Chomsky homepage Noam Chomsky at MIT Noam Chomsky's page on Academia.edu Noam Chomsky at Zmag Talks by Noam Chomsky at A-Infos Radio Project Chomsky media files at the Internet Archive Articles and videos featuring Noam Chomsky at AnarchismToday.org The Political Economy of the Mass Media Part 1 Part 2 (March 15, 1989), lecture delivered at the Madison campus of the University of Wisconsin OneBigTorrent.org (formerly "Chomsky Torrents") Lots of links to Chomsky-related media be-x-old:Ноам Чомскі | Noam_Chomsky |@lemmatized avram:1 noam:38 chomsky:156 bear:3 december:4 american:15 linguist:9 philosopher:6 zoltán:1 gendler:1 szabó:1 dictionary:3 modern:9 ed:3 ernest:1 lepore:1 intellectual:12 life:3 divide:1 work:19 linguistics:27 political:18 activism:2 philosophy:12 come:4 distant:1 third:2 nonetheless:3 influence:8 among:5 analytic:2 enormous:2 three:3 factor:1 first:11 contribute:2 substantially:2 major:9 methodological:2 shift:3 human:24 science:21 turn:4 away:1 prevail:1 empiricism:2 middle:2 twentieth:1 century:2 behaviorism:4 psychology:11 structuralism:1 positivism:1 second:3 groundbreaking:1 book:11 syntax:5 lay:2 conceptual:1 foundation:1 new:13 cognitivist:1 approach:13 provide:3 framework:2 think:7 language:74 mind:11 finally:1 persistently:1 defend:2 view:20 taker:1 engage:2 important:8 debate:13 many:11 figure:4 routledge:3 encyclopedia:1 norbert:1 hornstein:1 cambridge:6 university:38 press:13 pg:4 born:2 preeminent:1 activist:2 significant:2 contribution:6 influential:4 rejection:1 stem:1 elaboration:1 defense:1 consequence:5 cognitive:10 scientist:3 author:4 lecturer:1 institute:5 professor:5 emeritus:1 massachusetts:4 technology:3 mit:10 faculty:4 website:1 well:7 know:15 academic:4 scientific:4 community:2 one:17 father:1 thomas:1 tymoczko:1 jim:1 henle:2 james:1 sweet:1 reason:3 field:7 guide:1 logic:2 birkhäuser:1 p:13 since:4 become:5 widely:3 dissident:3 anarchist:5 anarchism:7 ak:3 libertarian:6 socialist:3 begin:5 develop:6 theory:22 generative:14 grammar:32 undergone:1 numerous:2 revision:1 profound:2 study:10 emphasize:3 innate:12 set:6 linguistic:9 principle:9 share:2 universal:11 initial:1 state:26 learner:1 discover:1 account:6 variation:1 via:1 general:9 possible:4 mechanism:4 also:16 establish:4 hierarchy:8 classification:1 formal:8 term:13 power:8 publish:10 review:9 b:6 f:4 skinner:10 theoretical:3 verbal:6 behavior:11 attempt:4 behaviorist:3 functional:3 operant:1 analysis:4 use:17 broadly:2 aggressively:2 challenge:3 dominant:1 time:11 revolution:2 naturalistic:1 communication:3 problem:4 naturalize:1 semantics:1 april:2 randy:2 harris:6 war:15 describe:6 hero:2 homeric:1 proportion:1 belong:1 solidly:1 pantheon:1 country:5 fine:1 quality:1 thereof:1 foremost:1 initially:1 staggeringly:1 smart:1 speed:1 scope:1 synthetic:1 ability:6 intellect:1 legendary:1 leader:1 able:4 marshal:1 support:10 fierce:1 uncompromising:1 position:5 adopts:1 often:16 seem:2 shape:2 sheer:1 force:2 oxford:2 opposition:2 vietnam:5 prominent:2 critic:7 u:13 foreign:8 domestic:4 policy:7 self:2 declared:1 adherent:1 socialism:4 regard:5 proper:2 natural:1 extension:3 classical:5 liberalism:3 era:1 advanced:2 industrial:4 society:10 accord:4 art:4 humanity:1 citation:2 index:1 cite:5 source:3 living:2 scholar:2 period:2 eighth:1 consider:5 cultural:3 matt:1 dellinger:1 sound:2 site:1 yorker:2 link:5 access:3 status:2 lead:7 make:10 controversial:3 accidental:1 bestseller:2 publisher:2 weekly:1 mainstream:4 biography:2 morning:2 jewish:6 parent:1 east:2 oak:2 lane:2 neighborhood:1 philadelphia:2 pennsylvania:4 son:2 hebrew:4 iww:3 worker:4 world:12 member:7 william:3 native:6 ukraine:1 mother:1 elsie:1 née:1 simonofsky:1 present:4 day:2 belarus:1 grow:2 united:10 unlike:2 husband:1 speak:4 ordinary:2 york:5 english:9 yiddish:2 say:6 taboo:1 family:4 sort:1 ghetto:1 split:1 side:2 align:1 latter:2 bring:1 immerse:1 culture:2 literature:2 tension:1 personally:1 experience:2 irish:1 catholic:3 german:2 anti:3 semitism:1 mid:1 recall:1 beer:1 party:3 celebrate:1 fall:3 paris:1 nazi:2 discussion:5 irony:1 staying:1 jesuit:2 house:3 central:2 america:5 explain:6 childhood:2 around:3 visceral:1 fear:1 people:11 beat:1 way:9 school:4 build:2 street:1 rave:1 semite:1 memory:1 take:7 long:1 overcome:1 tape:3 http:4 www:3 thirdworldtraveler:1 com:2 html:1 conversation:2 michael:1 albert:1 november:1 z:1 magazine:3 transcript:1 interview:6 remembers:1 article:5 write:5 age:2 student:2 threat:2 spread:1 fascism:1 follow:3 barcelona:1 spanish:2 civil:1 identify:1 fully:1 politics:7 kreisler:2 graduate:1 high:2 class:7 c:1 west:1 churchman:1 nelson:1 goodman:1 zellig:1 teaching:1 include:7 discovery:1 transformation:4 mathematical:3 structure:12 mapping:1 subset:1 another:3 sentence:7 refer:4 morphophonemic:1 rule:6 master:1 thesis:3 morphophonemics:1 sense:2 carnap:1 notion:4 vs:1 formation:1 subsequently:1 reinterpret:1 grammatical:6 different:9 operation:2 production:3 context:3 free:8 derive:5 post:4 system:8 instrumental:1 earn:1 ba:1 marry:2 carol:2 schatz:1 remain:2 year:3 death:2 cancer:1 ref:2 web:1 last:2 marquard:1 bryan:1 title:4 harvard:8 wife:1 boston:2 globe:1 date:1 url:1 news:7 education:4 accessdate:1 couple:1 two:2 daughter:1 aviva:1 diane:1 harry:1 receive:10 phd:1 conduct:2 part:5 doctoral:2 research:7 four:2 junior:1 fellow:1 idea:13 elaborate:1 syntactic:4 best:3 join:1 staff:1 appoint:2 full:2 department:4 hold:4 ferrari:1 ward:1 professorship:1 teach:2 continuously:1 february:2 opponent:1 publication:3 essay:2 responsibility:3 mandarin:1 collection:1 forefront:1 dissent:2 far:2 reach:1 criticism:11 legitimacy:1 largely:5 shun:1 medium:18 barsky:3 quote:2 excerpt:2 edward:3 herman:4 examine:1 would:11 thus:4 ignore:2 even:3 ostracize:1 example:11 never:5 op:1 column:1 washington:1 lone:1 opinion:5 piece:2 original:3 rather:5 testimony:1 senate:1 relation:3 committee:1 frequently:2 seek:1 outlet:3 worldwide:1 list:3 planned:1 target:2 create:2 theodore:1 kaczynski:2 good:6 unabomber:1 large:3 mail:1 check:1 explosive:1 undercover:1 police:3 protection:2 particular:5 campus:2 although:2 agree:2 resides:1 lexington:1 travel:1 give:4 lecture:13 chomskyan:7 distillation:1 logical:2 structural:2 introduces:1 transformational:2 utterance:2 sequence:1 word:7 characterize:2 extend:2 child:14 hypothesize:1 knowledge:10 basic:4 common:3 e:3 assume:1 encounter:1 certain:6 restricted:1 kind:5 argue:19 model:19 productivity:1 limited:2 finite:1 produce:1 infinite:1 number:9 previously:1 always:2 acknowledge:2 debt:1 pāṇini:1 explicit:2 relate:1 rationalist:1 priori:1 due:1 parameter:7 pisa:1 later:2 government:5 binding:1 lgb:2 strong:6 claim:10 underlie:1 fix:2 difference:5 setting:2 brain:2 pro:1 drop:2 indicate:1 whether:4 subject:2 require:4 optionally:1 liken:1 switch:1 hence:1 learn:12 need:4 acquire:2 necessary:5 lexical:3 item:1 morpheme:1 idiom:1 determine:1 appropriate:1 base:4 key:5 proponent:1 pace:1 inexplicably:1 rapid:2 unless:2 similar:3 step:1 across:2 learning:4 fact:3 characteristic:2 error:5 whereas:2 seemingly:1 occur:1 attest:1 purely:1 specific:1 employ:1 point:3 motivation:2 innateness:1 recently:2 minimalist:1 program:3 retain:2 core:2 concept:3 overhaul:1 machinery:1 involve:1 strip:1 bare:1 element:1 advocate:2 architecture:2 economy:3 optimal:1 design:1 revert:1 derivational:1 generation:1 contrast:4 representational:1 classic:1 grabscheid:1 clinical:1 center:1 voice:1 disorder:1 mount:2 sinai:2 hospital:2 city:1 show:2 slow:1 tonic:1 muscle:2 fiber:1 vocal:1 cord:1 exist:1 mammal:1 explanation:4 niss:1 barbara:1 noble:1 deed:1 nyu:1 isbn:1 researcher:2 investigate:3 acquisition:7 though:4 area:3 today:6 instead:1 emergentist:1 connectionist:1 reduce:3 instance:1 processing:3 theorize:1 unlimited:1 recursive:1 device:1 embed:1 phonology:5 pattern:1 morris:1 halle:1 simply:2 spe:3 great:4 significance:1 development:4 phonological:2 move:1 beyond:2 respect:2 precursor:1 autosegmental:1 optimality:1 longer:1 towards:2 body:2 possess:2 user:1 maintain:4 much:11 imply:2 parochial:1 feature:4 perspective:2 evidence:4 existence:1 successfully:1 little:1 furthermore:2 gap:2 stimulus:2 expose:1 rich:1 attain:1 poverty:1 argument:3 serve:2 bridge:1 popular:2 particularly:4 controversy:2 direction:1 rely:1 heavily:1 intuition:2 speaker:3 form:4 practice:3 criticize:2 ground:1 overemphasis:2 hundred:1 least:2 attention:3 available:4 online:4 perceive:2 tendency:1 overly:1 small:3 sample:1 psychologist:2 psycholinguist:1 sympathetic:1 overall:1 pay:2 insufficient:1 experimental:2 data:1 psychologically:1 plausible:1 radical:4 question:8 posit:1 order:1 domain:2 sufficient:2 branch:3 head:1 driven:1 phrase:2 combinatory:1 categorial:1 orientation:1 execution:1 anthropologist:1 daniel:1 everett:4 illinois:1 propose:2 pirahã:2 northwestern:1 rainforest:1 brazil:2 resists:1 assert:1 recursion:1 property:3 additionally:1 pirahan:1 fixed:1 color:1 single:1 phoneme:1 prosody:1 john:5 colapinto:1 however:4 david:1 pesetsky:1 andrew:1 nevins:1 cilene:1 rodrigues:1 universidade:1 estadual:1 de:5 campinas:1 joint:1 paper:5 contain:2 serious:2 deficiency:1 ling:1 auf:1 net:1 lingbuzz:1 comment:3 report:1 interesting:1 mine:2 along:3 others:5 languages:1 must:5 subordinate:1 clause:1 etc:3 presumably:1 piraha:1 rarely:1 ever:1 speech:4 extrinsic:1 constraint:2 independent:2 kevin:1 rodgers:1 august:1 dispute:1 continue:1 famous:4 various:4 might:1 capable:2 capture:1 partition:1 group:2 increase:1 expressive:1 successive:1 generate:2 broad:2 interestingly:1 aspect:4 complex:1 measure:2 regular:1 powerful:4 enough:2 morphology:1 addition:3 relevant:1 computer:5 especially:3 compiler:1 construction:1 automaton:1 implication:1 millennium:1 project:2 genuine:1 insight:2 concomitant:1 understanding:3 mental:2 nature:3 see:2 direct:2 understand:8 exactly:2 necessarily:1 generally:3 accept:1 circle:1 critique:4 offer:1 behavioral:6 define:1 deliver:3 learned:2 communicative:2 usually:1 address:1 focus:3 circumstance:2 ask:2 water:3 functionally:2 response:2 label:1 something:3 respond:1 someone:1 separate:1 sharply:2 traditional:2 psycholinguistic:1 functionalist:1 restrict:2 performance:1 concern:1 creatively:1 organize:4 cohere:1 adapt:1 combine:2 intelligible:1 application:1 animal:2 severely:1 lack:1 explanatory:1 adequacy:1 superficial:2 external:3 condition:3 cannot:2 adequately:1 raise:2 quickly:1 universally:1 creative:2 competent:2 highlight:2 exemplify:2 determination:1 postulate:2 genetic:3 endowment:1 assumption:2 product:2 run:1 counter:1 draw:1 fire:2 kenneth:1 maccorquodale:1 journal:3 volume:1 page:2 outside:1 adequate:1 either:2 variety:2 consequently:1 several:2 fail:1 demonstrate:3 aver:1 probably:2 already:1 actually:2 read:5 variant:1 quinean:1 naturalization:1 methodology:1 pave:1 primarily:2 cartesian:1 subsequent:2 investigation:1 conception:2 draws:1 directly:2 find:1 persuasive:1 belief:1 doubt:3 result:4 unfolding:1 propensity:1 trigger:1 experiential:1 input:1 environment:1 aptitude:2 heredity:1 oppose:4 jean:5 piaget:4 abbaye:1 royaumont:1 setup:1 suggest:2 late:2 still:3 selective:1 stabilization:1 synapsis:1 pierre:1 changeux:1 philippe:1 courrège:1 antoine:1 danchin:1 experimentally:1 theoretically:1 jacques:1 mehler:1 stanislas:1 dehaene:1 numerical:1 cognition:1 lend:1 nativism:1 clue:1 type:2 neuronal:1 connection:4 permit:1 competence:1 nativist:1 lastly:1 modularity:1 critical:5 compose:1 array:1 interacting:1 specialize:1 subsystem:1 flow:1 inter:1 old:2 information:2 could:2 process:1 optical:1 illusion:3 strongly:1 disagree:1 structuralist:1 postmodern:1 spend:1 lot:4 method:2 condemn:1 rationality:1 therefore:1 hope:1 help:1 transcend:1 limitation:2 perhaps:2 entirely:1 course:3 afraid:2 disappoint:1 admittedly:1 may:6 quite:3 regularly:1 eye:1 glaze:1 polysyllabic:1 discourse:1 theme:1 poststructuralism:1 postmodernism:1 truism:2 fraction:1 total:1 count:1 true:3 thing:4 current:3 issue:3 math:1 physic:3 case:6 get:3 interest:7 content:1 level:1 gain:1 partial:1 want:6 gibberish:1 proceed:1 believe:6 start:1 history:4 affair:1 like:5 mean:5 go:2 convince:1 internalize:1 mode:2 rational:2 inquiry:1 happen:1 anywhere:2 else:3 hand:1 apply:1 relativity:1 thinking:2 white:5 male:5 antisemitic:1 politically:1 motivated:1 attack:3 denigrate:1 deutsche:1 physik:1 movement:1 entire:1 remind:1 inadequacy:1 tell:1 office:1 somewhere:1 non:6 friend:1 colleague:1 impress:1 doctrine:1 differ:1 gender:1 race:1 suspect:1 surprise:1 reaction:1 vigorously:1 notable:2 varied:1 massimo:1 piatelli:1 palmarini:1 michel:1 foucault:2 ww:1 norton:1 buckley:2 jr:1 v:2 youtube:1 richard:1 perle:1 hilary:2 putnam:2 externalism:1 wvo:1 quine:2 ku:1 leuven:1 epistemological:1 reading:1 october:1 alan:3 dershowitz:2 israeli:1 palestinian:1 conflict:1 democracy:6 name:2 social:5 forum:1 porto:1 alegre:1 personal:2 vision:1 fairly:1 origin:1 enlightenment:3 pp:1 praise:1 note:5 properly:1 inheritor:1 liberal:2 ideal:1 sympathizer:1 anarcho:4 syndicalism:4 preface:1 edition:1 rudolf:1 rocker:3 felt:1 feel:3 within:3 grasp:1 alternative:1 catastrophe:1 drive:1 sail:1 rudolph:1 ii:2 union:2 collective:1 adult:2 express:2 event:3 publicize:1 discuss:2 hear:1 justify:1 inherently:2 illegitimate:1 burden:2 proof:1 authority:4 elevate:1 justified:2 meet:1 dismantle:1 sake:1 unjustified:1 legitimate:1 exert:1 prevent:2 young:1 wander:1 traffic:1 slavery:2 rent:1 owner:1 wage:1 integrity:1 destroy:1 undermine:1 freedom:3 control:6 workplace:1 held:1 lowell:1 mill:1 girl:1 specifically:3 double:1 standard:2 preach:1 promote:1 ally:2 democratic:5 repressive:1 organization:2 chile:2 augusto:1 pinochet:1 massive:1 right:3 violation:1 intervention:1 nation:1 secret:1 aid:1 contra:1 nicaragua:1 fit:1 description:1 terrorism:1 evening:1 mass:6 propaganda:7 arm:1 buy:1 priesthood:1 corporation:3 intertwine:1 reference:5 walter:1 lippmann:1 coauthor:1 manufacture:3 consent:4 public:5 global:2 drug:4 misleading:1 favor:1 prevention:1 military:1 action:3 crop:2 tobacco:1 mention:1 governmental:1 exposition:1 profitable:1 marijuana:1 effect:1 achieve:2 persecute:1 poor:1 carry:1 stated:1 goal:1 policymakers:1 aware:1 substance:2 abuse:1 reasonably:1 clear:2 historical:2 record:1 substances:1 tend:1 criminalize:1 associate:1 call:2 dangerous:1 criminalization:1 technique:1 capitalist:1 big:2 business:6 sympathize:1 leninist:1 value:2 morally:1 consistent:1 unreconstructed:1 humanist:2 highly:1 place:1 bertrand:2 russell:2 dewey:1 root:2 revolutionary:1 character:1 bill:1 bennett:1 paula:1 zahn:1 cnn:1 clarify:1 evaluate:1 senseless:1 put:1 advance:1 struggle:1 admire:1 limit:1 coercion:1 individual:1 close:1 classlessness:1 interpersonal:1 virtually:1 scathing:1 inconsistent:1 welfare:1 care:1 face:2 tomorrow:2 ok:1 pretend:1 fate:1 stay:1 seminar:1 room:1 coffee:1 privileged:1 humane:1 slogan:1 enforcement:1 health:2 safety:1 regulation:1 provision:1 national:4 insurance:1 future:2 anything:1 merit:1 contempt:1 luxury:1 disregard:1 live:2 try:1 survive:1 zmag:2 org:3 htm:1 answer:1 boring:1 attract:1 whatever:1 persona:1 interested:2 rebel:2 sway:1 eloquence:1 emotion:1 false:4 ray:1 suarez:1 january:2 info:2 summarize:1 strictly:1 pacifist:1 prominently:1 lifetime:1 protest:1 withhold:1 tax:2 peace:2 walk:1 involvement:1 caveat:1 preferable:1 outcome:1 end:1 early:1 diplomacy:1 dropping:1 nuclear:1 bomb:1 hiroshima:1 nagasaki:1 unspeakable:1 crime:1 exchange:1 fryar:1 calhoun:1 murray:1 arthur:1 dorfman:1 censorship:1 refuse:1 legal:1 libel:1 daily:1 camera:1 israel:5 supporter:3 reality:1 moral:1 degeneration:1 probable:1 ultimate:1 destruction:1 choice:1 expansion:1 security:1 palestine:1 topic:2 expert:1 tenuous:1 overstate:1 anyone:1 ultimately:1 leave:1 sept:1 oct:1 basis:1 fundamental:1 confer:1 mathematician:1 combinatorialists:1 evolutionary:1 nobel:2 prize:2 laureate:1 medicine:1 physiology:1 niels:1 k:1 jerne:2 immune:2 equate:1 component:1 protein:1 stockholm:1 nim:2 chimpsky:2 chimpanzee:1 columbia:2 uniquely:1 donald:1 knuth:1 admits:1 honeymoon:2 greatly:1 admit:1 copy:1 marvelous:1 programmer:1 perceived:2 role:1 explore:1 depth:1 detailed:1 subtle:1 violent:1 totalitarian:2 physical:1 readily:1 coerce:1 population:1 remark:1 bludgeon:1 systemic:1 bias:4 economic:1 cause:1 conspiracy:1 five:1 filter:6 pas:1 systematically:1 distort:2 coverage:3 ownership:1 funding:2 majority:1 advertising:1 reader:2 profit:1 oriented:1 sell:1 audience:1 advertiser:1 expect:1 reflect:1 desire:1 dependent:1 institution:1 flak:1 fourth:1 refers:1 pressure:1 suppose:1 norm:1 fifth:2 profession:1 journalism:1 text:1 anticommunism:1 soviet:1 broaden:1 allow:1 decentralize:1 conspiratorial:1 mobilize:1 élite:4 consensus:1 frame:1 appearance:1 test:2 empirically:1 pick:1 pair:2 objectively:1 except:1 alignment:1 official:2 enemy:2 murder:1 religious:1 thoroughly:1 devote:1 amount:1 matter:1 victim:2 worthy:1 bad:1 downplay:1 story:1 client:1 unworthy:1 tet:1 offensive:1 behave:1 subserviently:1 achievement:1 award:5 honor:1 spring:1 locke:1 memorial:4 nehru:1 delhi:2 huizinga:1 leiden:1 massey:1 toronto:2 davie:2 cape:1 town:1 van:1 zyl:1 slabbert:1 tb:1 crisis:1 honorary:3 degree:2 following:1 div:2 london:1 chicago:2 loyola:1 swarthmore:1 college:3 bard:1 georgetown:1 amherst:1 buenos:1 aire:1 mcgill:1 universitat:1 rovira:1 virgili:1 villanova:1 connecticut:1 maine:1 scuola:1 normale:1 superiore:1 western:1 ontario:1 universityuniversidad:1 bologna:1 universidad:2 la:1 frontera:1 calcutta:1 nacional:1 colombia:1 vrije:1 universiteit:1 brussel:1 santo:1 domingo:1 uppsala:2 athens:1 cyprus:1 academy:4 philosophical:1 professional:1 abroad:1 recipient:2 distinguish:2 psychological:1 association:1 kyoto:1 helmholtz:1 medal:3 dorothy:1 eldridge:1 peacemaker:1 ben:1 franklin:1 twice:1 winner:1 orwell:2 grant:1 council:1 teacher:1 honesty:1 clarity:1 past:1 ncte:1 serbian:2 advisory:1 board:1 fellowship:1 literary:2 sweden:1 doctor:1 commemoration:1 carolus:1 linnaeus:1 president:1 ireland:1 galway:1 erdős:1 vote:2 poll:2 british:1 prospect:1 react:1 compile:1 statesman:1 seventh:1 actor:1 viggo:1 mortensen:1 avant:1 garde:1 guitarrist:1 buckethead:1 dedicate:1 album:1 pandemoniumfromamerica:1 revolves:1 left:1 wing:1 deal:1 spectrum:1 bibliography:1 filmography:1 director:11 mark:2 achbar:2 peter:1 wintonick:1 rebecca:1 chaiklin:1 donovan:1 leitch:1 terror:2 junkerman:2 morality:1 without:1 pause:1 tv:1 pascoe:1 jennifer:1 abbott:1 writer:1 joel:1 bakan:1 promised:1 land:1 sut:1 jhally:1 bathsheba:1 ratzkoff:1 racism:1 journalist:1 nicolas:1 rossier:1 producer:1 eli:1 choukri:1 baraka:1 lake:1 tony:1 kaye:1 et:1 compagnie:1 olivier:1 azam:1 inconvenient:1 christopher:1 marshall:1 money:1 rosenblith:1 normal:1 chomskybot:1 schützenberger:1 theorem:1 colorless:1 green:1 sleep:1 furiously:1 computability:1 homepage:1 academia:1 edu:1 talk:1 radio:1 file:1 internet:1 archive:1 video:1 anarchismtoday:1 march:1 madison:1 wisconsin:1 onebigtorrent:1 formerly:1 torrent:1 related:1 x:1 ноам:1 чомскі:1 |@bigram noam_chomsky:33 twentieth_century:1 chomsky_noam:6 professor_emeritus:1 generative_grammar:11 chomsky_hierarchy:7 verbal_behavior:6 libertarian_socialism:3 classical_liberalism:3 philadelphia_pennsylvania:1 anti_semitism:1 anti_semite:1 http_www:3 boston_globe:1 accessdate_ref:1 doctoral_thesis:1 undercover_police:1 lexical_item:1 grammatical_morpheme:1 mount_sinai:2 muscle_fiber:1 vocal_cord:1 autosegmental_phonology:1 phonology_generative:1 rely_heavily:1 subordinate_clause:1 profound_implication:1 cognitive_psychology:1 skinner_verbal:2 radical_behaviorism:1 jean_piaget:4 jean_pierre:1 optical_illusion:1 post_structuralist:1 anywhere_else:1 politically_motivated:1 somewhere_else:1 michel_foucault:1 buckley_jr:1 hilary_putnam:2 alan_dershowitz:2 porto_alegre:1 anarchism_libertarian:1 anarcho_syndicalism:4 rudolf_rocker:1 burden_proof:1 chile_augusto:1 augusto_pinochet:1 walter_lippmann:1 stated_goal:1 bertrand_russell:2 anything_else:1 bomb_hiroshima:1 hiroshima_nagasaki:1 sept_oct:1 evolutionary_psychology:1 nobel_prize:1 prize_laureate:1 donald_knuth:1 medium_outlet:1 soviet_union:1 tet_offensive:1 van_zyl:1 buenos_aire:1 scuola_normale:1 normale_superiore:1 la_frontera:1 vrije_universiteit:1 universiteit_brussel:1 santo_domingo:1 advisory_board:1 carolus_linnaeus:1 avant_garde:1 revolves_around:1 mark_achbar:2 promised_land:1 sut_jhally:1 external_link:1 |
7,422 | Eadgyth | A statue in the Cathedral of Magdeburg that is often assumed to represent Otto and Edith Edith of England (; 910 - 26 January 946), also spelt Eadgyth or Ædgyth, was the daughter of Edward the Elder, King of England and Ælfflæd, and the wife of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor. Her paternal grandparents were Alfred the Great, King of Wessex and his wife Ealhswith. King Athelstan of England sent two of his sisters to Germany, instructing Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor to choose whichever one pleased him best. Otto chose Edith and married her in 929. The remaining sister Algiva or Adiva was married to a "king near the Jupiter mountains" (the Alps). The precise identity of this sister is debated. She may have been Eadgifu of England who married King Charles III of France, or another sister otherwise unknown to history. (According to the entry for Boleslaus II of Bohemia, Adiva was his wife.) Like her brother, Athelstan, Edith was devoted to the cult of Saint Oswald, and was instrumental in introducing this cult into Germany after her marriage to the emperor. Edith and Otto's children were: Liutgarde, married Conrad the Red Liudolf, Duke of Swabia (930-September 6, 957) Her tomb is located in the Cathedral of Magdeburg; a lead sarcophagus with her name on it was found and opened in 2008 and is currently (as of 2009) being examined. Sources Freytag von Loringhoven, Baron. Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten, 1965. Klaniczay, Gábor. Holy Rulers and Blessed Princesses, 2002. | Eadgyth |@lemmatized statue:1 cathedral:2 magdeburg:2 often:1 assume:1 represent:1 otto:5 edith:5 england:4 january:1 also:1 spell:1 eadgyth:1 ædgyth:1 daughter:1 edward:1 elder:1 king:5 ælfflæd:1 wife:3 holy:3 roman:2 emperor:3 paternal:1 grandparent:1 alfred:1 great:1 wessex:1 ealhswith:1 athelstan:2 send:1 two:1 sister:4 germany:2 instruct:1 choose:2 whichever:1 one:1 please:1 best:1 marry:4 remain:1 algiva:1 adiva:2 near:1 jupiter:1 mountains:1 alp:1 precise:1 identity:1 debate:1 may:1 eadgifu:1 charles:1 iii:1 france:1 another:1 otherwise:1 unknown:1 history:1 accord:1 entry:1 boleslaus:1 ii:1 bohemia:1 like:1 brother:1 devote:1 cult:2 saint:1 oswald:1 instrumental:1 introduce:1 marriage:1 child:1 liutgarde:1 conrad:1 red:1 liudolf:1 duke:1 swabia:1 september:1 tomb:1 locate:1 lead:1 sarcophagus:1 name:1 find:1 open:1 currently:1 examine:1 source:1 freytag:1 von:1 loringhoven:1 baron:1 stammtafeln:1 zur:1 geschichte:1 der:1 europäischen:1 staaten:1 klaniczay:1 gábor:1 ruler:1 bless:1 princess:1 |@bigram cathedral_magdeburg:2 paternal_grandparent:1 duke_swabia:1 zur_geschichte:1 geschichte_der:1 |
7,423 | Geography_of_Antarctica | +Antarctica Map of Antarctica Continent Antarctica Geographic coordinates Area - Total - Water 14,000,000 km² 0 km² Coastline 17,968 km Land boundaries 0 km Highest point Vinson Massif, 4,897 m Lowest point Bentley Subglacial Trench, -2,555 m Longest river Onyx River Largest inland body of water Land Use - Arable land - Permanent crops - Other 0 %0 %100 % (2005 est.) Climate: subarctic to arctic Terrain: ice and barren rock Natural resources krill, fin fish, crab Natural hazards high winds, blizzards, cyclonic storms, volcanism Environmental issues depleting ozone layer, rising sea level Photo of Booth Island in Antarctica The Blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in the Transantarctic, comes from glacial meltwater from the Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers. The fresh water stays on top of the lake and freezes, sealing in briny water below. The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and, thus, by ice. The Antarctic continent, located in the Earth's southern hemisphere, is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle. It is surrounded by the southern waters of the World Ocean – alternatively (depending on source), it is washed by the Southern (or Antarctic) Ocean or the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. With an area of more than 14 million km², it is the fifth-largest continent and about 1.3 times larger than Europe. Some 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, the world's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water. Averaging at least 1.6 km thick, the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur (e.g., Lake Vostok). Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery. Only about 2% of the continent is uncovered by ice. Physically, Antarctica is divided in two by mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. Western Antarctica and Eastern Antarctica correspond roughly to the eastern and western hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian. This usage has been regarded as Eurocentric by some, and the alternative terms Lesser Antarctica and Greater Antarctica (respectively) are sometimes preferred. Western Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. There has been some concern about this ice sheet, because there is a small chance that it will collapse. If it does, ocean levels would rise by a few metres in a very short period of time. Countries Regions Antarctica Dependences and territories Bouvet Island French Southern and Antarctic Lands Heard and McDonald Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Peter I Island Volcanoes There are four volcanoes on the mainland of Antarctica that are considered to be active on the basis of observed fumarolic activity or "recent" tephra deposits: Mount Melbourne (2,730 m) (74°21'S., 164°42'E.), a stratovolcano; Mount Berlin (3,500 m) (76°03'S., 135°52'W.), a stratovolcano; Mount Kauffman (2,365 m) (75°37'S., 132°25'W.), a stratovolcano; and Mount Hampton (3,325 m) (76°29'S., 125°48'W.), a volcanic caldera. Several volcanoes on offshore islands have records of historic activity. Mount Erebus (3,795 m), a stratovolcano on Ross Island with 10 known eruptions and 1 suspected eruption. On the opposite side of the continent, Deception Island (62°57'S., 60°38'W.), a volcanic caldera with 10 known and 4 suspected eruptions, have been the most active. Buckle Island in the Balleny Islands (66°50'S., 163°12'E.), Penguin Island (62°06'S., 57°54'W.), Paulet Island (63°35'S., 55°47'W.), and Lindenberg Island (64°55'S., 59°40'W.) are also considered to be active. See also List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands Geology of Antarctica Pritchard Peak External links Political Claims Map USGS TerraWeb: Satellite Image Map of Antarctica United States Antarctic Resource Center (USARC) BEDMAP Antarctic Digital Database (Topographic data for Antarctica, including web map browser) Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica (LIMA; USGS web pages) Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica (LIMA; NASA web pages) | Geography_of_Antarctica |@lemmatized antarctica:19 map:4 continent:5 geographic:1 coordinate:1 area:3 total:1 water:7 coastline:1 km:4 land:4 boundary:1 high:2 point:2 vinson:1 massif:1 low:1 bentley:1 subglacial:2 trench:1 long:1 river:2 onyx:1 large:5 inland:1 body:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:1 crop:1 est:1 climate:1 subarctic:1 arctic:1 terrain:1 ice:11 barren:1 rock:1 natural:2 resource:2 krill:1 fin:1 fish:1 crab:1 hazard:1 wind:1 blizzard:1 cyclonic:1 storm:1 volcanism:1 environmental:1 issue:1 deplete:1 ozone:1 layer:1 rise:3 sea:4 level:3 photo:1 booth:1 island:14 blue:1 cover:3 lake:4 fryxell:1 transantarctic:1 come:1 glacial:1 meltwater:1 canada:1 glacier:2 small:2 fresh:2 stay:1 top:1 freeze:1 seal:1 briny:1 geography:1 dominate:1 south:5 polar:1 location:1 thus:1 antarctic:10 locate:1 earth:1 southern:5 hemisphere:2 center:2 asymmetrically:1 around:1 pole:1 largely:1 circle:1 surround:1 world:2 ocean:4 alternatively:1 depend:1 source:1 wash:1 pacific:1 atlantic:1 indian:1 million:1 fifth:1 time:2 europe:1 sheet:5 also:4 reservoir:1 average:1 least:1 thick:1 massive:1 depress:1 continental:1 bedrock:1 liquid:1 occur:1 e:3 g:1 vostok:1 shelf:1 populate:1 periphery:1 uncover:1 physically:1 divide:1 two:1 mountain:1 close:1 neck:1 ross:2 weddell:1 western:3 eastern:2 correspond:1 roughly:1 relative:1 greenwich:1 meridian:1 usage:1 regard:1 eurocentric:1 alternative:1 term:1 lesser:1 great:1 respectively:1 sometimes:1 preferred:1 west:1 concern:1 chance:1 collapse:1 would:1 metre:1 short:1 period:1 country:1 region:1 dependence:1 territory:1 bouvet:1 french:1 heard:1 mcdonald:1 georgia:1 sandwich:1 peter:1 volcano:3 four:1 mainland:1 consider:2 active:3 basis:1 observed:1 fumarolic:1 activity:2 recent:1 tephra:1 deposit:1 mount:5 melbourne:1 stratovolcano:4 berlin:1 w:7 kauffman:1 hampton:1 volcanic:2 caldera:2 several:1 offshore:1 record:1 historic:1 erebus:1 known:2 eruption:3 suspected:2 opposite:1 side:1 deception:1 buckle:1 balleny:1 penguin:1 paulet:1 lindenberg:1 see:1 list:1 sub:1 geology:1 pritchard:1 peak:1 external:1 link:1 political:1 claim:1 usgs:2 terraweb:1 satellite:1 image:3 united:1 state:1 usarc:1 bedmap:1 digital:1 database:1 topographic:1 data:1 include:1 web:3 browser:1 landsat:2 mosaic:2 lima:2 page:2 nasa:1 |@bigram geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 deplete_ozone:1 ozone_layer:1 glacial_meltwater:1 southern_hemisphere:1 ice_sheet:5 lake_vostok:1 weddell_sea:1 greenwich_meridian:1 bouvet_island:1 heard_mcdonald:1 mount_erebus:1 external_link:1 landsat_image:2 |
7,424 | Feynman_diagram | In this Feynman diagram, an electron and positron annihilate producing a virtual photon that becomes a quark-antiquark pair. Then one radiates a gluon. In quantum field theory a Feynman diagram is an intuitive graphical representation of a contribution to the transition amplitude or correlation function of a quantum mechanical or statistical field theory. Within the canonical formulation of quantum field theory a Feynman diagram represents a term in the Wick's expansion of the perturbative S-matrix. The transition amplitude is the matrix element of the S-matrix between the initial and the final states of the quantum system. Alternatively, the path integral formulation of quantum field theory represents the transition amplitude as a weighted sum of all possible histories of the system from the initial to the final state, in terms of either particles or fields. A Feynman diagram is then a contribution of a particular class of particle paths, which join and split as described by the diagram. Feynman diagrams were developed by Richard Feynman, and are named after him. Motivation and history In this diagram, a kaon, made of an up and anti-strange quark, decays weakly into three pions, with intermediate steps involving a W boson and a gluon. When calculating scattering cross sections in particle physics, the interaction between particles can be described by starting from a free field which describes the incoming and outgoing particles, and including an interaction Hamiltonian to describe how the particles deflect one another. The amplitude for scattering is the sum of each possible interaction history over all possible intermediate particle states. The number of times the interaction Hamiltonian acts is the order of the perturbation expansion, and the time-dependent perturbation theory for fields is known as the Dyson series. When the intermediate states at intermediate times are energy eigenstates, collections of particles with a definite momentum, the series is called old-fashioned perturbation theory. The Dyson series can be alternately rewritten as a sum over Feynman diagrams, where at each interaction vertex both the energy and momentum are conserved, but where the length of the energy momentum four vector is not equal to the mass. The Feynman diagrams are much easier to keep track of than old-fashioned terms, because the old-fashioned way treats the particle and antiparticle contributions as separate. Each Feynman diagram is the sum of exponentially many old fashioned terms, because each internal line can separately represent either a particle or an antiparticle. In a non-relativistic theory, there are no antiparticles and there is no doubling, so each Feynman diagram includes only one term. Feynman gave a prescription for calculating the amplitude for any given diagram from a field theory Lagrangian, the Feynman rules. Each internal line corresponds to a factor of the corresponding virtual particle's propagator; each vertex where lines meet gives a factor derived from an interaction term in the Lagrangian, and incoming and outgoing lines carry an energy, momentum, and spin. In addition to their value as a mathematical tool, Feynman diagrams provide deep physical insight into the nature of particle interactions. Particles interact in every way available; in fact, intermediate virtual particles are allowed to propagate faster than light. The probability of each final state is then obtained by summing over all such possibilities. This is closely tied to the functional integral formulation of quantum mechanics, also invented by Feynman–see path integral formulation. The naïve application of such calculations often produces diagrams whose amplitudes are infinite, because the short-distance particle interactions require a careful limiting procedure, to include particle self-interactions. The technique of renormalization, suggested by Ernst Stueckelberg and Hans Bethe and implemented by Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga compensates for this effect and eliminates the troublesome infinities. After renormalization, calculations using Feynman diagrams match experimental results with very good accuracy. Feynman diagram and path integral methods are also used in statistical mechanics. Alternative names Murray Gell-Mann always referred to Feynman diagrams as Stueckelberg diagrams, after a Swiss physicist, Ernst Stueckelberg, who devised a similar notation many years earlier. Stueckelberg was motivated by the need for a manifestly covariant formalism for quantum field theory, but did not provide as automated a way to handle symmetry factors and loops, although he was first to find the correct physical interpretation in terms of forward and backward in time particle paths, all without the path-integral. The Jaguar and the Fox - 00.07 Historically they were sometimes called Feynman-Dyson diagrams or Dyson graphs, Gribbin, John and Mary. Richard Feynman: A Life in Science, Penguin-Putnam, 1997 Ch 5. because when they were introduced the path integral was unfamiliar, and Freeman Dyson's derivation from old-fashioned perturbation theory was easier to follow for physicists trained in earlier methods. Particle-Path Interpretation A Feynman diagram is a representation of quantum field theory processes in terms of particle paths. The particle trajectories are represented by the lines of the diagram, which can be squiggly or straight, with an arrow or without, depending on the type of particle. A point where lines connect to other lines is an interaction vertex, and this is where the particles meet and interact--- by emitting or absorbing new particles, deflecting one another, or changing type. There are three different types of lines: internal lines connect two vertices, incoming lines extend from "the past" to a vertex and represent an initial state, and outgoing lines extend from a vertex to "the future" and represent the final state. Sometimes, the bottom of the diagram is the past and the top the future; other times, the past is to the left and the future to the right. When calculating correlation functions instead of scattering amplitudes, there is no past and future and all the lines are internal. The particles then begin and end on little x's, which represent the positions of the operators whose correlation is being calculated. Feynman diagrams are a pictorial representation of a contribution to the total amplitude for a process which can happen in several different ways. When a group of incoming particles are to scatter off each other, the process can be thought of as one where the particles travel over all possible paths, including paths that go backward in time. Feynman diagrams are often confused with spacetime diagrams and bubble chamber images because they all describe particle scattering. Feynman diagrams are graphs that represent the trajectories of particles in intermediate stages of a scattering process. Unlike a bubble chamber picture, only the sum of all the Feynman diagrams represent any given particle interaction; particles do not choose a particular diagram each time they interact. The law of summation is in accord with the principle of superposition--- every diagram contributes a factor to the total amplitude for the process. Description A Feynman diagram represents a perturbative contribution to the amplitude of a quantum transition from some initial quantum state to some final quantum state. For example, in the process of electron-positron annihilation the initial state is one electron and one positron, the final state — two photons. The initial state is often assumed to be at the right of the diagram and the final state — at the left (although other conventions are also used quite often). A Feynman diagram consists of points, called vertexes, and lines attached to the vertexes. The particles in the initial state are depicted by lines sticking out in the direction of the initial state (e.g. to the right), the particles in the final state are represented by lines sticking out in the direction of the final state (e.g. to the left). In QED there are two types of particles: electrons/positrons (called fermions) and photons (called gauge bosons). They are represented in Feynman diagrams as follows: Electron in the initial state is represented by a solid line with an arrow pointing toward the vertex (•←). Electron in the final state is represented by a line with an arrow pointing away from the vertex: (←•). Positron in the initial state is represented by a solid line with an arrow pointing away from the vertex: (•→). Positron in the final state is represented by a line with an arrow pointing toward the vertex: (→•). Photon in the initial and the final state is represented by a wavy line (•~ and ~•). In a gauge theory (of which QED is a fine example) a vertex always has three lines attached to it: one bosonic line, one fermionic line with arrow toward the vertex, and one fermionic line with arrow away from the vertex. The vertexes might be connected by a bosonic or fermionic propagator. A bosonic propagator is represented by a wavy line connecting two vertexes (•~•). A fermionic propagator is represented by a solid line (with an arrow in one or another direction) connecting two vertexes, (•←•). The number of vertexes gives the order of the term in the perturbation series expansion of the transition amplitude. ~•← ↓ ~•→ For example, this second order Feynman diagram contributes to a process (called electron-positron annihilation) where in the initial state (at the right) there is one electron (•←) and one positron (•→) and in the final state (at the left) there are two photons (~•). Canonical quantization formulation Perturbative S-matrix The probability amplitude for a transition of a quantum system from the initial state to the final state is given by the matrix element where is the S-matrix. In the canonical quantum field theory the S-matrix is represented within the interaction picture by the perturbation series in the powers of the interaction Lagrangian, where is the interaction Lagrangian and signifies the time-product of operators. A Feynman diagram is a graphical representation of a term in the Wick's expansion of the time product in the -th order term of the S-matrix, where signifies the normal-product of the operators and takes care of the possible sign change when commuting the fermionic operators to bring them together for a contraction (a propagator). Feynman rules The diagrams are drawn according to the Feynman rules which depend upon the interaction Lagrangian. For the QED interaction Lagrangian, , describing the interaction of a fermionic field with a bosonic gauge field , the Feynman rules can be formulated in coordinate space as follows: Each integration coordinate is represented by a point (sometimes called a vertex); A bosonic propagator is represented by a curvy line connecting two points; A fermionic propagator is represented by a solid line connecting two points; A bosonic field is represented by a curvy line attached to the point ; A fermionic field is represented by a solid line attached to the point with an arrow toward the point; A fermionic field is represented by a solid line attached to the point with an arrow from the point; Example: second order processes in QED The second order perturbation term in the S-matrix is Scattering of fermions The Feynman diagram of the term The Wick's expansion of the integrand gives (among others) the following term where is the electromagnetic contraction (propagator) in the Feynman gauge. This term is represented by the Feynman diagram at the right. This diagram gives contributions to the following processes: scattering (initial state at the right, final state at the left of the diagram); scattering (initial state at the left, final state at the right of the diagram); scattering (initial state at the bottom/top, final state at the top/bottom of the diagram). Compton scattering and annihilation/generation of pairs Another interesting term in the expansion is where is the fermionic contraction (propagator). Path integral formulation In a path-integral, the field Lagrangian, integrated over all possible field histories, defines the probability amplitude to go from one field configuration to another. In order to make sense, the field theory should have a good ground state, and the integral should be performed a little bit rotated into imaginary time. Scalar Field Lagrangian A simple example is the free relativistic scalar field in d-dimensions, whose action integral is: The probability amplitude for a process is: where A and B are space-like hypersurfaces which define the boundary conditions. The collection of all the on the starting hypersurface give the initial value of the field, analogous to the starting position for a point particle, and the field values at each point of the final hypersurface defines the final field value, which is allowed to vary, giving a different amplitude to end up at different values. This is the field-to-field transition amplitude. The path integral gives the expectation value of operators between the initial and final state: and in the limit that A and B recede to the infinite past and the infinite future, the only contribution that matters is from the ground state (this is only rigorously true if the path-integral is defined slightly rotated into imaginary time). The path integral should be thought of as analogous to a probability distribution, and it is convenient to define it so that multiplying by a constant doesn't change anything: The normalization factor on the bottom is called the partition function for the field, and it coincides with the statistical mechanical partition function at zero temperature when rotated into imaginary time. The initial-to-final amplitudes are ill-defined if you think of things in the continuum limit right from the beginning, because the fluctuations in the field can become unbounded. So the path-integral should be thought of as on a discrete square lattice, with lattice spacing and the limit should be taken carefully. If the final results do not depend on the shape of the lattice or the value of a, then the continuum limit exists. On a lattice, the field can be expanded in Fourier modes: Where the integration domain is over k restricted to a cube of side length , so that large values of k are not allowed. It is important to note that the k measure contains the factors of from Fourier transforms, this is the best standard convention for k integrals in QFT. The lattice means that fluctuations at large k are not allowed to contribute right away, they only start to contribute in the limit . Sometimes, instead of a lattice, the field modes are just cut off at high values of k instead. It is also convenient from time to time to consider the space-time volume to be finite, so that the k modes are also a lattice. This is not strictly as necessary as the space-lattice limit, because interactions in k are not localized, but it is convenient for keeping track of the factors in front of the k-integrals and the momentum-conserving delta functions which will arise. On a lattice, the action needs to be discretized: where means that x and y are nearest lattice neighbors. The discretization should be thought of as defining what the derivative means. In terms of the lattice Fourier modes, the action can be written: Which for k near zero is: Which is the continuum Fourier transform of the original action. In finite volume, the quantity is not infinitesimal, but becomes the volume of a box made by neighboring Fourier modes, or . The field is real valued, so the Fourier transform obeys: In terms of real and imaginary parts, the real part of is an even function of k, while the imaginary part is odd. The Fourier transform avoids double-counting, so that it can be written: over an integration domain which integrates over each pair (k,-k) exactly once. For a complex scalar field with action: The Fourier transform is unconstrained: and the integral is over all k. Integrating over all different values of is equivalent to integrating over all Fourier modes, because taking a Fourier transform is a unitary linear transformation of field coordinates. When you change coordinates in a multidimensional integral by a linear transformation, the value of the new integral is given by the determinant of the transformation matrix. If Then If A is a rotation, then so that , and the sign depends on whether the rotation includes a reflection or not. The matrix which changes coordinates from to can be read off from the definition of a Fourier transform. and the Fourier inversion theorem tells you the inverse: which is the complex conjugate-transpose, up to factors of . On a finite volume lattice, the determinant is nonzero and independent of the field values. and the path integral is a separate factor at each value of k. The factor is the infinitesimal volume of a discrete cell in k-space, in a square lattice box , where L is the side-length of the box. Each separate factor is an oscillatory Gaussian, and the width of the Gaussian diverges as the volume goes to infinity. In imaginary time, the Euclidean action becomes positive definite, and can be interpreted as a probability distribution. The probability of a field having values is The expectation value of the field is the statistical expectation value of the field when chosen according to the probability distribution: Since the probability of is a product, the value of at each separate value of k is independently Gaussian distributed. The variance of the Gaussian is 1/ (k^2 d^dk), which is formally infinite, but that just means that the fluctuations are unbounded in infinite volume. In any finite volume, the integral is replaced by a discrete sum, and the variance of the integral is . Monte-Carlo The path integral defines a probabilistic algorithm to generate a Euclidean scalar field configuration. Randomly pick the real and imaginary parts of each Fourier mode at wavenumber k to be a gaussian random variable with variance . This generates a configuration at random, and the Fourier transform gives . For real scalar fields, the algorithm must generate only one of each pair , and make the second the complex conjugate of the first. To find any correlation function, generate a field again and again by this procedure, and find the statistical average: where is the number of configurations, and the sum is of the product of the field values on each configuration. The Euclidean correlation function is just the same as the correlation function in statistics or statistical mechanics. The quantum mechanical correlation functions are an analytic continuation of the Euclidean correlation functions. For free fields with a quadratic action, the probability distribution is a high dimensional Gaussian, and the statistical average is given by an explicit formula. But the Monte-carlo method also works well for bosonic interacting field theories where there is no closed form for the correlation functions. Scalar Propagator Each mode is independently Gaussian distributed. The expectation of field modes is easy to calculate: for , since then the two Gaussian random variables are independent and both have zero mean. in finite volume V, when the two k-values coincide, since this is the variance of the Gaussian. In the infinite volume limit, Strictly speaking, this is an approximation: the lattice propagator is: But near k=0, for field fluctuations long compared to the lattice spacing, the two forms coincide. It is important to emphasize that the delta functions contain factors of , so that they cancel out the factors in the measure for k integrals. where is the ordinary one-dimensional Dirac delta function. This convention for delta-functions is not universal--- some authors keep the factors of in the delta functions (and in the k-integration) explicit. Equation of Motion The form of the propagator can be more easily found by using the equation of motion for the field. From the Lagrangian, the equation of motion is: and in an expectation value, this says: Where the derivatives act on x, and the identity is true everywhere except when x and y coincide, and the operator order matters. The form of the singularity can be understood from the canonical commutation relations to be a delta-function. Defining the (euclidean) Feynman propagator as the Fourier transform of the time-ordered two-point function (the one that comes from the path-integral): So that: If the equations of motion are linear, the propagator will always be the reciprocal of the quadratic-form matrix which defines the free Lagrangian, since this gives the equations of motion. This is also easy to see directly from the Path integral. The factor of i disappears in the Euclidean theory. Wick Theorem Because each field mode is an independent Gaussian, the expectation values for the product of many field modes obeys Wick's theorem: is zero unless the field modes coincide in pairs. This means that it is zero for an odd number of 's, and for an even number of phi's, it is equal to a contribution from each pair separately, with a delta function. where the sum is over each partition of the field modes into pairs, and the product is over the pairs. For example, An interpretation of Wick's theorem is that each field insertion can be thought of as a dangling line, and the expectation value is calculated by linking up the lines in pairs, putting a delta function factor that ensures that the momentum of each partner in the pair is equal, and dividing by the propagator. Higher Gaussian moments--- completing Wick's theorem There is a subtle point left before Wick's theorem is proved--- what if more than two of the phi's have the same momentum? If its an odd number, the integral is zero, negative values cancel with the positive values, But if the number is even, the integral is positive. The previous demonstration assumed that the phi's would only match up in pairs. But the theorem is correct even when arbitrarily many of the phis are equal, and this is a notable property of Gaussian integration: Dividing by I, If Wick's theorem were correct, the higher moments would be given by all possible pairings of a list of 2n x's: where the x-s are all the same variable, the index is just to keep track of the number of ways to pair them. The first x can be paired with 2n-1 others, leaving 2n-2. The next unpaired x can be paired with 2n-3 different x's leaving 2n-4, and so on. This means that Wick's theorem, uncorrected, says that the expectation value of should be: and this is in fact the correct answer. So Wick's theorem holds no matter how many of the momenta of the internal variables coincide. Interaction Interactions are represented by higher order contributions, since quadratic contributions are always Gaussian. The simplest interaction is the quartic self-interaction, with an action: The reason for the combinatorial factor 4! will be clear soon. Writing the action in terms of the lattice (or continuum) Fourier modes: Where is the free action, whose correlation functions are given by Wick's theorem. The exponential of S in the path integral can be expanded in powers of , giving a series of corrections to the free action. The path integral for the interacting action is then a power series of corrections to the free action. The term represented by X should be thought of as four half-lines, one for each factor of . The half-lines meet at a vertex, which contributes a delta-function which ensures that the sum of the momenta are all equal. To compute a correlation function in the interacting theory, there is a contribution from the X terms now. For example, the path-integral for the four-field correlator: which in the free field was only nonzero when the momenta k were equal in pairs, is now nonzero for all values of the k. The momenta of the insertions can now match up with the momenta of the X's in the expansion. The insertions should also be thought of as half-lines, four in this case, which carry a momentum k, but one which is not integrated. The lowest order contribution comes from the first nontrivial term in the Taylor expansion of the action. Wick's theorem requires that the momenta in the X half-lines, the factors in X, should match up with the momenta of the external half-lines in pairs. The new contribution is equal to: The 4! inside X is canceled because there are exactly 4! ways to match the half-lines in X to the external half-lines. Each of these different ways of matching the half-lines together in pairs contributes exactly once, regardless of the values of the k's, by Wick's theorem. Feynman Diagrams The expansion of the action in powers of X gives a series of terms with progressively higher number of X's. The contribution from the term with exactly n X's are called n-th order. The n-th order terms has: 4n internal half-lines, which are the factors of from the X's. These all end on a vertex, and are integrated over all possible k. external half-lines, which are the come from the insertions in the integral. By Wick's theorem, each pair of half-lines must be paired together to make a line, and this line gives a factor of which multiplies the contribution. This means that the two half-lines that make a line are forced to have equal and opposite momentum. The line itself should be labelled by an arrow, drawn parallel to the line, and labeled by the momentum in the line k. The half-line at the tail end of the arrow carries momentum k, while the half-line at the head-end carries momentum -k. If one of the two half-lines is external, this kills the integral over the internal k, since it forces the internal k to be equal to the external k. If both are internal, the integral over k remains. The diagrams which are formed by linking the half-lines in the X's with the external half-lines, representing insertions, are the Feynman diagrams of this theory. Each line carries a factor of , the propagator, and either goes from vertex to vertex, or ends at an insertion. If it is internal, it is integrated over. At each vertex, the total incoming k is equal to the total outgoing k. The number of ways of making a diagram by joining half-lines into lines almost completely cancels the factorial factors coming from the Taylor series of the exponential and the 4! at each vertex. Loop Order A tree diagram is one where all the internal lines have momentum which is completely determined by the external lines and the condition that the incoming and outgoing momentum are equal at each vertex. The contribution of these diagrams is a product of propagators, without any integration. An example of a tree diagram is the one where each of four external lines end on an X. Another is when eight external lines end on two X's. A third is when three external lines end on an X, and the remaining half-line joins up with another X, and the remaining half-lines of this X run off to external lines. It is easy to verify that in all these cases, the momenta on all the internal lines is determined by the external momenta and the condition of momentum conservation in each vertex. A diagram which is not a tree diagram is called a loop diagram, and an example is one where two lines of an X are joined to external lines, while the remaining two lines are joined to each other. The two lines joined to each other can have any momentum at all, since they both enter and leave the same vertex. A more complicated example is one where two X's are joined to each other by matching the legs one to the other. This diagram has no external lines at all. The reason loop diagrams are called loop diagrams is because the number of k-integrals which are left undetermined by momentum conservation is equal to the number of independent closed loops in the diagram, where independent loops are counted as in homology theory. The homology is real-valued (actually R^d valued), the value associated with each line is the momentum. The boundary operator takes each line to the sum of the end-vertices with a positive sign at the head and a negative sign at the tail. The condition that the momentum is conserved is exactly the condition that the boundary of the k-valued weighted graph is zero. A set of k-values can be relabeled whenever there is a closed loop going from vertex to vertex, never revisiting the same vertex. Such a cycle can be thought of as the boundary of a 2-cell. The k-labelings of a graph which conserve momentum (which have zero boundary) up to redefinitions of k (up to boundaries of 2-cells) define the first homology of a graph. The number of independent momenta which are not determined is then equal to the number of independent homology loops. For many graphs, this is equal to the number of loops as counted in the most intuitive way. Symmetry factors The number of ways to form a given Feynman diagram by joining together half-lines is large, and by Wick's theorem, each way of pairing up the half-lines contributes equally. Often, this completely cancels the factorials in the denominator of each term, but the cancellation is sometimes incomplete. The uncancelled denominator is called the symmetry factor of the diagram. The contribution of each diagram to the correlation function must be divided by its symmetry factor. For example, consider the Feynman diagram formed from two external lines joined to one X, and the remaining two half-lines in the X joined to each other. There are 4*3 ways to join the external half-lines to the X, and then there is only one way to join the two remaining lines to each other. The X comes divided by 4!=4*3*2, but the number of ways to link up the X half lines to make the diagram is only 4*3, so the contribution of this diagram is divided by two. For another example, consider the diagram formed by joining all the half-lines of one X to all the half-lines of another X. This diagram is called a vacuum bubble, because it does not link up to any external lines. There are 4! ways to form this diagram, but the denominator includes a 2! (from the expansion of the exponential, there are two X's) and two factors of 4!. The contribution is multiplied by 4!/(2*4!*4!) = 1/48. Another example is the Feynman diagram formed from two X's where each X links up to two external lines, and the remaining two half-lines of each X are joined to each other. The number of ways to link an X to two external lines is 4*3, and either X could link up to either pair, giving an additional factor of 2. The remaining two half-lines in the two X's can be linked to each other in two ways, so that the total number of ways to form the diagram is 4*3*4*3*2*2, while the denominator is 4!4!2!. The total symmetry factor is 2, and the contribution of this diagram is divided by two. The symmetry factor theorem gives the symmetry factor for a general diagram: the contribution of each Feynman diagram must be divided by the order of its group of automorphisms, the number of symmetries that it has. An automorphism of a Feynman graph is a permutation M of the lines and a permutation N of the vertices with the following properties: If a line l goes from vertex v to vertex v', then M(l) goes from N(v) to N(v'). If the line is undirected, as it is for a real scalar field, then M(l) can go from N(v') to N(v) too. If a line l ends on an external line, M(l) ends on the same external line. If there are different types of lines, M(l) should preserve the type. This theorem has an interpretation in terms of particle-paths: when identical particles are present, the integral over all intermediate particles must not double-count states which only differ by interchanging identical particles. Proof: To prove this theorem, label all the internal and external lines of a diagram with a unique name. Then form the diagram by linking the a half-line to a name and then to the other half line. Now count the number of ways to form the named diagram. Each permutation of the X's gives a different pattern of linking names to half-lines, and this is a factor of n!. Each permutation of the half-lines in a single X gives a factor of 4!. So a named diagram can be formed in exactly as many ways as the denominator of the Feynman expansion. But the number of unnamed diagrams is smaller than the number of named diagram by the order of the automorphism group of the graph. Connected diagrams: Linked cluster theorem A diagram is connected when it is connected as a graph, meaning that there is a sequence of attached lines and vertices which link any line or vertex to any other. The connected diagrams suffice to reconstruct the full Feynman series, and this is the linked cluster theorem. The full series is the sum over all diagrams, which include several connected components, each one can occur multiple times. The automorphism of the full graph consists of the automorphisms of the connected components, and an extra factor of n! for permutations of n identical copies of one connected component. But this can be seen to be a product of separate factors for each connected graph: This is the linked cluster theorem: the sum of all diagrams is the exponential of the connected ones. Vacuum Bubbles An immediate consequence of the linked-cluster theorem is that all vacuum bubbles, diagrams without external lines cancel when calculating correlation functions. A correlation function is given by a ratio of path-integrals: The top is the sum over all Feynman diagrams, including disconnected diagrams which do not link up to external lines at all. In terms of the connected diagrams, the numerator includes the same contributions of vacuum bubbles as the denominator: Where the sum over E diagrams includes only those diagrams each of whose connected components end on at least one external line. The vacuum bubbles are the same whatever the external lines, and give an overall multiplicative factor. The denominator is the sum over all vacuum bubbles, and dividing gets rid of the second factor. The vacuum bubbles then are only useful for determining Z itself, which from the definition of the path integral is equal to: where is the energy density in the vacuum. Each vacuum bubble contains a factor of zeroing the total k at each vertex, and when there are no external lines, this contains a factor of , because the momentum conservation is over-enforced. In finite volume, this factor can be identified as the total volume of space time. Dividing by the volume, the remaining integral for the vacuum bubble has an interpretation: it is a contribution to the energy density of the vacuum. Sources Correlation functions are the sum of the connected Feynman diagrams, but the formalism treats the connected and disconnected diagrams differently. Internal lines end on vertices, while external lines go off to insertions. Introducing sources unifies the formalism, by making new vertices where one line can end. Sources are external fields, fields which contribute to the action, but are not dynamical variables. A scalar field source is another scalar field h which contributes a term to the (Lorentz) Lagrangian: In the Feynman expansion, this contributes H terms with one half-line ending on a vertex. Lines in a Feynman diagram can now end either on an X vertex, or on an H-vertex, and only one line enters an H vertex. The Feynman rule for an H-vertex is that a line from an H with momentum k gets a factor of h(k). The sum of the connected diagrams in the presence of sources includes a term for each connected diagram in the absence of sources, except now the diagrams can end on the source. Traditionally, a source is represented by a little "x" with one line extending out, exactly as an insertion. where is the connected diagram with n external lines carrying momentum as indicated. The sum is over all connected diagrams, as before. The field h is not dynamical, which means that there is no path integral over h: h is just a parameter in the Lagrangian which varies from point to point. The path integral for the field is: and it is a function of the values of h at every point. One way to interpret this expression is that it is taking the Fourier transform in field space. If there is a probability density on R^n, the Fourier transform of the probability density is: The fourier transform is the expectation of an oscillatory exponential. The path integral in the presence of a source h(x) is: which, on a lattice, is the product of an oscillatory exponential for each field value: The fourier transform of a delta-function is a constant, which gives a formal expression for a delta function: This tells you what a field delta function looks like in a path-integral. For two scalar fields and , Which integrates over the Fourier transform coordinate, over h. This expression is useful for formally changing field coordinates in the path integral, much as a delta function is used to change coordinates in an ordinary multi-dimensional integral. The partition function is now a function of the field h, and the physical partition function is the value when h is the zero function: The correlation functions are derivatives of the path integral with respect to the source: In Euclidean space, source contributions to the action can still appear with a factor of "i", so that they still do a Fourier transform. Spin 1/2: Grassman integrals The field path-integral can be extended to the Fermi case, but only if the notion of integration is expanded. A Grassman integral of a free fermi field is a high-dimensional determinant or Pfaffian which defines the new type of Gaussian integration appropriate for Fermi fields. The two fundamental formulas of Grassman integration are: where M is an arbitrary matrix and are independent Grassmann variables for each index i, and Where A is an antisymmetric matrix, is a collection of Grassmann variables, and the 1/2 is to prevent double-counting (since ). In matrix notation, where and are Grassman valued row vectors, and are Grassman valued column vectors, and M is a real valued matrix: Where the last equality is a consequence of the translation invariance of the Grassman integral. The Grassman variables are external sources for , and differentiating with respect to pulls down factors of . again, in a schematic matrix notation. The meaning of the formula above is that the derivative with respect to the appropriate component of and gives the matrix element of . This is exactly analogous to the Bosonic path integration formula for a Gaussian integral of a complex Bosonic field: So that the propagator is the inverse of the matrix in the quadratic part of the action in both the Bose and Fermi case. For real Grassman fields, for Majorana fermions, the path integral is a Pfaffian times a source quadratic form, and the formulas give the square root of the determinant, just as they do for real Bosonic fields. The propagator is still the inverse of the quadratic part. The free Dirac Lagrangian: formally gives the equations of motion and the anticommutation relations of the Dirac field, just as the Klein Gordon Lagrangian in an ordinary path integral gives the equations of motion and commutation relations of the scalar field. By using the spatial fourier-transform of the Dirac field as a new basis for the Grassmann algebra, the quadratic part of the Dirac action becomes simple to invert: The propagator is the inverse of the matrix M linking and , since different values of k do not mix together. The analog of Wick's theorem matches psi and psi-bars in pairs: where S is the sign of the permutation which reorders the sequence of psi-bars and psis to put the ones which are paired up to make the delta-functions next to each other, with the psi-bar coming right before the psi. Since a psi-psi-bar pair is a commuting element of the Grassman algebra, it doesn't matter what order the pairs are in. If more than one psi/psi-bar pair have the same k, the integral is zero, and it is easy to check that the sum over pairings gives zero in this case (there are always an even number of them). This is the Grassman analog of the higher Gaussian moments which completed the Bosonic Wick's theorem earlier. The rules for spin-1/2 Dirac particles are as follows: The propagator is the inverse of the Dirac operator, the lines have arrows just as for a complex scalar field, and the diagram acquires an overall factor of -1 for each closed Fermi loop. If there are an odd number of Fermi loops, the diagram changes sign. Historically, the -1 rule was very difficult for Feynman to discover. He discovered it after a long process of trial and error, since he lacked a proper theory of Grassman integration. The rule follows from the observation that the number of Fermi lines at a vertex is always even. Each term in the Lagrangian must always be Bosonic. A Fermi loops is counted by following Fermionic lines until one comes back to the starting point, then removing those lines from the diagram. Repeating this process eventually erases all the Fermionic lines: this is the Euler algorithm to 2-color a graph, which works whenever each vertex has even degree. Note that the number of steps in the Euler algorithm is only equal to the number of independent Fermionic homology cycles in the common special case that all terms in the Lagrangian are exactly quadratic in the Fermi fields, so that each vertex has exactly two Fermionic lines. When there are four-Fermi interactions (like in the Fermi effective theory of the Weak interactions) there are more k-integrals than Fermi loops. In this case, the counting rule should apply the Euler algorithm by pairing up the Fermi lines at each vertex into pairs which together form a bosonic factor of the term in the Lagrangian, and when entering a vertex by one line, the algorithm should always leave with the partner line. To clarify and prove the rule, consider a Feynman diagram formed from vertices, terms in the Lagrangian, with Fermion fields. The full term is Bosonic, it is a commuting element of the Grassman algebra, so the order in which the vertices appear is not important. The Fermi lines are linked into loops, and when traversing the loop, one can reorder the vertex terms one after the other as one goes around without any sign cost. The exception is when you return to the starting point, and the final half-line must be joined with the unlinked first half-line. This requires one permutation to move the last psi-bar to go in front of the first psi, and this gives the sign. This rule is the only visible effect of the exclusion principle in internal lines. When there are external lines, the amplitudes are antisymmetric when two Fermi insertions for identical particles are interchanged. This is automatic in the source formalism, because the sources for Fermi fields are themselves Grassman valued. Spin 1: Photons The naive propagator for photons is infinite, since the Lagrangian for the A-field is: The quadratic form defining the propagator is non-invertible. The reason is the gauge invariance of the field, adding a gradient to A does not change the physics. To fix this problem, one needs to fix a gauge. The most convenient way is to demand that the divergence of A is some function f, whose value is random from point to point. It does no harm to integrate over the values of f, since it only determines the choice of gauge. This procedure inserts the following factor into the path integral for A: The first factor, the delta function, fixes the gauge. The second factor sums over different values of f which are inequivalent gauge fixings. This is simply The additional contribution from gauge-fixing cancels the second half of the free Lagrangian, giving the Feynman Lagrangian: which is just like four independent free scalar fields, one for each component of A. The Feynman propagator is: The one difference is that the sign of one propagator is wrong in the Lorentz case: the timelike component has an opposite sign propagator. This means that these particle states have negative norm--- they are not physical states. In the case of photons, it is easy to show by diagram methods that these states are not physical--- their contribution cancels with longitudinal photons to only leave two physical photon polarization contributions for any value of k. If the averaging over f is done with a coefficient different from 1/2, the two terms don't cancel completely. This gives a covariant Lagrangian with a coefficient which does not affect anything: and the covariant propagator for QED is: Spin 1: Nonabelian Ghosts To find the Feynman rules for nonabelian Gauge fields, the procedure which performs the Gauge fixing must be carefully corrected to account for a change of variables in the path-integral. The gauge fixing factor has an extra determinant from popping the delta function: To find the form of the determinant, consider first a simple two dimensional integral, of a function f which depends only on r, not on the angle . Inserting an integral over theta: The derivative factor ensures that popping the delta function in removes the integral. Exchanging the order of integration, but now the delta-function can be popped in y, the integral over just gives an overall factor of , while the rate of change of with a change in is just x, so this exercise reproduces the standard formula for polar integration of a radial function: In the path-integral for a nonabelian gauge field, the analogous manipulation is: The factor in front is the volume of the gauge group, and it contributes a constant which can be discarded. The remaining integral is over the gauge fixed action. To get a covariant gauge, the gauge fixing condition is the same as in the Abelian case: Whose variation under an infinitesimal gauge transformation is given by: where is the adjoint valued element of the Lie algebra at every point which performs the infinitesimal gauge transformation. This adds the Faddeev Popov determinant to the action: which can be rewritten as a Grassman integral by introducing ghost fields: The determinant is independent of f, so the path-integral over f can give the Feynman propagator (or a covariant propagator) by choosing the measure for f as in the abelian case. The full gauge fixed action is then the Yang Mills action in Feynman gauge with an additional ghost action: The diagrams are derived from this action. The propagator for the spin-1 fields has the usual Feynman form. There are vertices of degree 3 with momentum factors whose couplings are the structure constants, and vertices of degree 4 whose couplings are products of structure constants. There are additional ghost loops, which cancel out timelike and logitudinal states in A loops. In the Abelian case, the determinant for covariant gauges does not depend on A, so the ghosts do not contribute to the connected diagrams. Particle-Path representation Feynman diagrams were originally discovered by Feynman, by trial and error, as a way to represent the contribution to the S-matrix from different classes of particle trajectories. Schwinger representation The Euclidean scalar propagator has a suggestive representation: The meaning of this identity (which is an elementary integration) is made clearer by Fourier transforming to real space. The contribution at any one value of to the propagator is a Gaussian of width . The total propagation function from 0 to x is a weighted sum over all proper times of a normalized Gaussian, the probability of ending up at x after a random walk of time . The path-integral representation for the propagator is then: which is a path-integral rewrite of the Schwinger representation. The Schwinger representation is both useful for making manifest the particle aspect of the propagator, and for symmetrizing denominators of loop diagrams. Combining Denominators The Schwinger representation has an immediate practical application to loop diagrams. For example, For the diagram in the phi-4 theory formed by joining two X-s together in two half-lines, and making the remaining lines external, the integral over the internal propagators in the loop is: And one line carries momentum k and the other k+p. The asymmetry can be fixed by putting everything in the Schwinger representation. Then the exponent mostly depends on t+t' except for the asymmetrical little bit. Defining the variable u=(t+t') and v= t'/u, the variable u goes from 0 to infinity, while v goes from 0 to 1. The variable u is the total proper time for the loop, while v parametrizes the fraction of the proper time on the top of the loop vs. the bottom. The Jacobian for this transformation of variables is easy to work out from the identities: wedging: . This allows the u integral to be evaluated explicitly: leaving only the v-integral. This method, invented by Schwinger but usually attributed to Feynman, is called combining denominators. Abstractly, it is the elementary identity: But this form does not provide the physical motivation for introducing v--- v is the proportion of proper time on one of the legs of the loop. Once the denominators are combined, a shift in k to symmetrizes everything: This form shows that the moment that p^2 is more negative than 4 times the mass of the particle in the loop, which happens in a physical region of Lorentz space, the integral has a cut. This is exactly when the external momentum can create physical particles. When the loop has more vertices, there are more denominators to combine: The general rule follows from the Schwinger prescription for n+1 denominators: the integral over the Schwinger parameters can be split up as before into an integral over the total proper time and an integral over the fraction of the proper time in all but the first segment of the loop for . The v's are positive and add up to less than 1, so that the v integral is over an n dimensional simplex. The Jacobian for the coordinate transformation can be worked out as before: Wedging all these equation together: Which gives the integral: Where the simplex is the region defined by the conditions and and . Performing the u integral gives the general prescription for combining denominators: Since the numerator of the integrand is not involved, the same prescription works for any loop, no matter what the spins are carried by the legs. The interpretation of the parameters is that they are the fraction of the total proper time spent on each leg. Scattering The correlation functions of a quantum field theory describe the scattering of particles. The definition of "particle" in relativistic field theory is not self-evident, because if you try to determine the position so that the uncertainty is less than the compton wavelength, the uncertainty in energy is large enough to produce more particles and antiparticles of the same type from the vacuum. This means that the notion of a single-particle state is to some extent incompatible with the notion of an object localized in space. In the 1930s, Wigner gave a mathematical definition for single-particle states: they are a collection of states which form an irreducible representation of the Poincaré group. Single particle states describe an object with a finite mass, a well defined momentum, and a spin. This definition is fine for protons and neutrons, electrons and photons, but it excludes quarks, which are permanently confined, so the modern point of view is more accommodating: a particle is anything whose interaction can be described in terms of Feynman diagrams, which have an interpretation as a sum over particle trajectories. A field operator can act to produce a one-particle state from the vacuum, which means that the field operator produces a superposition of Wigner particle states. In the free field theory, the field produces one particle states only. But when there are interactions, the field operator can also produce 3-particle,5-particle (if there is no +/- symmetry also 2,4,6 particle) states too. To compute the scattering amplitude for single particle states only requires a careful limit, sending the fields to infinity and integrating over space to get rid of the higher-order corrections. The relation between scattering and correlation functions is the LSZ-theorem: The scattering amplitude for n particles to go to m-particles in a scattering event is the given by the sum of the Feynman diagrams that go into the correlation function for n+m field insertions, leaving out the propagators for the external legs. For example, for the interaction of the previous section, the order contribution to the (Lorentz) correlation function is: Stripping off the external propagators, that is, removing the factors of , gives the invariant scattering amplitude M: which is a constant, independent of the incoming and outgoing momentum. The interpretation of the scattering amplitude is that the sum of over all possible final states is the probability for the scattering event. The normalization of the single-particle states must be chosen carefully, however, to ensure that M is a relativistic invariant. Non-relativistic single particle states are labeled by the momentum k, and they are chosen to have the same norm at every value of k. This is because the nonrelativistic unit operator on single particle states is: In relativity, the integral over k states for a particle of mass m integrates over a hyperbola in E,k space defined by the energy-momentum relation: If the integral weighs each k point equally, the measure is not Lorentz invariant. The invariant measure integrates over all values of k and E, restricting to the hyperbola with a Lorentz invariant delta function: So the normalized k-states are different from the relativistically normalized k-states by a factor of The invariant amplitude M is then the probability amplitude for relativistically normalized incoming states to become relativistically normalized outgoing states. For nonrelativistic values of k, the relativistic normalization is the same as the nonrelativistic normalization (up to a constant factor ). In this limit, the invariant scattering amplitude is still constant. The particles created by the field phi scatter in all directions with equal amplitude. The nonrelativistic potential which scatters in all directions with an equal amplitude (in the Born approximation) is one whose Fourier transform is constant--- a delta-function potential. The lowest order scattering of the theory reveals the non-relativistic interpretation of the this theory--- it describes a collection of particles with a delta-function repulsion. Two such particles have an aversion to occupying the same point at the same time. Nonperturbative effects Thinking of Feynman diagrams as a perturbation series, nonperturbative effects like tunneling do not show up, because any effect which goes to zero faster than any polynomial does not affect the Taylor series. Even bound states are absent, since at any finite order particles are only exchanged a finite number of times, and to make a bound state, the binding force must last forever. But this point of view is misleading, because the diagrams not only describe scattering, but they also are a representation of the short-distance field theory correlations. They encode not only asymptotic processes like particle scattering, they also describe the multiplication rules for fields, the operator product expansion. Nonperturbative tunneling processes involve field configurations which on average get big when the coupling constant gets small, but each configuration is a coherent superposition of particles whose local interactions are described by Feynman diagrams. When the coupling is small, these become collective processes which involve large numbers of particles, but where the interactions between each of the particles is simple. This means that nonperturbative effects show up asymptotically in resummations of infinite classes of diagrams, and these diagrams can be locally simple. The graphs determine the local equations of motion, while the allowed large-scale configurations describe non-perturbative physics. But because Feynman propagators are nonlocal in time, translating a field process to a coherent particle language is not completely intuitive, and has only been explicitly worked out in certain special cases. In the case of nonrelativistic bound states, the Bethe-Salpeter equation describes the class of diagrams to include to describe a relativistic atom. For quantum chromodynamics, the Shifman Vainshtein Zakharov sum rules describe non-perturbatively excited long-wavelength field modes in particle language, but only in a phenomenological way. The number of Feynman diagrams at high orders of perturbation theory is very large, because there are as many diagrams as there are graphs with a given number of nodes. Nonperturbative effects leave a signature on the way in which the number of diagrams and resummations diverge at high order. It is only because non-perturbative effects appear in hidden form in diagrams that it was possible to analyze nonperturbative effects in string theory, where in many cases a Feynman description is the only one available. Mathematical details A Feynman diagram for beta decay. The straight lines in the diagrams represent fermions, while the wavy line represents virtual bosons. A Feynman diagram can be considered a graph. When considering a field composed of particles, the edges will represent (sections of) particle world lines; the vertices represent virtual interactions. Since only certain interactions are permitted, the graph is constrained to have only certain types of vertices. The type of field of an edge is its field label; the permitted types of interaction are interaction labels. The value of a given diagram can be derived from the graph; the value of the interaction as a whole is obtained by summing over all diagrams. Mathematical interpretation Feynman diagrams are really a graphical way of keeping track of deWitt indices, much like Penrose's graphical notation for indices in multilinear algebra. There are several different types for the indices, one for each field (this does not depend on how the fields are grouped; for instance, if the up quark field and down quark field are treated as different fields, then there would be the same type assigned to both of them but if they are treated as a single multicomponent field with "flavors", then there would be a problem). The edges, (i.e., propagators) are tensors of rank (2,0) in deWitt's notation (i.e., with two contravariant indices and no covariant indices), while the vertices of degree n are rank n covariant tensors which are totally symmetric among all bosonic indices of the same type and totally antisymmetric among all fermionic indices of the same type and the contraction of a propagator with a rank n covariant tensor is indicated by an edge incident to a vertex (there is no ambiguity in which "slot" to contract with because the vertices correspond to totally symmetric tensors). The external vertices correspond to the uncontracted contravariant indices. A derivation of the Feynman rules using Gaussian functional integrals is given in the functional integral article. Each Feynman diagram on its own does not have a physical significance. It's only the infinite sum over all possible (bubble-free) Feynman diagrams which gives physical results. This infinite sum is usually only asymptotically convergent. See also Stueckelberg-Feynman interpretation Invariance mechanics Penguin diagram Notes References Gerardus 't Hooft, Martinus Veltman, Diagrammar, CERN Yellow Report 1973, online David Kaiser, Drawing Theories Apart: The Dispersion of Feynman Diagrams in Postwar Physics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. ISBN 0-226-42266-6 Martinus Veltman, Diagrammatica: The Path to Feynman Diagrams, Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics, ISBN 0-521-45692-4 (expanded, updated version of above) External links Feynman diagram page at SLAC AMS article: "What's New in Mathematics: Finite-dimensional Feynman Diagrams" WikiTeX supports editing Feynman diagrams directly in Wiki articles. Drawing Feynman diagrams with FeynDiagram C++ library that produces PostScript output. Feynman Diagram Examples using Thorsten Ohl's Feynmf LaTeX package. JaxoDraw A Java program for drawing Feynman diagrams. | Feynman_diagram |@lemmatized feynman:84 diagram:134 electron:9 positron:8 annihilate:1 produce:8 virtual:5 photon:11 become:7 quark:5 antiquark:1 pair:28 one:57 radiate:1 gluon:2 quantum:16 field:111 theory:31 intuitive:3 graphical:4 representation:14 contribution:30 transition:7 amplitude:27 correlation:21 function:53 mechanical:3 statistical:7 within:2 canonical:4 formulation:6 represent:36 term:39 wick:18 expansion:13 perturbative:5 matrix:21 element:6 initial:19 final:24 state:61 system:3 alternatively:1 path:45 integral:80 weighted:3 sum:29 possible:11 history:4 either:6 particle:79 particular:2 class:4 join:16 split:2 describe:17 develop:1 richard:2 name:8 motivation:2 kaon:1 make:14 anti:1 strange:1 decay:2 weakly:1 three:4 pion:1 intermediate:7 step:2 involve:4 w:1 boson:3 calculate:7 scatter:10 cross:1 section:3 physic:5 interaction:34 start:6 free:14 incoming:8 outgo:6 include:12 hamiltonian:2 deflect:2 another:11 scattering:16 number:33 time:32 act:3 order:25 perturbation:9 dependent:1 know:1 dyson:5 series:13 energy:8 eigenstates:1 collection:5 definite:2 momentum:40 call:14 old:5 fashion:4 alternately:1 rewrite:3 vertex:63 conserve:3 length:3 four:7 vector:3 equal:18 mass:4 much:3 easy:8 keep:5 track:4 fashioned:1 way:26 treat:4 antiparticle:4 separate:5 exponentially:1 many:9 internal:16 line:137 separately:2 non:7 relativistic:8 doubling:1 give:48 prescription:4 lagrangian:22 rule:16 corresponds:1 factor:56 corresponding:1 propagator:40 meet:3 derive:3 carry:8 spin:8 addition:1 value:53 mathematical:4 tool:1 provide:3 deep:1 physical:11 insight:1 nature:1 interact:3 every:5 available:2 fact:2 allow:6 propagate:1 faster:2 light:1 probability:15 obtain:2 possibility:1 closely:1 tie:1 functional:3 mechanic:4 also:13 invent:2 see:4 naïve:1 application:2 calculation:2 often:5 whose:12 infinite:10 short:2 distance:2 require:4 careful:2 limiting:1 procedure:4 self:3 technique:1 renormalization:2 suggest:1 ernst:2 stueckelberg:5 hans:1 bethe:2 implement:1 schwinger:9 tomonaga:1 compensates:1 effect:9 eliminate:1 troublesome:1 infinity:4 use:8 match:8 experimental:1 result:3 good:2 accuracy:1 method:5 alternative:1 murray:1 gell:1 mann:1 always:8 refer:1 swiss:1 physicist:2 devise:1 similar:1 notation:5 year:1 earlier:2 motivate:1 need:3 manifestly:1 covariant:9 formalism:4 automate:1 handle:1 symmetry:9 loop:28 although:2 first:10 find:6 correct:5 interpretation:11 forward:1 backward:2 without:5 jaguar:1 fox:1 historically:2 sometimes:5 graph:16 gribbin:1 john:1 mary:1 life:1 science:1 penguin:2 putnam:1 ch:1 introduce:4 unfamiliar:1 freeman:1 derivation:2 follow:8 train:1 early:1 process:16 trajectory:4 squiggly:1 straight:2 arrow:13 depend:8 type:15 point:30 connect:14 emit:1 absorb:1 new:7 change:12 different:16 two:45 extend:4 past:5 future:5 bottom:5 top:5 left:6 right:10 instead:3 begin:1 end:19 little:4 x:51 position:3 operator:13 pictorial:1 total:12 happen:2 several:3 group:6 think:10 travel:1 go:16 confuse:1 spacetime:1 bubble:12 chamber:2 image:1 graphs:1 stage:1 unlike:1 picture:2 choose:4 law:1 summation:1 accord:3 principle:2 superposition:3 contribute:11 description:2 example:16 annihilation:3 assume:2 convention:3 quite:1 consist:2 attach:5 depict:1 stick:2 direction:5 e:7 g:2 qed:5 fermion:5 gauge:23 solid:6 toward:4 away:4 wavy:3 fine:2 bosonic:15 fermionic:15 might:1 second:7 quantization:1 power:4 signify:2 product:12 th:3 normal:1 take:5 care:1 sign:10 commute:3 bring:1 together:8 contraction:4 draw:4 upon:1 formulate:1 coordinate:9 space:13 integration:14 curvy:2 integrand:2 among:3 others:2 following:3 electromagnetic:1 compton:2 generation:1 interesting:1 integrate:10 define:17 configuration:8 sense:1 ground:2 perform:4 bit:2 rotate:3 imaginary:7 scalar:14 simple:6 dimension:1 action:25 b:2 like:7 hypersurfaces:1 boundary:6 condition:7 hypersurface:2 analogous:4 vary:2 expectation:9 limit:9 recede:1 matter:5 rigorously:1 true:2 slightly:1 distribution:4 convenient:4 multiply:3 constant:10 anything:3 normalization:4 partition:5 coincide:6 zero:13 temperature:1 ill:1 thing:1 continuum:4 beginning:1 fluctuation:4 unbounded:2 discrete:3 square:3 lattice:17 spacing:2 carefully:3 shape:1 exist:1 expand:4 fourier:25 mode:14 domain:2 k:61 restrict:2 cube:1 side:2 large:7 important:3 note:4 measure:5 contain:4 transforms:1 best:1 standard:2 qft:1 mean:14 cut:2 high:11 consider:7 volume:14 finite:10 strictly:2 necessary:1 localize:2 front:3 conserving:1 delta:21 arise:1 discretized:1 near:3 neighbor:2 discretization:1 derivative:5 write:3 transform:17 original:1 quantity:1 infinitesimal:4 box:3 real:11 obeys:1 part:7 even:8 odd:4 avoids:1 double:3 counting:3 exactly:11 complex:5 unconstrained:1 integrating:2 equivalent:1 unitary:1 linear:3 transformation:7 multidimensional:1 determinant:9 rotation:2 whether:1 reflection:1 read:1 definition:5 inversion:1 theorem:25 tell:2 inverse:5 conjugate:2 transpose:1 nonzero:3 independent:12 cell:3 l:7 oscillatory:3 gaussian:19 width:2 diverges:1 euclidean:8 positive:5 interpret:2 chosen:1 since:16 independently:2 distribute:2 variance:4 dk:1 formally:3 replace:1 monte:2 carlo:2 probabilistic:1 algorithm:6 generate:4 randomly:1 pick:1 wavenumber:1 random:5 variable:13 must:10 average:3 statistic:1 analytic:1 continuation:1 quadratic:9 dimensional:7 explicit:2 formula:6 work:6 well:2 interacting:3 closed:4 form:26 v:16 speak:1 approximation:2 long:3 compare:1 emphasize:1 cancel:10 ordinary:3 dirac:7 universal:1 author:1 equation:10 motion:8 easily:1 say:2 identity:4 everywhere:1 except:3 singularity:1 understand:1 commutation:2 relation:5 come:7 reciprocal:1 directly:2 disappears:1 obey:1 unless:1 phi:6 modes:1 insertion:10 dangling:1 link:19 put:3 ensure:4 partner:2 dividing:3 moment:4 complete:2 subtle:1 leave:10 prove:3 negative:4 previous:2 demonstration:1 would:4 arbitrarily:1 notable:1 property:2 pairing:2 list:1 index:10 next:2 unpaired:1 uncorrected:1 answer:1 hold:1 quartic:1 reason:3 combinatorial:1 clear:1 soon:1 exponential:6 correction:3 half:38 compute:2 correlator:1 case:15 low:2 nontrivial:1 taylor:3 external:38 inside:1 contributes:1 regardless:1 progressively:1 n:20 force:3 opposite:2 label:6 drawn:1 parallel:1 tail:2 head:2 kill:1 remains:1 outgoing:1 almost:1 completely:5 factorial:2 tree:3 determine:7 eight:1 third:1 remain:10 run:1 verify:1 conservation:3 enter:3 complicated:1 legs:1 undetermined:1 count:5 homology:5 actually:1 r:3 associate:1 set:1 relabeled:1 whenever:2 never:1 revisit:1 cycle:2 labelings:1 redefinition:1 equally:2 denominator:14 cancellation:1 incomplete:1 uncancelled:1 divide:6 vacuum:13 could:1 additional:4 general:3 automorphisms:2 automorphism:3 permutation:7 undirected:1 preserve:1 identical:4 present:1 differ:1 interchange:2 proof:1 unique:1 pattern:1 single:9 unnamed:1 small:3 cluster:4 sequence:2 attached:1 connected:11 suffice:1 reconstruct:1 full:5 component:7 occur:1 multiple:1 extra:2 copy:1 immediate:2 consequence:2 ratio:1 disconnect:1 numerator:2 least:1 whatever:1 overall:3 multiplicative:1 get:6 rid:2 useful:3 z:1 density:4 enforce:1 identify:1 source:15 disconnected:1 differently:1 unify:1 dynamical:2 h:15 lorentz:6 presence:2 absence:1 traditionally:1 indicate:2 parameter:3 expression:3 formal:1 look:1 multi:1 respect:3 still:4 appear:3 grassman:14 integrals:1 fermi:16 notion:3 pfaffian:2 appropriate:2 fundamental:1 arbitrary:1 grassmann:3 antisymmetric:3 prevent:1 row:1 column:1 last:3 equality:1 translation:1 invariance:3 differentiate:1 pull:1 schematic:1 meaning:2 bose:1 majorana:1 root:1 anticommutation:1 klein:1 gordon:1 spatial:1 basis:1 algebra:5 invert:1 mix:1 analog:2 psi:12 bar:6 reorder:2 check:1 acquire:1 difficult:1 discover:3 trial:2 error:2 lack:1 proper:8 observation:1 back:1 remove:3 repeat:1 eventually:1 erase:1 euler:3 color:1 degree:4 common:1 special:2 effective:1 weak:1 apply:1 clarify:1 traverse:1 around:1 cost:1 exception:1 return:1 unlinked:1 move:1 visible:1 exclusion:1 automatic:1 naive:1 invertible:1 add:3 gradient:1 fix:8 problem:2 demand:1 divergence:1 f:8 harm:1 choice:1 insert:2 inequivalent:1 fixing:3 simply:1 difference:1 wrong:1 timelike:2 norm:2 show:4 longitudinal:1 polarization:1 averaging:1 coefficient:2 affect:2 nonabelian:3 ghost:5 account:1 pop:3 angle:1 theta:1 exchange:2 rate:1 exercise:1 reproduce:1 polar:1 radial:1 manipulation:1 discard:1 abelian:3 variation:1 adjoint:1 lie:1 faddeev:1 popov:1 yang:1 mill:1 usual:1 coupling:4 structure:2 logitudinal:1 originally:1 suggestive:1 elementary:2 clearer:1 propagation:1 normalized:4 walk:1 manifest:1 aspect:1 symmetrize:2 combine:5 practical:1 p:2 asymmetry:1 everything:2 exponent:1 mostly:1 asymmetrical:1 u:6 parametrizes:1 fraction:3 jacobian:2 wedging:1 evaluate:1 explicitly:2 usually:2 attribute:1 abstractly:1 proportion:1 leg:4 shift:1 region:2 create:2 segment:1 less:2 simplex:2 wedge:1 spend:1 evident:1 try:1 uncertainty:2 wavelength:2 enough:1 extent:1 incompatible:1 object:2 wigner:2 irreducible:1 poincaré:1 proton:1 neutron:1 exclude:1 permanently:1 confine:1 modern:1 view:2 accommodating:1 send:1 lsz:1 event:2 strip:1 invariant:7 however:1 nonrelativistic:5 unit:1 relativity:1 hyperbola:2 weigh:1 relativistically:3 normalize:1 potential:2 born:1 reveal:1 repulsion:1 aversion:1 occupy:1 nonperturbative:6 tunnel:1 polynomial:1 bound:3 absent:1 bind:1 forever:1 mislead:1 encode:1 asymptotic:1 multiplication:1 tunneling:1 big:1 coherent:2 local:2 collective:1 asymptotically:2 resummations:2 locally:1 scale:1 nonlocal:1 translate:1 language:2 certain:3 salpeter:1 atom:1 chromodynamics:1 shifman:1 vainshtein:1 zakharov:1 perturbatively:1 excite:1 phenomenological:1 node:1 signature:1 diverge:1 hidden:1 analyze:1 string:1 detail:1 beta:1 diagrams:1 compose:1 edge:4 world:1 permit:1 constrain:1 permitted:1 whole:1 really:1 dewitt:2 penrose:1 multilinear:1 instance:1 assign:1 multicomponent:1 flavor:1 tensor:4 rank:3 contravariant:2 totally:3 symmetric:2 incident:1 ambiguity:1 slot:1 contract:1 correspond:2 uncontracted:1 article:3 significance:1 convergent:1 reference:1 gerardus:1 hooft:1 martinus:2 veltman:2 diagrammar:1 cern:1 yellow:1 report:1 online:1 david:1 kaiser:1 apart:1 dispersion:1 postwar:1 chicago:2 university:1 press:1 isbn:2 diagrammatica:1 cambridge:1 lecture:1 updated:1 version:1 page:1 slac:1 mathematics:1 wikitex:1 support:1 edit:1 wiki:1 feyndiagram:1 c:1 library:1 postscript:1 output:1 thorsten:1 ohl:1 feynmf:1 latex:1 package:1 jaxodraw:1 java:1 program:1 |@bigram feynman_diagram:54 electron_positron:4 quark_antiquark:1 antiquark_pair:1 quantum_mechanical:2 formulation_quantum:3 weighted_sum:2 richard_feynman:2 boson_gluon:1 incoming_outgo:4 momentum_conserve:2 old_fashioned:1 particle_antiparticle:3 quantum_mechanic:1 hans_bethe:1 statistical_mechanic:2 murray_gell:1 gell_mann:1 forward_backward:1 penguin_putnam:1 freeman_dyson:1 pictorial_representation:1 positron_annihilation:2 gauge_boson:1 probability_distribution:4 fourier_transforms:1 fourier_transform:17 conjugate_transpose:1 monte_carlo:2 random_variable:2 analytic_continuation:1 dirac_delta:1 canonical_commutation:1 commutation_relation:2 wick_theorem:15 closed_loop:2 psi_psi:3 exclusion_principle:1 gauge_invariance:1 photon_polarization:1 lie_algebra:1 yang_mill:1 schwinger_representation:5 compton_wavelength:1 proton_neutron:1 nonperturbative_effect:5 quantum_chromodynamics:1 beta_decay:1 external_link:1 finite_dimensional:1 |
7,425 | Mutagen | In biology, a mutagen (Latin, literally origin of change) is a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic material (usually DNA) of an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level. As many mutations cause cancer, mutagens are typically also carcinogens. Not all mutations are caused by mutagens: So-called "spontaneous mutations" occur due to errors in DNA replication, repair and recombination. Effects of mutations The changes in nucleic acid sequences by mutations include substitution of nucleotide base-pairs and insertions and deletions of one or more nucleotides in DNA sequences. Although some of these mutations are lethal, or cause serious disease, many have minor effects, as the changes they cause in the sequence of encoded proteins are not significant. Many mutations cause no visible effects at all, either because they occur in introns or because they do not change the amino-acid sequence, due to redundancy of codons. Genetic drift The change in a population’s genetic material due to the accumulation of random chance is called drift, and serves as a molecular clock. In general, the more nucleotide differences between two organisms, the more time has elapsed since their last common ancestor. Though it is difficult to determine in many organisms, estimates for mutation rates have been made for both E. coli and eukaryotes. It was estimated that, in these organisms, about one nucleotide in every 1010 is changed, and continues through reproduction to future generations of cells. History / Discovery of mutagenesis In the 1920s, Hermann Muller discovered that x-rays caused mutations in fruit flies. He went on to use x-rays to create Drosophila mutants that he used in his studies of genetics. He also discovered that x-rays not only mutate genes in fruit flies but also have effects on the genetic makeup of humans. Campbell, Neil A. and Jane B. Reece. Biology. 7th ed. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education, Inc, 2005. The first mutagens to be identified were carcinogens, or cancer-causing substances. Early physicians detected tumors in patients more than 2,000 years before the discovery of chromosomes and DNA. In 500 B.C., the Greek Hippocrates named crab-shaped tumors cancer (meaning crab). In England in 1775, Dr. Percivall Pott wrote a paper on the high incidence of scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps who were typically boys small enough to fit inside chimneys and clean out the soot. Pott suggested that chimney soot contained carcinogens that could cause the growth of the warts seen in scrotal cancer. Over a 150 years later, chimney soot was found to contain hydrocarbons capable of mutating DNA. In France in the 1890s, Bordeaux wine workers showed an unusually high incidence of skin cancer on the back of the neck. These workers spend their days bending over in the fields picking grapes, exposing the back of their necks to the sun. The ultraviolet (UV) radiation in natural sunlight was later identified as a mutagen. Nature of mutagens Mutagens are usually chemical compounds or ionizing radiation. Mutagens can be divided into different categories according to their effect on DNA replication: Some mutagens act as base analogs and get inserted into the DNA strand during replication in place of the substrates. Some react with DNA and cause structural changes that lead to miscopying of the template strand when the DNA is replicated. Some work indirectly by causing the cells to synthesize chemicals that have the direct mutagenic effect. The Ames test is one method to determine how mutagenic an agent is. Examples Ionizing radiation, for example X-rays, gamma rays and alpha particles UV light Base analogs, which can substitute for DNA bases and cause copying errors Deaminating agents such as Nitrous acid Intercalating agents such as Ethidium bromide Alkylating agents such as Ethylnitrosourea Transposons, sections of DNA that undergo autonomous fragment relocation/multiplication Some natural plant alkaloids, such as those from Vinca species. Bromine and some of its compounds Sodium azide Psoralen combined with ultraviolet radiation causes DNA crosslinking and hence chromosome breakage Benzine Mutagens in fiction In science fiction, mutagens are often represented as substances that are capable of completely changing the form of the recipient. This is seen in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle franchise, comic books such as Marvel Comics's Inhumans, television series, computer and video games, like Resistance: Fall of Man, Resident Evil series and Command & Conquer, and even toys - for example, Lego's Bionicle franchise. For more examples, see List of mutagens in fiction. References See also Carcinogen DNA repair Genetics Genotoxicity Pesticide Teratogen | Mutagen |@lemmatized biology:2 mutagen:12 latin:1 literally:1 origin:1 change:9 physical:1 chemical:3 agent:5 genetic:4 material:2 usually:2 dna:13 organism:4 thus:1 increase:1 frequency:1 mutation:10 natural:3 background:1 level:1 many:4 cause:11 cancer:6 typically:2 also:4 carcinogens:1 call:2 spontaneous:1 occur:2 due:3 error:2 replication:3 repair:2 recombination:1 effect:6 nucleic:1 acid:3 sequence:4 include:1 substitution:1 nucleotide:4 base:4 pair:1 insertion:1 deletion:1 one:3 although:1 lethal:1 serious:1 disease:1 minor:1 encoded:1 protein:1 significant:1 visible:1 either:1 intron:1 amino:1 redundancy:1 codon:1 drift:2 population:1 accumulation:1 random:1 chance:1 serve:1 molecular:1 clock:1 general:1 difference:1 two:1 time:1 elapse:1 since:1 last:1 common:1 ancestor:1 though:1 difficult:1 determine:2 estimate:2 rate:1 make:1 e:1 coli:1 eukaryotes:1 every:1 continue:1 reproduction:1 future:1 generation:1 cell:2 history:1 discovery:2 mutagenesis:1 hermann:1 muller:1 discover:2 x:4 ray:5 fruit:2 fly:2 go:1 use:2 create:1 drosophila:1 mutant:2 study:1 genetics:2 mutate:2 gene:1 makeup:1 human:1 campbell:1 neil:1 jane:1 b:2 reece:1 ed:1 san:1 francisco:1 ca:1 pearson:1 education:1 inc:1 first:1 identify:2 carcinogen:3 causing:1 substance:2 early:1 physician:1 detect:1 tumor:2 patient:1 year:2 chromosome:2 c:1 greek:1 hippocrates:1 name:1 crab:2 shaped:1 mean:1 england:1 dr:1 percivall:1 pott:2 write:1 paper:1 high:2 incidence:2 scrotal:2 chimney:4 sweep:1 boys:1 small:1 enough:1 fit:1 inside:1 clean:1 soot:3 suggest:1 contain:2 could:1 growth:1 wart:1 see:4 later:2 find:1 hydrocarbon:1 capable:2 france:1 bordeaux:1 wine:1 worker:2 show:1 unusually:1 skin:1 back:2 neck:2 spend:1 day:1 bend:1 field:1 pick:1 grape:1 expose:1 sun:1 ultraviolet:2 uv:2 radiation:4 sunlight:1 nature:1 compound:2 ionize:2 divide:1 different:1 category:1 accord:1 act:1 analog:2 get:1 insert:1 strand:2 place:1 substrate:1 react:1 structural:1 lead:1 miscopying:1 template:1 replicate:1 work:1 indirectly:1 synthesize:1 direct:1 mutagenic:2 ames:1 test:1 method:1 example:4 gamma:1 alpha:1 particle:1 light:1 substitute:1 copying:1 deaminate:1 nitrous:1 intercalate:1 ethidium:1 bromide:1 alkylating:1 ethylnitrosourea:1 transposon:1 section:1 undergo:1 autonomous:1 fragment:1 relocation:1 multiplication:1 plant:1 alkaloid:1 vinca:1 specie:1 bromine:1 sodium:1 azide:1 psoralen:1 combine:1 crosslinking:1 hence:1 breakage:1 benzine:1 fiction:3 science:1 often:1 represent:1 completely:1 form:1 recipient:1 teenage:1 ninja:1 turtle:1 franchise:2 comic:2 book:1 marvel:1 inhumans:1 television:1 series:2 computer:1 video:1 game:1 like:1 resistance:1 fall:1 man:1 resident:1 evil:1 command:1 conquer:1 even:1 toy:1 lego:1 bionicle:1 list:1 reference:1 genotoxicity:1 pesticide:1 teratogen:1 |@bigram dna_replication:2 nucleic_acid:1 insertion_deletion:1 amino_acid:1 genetic_drift:1 e_coli:1 san_francisco:1 ultraviolet_uv:1 uv_radiation:1 ionize_radiation:2 strand_dna:1 gamma_ray:1 nitrous_acid:1 ethidium_bromide:1 alkylating_agent:1 ultraviolet_radiation:1 science_fiction:1 teenage_mutant:1 mutant_ninja:1 ninja_turtle:1 marvel_comic:1 |
7,426 | Guernsey | The Bailiwick of Guernsey (; ) is a British Crown Dependency in the English Channel off the coast of Normandy. As well as the island of Guernsey itself, it also includes Alderney, Sark, Herm, Jethou, Brecqhou, Burhou, Lihou and other islets. Although the defence of all these islands is the responsibility of the United Kingdom, Guernsey is not part of the UK but rather a separate possession of the Crown, comparable to the Isle of Man. Guernsey is also not part of the European Union. The island of Guernsey is divided into 10 parishes. Together with the Bailiwick of Jersey, it is included in the collective grouping known as the Channel Islands. Guernsey belongs to the Common Travel Area. History Rising sea levels transformed Guernsey first into the tip of a peninsula jutting out into the emergent English Channel, then, around 6000 BC, into an island when it and other promontories were cut off from continental Europe. At this time, Neolithic farmers settled the coasts and created the dolmens and menhirs that dot the islands. The island of Guernsey contains three sculpted menhirs of great archaeological interest; the dolmen known as L'Autel du Dehus also contains a dolmen deity known as Le Gardien de Tombeau. During their migration to Brittany, the Britons occupied the Lenur Islands (former name of the Channel Islands including Sarnia or Lisia (Guernsey) and Angia (Jersey). It was formerly thought that the island's original name was Sarnia, but recent research indicates that may have been the Latin name for Sark; although Sarnia remains the island's traditional designation. Coming from the Kingdom of Gwent, Saint Sampson (abbot of Dol, in Brittany) is credited with the introduction of Christianity to Guernsey. In 933 the islands, formerly under the control of the kingdom, then Duchy of Brittany were annexed by the Duchy of Normandy. The island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy. In the islands, Elizabeth II's traditional title as head of state is Duke of Normandy. During the Middle Ages the island was repeatedly attacked by French pirates and naval forces, especially during the Hundred Years War when the island was occupied by the French on several occasions, the first being in 1339. In 1372 the island was invaded by Aragonese mercenaries under the command of Owain Lawgoch (remembered as Yvon de Galles), who was in the pay of the French king. Lawgoch and his dark-haired mercenaries were later absorbed into Guernsey legend as an invasion by fairies from across the sea. Castle Cornet seen at night over the boat harbour of St Peter Port During the English Civil War, Guernsey sided with Parliament, while Jersey remained Royalist. Guernsey's decision was mainly related to the higher proportion of Calvinists and other Reformed churches, as well as Charles I's refusal to take up the case of some Guernsey seamen who had been captured by the Barbary corsairs. The allegiance was not total, however, there were a few Royalist uprisings in the southwest of the island, while Castle Cornet was occupied by the Governor, Sir Peter Osbourne, and Royalist troops. Castle Cornet, which had been built to protect Guernsey, was turned on the town of St. Peter Port and constantly bombarded it. It was the last Royalist stronghold to capitulate, in 1651. During the wars with France and Spain during the 17th and 18th centuries, Guernsey shipowners and sea captains exploited their proximity to mainland Europe, applying for Letters of Marque and turning their merchantmen into privateers. The 19th century saw a dramatic increase in prosperity of the island, due to its success in the global maritime trade, and the rise of the stone industry. One notable Guernseyman, William Le Lacheur, established the Costa Rican coffee trade with Europe. During World War I approximately 3,000 island men served in the British Expeditionary Force. Of these, about 1,000 served in the Royal Guernsey Light Infantry regiment which was formed from the Royal Guernsey Militia in 1916. The Bailiwick of Guernsey was occupied by German troops in World War II. Before the occupation, many Guernsey children were evacuated to England to live with relatives or strangers during the war. Some children were never re-united with their families. During the occupation, some people from Guernsey were deported by the Germans to camps in the southwest of Germany, notably to Biberach an der Riß and interned in the Lindele Camp ("Lager Lindele"). There was also a concentration camp built in Alderney where forced labourers, predominantly from Eastern Europe, were kept. It was the only concentration camp built on British soil and is commemorated on memorials under the Alderney's name in French: 'Aurigny'. Some 2,200 UK-born islanders were also deported to prison camps in Germany, notably Biberach an der Riß. Among these was Sir Ambrose Sherwill, the President of the States Controlling Committee and de facto head of the civilian population. While Sir Ambrose was Guernsey-born, he had served in the British Army during the First World War. The extent to which islanders can be held to have collaborated with their occupiers still provokes considerable debate. Certain laws were passed to mollify the occupying forces — for example a reward was offered to anyone who reported somebody who had drawn V-signs on walls and buildings. Under pressure from the German authorities, Anti-semitic laws were passed which required islanders of Jewish descent to register, and then to be deported; two of those so deported died in Auschwitz. Jurat Sir Abraham Laine resigned from the States in protest at these laws. Guernsey was very heavily fortified during World War II out of all proportion to its strategic value. There are German defences visible all round the coast and additions were made to Castle Cornet and a windmill. Hitler became obsessed with the idea that the Allies would try to regain the islands at any price, and over 20% of the material that went into the Atlantic Wall was committed to the Channel Islands. Most of the German fortifications remain intact; although the majority of them are on private property, several are open to the public. Politics The States of Guernsey, officially called the States of Deliberation, consists of 45 People's Deputies, elected from multi- or single-member districts every four years. There are also two representatives from Alderney, a self-governing dependency of the Bailiwick, but Sark sends no representative. There are also two non-voting members: HM Procureur (Attorney General) and HM Comptroller (Solicitor General), both appointed by the monarch and collectively known as the Law Officers of the Crown. Laws made by the States are known as Projet(s) de Loi before they are passed and Loi or Law(s) afterwards (e.g. The Human Rights (Bailiwick of Guernsey) Law 2000). A Projet de Loi is the equivalent of a UK Bill or a French projet de loi, and a Law is the equivalent of a UK Act of Parliament or a French loi. Laws have no effect until promulgated by Orders-in-Council of the Crown. They are given the Royal Sanction at regular meetings of the Privy Council in London, after which they are returned to the Islands for formal registration at the Royal Court. The States also make delegated legislation known as 'Ordinances (Ordonnances)' and 'Orders (Ordres)' which do not require Royal Assent. Commencement orders are usually in the form of Ordinances. The Lieutenant Governor is the representative of the Crown. The official residence of the Lieutenant Governor is Government House. Since 18 October, 2005 the incumbent is Vice-Admiral Sir Fabian Malbon, born in Southsea, Portsmouth, in 1946 and a serving naval officer 1965-2002. His last naval posting before retirement from the Royal Navy was deputy commander-in-chief of fleet. Each parish is administered by a Douzaine. Douzeniers are elected for a six year mandate, two Douzeniers being elected by parishioners at a parish meeting in November each year. The senior Douzenier is known as the Doyen (Dean). Two elected Constables carry out the decisions of the Douzaine, serving for between one and three years. The longest serving Constable is known as the Senior Constable and his or her colleague as the Junior Constable. The legal system is Guernsey customary derived from Norman French customary law, heavily influenced and overlaid by English common law, justice being administered through a combination of the Magistrates' Court and the Royal Court. The legal profession is fused - there is no difference between solicitors and barristers as in England and Wales: Guernsey Advocates fulfill both roles. The Royal Court is presided over by the Bailiff and twelve Jurats (a permanent elected jury), the ultimate court of appeal being the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Several European countries have consulate presence in the island. The French Consulate is based at Victor Hugo's former residence at Hauteville House. The German Honorary Consulate is based at local design and advertising agency Betley Whitehorne. While Guernsey has complete autonomy over internal affairs and certain external matters, the topic of complete independence from the British Crown has been discussed widely and frequently, with ideas ranging from Guernsey obtaining independence as a Dominion to the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey uniting and forming an independent Federal State within the Commonwealth, whereby both islands retain their independence with regards to domestic affairs but internationally, the islands would be regarded as one state. Geography Map of the Bailiwick of Guernsey Guernsey coastal rocks At , Alderney, Guernsey, Herm, Sark, and some other smaller islands have a total area of 30 square miles (78 km²) and a coastline of about 30 miles (50 km). By itself, the island of Guernsey has a total area of 25 square miles (63 km²). Guernsey is situated 30 statute miles (48 km) west of France's Normandy coast and 75 statute miles (121 km) south of Weymouth, England and lies in the Gulf of St Malo. Lihou, a tidal island, is attached to Guernsey by a causeway at low tide. The terrain is mostly level with low hills in southwest. Elevation varies across the bailiwick from sea level to 375 feet (114 m) at Le Moulin on Sark. The highest point in mainland Guernsey is Hautnez (363 ft; 110 m), in Alderney at Le Rond But (306 ft; 93 m), in Jethou (248 ft; 75.6 m) and Herm (322 ft; 98 m). Natural resources include cropland. Guernsey itself contains two main geographical regions, the Haut Pas, a high southern plateau, and the Bas Pas, a low-lying and sandy northern region. In general terms, the Haut Pas is the more rural of the two, and the Bas Pas is more residential and industrialised. There is a large, deepwater harbour at St Peter Port. The Casquets, a group of islets, are notable for the lighthouse facility constructed there. Climate The climate is temperate with mild winters and cool sunnier summers. The hottest months are August and September where temperatures are generally around 20 °C (68 °F). On average, the coldest month is February with an average weekly mean air temperature of 6°C. Average weekly mean air temperature reaches 16°C in August. Snow rarely falls and is unlikely to settle, but is most likely to fall in February. The temperature rarely drops below freezing, although strong wind-chill from Arctic winds can sometimes make it feel like it. The rainest months are December (average 108 mm), November (average 98 mm) and January (average 89 mm). July is on average the sunniest month with 250 hours recorded sunshine; December the least with 50 hours recorded sunshine. 50% of the days are overcast. Parishes The island of Guernsey is divided into ten parishes (the parish of St Anne, Alderney is not generally included in the enumeration of parishes in the Bailiwick): Parish Population (2001) Area (vergees) Area (km²) Area (sq mi) 1. Castel 10.200 3.938 2. Forest 4.110 1.587 3. St Andrew 4.510 1.741 4. St Martin 7.340 2.834 5. St Peter Port 6.677 2.578 6. St Pierre du Bois 6.257 2.416 7. St Sampson 6.042 2.333 8. St Saviour 6.378 2.463 9. Torteval 3.115 1.203 10. Vale 8.951 3.456Map of the parishes of Guernsey. Economy A Guernsey Post pillar box Sure telephone boxes on Guernsey Unlike many countries, Guernsey has not delegated money-creation to the central bank and has instead issued interest-free money from 1822 to 1836, stimulating the growth of economy after Napoleon's wars without creating public debt and without increasing taxes. Financial services, such as banking, fund management, and insurance, account for about 32% of total income. Tourism, manufacturing, and horticulture, mainly tomatoes and cut flowers, especially freesias, have been declining. Light tax and death duties make Guernsey a popular offshore finance centre for Private equity funds. However, while Guernsey is not a member of the European Union, the EU is forcing Guernsey to comply more and more with its own rules. As with other offshore centres, Guernsey is also coming under increasing pressure from bigger nations to change its way of doing business in many ways. Guernsey is currently changing the way its tax system works in order to remain OECD and EU compliant. From 1 January 2008, it will operate a Zero-Ten corporate tax system where most companies will pay 0% corporate tax and a limited number of specific banking activities will be taxed at 10%. As a result it is confronting what it terms a financial "black hole" of forty-five million pounds or more according to some estimates which it aims to fill through economic growth and indirect taxation. Guernsey now has the official ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code GG and the official ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 code GGY; market data vendors, such as Reuters, will report products related to Guernsey using the alpha-3 code. Guernsey also has a thriving non-finance industry. It is home to Specsavers Optical Group, which manages the largest optical chain in the UK and Ireland and also operates in Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Australia and Spain. Healthspan also has its headquarters in Guernsey. Guernsey issues its own sterling coinage and banknotes. UK coinage (English, Scottish and Northern Irish faced) banknotes also circulate freely and interchangeably. Public services, such as electricity, water, and postal services have been commercialised by the States and are now operated by companies wholly owned by the States of Guernsey. Guernsey Telecoms which provided telecommunications was sold by the States to Cable & Wireless. Newtel was the first alternative telecommunications company on the island and now provides a wide range of residential and business telecommunication services as well as high specification data centres. Wave Telecom, (owned by Jersey Telecom) also provides some telecommunications excluding local loop services. Gas is supplied by an independent private company. Both the Guernsey Post postal boxes (since 1969) and the telephone boxes (since 2002) are painted blue, but otherwise are identical to their British counterparts, the red pillar box and red telephone box. Transport Ports and harbours exist at St Peter Port and St Sampson's. There are two paved airports in the bailiwick (Guernsey Airport and Alderney Airport), and 3 miles (5 km) of railways in Alderney. The States of Guernsey wholly owns its own airline Aurigny Air Services. The decision to purchase the airline was made to protect important airlinks to and from the island and the sale was completed on 15 May 2003. The Guernsey Railway, which was virtually an electric tramway, and which began working on 20 February 1892, was abandoned on 9 June 1934. It replaced an earlier transport system which was worked by steam, and was named the Guernsey Steam Tramway. The latter began service on 6 June 1879 with six locomotives. This leaves Alderney as the only Channel Island with a working railway. Notes on the Railway taken from The Railway Magazine, September 1934 edition Demographics The population is 65,726, as of 2008. The median age for males is 41 years and for females is 43 years. The population growth rate is 0.228% with 8.57 births/1,000 population, 10.09 deaths/1,000 population, and 3.8 migrant(s)/1,000 population. The life expectancy is 77.64 years for males and 83.76 years for females. 1.4 children are born per woman. Ethnic groups consist of British and Norman-French descent, Portuguese and increasingly, Latvian. For immigration and nationality purposes it is UK law, and not Guernsey law which applies (technically the Immigration Act 1971, extended to Guernsey by Order-in-Council). Guernsey may not apply different immigration controls to the UK and EEA nationals free movement rights to enter the territory of the British Islands and remain apply also in Guernsey, although there are de facto restrictions on occupation of housing by everyone. The housing market is split between local market properties and a small number of open market properties. Anyone may live in an open market property, but local market properties can only be lived in by those who qualify - either through being born in Guernsey (to local parents), by obtaining a housing licence, or by virtue of sharing a property with someone who does qualify. Housing licences are for fixed periods, and are usually only valid for as long as the individual remains employed by a specified Guernsey employer. These restrictions apply equally regardless of whether the property is owned or rented, and only applies to occupation of the property. Thus a person whose housing licence expires may continue to own a Guernsey property, but will no longer be able to live in it. There are a number of routes to qualifying as a "local" for housing purposes. Generally it is sufficient to be born to at least one Guernsey parent, and to live in the island for ten years in a twenty year period. Once "local" status has been achieved it remains in place for life. Even a lengthy period of residence outside Guernsey does not invalidate "local" housing status. More details may be obtained from the States Housing Control Department. Although Guernsey's inhabitants are full British citizens, an endorsement restricting the right of establishment in other European Union states is placed in the passport of British citizens connected solely with the Channel Islands and Isle of Man. Those who have a parent or grandparent born in the United Kingdom itself (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), or who have lived in the United Kingdom for 5 years, are not subject to this restriction. Education Elizabeth College Guernsey adopts mainly England's National Curriculum, including the use of the GCSE and A Level system, in terms of content and structure of teaching. Children are allocated a primary school on a basis of catchment area, or are allowed to attend either two Catholic primary schools. In terms of admissions however the island continues to use the 11 plus exam to decide on whether a child should receive education at the Grammar School, or receive state funded places at the independent schools Elizabeth College for boys, and The Ladies College for girls or Blanchelande Girls College for Roman Catholics. Parents have the choice to send children to independent schools as fee payers. For children who are not selected for the Grammar School or colleges, they attend the secondary schools of La Mare de Carteret School, Les Beaucamps School, or St Sampson's High. The Education Department is currently part way through an ambitious programme of re-building its secondary schools. So far the Department has completed the building of La Rondin special needs school, the Sixth Form Centre at the Grammar School and the first phase of the new College of FE - a purpose-built performing arts centre. The contstruction of St. Sampsons High was completed summer 2008 and admitted its first students in September 2008. In the past, students could leave school at the end of the term in which they turned 15, if they so wished: a letter was required to be sent to the Education department to confirm this. However, this option was undertaken by relatively few students, the majority choosing to complete their GCSEs and then either begin employment or continue their education. From 2008 onwards, the school leaving age was raised to 16, in line with the UK. In 2001 along with planned redevelopment of secondary schools the then Education Council tried unsuccessfully to abolish this system. Nevertheless there is now a planned redevelopment of state schools across the island, however most of the plan is subjected to securing state funding. Post GCSE students have a choice of transferring to the state run The Grammar School and Sixth Form Centre, or to the independent colleges for academic AS/A Levels. They also have the option to study vocational subjects at the island's Guernsey College of Further Education. There are no established universities on the island. Students who attend university in the United Kingdom receive state support towards both maintenance and tuition fees. Recently however, the States of Guernsey Education Department has proposed the introduction of student loans for middle and upper income earners due to the black hole deficit in state spending in 2008. This has been met with much opposition by local politicians, families and students who argue that it will deter future students from going and returning from university, due to very high housing and living costs in Guernsey. The department argues that it had no choice but to introduce them. The decision was first deferred to 2009, however upon the election of new deputies in the 2008 April elections, the decision is now deferred until 2011. Culture Children on the Beach of Guernsey, 1883, by Pierre-Auguste Renoir English is the only language spoken by a majority of the population, while Guernésiais, the Norman language of the island, is currently spoken fluently by 2% of the population (according to 2001 census). However, 14% of the population claim some understanding of the language, Sercquiais is spoken by a few people on the island of Sark and Auregnais was spoken on the island of Alderney until it became extinct. Until the early twentieth century French was the only official language. Family and place names reflect this linguistic heritage. Portuguese is also spoken by around 2% of the population. George Métivier, considered by some to be the island's national poet, wrote in Guernésiais. The island's loss of the language and subsequent anglicisation of its culture was due to the majority of the island's children having been evacuated, prior to German invasion of World War II, returning home, having received an education in the UK during the war and afterwards, speaking English and familiar with English customs. George Métivier, considered by some to be the island's national poet. Victor Hugo wrote some of his best-known works while in exile in Guernsey, including Les Misérables. His home in St. Peter Port, Hauteville House, is now a museum administered by the city of Paris. In 1866, he published a novel set in the island, Travailleurs de la Mer (Toilers of the Sea), which he dedicated to the island of Guernsey. The best-known novel by a Guernseyman is The Book of Ebenezer Le Page, by GB Edwards which, in addition to being a critically-acclaimed work of literature, also contains a wealth of insights into life in Guernsey during the twentieth century. Henry Watson Fowler moved to Guernsey in 1903 where he and his brother Francis George Fowler composed The King's English and the Concise Oxford Dictionary, and much of Modern English Usage. Guernsey cattle. The national animals of the island of Guernsey are the donkey and the Guernsey cow. The traditional explanation for the donkey (âne in French and Guernésiais) is the steepness of St Peter Port streets that necessitated beasts of burden for transport (in contrast to the flat terrain of the rival capital of St. Helier in Jersey), although it is also used in reference to Guernsey inhabitants' stubbornness. The Guernsey cow is a more internationally famous icon of the island. As well as being prized for its rich creamy milk, which is claimed by some to hold health benefits over milk from other breeds , Guernsey cattle are increasingly being raised for their beef, which has a distinctive flavour and rich yellow fat. Although the number of individual islanders raising these cattle for private supply has diminished significantly since the 1960s, Guernsey steers can still be occasionally seen grazing on L'Ancresse common. There is also a breed of goat known as the Golden Guernsey, which is distinguished by its golden-coloured coat. At the end of World War II, the Golden Guernsey was almost extinct, due to interbreeding with other varieties on the island. The resurrection of this breed is largely credited to the work of a single woman, Miss Miriam Milbourne. Although no longer considered in a 'critical' status, the breed remains on the "Watch List" of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust. "Golden Guernsey" Rare Breeds Survival Trust. Retrieved 10 October 2007. Guernsey people are traditionally nicknamed donkeys or ânes, especially by Jersey people (who in turn are nicknamed crapauds – toads). Inhabitants of each of the parishes of Guernsey also have traditional nicknames, although these have generally dropped out of use among the English-speaking population. The traditional nicknames are: Dictiounnaire Angllais-Guernésiais Parish Guernésiais English TranslationSt Peter Port Cllichards (spitters)St Sampson's Rôines (frogs)Vale Hann'taons (cockchafers)Castel Ânes-pur-sàng (pure-blooded-donkeys)St Saviour's Fouormillaons (ants)St Pierre du Bois Etcherbaots (beetles)Forest Bourdons (bumblebees)St Martin's Cravants (ray fish)St Andrew's Les croinchaons (the siftings)Torteval Ânes à pids d'ch'fa (donkeys with horses' hooves) The Guernsey Lily Nerine sarniensis (Sarnia is the traditional name of the island of Guernsey in Latin) is also used as a symbol of the island. A local delicacy is the ormer (Haliotis tuberculata), a variety of abalone harvested from the beach at low spring tides, although strict laws control their harvesting. Good Food Guernsey - The Ormer Of the many traditional Guernsey recipes, the most renowned is a stew called Guernsey Bean Jar. It is a centuries-old stew that is still popular with Islanders, particularly at the annual 'Viaer Marchi' festival, where it served as one of the main events. Guernsey Gâche is a special bread made with raisins, sultanas and mixed peel. In July 2006 smoking in enclosed public places was banned, a law put in place to protect workers' right to a healthy working environment. Sport The island's traditional colour (e.g. for sporting events) is green. Guernsey participates in the bi-annual Island Games, which it hosted in 1987 and 2003. Guernsey participates in its own right in the Commonwealth Games. In sporting events in which Guernsey does not have international representation, when the British Home Nations are competing separately, islanders that do have high athletic skill may choose to compete for any of the Home Nations – there are, however, restrictions on subsequent transfers to represent another Home Nation. The football player Matt Le Tissier for example, could have played for the Scotland national football team but ended up playing for England. The Guernsey Football Association runs Guernsey football. The top tier of Guernsey football is the Sure Mobile Priaulx league where there are 7 teams (Belgrave Wanderers, Northerners, Sylvans, St Martin's, Rovers, Rangers and Vale Recreation). The champions in 2006-07 were Northerners. The second tier is the Jackson league which is a mixture of top league players, lower players and youth players. The third tier is the Railway League, featuring three extra teams, Alderney, Guernsey Police and Port City. The Corbet Football Field donated by Jurat Wilfred Corbet OBE in 1932 has fostered the sport greatly over the years. Although more recently the island has upgraded to a larger, better quality stadium, in Foote's Lane. BBC photo of Guernsey Stadium Approximately 200 people play table tennis on a regular basis across four senior and two junior leagues. The GTTA centre, located next to the Hougue du Pommier, is equipped with 12 match tables, 6 training tables, a bar and a small café area. Guernsey regularly sends teams to represent the island in UK and world tournaments. Guernsey also has one of the oldest softball associations in the world. The Guernsey Softball Association was formally established in 1936, it is now one of the oldest and longest running softball associations to be found. Affiliated to the International Softball Federation (ISF) the GSA has both fast & slow pitch leagues with over 300 members is a very popular island sport. Guernsey was declared an affiliate member by the International Cricket Council (ICC) in 2005 http://icc.cricket.org/icc-news/content/story/220287.html and an associate member in 2008. Guernsey also enjoys various motor sports. In season, regular races take place on the sands on Vazon beach on the west coast. Le Val des Terres, a steeply winding road rising south from St Peter Port to Fort George, is often the focus of both local and international hill-climb races. In addition, the 2005, 2006, and 2007 World Touring Car Champion Andy Priaulx is a Guernseyman. The racecourse on L'Ancresse Common was re-established in 2004, and races are held on most May day Bank Holidays, with competitors from Guernsey as well as Jersey, France and the UK participating. Sea Angling around Guernsey and the other islands in the Bailiwick from shore or boat is a popular past time for both locals and visitors with the Bailiwick boasting 12 UK records. Guernsey (Fishing) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernsey_%28Fishing%29 Notable Guernsey people Gallery References External links States of Guernsey - official government site VisitGuernsey/ Guernsey Tourism BBC Guernsey - local features and news International Finance Centre - local business news This Is Guernsey - information and news from the Guernsey Press and Star The Guille-Allès Library - public library The Priaulx Library - local studies library La Société Guernesiaise The Guernsey Society - a network for Guernsey people worldwide Map of Guernsey be-x-old:Гернсі | Guernsey |@lemmatized bailiwick:12 guernsey:123 british:11 crown:6 dependency:2 english:12 channel:8 coast:5 normandy:5 well:5 island:58 also:24 include:7 alderney:12 sark:6 herm:3 jethou:2 brecqhou:1 burhou:1 lihou:2 islet:2 although:12 defence:2 responsibility:1 united:5 kingdom:6 part:3 uk:13 rather:1 separate:1 possession:1 comparable:1 isle:2 man:2 european:4 union:3 divide:2 parish:10 together:1 jersey:8 collective:1 grouping:1 know:11 islands:3 belongs:1 common:4 travel:1 area:8 history:1 rise:3 sea:6 level:5 transform:1 first:7 tip:1 peninsula:1 jut:1 emergent:1 around:4 bc:1 promontory:1 cut:2 continental:1 europe:4 time:2 neolithic:1 farmer:1 settle:2 create:2 dolmen:3 menhir:2 dot:1 contains:1 three:3 sculpt:1 great:1 archaeological:1 interest:2 l:3 autel:1 du:4 dehus:1 contain:3 deity:1 le:9 gardien:1 de:10 tombeau:1 migration:1 brittany:3 briton:1 occupy:4 lenur:1 former:2 name:7 sarnia:4 lisia:1 angia:1 formerly:2 think:1 original:1 recent:1 research:1 indicate:1 may:8 latin:2 remain:8 traditional:8 designation:1 come:2 gwent:1 saint:1 sampson:5 abbot:1 dol:1 credit:2 introduction:2 christianity:1 control:5 duchy:3 annex:1 represent:3 last:3 remnant:1 medieval:1 elizabeth:3 ii:5 title:1 head:2 state:23 duke:1 middle:2 age:3 repeatedly:1 attack:1 french:11 pirate:1 naval:3 force:5 especially:3 hundred:1 year:13 war:12 several:3 occasion:1 invade:1 aragonese:1 mercenary:2 command:1 owain:1 lawgoch:2 remember:1 yvon:1 galles:1 pay:2 king:2 dark:1 haired:1 later:1 absorb:1 legend:1 invasion:2 fairy:1 across:4 castle:4 cornet:4 see:2 night:1 boat:2 harbour:3 st:25 peter:10 port:11 civil:1 side:1 parliament:2 royalist:4 decision:5 mainly:3 relate:2 high:8 proportion:2 calvinist:1 reformed:1 church:1 charles:1 refusal:1 take:3 case:1 seaman:1 capture:1 barbary:1 corsair:1 allegiance:1 total:4 however:9 uprising:1 southwest:3 governor:3 sir:5 osbourne:1 troop:2 build:4 protect:3 turn:4 town:1 constantly:1 bombard:1 stronghold:1 capitulate:1 france:3 spain:2 century:5 shipowner:1 captain:1 exploit:1 proximity:1 mainland:2 apply:5 letter:2 marque:1 merchantman:1 privateer:1 saw:1 dramatic:1 increase:3 prosperity:1 due:5 success:1 global:1 maritime:1 trade:2 stone:1 industry:2 one:7 notable:3 guernseyman:3 william:1 lacheur:1 establish:3 costa:1 rican:1 coffee:1 world:9 approximately:2 men:1 serve:6 expeditionary:1 royal:8 light:2 infantry:1 regiment:1 form:5 militia:1 german:7 occupation:4 many:4 child:9 evacuate:2 england:6 live:6 relative:1 stranger:1 never:1 family:3 people:8 deport:3 camp:5 germany:2 notably:2 biberach:2 der:2 riß:2 intern:1 lindele:2 lager:1 concentration:2 labourer:1 predominantly:1 eastern:1 keep:1 soil:1 commemorate:1 memorial:1 aurigny:2 born:2 islander:6 prison:1 among:2 ambrose:2 sherwill:1 president:1 committee:2 facto:2 civilian:1 population:12 army:1 extent:1 hold:3 collaborate:1 occupier:1 still:3 provoke:1 considerable:1 debate:1 certain:2 law:15 pass:3 mollify:1 occupying:1 example:2 reward:1 offer:1 anyone:2 report:2 somebody:1 draw:1 v:1 sign:1 wall:2 building:3 pressure:2 authority:1 anti:1 semitic:1 require:3 jewish:1 descent:2 register:1 two:10 deported:1 die:1 auschwitz:1 jurat:2 abraham:1 laine:1 resign:1 protest:1 heavily:2 fortify:1 strategic:1 value:1 visible:1 round:1 addition:3 make:7 windmill:1 hitler:1 become:2 obsessed:1 idea:2 ally:1 would:2 try:2 regain:1 price:1 material:1 go:2 atlantic:1 commit:1 fortification:1 intact:1 majority:4 private:4 property:9 open:3 public:5 politics:1 officially:1 call:2 deliberation:1 consist:2 deputy:3 elect:5 multi:1 single:2 member:6 district:1 every:1 four:2 representative:3 self:1 govern:1 send:3 non:2 vote:1 hm:2 procureur:1 attorney:1 general:3 comptroller:1 solicitor:2 appoint:1 monarch:1 collectively:1 officer:2 projet:3 loi:5 afterwards:2 e:2 g:2 human:1 right:5 equivalent:2 bill:1 act:2 effect:1 promulgate:1 order:5 council:6 give:1 sanction:1 regular:3 meeting:2 privy:2 london:1 return:3 formal:1 registration:1 court:5 delegated:1 legislation:1 ordinance:2 ordonnances:1 ordres:1 assent:1 commencement:1 usually:2 lieutenant:2 official:5 residence:3 government:2 house:3 since:4 october:2 incumbent:1 vice:1 admiral:1 fabian:1 malbon:1 bear:5 southsea:1 portsmouth:1 posting:1 retirement:1 navy:1 commander:1 chief:1 fleet:1 administer:3 douzaine:2 douzeniers:2 six:2 mandate:1 parishioner:1 november:2 senior:3 douzenier:1 doyen:1 dean:1 constable:4 carry:1 long:3 serving:1 colleague:1 junior:2 legal:2 system:6 customary:2 derive:1 norman:3 influence:1 overlay:1 justice:1 combination:1 magistrate:1 profession:1 fuse:1 difference:1 barrister:1 wale:2 advocate:1 fulfill:1 role:1 preside:1 bailiff:1 twelve:1 jurats:1 permanent:1 jury:1 ultimate:1 appeal:1 judicial:1 country:2 consulate:3 presence:1 base:2 victor:2 hugo:2 hauteville:2 honorary:1 local:15 design:1 advertising:1 agency:1 betley:1 whitehorne:1 complete:6 autonomy:1 internal:1 affair:2 external:2 matter:1 topic:1 independence:3 discuss:1 widely:1 frequently:1 range:2 obtain:3 dominion:1 uniting:1 independent:5 federal:1 within:1 commonwealth:2 whereby:1 retain:1 regard:2 domestic:1 internationally:2 geography:1 map:2 coastal:1 rock:1 small:3 square:2 mile:6 coastline:1 km:4 situate:1 statute:2 west:2 south:2 weymouth:1 lie:1 gulf:1 malo:1 tidal:1 attach:1 causeway:1 low:5 tide:2 terrain:2 mostly:1 hill:2 elevation:1 varies:1 foot:1 moulin:1 point:1 hautnez:1 ft:4 rond:1 natural:1 resource:1 cropland:1 main:2 geographical:1 region:2 haut:2 pa:4 southern:1 plateau:1 ba:2 lying:1 sandy:1 northern:3 term:5 rural:1 residential:2 industrialised:1 large:3 deepwater:1 casquet:1 group:3 lighthouse:1 facility:1 construct:1 climate:2 temperate:1 mild:1 winter:1 cool:1 sunny:2 summer:2 hot:1 month:4 august:2 september:3 temperature:4 generally:4 c:3 f:1 average:7 cold:1 february:3 weekly:2 mean:2 air:3 reach:1 snow:1 rarely:2 fall:2 unlikely:1 likely:1 drop:2 freeze:1 strong:1 wind:3 chill:1 arctic:1 sometimes:1 feel:1 like:1 rainest:1 december:2 mm:3 january:2 july:2 hour:2 record:3 sunshine:2 least:2 day:2 overcast:1 parishes:1 ten:3 anne:1 enumeration:1 vergees:1 sq:1 mi:1 castel:2 forest:2 andrew:2 martin:3 pierre:3 bois:2 saviour:2 torteval:2 vale:3 economy:2 post:3 pillar:2 box:6 sure:2 telephone:3 unlike:1 delegate:1 money:2 creation:1 central:1 bank:2 instead:1 issue:2 free:2 stimulate:1 growth:3 napoleon:1 without:2 debt:1 tax:6 financial:2 service:7 banking:2 fund:2 management:1 insurance:1 account:1 income:2 tourism:2 manufacturing:1 horticulture:1 tomato:1 flower:1 freesias:1 decline:1 death:2 duty:1 popular:4 offshore:2 finance:3 centre:8 equity:1 eu:2 comply:1 rule:1 big:1 nation:4 change:2 way:4 business:3 currently:3 work:7 oecd:1 compliant:1 operate:3 zero:1 corporate:2 company:4 limited:1 number:4 specific:1 activity:1 result:1 confront:1 black:2 hole:2 forty:1 five:1 million:1 pound:1 accord:2 estimate:1 aim:1 fill:1 economic:1 indirect:1 taxation:1 iso:2 alpha:3 code:3 gg:1 ggy:1 market:6 data:2 vendor:1 reuters:1 product:1 use:6 thriving:1 home:6 specsavers:1 optical:2 manage:1 chain:1 ireland:2 scandinavia:1 netherlands:1 australia:1 healthspan:1 headquarters:1 sterling:1 coinage:2 banknote:2 scottish:1 irish:1 face:1 circulate:1 freely:1 interchangeably:1 electricity:1 water:1 postal:2 commercialise:1 wholly:2 telecom:3 provide:3 telecommunication:4 sell:1 cable:1 wireless:1 newtel:1 alternative:1 wide:1 specification:1 wave:1 exclude:1 loop:1 gas:1 supply:2 paint:1 blue:1 otherwise:1 identical:1 counterpart:1 red:2 transport:3 exist:1 paved:1 airport:3 railway:6 airline:2 purchase:1 important:1 airlinks:1 sale:1 virtually:1 electric:1 tramway:2 begin:3 abandon:1 june:2 replace:1 early:2 steam:2 latter:1 locomotive:1 leave:3 note:1 magazine:1 edition:1 demographics:1 median:1 male:2 female:2 rate:1 birth:1 migrant:1 life:3 expectancy:1 per:1 woman:2 ethnic:1 portuguese:2 increasingly:2 latvian:1 immigration:3 nationality:1 purpose:3 technically:1 extend:1 different:1 eea:1 national:6 movement:1 enter:1 territory:1 restriction:4 housing:9 everyone:1 split:1 qualify:3 either:3 parent:4 licence:3 virtue:1 share:1 someone:1 fixed:1 period:3 valid:1 individual:2 employ:1 specify:1 employer:1 equally:1 regardless:1 whether:2 rent:1 applies:1 thus:1 person:1 whose:1 expire:1 continue:3 longer:2 able:1 route:1 sufficient:1 twenty:1 status:3 achieve:1 place:7 even:1 lengthy:1 outside:1 invalidate:1 detail:1 department:6 inhabitant:3 full:1 citizen:2 endorsement:1 restrict:1 establishment:1 passport:1 connect:1 solely:1 grandparent:1 scotland:2 subject:3 education:9 college:8 adopt:1 curriculum:1 gcse:3 content:2 structure:1 teach:1 allocate:1 primary:2 school:17 basis:2 catchment:1 allow:1 attend:3 catholic:2 admission:1 plus:1 exam:1 decide:1 receive:4 grammar:4 funded:1 boy:1 lady:1 girl:2 blanchelande:1 roman:1 choice:3 fee:2 payer:1 select:1 secondary:3 la:4 mare:1 carteret:1 les:1 beaucamps:1 ambitious:1 programme:1 far:1 rondin:1 special:2 needs:1 sixth:2 phase:1 new:2 fe:1 perform:1 art:1 contstruction:1 sampsons:1 admit:1 student:8 past:2 could:2 end:3 wish:1 confirm:1 option:2 undertake:1 relatively:1 choose:2 employment:1 onwards:1 raise:3 line:1 along:1 planned:1 redevelopment:2 unsuccessfully:1 abolish:1 nevertheless:1 plan:2 secure:1 funding:1 transfer:2 run:3 academic:1 study:2 vocational:1 established:1 university:3 support:1 towards:1 maintenance:1 tuition:1 recently:2 propose:1 loan:1 upper:1 earner:1 deficit:1 spending:1 meet:1 much:2 opposition:1 politician:1 argue:2 deter:1 future:1 living:1 cost:1 introduce:1 defer:2 upon:1 election:2 april:1 culture:2 beach:3 auguste:1 renoir:1 language:5 speak:7 guernésiais:5 fluently:1 census:1 claim:2 understanding:1 sercquiais:1 auregnais:1 extinct:2 twentieth:2 reflect:1 linguistic:1 heritage:1 george:4 métivier:2 consider:3 poet:2 write:2 loss:1 subsequent:2 anglicisation:1 prior:1 familiar:1 custom:1 best:2 exile:1 misérables:1 museum:1 city:2 paris:1 publish:1 novel:2 set:1 travailleurs:1 mer:1 toiler:1 dedicate:1 book:1 ebenezer:1 page:1 gb:1 edward:1 critically:1 acclaimed:1 literature:1 wealth:1 insight:1 henry:1 watson:1 fowler:2 move:1 brother:1 francis:1 compose:1 concise:1 oxford:1 dictionary:1 modern:1 usage:1 cattle:3 animal:1 donkey:5 cow:2 explanation:1 âne:1 steepness:1 street:1 necessitate:1 beast:1 burden:1 contrast:1 flat:1 rival:1 capital:1 helier:1 reference:2 stubbornness:1 famous:1 icon:1 prize:1 rich:2 creamy:1 milk:2 health:1 benefit:1 breed:6 beef:1 distinctive:1 flavour:1 yellow:1 fat:1 diminish:1 significantly:1 steer:1 occasionally:1 graze:1 ancresse:2 goat:1 golden:4 distinguish:1 coloured:1 coat:1 almost:1 interbreed:1 variety:2 resurrection:1 largely:1 miss:1 miriam:1 milbourne:1 critical:1 watch:1 list:1 rare:2 survival:2 trust:2 retrieve:1 traditionally:1 nicknamed:1 ânes:3 nickname:3 crapauds:1 toad:1 dictiounnaire:1 angllais:1 translationst:1 cllichards:1 spitter:1 rôines:1 frog:1 hann:1 taons:1 cockchafer:1 pur:1 sàng:1 pure:1 blood:1 fouormillaons:1 ant:1 etcherbaots:1 beetle:1 bourdon:1 bumblebee:1 cravants:1 ray:1 fish:2 croinchaons:1 sifting:1 à:1 pid:1 ch:1 fa:1 horse:1 hoof:1 lily:1 nerine:1 sarniensis:1 symbol:1 delicacy:1 ormer:2 haliotis:1 tuberculata:1 abalone:1 harvest:1 spring:1 strict:1 harvesting:1 good:2 food:1 recipe:1 renowned:1 stew:2 bean:1 jar:1 old:4 particularly:1 annual:2 viaer:1 marchi:1 festival:1 event:3 gâche:1 bread:1 raisin:1 sultana:1 mixed:1 peel:1 smoking:1 enclosed:1 ban:1 put:1 worker:1 healthy:1 working:1 environment:1 sport:6 colour:1 green:1 participates:1 bi:1 game:2 host:1 participate:1 international:5 representation:1 compete:2 separately:1 athletic:1 skill:1 another:1 football:6 player:4 matt:1 tissier:1 play:3 team:4 association:4 top:2 tier:3 mobile:1 priaulx:3 league:6 belgrave:1 wanderer:1 northerner:2 sylvan:1 rover:1 ranger:1 recreation:1 champion:2 second:1 jackson:1 mixture:1 youth:1 third:1 feature:2 extra:1 police:1 corbet:2 field:1 donate:1 wilfred:1 obe:1 foster:1 greatly:1 upgrade:1 quality:1 stadium:2 foote:1 lane:1 bbc:2 photo:1 table:3 tennis:1 gtta:1 locate:1 next:1 hougue:1 pommier:1 equip:1 match:1 training:1 bar:1 café:1 regularly:1 sends:1 tournament:1 softball:4 formally:1 find:1 affiliate:2 federation:1 isf:1 gsa:1 fast:1 slow:1 pitch:1 declare:1 cricket:2 icc:3 http:2 org:2 news:4 story:1 html:1 associate:1 enjoy:1 various:1 motor:1 season:1 race:3 sand:1 vazon:1 val:1 terres:1 steeply:1 road:1 fort:1 often:1 focus:1 climb:1 tour:1 car:1 andy:1 racecourse:1 holiday:1 competitor:1 participating:1 angle:1 shore:1 visitor:1 boast:1 en:1 wikipedia:1 wiki:1 gallery:1 link:1 site:1 visitguernsey:1 information:1 press:1 star:1 guille:1 allès:1 library:4 société:1 guernesiaise:1 society:1 network:1 worldwide:1 x:1 гернсі:1 |@bigram bailiwick_guernsey:6 crown_dependency:1 bailiwick_jersey:1 dolmen_menhir:1 duchy_normandy:2 duke_normandy:1 dark_haired:1 royalist_uprising:1 costa_rican:1 infantry_regiment:1 concentration_camp:2 de_facto:2 anti_semitic:1 heavily_fortify:1 projet_de:3 privy_council:2 royal_assent:1 lieutenant_governor:2 vice_admiral:1 commander_chief:1 solicitor_barrister:1 committee_privy:1 victor_hugo:2 honorary_consulate:1 mile_km:4 le_rond:1 low_lying:1 cool_sunny:1 wind_chill:1 sq_mi:1 du_bois:2 private_equity:1 black_hole:2 indirect_taxation:1 life_expectancy:1 parent_grandparent:1 tuition_fee:1 income_earner:1 pierre_auguste:1 auguste_renoir:1 speak_fluently:1 twentieth_century:2 le_misérables:1 la_mer:1 critically_acclaimed:1 beast_burden:1 st_helier:1 horse_hoof:1 en_wikipedia:1 org_wiki:1 external_link:1 la_société:1 |
7,427 | Oncogene | An oncogene is a gene that, when mutated or expressed at high levels, helps turn a normal cell into a cancer cell. Kimball's Biology Pages. "Oncogenes" Free full text Many cells normally undergo a programmed form of death (apoptosis). Activated oncogenes can cause those cells to survive and proliferate instead. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002. Illustrated presentation. Most oncogenes require an additional step, such as mutations in another gene, or environmental factors, such as viral infection, to cause cancer. Since the 1970s, dozens of oncogenes have been identified in human cancer. Many cancer drugs target those DNA sequences and their products. Kimball's Biology Pages. "Oncogenes" Free full text The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1989 to J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus for their discovery of "the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes". Proto-oncogene A proto-oncogene is a normal gene that can become an oncogene due to mutations or increased expression. Proto-oncogenes code for proteins that help to regulate cell growth and differentiation. Proto-oncogenes are often involved in signal transduction and execution of mitogenic signals, usually through their protein products. Upon activation, a proto-oncogene (or its product) becomes a tumor-inducing agent, an oncogene. Examples of proto-oncogenes include RAS, WNT, MYC, ERK, and TRK. Activation The proto-oncogene can become an oncogene by a relatively small modification of its original function. There are three basic activation types: A mutation within a proto-oncogene can cause a change in the protein structure, causing an increase in protein (enzyme) activity a loss of regulation An increase in protein concentration, caused by an increase of protein expression (through misregulation) an increase of protein stability, prolonging its existence and thus its activity in the cell a gene duplication (one type of chromosome abnormality), resulting in an increased amount of protein in the cell A chromosomal translocation (another type of chromosome abnormality), causing an increased gene expression in the wrong cell type or at wrong times the expression of a constitutively active hybrid protein. This type of aberration in a dividing stem cell in the bone marrow leads to adult leukemia Mutations in microRNAs can lead to activation of oncogenes. New research indicates that small RNAs 21-25 nucleotides in length called microRNAs (miRNAs) can control expression of these genes by downregulating them. Antisense messenger RNAs could theoretically be used to block the effects of oncogenes. Classification There are several systems for classifying oncogenes, THE Medical Biochemistry Page Classification of Oncogene Function but there is not yet a widely accepted standard. They are sometimes grouped both spatially (moving from outside the cell inwards) and chronologically (parallelling the "normal" process of signal transduction). There are several categories that are commonly used: Category Examples Description Growth factors, or mitogens c-Sis Usually secreted by specialized cells to induce cell proliferation in themselves, nearby cells, or distant cells. An oncogene may cause a cell to secrete growth factors even though it does not normally do so. It will thereby induce its own uncontrolled proliferation (autocrine loop), and proliferation of neighboring cells. It may also cause production of growth hormones in other parts of the body. Receptor tyrosine kinases epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), HER2/neu Kinases add phosphate groups to other proteins to turn them on or off. Receptor kinases add phosphate groups to receptor proteins at the surface of the cell (which receive protein signals from outside the cell and transmit them to the inside of the cell). Tyrosine kinases add phosphate groups to the amino acid tyrosine in the target protein. They can cause cancer by turning the receptor permanently on (constitutively), even without signals from outside the cell. Cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases Src-family, Syk-ZAP-70 family, and BTK family of tyrosine kinases, the Abl gene in CML - Philadelphia chromosome - Cytoplasmic Serine/threonine kinases and their regulatory subunits Raf kinase, and cyclin-dependent kinases (through overexpression). - Regulatory GTPases Ras protein - Transcription factors myc gene - Conversion of proto-oncogenes There are two mechanisms by which proto-oncogenes can be converted to cellular oncogenes: Quantitative: Tumor formation is induced by an increase in the absolute number of proto-oncogene products or by its production in inappropriate cell types. Qualitative: Conversion from proto-oncogene to transforming gene (c-onc) with changes in the nucleotide sequence which responsible for the acquisition of the new properties. History The first oncogene was discovered in 1970 and was termed src (pronounced sarc as in sarcoma). Src was in fact first discovered as an oncogene in a chicken retrovirus. Experiments performed by Dr G. Steve Martin of the University of California, Berkeley demonstrated that the SRC was indeed the oncogene of the virus. In 1976 Drs. J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus of the University of California, San Francisco demonstrated that oncogenes were defective proto-oncogenes, found in many organisms including humans. For this discovery Bishop and Varmus were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1989. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1989 jointly to J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus for their discovery of "the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes". Press Release. See also Tumor suppressor gene Apoptosis Cancer References | Oncogene |@lemmatized oncogene:33 gene:10 mutate:1 express:1 high:1 level:1 help:2 turn:3 normal:3 cell:21 cancer:6 kimball:2 biology:2 page:3 free:2 full:2 text:2 many:3 normally:2 undergo:1 programmed:1 form:1 death:1 apoptosis:2 activate:1 cause:9 survive:1 proliferate:1 instead:1 nobel:4 prize:4 physiology:3 medicine:3 illustrate:1 presentation:1 oncogenes:1 require:1 additional:1 step:1 mutation:4 another:2 environmental:1 factor:7 viral:1 infection:1 since:1 dozen:1 identify:1 human:2 drug:1 target:2 dna:1 sequence:2 product:4 j:3 michael:3 bishop:4 harold:3 e:3 varmus:4 discovery:3 cellular:3 origin:2 retroviral:2 proto:13 become:3 due:1 increased:2 expression:5 code:1 protein:14 regulate:1 growth:7 differentiation:1 often:1 involve:1 signal:5 transduction:2 execution:1 mitogenic:1 usually:2 upon:1 activation:4 tumor:3 inducing:1 agent:1 example:2 include:2 ra:1 wnt:1 myc:2 erk:1 trk:1 relatively:1 small:2 modification:1 original:1 function:2 three:1 basic:1 type:6 within:1 change:2 structure:1 increase:6 enzyme:1 activity:2 loss:1 regulation:1 concentration:1 misregulation:1 stability:1 prolong:1 existence:1 thus:1 duplication:1 one:1 chromosome:3 abnormality:2 result:1 amount:1 chromosomal:1 translocation:1 wrong:2 time:1 constitutively:2 active:1 hybrid:1 aberration:1 dividing:1 stem:1 bone:1 marrow:1 lead:2 adult:1 leukemia:1 micrornas:2 new:2 research:1 indicate:1 rna:2 nucleotide:2 length:1 call:1 mirnas:1 control:1 downregulating:1 antisense:1 messenger:1 could:1 theoretically:1 use:2 block:1 effect:1 classification:2 several:2 system:1 classify:1 medical:1 biochemistry:1 yet:1 widely:1 accept:1 standard:1 sometimes:1 grouped:1 spatially:1 move:1 outside:3 inwards:1 chronologically:1 parallel:1 process:1 category:2 commonly:1 description:1 mitogen:1 c:2 si:1 secrete:2 specialized:1 induce:3 proliferation:3 nearby:1 distant:1 may:2 even:2 though:1 thereby:1 uncontrolled:1 autocrine:1 loop:1 neighbor:1 also:2 production:2 hormone:1 part:1 body:1 receptor:7 tyrosine:5 kinases:3 epidermal:1 egfr:1 platelet:1 derived:1 pdgfr:1 vascular:1 endothelial:1 vegfr:1 neu:1 kinase:6 add:3 phosphate:3 group:3 surface:1 receive:1 transmit:1 inside:1 amino:1 acid:1 permanently:1 without:1 cytoplasmic:2 src:4 family:3 syk:1 zap:1 btk:1 abl:1 cml:1 philadelphia:1 serine:1 threonine:1 regulatory:2 subunit:1 raf:1 cyclin:1 dependent:1 overexpression:1 gtpases:1 ras:1 transcription:1 conversion:2 two:1 mechanism:1 convert:1 quantitative:1 formation:1 absolute:1 number:1 inappropriate:1 qualitative:1 transform:1 onc:1 responsible:1 acquisition:1 property:1 history:1 first:2 discover:2 term:1 pronounced:1 sarc:1 sarcoma:1 fact:1 chicken:1 retrovirus:1 experiment:1 perform:1 dr:1 g:1 steve:1 martin:1 university:2 california:2 berkeley:1 demonstrate:2 indeed:1 virus:1 drs:1 san:1 francisco:1 defective:1 find:1 organism:1 award:1 jointly:1 press:1 release:1 see:1 suppressor:1 reference:1 |@bigram kimball_biology:2 nobel_prize:4 prize_physiology:3 physiology_medicine:3 viral_infection:1 proto_oncogene:13 signal_transduction:2 gene_duplication:1 chromosome_abnormality:2 chromosomal_translocation:1 bone_marrow:1 rna_nucleotide:1 messenger_rna:1 amino_acid:1 acid_tyrosine:1 tyrosine_kinase:2 regulatory_gtpases:1 san_francisco:1 tumor_suppressor:1 suppressor_gene:1 |
7,428 | Cretaceous | The Cretaceous (), usually abbreviated K for its German translation Kreide, is a geologic period and system from circa to million years ago (Ma). In the geologic timescale, the Cretaceous follows on the Jurassic period and is followed by the Paleogene period. It is the youngest period of the Mesozoic era, and at 80 million years long, the longest period of the Phanerozoic eon. The end of the Cretaceous defines the boundary between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate and high eustatic sea level. The oceans and seas were populated with now extinct marine reptiles, ammonites and rudists; and the land by dinosaurs. At the same time, new groups of mammals and birds as well as flowering plants appeared. The Cretaceous ended with one of the largest mass extinctions in Earth history, the K-T extinction, when many species, including the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and large marine reptiles, disappeared. The Cretaceous world Paleogeography During the Cretaceous, the late Paleozoic - early Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangaea completed its breakup into present day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the Atlantic Ocean widened, the convergent-margin orogenies that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the North American Cordillera, as the Nevadan orogeny was followed by the Sevier and Laramide orogenies. Geography of the US in the Late Cretaceous Period Though Gondwana was still intact in the beginning of the Cretaceous, it broke up as South America, Antarctica and Australia rifted away from Africa (though India and Madagascar remained attached to each other); thus, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising eustatic sea levels worldwide. To the north of Africa the Tethys Sea continued to narrow. Broad shallow seas advanced across central North America (the Western Interior Seaway) and Europe, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between coal beds. At the peak of the Cretaceous transgression, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged. Dougal Dixon et al., Atlas of Life on Earth, (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 2001), p. 215. The Cretaceous is justly famous for its chalk; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the Phanerozoic. Stanley, Steven M. Earth System History. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999. ISBN 0-7167-2882-6 p. 280 Mid-ocean ridge activity — or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges — enriched the oceans in calcium; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the bioavailability of the element for calcareous nanoplankton. Stanley, pp. 279-81 These widespread carbonates and other sedimentary deposits make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous formations from North America include the rich marine fossils of Kansas's Smoky Hill Chalk Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in Europe (e.g., the Weald) and China (the Yixian Formation). In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the Deccan Traps were erupted in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene. Climate The Berriasian epoch showed a cooling trend that had been seen in the last epoch of the Jurassic. There is evidence that snowfalls were common in the higher latitudes and the tropics became wetter than during the Triassic and Jurassic The Berriasian Age . Glaciation was however restricted to alpine glaciers on some high-latitude mountains, though seasonal snow may have existed farther south. After the end of the Berriasian, however, temperatures increased again, and these conditions were almost constant until the end of the period Ibid. . This trend was due to intense volcanic activity which produced large quantities of carbon dioxide. The development of a number of mantle plumes across the widening mid-ocean ridges further pushed sea levels up, so that large areas of the continental crust were covered with shallow seas. The Tethys Sea connecting the tropical oceans east to west also helped in warming the global climate. Warm-adapted plant fossils are known from localities as far north as Alaska and Greenland, while dinosaur fossils have been found within 15 degrees of the Cretaceous south pole. Stanley, pp. 480-2 A very gentle temperature gradient from the equator to the poles meant weaker global winds, contributing to less upwelling and more stagnant oceans than today. This is evidenced by widespread black shale deposition and frequent anoxic events. Stanley, pp. 481-2 Sediment cores show that tropical sea surface temperatures may have briefly been as warm as 42 °C (107 °F), 17 °C (31 °F) warmer than at present, and that they averaged around 37 °C (99 °F). Meanwhile deep ocean temperatures were as much as 15 to 20 °C (27 to 36 °F) higher than today's. than a Hot Tub: Atlantic Ocean Temperatures Much Higher in the Past" PhysOrg.com. Retrieved 12/3/06. Skinner, Brian J., and Stephen C. Porter. The Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995. ISBN 0-471-59549-7. p. 557 Geology Research history The Cretaceous as a separate period was first defined by a Belgian geologist Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1822, using strata in the Paris Basin and named for the extensive beds of chalk (calcium carbonate deposited by the shells of marine invertebrates, principally coccoliths), found in the upper Cretaceous of western Europe. The name Cretaceous was derived from Latin creta, meaning chalk. The name of the island Crete has the same origin. Stratigraphic subdivisions The Cretaceous is divided into Early and Late Cretaceous epochs or Lower and Upper Cretaceous series. In older literature the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series: Neocomian (lower/early), Gallic (middle) and Senonian (upper/late). A subdivision in eleven stages, all origining from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide. In many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds of the Cretaceous are well identified but the exact ages of the system's top and base are uncertain by a few million years. No great extinction or burst of diversity separates the Cretaceous from the Jurassic. However, the top of the system is sharply defined, being placed at an iridium-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the Chicxulub impact crater in Yucatan and the Gulf of Mexico. This layer has been tightly dated at 65.5 Ma. The official geologic timescale of the ICS (in 2008) gives 65.5 Ma as upper boundary of the Cretaceous, new callibrations by Kuiper et al. (2008) yield 65.9 Ma Rock formations Drawing of fossil jaws of Mosasaurus hoffmanni, from the Maastrichtian of Dutch Limburg, by Dutch geologist Pieter Harting (1866). The high eustatic sea level and warm climate of the Cretaceous meant a large area of the continents was covered by warm shallow seas. The Cretaceous was named for the extensive chalk deposits of this age in Europe, but in many parts of the world, the Cretaceous system consists for a major part of marine limestone, a rock type that is formed under warm, shallow marine circumstances. Due to the high sea level there was extensive accommodation space for sedimentation so that thick deposits could form. Because of the relatively young age and great thickness of the system, Cretaceous rocks crop out in many areas worldwide. Chalk is a rock type characteristic for (but not restricted to) the Cretaceous. It consists of coccoliths, microscopically small calcite skeletons of coccolithophores, a type of algae that prospered in the Cretaceous seas. In northwestern Europe, chalk deposits from the Upper Cretaceous are characteristic for the Chalk Group, which forms the white cliffs of Dover on the south coast of England and similar cliffs on the French Normandian coast. The group is found in England, northern France, the low countries, northern Germany, Denmark and in the subsurface of the southern part of the North Sea. Chalk is not easily consolidated and the Chalk Group still consists of loose sediments in many places. The group also has other limestones and arenites. Among the fossils it contains are sea urchins, belemnites, ammonites and sea reptiles such as Mosasaurus. In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of competent limestone beds or incompetent marls. Because the Alpine mountain chains did not yet exist in the Cretaceous, these deposits formed on the southern edge of the European continental shelf, at the margin of the Tethys Ocean. Stagnation of deep sea currents in middle Cretaceous times caused anoxic circumstances in the sea water. In many places around the world, dark anoxic shales were formed during this interval. See Stanley (1999), pp. 481-482 These shales are an important source rock for oil and gas, for example in the subsurface of the North Sea. Life Plants Flowering plants (angiosperms) spread during this period, although they did not become predominant until the Campanian stage near the end of the epoch. Their evolution was aided by the appearance of bees; in fact angiosperms and insects are a good example of coevolution. The first representatives of many leafy trees, including figs, planes and magnolias, appeared in the Cretaceous. At the same time, some earlier Mesozoic gymnosperms like Conifers continued to thrive; pehuéns (Monkey Puzzle trees, Araucaria) and other conifers being notably plentiful and widespread, although other gymnosperm taxa like Bennettitales died out before the end of the period. Terrestrial fauna [[Image:Tyrannosaurus BW.jpg|thumb|Tyrannosaurus rex, one of the largest land predators of all time lived during the late Cretaceous.]] A pterosaur, Anhanguera piscator On land, mammals were a small and still relatively minor component of the fauna. The fauna was dominated by archosaurian reptiles, especially dinosaurs, which were at their most diverse. Pterosaurs were common in the early and middle Cretaceous, but as the Cretaceous proceeded they faced growing competition from the adaptive radiation of birds, and by the end of the period only two highly specialized families remained. The Liaoning lagerstätte (Chaomidianzi formation) in China provides a glimpse of life in the Early Cretaceous, where preserved remains of numerous types of small dinosaurs, birds, and mammals have been found. The coelurosaur dinosaurs found there represent types of the group maniraptora, which is transitional between dinosaurs and birds, and are notable for the presence of hair-like feathers. During the Cretaceous, insects began to diversify, and the oldest known ants, termites and some lepidopterans, akin to butterflies and moths, appeared. Aphids, grasshoppers, and gall wasps appeared. Marine fauna In the seas, rays, modern sharks and teleosts became common. Marine reptiles included ichthyosaurs in the early and middle of the Cretaceous, plesiosaurs throughout the entire period, and mosasaurs in the Late Cretaceous. Baculites, an ammonite genus with a straight shell, flourished in the seas along with reef-building rudist clams. The Hesperornithiformes were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like grebes. Globotruncanid Foraminifera and echinoderms such as sea urchins and starfish (sea stars) thrived. The first radiation of the diatoms (generally siliceous, rather than calcareous) in the oceans occurred during the Cretaceous; freshwater diatoms did not appear until the Miocene. The Cretaceous was also an important interval in the evolution of bioerosion, the production of borings and scrapings in rocks, hardgrounds and shells (Taylor and Wilson, 2003). Extinction There was a progressive decline in biodiversity during the Maastrichtian stage of the Cretaceous Period prior to the suggested ecological crisis induced by events at the K-T boundary. Furthermore, biodiversity required a substantial amount of time to recover from the K-T event, despite the probable existence of an abundance of vacant ecological niches. Despite the severity of this boundary event, there was significant variability in the rate of extinction between and within different clades. Species which depended on photosynthesis declined or became extinct because of the reduction in solar energy reaching the Earth's surface due to atmospheric particles blocking the sunlight. As is the case today, photosynthesizing organisms, such as phytoplankton and land plants, formed the primary part of the food chain in the late Cretaceous. Evidence suggests that herbivorous animals, which depended on plants and plankton as their food, died out as their food sources became scarce; consequently, top predators such as Tyrannosaurus rex also perished. Coccolithophorids and molluscs, including ammonites, rudists, freshwater snails and mussels, as well as organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example, it is thought that ammonites were the principal food of mosasaurs, a group of giant marine reptiles that became extinct at the boundary. Omnivores, insectivores and carrion-eaters survived the extinction event, perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources. At the end of the Cretaceous there seem to have been no purely herbivorous or carnivorous mammals. Mammals and birds which survived the extinction fed on insects, larvae, worms, and snails, which in turn fed on dead plant and animal matter. Scientists theorise that these organisms survived the collapse of plant-based food chains because they fed on detritus. In stream communities, few groups of animals became extinct. Stream communities rely less on food from living plants and more on detritus that washes in from land. This particular ecological niche buffered them from extinction. Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the water column, than among animals living on or in the sea floor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on primary production from living phytoplankton, while animals living on or in the ocean floor feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding. The largest air-breathing survivors of the event, crocodilians and champsosaurs, were semi-aquatic and had access to detritus. Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and can survive for months without food, and their young are small, grow slowly, and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms or fragments of organisms for their first few years. These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous. See also Chalk Formation List of fossil sites (with link directory) Western Interior Seaway References Neal L Larson, Steven D Jorgensen, Robert A Farrar and Peter L Larson. Ammonites and the other Cephalopods of the Pierre Seaway. Geoscience Press, 1997. Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's) http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm Accessed April 30, 2006. Ovechkina, M.N. and Alekseev, A.S. 2005. Quantitative changes of calcareous nannoflora in the Saratov region (Russian Platform) during the late Maastrichtian warming event. Journal of Iberian Geology 31 (1): 149-165. PDF — detailed coverage of various aspects of the evolutionary history of the insects. Skinner, Brian J., and Stephen C. Porter. The Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995. ISBN 0-471-60618-9} Stanley, Steven M. Earth System History. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999. ISBN 0-7167-2882-6 Taylor, P.D. and Wilson, M.A., 2003. Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities. Earth-Science Reviews 62: 1-103. Notes External links UCMP Berkeley Cretaceous page Bioerosion website at The College of Wooster | Cretaceous |@lemmatized cretaceous:52 usually:2 abbreviate:1 k:4 german:1 translation:1 kreide:1 geologic:4 period:17 system:8 circa:1 million:3 year:4 ago:1 timescale:2 follow:3 jurassic:5 paleogene:1 young:3 mesozoic:4 era:2 long:2 phanerozoic:2 eon:1 end:9 define:3 boundary:6 cenozoic:1 relatively:3 warm:9 climate:4 high:7 eustatic:3 sea:24 level:5 ocean:15 populate:1 extinct:5 marine:13 reptile:6 ammonite:6 rudists:2 land:6 dinosaur:6 time:6 new:7 group:8 mammal:5 bird:6 well:4 flower:2 plant:9 appear:5 one:3 large:7 mass:1 extinction:9 earth:9 history:5 many:7 specie:2 include:6 pterosaur:3 disappear:1 world:4 paleogeography:1 late:11 paleozoic:1 early:8 supercontinent:1 pangaea:1 complete:1 breakup:1 present:3 day:1 continent:2 although:3 position:1 substantially:1 different:2 atlantic:3 widen:1 convergent:1 margin:2 orogeny:3 begin:2 continue:3 north:7 american:1 cordillera:1 nevadan:1 sevier:1 laramide:1 geography:1 u:1 though:3 gondwana:1 still:4 intact:1 beginning:1 break:1 south:5 america:3 antarctica:1 australia:1 rifted:1 away:1 africa:2 india:2 madagascar:1 remain:2 attached:1 thus:1 indian:1 newly:1 form:8 active:1 rifting:1 lift:1 great:3 undersea:1 mountain:3 chain:5 along:2 welt:1 raise:1 worldwide:4 tethys:3 narrow:1 broad:1 shallow:4 advance:1 across:2 central:1 western:3 interior:2 seaway:3 europe:6 recede:1 leave:1 thick:2 deposit:7 sandwich:1 coal:1 bed:5 peak:1 transgression:1 third:1 area:5 submerge:1 dougal:1 dixon:1 et:2 al:2 atlas:1 life:3 york:5 barnes:1 noble:1 book:1 p:4 justly:1 famous:2 chalk:12 indeed:1 stanley:6 steven:3 w:2 h:2 freeman:2 company:2 isbn:4 mid:2 ridge:3 activity:2 rather:2 circulation:1 seawater:1 enlarged:1 enrich:1 calcium:2 make:2 saturated:1 increase:2 bioavailability:1 element:1 calcareous:3 nanoplankton:1 pp:4 widespread:3 carbonate:2 sedimentary:1 rock:8 record:1 especially:2 fine:1 formation:6 rich:2 fossil:6 kansa:1 smoky:1 hill:1 member:1 terrestrial:2 fauna:5 hell:1 creek:1 important:3 exposure:1 occur:2 e:1 g:1 weald:1 china:2 yixian:1 massive:1 lava:1 call:1 deccan:1 trap:1 erupt:1 paleocene:1 berriasian:3 epoch:4 show:2 cool:1 trend:2 see:3 last:1 evidence:3 snowfall:1 common:3 latitude:2 tropic:1 become:8 wet:1 triassic:1 age:4 glaciation:1 however:3 restrict:2 alpine:2 glacier:1 seasonal:1 snow:1 may:2 exist:2 farther:1 temperature:5 condition:1 almost:2 constant:1 ibid:1 due:3 intense:1 volcanic:1 produce:1 quantity:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 development:1 number:1 mantle:1 plume:1 widening:1 far:2 push:1 continental:2 crust:1 cover:2 connect:1 tropical:2 east:1 west:1 also:5 help:1 global:3 adapt:1 know:1 locality:1 alaska:1 greenland:1 find:7 within:2 degree:1 pole:2 gentle:1 gradient:1 equator:1 mean:2 weak:1 wind:1 contribute:1 less:2 upwelling:1 stagnant:1 today:3 black:1 shale:3 deposition:1 frequent:1 anoxic:3 event:7 sediment:2 core:1 surface:2 briefly:1 c:6 f:4 average:1 around:2 meanwhile:1 deep:2 much:2 hot:1 tub:1 past:1 physorg:1 com:1 retrieve:1 skinner:2 brian:2 j:2 stephen:2 porter:2 dynamic:2 introduction:2 physical:2 geology:4 ed:2 john:2 wiley:2 son:2 inc:2 research:1 separate:2 first:4 belgian:1 geologist:2 jean:1 omalius:1 halloy:1 use:3 stratum:1 paris:1 basin:1 name:4 extensive:3 shell:4 invertebrate:2 principally:1 coccoliths:2 upper:5 derive:1 latin:1 creta:1 island:1 crete:1 origin:1 stratigraphic:1 subdivision:3 divide:2 low:3 series:2 old:3 literature:1 sometimes:1 three:1 neocomian:1 gallic:1 middle:4 senonian:1 eleven:1 stage:3 origining:1 european:2 stratigraphy:2 part:5 alternative:1 local:1 identify:1 exact:1 top:3 base:2 uncertain:1 burst:1 diversity:1 sharply:1 place:3 iridium:1 layer:2 believe:1 associate:1 chicxulub:1 impact:1 crater:1 yucatan:1 gulf:1 mexico:1 tightly:1 date:1 official:1 ic:1 give:1 callibrations:1 kuiper:1 yield:1 draw:1 jaw:1 mosasaurus:2 hoffmanni:1 maastrichtian:3 dutch:2 limburg:1 pieter:1 harting:1 meant:1 consist:4 major:1 limestone:3 type:5 circumstance:2 accommodation:1 space:1 sedimentation:1 could:1 thickness:1 crop:1 characteristic:3 microscopically:1 small:4 calcite:1 skeleton:1 coccolithophores:1 algae:1 prosper:1 northwestern:1 white:1 cliff:2 dover:1 coast:2 england:2 similar:2 french:1 normandian:1 northern:2 france:1 country:1 germany:1 denmark:1 subsurface:2 southern:3 easily:1 consolidate:1 loose:1 arenites:1 among:3 contain:1 urchin:2 belemnite:1 competent:1 incompetent:1 marl:1 yet:1 edge:1 shelf:1 stagnation:1 current:1 cause:1 water:3 dark:1 interval:2 source:3 oil:1 gas:1 example:3 angiosperm:2 spread:1 predominant:1 campanian:1 near:1 evolution:3 aid:1 appearance:1 bee:1 fact:1 insect:4 good:1 coevolution:1 representative:1 leafy:1 tree:2 fig:1 plane:1 magnolia:1 gymnosperm:2 like:4 conifer:2 thrive:2 pehuéns:1 monkey:1 puzzle:1 araucaria:1 notably:1 plentiful:1 taxon:1 bennettitales:1 die:2 image:1 tyrannosaurus:3 bw:1 jpg:1 thumb:1 rex:2 predator:2 live:6 anhanguera:1 piscator:1 minor:1 component:1 dominate:1 archosaurian:1 diverse:1 proceed:1 face:1 grow:2 competition:1 adaptive:1 radiation:2 two:1 highly:1 specialized:1 family:1 liaoning:1 lagerstätte:1 chaomidianzi:1 provide:1 glimpse:1 preserve:1 remains:1 numerous:1 coelurosaur:1 dinosaurs:1 represent:1 maniraptora:1 transitional:1 notable:1 presence:1 hair:1 feather:1 diversify:1 known:1 ant:1 termite:1 lepidopteran:1 akin:1 butterfly:1 moth:1 aphid:1 grasshopper:1 gall:1 wasp:1 ray:1 modern:2 shark:1 teleost:1 ichthyosaur:1 plesiosaur:1 throughout:1 entire:1 mosasaurs:2 baculites:1 genus:1 straight:1 flourish:1 reef:1 building:1 rudist:1 clam:1 hesperornithiformes:1 flightless:1 diving:1 swim:1 grebe:1 globotruncanid:1 foraminifera:1 echinoderm:1 starfish:1 star:1 diatom:2 generally:1 siliceous:1 freshwater:2 miocene:1 bioerosion:2 production:2 boring:1 scraping:1 hardgrounds:1 taylor:2 wilson:2 progressive:1 decline:2 biodiversity:2 prior:1 suggested:1 ecological:3 crisis:1 induce:1 furthermore:1 require:1 substantial:1 amount:1 recover:1 despite:2 probable:1 existence:1 abundance:1 vacant:1 niche:2 severity:1 significant:1 variability:1 rate:1 clade:1 depend:2 photosynthesis:1 reduction:1 solar:1 energy:1 reach:1 atmospheric:1 particle:1 block:1 sunlight:1 case:1 photosynthesizing:1 organism:5 phytoplankton:2 primary:2 food:9 suggest:1 herbivorous:2 animal:7 plankton:1 scarce:1 consequently:1 perish:1 coccolithophorids:1 mollusc:1 snail:2 mussel:1 whose:1 builder:1 suffer:1 heavy:1 loss:1 think:1 principal:1 giant:1 omnivore:1 insectivore:1 carrion:1 eater:1 survive:4 perhaps:1 increased:1 availability:1 seem:1 purely:1 carnivorous:1 feed:5 larva:1 worm:1 turn:1 dead:2 matter:1 scientist:1 theorise:1 collapse:1 detritus:5 stream:2 community:3 rely:1 living:1 wash:1 particular:1 buffer:1 complex:1 pattern:1 severe:1 column:2 floor:2 entirely:1 dependent:1 switch:1 feeding:1 air:1 breathing:1 survivor:1 crocodilian:3 champsosaurs:1 semi:1 aquatic:1 access:2 scavenger:1 month:1 without:1 slowly:1 largely:1 fragment:1 link:3 survival:1 list:1 site:1 directory:1 reference:1 neal:1 l:2 larson:2 jorgensen:1 robert:1 farrar:1 peter:1 cephalopod:1 pierre:1 geoscience:1 press:1 ogg:1 jim:1 june:1 overview:1 stratotype:1 section:1 point:1 gssp:2 http:1 www:1 org:1 htm:1 april:1 ovechkina:1 n:1 alekseev:1 quantitative:1 change:1 nannoflora:1 saratov:1 region:1 russian:1 platform:1 journal:1 iberian:1 pdf:1 detailed:1 coverage:1 various:1 aspect:1 evolutionary:1 palaeoecology:1 hard:1 substrate:1 science:1 review:1 note:1 external:1 ucmp:1 berkeley:1 page:1 website:1 college:1 wooster:1 |@bigram geologic_timescale:2 paleogene_period:1 mesozoic_era:1 phanerozoic_eon:1 cenozoic_era:1 eustatic_sea:3 atlantic_ocean:2 et_al:2 barnes_noble:1 terrestrial_fauna:2 deccan_trap:1 triassic_jurassic:1 alpine_glacier:1 carbon_dioxide:1 mantle_plume:1 continental_crust:1 anoxic_event:1 physorg_com:1 wiley_son:2 calcium_carbonate:1 marine_invertebrate:1 impact_crater:1 gulf_mexico:1 sea_urchin:2 continental_shelf:1 tethys_ocean:1 jpg_thumb:1 tyrannosaurus_rex:2 adaptive_radiation:1 ant_termite:1 butterfly_moth:1 ecological_niche:2 carnivorous_mammal:1 ogg_jim:1 boundary_stratotype:1 stratotype_section:1 http_www:1 stratigraphy_org:1 org_gssp:1 gssp_htm:1 external_link:1 ucmp_berkeley:1 |
7,429 | Felix_Hausdorff | Felix Hausdorff (November 8, 1868 – January 26, 1942) was a German mathematician who is considered to be one of the founders of modern topology and who contributed significantly to set theory, descriptive set theory, measure theory, function theory, and functional analysis. Life Hausdorff studied at the University of Leipzig, obtaining his Ph.D. in 1891. He taught mathematics in Leipzig until 1910, when he became professor of mathematics at the University of Bonn. He was professor at the University of Greifswald from 1913 to 1921. He then returned to Bonn. When the Nazis came to power, Hausdorff, who was Jewish, felt that as a respected university professor he would be spared from persecution. However, his abstract mathematics was denounced as "Jewish", useless, and "un-German" and he lost his position in 1935. Though he could no longer publish in Germany, Hausdorff continued to be an active research mathematician, publishing in the Polish journal Fundamenta Mathematicae. After Kristallnacht in 1938 as persecution of Jews escalated, Hausdorff became more and more isolated. Finally, in 1942 when he could no longer avoid being sent to a concentration camp, Hausdorff committed suicide together with his wife, Charlotte Goldschmidt Hausdorff, and sister-in-law, Edith Goldschmidt Pappenheim, on the 26th of January. They are buried in Bonn, Germany. Work Hausdorff was the first to state a generalization of Cantor's Continuum Hypothesis; his Aleph Hypothesis, which appears in his 1908 article Grundzüge einer Theorie der geordneten Mengen, and which is equivalent to what is now called the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis. In 1909, while studying partially ordered sets of real sequences, he stated what is now known as the Hausdorff Maximal Principle; he was the first to apply a maximal principle in algebra. In his 1914 classic text, Grundzüge der Mengenlehre, he defined and studied partially ordered sets abstractly; using the Axiom of Choice, he proved that every partially ordered set has a maximal linearly ordered subset. In this same book, he axiomatized the topological concept of neighborhood and introduced the topological spaces that are now called Hausdorff spaces. In 1914 using the Axiom of Choice, he gave a "paradoxical" decomposition of the 2-sphere as the disjoint union of four sets A,B,C, and Q, where Q is countable and the sets A, B, C, and BC are mutually congruent. This later inspired the Banach-Tarski paradoxical decomposition of the ball in 3-space. The Hausdorff grave in Bonn, Germany. (Click Image to Enlarge)He introduced the concepts now called Hausdorff measure and Hausdorff dimension, which have been useful in the theory of fractals. In analysis, he solved what is now called the Hausdorff moment problem. Hausdorff also published philosophical and literary works under the pseudonym "Paul Mongré". "Paul Mongre" published a number of books and articles on the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, as well as a number of reviews of contemporary literature and drama. Mongre-Hausdorff also published a satirical play which performed in a dozen German cities. In the course of attempts to refute Nietzsche's doctrine of "the eternal return of the same," Hausdorff was led to Cantor's set theory, which set Hausdorff on the road to his set-theoretical discoveries. Hausdorff's Nietzschean philosophical writings appear in volume VII of his collected works. Important publications Grundzüge der Mengenlehre [Gesamnelte Werke] See also Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula Gromov-Hausdorff convergence Hausdorff paradox External links Homepage of the Hausdorff Edition (German) Hausdorff Findbuch Hausdorff Center for Mathematics in Bonn | Felix_Hausdorff |@lemmatized felix:1 hausdorff:25 november:1 january:2 german:4 mathematician:2 consider:1 one:1 founder:1 modern:1 topology:1 contribute:1 significantly:1 set:10 theory:6 descriptive:1 measure:2 function:1 functional:1 analysis:2 life:1 study:3 university:4 leipzig:2 obtain:1 ph:1 teach:1 mathematics:4 become:2 professor:3 bonn:5 greifswald:1 return:2 nazi:1 come:1 power:1 jewish:2 felt:1 respected:1 would:1 spar:1 persecution:2 however:1 abstract:1 denounce:1 useless:1 un:1 lose:1 position:1 though:1 could:2 longer:2 publish:4 germany:3 continue:1 active:1 research:1 publishing:1 polish:1 journal:1 fundamenta:1 mathematicae:1 kristallnacht:1 jew:1 escalate:1 isolated:1 finally:1 avoid:1 send:1 concentration:1 camp:1 commit:1 suicide:1 together:1 wife:1 charlotte:1 goldschmidt:2 sister:1 law:1 edith:1 pappenheim:1 bury:1 work:3 first:2 state:2 generalization:1 cantor:2 continuum:2 hypothesis:3 aleph:1 appear:2 article:2 grundzüge:3 einer:1 theorie:1 der:3 geordneten:1 mengen:1 equivalent:1 call:4 generalized:1 partially:3 order:4 real:1 sequence:1 know:1 maximal:3 principle:2 apply:1 algebra:1 classic:1 text:1 mengenlehre:2 define:1 abstractly:1 use:2 axiom:2 choice:2 prove:1 every:1 linearly:1 subset:1 book:2 axiomatized:1 topological:2 concept:2 neighborhood:1 introduce:2 space:3 give:1 paradoxical:2 decomposition:2 sphere:1 disjoint:1 union:1 four:1 b:2 c:2 q:2 countable:1 bc:1 mutually:1 congruent:1 later:1 inspire:1 banach:1 tarski:1 ball:1 grave:1 click:1 image:1 enlarge:1 dimension:1 useful:1 fractal:1 solve:1 moment:1 problem:1 also:3 philosophical:2 literary:1 pseudonym:1 paul:2 mongré:1 mongre:2 number:2 philosopher:1 friedrich:1 nietzsche:2 well:1 review:1 contemporary:1 literature:1 drama:1 satirical:1 play:1 perform:1 dozen:1 city:1 course:1 attempt:1 refute:1 doctrine:1 eternal:1 lead:1 road:1 theoretical:1 discovery:1 nietzschean:1 writing:1 volume:1 vii:1 collected:1 important:1 publication:1 gesamnelte:1 werke:1 see:1 baker:1 campbell:1 formula:1 gromov:1 convergence:1 paradox:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 edition:1 findbuch:1 center:1 |@bigram concentration_camp:1 commit_suicide:1 continuum_hypothesis:2 theorie_der:1 generalized_continuum:1 hausdorff_maximal:1 grundzüge_der:2 axiom_choice:2 topological_space:1 disjoint_union:1 banach_tarski:1 hausdorff_dimension:1 friedrich_nietzsche:1 external_link:1 |
7,430 | Agathon | This painting by Anselm Feuerbach reimagines a scene from Plato's Symposium, in which the tragedian Agathon welcomes the drunken Alcibiades into his home. 1869. Agathon () (ca. 448–400 BC) was an Athenian tragic poet. He is best known for his appearance in Plato's Symposium, which describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for his first tragedy at the Lenaia in (416). He is also a prominent character in Aristophanes' comedy the Thesmophoriazusae. Agathon was the life-long companion of Pausanias, with whom he appears in both the Symposium and in Plato's Protagoras. Pierre Leveque, Agathon (Paris: Societe d'Edition Les Belles Lettres, 1955), pp. 163-4. Together with Pausanias, Agathon later moved to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedon, who was recruiting playwrights; it is here that he probably died around 401 BC. Agathon introduced certain innovations into the Greek theater: Aristotle tells us that the plot of his Anthus was original and not, as was usual at the time, borrowed from mythological subjects. Agathon was also the first playwright to write choral parts which were apparently independent from the main plot of his plays. Agathon is portrayed by Plato as a handsome young man, well dressed, of polished manners, courted by the fashion, wealth and wisdom of Athens, and dispensing hospitality with ease and refinement. The epideictic speech in praise of love which Agathon recites in the Symposium is full of beautiful but artificial rhetorical expressions, and has lead some scholars to believe he may have been a student of Gorgias. In the Symposium, Agathon is presented as the friend of the comic poet Aristophanes, but this alleged friendship did not prevent Aristophanes from harshly criticizing Agathon in at least two of his comic plays: the Thesmophoriazousae and the (now lost) Gerytades. In a later play, the Frogs, Aristophanes softens his criticisms, but even so it may be only for the sake of punning on Agathon's name (ἁγαθός = "good") that he makes Dionysus call him a "good poet". Agathon was also a friend of Euripides, another recruit to the court of Archelaus of Macedon. Physical Appearance This fifth-century depiction of the poet Anacreon shows the kind of clothing Agathon might have worn. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Agathon's extraordinary physical beauty is brought up repeatedly in the sources; the historian W. Rhys Roberts observes that "ὁ καλός Ἀγάθων has become almost a stereotyped phrase." W. Rhys Roberts, "Aristophanes and Agathon," The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 20 (1900), p 50. Our most detailed description of Agathon can be found in Aristophanes' comedy, the Thesmophoriazousae, in which Agathon appears as a pale, cleanshaven young man, dressed in women's clothes. Regrettably, it is hard to determine how much of Aristophanes' portrayal is fact and how much mere comic invention. After a close reading of the Thesmophoriazousae, the historian Jane McIntosh Snyder observed that Agathon's costume was almost identical to that of the famous lyric poet Anacreon, as he is portrayed in early 5th-century vase-paintings. Snyder theorizes that Agathon might have made a deliberate effort to mimic the sumptuous attire of his famous fellow-poet, although by Agathon's time, such clothing, especially the κεκρύφαλος (an elaborate covering for the hair) had long fallen out of fashion for men. According to this interpretation, Agathon is mocked in the Thesmophoriazousae not only for his notorious effeminacy, but also for the pretentiousness of his dress: "he seems to think of himself, in all his elegant finery, as a rival to the old Ionian poets, perhaps even to Anacreon himself." Jane McIntosh Snyder, "Aristophanes' Agathon as Anacreon," Hermes, 102 (1974) p 246. Plato's Epigram Agathon has been thought to be the subject of Lovers' Lips, attributed to the philosopher Plato: Kissing Agathon, I had my soul upon my lips; for it rose, poor wretch, as though to cross over. A looser translation reads: Kissing Agathon, I found my soul at my lips. Poor thing! It went there, hoping--to slip across. Although the authenticity of this epigram was accepted for many centuries, it was probably not composed for Agathon the tragedian; nor was it composed by Plato. Stylistic evidence suggests that the poem (with most of Plato's other alleged epigrams) was actually written some time after Plato had died: for its form is that of the Hellenistic erotic epigram, which did not become popular until after 300 B.C. According to 20th-century scholar Walther Ludwig, the poems were spuriously inserted into an early biography of Plato--sometime between 250 B.C. and 100 B.C.--and adopted by later writers from this source. Walther Ludwig, "Plato's Love Epigrams," Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 4:2 (1963: Spring) pp 59-82. References Notes Other sources The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, volume 1, by Alfred Bates. (London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906) Thesmoph. 59, 106, Eccles. 100 (Aristophanes) Lovers' Lips by Plato in the Project Gutenberg eText Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology by J. W. Mackail. | Agathon |@lemmatized painting:2 anselm:1 feuerbach:1 reimagines:1 scene:1 plato:12 symposium:5 tragedian:2 agathon:27 welcome:1 drunken:1 alcibiades:1 home:1 ca:1 bc:2 athenian:1 tragic:1 poet:7 best:1 know:1 appearance:2 describe:1 banquet:1 give:1 celebrate:1 obtain:1 prize:1 first:2 tragedy:1 lenaia:1 also:4 prominent:1 character:1 aristophanes:9 comedy:2 thesmophoriazusae:1 life:1 long:2 companion:1 pausanias:2 appear:2 protagoras:1 pierre:1 leveque:1 paris:1 societe:1 edition:1 le:1 bell:1 lettres:1 pp:2 together:1 later:1 move:1 court:3 archelaus:2 king:1 macedon:2 recruit:2 playwright:2 probably:2 die:2 around:1 introduce:1 certain:1 innovation:1 greek:3 theater:1 aristotle:1 tell:1 u:1 plot:2 anthus:1 original:1 usual:1 time:3 borrow:1 mythological:1 subject:2 write:2 choral:1 part:1 apparently:1 independent:1 main:1 play:3 portray:2 handsome:1 young:2 man:2 well:1 dress:3 polished:1 manner:1 fashion:2 wealth:1 wisdom:1 athens:1 dispense:1 hospitality:1 ease:1 refinement:1 epideictic:1 speech:1 praise:1 love:2 recites:1 full:1 beautiful:1 artificial:1 rhetorical:1 expression:1 lead:1 scholar:2 believe:1 may:2 student:1 gorgias:1 present:1 friend:2 comic:3 allege:1 friendship:1 prevent:1 harshly:1 criticize:1 least:1 two:1 thesmophoriazousae:4 lose:1 gerytades:1 late:2 frog:1 soften:1 criticism:1 even:2 sake:1 pun:1 name:1 ἁγαθός:1 good:2 make:2 dionysus:1 call:1 euripides:1 another:1 physical:2 fifth:1 century:4 depiction:1 anacreon:4 show:1 kind:1 clothing:2 might:2 wear:1 museum:1 fine:1 art:1 boston:1 extraordinary:1 beauty:1 bring:1 repeatedly:1 source:3 historian:2 w:3 rhys:2 roberts:1 observe:2 ὁ:1 καλός:1 ἀγάθων:1 become:2 almost:2 stereotyped:1 phrase:1 robert:1 journal:1 hellenic:1 study:2 vol:1 p:2 detailed:1 description:1 find:2 pale:1 cleanshaven:1 woman:1 clothes:1 regrettably:1 hard:1 determine:1 much:2 portrayal:1 fact:1 mere:1 invention:1 close:1 reading:1 jane:2 mcintosh:2 snyder:3 costume:1 identical:1 famous:2 lyric:1 early:2 vase:1 theorize:1 deliberate:1 effort:1 mimic:1 sumptuous:1 attire:1 fellow:1 although:2 especially:1 κεκρύφαλος:1 elaborate:1 covering:1 hair:1 fall:1 men:1 accord:2 interpretation:1 mock:1 notorious:1 effeminacy:1 pretentiousness:1 seem:1 think:2 elegant:1 finery:1 rival:1 old:1 ionian:1 perhaps:1 hermes:1 epigram:6 lover:2 lip:4 attribute:1 philosopher:1 kissing:2 soul:2 upon:1 rise:1 poor:2 wretch:1 though:1 cross:1 loose:1 translation:1 read:1 thing:1 go:1 hop:1 slip:1 across:1 authenticity:1 accept:1 many:1 compose:2 stylistic:1 evidence:1 suggest:1 poem:2 alleged:1 actually:1 form:1 hellenistic:1 erotic:1 popular:1 b:3 c:3 walther:2 ludwig:2 spuriously:1 insert:1 biography:1 sometime:1 adopt:1 writer:1 roman:1 byzantine:1 spring:1 reference:1 note:1 drama:1 history:1 literature:1 influence:1 civilization:1 volume:1 alfred:1 bates:1 london:1 historical:1 publishing:1 company:1 thesmoph:1 eccles:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 etext:1 select:1 anthology:1 j:1 mackail:1 |@bigram plato_symposium:2 bell_lettres:1 harshly_criticize:1 vase_painting:1 project_gutenberg:1 gutenberg_etext:1 |
7,431 | Abdul_Rashid_Dostum | Abdul Rashid Dostum (also known as Heavy D, D-Diddy) (born 1954) is a former pro-Soviet fighter during the Soviet war in Afghanistan and is considered by many to be the leader of Afghanistan's Uzbek community. He joined the Afghan military in 1978, fighting with the Soviets and against the mujahideen throughout the 1980s before switching sides and joining the mujahideen. Dostum would again switch sides and has become infamous for his switching of allegiances. Most recently he was a general and Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Afghan National Army a role often viewed as ceremonial. In early 2008 he was removed from his army role because of the Akbar Bai kidnapping incident. Military career Early life Dostum was born in Khvajeh Do Kuh, Afghanistan. In 1970 he began to work in a state-owned gas refinery in Sheberghan, Jowzjan Province, participating in union politics. As the new government started to arm the staff of the workers in the oil and gas refineries. The reason for this was to create "groups for the defense of the revolution". Because of the new communist ideas entering Afghanistan in the 1970s, he enlisted himself in the army. At this time Dostum was on his basis of his military training in the Soviet Union. He returned to Afghanistan, getting a job in Ministry of State Security. His squadron, in response to increasing conflict, was deployed in the rural areas around Sheberghan, under the auspices of the Ministry of National Security. By the mid 1980s his platoon had grown in stature, reaching a company level and by the mid-1980s he was in command of over 20,000 militas and had reached a regimental level. While the unit recruited throughout Jowzjan and had a relatively broad base, many of its early troops and commanders came from Dostum's home village, Khoja Dukoh, and these represented the core of the unit at that juncture and again when it was reconstituted after the American Invasion of Afghanistan in 2001. He left the army after the purge of Parchamis, but returned after the Soviet occupation began. Soviet Invasion and change of allegiance As the situation in the Republic of Afghanistan deteriorated with massive uprising occurring all over the country. The then prime minister Hafizullah Amin, seized control when he overthrew president Nur Mohammad Taraki. The KGB reported that Amin sought to cut ties with the Soviet Union and instead ally itself with the People's Republic of China and Pakistan. This prompted the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan and assasinate president Amin in 1979. Soviet military commander announced to Radio Kabul that Afghanistan had been "liberated" from Amin's rule. Mujahideen attacks were still a problem in the country. By this time Dostum was commanding a militia battalion to fight and route rebel forces. This eventually became a regiment and later became incorporated into the defense forces as the 53rd Infantry Division. Dostum and his new division reported directly to then-President Mohammad Najibullah. Later on he became the commander of the military unit 374 in Jowzjan. He defended the communist Republic of Afghanistan against the American and Pakistani-backed mujahideens in the 1980s. While he was only a regional commander, he had largely raised the militia he fought with by himself. The Jowzjani militia Dostum controlled was one of the few militia forces in the country which was able to able to be outside of its region. They militia forces were deployed in the city Qandahar in 1988 when Soviet forces withdrew in 1989. After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 the communist regime faced economic problems. The new Russian government didn't want anything to do with their old communist allies. So they stopped sending supplies to the country, which startd an economic crisis in the country. The Soviet Union was Afghanistans main trading partner from the start in 1978. This eventually led to government officials swapping allegiances and would eventually lead to Mohammad Najibullahs governments fall in 1992. Dostum army forces would become an important factor in the fall of Kabul in 1992. On April 18, 1992 he started his revolt against the government of Najibullah. He allied himself with mujahideen commander Ahmad Shah Massoud, and together they captured the city of Kabul. Dostum at that time commanded the militia forces in Kabul. After the siege in 1992 he and Masoud fought in a coalition against Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. Civil War In 1994, Dostum switched allegiances again, now allying himself with the forces of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. Again, Dostum was laying a siege on Kabul which started in 1995 and ended in 1997. This time he was fighting against the government Burhanuddin Rabbani and Massoud. Following the rise of the Taliban and their capture of Herat and Kabul, Dostum re-aligned himself with Rabbani against the Taliban. Always an "opportunist", he tried to buy himself some favour with the Taliban however, sending Uzbek technicians to restore their recently-captured MiG 21 aircraft to working order. Griffiths, John C. "Afghanistan: A History of Conflict", 1981. Second Revision 2001. The Taliban forces captured the city of Kabul in 1996, forcing Dostum with the Northern Alliance retreated up north. Dostum however retreated to the city of Mazar-i-Sharif. Much like other northern alliance leaders, Dostum also faced infighting within his group and was later forced tor retreat from power thanks to his General Abdul Malik Pahlawan. Initially, Malik was one of Dostum's subordinates, but in 1996 he blamed Dostum for the murder of his brother Rasoul. He then entered into secret negotiations with the Taliban, who promised to respect his authority over much of Northern Afghanistan, in exchange for the capture of Ismail Khan, one of their most powerful enemies De Ponfilly, Christophe(2001); Massoud l'Afghan; Gallimard; ISBN 2-07-042468-5; p. 75 . Accordingly, on May 25, 1997 he arrested Khan and handed him over and let the Taliban enter Mazari Sharif, giving them control over most of Northern Afghanistan. Because of this treason, Dostum was forced to flee to Turkey. page 6-8 - However Malik quickly realized that the Taliban weren't going to keep their promises as they started to disarm his men. He then rejoined forces with the Northern Alliance, and turned against his erstwhile allies, helping to drive them from Mazar-i-Sharif. In October 1997, Dostum returned from exile and defeated Malik, briefly regaining control of Mazar-i-Sharif, and forcing Malik to escape to Iran. But in 1998 he was forced to flee to Turkey again. Dostum returned in 2001. At this time Massoud had funded Dostum to come and open a new front in the campaign against Taliban. Along with General Mohammed Fahim and Ismail Khan, Dostum was one of three leaders of the Northern Alliance. US Invasion of Afghanistan Dostum and Hamid Karzai in December 2001In November 2001, with the beginning of the US invasion of Afghanistan, and against the wishes of the CIA who distrusted Dostum, a team including Johnny Micheal Spann landed to set up communications in the Dariya Suf. A few hours later 23 men of Operational Detatchment Alpha (ODA) 595 landed to begin the war. On November 24, 2000 300 Taliban soldiers who had retreated after the Siege of Kunduz by American and Aghan military forces. The deserter laid down their weapons a few miles from the city of Mazar-i-Sharif. They eventually surrendered peacefully to Dostum. Dostum called this a "great victory". The surrendered Taliban fighters left Mazar-i-Sharif to be moved to the 19th century prison fortress, Qala-i-Jangi. The prison was full of Taliban fighters who would eventually start the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi against the Northern Alliance and later British and American forces. The uprising eventually overpowered the Northern Alliance soldiers placed to defend the prison. During the uprising Dostum commanded the Afghan forces battling the Taliban uprisers. Political career Afghan Government Dostum served as a deputy defense minister for Karzai in the national government in Kabul. In March 2003, Dostum established a North Zone of Afghanistan, against the wishes of interim president Hamid Karzai. On May 20, 2003, after narrowly escaping an assassination attempt, Dostum assumed the position of "Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Afghan Armed Forces". In the aftermath of the Taliban's removal from northern Afghanistan, forces loyal to Dostum frequently clashed with forces loyal to Tajik General Ustad Atta Mohammed Noor. Atta kidnapped and killed a number of Dostum's men and constantly agitated to gain control of Mazar i Sharif. Through the political mediations of the Karzai regime, the U.S.-led international military coalition, and the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force, as well as the UN-run Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration program, the Dostum-Atta feud has largely ended. The two are now generally politically allied as part of a broader ideological effort to protect the interests of Afghanistan's war veterans and to preserve their own power. On March 1, 2005 President Hamid Karzai appointed him Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief, although it is unclear whether this position has any real power. Akbar Bai kidnapping On February 2, 2008, about 50 of Dostum's fighters reportedly kidnapped Akbar Bai, a former ally of Dostum who had become his rival. In this attack, which occurred at Bai's home, Bai, his son, and a bodyguard were said to have been beaten, and another bodyguard was said to have been shot. Early on February 3, Dostum's house was surrounded by police. Bai and the three others were freed and hospitalized. According to the authorities, the stand-off at Dostum's home between his fighters and the police ended with Dostum's agreement to cooperate with the authorities in an investigation of the incident. "Feared Afghan strongman suspended from government post", AFP, February 19, 2008. Radio Free Europe reported on February 6, 2008 that Afghan Attorney-General Abdul Jabar Sabit said charges against Dostum were pending. Sabit said that the political and security situation would make it difficult to prosecute Dostum. The charges, according to Sabit, included kidnapping, breaking and entering, and assault. According to a spokesman for the United National Front of Afghanistan, Sayed Hussain Sancharaki claims that General Dostum has a high profile among his people and is one of the famous political and military figures of Afghanistan. He is Karzai's chief of staff for the armed forces and he is a senior member of the United Front of Afghanistan. It is natural that any kind of action against him will have repercussions. The consequences will be very dangerous -- catastrophic -- for the stability of Afghanistan." Human Rights Watch spokesmen Sam Zia-Zarifi, called the charges a sign of Afghanistan's "growing balkanization". He asserted that the size of warlords private armies was increasing, fueled by illicit profits from Afghanistan's Opium trade. On February 19, it was announced that Sabit had suspended Dostum from his position as Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief after he failed to appear when summoned for the investigation. According to Dostum, this was "not in line with the law", and he said that he would request Karzai's intervention. Three allies of Dostum—Latif Pedram and two members of parliament—were also summoned for the investigation. On October 30th, Dostum's position as Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief was restored after the Attorney General agreed to Akbar Bai's dropping of all charges. Exile in Turkey? Some media reports beginning December 4 said that Dostum was "seeking political asylum" in Turkey "Dostum seeking asylum in Turkey - media reports," Quqnoos.com, 6 Dec 2008, retrieved 6 Dec 08 , while others said he was exiled. "Afghan general Rashid Dostum flies to exile in Turkey," Deutsche Presse-Agentur via earthtimes.org, 4 Dec 08, retrieved 6 Dec 08 One Turkish media outlet said Dostum was visiting after flying there with Turkey's Foreign Minister Ali Babacan during a meeting of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). "Afghan warlord in Turkey but not in exile, official says," Today's Zaman, 5 Dec 08, retrieved 6 Dec 08 Like most rumors spread about Dostum, it turned out to much less dramatic: Dostum was vislting his Ankara-based wife and twins during the holiday of Eid. Political Views In most ethnic-Uzbek dominated areas in which Dostum has control or influence, he encourages women to live and work freely, as well as encouraging music, sports and allowing for freedom of religion. He views the NATO attempt to crush the Taliban as ineffective and has gone on record saying that he could mop up the Taliban "in six months" , if allowed to raise an 10,000 strong army of Afghan vets. Senior Afghan government officials do not trust Dostum as they show great concern that Dostum is covertly rearming his forces. References External links Article on Abdul Rashid Dostum on Islamic Republic Of Afghanistan (.com) BBC online profile Biography about Dostum CNN Presents: House of War | Abdul_Rashid_Dostum |@lemmatized abdul:4 rashid:3 dostum:57 also:3 know:1 heavy:1 diddy:1 born:1 former:2 pro:1 soviet:12 fighter:5 war:5 afghanistan:26 consider:1 many:2 leader:3 uzbek:3 community:1 join:2 afghan:12 military:8 fight:5 mujahideen:5 throughout:2 switch:3 side:2 would:6 become:6 infamous:1 switching:1 allegiance:4 recently:2 general:8 chief:11 staff:7 commander:10 national:4 army:7 role:2 often:1 view:3 ceremonial:1 early:4 remove:1 akbar:4 bai:7 kidnap:4 incident:2 career:2 life:1 bear:1 khvajeh:1 kuh:1 begin:4 work:3 state:2 gas:2 refinery:2 sheberghan:2 jowzjan:3 province:1 participate:1 union:6 politics:1 new:5 government:10 start:6 arm:2 worker:1 oil:1 reason:1 create:1 group:2 defense:3 revolution:1 communist:4 idea:1 enter:4 enlist:1 time:5 basis:1 training:1 return:4 get:1 job:1 ministry:2 security:5 squadron:1 response:1 increase:2 conflict:2 deploy:2 rural:1 area:2 around:1 auspex:1 mid:2 platoon:1 grow:2 stature:1 reach:2 company:1 level:2 command:4 militas:1 regimental:1 unit:3 recruit:1 relatively:1 broad:2 base:2 troop:1 come:2 home:3 village:1 khoja:1 dukoh:1 represent:1 core:1 juncture:1 reconstitute:1 american:4 invasion:4 leave:2 purge:1 parchamis:1 occupation:1 change:1 situation:2 republic:4 deteriorate:1 massive:1 uprising:3 occur:2 country:5 prime:1 minister:3 hafizullah:1 amin:4 seize:1 control:6 overthrow:1 president:5 nur:1 mohammad:3 taraki:1 kgb:1 report:5 seek:3 cut:1 tie:1 instead:1 ally:8 people:2 china:1 pakistan:1 prompt:1 invade:1 assasinate:1 announce:2 radio:2 kabul:8 liberate:1 rule:1 attack:2 still:1 problem:2 militia:6 battalion:1 route:1 rebel:1 force:24 eventually:6 regiment:1 later:5 incorporate:1 infantry:1 division:2 directly:1 najibullah:2 defend:2 pakistani:1 back:1 regional:1 largely:2 raise:2 jowzjani:1 one:6 able:2 outside:1 region:1 city:5 qandahar:1 withdraw:1 fall:3 regime:2 face:2 economic:2 russian:1 want:1 anything:1 old:1 stop:1 send:2 supply:1 startd:1 crisis:1 main:1 trading:1 partner:1 lead:4 official:3 swap:1 najibullahs:1 important:1 factor:1 april:1 revolt:1 ahmad:1 shah:1 massoud:4 together:1 capture:5 siege:3 masoud:1 coalition:2 gulbuddin:2 hekmatyar:2 civil:1 lay:2 end:3 burhanuddin:1 rabbani:2 follow:1 rise:1 taliban:15 herat:1 align:1 always:1 opportunist:1 try:1 buy:1 favour:1 however:3 technician:1 restore:2 mig:1 aircraft:1 order:1 griffith:1 john:1 c:1 history:1 second:1 revision:1 northern:9 alliance:6 retreat:4 north:2 mazar:6 sharif:7 much:3 like:2 infighting:1 within:1 tor:1 power:3 thanks:1 malik:5 pahlawan:1 initially:1 subordinate:1 blame:1 murder:1 brother:1 rasoul:1 secret:1 negotiation:1 promise:2 respect:1 authority:3 exchange:1 ismail:2 khan:3 powerful:1 enemy:1 de:1 ponfilly:1 christophe:1 l:1 gallimard:1 isbn:1 p:1 accordingly:1 may:2 arrest:1 hand:1 let:1 mazari:1 give:1 treason:1 flee:2 turkey:8 page:1 quickly:1 realize:1 go:2 keep:1 disarm:1 men:3 rejoin:1 turn:2 erstwhile:1 help:1 drive:1 october:2 exile:5 defeat:1 briefly:1 regain:1 escape:2 iran:1 fund:1 open:1 front:3 campaign:1 along:1 mohammed:2 fahim:1 three:3 u:3 hamid:3 karzai:7 december:2 november:2 beginning:1 wish:2 cia:1 distrust:1 team:1 include:2 johnny:1 micheal:1 spann:1 land:2 set:1 communication:1 dariya:1 suf:1 hour:1 operational:1 detatchment:1 alpha:1 oda:1 soldier:2 kunduz:1 aghan:1 deserter:1 weapon:1 mile:1 surrender:1 peacefully:1 call:2 great:2 victory:1 surrendered:1 move:1 century:1 prison:3 fortress:1 qala:2 jangi:2 full:1 battle:2 british:1 overpower:1 place:1 uprisers:1 political:6 serve:1 deputy:1 march:2 establish:1 zone:1 interim:1 narrowly:1 assassination:1 attempt:2 assume:1 position:4 aftermath:1 removal:1 loyal:2 frequently:1 clash:1 tajik:1 ustad:1 atta:3 noor:1 kill:1 number:1 constantly:1 agitate:1 gain:1 mediation:1 international:2 nato:2 assistance:1 well:2 un:1 run:1 disarmament:1 demobilization:1 reintegration:1 program:1 feud:1 two:2 generally:1 politically:1 part:1 ideological:1 effort:1 protect:1 interest:1 veteran:1 preserve:1 appoint:1 although:1 unclear:1 whether:1 real:1 february:5 reportedly:1 rival:1 son:1 bodyguard:2 say:11 beat:1 another:1 shoot:1 house:2 surround:1 police:2 others:2 free:2 hospitalize:1 accord:4 stand:1 agreement:1 cooperate:1 investigation:3 fear:1 strongman:1 suspend:2 post:1 afp:1 europe:2 attorney:2 jabar:1 sabit:4 charge:4 pending:1 make:1 difficult:1 prosecute:1 kidnapping:1 break:1 assault:1 spokesman:2 united:2 hussain:1 sancharaki:1 claim:1 high:1 profile:2 among:1 famous:1 figure:1 armed:1 senior:2 member:2 natural:1 kind:1 action:1 repercussion:1 consequence:1 dangerous:1 catastrophic:1 stability:1 human:1 right:1 watch:1 sam:1 zia:1 zarifi:1 sign:1 balkanization:1 assert:1 size:1 warlord:2 private:1 fuel:1 illicit:1 profit:1 opium:1 trade:1 fail:1 appear:1 summon:2 line:1 law:1 request:1 intervention:1 latif:1 pedram:1 parliament:1 agree:1 dropping:1 medium:3 asylum:2 quqnoos:1 com:2 dec:6 retrieve:3 fly:2 deutsche:1 presse:1 agentur:1 via:1 earthtimes:1 org:1 turkish:1 outlet:1 visit:1 foreign:1 ali:1 babacan:1 meeting:1 organization:1 cooperation:1 osce:1 today:1 zaman:1 rumor:1 spread:1 less:1 dramatic:1 vislting:1 ankara:1 wife:1 twin:1 holiday:1 eid:1 ethnic:1 dominate:1 influence:1 encourage:1 woman:1 live:1 freely:1 encouraging:1 music:1 sport:1 allow:2 freedom:1 religion:1 crush:1 ineffective:1 record:1 could:1 mop:1 six:1 month:1 strong:1 vet:1 trust:1 show:1 concern:1 covertly:1 rearm:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 article:1 islamic:1 bbc:1 online:1 biography:1 cnn:1 present:1 |@bigram abdul_rashid:2 rashid_dostum:3 chief_staff:6 commander_chief:5 soviet_union:5 prime_minister:1 hafizullah_amin:1 mohammad_najibullah:1 trading_partner:1 ahmad_shah:1 shah_massoud:1 gulbuddin_hekmatyar:2 burhanuddin_rabbani:1 mazar_sharif:6 ismail_khan:2 mazari_sharif:1 hamid_karzai:3 narrowly_escape:1 disarmament_demobilization:1 unclear_whether:1 medium_outlet:1 today_zaman:1 external_link:1 |
7,432 | Pamela_Anderson | Pamela Denise Anderson (born July 1, 1967) is a Canadian American actress, sex symbol, glamour model, producer, author, activist, and former show girl. Anderson is best known for her roles on the television series Home Improvement, Baywatch, and V.I.P. She was chosen as a Playmate of the Month for Playboy magazine in February 1990. Pam, Uncensored For a time, she was known as Pamela Anderson Lee (or Pamela Lee Anderson) after marrying Mötley Crüe drummer, Tommy Lee. She holds both American and Canadian citizenship. Early life Anderson was born in Ladysmith, British Columbia, the daughter of Carol, a waitress, and Barry Anderson, a furnace repairman. Pamela Anderson Biography (1967-) Her great-grandfather, Juho Hyytiäinen, was Finnish, a native of Saarijärvi, and left Finland in 1908 Pamwatch : News changing his name to Anderson when he arrived as an immigrant. Pamela Anderson has Russian ancestry on her mother's side. The newborn Anderson won fame as Canada's "Centennial Baby", because she was thought to have been the first baby born on Canada's Centennial Day (she was born at 4:08 in the morning). However, the Campbell River Upper Islander of July 5, 1967 reported a baby born two hours earlier on the same Canada Day. Career After graduating from Highland Secondary School in 1985, Anderson moved to Vancouver and worked as a fitness instructor. During the summer of 1989, Anderson went with her friends to a BC Lions game at BC Place; during the game she was shown on the stadium screen wearing a Labatt's t-shirt, causing the crowd to cheer for the 21-year-old Anderson. She was taken down to the field to receive an ovation from the crowd. Labatt's immediately offered Anderson a modeling contract and she accepted. In late 1989, Anderson decided to model for Playboy magazine. She first appeared as their October 1989 cover girl. At this stage in her modeling career, she had decided to live in Los Angeles to further pursue her career ambitions. She became a centerfold for Playboy when the magazine chose her to be their Playmate of the Month for their February 1990 issue. Anderson has since appeared in Playboy several times in the 1990s and the following decade. Acting and modeling Anderson aboard USS Ronald Reagan, (2004) After her move to Los Angeles, Anderson bleached her brunette hair blonde and enlarged her breasts to 32.5 cm in diameter. In 1991, she won a minor role as the original "Tool Time girl" on the hit television sitcom, Home Improvement. She left the show after two seasons and won the role of C. J. Parker on Baywatch. Anderson was still modeling for Outdoor Life and appearing on the cover of the magazine each year. Her role as C.J. Parker gave her more popularity and gained her attention from international viewers. She returned to Baywatch for the 2003 reunion movie, Baywatch: Hawaiian Wedding. She also appeared on The Nanny as Fran's rival, Heather Biblow. In 1996, she acted in the film Barb Wire playing Barbara Rose Kopetski, which was thought by some to be Anderson's real name. The movie, a thinly-veiled futuristic remake of Casablanca, was not a commercial success. Anderson had a miscarriage during the filming. In April 1997, she guest-hosted Saturday Night Live. At the beginning of the show, Anderson said, "You know, if you're nervous on stage, you actually should be naked!" She then stripped. Her breasts, however, were covered by a small flesh-colored bra and she also wore a crotch patch that was also flesh colored (though they were still blurred out for the sake of the joke). The performance was used as material by late-night comedians in following weeks. She also appeared on one of two covers for the September issue of Playboy; the other cover pictured Jenny McCarthy. In September 1998, Anderson starred as Vallery Irons in the Sony Pictures Entertainment hit syndicated show V.I.P. created by J. F. Lawton. Blending action and humor in a fast-paced adventure series, with Anderson often poking fun at her tabloid image, the show explored the exciting and sometimes treacherous lives of the rich and famous. The series lasted through a successful five year run. On April 15, 1999, Anderson decided to remove her breast implants. The main reason was that her modeling career was in decline. She needed to raise her children and possibly retire, but about a year later, Anderson reversed her decision. She claimd the new implants were bigger than ever. The following year she appeared as giantess in the music video for "Miserable" by California alternative rock band Lit. In March 2001, Christine Evelyn Roth was arrested while sleeping in a guest room at Anderson's home. She was charged with the misdemeanor of trespassing and not the more serious crime of stalking. Roth pleaded guilty and was deported home to France. In 2004, Anderson returned to the spotlight. In May, she appeared naked on the cover of Playboy magazine. It was the first time she had appeared naked on any magazine cover. Later, she posed naked for Stuff and GQ magazines. Many noticed that her breast size was larger than her pictorials from 2003. Anderson became a naturalized citizen of the United States on May 12, 2004, while retaining her Canadian citizenship. She has lived in Southern California since 1989. Anderson has often spoken revealingly about her private life. On a visit to the David Letterman show in 2004, she said she had not been dating for some time, and when Letterman asked her how she was coping, she responded, "There's not a square corner left anywhere in my house!" Letterman left that comment unanswered while the audience hooted. In 2004, she released the book Star, co-written by Eric Shaw Quinn, about a teenager trying to become famous. After this, she began touring the United States, signing autographs for fans at Wal-Mart stores nationwide. Her second book, the sequel Star Struck, released in 2005, is a thinly veiled look at her life with Tommy Lee and the trials of celebrity life. In January 2005, Anderson confessed that she had new, bigger breast implants, claiming not to feel like herself without them. In April 2005, Anderson starred in a new FOX sitcom Stacked as Skyler Dayton, a party girl (with implants), who goes to work at a bookstore. It was canceled on May 18, 2006, after two seasons, although some episodes had not been aired. On August 14, 2005, Comedy Central created the Roast of Pamela Anderson to honor the sex symbol for the past decade. During her final speech at the Roast, Anderson referred to her breasts as "Pancho and Lefty". In December 2005, NBC cut off a video of Anderson pole dancing topless on Elton John's "The Red Piano." NBC said that the footage was inappropriate for primetime. The video was shown on huge screens during the event, while John played The Bitch is Back. In March 2006, it was announced that Anderson would receive a star on Canada's Walk of Fame thanks to her many years as a model and actress. She is only the second model to receive a star. In April 2006, Anderson hosted Canada's Juno Awards, becoming the first non-singer and model to do so. In May 2006 Anderson and swedish model Sigrid Åhs met during a television show, Åhs is notable as one of the worlds most famous Pamela Anderson look-a-likes. Anderson was repeatedly referenced in the 2006 comedy film Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan as the title character seeks to kidnap and marry her. Anderson appears in person at the end of the film confronted by Borat in a staged botched abduction. http://www.salon.com/ent/feature/2006/11/10/guide_to_borat/index2.html Salon.com She performed on February 13-14 2008 in a Valentine's Day striptease act at the Crazy Horse cabaret in Paris. Pamela Anderson to perform at nude revue- Reuters Fri Feb 1, 2008 On July 9, 2008, Anderson entered the Australian Big Brother house for a three day visit. Pamela Anderson enters Australian Big Brother house - mirror.co.uk Her appearance on this show also marked Anderson's foray into reality television with a series of her own, Pam: Girl on the Loose, which debuted on August 3, 2008 on E! in the United States. Pam also was featured in a film about ants and aligators. Personal life In addition to her fame from modeling and acting, Anderson has received a great deal of press attention for her well-publicized personal life. Her relationships have made headlines in gossip magazines for years. Anderson married Tommy Lee, drummer of Mötley Crüe, on February 19, 1995 after knowing him for only 96 hours and the couple eventually had two sons, Brandon Thomas Lee (b. June 6, 1996) and Dylan Jagger Lee (b. December 29, 1997). During this time, she was known professionally as Pamela Anderson Lee. Anderson filed for divorce from Lee twice and reconciled with him twice, before the couple finally broke up for good. In March 2002, Anderson publicly stated that she had contracted the Hepatitis C virus from Lee (supposedly from sharing tattoo needles), and began writing a regular column for Jane magazine. In October 2003, Anderson jokingly said on Howard Stern's radio show that she does not expect to live more than ten or fifteen years, http://web.archive.org/web/20041029141238/www.pamelaanderson.com/news/news.asp?item=2056 but this was misconstrued and taken seriously by many websites and tabloids. She however admitted to newspapers that she still often had sex with him since their divorce. A home sex video of Anderson and Tommy Lee on their honeymoon was stolen from their home, and made a huge stir on the Internet. Anderson sued the video distribution company Internet Entertainment Group. Ultimately, the courts awarded Anderson and Lee $1.5 million plus attorney fees for their share of the profits. After this, the company sold copies of the stolen honeymoon tape across the country. It was very popular. A second tape, which was made before the Tommy Lee tape, involving Anderson and musician Bret Michaels from Poison was later announced, and an abridged version of less than 60 seconds appeared on the internet. Frames of the video first appeared in Penthouse magazine in March 1998. The tape was successfully blocked by Michaels but a 4-minute sex tape is still available on the internet. Anderson and Kid Rock in 2003 Since her divorce, she was engaged to the model Marcus Schenkenberg and to the singer Kid Rock (Robert J. Ritchie). She broke up with Schenkenberg in 2001 and with Kid Rock in 2003. It was announced on July 18, 2006 that she would marry Kid Rock on July 29, 2006 on a yacht near St Tropez, France. "Feels like I've been stuck in a time warp," said Anderson in her blog entry. "Not able to let go of MY family picture ... it's been sad and lonely and frustrating ... I've raised my kids alone in hope of a miracle. Well my miracle came and went. And came back and back because he knew that I'd wake up one day and realize that I was waiting for nothing." "I'm moving on," she declared. "I feel like I'm finally free ... I'm in love." There was extensive unconfirmed media speculation that the marriage was pregnancy-related, but the theory was based only on Anderson's representative's refusal to comment on the question. She sold her home in Malibu, California to move to a more private location. In an interview with Gavriel Maynard, Anderson stated "I don't know why people consider me stupid, I'm actually really smart." On November 10, 2006, it was announced that Anderson miscarried while in Vancouver shooting a new film, Blonde and Blonder. Pamela Anderson loses baby - Pregnancy - Parenting - AOL Lifestyle Seventeen days later, on November 27, 2006, Anderson filed for divorce in Los Angeles County Superior Court from Kid Rock, citing irreconcilable differences. Some news reports have suggested that Kid Rock's outrage during a screening of Borat, in which she plays a cameo role, led to the filing for divorce two weeks later. Anderson told talk show host Ellen DeGeneres in September 2007 that she was engaged. On September 29, Anderson and Paris Hilton's ex Rick Salomon applied for a marriage license in Las Vegas. Anderson to marry Paris Hilton ex BBC News - October 1, 2007 Anderson married Salomon between her two nightly appearances at the Planet Hollywood Hotel & Casino in Hans Klok's magic show in a small wedding ceremony at The Mirage on October 6, 2007. Pamela Anderson Weds Rick Salomon - Weddings, Pamela Anderson, Rick Salomon : People.com However, on February 22, 2008, Anderson has requested through the courts that the marriage be annulled citing fraud. Anderson seeks to annul 2-month marriage Yahoo News - February 27, 2008 Charitable work and activism Anderson promoting vegetarianism Anderson is a vegetarian, an advocate for animal rights, and an active member of the animal protection organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), taking part in several campaigns for animal rights. I'd Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur, retrieved on May 28 2007. She became a vegetarian in her early teens when she saw her father cleaning an animal he had hunted. One of Anderson's campaigns as a member of PETA has been against the use of . In 1999, Anderson received the first Linda McCartney Memorial Award for animal rights protectors, in recognition of her campaign. In 2003, Anderson stripped down for PETA's "I'd Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur" advertising campaign. On June 28, 2006, Anderson posed naked with other protesters on a window display of the Stella McCartney boutique in London, England. It was a PETA gala event before the PETA Humanitarian Awards. Anderson went inside the boutique and said she would take her clothes off if the event raised enough money for PETA, which it did. She has also campaigned against Kentucky Fried Chicken. In 2001, Anderson released a letter in support of PETA's campaign against Kentucky Fried Chicken, stating "What KFC does to 750 million chickens each year is not civilized or acceptable." She later made a video about KFC's treatment of chickens. In January 2006, Anderson requested that the Governor of Kentucky remove a bust of Colonel Sanders, the founder of KFC, from display but her request was refused even when she offered her own bust in exchange. In February 2006, Anderson decided to boycott the Kentucky Derby because of its support for Kentucky Fried Chicken. She has also campaigned against seal hunting in Canada. In March 2006, Anderson asked to speak to Prime Minister Stephen Harper about the annual seal hunt buts she was refused. In May 2006, she petitioned random individuals on the street for their opinion on the Canadian Seal Hunt. More recently she joined forces with PETA in a campaign for the boycott of fruit-juice maker POM. The "Pom Horrible Campaign" has resulted in response to the company's refusal to halt animal tests. In March 2005, Anderson became a spokesmodel for MAC Cosmetics's MAC AIDS Fund, which helped people affected by AIDS and HIV. After becoming the official spokesmodel, Anderson raised money during events in Toronto, Tokyo, Dublin, and Athens. Anderson became the celebrity spokesperson for the American Liver Foundation, and served as the Grand Marshal of the SOS motorcycle ride fundraiser. She wrote an open letter to President Barack Obama urging the legalization of marijuana. Playboy magazine; February 2009; Page 112. Work Filmography Year Film Role Notes 1991 The Taking of Beverly Hills Cheerleader Action film 1993 Snapdragon Felicity Thriller film 1994 Raw Justice Sarah Thriller film 1995 Naked Souls Britt Independent thriller film Showgirls Party singer Paul Verhoeven film 1996 Barb Wire Barb Wire Sci-Fi film 2001 The Making of Bret Michaels Documentary film 2002 Scooby-Doo Herself Uncredited 2003 Scary Movie 3 Becca Comedy spoof film Pauly Shore Is Dead Herself Comedy/mockumentary film 2005 No Rules Herself Action movie2006 Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan Herself Comedy film 2008 Superhero Movie Invisible Girl Comedy film Blonde and Blonder Dee Twiddle Comedy film 2009 Hollywood & Wine TBA Post-production Television The Flintstones: Little Big League voice of Pebbles (1978) Married with Children episode "Al with Kelly" as Yvette (1990) Home Improvement (cast member from 1991-1993) Baywatch (cast member from 1992-1997) Days of our Lives (cast member in 1992) The Nanny (Heather Biblow) Come Die with Me: A Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer Mystery (1994) V.I.P. (1998-2002) Baywatch: Hawaiian Wedding (2003) Stripperella (2003-2004) (voice) Stacked (2005-2006) Comedy Central Roast of Pamela Anderson (2005) 8 Simple Rules (2005) MADtv (2005) Pam: Girl on the Loose (2008) The Sunday Night Project - Guest Host (2008) Big Brother Australia - House guest for 3 days (2008) Malibu (TV series)|Malibu (Future) Playboy career Anderson's Playboy career spans approximately two decades (1989-2007), and she has appeared on more Playboy covers than anyone else. She has also made appearances in the publication's newsstand specials. Pro wrestling During an appearance at the World Wrestling Federation's Royal Rumble in 1995, Anderson promised that she would accompany the winner of the Royal Rumble to WrestleMania. Anderson returned for her appearance at the World Wrestling Federation's WrestleMania XI on April 2, but as the guest valet for WWF World Heavyweight Champion Diesel and not the Royal Rumble winner, his opponent Shawn Michaels; Michaels ended up being accompanied to the ring by Jenny McCarthy. After pinning Michaels, Diesel left with both Anderson and McCarthy. In anticipation of her appearance at the Royal Rumble, several skits were produced featuring wrestlers fawning over Anderson. One commercial featured Anderson coming home and checking her answering machine. As Anderson strips down behind a curtain, messages from wrestlers such as Shawn Michaels, Diesel, and Doink the Clown can be heard. At the 2006 Canada's Walk of Fame induction ceremony, Anderson shared a kiss with WWE diva Trish Stratus. She appeared on former Pro Wrestling commentator Mark Madden's Pittsburgh-based sports talk radio show in October, 2006. Newman House 'Newman House' in the Melbourne suburb of St Kilda, Australia Newman House is a pop architecture icon built in 2003 in St Kilda, Victoria, Australia which features a large effigy of Anderson's face. Built by local celebrity Sam Newman (an admirer and personal friend of Anderson), he commissioned local architect Cassandra Fahey to design the building and was able to use the image with Anderson's permission. However, permits were issued retroactively when it became a major local landmark and won the award for Best New Residential Building in the RAIA Victorian Architecture Awards. Pavilions for New Architecture, Monash University Museum of Art References External links Official Website Pamela Anderson Interview on Playboy be-x-old:Памэла Андэрсан | Pamela_Anderson |@lemmatized pamela:15 denise:1 anderson:97 bear:5 july:5 canadian:4 american:3 actress:2 sex:5 symbol:2 glamour:1 model:11 producer:1 author:1 activist:1 former:2 show:14 girl:7 best:2 known:1 role:6 television:5 series:5 home:9 improvement:3 baywatch:6 v:3 p:3 choose:2 playmate:2 month:3 playboy:11 magazine:11 february:8 pam:4 uncensored:1 time:7 know:6 lee:13 marry:7 mötley:2 crüe:2 drummer:2 tommy:5 hold:1 citizenship:2 early:2 life:9 ladysmith:1 british:1 columbia:1 daughter:1 carol:1 waitress:1 barry:1 furnace:1 repairman:1 biography:1 great:2 grandfather:1 juho:1 hyytiäinen:1 finnish:1 native:1 saarijärvi:1 leave:5 finland:1 pamwatch:1 news:6 change:1 name:2 arrive:1 immigrant:1 russian:1 ancestry:1 mother:1 side:1 newborn:1 win:4 fame:4 canada:7 centennial:2 baby:4 think:2 first:6 day:8 morning:1 however:5 campbell:1 river:1 upper:1 islander:1 report:2 two:8 hour:2 earlier:1 career:6 graduate:1 highland:1 secondary:1 school:1 move:4 vancouver:2 work:4 fitness:1 instructor:1 summer:1 go:7 friend:2 bc:2 lion:1 game:2 place:1 stadium:1 screen:2 wear:4 labatt:2 shirt:1 cause:1 crowd:2 cheer:1 year:10 old:2 take:4 field:1 receive:5 ovation:1 immediately:1 offer:2 modeling:2 contract:2 accept:1 late:2 decide:4 appear:13 october:5 cover:8 stage:2 live:4 los:3 angeles:3 pursue:1 ambition:1 become:9 centerfold:1 issue:3 since:4 several:3 following:2 decade:3 act:4 aboard:1 uss:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 bleach:1 brunette:1 hair:1 blonde:3 enlarge:1 breast:6 cm:1 diameter:1 minor:1 original:1 tool:1 hit:2 sitcom:2 season:2 c:3 j:4 parker:2 still:4 outdoor:1 give:1 popularity:1 gain:1 attention:2 international:1 viewer:1 return:3 reunion:1 movie:4 hawaiian:2 wedding:4 also:9 nanny:2 fran:1 rival:1 heather:2 biblow:2 film:18 barb:3 wire:3 playing:1 barbara:1 rise:1 kopetski:1 real:1 thinly:2 veil:1 futuristic:1 remake:1 casablanca:1 commercial:2 success:1 miscarriage:1 filming:1 april:5 guest:5 host:4 saturday:1 night:3 beginning:1 say:6 nervous:1 actually:2 naked:8 strip:3 small:2 flesh:2 color:2 bra:1 crotch:1 patch:1 though:1 blur:1 sake:1 joke:1 performance:1 use:3 material:1 comedian:1 follow:1 week:2 one:5 september:4 picture:3 jenny:2 mccarthy:3 star:6 vallery:1 iron:1 sony:1 entertainment:2 syndicate:1 create:2 f:1 lawton:1 blend:1 action:3 humor:1 fast:1 paced:1 adventure:1 often:3 poke:1 fun:1 tabloid:2 image:2 explore:1 exciting:1 sometimes:1 treacherous:1 rich:1 famous:3 last:1 successful:1 five:1 run:1 remove:2 implant:4 main:1 reason:1 decline:1 need:1 raise:4 child:2 possibly:1 retire:1 later:6 reverse:1 decision:1 claimd:1 new:6 big:6 ever:1 giantess:1 music:1 video:7 miserable:1 california:3 alternative:1 rock:7 band:1 lit:1 march:6 christine:1 evelyn:1 roth:2 arrest:1 sleep:1 room:1 charge:1 misdemeanor:1 trespass:1 serious:1 crime:1 stalk:1 plead:1 guilty:1 deport:1 france:2 spotlight:1 may:6 pose:2 stuff:1 gq:1 many:3 notice:1 size:1 large:2 pictorial:1 naturalized:1 citizen:1 united:3 state:6 retain:1 southern:1 speak:2 revealingly:1 private:2 visit:2 david:1 letterman:3 date:1 ask:2 cop:1 respond:1 square:1 corner:1 anywhere:1 house:7 comment:2 unanswered:1 audience:1 hoot:1 release:3 book:2 co:2 write:3 eric:1 shaw:1 quinn:1 teenager:1 try:1 begin:2 tour:1 sign:1 autograph:1 fan:1 wal:1 mart:1 store:1 nationwide:1 second:4 sequel:1 strike:1 veiled:1 look:2 trial:1 celebrity:3 january:2 confess:1 claim:1 feel:3 like:4 without:1 fox:1 stack:2 skyler:1 dayton:1 party:2 bookstore:1 cancel:1 although:1 episode:2 air:1 august:2 comedy:8 central:2 roast:3 honor:1 past:1 final:1 speech:1 refer:1 pancho:1 lefty:1 december:2 nbc:2 cut:1 pole:1 dance:1 topless:1 elton:1 john:2 red:1 piano:1 footage:1 inappropriate:1 primetime:1 huge:2 event:4 play:2 bitch:1 back:3 announce:4 would:4 walk:2 thanks:1 juno:1 award:6 non:1 singer:3 swedish:1 sigrid:1 åhs:2 met:1 notable:1 world:4 repeatedly:1 reference:2 borat:4 cultural:2 learning:2 america:2 make:7 benefit:2 glorious:2 nation:2 kazakhstan:2 title:1 character:1 seek:2 kidnap:1 person:1 end:2 confront:1 staged:1 botched:1 abduction:1 http:2 www:2 salon:2 com:4 ent:1 feature:5 html:1 perform:2 valentine:1 striptease:1 crazy:1 horse:1 cabaret:1 paris:3 nude:1 revue:1 reuters:1 fri:1 feb:1 enter:1 australian:2 brother:3 three:1 enters:1 mirror:1 uk:1 appearance:6 mark:2 foray:1 reality:1 loose:2 debut:1 e:1 ant:1 aligators:1 personal:3 addition:1 deal:1 press:1 well:2 publicize:1 relationship:1 headline:1 gossip:1 couple:2 eventually:1 son:1 brandon:1 thomas:1 b:2 june:2 dylan:1 jagger:1 professionally:1 file:2 divorce:5 twice:2 reconcile:1 finally:2 break:2 good:1 publicly:1 hepatitis:1 virus:1 supposedly:1 share:3 tattoo:1 needle:1 regular:1 column:1 jane:1 jokingly:1 howard:1 stern:1 radio:2 expect:1 ten:1 fifteen:1 web:2 archive:1 org:1 pamelaanderson:1 asp:1 item:1 misconstrue:1 seriously:1 website:2 admit:1 newspaper:1 honeymoon:2 steal:2 stir:1 internet:4 sue:1 distribution:1 company:3 group:1 ultimately:1 court:3 million:2 plus:1 attorney:1 fee:1 profit:1 sell:2 copy:1 tape:5 across:1 country:1 popular:1 involve:1 musician:1 bret:2 michael:7 poison:1 abridged:1 version:1 less:1 frame:1 penthouse:1 successfully:1 block:1 minute:1 available:1 kid:7 engage:2 marcus:1 schenkenberg:2 robert:1 ritchie:1 yacht:1 near:1 st:3 tropez:1 stick:1 warp:1 blog:1 entry:1 able:2 let:1 family:1 sad:1 lonely:1 frustrating:1 alone:1 hope:1 miracle:2 come:4 wake:1 realize:1 wait:1 nothing:1 declare:1 free:1 love:1 extensive:1 unconfirmed:1 medium:1 speculation:1 marriage:4 pregnancy:2 relate:1 theory:1 base:2 representative:1 refusal:2 question:1 malibu:3 location:1 interview:2 gavriel:1 maynard:1 people:4 consider:1 stupid:1 really:1 smart:1 november:2 miscarry:1 shoot:1 blonder:2 lose:1 parent:1 aol:1 lifestyle:1 seventeen:1 county:1 superior:1 cite:2 irreconcilable:1 difference:1 suggest:1 outrage:1 screening:1 cameo:1 lead:1 filing:1 tell:1 talk:2 ellen:1 degeneres:1 hilton:2 ex:2 rick:3 salomon:4 apply:1 license:1 las:1 vega:1 bbc:1 nightly:1 planet:1 hollywood:2 hotel:1 casino:1 han:1 klok:1 magic:1 ceremony:2 mirage:1 wed:1 request:3 annul:2 fraud:1 yahoo:1 charitable:1 activism:1 promote:1 vegetarianism:1 vegetarian:2 advocate:1 animal:7 right:3 active:1 member:5 protection:1 organization:1 ethical:1 treatment:2 peta:8 part:1 campaign:9 rather:2 fur:2 retrieve:1 teen:1 saw:1 father:1 clean:1 hunt:3 linda:1 mccartney:2 memorial:1 protector:1 recognition:1 advertising:1 protester:1 window:1 display:2 stella:1 boutique:2 london:1 england:1 gala:1 humanitarian:1 inside:1 clothes:1 enough:1 money:2 kentucky:5 fried:2 chicken:5 letter:2 support:2 kfc:3 civilize:1 acceptable:1 governor:1 bust:2 colonel:1 sander:1 founder:1 refuse:2 even:1 exchange:1 boycott:2 derby:1 fry:1 seal:3 hunting:1 prime:1 minister:1 stephen:1 harper:1 annual:1 buts:1 petition:1 random:1 individual:1 street:1 opinion:1 recently:1 join:1 force:1 fruit:1 juice:1 maker:1 pom:2 horrible:1 result:1 response:1 halt:1 test:1 spokesmodel:2 mac:2 cosmetic:1 aid:2 fund:1 help:1 affect:1 hiv:1 official:2 toronto:1 tokyo:1 dublin:1 athens:1 spokesperson:1 liver:1 foundation:1 serve:1 grand:1 marshal:1 sos:1 motorcycle:1 ride:1 fundraiser:1 open:1 president:1 barack:1 obama:1 urge:1 legalization:1 marijuana:1 page:1 filmography:1 note:1 taking:1 beverly:1 hill:1 cheerleader:1 snapdragon:1 felicity:1 thriller:3 raw:1 justice:1 sarah:1 soul:1 britt:1 independent:1 showgirls:1 paul:1 verhoeven:1 sci:1 fi:1 making:1 documentary:1 scooby:1 doo:1 uncredited:1 scary:1 becca:1 spoof:1 pauly:1 shore:1 dead:1 mockumentary:1 rule:2 superhero:1 invisible:1 dee:1 twiddle:1 wine:1 tba:1 post:1 production:1 flintstone:1 little:1 league:1 voice:2 pebble:1 al:1 kelly:1 yvette:1 cast:3 die:1 mickey:1 spillane:1 mike:1 hammer:1 mystery:1 stripperella:1 simple:1 madtv:1 sunday:1 project:1 australia:3 tv:1 future:1 span:1 approximately:1 anyone:1 else:1 publication:1 newsstand:1 special:1 pro:2 wrestle:4 federation:2 royal:4 rumble:4 promise:1 accompany:2 winner:2 wrestlemania:2 xi:1 valet:1 wwf:1 heavyweight:1 champion:1 diesel:3 opponent:1 shawn:2 ring:1 pin:1 anticipation:1 skit:1 produce:1 wrestler:2 fawn:1 check:1 answering:1 machine:1 behind:1 curtain:1 message:1 doink:1 clown:1 hear:1 induction:1 kiss:1 wwe:1 diva:1 trish:1 stratus:1 commentator:1 madden:1 pittsburgh:1 sport:1 newman:4 melbourne:1 suburb:1 kilda:2 pop:1 architecture:3 icon:1 build:2 victoria:1 effigy:1 face:1 local:3 sam:1 admirer:1 commission:1 architect:1 cassandra:1 fahey:1 design:1 building:2 permission:1 permit:1 retroactively:1 major:1 landmark:1 residential:1 raia:1 victorian:1 pavilion:1 monash:1 university:1 museum:1 art:1 external:1 link:1 x:1 памэла:1 андэрсан:1 |@bigram pamela_anderson:13 mötley_crüe:2 tommy_lee:5 los_angeles:3 aboard_uss:1 ronald_reagan:1 barb_wire:3 thinly_veil:1 saturday_night:1 fast_paced:1 poke_fun:1 breast_implant:2 plead_guilty:1 gq_magazine:1 naturalized_citizen:1 david_letterman:1 wal_mart:1 thinly_veiled:1 walk_fame:2 http_www:1 howard_stern:1 malibu_california:1 cite_irreconcilable:1 irreconcilable_difference:1 ellen_degeneres:1 las_vega:1 bbc_news:1 marriage_annul:1 fried_chicken:2 kentucky_derby:1 fry_chicken:1 prime_minister:1 fruit_juice:1 barack_obama:1 beverly_hill:1 paul_verhoeven:1 sci_fi:1 scooby_doo:1 mickey_spillane:1 anyone_else:1 wrestle_federation:2 heavyweight_champion:1 st_kilda:2 monash_university:1 external_link:1 |
7,433 | Knight | A knight is a "gentleman soldier" or member of the warrior class of the Middle Ages in Europe. In other Indo-European languages, cognates of cavalier or rider are more prevalent (viz French chevalier and German Ritter), suggesting a connection to the knight's legendary mode of transport. The British legend of King Arthur was popularised throughout Europe in the Middle Ages by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain"), written in the 1130s. Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur ("The Death of Arthur"), written in 1485, was important in defining the ideal of chivalry which is essential to the modern concept of the knight as an elite warrior sworn to uphold the values of faith, loyalty, courage and honour. During the Renaissance, the genre of chivalric romance became popular in literature, growing ever more idealistic and eventually giving rise to a new form of realism in literature popularised by Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote. This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes' world. Some orders of knighthood, such as the Knights Templar have themselves become the stuff of legends, others have disappeared into obscurity. Today, a number of orders of knighthood continue to exist in several countries, such as the Order of the Garter, the Swedish Royal Order of the Seraphim, the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav. Each of these orders carry their own criteria for eligibility, but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state to a selected person for some merit of achievement. Etymology The word knight, from Old English cniht ("boy" or "servant"), is a cognate of the German word Knecht ("labourer" or "servant"). This meaning, of unknown origin, is common among West Germanic languages (cf: Old Frisian kniucht, Dutch knecht, Middle High German kneht, all meaning "boy, youth, lad", as well as German Knecht "servant, bondsman, vassal"). Old English cnihthād ("knighthood") had the meaning of adolescence (i.e. the period between childhood and manhood) by 1300. The sense of (adult) lieutenant of a king or other superior was in existence at least as early as 1100, although there are signs of it as early as Alfred's Orosius. The connection of the "knight" and horsemanship is a comparatively early one, with a type of royal servant described in Alfred's time as a rādcniht (meaning "riding-knight"). The rādcniht rendered mounted services to the king: delivering messages, patrolling coastlines, and acting as a royal agent; he was probably also involved in military duties. The term cniht, however, had no particular connection to horsemanship and retained a primary meaning of "servant" or "retainer." In this respect English differs from most other European languages, where the equivalent word emphasizes the status and prosperity of war horse ownership. Linguistically, the association of horse ownership with social status extends back at least as far as ancient Greece, where many aristocratic names incorporated the Greek word for horse, like Hipparchus and Xanthippe; the character Pheidippides in Aristophanes' Clouds has his grandfather's name with hipp- inserted to sound more aristocratic. Similarly, the Greek (hippeus) is commonly translated "knight"; at least in its sense of the highest of the four Athenian social classes, those who could afford to maintain a warhorse in the state service. Both Greek hippos and Latin equus are derived from the Indo-European word root ekwo- meaning "horse". An Equestrian (Latin, from eques "horseman", from equus "horse") was a member of the second highest social class in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This class is often translated as "knight"; the medieval knight, however, was called miles in Latin, (which in classical Latin meant "soldier", normally infantry). In the later Roman Empire the classical Latin word for horse, equus, was replaced in common parlance by vulgar Latin caballus, derived from Gaulish caballos (Delamare 2003 p.96). From caballus arose Old Italian cavaliere, Italian cavallo, French cheval, and (borrowed from French) English cavalier. This pattern continues among the words for knight in the Romance languages: Spanish caballero, French chevalier, Portuguese cavaleiro etc. In German, the meaning of Ritter is rider; and likewise for the Dutch and Scandinavian title ridder. These words are cognates derived from Germanic rīdan "to ride", from Indo-European reidh-. See reidh- from American Heritage Dictionary's Index of Indo-European Roots. Origins of medieval knighthood Since the time of classical antiquity, heavy cavalry known as cataphracts were involved in various wars, with their arms and role in battle similar to those of the Medieval knight. However, off the battlefield a cataphract had no fixed political position or social role beyond military functions. Knighthood as known in Europe was characterized by the combination of two elements, feudalism and service as a mounted combatant. Both arose under the reign of the Frankish emperor Charlemagne, from which the knighthood of the Middle Ages can be seen to have had its genesis. Some portions of the armies of Germanic tribes (and super-tribes, such as the Suebi) which occupied Europe from the 3rd century AD had always been mounted, and some armies, such as those of the Ostrogoths, comprised mainly cavalry . However, it was the Franks who came to dominate Western and Central Europe after the fall of Rome in the West, and they generally fielded armies composed of large masses of infantry, with an infantry elite, the comitatus, which often rode to battle on horseback rather than marching on foot. Riding to battle had two key advantages: it prevented fatigue, particularly when the elite soldiers wore armor (as was increasingly the case in the centuries after the fall of Rome in the West); and it gave the soldiers more mobility to react to the raids of the enemy, particularly the invasions of Muslim armies which started in the 7th century. So it was that the armies of the Frankish ruler and warlord Charles Martel, which defeated the Umayyad Arab invasion at the Battle of Tours in 732, were still largely infantry armies, the elites riding to battle but dismounting to fight in order to provide a hard core for the levy of the infantry warbands. As the 8th century progressed into the Carolingian Age, the Franks were generally on the attack, and larger numbers of warriors took to their horses to ride with the Emperor in his wide-ranging campaigns of conquest. At about this time the Franks increasingly remained on horseback to fight on the battlefield as true cavalry rather than as mounted infantry, and would continue to do for centuries thereafter. Although in some nations the knight returned to foot combat in the 14th century, the association of the knight with mounted combat with a spear, and later a lance, remained a strong one. These mobile mounted warriors made Charlemagne’s far-flung conquests possible, and to secure their service he rewarded them with grants of land called benefices. These were given to the captains directly by the emperor to reward their efforts in the conquests, and they in turn were to grant benefices to their warrior contingents, who were a mix of free and unfree men. In the century or so following Charlemagne’s death, his newly empowered warrior class grew stronger still, and Charles the Bald declared their fiefs to be hereditary. The period of chaos in the 9th and 10th centuries, between the fall of the Carolingian central authority and the rise of separate Western and Eastern Frankish kingdoms (later to become France and Germany respectively), only entrenched this newly-landed warrior class. This was because governing power, and defense against Viking, Magyar and Saracen attack, became an essentially local affair which revolved around these new hereditary local lords and their demesnes. The resulting hereditary, landed class of mounted elite warriors, the knights, were increasingly seen as the only true soldiers of Europe, hence the exclusive use of miles for them. Chivalric code Jan van Eyck, "Knights of Christ" (detail of the Ghent Altarpiece). Knights of the medieval era were asked to "Protect the weak, defenseless, helpless, and fight for the general welfare of all." Medieval Knights and Warfare - Britain Express These few guidelines were the main duties of a medieval knight, but they were very hard to accomplish fully. Rarely could even the best of knights achieve these goals. Knights trained, inter alia, in hunting, fighting, and riding. They were also trained to practise courteous, honorable behaviour, which was extremely important. Chivalry (derived from the French word chevalier implying "skills to handle a horse") was the main principle guiding a knight’s life style. Chivalry - Knights and Armor The code of chivalry dealt with three main areas: the military, social life, and religion. Chivalry - New Advent The military side of life was very important to knighthood. Along with the fighting elements of war, there were many customs and rules to be followed as well. A way of demonstrating military chivalry was to own expensive, heavy weaponry. Weapons were not the only crucial instruments for a knight: horses were also extremely important, and each knight often owned several horses for distinct purposes. One of the greatest signs of chivalry was the flying of coloured banners, to display power and to distinguish knights in battle and in tournaments. Warriors were not only required to own all these belongings to prove their allegiance: they were expected to act with military courtesy as well. In combat when nobles and knights were taken prisoner, their lives were spared and were often held for ransom in somewhat comfortable surroundings. This same code of conduct did not apply to non-knights (archers, peasants, foot-soldiers, etc.) who were often slaughtered after capture. Becoming a knight was not a widely attainable occupation in the medieval era. Only the sons of a knight were eligible for the ranks of knighthood. Those who were destined to become knights were singled out of society. In the years of boyhood, these future warriors were sent off to a castle as pages, later becoming squires. Commonly around the age of 20, knights would be admitted to their rank in a ceremony called "dubbing". Although these strong young men had proved their eligibility, their social status would be permanently controlled. They were expected to obey the code of chivalry at all times, and no failure was accepted. Chivalry and religion were mutually influenced. The early Crusades helped to clarify the moral code of chivalry as it related to religion. As a result, Christian armies began to devote their efforts to sacred purposes. As time passed, clergy instituted religious vows which required knights to use their weapons chiefly for the protection of the weak and defenseless, especially women and orphans, and of churches. The Code of Chivlary continued to influence social behaviour long after the actual knighthood ceased to exist, influencing for example the 19th Century Victorian perceptions of how a "gentleman" ought to behave. Knights in literature Knights and the ideals of knighthood featured largely in medieval and Renaissance literature, and have secured a permanent place in literary romance. While chivalric romances abound, particularly notable literary portrayals of knighthood include Geoffrey Chaucer's The Knight's Tale, Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier, and Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote, as well as Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur and other Arthurian tales (Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, the Pearl Poet's Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, etc.). The ideal courtier—the chivalrous knight—of Baldassarre Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier became a model of the ideal virtues of nobility. Hare (1908), p. 201. Castiglione's tale took the form of a discussion among the nobility of the court of the Duke of Urbino, in which the characters determine that the ideal knight should be renowned not only for his bravery and prowess in battle, but also as a skilled dancer, athlete, singer and orator, and he should also be well-read in the Humanities and classical Greek and Latin literature. Hare (1908), pp. 211-218. Regalia Knights are generally armigerous (bearing a coat of arms), and indeed they played an essential role in the development of heraldry. As heavier armour, including enlarged shields and enclosed helmets, developed in the Middle Ages, the need for marks of identification arose, and with coloured shields and surcoats, coat armory was born. Armorial rolls were created to record the knights of various regions or those who participated in various tournaments. Additionally, knights adopted certain forms of regalia which became closely associated with the status of knighthood. At the Battle of Crécy (1346), Edward III of England sent his son, Edward, the Black Prince, to lead the charge into battle and when pressed to send reinforcements, the king replied, "say to them that they suffer him this day to win his spurs." Clearly, by this time, spurs had already become emblematic of knighthood. The livery collar is another part of the knight's regalia specifically associated with knighthood. Orders of knighthood Military-monastic orders The Seal of the Knights Templar Knights Hospitaller, founded during the First Crusade, 1099 Order of Saint Lazarus established about 1100 Knights Templar, founded 1118, disbanded 1307 Teutonic Knights, established about 1190, and ruled the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia until 1525 Other orders were established in the Iberian peninsula, under the influence of the orders in the Holy Land and the Crusader movement of the Reconquista: the Order of Aviz, established in Avis in 1143 the Order of Alcántara, established in Alcántara in 1156 the Order of Calatrava, established in Calatrava in 1158 the Order of Santiago, established in Santiago in 1164. Chivalric orders After the Crusades, the military orders became idealized and romanticized, resulting in the late medieval notion of chivalry, as reflected in the Arthurian romances of the time. The creation of chivalric orders was fashionable among the nobility in the 14th and 15th centuries, and this is still reflected in contemporary honours systems, including the term order itself. Examples of notable orders of chivalry are: the Order of Saint George founded by Charles I of Hungary in 1325/6 the Order of the Garter founded by Edward III of England around 1348 - motto: Honi soit qui mal y pense, "Shame on those who think evil of it" the Order of the Dragon of St. George founded by Milos Obilic around 1370 the Order of the Dragon founded by king Sigismund of Luxemburg in 1408 the Order of the Golden Fleece founded by Philip III, Duke of Burgundy in 1430 the Order of Saint Michael founded by Louis XI of France in 1469 the Order of the Thistle the Order of the Elephant the Order of the Bath - motto: Tria iuncta in uno, "Three things joined in one" From roughly 1560, purely honorific orders were established, as a way to confer prestige and distinction, unrelated to military service and chivalry in the more narrow sense. Such orders were particularly popular in the 17th and 18th centuries, and knighthood continues to be conferred in various countries: The United Kingdom (see British honours system) and some Commonwealth of Nations countries; Some European countries, such as The Netherlands and Russia (see below). The Holy See — see Papal Orders of Chivalry. There are other monarchies and also republics that also follow this practice. Modern knighthoods are typically awarded in recognition for services rendered to society: services which are not necessarily martial in nature. The British musician Elton John, for example, is a Knight Bachelor, thus entitled to be called Sir Elton. The female equivalent is a Dame. In the British honours system the knightly style of Sir is accompanied by the given name, and optionally the surname. So, Elton John may be called Sir Elton or Sir Elton John, but never Sir John. Similarly, actress Judi Dench DBE may be addressed as Dame Judi or Dame Judi Dench, but never Dame Dench. Wives of knights, however, are entitled to the honorific "Lady" before their husband's surname. Thus Sir Paul McCartney's ex-wife was formally styled Lady McCartney (rather than Lady Paul McCartney or Lady Heather McCartney). The style Dame Heather McCartney could be used for the wife of a knight; however, this style is largely archaic and is only used in the most formal of documents, or where the wife is a Dame in her own right (such as Dame Norma Major, who gained her title six years before her husband Sir John Major was knighted). The husbands of Dames have no honorific, so Dame Norma's husband remained The Rt Hon John Major until he received his own knighthood. Since the reign of Edward VII a clerk in holy orders in the Church of England or in another Anglican Church has not normally received the accolade on being appointed to a degree of knighthood. He receives the insignia of his honour and may place the appropriate letters after his name or title but he may not be called Sir and consequently his wife may not be called Lady. Crockford's Clerical Directory, accessed 27 October 2007 Royal Insight, April 2006, accessed 27 October 2007 The Rt Revd the Hon Sir Paul Reeves did receive the accolade and is correctly called Sir but it is not clear how this situation arose. Ministers of other Christian Churches are entitled to receive the accolade. For example, His Eminence Sir Norman Cardinal Gilroy did receive the accolade on his appointment as Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire in 1969. A knight who is subsequently ordained does not lose his title. A famous example of this situation was The Revd Sir Derek Pattinson, who was ordained just a year after he was appointed Knight Bachelor, apparently somewhat to the consternation of officials at Buckingham Palace. Michael De-La-Noy, obituary in The Independent A woman clerk in holy orders may be appointed a Dame in exactly the same way as any other woman since there are no military connotations attached to the honour. A clerk in holy orders who is a baronet is entitled to use the title Sir. Outside the British honours system it is usually considered improper to address a knighted person as 'Sir' or 'Dame'. Some countries, however, historically did have equivalent honorifics for knights, such as Cavaliere in Italy (e.g. Cavaliere Benito Mussolini), and Ritter in Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire (e.g. [[Georg von Trapp|Georg Ritter von Trapp]]). State Knighthoods in the Netherlands are issued in three orders, the Order of William, the Order of the Netherlands Lion, and the Order of Orange Nassau. Additionally there remain a few hereditary knights in the Netherlands. In France, among other orders are the Légion d'Honneur, the Ordre National du Mérite, the Ordre des Palmes académiques and the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. The lowest of the ranks conferred by these orders is Chevalier, meaning Knight. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the monarchs tried to establish chivalric orders but the hereditary lords who controlled the Union did not agree and managed to ban such assemblies. They feared the King would use Orders to gain support for absolutist goals and to make formal distinctions among the peerage which could lead to its legal breakup into two separate classes, and that the King would later play one against the other and eventually limit the legal privileges of hereditary nobility. But finally in 1705 King August II managed to establish the Order of the White Eagle which remains Poland's most prestigious order of that kind. The head of state (now the President as the acting Grand Master) confers knighthoods of the Order to distinguished citizens, foreign monarchs and other heads of state. The Order has its Chapter. There were no particular honorifics that would accompany a knight's name as historically all (or at least by far most) its members would be royals or hereditary lords anyway. So today, a knight is simply referred to as "Name Surname, knight of the White Eagle (Order)". Hereditary knighthoods in Great Britain and Ireland There are traces of the Continental system of hereditary knighthood in British usage, however. There were three hereditary knighthoods in the Kingdom of Ireland: Knight of Glin or Black Knight (FitzGerald of Limerick) — the current holder is Knight Desmond FitzGerald Knight of Kerry or Green Knight (FitzGerald of Kerry) — the current holder is Sir Adrian FitzGerald White Knight Fitzgibbon (see Edmund Fitzgibbon) — now dormant, but there is a claimant It seems likely that the above "Palatine" hereditary knighthoods, created under the Earl of Desmond, were in some respects modeled on an archaic form of knighthood mentioned in the Chronicles of Jean Froissart (c.1337-c.1405). In Book IV, Ch. 64, we find the tale of four Irish kings being prepared to receive English knighthood. Initially, they seem dismissive of the idea, stating that they were knights already, explaining that "in Ireland, a king makes his son a knight, and should the child have lost his father, then the nearest relation." This was to take place at the age of seven years. While "warrior orders" or "warrior clans" were described in ancient Ireland in the theoretical service of the High King or Provincial Kings, there is no evidence to support the survival of any such orders into the historical period. However, Gaelic Irish knighthood, in its archaic and hereditary context designating the untitled martial nobility, was clearly practiced well into the 14th century. See also Nobility Knight-errant Heavy Cavalry Destrier Chivalric orders Papal Orders of Chivalry Cataphract, an ancient heavy cavalry Bogatyr, or vityaz, the Kievan Rus' knight-errant Samurai, a similar class in Japanese history Wuxiá, a similar class in Chinese history Hwarang, a similar class in Korean history Kshatriya, a similar class in Indian history Mamluk, a similar class in Middle Eastern history Zawisza Czarny, also known as "The Black Knight" British honours system Notes References Arnold, Benjamin. German Knighthood, 1050-1300. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985. ISBN 0198219601 Bloch, Marc. Feudal Society, 2nd ed. Translated by Manyon. London: Routledge & Keagn Paul, 1965. Bluth, B. J. Marching with Sharpe. London: Collins, 2001. ISBN 0004145372 Boulton, D'Arcy Jonathan Dacre. The Knights of the Crown: The Monarchical Orders of Knighthood in Later Medieval Europe, 1325-1520. 2d revised ed. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2000. ISBN 0851154714 Bull, Stephen. An Historical Guide to Arms and Armour. London: Studio Editions, 1991. ISBN 1851707239 Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua B; Cairns, John. Warfare in the Medieval World, UK: Pen & Sword Military, June 2006. ISBN 1844153398 Edwards, J. C. "What Earthly Reason? The replacement of the longbow by handguns." Medieval History Magazine, Is. 7, March 2004. Ellul, Max J. The Green Eight Pointed Cross. Watermelon, 2004. Embleton, Gerry. Medieval Military Costume. UK: Crowood Press, 2001. ISBN 1861263716 Forey, Alan John. The Military Orders: From the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries. Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Macmillan Education, 1992. ISBN 0333462343 Hare, Christopher. Courts & camps of the Italian renaissance. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1908. Laing, Lloyd and Jennifer Laing. Medieval Britain: The Age of Chivalry. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996. ISBN 0312162782 Oakeshott, Ewart. A Knight and his Horse, 2nd ed. Chester Springs, PA: Dufour Editions, 1998. ISBN 0802312977 Robards, Brooks. The Medieval Knight at War. London: Tiger Books, 1997. ISBN 1855019191 Shaw, William A. The Knights of England: A Complete Record from the Earliest Time. London: Central Chancery, 1906. (Republished Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1970). ISBN 080630443X Williams, Alan. "The Metallurgy of Medieval Arms and Armour", in Companion to Medieval Arms and Armour''. Nicolle, David, ed. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2002. ISBN 0851158722 External links Association of Papal Orders in Great Britain Modern Honours of the UK International Commission for Orders of Chivalry | Knight |@lemmatized knight:76 gentleman:2 soldier:6 member:3 warrior:12 class:13 middle:6 age:8 europe:7 indo:4 european:6 language:3 cognate:3 cavalier:2 rider:2 prevalent:1 viz:1 french:5 chevalier:4 german:6 ritter:4 suggest:1 connection:3 legendary:1 mode:1 transport:1 british:8 legend:2 king:13 arthur:4 popularise:2 throughout:1 geoffrey:3 monmouth:2 historia:2 regum:2 britanniae:2 history:7 britain:5 write:2 sir:18 thomas:2 malory:2 le:2 morte:2 death:2 important:4 define:1 ideal:6 chivalry:17 essential:2 modern:3 concept:1 elite:5 swear:1 uphold:1 value:1 faith:1 loyalty:1 courage:1 honour:9 renaissance:3 genre:1 chivalric:7 romance:5 become:11 popular:2 literature:5 grow:2 ever:1 idealistic:1 eventually:2 give:4 rise:2 new:5 form:4 realism:1 miguel:2 de:4 cervantes:3 quixote:2 novel:1 explore:1 knighthood:32 incongruity:1 reality:1 world:2 order:58 templar:3 stuff:1 others:1 disappear:1 obscurity:1 today:2 number:2 continue:5 exist:2 several:2 country:5 garter:2 swedish:1 royal:6 seraph:1 norwegian:1 st:3 olav:1 carry:1 criterion:1 eligibility:2 generally:4 grant:3 head:3 state:7 select:1 person:2 merit:1 achievement:1 etymology:1 word:9 old:4 english:5 cniht:2 boy:2 servant:5 knecht:3 labourer:1 meaning:5 unknown:1 origin:2 common:2 among:6 west:3 germanic:3 cf:1 frisian:1 kniucht:1 dutch:2 high:4 kneht:1 mean:3 youth:1 lad:1 well:6 bondsman:1 vassal:1 cnihthād:1 adolescence:1 e:3 period:3 childhood:1 manhood:1 sense:3 adult:1 lieutenant:1 superior:1 existence:1 least:4 early:7 although:3 sign:2 alfred:2 orosius:1 horsemanship:2 comparatively:1 one:5 type:1 describe:2 time:8 rādcniht:2 rid:4 render:2 mount:3 service:8 delivering:1 message:1 patrol:1 coastline:1 act:3 agent:1 probably:1 also:9 involve:2 military:13 duty:2 term:2 however:9 particular:2 retain:1 primary:1 retainer:1 respect:2 differs:1 equivalent:3 emphasize:1 status:4 prosperity:1 war:4 horse:11 ownership:2 linguistically:1 association:3 social:7 extend:1 back:1 far:3 ancient:3 greece:1 many:2 aristocratic:2 name:6 incorporate:1 greek:4 like:1 hipparchus:1 xanthippe:1 character:2 pheidippides:1 aristophanes:1 cloud:1 grandfather:1 hipp:1 insert:1 sound:1 similarly:2 hippeus:1 commonly:2 translate:3 four:2 athenian:1 could:4 afford:1 maintain:1 warhorse:1 hippo:1 latin:7 equus:3 derive:4 root:2 ekwo:1 equestrian:1 eques:1 horseman:1 second:1 roman:3 republic:2 empire:4 often:5 medieval:17 call:8 mile:2 classical:4 meant:1 normally:2 infantry:6 late:3 replace:1 parlance:1 vulgar:1 caballus:2 gaulish:1 caballos:1 delamare:1 p:2 arose:3 italian:3 cavaliere:3 cavallo:1 cheval:1 borrow:1 pattern:1 languages:1 spanish:1 caballero:1 portuguese:1 cavaleiro:1 etc:3 likewise:1 scandinavian:1 title:5 ridder:1 rīdan:1 ride:3 reidh:2 see:9 american:1 heritage:1 dictionary:1 index:1 since:3 antiquity:1 heavy:5 cavalry:5 know:3 cataphract:3 various:4 arm:5 role:3 battle:9 similar:6 battlefield:2 fix:1 political:1 position:1 beyond:1 function:1 characterize:1 combination:1 two:3 element:2 feudalism:1 mounted:4 combatant:1 reign:2 frankish:3 emperor:3 charlemagne:3 genesis:1 portion:1 army:7 tribe:2 super:1 suebi:1 occupy:1 century:13 ad:1 always:1 ostrogoth:1 comprise:1 mainly:1 frank:3 come:1 dominate:1 western:2 central:3 fall:3 rome:2 field:1 compose:1 large:2 mass:1 comitatus:1 horseback:2 rather:3 march:3 foot:3 key:1 advantage:1 prevent:1 fatigue:1 particularly:4 wear:1 armor:2 increasingly:3 case:1 mobility:1 react:1 raid:1 enemy:1 invasion:2 muslim:1 start:1 ruler:1 warlord:1 charles:4 martel:1 defeat:1 umayyad:1 arab:1 tour:1 still:3 largely:3 dismount:1 fight:4 provide:1 hard:2 core:1 levy:1 warbands:1 progress:1 carolingian:2 attack:2 take:4 wide:1 range:1 campaign:1 conquest:3 remain:5 true:2 would:7 thereafter:1 nation:2 return:1 combat:3 spear:1 later:4 lance:1 strong:3 mobile:1 make:3 flung:1 possible:1 secure:2 reward:2 land:3 benefice:2 captain:1 directly:1 effort:2 turn:1 contingent:1 mix:1 free:1 unfree:1 men:2 following:1 newly:2 empower:1 bald:1 declare:1 fief:1 hereditary:12 chaos:1 authority:1 separate:2 eastern:2 kingdom:3 france:3 germany:2 respectively:1 entrench:1 govern:1 power:2 defense:1 viking:1 magyar:1 saracen:1 essentially:1 local:2 affair:1 revolve:1 around:4 lord:3 demesne:1 result:3 landed:1 hence:1 exclusive:1 use:6 code:6 jan:1 van:1 eyck:1 christ:1 detail:1 ghent:1 altarpiece:1 era:2 ask:1 protect:1 weak:2 defenseless:2 helpless:1 general:1 welfare:1 warfare:2 express:1 guideline:1 main:3 accomplish:1 fully:1 rarely:1 even:1 best:1 achieve:1 goal:2 train:2 inter:1 alia:1 hunting:1 fighting:1 practise:1 courteous:1 honorable:1 behaviour:2 extremely:2 imply:1 skill:1 handle:1 principle:1 guide:2 life:4 style:5 dealt:1 three:4 area:1 religion:3 advent:1 side:1 along:1 custom:1 rule:2 follow:2 way:3 demonstrate:1 expensive:1 weaponry:1 weapon:2 crucial:1 instrument:1 distinct:1 purpose:2 great:3 flying:1 coloured:2 banner:1 display:1 distinguish:2 tournament:2 require:2 belonging:1 prove:2 allegiance:1 expect:2 courtesy:1 noble:1 prisoner:1 spar:1 hold:1 ransom:1 somewhat:2 comfortable:1 surroundings:1 conduct:1 apply:1 non:1 archer:1 peasant:1 slaughter:1 capture:1 widely:1 attainable:1 occupation:1 son:4 eligible:1 rank:3 destine:1 single:1 society:3 year:4 boyhood:1 future:1 send:3 castle:1 page:1 squire:1 admit:1 ceremony:1 dub:1 young:1 permanently:1 control:2 obey:1 failure:1 accept:1 mutually:1 influence:4 crusade:3 help:1 clarify:1 moral:1 relate:1 christian:2 begin:1 devote:1 sacred:1 pass:1 clergy:1 institute:1 religious:1 vow:1 chiefly:1 protection:1 especially:1 woman:3 orphan:1 church:4 chivlary:1 long:1 actual:1 cease:1 example:5 victorian:1 perception:1 ought:1 behave:1 feature:1 permanent:1 place:3 literary:2 abound:1 notable:2 portrayal:1 include:3 chaucer:1 tale:4 baldassare:1 castiglione:3 book:4 courtier:3 arthurian:2 pearl:1 poet:1 gawain:1 green:3 chivalrous:1 baldassarre:1 model:2 virtue:1 nobility:6 hare:3 discussion:1 court:2 duke:2 urbino:1 determine:1 renowned:1 bravery:1 prowess:1 skilled:1 dancer:1 athlete:1 singer:1 orator:1 read:1 humanity:1 pp:1 regalia:3 armigerous:1 bear:2 coat:2 indeed:1 play:2 development:1 heraldry:1 armour:4 enlarge:1 shield:2 enclosed:1 helmet:1 develop:1 need:1 mark:1 identification:1 surcoat:1 armory:1 armorial:1 roll:1 create:2 record:2 region:1 participate:1 additionally:2 adopt:1 certain:1 closely:1 associate:2 crécy:1 edward:5 iii:3 england:4 black:3 prince:1 lead:2 charge:1 press:6 reinforcement:1 reply:1 say:1 suffer:1 day:1 win:1 spur:2 clearly:2 already:2 emblematic:1 livery:1 collar:1 another:2 part:1 specifically:1 monastic:2 seal:1 hospitaller:1 found:7 first:1 saint:3 lazarus:1 establish:10 founded:1 disband:1 teutonic:2 prussia:1 iberian:1 peninsula:1 holy:5 crusader:1 movement:1 reconquista:1 aviz:1 avis:1 alcántara:2 calatrava:2 santiago:2 idealized:1 romanticize:1 notion:1 reflect:2 creation:1 fashionable:1 contemporary:1 system:6 george:2 hungary:1 motto:2 honi:1 soit:1 qui:1 mal:1 pense:1 shame:1 think:1 evil:1 dragon:2 milos:1 obilic:1 sigismund:1 luxemburg:1 golden:1 fleece:1 philip:1 burgundy:1 michael:2 louis:1 xi:1 thistle:1 elephant:1 bath:1 tria:1 iuncta:1 uno:1 thing:1 join:1 roughly:1 purely:1 honorific:5 confer:4 prestige:1 distinction:2 unrelated:1 narrow:1 united:1 commonwealth:2 netherlands:4 russia:1 papal:3 monarchy:1 practice:2 typically:1 award:1 recognition:1 necessarily:1 martial:2 nature:1 musician:1 elton:5 john:8 bachelor:2 thus:2 entitle:4 female:1 dame:11 knightly:1 accompany:2 optionally:1 surname:3 may:6 never:2 actress:1 judi:3 dench:3 dbe:1 address:2 wife:5 lady:5 husband:4 paul:4 mccartney:5 ex:1 formally:1 heather:2 archaic:3 formal:2 document:1 right:1 norma:2 major:3 gain:2 six:1 rt:2 hon:2 receive:7 vii:1 clerk:3 anglican:1 accolade:4 appoint:3 degree:1 insignia:1 appropriate:1 letter:1 consequently:1 crockford:1 clerical:1 directory:1 access:2 october:2 insight:1 april:1 revd:2 reeve:1 correctly:1 clear:1 situation:2 arise:1 minister:1 eminence:1 norman:1 cardinal:1 gilroy:1 appointment:1 commander:1 excellent:1 subsequently:1 ordain:2 lose:2 famous:1 derek:1 pattinson:1 apparently:1 consternation:1 official:1 buckingham:1 palace:1 la:1 noy:1 obituary:1 independent:1 exactly:1 connotation:1 attach:1 baronet:1 outside:1 usually:1 consider:1 improper:1 knighted:1 historically:2 italy:1 g:2 benito:1 mussolini:1 austro:1 hungarian:1 georg:2 von:2 trapp:2 issue:1 william:2 lion:1 orange:1 nassau:1 légion:1 honneur:1 ordre:3 national:1 du:1 mérite:1 des:2 palmes:1 académiques:1 art:1 et:1 lettres:1 low:1 polish:1 lithuanian:1 monarch:2 try:1 union:1 agree:1 manage:2 ban:1 assembly:1 fear:1 support:2 absolutist:1 peerage:1 legal:2 breakup:1 limit:1 privilege:1 finally:1 august:1 ii:1 white:3 eagle:2 poland:1 prestigious:1 kind:1 president:1 grand:1 master:1 citizen:1 foreign:1 chapter:1 anyway:1 simply:1 referred:1 ireland:4 trace:1 continental:1 usage:1 glin:1 fitzgerald:4 limerick:1 current:2 holder:2 desmond:2 kerry:2 adrian:1 fitzgibbon:2 edmund:1 dormant:1 claimant:1 seem:2 likely:1 palatine:1 earl:1 mention:1 chronicle:1 jean:1 froissart:1 c:3 iv:1 ch:1 find:1 irish:2 prepare:1 initially:1 dismissive:1 idea:1 explain:1 child:1 father:1 near:1 relation:1 seven:1 clan:1 theoretical:1 provincial:1 evidence:1 survival:1 historical:2 gaelic:1 context:1 designate:1 untitled:1 errant:2 destrier:1 bogatyr:1 vityaz:1 kievan:1 ru:1 samurai:1 japanese:1 wuxiá:1 chinese:1 hwarang:1 korean:1 kshatriya:1 indian:1 mamluk:1 zawisza:1 czarny:1 note:1 reference:1 arnold:1 benjamin:1 oxford:1 clarendon:1 isbn:12 bloch:1 marc:1 feudal:1 ed:4 manyon:1 london:5 routledge:1 keagn:1 bluth:1 b:2 j:3 sharpe:1 collins:1 boulton:1 arcy:1 jonathan:1 dacre:1 crown:1 monarchical:1 revised:1 woodbridge:2 uk:6 boydell:2 bull:1 stephen:1 studio:1 edition:2 carey:1 brian:1 todd:1 allfree:1 joshua:1 cairn:1 pen:1 sword:1 june:1 earthly:1 reason:1 replacement:1 longbow:1 handgun:1 magazine:1 ellul:1 max:1 eight:1 point:1 cross:1 watermelon:1 embleton:1 gerry:1 costume:1 crowood:1 forey:1 alan:2 twelfth:1 fourteenth:1 basingstoke:1 hampshire:1 macmillan:1 education:1 christopher:1 camp:1 york:2 scribner:1 laing:2 lloyd:1 jennifer:1 martin:1 oakeshott:1 ewart:1 chester:1 spring:1 pa:1 dufour:1 robards:1 brook:1 tiger:1 shaw:1 complete:1 chancery:1 republish:1 baltimore:1 genealogical:1 publishing:1 co:1 williams:1 metallurgy:1 companion:1 nicolle:1 david:1 external:1 link:1 international:1 commission:1 |@bigram indo_european:4 geoffrey_monmouth:2 monmouth_historia:2 historia_regum:2 regum_britanniae:2 thomas_malory:2 malory_le:2 le_morte:2 morte_arthur:2 cervantes_quixote:2 knight_templar:3 st_olav:1 aristophanes_cloud:1 horse_equus:1 vulgar_latin:1 romance_languages:1 germanic_tribe:1 charles_martel:1 mounted_infantry:1 far_flung:1 revolve_around:1 van_eyck:1 inter_alia:1 ought_behave:1 geoffrey_chaucer:1 baldassare_castiglione:1 arthurian_tale:1 sir_gawain:1 gawain_green:1 coat_arm:1 battle_crécy:1 knight_hospitaller:1 teutonic_knight:2 iberian_peninsula:1 arthurian_romance:1 sigismund_luxemburg:1 golden_fleece:1 duke_burgundy:1 judi_dench:2 paul_mccartney:2 rt_hon:1 receive_accolade:4 buckingham_palace:1 benito_mussolini:1 austro_hungarian:1 ritter_von:1 orange_nassau:1 légion_honneur:1 du_mérite:1 ordre_des:2 polish_lithuanian:1 lithuanian_commonwealth:1 simply_referred:1 jean_froissart:1 kievan_ru:1 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 boydell_press:2 uk_crowood:1 crowood_press:1 basingstoke_hampshire:1 charles_scribner:1 scribner_son:1 external_link:1 |
7,434 | World_Organisation_for_Animal_Health | The Office international des épizooties (OIE, French for "International Epizootic Office"), now known as the World Organisation for Animal Health (Organisation mondiale de la santé animale in French), is an international intergovernmental organization founded in 1924. In March 2009, the OIE had 173 member countries. Its headquarters are in Paris, France. The OIE's claimed missions are: to guarantee the transparency of animal disease status world-wide to collect, analyse and disseminate veterinary scientific information to provide expertise and promote international solidarity for the control of animal diseases to guarantee the sanitary safety of world trade by developing sanitary rules for international trade in animals and animal products. The organization was created following the rinderpest epizootic in Belgium in 1920. The disease had originated in India and concern over the spread led to an international conference in Paris in March 1921. An agreement was signed on January 25 1924 by 28 countries. The Director general of the OIE: Dr Bernard Vallat was elected Director General of the OIE in May 2000 by the International Committee, which brings together the Delegates of all the Member Countries. His five year mandate started 1 January 2001. In May 2005, Dr Vallat was elected Director General for a further five year mandate. See also OFFLU, OIE/FAO Network of Expertise on Avian Influenza External links OIE official website OIE college course a 3-credit college course offered by the Institute for Food Laws and Regulations at Michigan State University. | World_Organisation_for_Animal_Health |@lemmatized office:2 international:7 de:2 épizooties:1 oie:8 french:2 epizootic:2 know:1 world:3 organisation:2 animal:5 health:1 mondiale:1 la:1 santé:1 animale:1 intergovernmental:1 organization:2 found:1 march:2 member:2 country:3 headquarters:1 paris:2 france:1 claim:1 mission:1 guarantee:2 transparency:1 disease:3 status:1 wide:1 collect:1 analyse:1 disseminate:1 veterinary:1 scientific:1 information:1 provide:1 expertise:2 promote:1 solidarity:1 control:1 sanitary:2 safety:1 trade:2 develop:1 rule:1 product:1 create:1 follow:1 rinderpest:1 belgium:1 originate:1 india:1 concern:1 spread:1 lead:1 conference:1 agreement:1 sign:1 january:2 director:3 general:3 dr:2 bernard:1 vallat:2 elect:2 may:2 committee:1 bring:1 together:1 delegate:1 five:2 year:2 mandate:2 start:1 far:1 see:1 also:1 offlu:1 fao:1 network:1 avian:1 influenza:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 college:2 course:2 credit:1 offer:1 institute:1 food:1 law:1 regulation:1 michigan:1 state:1 university:1 |@bigram avian_influenza:1 external_link:1 |
7,435 | Eight_queens_puzzle | The eight queens puzzle is the problem of putting eight chess queens on an 8×8 chessboard such that none of them is able to capture any other using the standard chess queen's moves. The queens must be placed in such a way that no two queens would be able to attack each other. Thus, a solution requires that no two queens share the same row, column, or diagonal. The eight queens puzzle is an example of the more general n queens puzzle of placing n queens on an n×n chessboard, where solutions exist only for n = 1 or n ≥ 4. History The puzzle was originally proposed in 1848 by the chess player Max Bezzel, and over the years, many mathematicians, including Gauss and Georg Cantor, have worked on this puzzle and its generalized n-queens problem. The first solutions were provided by Franz Nauck in 1850. Nauck also extended the puzzle to n-queens problem (on an n×n board—a chessboard of arbitrary size). In 1874, S. Gunther proposed a method of finding solutions by using determinants, and J.W.L. Glaisher refined this approach. Edsger Dijkstra used this problem in 1972 to illustrate the power of what he called structured programming. He published a highly detailed description of the development of a depth-first backtracking algorithm.2 This puzzle appeared in the popular early 1990s computer game The 7th Guest. Constructing a solution The problem can be quite computationally expensive as there are 4,426,165,368 (or 64!/(56!8!)) possible arrangements of eight queens on the board, but only 92 solutions. It is possible to use shortcuts that reduce computational requirements or rules of thumb that avoids brute force computational techniques. For example, just by applying a simple rule that constrains each queen to a single column (or row), though still considered brute force, it is possible to reduce the number of possibilities to just 16,777,216 (8^8) possible combinations, which is computationally manageable for n=8, but would be intractable for problems of n=1,000,000. Extremely interesting advancements for this and other toy problems is the development and application of heuristics (rules of thumb) that yield solutions to the n queens puzzle at an astounding fraction of the computational requirements. This heuristic solves n queens for any n n ≥ 4 or n = 1: Divide n by 12. Remember the remainder (n is 8 for the eight queens puzzle). Write a list of the even numbers from 2 to n in order. If the remainder is 3 or 9, move 2 to the end of the list. Append the odd numbers from 1 to n in order, but, if the remainder is 8, switch pairs (i.e. 3, 1, 7, 5, 11, 9, …). If the remainder is 2, switch the places of 1 and 3, then move 5 to the end of the list. If the remainder is 3 or 9, move 1 and 3 to the end of the list. Place the first-column queen in the row with the first number in the list, place the second-column queen in the row with the second number in the list, etc. For n = 8 this results in the solution shown above. A few more examples follow. 14 queens (remainder 2): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 3, 1, 7, 9, 11, 13, 5. 15 queens (remainder 3): 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 2, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 1, 3. 20 queens (remainder 8): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 3, 1, 7, 5, 11, 9, 15, 13, 19, 17. Solutions to the eight queens puzzle The eight queens puzzle has 92 distinct solutions. If solutions that differ only by symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) of the board are counted as one, the puzzle has 12 unique (or fundamental) solutions, which are presented below: Counting solutions The following table gives the number of solutions for placing n queens on an n × n board, both unique and distinct . n:123456789101112131415..2425unique:10012161246923411,7879,23345,752285,053..28,439,272,956,934275,986,683,743,434distinct:100210440923527242,68014,20073,712365,5962,279,184..227,514,171,973,7362,207,893,435,808,352 Note that the six queens puzzle has fewer solutions than the five queens puzzle. There is currently no known formula for the exact number of solutions. Related problems Using pieces other than queens For example, on an 8×8 board one can place 32 knights, or 14 bishops, 16 kings or 8 rooks, so that no two pieces attack each other. Fairy chess pieces have also been substituted for queens. In the case of knights, an easy solution is to place one on each square of a given color, since they move only to the opposite color. Nonstandard boards Pólya studied the n queens problem on a toroidal ("donut-shaped") board. Other shapes, including three-dimensional boards, have also been studied. Domination Given an n×n board, find the domination number, which is the minimum number of queens (or other pieces) needed to attack or occupy every square. For the 8×8 board, the queen's domination number is 5. Nine queens problem Place nine queens and one pawn on an 8×8 board in such a way that queens don't attack each other. Further generalization of the problem (complete solution is currently unknown): given an n×n chess board and m > n queens, find the minimum number of pawns, so that the m queens and the pawns can be set up on the board in such a way that no two queens attack each other. Queens and knights problem Place m queens and m knights on an n×n board such that no piece attacks another. Magic squares In 1992, Demirörs, Rafraf, and Tanik published a method for converting some magic squares into n queens solutions, and vice versa. Latin squares In an n×n matrix, place each digit 1 through n in n locations in the matrix such that no two instances of the same digit are in the same row or column. Exact cover Consider a matrix with one primary column for each of the n ranks of the board, one primary column for each of the n files, and one secondary column for each of the 4n-6 nontrivial diagonals of the board. The matrix has n2 rows: one for each possible queen placement, and each row has a 1 in the columns corresponding to that square's rank, file, and diagonals and a 0 in all the other columns. Then the n queens problem is equivalent to choosing a subset of the rows of this matrix such that every primary column has a 1 in precisely one of the chosen rows and every secondary column has a 1 in at most one of the chosen rows; this is an example of a generalized exact cover problem, of which sudoku is another example. Queens On A Chessboard - Beyond The 2nd Dimension The N-Queens puzzle in 3 dimensions, 4 dimensions and higher. We extend the 2-dimensional n queens on an n×n board puzzle into the 3rd dimension, to populate n×n×n cubes with n2 non-competing queens. The 'first' of many maximally-populated solutions for the 11x11x11 cube is described, and a proposal is offered on how multiples of these cubes might be arranged to yield solutions for 4-dimensional tesseract versions of this puzzle. The eight queens puzzle as an exercise in algorithm design Finding all solutions to the eight queens puzzle is a good example of a simple but nontrivial problem. For this reason, it is often used as an example problem for various programming techniques, including nontraditional approaches such as constraint programming, logic programming or genetic algorithms. Most often, it is used as an example of a problem which can be solved with a recursive algorithm, by phrasing the n queens problem inductively in terms of adding a single queen to any solution to the problem of placing n−1 queens on an n-by-n chessboard. The induction bottoms out with the solution to the 'problem' of placing 0 queens on an n-by-n chessboard, which is the empty chessboard. This technique is much more efficient than the naïve brute-force search algorithm, which considers all 648 = 248 = 281,474,976,710,656 possible blind placements of eight queens, and then filters these to remove all placements that place two queens either on the same square (leaving only 64!/56! = 178,462,987,637,760 possible placements) or in mutually attacking positions. This very poor algorithm will, among other things, produce the same results over and over again in all the different permutations of the assignments of the eight queens, as well as repeating the same computations over and over again for the different sub-sets of each solution. A better brute-force algorithm places a single queen on each row, leading to only 88 = 224 = 16,777,216 blind placements. It is possible to do much better than this. One algorithm generates the permutations of the numbers 1 through 8 (of which there are 8! = 40,320), and uses the elements of each permutation as indices to place a queen on each row, guaranteeing no rook attacks. Then it rejects those boards with diagonal attacking positions. The backtracking depth-first search program below, a slight improvement on the permutation method, constructs the search tree by considering one row of the board at a time, eliminating most nonsolution board positions at a very early stage in their construction. Because it rejects diagonal attacks even on incomplete boards, it examines only 15,720 possible queen placements. Constraint programming is even more effective on this problem. An 'iterative repair' algorithm typically starts with all queens on the board, for example with one queen per column. It then counts the number of conflicts (attacks), and uses a heuristic to determine how to improve the placement of the queens. The 'minimum-conflicts' heuristic — moving the piece with the largest number of conflicts to the square in the same column where the number of conflicts is smallest — is particularly effective: it solves the 1,000,000 queen problem in less than 50 steps on average. This assumes that the initial configuration is 'reasonably good' — if a million queens all start in the same row, it will obviously take at least 999,999 steps to fix it. A 'reasonably good' starting point can for instance be found by putting each queen in its own row and column such that it conflicts with the smallest number of queens already on the board. Note that 'iterative repair', unlike the 'backtracking' search outlined above, does not guarantee a solution: like all hillclimbing procedures, it may get stuck on a local optimum (in which case the algorithm may be restarted with a different initial configuration). On the other hand, it can solve problem sizes that are several orders of magnitude beyond the scope of a breadth-first search. An animated version of the recursive solution Image:Eight-queens-animation.gif This animation uses backtracking to solve the problem. A queen is placed in a column that is known not to cause conflict. If a column is not found the program returns to the last good state and then tries a different column. Algorithms that solve the eight queens puzzle implemented in different programming languages are found in the eight queens puzzle solutions article. See also Functional programming Mathematical game Mathematical puzzle No-three-in-line problem Rook polynomial Distributed Computing BOINC References Watkins, John J. (2004). Across the Board: The Mathematics of Chess Problems. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11503-6. O.-J. Dahl, E. W. Dijkstra, C. A. R. Hoare Structured Programming, Academic Press, London, 1972 ISBN 0-12-200550-3 see pp 72-82 for Dijkstra's solution of the 8 Queens problem. External links An Applet simulating the random-greedy solution for the n-queen problem MathWorld article Solutions to the 8-Queens Problem Walter Koster's N-Queens Page Durango Bill's N-Queens Page On-line Guide to Constraint Programming NQueen@home Boinc project Queens@TUD project (uses FPGA-based solvers) Eight queens puzzle: Flash game Links to solutions N Queens solutions on Sloane's On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences N Queens solutions achieved on the NQueen@home Boinc project (code is modified from Jeff Somers' code) N-Queens solvers in many programming languages A Koalog Constraint Solver model Find your own solution Takaken's N-Queen code (around 4 times faster than Jeff Somer's code because of symmetry considerations) Jeff Somers' N-Queen code Atari BASIC Atari Action! Genetic algorithms Haskell/Java hybrid Java Java,mirror Python Standard ML Integer Sequences Quirkasaurus' 8 Queens Solution LISP solution for N-Queens Problem ANSI C (recursive, congruence-free NxN-size queens problem solver with conflict heuristics) javascript solution for 8-Queens Problem Abhinanth's Simple Javascript application for quick view - chess 8 queen problem Brute-force solution for eight queens in a web based interactive classic BASIC environment Conflict heuristics solution for the eight queens in a web based interactive classic BASIC environment A Simple PHP Solution A table of first-possible N-Queens solutions, for N = 4 to 49 (less N=46 and N=48, which are work-in-progress) Visual Prolog: N-Queen Puzzle (wiki) | Eight_queens_puzzle |@lemmatized eight:17 queen:90 puzzle:24 problem:33 put:2 chess:7 chessboard:7 none:1 able:2 capture:1 use:11 standard:2 move:6 must:1 place:17 way:3 two:6 would:2 attack:11 thus:1 solution:42 require:1 share:1 row:15 column:18 diagonal:5 example:10 general:1 n:69 exist:1 history:1 originally:1 propose:2 player:1 max:1 bezzel:1 year:1 many:3 mathematician:1 include:3 gauss:1 georg:1 cantor:1 work:2 generalized:2 first:8 provide:1 franz:1 nauck:2 also:4 extend:2 board:24 arbitrary:1 size:3 gunther:1 method:3 find:8 determinant:1 j:3 w:2 l:1 glaisher:1 refine:1 approach:2 edsger:1 dijkstra:3 illustrate:1 power:1 call:1 structured:1 programming:7 publish:2 highly:1 detailed:1 description:1 development:2 depth:2 backtracking:2 algorithm:11 appear:1 popular:1 early:2 computer:1 game:3 guest:1 construct:2 quite:1 computationally:2 expensive:1 possible:10 arrangement:1 shortcut:1 reduce:2 computational:3 requirement:2 rule:3 thumb:2 avoids:1 brute:5 force:5 technique:3 apply:1 simple:4 constrain:1 single:3 though:1 still:1 consider:4 number:16 possibility:1 combination:1 manageable:1 intractable:1 extremely:1 interesting:1 advancement:1 toy:1 application:2 heuristic:6 yield:2 astound:1 fraction:1 solves:1 divide:1 remember:1 remainder:8 write:1 list:6 even:3 order:3 end:3 append:1 odd:1 switch:2 pair:1 e:2 second:2 etc:1 result:2 show:1 follow:2 distinct:2 differ:1 symmetry:2 operation:1 rotation:1 reflection:1 count:2 one:13 unique:2 fundamental:1 present:1 counting:1 table:2 give:4 note:2 six:1 five:1 currently:2 know:2 formula:1 exact:3 relate:1 piece:6 knight:4 bishop:1 king:1 rook:3 fairy:1 substitute:1 case:2 easy:1 square:8 color:2 since:1 opposite:1 nonstandard:1 pólya:1 study:2 toroidal:1 donut:1 shape:2 three:2 dimensional:3 domination:3 minimum:3 need:1 occupy:1 every:3 nine:2 pawn:3 generalization:1 complete:1 unknown:1 set:2 another:2 magic:2 demirörs:1 rafraf:1 tanik:1 convert:1 vice:1 versa:1 latin:1 matrix:5 digit:2 location:1 instance:2 cover:2 primary:3 rank:2 file:2 secondary:2 nontrivial:2 placement:7 correspond:1 equivalent:1 choose:1 subset:1 precisely:1 chosen:2 sudoku:1 beyond:2 dimension:4 high:1 populate:1 cube:3 non:1 compete:1 maximally:1 populated:1 describe:1 proposal:1 offer:1 multiple:1 might:1 arrange:1 tesseract:1 version:2 exercise:1 design:1 good:6 reason:1 often:2 various:1 program:5 nontraditional:1 constraint:4 logic:1 genetic:2 solve:5 recursive:3 phrase:1 inductively:1 term:1 add:1 induction:1 bottom:1 empty:1 much:2 efficient:1 naïve:1 search:5 blind:2 filter:1 remove:1 either:1 leave:1 mutually:1 position:3 poor:1 among:1 thing:1 produce:1 different:5 permutation:4 assignment:1 well:1 repeat:1 computation:1 sub:1 lead:1 generate:1 element:1 index:1 guarantee:2 reject:2 slight:1 improvement:1 tree:1 time:2 eliminate:1 nonsolution:1 stage:1 construction:1 incomplete:1 examine:1 effective:2 iterative:2 repair:2 typically:1 start:3 per:1 conflict:8 determine:1 improve:1 large:1 small:2 particularly:1 less:2 step:2 average:1 assume:1 initial:2 configuration:2 reasonably:2 million:1 obviously:1 take:1 least:1 fix:1 point:1 already:1 unlike:1 backtrack:2 outline:1 like:1 hillclimbing:1 procedure:1 may:2 get:1 stick:1 local:1 optimum:1 restart:1 hand:1 several:1 magnitude:1 scope:1 breadth:1 animated:1 image:1 animation:2 gif:1 cause:1 return:1 last:1 state:1 try:1 algorithms:1 implement:1 language:1 article:2 see:2 functional:1 mathematical:2 line:3 polynomial:1 distribute:1 compute:1 boinc:3 reference:1 watkins:1 john:1 across:1 mathematics:1 princeton:2 university:1 press:2 isbn:2 dahl:1 c:2 r:1 hoare:1 structure:1 academic:1 london:1 pp:1 external:1 link:2 applet:1 simulate:1 random:1 greedy:1 mathworld:1 walter:1 koster:1 page:2 durango:1 bill:1 guide:1 nqueen:2 home:2 project:3 tud:1 fpga:1 base:3 solver:4 flash:1 sloane:1 encyclopedia:1 integer:2 sequence:2 achieve:1 code:5 modify:1 jeff:3 somers:2 languages:1 koalog:1 model:1 takaken:1 around:1 faster:1 somer:1 consideration:1 atari:2 basic:3 action:1 haskell:1 java:3 hybrid:1 mirror:1 python:1 ml:1 quirkasaurus:1 lisp:1 ansi:1 congruence:1 free:1 nxn:1 javascript:2 abhinanth:1 quick:1 view:1 web:2 interactive:2 classic:2 environment:2 php:1 progress:1 visual:1 prolog:1 wiki:1 |@bigram georg_cantor:1 edsger_dijkstra:1 structured_programming:1 vice_versa:1 gif_animation:1 princeton_princeton:1 r_hoare:1 external_link:1 |
7,436 | Bucket_argument | Isaac Newton's rotating bucket argument (also known as "Newton's bucket") was designed to demonstrate that true rotational motion cannot be defined as the relative rotation of the body with respect to the immediately surrounding bodies. It is one of five arguments from the "properties, causes, and effects" of true motion and rest that support his contention that, in general, true motion and rest cannot be defined as special instances of motion or rest relative to other bodies, but instead can be defined only by reference to absolute space. Alternatively, these experiments provide an operational definition of what is meant by "absolute rotation", and do not pretend to address the question of "rotation relative to what?". Background These arguments, and a discussion of the distinctions between absolute and relative time, space, place and motion, appear in a Scholium at the very beginning of his great work, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687), which established the foundations of classical mechanics and introduced his law of universal gravitation, which yielded the first quantitatively adequate dynamical explanation of planetary motion. See the Principia on line at Andrew Motte Translation pp. 77-82. Despite their embrace of the principle of rectilinear inertia and the recognition of the kinematical relativity of apparent motion (which underlies whether the Ptolemaic or the Copernican system is correct), natural philosophers of the seventeenth century continued to consider true motion and rest as physically separate descriptors of an individual body. The dominant view Newton opposed was devised by René Descartes, and was supported (in part) by Gottfried Leibniz. It held that empty space is a metaphysical impossibility because space is nothing other than the extension of matter, or, in other words, that when one speaks of the space between things one is actually making reference to the relationship that exists between those things and not to some entity that stands between them. Concordant with the above understanding, any assertion about the motion of a body boils down to a description over time in which the body under consideration is at t1 found in the vicinity of one group of "landmark" bodies and at some t2 is found in the vicinity of some other "landmark" body or bodies. A:Central object is accelerated by rocket motor. B: Outer ring is accelerated by rocket motor, but in opposite direction. C: Both are accelerated, but in opposite directions. D: Both are locked together and accelerated in the same direction. Under acceleration, red flags pop out on flexible arms. Descartes recognized that there would be a real difference, however, between a situation in which a body with movable parts and originally at rest with respect to a surrounding ring was itself accelerated to a certain angular velocity with respect to the ring, and another situation in which the surrounding ring was given a contrary acceleration with respect to the central object. With sole regard to the central object and the surrounding ring, the motions would be indistinguishable from each other assuming that both the central object and the surrounding ring were absolutely rigid objects. However, if neither the central object nor the surrounding ring were absolutely rigid then the parts of one or both of them would tend to fly out from the axis of rotation. People who have noticed a train originally at rest beside them in the railway station pulling away from them, and have soon thereafter noticed with surprise that it is not their train that remains parked at the station, have experienced the basic nature of the Descartes experiment. Frequently these observers first question their initial impressions when they sense g forces from the acceleration of their own train. For contingent reasons having to do with the Inquisition, Descartes spoke of motion as both absolute and relative. However, his real position was that motion is absolute. Spacetime Before Einstein from Stanford A contrasting position was taken by Mach, who contended that all motion was relative. The argument Newton discusses a bucket filled with water hung by a cord. For a discussion of Newton's original argument, see If the cord is twisted up tightly on itself and then the bucket is released, it begins to spin rapidly, not only with respect to the experimenter, but also in relation to the water it contains. (This situation would correspond to diagram B above.) Although the relative motion at this stage is the greatest, the surface of the water remains flat, indicating that the parts of the water have no tendency to recede from the axis of relative motion, despite proximity to the pail. Eventually, as the cord continues to unwind, the surface of the water assumes a concave shape as it acquires the motion of the bucket spinning relative to the experimenter. This concave shape shows that the water is rotating, that despite the fact that the water is at rest relative to the pail. In other words, it is not the relative motion of the pail and water that causes concavity of the water, contrary to the idea that motions can only be relative, and that there is no absolute motion. (This situation would correspond to diagram D.) Possibly the concavity of the water shows rotation relative to something else: say absolute space? Newton says: "one can find out and measure the true and absolute circular motion of the water". The argument is incomplete, as it limits the participants relevant to the experiment to only the pail and the water, a limitation that has not been established. In fact, the concavity of the water clearly involves gravitational attraction, and by implication the Earth also is a participant. Here is a critique due to Mach: In the 1846 Andrew Motte translation of Newton's words: See the Principia on line at Andrew Motte Translation pp. 79-81 All observers agree that the surface of rotating water is curved. However, the explanation of this curvature involves centrifugal force for all observers with the exception of a truly stationary observer, who finds the curvature is consistent with the rate of rotation of the water as they observe it, with no need for an additional centrifugal force. A supplementary thought experiment with the same objective of determining the occurrence of absolute rotation also was proposed by Newton: the example of observing two identical spheres in rotation about their center of gravity and tied together by a string. Occurrence of tension in the string is indicative of absolute rotation; see Rotating spheres. Figure 1: The interface of two immiscible liquids rotating around a vertical axis is an upward-opening circular paraboloid. Detailed analysis Of course, the historic interest of the rotating bucket experiment is its usefulness in suggesting one can detect absolute rotation by observation of the shape of the surface of the water. See Figure 1. However, one might question just how rotation brings about this change. Below are three approaches to understanding the concavity of the surface of rotating water in a bucket. Figure 2: Force diagram for an element of water surface in co-rotating frame. Top: Radial section and selected point on water surface; the water, the co-rotating frame, and the radial section share a constant angular rate of rotation given by the vector Ω. Bottom: Force diagram at selected point on surface. The slope of the surface adjusts to make all three forces sum to zero. Newton's laws of motion The shape of the surface of a rotating liquid in a bucket can be determined using Newton's laws for the various forces on an element of the surface. For example, see Knudsen and Hjorth. Figure 2 sets up the analysis in the co-rotating frame where the water appears stationary. The height of the water h is a function of the radial distance r from the axis of rotation Ω, h = h(r), and the aim is to determine this function. An element of water volume on the surface is shown to be subject to three forces: (i) The vertical force due to gravity Fg, (ii) The horizontal, radially outward centrifugal force FCfgl and (iii) The force normal to the surface of the water Fn due to the rest of the water surrounding the selected element of surface. The force due to surrounding water is known to be normal to the surface of the water because a liquid in equilibrium cannot support shear stresses. To quote Anthony and Brackett: Moreover, because the element of water does not move, the sum of all three forces must be zero. To sum to zero, the force of the water must point oppositely to the sum of the centrifugal and gravity forces, which means the surface of the water must adjust so its normal points in this direction. (A very similar problem is the design of a banked turn, where the slope of the turn is set so a car will not slide off the road. The analogy in the case of rotating bucket is that the element of water surface will "slide" up or down the surface unless the normal to the surface aligns with the vector resultant formed by the vector addition Fg + FCfgl.) As r increases, the centrifugal force increases according to the relation (the equations are written per unit mass): where Ω is the constant rate of rotation of the water. The gravitational force is unchanged at with g = acceleration due to gravity. These two forces add to make a resultant at an angle φ from the vertical given by which clearly becomes larger as r increases. To insure that this resultant is normal to the surface of the water, and therefore can be effectively nulled by the force of the water beneath, the normal to the surface must have the same angle, that is, leading to the ordinary differential equation for the shape of the surface: or, integrating: where h(0) is the height of the water at r = 0. In words, the surface of the water is parabolic in its dependence upon the radius. Potential energy The shape of the water's surface can be found in a different, very intuitive way using the interesting idea of the potential energy associated with the centrifugal force in the co-rotating frame. In a reference frame uniformly rotating at angular rate Ω, the fictitious centrifugal force is conservative and has a potential energy of the form: where r is the radius from the axis of rotation. This result can be verified by taking the gradient of the potential to obtain the radially outward force: The meaning of the potential energy is that movement of a test body from a larger radius to a smaller radius involves doing work against the centrifugal force. The potential energy is useful, for example, in understanding the concavity of the water surface in a rotating bucket. Notice that at equilibrium the surface adopts a shape such that an element of volume at any location on its surface has the same potential energy as at any other. That being so, no element of water on the surface has any incentive to move position, because all positions are equivalent in energy. That is, equilibrium is attained. On the other hand, were surface regions with lower energy available, the water occupying surface locations of higher potential energy would move to occupy these positions of lower energy, inasmuch as there is no barrier to lateral movement in an ideal liquid. We might imagine deliberately upsetting this equilibrium situation by somehow momentarily altering the surface shape of the water to make it different from an equal-energy surface. This change in shape would not be stable, and the water would not stay in our artificially contrived shape, but engage in a transient exploration of many shapes until non-ideal frictional forces introduced by sloshing, either against the sides of the bucket or by the non-ideal nature of the liquid, killed the oscillations and the water settled down to the equilibrium shape. To see the principle of an equal-energy surface at work, imagine gradually increasing the rate of rotation of the bucket from zero. The water surface is flat at first, and clearly a surface of equal potential energy because all points on the surface are at the same height in the gravitational field acting upon the water. At some small angular rate of rotation, however, an element of surface water can achieve lower potential energy by moving outward under the influence of the centrifugal force. Because water is incompressible and must remain within the confines of the bucket, this outward movement increases the depth of water at the larger radius, increasing the height of the surface at larger radius, and lowering it at smaller radius. The surface of the water becomes slightly concave, with the consequence that the potential energy of the water at the greater radius is increased by the work done against gravity to achieve the greater height. As the height of water increases, movement toward the periphery becomes no longer advantageous, because the reduction in potential energy from working with the centrifugal force is balanced against the increase in energy working against gravity. Thus, at a given angular rate of rotation, a concave surface represents the stable situation, and the more rapid the rotation, the more concave this surface. If rotation is arrested, the energy stored in fashioning the concave surface must be dissipated, for example through friction, before an equilibrium flat surface is restored. To implement a surface of constant potential energy quantitatively, let the height of the water be : then the potential energy per unit mass contributed by gravity is and the total potential energy per unit mass on the surface is with the background energy level independent of r. In a static situation (no motion of the fluid in the rotating frame), this energy is constant independent of position r. Requiring the energy to be constant, we obtain the parabolic form: where h(0) is the height at r = 0 (the axis). See Figures 1 and 2. The principle of operation of the centrifuge also can be simply understood in terms of this expression for the potential energy, which shows that it is favorable energetically when the volume far from the axis of rotation is occupied by the heavier substance. Fluid mechanics A more complete discussion of the rotating bucket that includes the effects upon the surface of water caused by the shape of the bucket is based upon fluid mechanics. It is found that the parabolic shape applies only for surface regions sufficiently far from the bucket walls, and for water deep enough to keep the surface away from the bucket bottom. To begin, what is the explanation of the concave water surface in an inertial frame of reference? In this frame, the water is observed to rotate, and therefore executes uniform circular motion. This motion requires a centripetal force, and this centripetal force is supplied for a surface element of water by the horizontal component of the normal force from the water beneath. (The vertical component counteracts gravity.) This force from the water in turn derives from the walls of the bucket, which force the adjacent water to move in a circle by supplying centripetal force. That force is transmitted by the incompressible water to its surface. This explanation is consistent with what has been said so far, but here is an unanswered question: at the vertical and bottom walls of the bucket, the walls transmit a constraining force to the adjacent water that causes that water to move in circular motion; but how does the shape of the bucket affect the solution? The answer to this question comes from the equation of motion of a volume element in the fluid. Consider an elementary volume of fluid of mass per unit volume ρ with a velocity v. The motion of this element of fluid is described by Euler's equation: where p is the pressure inside the element of fluid and g is the acceleration due to gravity. For the rotating fluid in the bucket rotating at angular rate Ω, assume for the moment that water rotates like a rigid body. Then the velocity of an elementary volume of water is given by: with a unit vector perpendicular to the radial direction pointing in the direction of rotation and a unit vector in the radial direction. Euler's equation becomes: where gravity is taken to be in the downward (negative) vertical z-direction with unit vector . To find a curve of constant pressure, suppose ds is a displacement along such a curve. In order that no change in pressure occur, we require the pressure gradient to be orthogonal to the displacement: or, Thus, a curve of constant pressure is given by: which resembles the earlier result for the free concave surface of water. The pressure at a point (r, z) is: and is the same for all angles θ. The constant of integration c is found by locating the free surface. At the free surface, the pressure is zero, and z = h(r): as before, with the depth of water at r = 0 determining c as This solution uses an assumed form for the velocity of the water that is only approximate. (The water is assumed to rotate like a rigid body.) As a result, the solution does not account for the behavior near the bottom of the bucket or the transition from horizontal to vertical walls supposing, say, the bucket has the shape of a half-cylinder. The approximate solution actually does not apply all the way to the bucket walls, but is valid only in the central region of the bucket, as described next. Lamb points out that the assumed velocity of the liquid has a non-zero curl, and hence cannot be realized in an ideal liquid that cannot support tangential forces. Another way to put this is that the velocity cannot be represented as the gradient of a velocity potential, it is not irrotational, a rather anomalous situation. In particular, it can be shown that any motion generated from rest by impulsive pressure only is necessarily irrotational. For example, if we begin with a stationary fluid with a flat surface, its velocity has zero curl. Then it can be shown that any subsequent velocity configuration obtained by gradually increasing the rotation of the water also will have zero curl. To escape this predicament, one approach is to assume the angular velocity of the liquid is not Ω but some angular velocity ω = ω(r) that varies with radial position. In this case a velocity with zero curl can be "cooked up". These Rankine vortex or Lamb-Oseen vortex solutions splice together a concave region near the center of the bucket resembling the solution just found, and a convex solution outside this core region extending to the bucket wall. Once the existence of a velocity potential is established, for an incompressible fluid this potential satisfies Laplace's equation, opening the way to application of all its methods of solution and incorporation of whatever boundary conditions the bucket may impose. In this way solutions may be obtained that reflect the shape of the bucket, and do not depart significantly from the above results for the free surface in the central region of the bucket assuming the water has sufficient depth and the bucket has sufficient radius. For a real bucket and a real liquid, the solution near the bucket walls may become quite complicated, involving boundary layers and a realistic model for the liquid. The Navier-Stokes equations must be solved, not just Laplace's equation. Further reading The isotropy of the cosmic background radiation is another indicator that the universe does not rotate. See , , and References External links Newton's Views on Space, Time, and Motion from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article by Robert Rynasiewicz. At the end of this article, loss of fine distinctions in the translations as compared to the original Latin text is discussed. Life and Philosophy of Leibniz see section on Space, Time and Indiscernibles for Leibniz arguing against the idea of space acting as a causal agent. See also Mach's principle Sagnac effect Rotating spheres Inertial frame of reference Rotating reference frame Mechanics of planar particle motion Centrifugal force (rotating reference frame) Philosophy of space and time: Absolutism vs. relationalism | Bucket_argument |@lemmatized isaac:1 newton:11 rotate:19 bucket:33 argument:6 also:7 know:2 design:2 demonstrate:1 true:5 rotational:1 motion:30 cannot:6 define:3 relative:13 rotation:23 body:13 respect:5 immediately:1 surround:8 one:9 five:1 property:1 cause:4 effect:3 rest:9 support:4 contention:1 general:1 special:1 instance:1 instead:1 reference:8 absolute:11 space:10 alternatively:1 experiment:5 provide:1 operational:1 definition:1 mean:2 pretend:1 address:1 question:5 background:3 discussion:3 distinction:2 time:5 place:1 appear:2 scholium:1 beginning:1 great:4 work:6 mathematical:1 principle:5 natural:2 philosophy:4 establish:3 foundation:1 classical:1 mechanic:3 introduce:2 law:3 universal:1 gravitation:1 yield:1 first:3 quantitatively:2 adequate:1 dynamical:1 explanation:4 planetary:1 see:11 principia:2 line:2 andrew:3 motte:3 translation:4 pp:2 despite:3 embrace:1 rectilinear:1 inertia:1 recognition:1 kinematical:1 relativity:1 apparent:1 underlie:1 whether:1 ptolemaic:1 copernican:1 system:1 correct:1 philosopher:1 seventeenth:1 century:1 continue:2 consider:2 physically:1 separate:1 descriptor:1 individual:1 dominant:1 view:2 oppose:1 devise:1 rené:1 descartes:4 part:4 gottfried:1 leibniz:3 hold:1 empty:1 metaphysical:1 impossibility:1 nothing:1 extension:1 matter:1 word:4 speaks:1 thing:2 actually:2 make:4 relationship:1 exist:1 entity:1 stand:1 concordant:1 understanding:1 assertion:1 boil:1 description:1 consideration:1 find:9 vicinity:2 group:1 landmark:2 central:7 object:6 accelerate:5 rocket:2 motor:2 b:2 outer:1 ring:7 opposite:2 direction:8 c:3 lock:1 together:3 acceleration:5 red:1 flag:1 pop:1 flexible:1 arm:1 recognize:1 would:8 real:4 difference:1 however:6 situation:8 movable:1 originally:2 certain:1 angular:8 velocity:13 another:3 give:6 contrary:2 sole:1 regard:1 indistinguishable:1 assume:6 absolutely:2 rigid:4 neither:1 tend:1 fly:1 axis:7 people:1 notice:3 train:3 beside:1 railway:1 station:2 pull:1 away:2 soon:1 thereafter:1 surprise:1 remain:3 park:1 experience:1 basic:1 nature:2 frequently:1 observer:4 initial:1 impression:1 sense:1 g:3 force:36 contingent:1 reason:1 inquisition:1 spoke:1 position:7 spacetime:1 einstein:1 stanford:2 contrast:1 take:3 mach:3 contend:1 discuss:2 fill:1 water:71 hung:1 cord:3 original:2 twist:1 tightly:1 release:1 begin:3 spin:2 rapidly:1 experimenter:2 relation:2 contain:1 correspond:2 diagram:4 although:1 stage:1 surface:56 flat:4 indicate:1 tendency:1 recede:1 proximity:1 pail:4 eventually:1 unwind:1 concave:9 shape:17 acquire:1 show:6 fact:2 concavity:5 idea:3 possibly:1 something:1 else:1 say:4 measure:1 circular:4 incomplete:1 limit:1 participant:2 relevant:1 limitation:1 clearly:3 involve:4 gravitational:3 attraction:1 implication:1 earth:1 critique:1 due:6 agree:1 curve:4 curvature:2 centrifugal:11 exception:1 truly:1 stationary:3 consistent:2 rate:8 observe:3 need:1 additional:1 supplementary:1 thought:1 objective:1 determine:4 occurrence:2 propose:1 example:5 two:3 identical:1 sphere:3 center:2 gravity:10 tie:1 string:2 tension:1 indicative:1 figure:5 interface:1 immiscible:1 liquid:10 around:1 vertical:7 upward:1 opening:1 paraboloid:1 detailed:1 analysis:2 course:1 historic:1 interest:1 usefulness:1 suggest:1 detect:1 observation:1 might:2 bring:1 change:3 three:4 approach:2 understand:2 element:13 co:4 rotating:6 frame:11 top:1 radial:6 section:3 select:3 point:8 share:1 constant:8 vector:6 ω:8 bottom:4 slope:2 adjust:2 sum:4 zero:9 use:3 various:1 knudsen:1 hjorth:1 set:2 height:8 h:6 function:2 distance:1 r:13 aim:1 volume:7 subject:1 fg:2 ii:1 horizontal:3 radially:2 outward:4 fcfgl:2 iii:1 normal:7 fn:1 equilibrium:6 shear:1 stress:1 quote:1 anthony:1 brackett:1 moreover:1 move:6 must:7 oppositely:1 similar:1 problem:1 banked:1 turn:3 car:1 slide:2 road:1 analogy:1 case:2 unless:1 align:1 resultant:3 form:4 addition:1 increase:10 accord:1 equation:8 write:1 per:4 unit:7 mass:4 unchanged:1 add:1 angle:3 φ:1 become:4 large:4 insure:1 therefore:2 effectively:1 nulled:1 beneath:2 lead:1 ordinary:1 differential:1 integrating:1 parabolic:3 dependence:1 upon:4 radius:9 potential:19 energy:25 different:2 intuitive:1 way:5 interesting:1 associate:1 uniformly:1 fictitious:1 conservative:1 result:4 verify:1 gradient:3 obtain:4 meaning:1 movement:4 test:1 small:3 useful:1 adopt:1 location:2 incentive:1 equivalent:1 attain:1 hand:1 region:6 low:3 available:1 occupy:3 high:1 inasmuch:1 barrier:1 lateral:1 ideal:4 imagine:2 deliberately:1 upset:1 somehow:1 momentarily:1 alter:1 equal:3 stable:2 stay:1 artificially:1 contrive:1 engage:1 transient:1 exploration:1 many:1 non:3 frictional:1 slosh:1 either:1 side:1 kill:1 oscillation:1 settle:1 gradually:2 field:1 act:1 achieve:2 influence:1 incompressible:3 within:1 confines:1 depth:3 lower:1 slightly:1 consequence:1 toward:1 periphery:1 longer:1 advantageous:1 reduction:1 balance:1 thus:2 represent:2 rapid:1 arrest:1 store:1 fashion:1 dissipate:1 friction:1 restore:1 implement:1 let:1 contribute:1 total:1 level:1 independent:2 static:1 fluid:10 require:3 operation:1 centrifuge:1 simply:1 understood:1 term:1 expression:1 favorable:1 energetically:1 far:4 heavy:1 substance:1 mechanics:1 complete:1 include:1 base:1 apply:2 sufficiently:1 wall:8 deep:1 enough:1 keep:1 inertial:2 executes:1 uniform:1 centripetal:3 supply:2 component:2 counteracts:1 derives:1 adjacent:2 circle:1 transmit:2 unanswered:1 constrain:1 affect:1 solution:10 answer:1 come:1 elementary:2 ρ:1 v:2 describe:2 euler:2 p:1 pressure:8 inside:1 moment:1 rotates:1 like:2 perpendicular:1 becomes:1 downward:1 negative:1 z:3 suppose:2 displacement:2 along:1 order:1 occur:1 orthogonal:1 resemble:2 early:1 free:4 θ:1 integration:1 locate:1 assumed:2 approximate:2 account:1 behavior:1 near:3 transition:1 half:1 cylinder:1 valid:1 next:1 lamb:2 curl:4 hence:1 realize:1 tangential:1 put:1 irrotational:2 rather:1 anomalous:1 particular:1 generate:1 impulsive:1 necessarily:1 subsequent:1 configuration:1 escape:1 predicament:1 vary:1 cook:1 rankine:1 vortex:2 oseen:1 splice:1 convex:1 outside:1 core:1 extend:1 existence:1 satisfies:1 laplace:2 open:1 application:1 method:1 incorporation:1 whatever:1 boundary:2 condition:1 may:3 impose:1 reflect:1 depart:1 significantly:1 sufficient:2 quite:1 complicate:1 layer:1 realistic:1 model:1 navier:1 stokes:1 solve:1 read:1 isotropy:1 cosmic:1 radiation:1 indicator:1 universe:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 article:2 robert:1 rynasiewicz:1 end:1 loss:1 fine:1 compare:1 latin:1 text:1 life:1 indiscernibles:1 argue:1 acting:1 causal:1 agent:1 sagnac:1 planar:1 particle:1 absolutism:1 relationalism:1 |@bigram isaac_newton:1 rotate_bucket:4 universal_gravitation:1 planetary_motion:1 andrew_motte:3 rené_descartes:1 gottfried_leibniz:1 angular_velocity:3 axis_rotation:4 circular_motion:3 gravitational_attraction:1 centrifugal_force:10 rotating_frame:5 radially_outward:2 outward_centrifugal:1 shear_stress:1 ordinary_differential:1 differential_equation:1 inertial_frame:2 centripetal_force:3 unanswered_question:1 angle_θ:1 horizontal_vertical:1 ω_ω:1 navier_stokes:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 mechanic_planar:1 |
7,437 | Ubik | Ubik ( "yoo-bik" ) is a 1969 science fiction novel by American writer Philip K. Dick. In 2005, Time magazine named it one of the 100 greatest English-language novels published since 1923; critic Lev Grossman described it as "a deeply unsettling existential horror story, a nightmare you'll never be sure you've woken up from". Grossman, Lev. "Ubik – All-Time 100 Novels". Time. Retrieved on May 2, 2009. Plot synopsis The novel takes place in the 'North American Confederation' of 1992, wherein technology has advanced to the extent of permitting civilians to reach the Moon and psi phenomena are widely accepted as real. The protagonist is Joe Chip, a debt-ridden technician for Glen Runciter's "prudence organization", which employs people with the ability to block certain psychic powers (as in the case of an anti-telepath, who can prevent a telepath from reading a client's mind) to enforce privacy by request. Runciter runs the company with the assistance of his deceased wife Ella, who is kept in a state of "half-life", a form of cryonic suspension that gives the deceased person limited consciousness and communication ability. The company’s main adversary is Ray Hollis, who leads an organization of psychics. Hollis appears only for a short time in the novel. When business magnate Stanton Mick hires Runciter’s company to secure his lunar facilities from telepaths, Runciter assembles a dozen agents for this task. The group includes Pat Conley, a mysterious young woman who has an unprecedented parapsychological ability to undo events by changing the past. Joe Chip is shown at several points to have sexual feelings for the defiant Pat Conley, who once gives the impression of reciprocating them. When Runciter, Chip, and the others reach Mick’s moon base, they discover that the assignment is a trap, presumably set by Hollis. A bomb explosion apparently kills Runciter without significantly harming the others. They rush back to Earth to place him in half-life. Afterwards, the group begins to experience strange shifts in reality. Consumables, such as milk and cigarettes, begin to expire prematurely. Also, the group sees Runciter's face on coins and receives strange messages from him in writing and on television. Most of these messages imply that Runciter is in fact alive, while the others are in half-life, or "cold-pac" as it is informally called. Group members who separate from the group are found dead, in a gruesome state of decomposition. The reality gradually shifts backward in time until the group finds itself in a world resembling the United States in 1939. They try throughout to deduce what is causing these strange occurrences, prevent each other from dying, and find a mysterious product called Ubik, which is advertised in every time period they enter. Messages from Runciter indicate that Ubik may be their only hope of survival. Ultimately, Joe Chip learns that Runciter, in fact, was the sole survivor of the explosion on Luna, and that his messages to the group are the result of his attempts to communicate with them while they are in half-life. The regressing world in which they find themselves is discovered to be the product of Jory Miller, another half-lifer whom Runciter encounters earlier in the story while communicating with Ella. It is revealed that Jory devours the life force of other people who are in suspended animation to prolong his own present existence. Of the group of anti-psychics and technicians, only Joe Chip eludes him, aided by the substance called Ubik. This substance, whose name is derived from the word "ubiquity", has the property of preserving people who are in half-life. Joe Chip is instructed in its use by Ella Runciter, who is en route to a reincarnation. In the living world, Glen Runciter encounters several coins showing Joe Chip's face. He suspects that this is "just the beginning". Themes & interpretation Whereas the confusion between real and unreal, obscured by the perception of the main character(s), is common in Dick's work, in Ubik this confusion occurs in more than one way. Given the premise of half-life (the term is related to radioactive half-lives in that the partially dead person continues to slowly die and eventually is completely dead), one puzzle lies in resolving the false reality of the deceased with the real perceptions of those who are still alive. This is further complicated by Pat Conley, whose ability to change the past (and thus the present) may be causing the reality changes. The interference of psychics causes further confusion. The story presents unsettling shifts between realities and timelines, so that the reader is never certain what is real and what is illusion. Another theme is the opposition between the twin forces of decay (the regression experienced by the characters) and restoration (Ubik, which reverses that decay). There's also an examination of what decomposition actually means and whether ideas are immune. Ubik features several character types common to Dick's fiction: Chip as the downtrodden, working class protagonist; Conley as the dark-haired, alluring, unattainable, possibly insane, sadistic, and by some means empowered woman; Runciter as a cynical but fatherly old man, who holds a position of great power at the top of the social hierarchy (similar to Leo Bulero in The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch or Felix Buckman in Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said). These character types are nearly universal to his work and tend to follow similar roles: the downtrodden protagonist finds himself at odds with a large and complicated plot, not specifically against him, but in which he becomes inadvertently entangled. He is then alternately aided by, confused by, or maliciously harmed by the dark-haired woman, is helped indirectly by the fatherly old man (whose warnings are often unheeded or too late), and faces the spokesman of the evil conspiracy, who is mysterious, powerful, well-informed, and more or less undeniable, leaving the downtrodden hero with little or bittersweet success. Generally, multiple explanations for the nature of the events, the outcome of the story, and the nature and identity of the evil spokesman are available, especially if drug use or other psychic complications blur the lines of reality. Generally speaking, the narrator participates in the perspective of the characters, so the revelation of whether the experience is a drug-induced delusion or a bona fide event is left vague for the reader. Ultimately, the reader is left to wonder what actually happened in the "real world" of the story and is left few clues, much as a person rehabilitated from extended drug use might look back at the recent months of life and wonder what was real, what was misinterpreted, and what was false. Dick's former wife Tessa remarked that "Ubik is a metaphor for God. Ubik is all-powerful and all-knowing, and Ubik is everywhere. The spray can is only a form that Ubik takes to make it easy for people to understand it and use it. It is not the substance inside the can that helps them, but rather their faith in the promise that it will help them." UBIK Explained, sort of Tessa Dick, It's a Philip K. Dick World, December 4, 2008 She also interpreted the ending by writing, "Many readers have puzzled over the ending of Ubik, when Glen Runciter finds a Joe Chip coin in his pocket. What does it mean? Is Runciter dead? Are Joe Chip and the others alive? Actually, this is meant to tell you that we can't be sure of anything in the world that we call 'reality.' It is possible that they are all dead and in cold pack. It is also possible that they are all alive and dreaming." Literary allusions The term Ubik comes from the Latin word ubique, which means "everywhere" and is the source of the English language word ubiquitous, which means being or seeming to be everywhere at the same time. This could be considered ironic, given that Ubik is a rare and highly sought-after substance in the novel, but it may also indicate that Ubik is a life-force of sorts. Ubik also references Plato’s idea of Forms, great universals that define the essence of all matter. When the world begins to seemingly regress in time and all objects in it (such as television sets, refrigerators and automobiles) become that time period’s version of that object, Chip remarks that each is coming closer to barest, simplest Form. The name "Joe Chip" has the same initials as "Jesus Christ". Parallels can be drawn between Chip as a Christ figure (who suffers a temporary death or near-death and subsequent resurrection), Runciter as God-the-father, and Ubik as the Holy Spirit. However, these and other possible allusions to Christianity are by no means straightforward, and it is much more useful to examine the religious metaphors of Ubik in the context of Dick's grander spiritual and metaphysical worldview rather than as a readily explicable religious tale. Adaptations Videogame In 1998, Cryo Interactive Entertainment released Philip K. Dick’s Ubik, a tactical action/strategy videogame very loosely based on the book. The game allowed players to act as Joe Chip and train combat squads into missions against the Hollis Corporation. The game was available for Sony PlayStation and for Microsoft Windows and was not a significant commercial success. Attempts to produce a Ubik film In 1974, French filmmaker Jean-Pierre Gorin commissioned Dick to write a screenplay for a Ubik film. Dick completed the screenplay, turning it in within a month, but Gorin never filmed the project. Paul Williams, Introduction, Ubik: The Screenplay by Philip K. Dick, 1985 The screenplay was published as Ubik: The Screenplay in 1985 (ISBN 978-0911169065) and again in 2008 (ISBN 9781596061699). Dick's former wife Tessa claims that the published screenplay "has been heavily edited, and others have added material to the screenplay that Phil wrote", though she suggests that "film producers really ought to take a look at the author’s own screenplay before embarking upon their journey of interpretation". UBIK and other movies Tessa Dick, It's a Philip K. Dick World, September 8, 2008 Dick's screenplay differs from the source material, featuring numerous scenes that are not in the novel. According to the foreword of Ubik: The Screenplay (by Tim Powers, a friend of Dick's and fellow science fiction writer), Dick had an idea for the film which involved "the film itself appearing to undergo a series of reversions: to black-and-white, then to the awkward jerkiness of very early movies, then to a crookedly jammed frame which proceeds to blacken, bubble and melt away, leaving only the white glare of the projection bulb, which in turn deteriorates to leave the theater in darkness, and might almost leave the moviegoer wondering what sort of dilapidated, antique jalopy he'll find his car-keys fitting when he goes outside." Tim Powers, Foreword, Ubik: The Screenplay by Philip K. Dick, 1985 Tommy Pallotta, who produced the film adaptation of Dick's A Scanner Darkly, said in a July 2006 interview that he "still [has] the option for Ubik and will be looking to make a live action feature from it." GreenCine | article Dick's daughter, Isa Dick Hackett, said the film adaptation of Ubik is in advanced negotiation. calendarlive.com In May of 2008, the film was optioned by Celluloid Dreams. It will be produced by Hengameh Panahi of Celluloid Dreams and Isa Dick Hackett, of Electric Shepherd Productions. It is slated to go into production in early 2009. SciFi.com Music Secret Chiefs 3 created an auditory adaptation on their "The Electromagnetic Azoth - Ubik / Ishraqiyun - Balance of the 19" 7" record. The "Ubik" track features musicians Trey Spruance (Faith No More, Mr. Bungle) and Bill Horist. In 2000 Art Zoyd released a musical interpretation of the novel titled u.B.I.Q.U.e. Criticism Fitting, Peter, (1975) "Ubik and the Deconstruction of Bourgeois SF", Science-Fiction Studies # 5, 2:1, pp. 47-54. Lem, Stanislaw, (1975) “Science and Reality in Philip K. Dick’s Ubik”, A Multitude of Visions, ed. Cy Chauvin, Baltimore; T-K Graphics, pp. 35-9. Pagetti, Carlo, (2003) “Ubik uno e trino” [afterword], Philip K. Dick, Ubik, Roma: Fanucci, pp. 253-66. Proietti, Salvatore, (2006) “Vuoti di potere e resistenza umana: Dick, Ubik e l'epica americana”, Trasmigrazioni: I mondi di Philip K. Dick, eds. Valerio Massimo De Angelis and Umberto Rossi, Firenze: Le Monnier, pp. 204-16. See also Closet screenplay Simulated reality References | Ubik |@lemmatized ubik:37 yoo:1 bik:1 science:4 fiction:4 novel:8 american:2 writer:2 philip:9 k:10 dick:26 time:9 magazine:1 name:3 one:3 great:3 english:2 language:2 publish:3 since:1 critic:1 lev:2 grossman:2 describe:1 deeply:1 unsettling:1 existential:1 horror:1 story:5 nightmare:1 never:3 sure:2 wake:1 retrieve:1 may:5 plot:2 synopsis:1 take:3 place:2 north:1 confederation:1 wherein:1 technology:1 advance:1 extent:1 permit:1 civilian:1 reach:2 moon:2 psi:1 phenomenon:1 widely:1 accept:1 real:6 protagonist:3 joe:10 chip:14 debt:1 ridden:1 technician:2 glen:3 runciter:17 prudence:1 organization:2 employ:1 people:4 ability:4 block:1 certain:2 psychic:5 power:4 case:1 anti:2 telepath:2 prevent:2 read:1 client:1 mind:1 enforce:1 privacy:1 request:1 run:1 company:3 assistance:1 deceased:2 wife:3 ella:3 keep:1 state:3 half:8 life:10 form:4 cryonic:1 suspension:1 give:4 person:3 limited:1 consciousness:1 communication:1 main:2 adversary:1 ray:1 hollis:4 lead:1 appear:2 short:1 business:1 magnate:1 stanton:1 mick:2 hire:1 secure:1 lunar:1 facility:1 telepaths:1 assemble:1 dozen:1 agent:1 task:1 group:8 include:1 pat:3 conley:4 mysterious:3 young:1 woman:3 unprecedented:1 parapsychological:1 undo:1 event:3 change:3 past:2 show:2 several:3 point:1 sexual:1 feeling:1 defiant:1 impression:1 reciprocate:1 others:5 base:2 discover:2 assignment:1 trap:1 presumably:1 set:2 bomb:1 explosion:2 apparently:1 kill:1 without:1 significantly:1 harm:2 rush:1 back:2 earth:1 afterwards:1 begin:3 experience:3 strange:3 shift:2 reality:9 consumables:1 milk:1 cigarette:1 expire:1 prematurely:1 also:7 see:2 face:3 coin:3 receives:1 message:4 write:4 television:2 imply:1 fact:2 alive:4 cold:2 pac:1 informally:1 call:4 member:1 separate:1 find:7 dead:5 gruesome:1 decomposition:2 gradually:1 shifts:1 backward:1 world:8 resemble:1 united:1 try:1 throughout:1 deduce:1 cause:3 occurrence:1 die:2 product:2 advertise:1 every:1 period:2 enter:1 indicate:2 hope:1 survival:1 ultimately:2 learn:1 sole:1 survivor:1 luna:1 result:1 attempt:2 communicate:2 regress:2 jory:2 miller:1 another:2 lifer:1 encounter:2 earlier:1 reveal:1 devour:1 force:3 suspended:1 animation:1 prolong:1 present:3 existence:1 elude:1 aid:2 substance:4 whose:3 derive:1 word:3 ubiquity:1 property:1 preserve:1 instruct:1 use:4 en:1 route:1 reincarnation:1 living:1 suspect:1 beginning:1 theme:2 interpretation:3 whereas:1 confusion:3 unreal:1 obscure:1 perception:2 character:5 common:2 work:3 occur:1 way:1 premise:1 term:2 relate:1 radioactive:1 partially:1 continue:1 slowly:1 eventually:1 completely:1 puzzle:2 lie:1 resolve:1 false:2 decease:1 still:2 far:1 complicate:2 thus:1 interference:1 unsettle:1 timeline:1 reader:4 illusion:1 opposition:1 twin:1 decay:2 regression:1 restoration:1 reverse:1 examination:1 actually:3 mean:7 whether:2 idea:3 immune:1 feature:4 type:2 downtrodden:3 class:1 dark:2 haired:2 allure:1 unattainable:1 possibly:1 insane:1 sadistic:1 empower:1 cynical:1 fatherly:2 old:2 man:2 hold:1 position:1 top:1 social:1 hierarchy:1 similar:2 leo:1 bulero:1 three:1 stigma:1 palmer:1 eldritch:1 felix:1 buckman:1 flow:1 tear:1 policeman:1 say:3 nearly:1 universal:2 tend:1 follow:1 role:1 odds:1 large:1 specifically:1 become:2 inadvertently:1 entangle:1 alternately:1 confuse:1 maliciously:1 help:3 indirectly:1 warning:1 often:1 unheeded:1 late:1 spokesman:2 evil:2 conspiracy:1 powerful:2 well:1 inform:1 less:1 undeniable:1 leave:7 hero:1 little:1 bittersweet:1 success:2 generally:2 multiple:1 explanation:1 nature:2 outcome:1 identity:1 available:2 especially:1 drug:3 complication:1 blur:1 line:1 speak:1 narrator:1 participate:1 perspective:1 revelation:1 induced:1 delusion:1 bona:1 fide:1 vague:1 wonder:3 happen:1 clue:1 much:2 rehabilitate:1 extend:1 might:2 look:3 recent:1 month:2 misinterpret:1 former:2 tessa:4 remark:2 metaphor:2 god:2 knowing:1 everywhere:3 spray:1 make:2 easy:1 understand:1 inside:1 rather:2 faith:2 promise:1 explain:1 sort:3 december:1 interpret:1 end:2 many:1 pocket:1 tell:1 anything:1 possible:3 pack:1 dream:3 literary:1 allusion:2 come:2 latin:1 ubique:1 source:2 ubiquitous:1 seem:1 could:1 consider:1 ironic:1 rare:1 highly:1 seek:1 reference:2 plato:1 define:1 essence:1 matter:1 seemingly:1 object:2 refrigerator:1 automobile:1 version:1 closer:1 barest:1 simple:1 initial:1 jesus:1 christ:2 parallel:1 draw:1 figure:1 suffer:1 temporary:1 death:2 near:1 subsequent:1 resurrection:1 father:1 holy:1 spirit:1 however:1 christianity:1 straightforward:1 useful:1 examine:1 religious:2 context:1 grander:1 spiritual:1 metaphysical:1 worldview:1 readily:1 explicable:1 tale:1 adaptation:4 videogame:2 cryo:1 interactive:1 entertainment:1 release:2 tactical:1 action:2 strategy:1 loosely:1 book:1 game:2 allow:1 player:1 act:1 train:1 combat:1 squads:1 mission:1 corporation:1 sony:1 playstation:1 microsoft:1 window:1 significant:1 commercial:1 produce:3 film:9 french:1 filmmaker:1 jean:1 pierre:1 gorin:2 commission:1 screenplay:12 complete:1 turn:2 within:1 project:1 paul:1 williams:1 introduction:1 isbn:2 claim:1 heavily:1 edit:1 add:1 material:2 phil:1 though:1 suggest:1 producer:1 really:1 ought:1 author:1 embark:1 upon:1 journey:1 movie:2 september:1 differs:1 numerous:1 scene:1 accord:1 foreword:2 tim:2 friend:1 fellow:1 involve:1 undergo:1 series:1 reversion:1 black:1 white:2 awkward:1 jerkiness:1 early:2 crookedly:1 jam:1 frame:1 proceed:1 blacken:1 bubble:1 melt:1 away:1 glare:1 projection:1 bulb:1 deteriorates:1 theater:1 darkness:1 almost:1 moviegoer:1 dilapidate:1 antique:1 jalopy:1 car:1 key:1 fit:1 go:2 outside:1 tommy:1 pallotta:1 scanner:1 darkly:1 july:1 interview:1 option:1 live:1 greencine:1 article:1 daughter:1 isa:2 hackett:2 advanced:1 negotiation:1 calendarlive:1 com:2 optioned:1 celluloid:2 hengameh:1 panahi:1 electric:1 shepherd:1 production:2 slat:1 scifi:1 music:1 secret:1 chief:1 create:1 auditory:1 electromagnetic:1 azoth:1 ishraqiyun:1 balance:1 record:1 track:1 musicians:1 trey:1 spruance:1 mr:1 bungle:1 bill:1 horist:1 art:1 zoyd:1 musical:1 title:1 u:2 b:1 q:1 e:4 criticism:1 fitting:1 peter:1 deconstruction:1 bourgeois:1 sf:1 study:1 pp:4 lem:1 stanislaw:1 multitude:1 vision:1 ed:2 cy:1 chauvin:1 baltimore:1 graphic:1 pagetti:1 carlo:1 uno:1 trino:1 afterword:1 rom:1 fanucci:1 proietti:1 salvatore:1 vuoti:1 di:2 potere:1 resistenza:1 umana:1 l:1 epica:1 americana:1 trasmigrazioni:1 mondi:1 valerio:1 massimo:1 de:1 angelis:1 umberto:1 rossi:1 firenze:1 le:1 monnier:1 closet:1 simulate:1 |@bigram science_fiction:3 plot_synopsis:1 debt_ridden:1 cryonic_suspension:1 suspended_animation:1 en_route:1 dark_haired:2 stigma_palmer:1 palmer_eldritch:1 tear_policeman:1 bona_fide:1 literary_allusion:1 jesus_christ:1 holy_spirit:1 sony_playstation:1 microsoft_window:1 jean_pierre:1 scanner_darkly:1 dick_hackett:2 mr_bungle:1 de_angelis:1 |
7,438 | Telecommunications_in_Malaysia | Telephones - main lines in use: 4.306 million (2nd Quarter 2008) Telephones - mobile cellular: 25.086 million (2nd Quarter 2008) Internet Users: 14.904 million (2008) Internet - Dial-up: 3.86 million (2nd Quarter 2008) Internet - Broadband: 1.718 million (2nd Quarter 2008) Telephone system: international service good domestic: good intercity service provided on Peninsular Malaysia mainly by microwave radio relay; adequate intercity microwave radio relay network between Sabah and Sarawak via Brunei; domestic satellite system with 2 earth stations international: submarine cables to India, Hong Kong, and Singapore; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean) Telco companies: TM Berhad, Celcom (013, 019 and 0148), Maxis (012, 017 and 0142), DiGi (016 , 0146, 014-30, 014-31 and 014-32) and U Mobile (018). Radio broadcast stations: AM 56, FM 31 (plus 13 repeater stations), shortwave 5 (1999) Radios: 9.1 million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 27 (plus 15 high-power repeaters) (1999) Televisions: 3.6 million (1997) Terrestrial television stations (Free-to-Air Channels) RTM1 RTM2 TV3 ntv7 8TV TV9 Vision 4 Satellite television stations Astro Cable television stations MiTV Fine TV Internet Service Providers (ISPs): JARING - Dialup and broadband Maxis - Broadband, Utopia (Wi-fi), Blackberry Nasionet PersiaSYS - Cable and Wireless Broadband Time - Webbit (Wireless broadband) TM Net - Dialup and Streamyx (broadband) DeConneXion - WiFi (Only in Sarawak) Packet One - WiMAX Country code (Top level domain): MY Amateur Radio Stations: 2,000 (2006) See also Broadcasting in Malaysia History of Communications in Malaysia Internet in Malaysia Malaysian telephone codes Malaysian mobile phone codes'' Malaysia | Telecommunications_in_Malaysia |@lemmatized telephone:4 main:1 line:1 use:1 million:7 quarter:4 mobile:3 cellular:1 internet:5 user:1 dial:1 broadband:6 system:2 international:2 service:3 good:2 domestic:2 intercity:2 provide:1 peninsular:1 malaysia:5 mainly:1 microwave:2 radio:5 relay:2 adequate:1 network:1 sabah:1 sarawak:2 via:1 brunei:1 satellite:3 earth:2 station:9 submarine:1 cable:3 india:1 hong:1 kong:1 singapore:1 intelsat:1 indian:1 ocean:2 pacific:1 telco:1 company:1 tm:2 berhad:1 celcom:1 maxi:2 digi:1 u:1 broadcast:3 fm:1 plus:2 repeater:2 shortwave:1 television:5 high:1 power:1 terrestrial:1 free:1 air:1 channel:1 vision:1 astro:1 mitv:1 fine:1 tv:1 provider:1 isps:1 jar:1 dialup:2 utopia:1 wi:1 fi:1 blackberry:1 nasionet:1 persiasys:1 wireless:2 time:1 webbit:1 net:1 streamyx:1 deconnexion:1 wifi:1 packet:1 one:1 wimax:1 country:1 code:3 top:1 level:1 domain:1 amateur:1 see:1 also:1 history:1 communication:1 malaysian:2 phone:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:1 peninsular_malaysia:1 sabah_sarawak:1 hong_kong:1 station_intelsat:1 pacific_ocean:1 plus_repeater:1 shortwave_radio:1 repeater_television:1 provider_isps:1 wi_fi:1 wireless_broadband:2 malaysia_malaysian:1 mobile_phone:1 |
7,439 | Thermal_conductivity_detector | The thermal conductivity detector (TCD) is a bulk property detector and a chemical specific detector commonly used in gas-liquid chromatography. Grob, Robert L. Ed.; "Modern Practice of Gas Chromatography", John Wiley & Sons, C1977, pg. 228, This detector senses changes in the thermal conductivity of the column effluent and compares it to a reference flow of carrier gas. Since most compounds have a thermal conductivity much less than that of the common carrier gases of helium or hydrogen, when an analyte elutes from the column, the effluent thermal conductivity is reduced and produces a detectable signal. Operation The TCD consists of an electrically heated filament in a temperature-controlled cell. Under normal conditions there is a stable heat flow from the filament to the detector body. When an analyte elutes and the thermal conductivity of the column effluent is reduced, the filament heats up and changes resistance. This resistance change is often sensed by a Wheatstone bridge circuit which produces a measurable voltage change. The column effluent flows over one of the resistors while the reference flow is over a second resistor in the four-resistor circuit. TCD Schematic A schematic of a classic thermal conductivity detector design utilizing a wheatstone bridge circuit. The reference flow across resistor 4 of the circuit compensates for drift due to flow or temperature fluctuations. Changes in the thermal conductivity of the column effluent flow across resistor 3 will result in a temperature change of the resistor and therefore a resistance change which can be measured as a signal. Applications Since all compounds, organic and inorganic, have a thermal conductivity different from helium, all compounds can be detected by this detector. The TCD is often called a universal detector because it responds to all compounds. Also, since the thermal conductivity of organic compounds are similar and very different from helium, a TCD will respond similarly to similar concentrations of analyte. Therefore the TCD can be used without calibration and the concentration of a sample component can be estimated by the ratio of the analyte peak area to all components (peaks) in the sample. The TCD is a good general purpose detector for initial investigations with an unknown sample. Since the TCD is less sensitive than the flame ionization detector and has a larger dead volume it will not provide as good resolution as the FID. However, in combination with thick film columns and correspondingly larger sample volumes, the overall detection limit can be similar to that of an FID. In conclusion the TCD is not as sensitive as other detectors but it is non-specific and non-destructive. The TCD is also used in the analysis of permanent gases (argon, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide) because it responds to all these pure substances unlike the FID which cannot detect compounds which do not contain carbon-hydrogen bonds. See also Katharometer References | Thermal_conductivity_detector |@lemmatized thermal:9 conductivity:9 detector:11 tcd:10 bulk:1 property:1 chemical:1 specific:2 commonly:1 use:3 gas:5 liquid:1 chromatography:2 grob:1 robert:1 l:1 ed:1 modern:1 practice:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 pg:1 sense:2 change:7 column:6 effluent:5 compare:1 reference:4 flow:7 carrier:2 since:4 compound:6 much:1 less:2 common:1 helium:3 hydrogen:2 analyte:4 elute:1 reduce:2 produce:2 detectable:1 signal:2 operation:1 consist:1 electrically:1 heat:3 filament:3 temperature:3 control:1 cell:1 normal:1 condition:1 stable:1 body:1 elutes:1 resistance:3 often:2 wheatstone:2 bridge:2 circuit:4 measurable:1 voltage:1 one:1 resistor:6 second:1 four:1 schematic:2 classic:1 design:1 utilize:1 across:2 compensate:1 drift:1 due:1 fluctuation:1 result:1 therefore:2 measure:1 application:1 organic:2 inorganic:1 different:2 detect:2 call:1 universal:1 respond:3 also:3 similar:3 similarly:1 concentration:2 without:1 calibration:1 sample:4 component:2 estimate:1 ratio:1 peak:2 area:1 good:2 general:1 purpose:1 initial:1 investigation:1 unknown:1 sensitive:2 flame:1 ionization:1 large:2 dead:1 volume:2 provide:1 resolution:1 fid:3 however:1 combination:1 thick:1 film:1 correspondingly:1 overall:1 detection:1 limit:1 conclusion:1 non:2 destructive:1 analysis:1 permanent:1 argon:1 oxygen:1 nitrogen:1 carbon:2 dioxide:1 pure:1 substance:1 unlike:1 cannot:1 contain:1 bond:1 see:1 katharometer:1 |@bigram thermal_conductivity:9 liquid_chromatography:1 wiley_son:1 column_effluent:5 organic_inorganic:1 organic_compound:1 carbon_dioxide:1 hydrogen_bond:1 |
7,440 | Concept_album | In popular music, a concept album is an album that is "unified by a theme, which can be instrumental, compositional, narrative, or lyrical". Shuker, Roy: Popular Music: The Key Concepts, page 5. ISBN 0-415-28425-2. 2002. Commonly, concept albums tend to incorporate preconceived musical or lyrical ideas rather than being improvised or composed in the studio, with all songs contributing to a single overall theme or unified story. This is in contrast to the practice of an artist or group releasing an album consisting of a number of unconnected (lyrically or otherwise) songs performed by the artist. In the world of musical theatre, there is a separate and distinct form of concept album known as the album musical, in which the performers are playing characters in a story, a type of recording which encompasses such "rock operas" as The Who's Tommy and The Wall by Pink Floyd. History Early examples What could very loosely be considered the first concept albums were released in the late 1930s by singer Lee Wiley on the Liberty Records label, featuring eight songs on four 78s by showtune composers of the day, such as Harold Arlen and Cole Porter, anticipating more comprehensive efforts by Verve Records impresario Norman Granz with Ella Fitzgerald by almost two decades. In folk music, early examples included Woody Guthrie's 1940 debut album Dust Bowl Ballads and Merle Travis's 1947 box set Folk Songs of the Hills, in which each song is introduced by a short narrative. Allmusic review by Richie Unterberger In the late '40s, Kansas City pianist Pete Johnson recorded the album Pete's House Warmin''', in which he starts out playing alone, supposedly in new empty house, and is joined there by J. C. Higginbotham, J.C. Heard, and other Kansas City players. Each has a solo backed by Pete and then the whole group plays a jam session together. http://books.google.com/books?pg=PT295&lpg=PT295&sig=MeYLT-Dw9AYKBOwZJ4fqdxkK_d4&id=qYtz7kEHegEC&ots=ALaLm23vc- Frank Sinatra released many thematically programmed albums of the 1950s for Capitol Records starting with the ten-inch 33s Songs for Young Lovers and Swing Easy. Perhaps the first full Sinatra concept album example is In the Wee Small Hours from 1955, where the songs – all ballads – were specifically recorded for the album, and organized around a central mood of late-night isolation and aching lost love, with the album cover strikingly reinforcing that theme. However, notion of a concept album did not really gel at that point, and was not widely imitated, aside from occasional examples such as country singer Marty Robbins' Gunfighter Ballads and Trail Songs from 1959, or Ray Charles's The Genius Hits the Road (1960), where each song references one of the United States ("Georgia on My Mind", "Mississippi Mud", et cetera). Also released that year, Johnny Cash's Ride This Train chronicled tales of Americana, woven together with narrative by Cash and train sounds. Each track begins with "Ride this train to ..." and tells the story of that city. 1960s Perhaps the first examples from rock were the albums of The Ventures. Starting from 1961's Colorful Ventures (each song had a color in the title), the group was known for issuing records throughout the 1960s whose tracks revolved around central themes, including surf music, country, outer space, TV themes, and psychedelic music. Ray Charles also issued his Modern Sounds recordings, which departed from his well-known R&B and soul style to conceptually country music records. In 1966, several rock releases were arguably concept albums in the sense that they presented a set of thematically-linked songs - and they also instigated other rock artists to consider using the album format in a similar fashion: The Beach Boys' Pet Sounds was a masterful musical portrayal of Brian Wilson's state of mind at the time (and a major inspiration to Paul McCartney). Although it has a unified theme in its emotional content, the writers (Brian Wilson and Tony Asher) have said continuously that it was not necessarily intended to be a narrative. However, later in 1966, Brian Wilson had begun work on the Smile album, which was intended as a narrative. The album was scrapped before completion, only to be revived in the 2000s. The Mothers of Invention's sardonic farce about rock music and America as a whole, Freak Out! and Face to Face by The Kinks, the first collection of Ray Davies's idiosyncratic character studies of ordinary people are conceptually oriented albums. However, out of the albums above, only Pet Sounds attracted a huge commercial audience. This all changed with the Beatles' celebrated album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band in June 1967. With the release of Sgt. Pepper, the notion of the concept album came to the forefront of the popular and critical mind, with the earlier prototypes and examples from classic pop and other genres sometimes forgotten. The phrase entered the popular lexicon, and a "concept album" - the term became imbued with the notion of artistic purpose - was inherently considered to be more creative or worthy of attention than a mere collection of new songs. This perception of course related to the intent of the artist rather than the specific content. In fact, as pointed out by many critics since its original reception, Sgt. Pepper is a concept album only by some definitions of the term. There was, at some stage during the making of the album an attempt to relate the material to firstly the idea of aging, then as an obscure radio play about the life of an ex-army bandsman and his shortcomings. These concepts were lost in the final production. While debate exists over the extent to which Sgt. Pepper qualifies as a true concept album, there is no doubt that its reputation as such helped inspire other artists to produce concept albums of their own, and inspired the public to anticipate them. Lennon and McCartney distanced themselves from the "concept album" tag as applied to that album. The Who Sell Out followed with its concept of a pirate radio broadcast. Within the record, joke commercials recorded by the band and actual jingles from recently outlawed pirate radio station Wonderful Radio London were interspersed between the songs, ranging from pop songs to hard rock and psychedelic rock, culminating with a mini-opera titled "Rael". Side two of the Small Faces' 1968 album, Ogdens' Nut Gone Flake, features a series of songs which form a narrative - albeit a 'nonsense' one - with narration from Stanley Unwin. Side one of Simon and Garfunkel's Bookends - also released in 1968 - formed a narrative, loosely following a life story from a young child to old age, tied together with the "Bookends theme" as the first and last track. In October 1967 the British group Nirvana released The Story of Simon Simopath (subtitled "A Science Fiction Pantomime"), an album that tells the story of the title character. It was only a moderate commercial success. The album S.F. Sorrow (released in December 1968) by British group the Pretty Things is generally considered to be among the first creatively successful rock concept albums - in that each song is part of an overarching unified concept – the life story of the main character, Sebastian Sorrow. Released in April 1969, was the rock opera Tommy composed by Pete Townshend and performed by The Who. This acclaimed work was presented over two discs (still unusual in those days) and it took the idea of thematically based albums to a much higher appreciation by both critics and the public. It was also the first story-based concept album of the rock era (as distinct from the song-cycle style album) to enjoy commercial success. The Who went on to further explorations of the concept album format with their follow-up project Lifehouse, which was abandoned before completion, and with their 1973 rock opera, Quadrophenia. Five months after the release of Tommy, The Kinks released another concept album Arthur (Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire) (September 1969), written by Ray Davies, considered by some a Rock Opera but originally conceived as the score for a proposed but never realised BBC television drama. It was the first of several concept albums released by the band through the first few years of the 1970s. These were: Lola versus Powerman and the Moneygoround, Part One (1970), Muswell Hillbillies (1971), Preservation: Act 1 (1973), Preservation: Act 2 (1974), Soap Opera (1975) and Schoolboys in Disgrace (1976). 1970s Concept albums are considered de rigueur in the progressive rock genre of the 1970s, hence the name of the genre itself. Most notably, Pink Floyd recast itself from its 1960s guise as a quirky psychedelic band into a commercial mega-success with its series of concept albums, beginning with The Dark Side of the Moon in 1973, then Wish You Were Here from 1975, Animals from 1977, 1979's rock opera The Wall and its lesser-known follow-up The Final Cut in 1983, with Roger Waters behind the themes and storylines. The Wall also shares many themes – both conceptual and melodic – with bassist Roger Waters first solo album The Pros and Cons of Hitchhiking, the two albums being conceived at roughly the same time. Glenn Povey and Richard Ashton interview with Gilmour, Brain Damage, February 1988 In 1972, the progressive rock band Jethro Tull released Thick as a Brick, which was one of rock music's first ever albums to consist entirely of a single song. The album was a spoof of bands like Yes and Emerson, Lake & Palmer and the pretentious concept albums of the time. Tull followed this with two more concept albums, A Passion Play and War Child, the latter initially conceived as a motion picture. Yes also put out various concept albums during the 70's, most notably Tales from Topographic Oceans, which would become a defining album of prog rock but whose critical backlash would lead to the genre's decline and the rise of punk rock. The group's keyboardist Rick Wakeman released many concept albums on his own, most notably The Six Wives of Henry VIII and Journey to the Centre of the Earth, which was based on the novel by Jules Verne. Camel's Music Inspired by The Snow Goose (album) ended up an instrumental album due the author of The Snow Goose, Paul Gallico, forbidding the band to quote from the book. Another progressive rock act, Genesis, with Peter Gabriel in the lead, released the concept album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway in 1974, a double disc that told the story of the street punk Rael. Rock artist David Bowie also made an extremely popular concept album, The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders From Mars, about a fictional character, Ziggy Stardust, and his band from Mars. Transsylvania Phoenix, a Romanian prog rock band released in 1975 their album Cantafabule. Hard rock and shock rock band Alice Cooper released a near-continuous stream of concept albums throughout the 1970s, beginning with Killer (1971) and culminating in From the Inside (1978). Country music got into the act with the release of Willie Nelson's Red Headed Stranger in 1975, considered to be the first concept album of the genre. Canadian progressive hard rock trio Rush broke through to popular success with their 1976 release 2112, widely known as a concept album but actually a "half-concept album," since only side one is a single narrative suite; the second side contains unrelated songs. Styx released concept the albums Paradise Theatre and Kilroy Was Here. 1980s Though the progressive rock genre was beginning to decrease its popularity, concept albums had become a medium that continued. The progressive bands that were still around were still having major successes with concept albums. Styx continued to have multiplatinum albums with their 1981 release Paradise Theater (a concept album about a decaying theater in Chicago which became a metaphor for childhood and American culture) and 1983's Kilroy Was Here (a science fiction rock opera about a future where moralists imprison rockers). ELO also provided a futuristic concept album with their 1981 release of Time, and The Alan Parsons Project continued their string of concept albums, the most successful of which were The Turn Of A Friendly Card (1980), Eye In The Sky (1982), and Ammonia Avenue (1984). Blue Öyster Cult released the album Imaginos in 1988, which included new versions of the songs Astronomy and Subhuman (retitled Blue Öyster Cult) and seven new songs, including one on which Joe Satriani played lead guitar. In the 1980s, metal bands released albums like Queensrÿche's Operation: Mindcrime; which tells a story of a young man, Nikki, awoken from a coma suddenly remembering work done as a political assassin, then falling in love with a nun, mixing around with heroin, seeking help, then being ordered to assassinate his love, (the story is very similar to La Femme Nikita) and Iron Maiden's Seventh Son of a Seventh Son; which follows the folklore and myths of a seventh son of a seventh son having mystical powers, such as being clairvoyant, enjoyed major successes in the 80s, as did W.A.S.P.'s The Crimson Idol. 1990s to present With the advent of the World Wide Web and other multimedia technologies, bands such as The Smashing Pumpkins (with the albums Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness & Machina/The Machines of God), and Nine Inch Nails (with the album Year Zero) exploited emergent cultural phenomena such as the alternate reality game to provide additional web-based content beyond that on the album itself. Concept albums among metal bands are often inspired by mythology and fantasy fiction. Examples of that kind are Blind Guardian's Nightfall in Middle-Earth, based on J. R. R. Tolkien's The Silmarillion, and much of the work of Cradle of Filth, including their 2008 album Godspeed on the Devil's Thunder, which is based on the life of a 15th century nobleman, Gilles de Rais, as well as Therion's Secret of the Runes and Manowar's Gods of War, both based on Norse mythology. A very popular recent example of a modern rock concept album is Green Day's 2004 album, American Idiot, “21st Century Breakdown” follows Green Day’s “American Idiot,” the politically charged concept album from 2004 that has sold more than five million copies domestically and an estimated 12 million worldwide., The Morning After ‘American Idiot’, The New York Times which was a number 1 album in 9 countries, including the US and UK, and spawned multiple hit singles. American Idiot follows the transformation of a disillusioned suburban teenager ("Jesus of Suburbia") into a darker, city-living persona ("Saint Jimmy"). Songs on the album tell of Saint Jimmy's exploration of his new self, meeting and falling for a girl (and their eventual breakup), and his reverting to his Jesus of Suburbia persona and returning home to the suburbs. Musical theatre The concept album has also been important in the world of musical theatre. Several major musicals originated as "album musicals," including You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown, Andrew Lloyd Webber's Jesus Christ Superstar and Evita, Chess and The Who's Tommy. As a recording genre, the album musical predates the currently held definition of a concept album, dating back to the era of 78-rpm records with such original works as Gordon Jenkins' Manhattan Tower (1946) and The Letter (1959) starring Judy Garland. The primary difference is that on most concept albums, the performers or bands are singing as themselves, whereas on an album musical, the performers are playing characters in a story. On most Judy Garland albums, for example, Judy sings as herself, but on The Letter'', she is playing a character. See also List of concept albums Rock opera Album musical Program music References External links Musicweb article on concept album be-x-old:Канцэпт-альбом | Concept_album |@lemmatized popular:7 music:11 concept:48 album:88 unify:1 theme:9 instrumental:2 compositional:1 narrative:8 lyrical:2 shuker:1 roy:1 key:1 page:1 isbn:1 commonly:1 tend:1 incorporate:1 preconceived:1 musical:11 idea:3 rather:2 improvise:1 compose:2 studio:1 song:22 contribute:1 single:4 overall:1 unified:3 story:12 contrast:1 practice:1 artist:6 group:6 release:25 consisting:1 number:2 unconnected:1 lyrically:1 otherwise:1 perform:2 world:3 theatre:4 separate:1 distinct:2 form:3 know:5 performer:3 play:8 character:7 type:1 record:11 encompass:1 rock:28 opera:9 tommy:4 wall:3 pink:2 floyd:2 history:1 early:3 example:9 could:1 loosely:2 consider:7 first:12 late:3 singer:2 lee:1 wiley:1 liberty:1 label:1 feature:2 eight:1 four:1 showtune:1 composer:1 day:4 harold:1 arlen:1 cole:1 porter:1 anticipate:2 comprehensive:1 effort:1 verve:1 impresario:1 norman:1 granz:1 ella:1 fitzgerald:1 almost:1 two:5 decade:1 folk:2 include:7 woody:1 guthrie:1 debut:1 dust:1 bowl:1 ballad:3 merle:1 travis:1 box:1 set:2 hill:1 introduce:1 short:1 allmusic:1 review:1 richie:1 unterberger:1 kansa:1 city:4 pianist:1 pete:4 johnson:1 house:2 warmin:1 start:3 alone:1 supposedly:1 new:6 empty:1 join:1 j:3 c:2 higginbotham:1 heard:1 kansas:1 player:1 solo:2 back:2 whole:2 jam:1 session:1 together:3 http:1 book:3 google:1 com:1 pg:1 lpg:1 sig:1 meylt:1 id:1 ots:1 frank:1 sinatra:2 many:4 thematically:3 programmed:1 capitol:1 ten:1 inch:2 young:3 lover:1 swing:1 easy:1 perhaps:2 full:1 wee:1 small:2 hour:1 specifically:1 organize:1 around:4 central:2 mood:1 night:1 isolation:1 ache:1 lose:2 love:3 cover:1 strikingly:1 reinforce:1 however:3 notion:3 really:1 gel:1 point:2 widely:2 imitate:1 aside:1 occasional:1 country:5 marty:1 robbins:1 gunfighter:1 trail:1 ray:4 charles:2 genius:1 hit:2 road:1 reference:2 one:7 united:1 state:2 georgia:1 mind:3 mississippi:1 mud:1 et:1 cetera:1 also:11 year:3 johnny:1 cash:2 ride:2 train:3 chronicle:1 tale:2 americana:1 weave:1 sound:4 track:3 begin:5 tell:5 venture:2 colorful:1 color:1 title:3 issuing:1 throughout:2 whose:2 revolve:1 surf:1 space:1 tv:1 psychedelic:3 issue:1 modern:2 recording:2 depart:1 well:2 r:3 b:1 soul:1 style:2 conceptually:2 several:3 arguably:1 sense:1 present:3 link:2 instigate:1 use:1 format:2 similar:2 fashion:1 beach:1 boys:1 pet:2 masterful:1 portrayal:1 brian:3 wilson:3 time:5 major:4 inspiration:1 paul:2 mccartney:2 although:1 emotional:1 content:3 writer:1 tony:1 asher:1 say:1 continuously:1 necessarily:1 intend:2 later:1 work:5 smile:1 scrap:1 completion:2 revive:1 mother:1 invention:1 sardonic:1 farce:1 america:1 freak:1 face:3 kink:2 collection:2 davy:2 idiosyncratic:1 study:1 ordinary:1 people:1 orient:1 attract:1 huge:1 commercial:5 audience:1 change:1 beatles:1 celebrate:1 sgt:4 pepper:4 lonely:1 hearts:1 club:1 band:15 june:1 come:1 forefront:1 critical:2 prototype:1 classic:1 pop:2 genre:7 sometimes:1 forget:1 phrase:1 enter:1 lexicon:1 term:2 become:4 imbue:1 artistic:1 purpose:1 inherently:1 creative:1 worthy:1 attention:1 mere:1 perception:1 course:1 relate:2 intent:1 specific:1 fact:1 critic:2 since:2 original:2 reception:1 definition:2 stage:1 making:1 attempt:1 material:1 firstly:1 age:2 obscure:1 radio:4 life:4 ex:1 army:1 bandsman:1 shortcoming:1 final:2 production:1 debate:1 exists:1 extent:1 qualifies:1 true:1 doubt:1 reputation:1 help:2 inspire:4 produce:1 public:2 lennon:1 distance:1 tag:1 apply:1 sell:2 follow:8 pirate:2 broadcast:1 within:1 joke:1 actual:1 jingle:1 recently:1 outlaw:1 station:1 wonderful:1 london:1 intersperse:1 range:1 hard:3 culminate:2 mini:1 rael:2 side:5 ogden:1 nut:1 go:2 flake:1 series:2 albeit:1 nonsense:1 narration:1 stanley:1 unwin:1 simon:2 garfunkel:1 bookend:1 child:2 old:2 tie:1 bookends:1 last:1 october:1 british:3 nirvana:1 simopath:1 subtitle:1 science:2 fiction:3 pantomime:1 moderate:1 success:6 f:1 sorrow:2 december:1 pretty:1 thing:1 generally:1 among:2 creatively:1 successful:2 part:2 overarch:1 main:1 sebastian:1 april:1 townshend:1 acclaimed:1 disc:2 still:3 unusual:1 take:1 base:7 much:2 high:1 appreciation:1 era:2 cycle:1 enjoy:1 exploration:2 project:2 lifehouse:1 abandon:1 quadrophenia:1 five:2 month:1 another:2 arthur:1 decline:2 fall:4 empire:1 september:1 write:1 originally:1 conceive:3 score:1 propose:1 never:1 realise:1 bbc:1 television:1 drama:1 lola:1 versus:1 powerman:1 moneygoround:1 muswell:1 hillbilly:1 preservation:2 act:4 soap:1 schoolboys:1 disgrace:1 de:2 rigueur:1 progressive:6 hence:1 name:1 notably:3 recast:1 guise:1 quirky:1 mega:1 dark:1 moon:1 wish:1 animal:1 less:1 cut:1 roger:2 water:2 behind:1 storyline:1 share:1 conceptual:1 melodic:1 bassist:1 pro:1 con:1 hitchhiking:1 roughly:1 glenn:1 povey:1 richard:1 ashton:1 interview:1 gilmour:1 brain:1 damage:1 february:1 jethro:1 tull:2 thick:1 brick:1 ever:1 albums:1 consist:1 entirely:1 spoof:1 like:2 yes:2 emerson:1 lake:1 palmer:1 pretentious:1 passion:1 war:2 latter:1 initially:1 motion:1 picture:1 put:1 various:1 topographic:1 ocean:1 would:2 defining:1 prog:2 backlash:1 lead:3 rise:2 punk:2 keyboardist:1 rick:1 wakeman:1 six:1 wife:1 henry:1 viii:1 journey:1 centre:1 earth:2 novel:1 jules:1 verne:1 camel:1 snow:2 goose:2 end:1 due:1 author:1 gallico:1 forbid:1 quote:1 genesis:1 peter:1 gabriel:1 lamb:1 lie:1 broadway:1 double:1 street:1 david:1 bowie:1 make:1 extremely:1 ziggy:2 stardust:2 spider:1 mar:2 fictional:1 transsylvania:1 phoenix:1 romanian:1 cantafabule:1 shock:1 alice:1 cooper:1 near:1 continuous:1 stream:1 killer:1 inside:1 get:1 willie:1 nelson:1 red:1 headed:1 stranger:1 canadian:1 trio:1 rush:1 break:1 actually:1 half:1 suite:1 second:1 contains:1 unrelated:1 styx:2 paradise:2 kilroy:2 though:1 decrease:1 popularity:1 medium:1 continue:3 multiplatinum:1 theater:2 decaying:1 chicago:1 metaphor:1 childhood:1 american:5 culture:1 future:1 moralist:1 imprison:1 rocker:1 elo:1 provide:2 futuristic:1 alan:1 parson:1 string:1 turn:1 friendly:1 card:1 eye:1 sky:1 ammonia:1 avenue:1 blue:2 öyster:2 cult:2 imaginos:1 version:1 astronomy:1 subhuman:1 retitled:1 seven:1 joe:1 satriani:1 guitar:1 metal:2 queensrÿche:1 operation:1 mindcrime:1 man:2 nikki:1 awake:1 coma:1 suddenly:1 remember:1 political:1 assassin:1 nun:1 mix:1 heroin:1 seek:1 order:1 assassinate:1 la:1 femme:1 nikita:1 iron:1 maiden:1 seventh:4 son:4 folklore:1 myth:1 mystical:1 power:1 clairvoyant:1 enjoyed:1 w:1 p:1 crimson:1 idol:1 advent:1 wide:1 web:2 multimedia:1 technology:1 smashing:1 pumpkin:1 mellon:1 collie:1 infinite:1 sadness:1 machina:1 machine:1 god:2 nine:1 nail:1 zero:1 exploit:1 emergent:1 cultural:1 phenomenon:1 alternate:1 reality:1 game:1 additional:1 beyond:1 often:1 mythology:2 fantasy:1 kind:1 blind:1 guardian:1 nightfall:1 middle:1 tolkien:1 silmarillion:1 cradle:1 filth:1 godspeed:1 devil:1 thunder:1 century:2 nobleman:1 gilles:1 rais:1 therion:1 secret:1 rune:1 manowar:1 norse:1 recent:1 green:2 idiot:4 breakdown:1 politically:1 charge:1 million:2 copy:1 domestically:1 estimate:1 worldwide:1 morning:1 york:1 u:1 uk:1 spawn:1 multiple:1 transformation:1 disillusioned:1 suburban:1 teenager:1 jesus:3 suburbia:2 darker:1 living:1 persona:2 saint:2 jimmy:2 self:1 meeting:1 girl:1 eventual:1 breakup:1 reverting:1 return:1 home:1 suburb:1 important:1 originate:1 good:1 charlie:1 brown:1 andrew:1 lloyd:1 webber:1 christ:1 superstar:1 evita:1 chess:1 predate:1 currently:1 hold:1 date:1 rpm:1 gordon:1 jenkins:1 manhattan:1 tower:1 letter:2 star:1 judy:3 garland:2 primary:1 difference:1 sing:1 whereas:1 sings:1 see:1 list:1 program:1 external:1 musicweb:1 article:1 x:1 канцэпт:1 альбом:1 |@bigram pink_floyd:2 harold_arlen:1 cole_porter:1 ella_fitzgerald:1 woody_guthrie:1 pg_lpg:1 frank_sinatra:1 et_cetera:1 johnny_cash:1 revolve_around:1 beach_boys:1 paul_mccartney:1 sgt_pepper:4 pepper_lonely:1 lonely_hearts:1 hearts_club:1 lennon_mccartney:1 simon_garfunkel:1 science_fiction:2 pete_townshend:1 soap_opera:1 de_rigueur:1 pro_con:1 jethro_tull:1 motion_picture:1 punk_rock:1 rick_wakeman:1 henry_viii:1 jules_verne:1 david_bowie:1 fall_ziggy:1 ziggy_stardust:2 stardust_spider:1 alice_cooper:1 willie_nelson:1 alan_parson:1 blue_öyster:2 öyster_cult:2 joe_satriani:1 la_femme:1 iron_maiden:1 smashing_pumpkin:1 inch_nail:1 cradle_filth:1 norse_mythology:1 lloyd_webber:1 jesus_christ:1 judy_garland:2 external_link:1 |
7,441 | Distillation | Laboratory display of distillation: 1: A heating device 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed control 13: Stirrer/heat plate 14: Heating (Oil/sand) bath 15: Stirring means e.g. magnetic follower (shown), anti-bumping granules or mechanical stirrer 16: Cooling bath. Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction. Commercially, distillation has a number of uses. It is used to separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport, power generation and heating. Water is distilled to remove impurities, such as salt from seawater. Air is distilled to separate its components—notably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon—for industrial use. Distillation of fermented solutions has been used since ancient times to produce distilled beverages with a higher alcohol content. The premises where distillation is carried out, especially distillation of alcohol, are known as a distillery. History Distillation by alembic Early types of distillation were known to the Babylonians in Mesopotamia (in what is now Iraq) from at least the 2nd millennium BC. Martin Levey (1956). "Babylonian Chemistry: A Study of Arabic and Second Millennium B.C. Perfumery", Osiris 12, p. 376-389. Archaeological excavations in northwest Pakistan have yielded evidence that the distillation of alcohol was known in Pakistan since 500 BC, but only became common between 150 BC - 350 AD. Allchin 1979 Distillation was later known to Greek alchemists from the 1st century AD, and the later development of large-scale distillation apparatus occurred in response to demands for spirits. According to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of "destillatio per descensum" occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician from the 5th century. Distillation - LoveToKnow 1911 Hypatia of Alexandria is credited with having invented an early distillation apparatus, Biology, Joan Solomon, Pat O'Brien, Peter Horsfall, Nelson Thornes, p.41 and the first clear description of early apparatus for distillation is given by Zosimos of Panopolis in the fourth century. Primitive tribes of India used a method of distillation for producing Mahuda liquor. This crude and ancient method is not very effective. Forbes 1970: 53-54 The invention of highly effective "pure distillation" is credited to Arabic and Persian chemists in the Middle East from the 8th century. They produced distillation processes to isolate and purify chemical substances for industrial purposes such as isolating natural esters (perfumes) and producing pure alcohol. Robert Briffault (1938), The Making of Humanity, p. 195: The first among them was Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), in the 8th century, who is credited with the invention of numerous chemical apparatus and processes that are still in use today. In particular, his alembic was the first still with retorts which could fully purify chemicals, a precursor to the pot still, and its design has served as inspiration for modern micro-scale distillation apparatus such as the Hickman stillhead. Microscale Laboratory Techniques - Distillation from McMaster University The isolation of ethanol (alcohol) as a pure compound through distillation was first achieved by the Arab chemist Al-Kindi (Alkindus). Petroleum was first distilled by the Persian alchemist Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) in the 9th century, for producing kerosene, while steam distillation was invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century, for producing essential oils. As the works of Middle Eastern scribes made their way to India and became a part of Indian alchemy, several texts dedicated to distillation made their way to Indian libraries. Among these was a treatise written by a scholar from Bagdad in 1034 titled Ainu-s-Sana'ah wa' Auna-s-Sana'ah. Forbes 1970: 42 Scholar Al-Jawbari travelled to India. Forbes 1970: 45 By the time of the writing of the Ain-e-Akbari, the process of distillation was well known in India. Forbes 1970: 54 Distillation was introduced to medieval Europe through Latin translations of Arabic chemical treatises in the 12th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art of Distillation) Magnum Opus Hermetic Sourceworks Series the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major English compendium of practice, though it has been claimed Industrial Engineering Chemistry (1936) page 677 that much of it derives from Braunschweig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation. Distillation by retort As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations. Both alembics and retorts are forms of glassware with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle which acted as air-cooled condensers to condense the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were invented. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour. Sealing Technique, accessed 16 November 2006. These alembics often featured a cooling system around the beak, using cold water for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called pot stills. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the elaboration of some fine alcohols such as cognac, Scotch whisky, tequila and some vodkas. Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by bootleggers in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for the domestic production Traditional Alembic Pot Still, accessed 16 November 2006. of flower water or essential oils. Early forms of distillation were batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists were reported to carry out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound D. F. Othmer (1982) Distillation - Some Steps in its Development, in W. F. Furter (ed) A Century of Chemical Engineering ISBN 0-306-40895-3 . In the early 19th century the basics of modern techniques including pre-heating and reflux were developed, particularly by the French, then in 1830 a British Patent was issued to Aeneas Coffey for a whiskey distillation column A. Coffey British Patent 5974, 5 August 1830 , which worked continuously and may be regarded as the archetype of modern petrochemical units. In 1877, Ernest Solvay was granted a U.S. Patent for a tray column for ammonia distillation US Patent 198699 Improvement in the Ammonia-Soda Manufacture and the same and subsequent years saw developments of this theme for oil and spirits. With the emergence of chemical engineering as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied. The developing petroleum industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method and the Fenske equation. The availability of powerful computers has also allowed direct computer simulation of distillation columns. Applications of distillation The application of distillation can roughly be divided in four groups: laboratory scale, industrial distillation, distillation of herbs for perfumery and medicinals (herbal distillate), and food processing. The latter two are distinct from the former two in that the distillation is not used as a true purification method but rather to transfer all volatiles from the source materials to the distillate. The main difference between laboratory scale distillation and industrial distillation is that laboratory scale distillation is often performed batch-wise, whereas industrial distillation often occurs continuously. In batch distillation, the composition of the source material, the vapors of the distilling compounds and the distillate change during the distillation. In batch distillation, a still is charged (supplied) with a batch of feed mixture, which is then separated into its component fractions which are collected sequentially from most volatile to less volatile, with the bottoms (remaining least or non-volatile fraction) removed at the end. The still can then be recharged and the process repeated. In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapors, and distillate are kept at a constant composition by carefully replenishing the source material and removing fractions from both vapor and liquid in the system. This results in a better control of the separation process. Idealized distillation model The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure in the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without being crushed. A special case is the normal boiling point, where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient atmospheric pressure. It is a common misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure and the vapors of each component will collect separately and purely. This, however, does not occur even in an idealized system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by Raoult's law and Dalton's law, and assume that vapor-liquid equilibria are attained. Raoult's law assumes that a component contributes to the total vapor pressure of the mixture in proportion to its percentage of the mixture and its vapor pressure when pure, or succinctly: partial pressure equals mole fraction multiplied by vapor pressure when pure. If one component changes another component's vapor pressure, or if the volatility of a component is dependent on its percentage in the mixture, the law will fail. Dalton's law states that the total vapor pressure is the sum of the vapor pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, boiling occurs and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. Note that a mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure, when the components are mutually soluble. An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and thus are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily evaporate also, albeit being less concentrated in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch evaporates, which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more lights and boils at lower temperatures. The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as benzene and toluene. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an azeotrope, which is a composition with a boiling point higher or lower than the boiling point of each separate liquid. Virtually all liquids, when mixed and heated, will display azeotropic behaviour. Although there are computational methods that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate vapor-liquid equilibrium data is by measurement. It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero partial pressure. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be applied. When a binary mixture is evaporated and the other component, e.g. a salt, has zero partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler and is called evaporation in engineering. Batch distillation A batch still showing the separation of A and B. Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances A and B (with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point) in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening figure) until the mixture is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid which contains a mixture of A and B. The ratio between A and B in the vapor will be different from the ratio in the liquid: the ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor will be enriched in the more volatile compound, A (due to Raoult's Law, see above). The vapor goes through the condenser and is removed from the system. This in turn means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid is now different from the initial ratio (i.e. more enriched in B than the starting liquid). The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which in turn results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase). This results in a slowly changing ratio A : B in the distillate. If the difference in vapor pressure between the two components A and B is large (generally expressed as the difference in boiling points), the mixture in the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B. Continuous distillation Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams as time passes during the operation. Continuous distillation produces at least two output fractions, including at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor. Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that concentrations should not change over time. Continuous distillation can be run at a steady state for an arbitrary amount of time. Given a feed of in a specified composition, the main variables that affect the purity of products in continuous distillation are the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages (practically, the number of trays or the height of packing). Reflux is a flow from the condenser back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor-liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio. A column with a high reflux ratio may have fewer stages, but it refluxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with a large holdup. Conversely, a column with a low reflux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a taller column. Continuous distillation requires building and configuring dedicated equipment. The resulting high investment cost restricts its use to the large scale. General improvements Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a fractionating column on top of the distillation flask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, all with their own vapor-liquid equilibrium. There are differences between laboratory-scale and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing efficacy) include: Air condenser Vigreux column (usually laboratory scale only) Packed column (packed with glass beads, metal pieces, or other chemically inert material) Spinning band distillation system Laboratory scale distillation Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a still, consists at a minimum of a reboiler or pot in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated vapour is cooled back to the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also distillation types). Simple distillation In simple distillation, all the hot vapors produced are immediately channeled into a condenser which cools and condenses the vapors. Therefore, the distillate will not be pure - its composition will be identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure, and can be computed from Raoult's law. As a result, simple distillation is usually used only to separate liquids whose boiling points differ greatly (rule of thumb is 25 °C), ST07 Separation of liquid - liquid mixtures (solutions), DIDAC by IUPAC or to separate liquids from involatile solids or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components are usually sufficiently different that Raoult's law may be neglected due to the insignificant contribution of the less volatile component. In this case, the distillate may be sufficiently pure for its intended purpose. Fractional distillation For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used in order to separate the components well by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification . As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the fractionating column. As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors are determined once again by Raoult's law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a theoretical plate) will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component. Fractional Distillation In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; theoretical plate is thus a concept rather than an accurate description. More theoretical plates lead to better separations. A spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of Teflon or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of theoretical plates. Spinning Band Distillation at B/R Instrument Corporation (accessed 8 September 2006) Steam distillation Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive. This process involves using bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water. Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products; an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate. The essential oils are often used in perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing and skin care. Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 °C. Under a vacuum, it distills off into the receiver at only 70 °C. Perkin Triangle Distillation Setup 1: Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Still pot 3: Fractionating column 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Teflon tap 1 6: Cold finger 7: Cooling water out 8: Cooling water in 9: Teflon tap 2 10: Vacuum/gas inlet 11: Teflon tap 3 12: Still receiver Vacuum distillation Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator. This technique is also very useful for compounds which boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmospheric pressure and which would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric pressure. Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 torr. Vogel's 5th ed. In fact, 0.01 torr is rarefied medium vacuum or only one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where the mean free path of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a clear line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils. Air-sensitive vacuum distillation Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as exemplified above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete. However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this a "pig" adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used. The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or Teflon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected. Short path distillation Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold finger), to minimize the distillation path; 1: Still pot with stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Cold finger - bent to direct condensate 3: Cooling water out 4: cooling water in 5: Vacuum/gas inlet 6: Distillate flask/Distillate. Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate traveling a short distance, often only a few centimeters. A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate traveling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at this reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and that the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. The Kugelrohr is a kind of a short path distillation apparatus. Other types The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup. Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane. Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture. Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device. This process is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage. Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible. The unit process of evaporation may also be called "distillation": In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump. In a kugelrohr a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump. Other uses: Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name - wood alcohol. Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of evaporation. It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respectively. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation of ferment concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them like distillation. Azeotropic distillation Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail nonideal mixtures, where Raoult's law does not hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling azeotrope which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not effect separation. For example, ethyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope of 95.6% at 78.1 °C. If the azeotrope is not considered sufficiently pure for use, there exist some techniques to break the azeotrope to give a pure distillate. This set of techniques are known as azeotropic distillation. Some techniques achieve this by "jumping" over the azeotropic composition (by adding an additional component to create a new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure). Others work by chemically or physically removing or sequestering the impurity. For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a drying agent or a (desiccant such as potassium carbonate) can be added to convert the soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization. Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose as well. Immiscible liquids, such as water and toluene, easily form azeotropes. Commonly, these azeotropes are referred to as a low boiling azeotrope because the boiling point of the azeotrope is lower than the boiling point of either pure component. The temperature and composition of the azeotrope is easily predicted from the vapor pressure of the pure components, without use of Raoult's law. The azeotrope is easily broken in a distillation set-up by using a liquid-liquid separator ( a decanter ) to separate the two liquid layers that are condensed overhead. Only one of the two liquid layers is refluxed to the distillation set-up. High boiling azeotropes, such as a 20 weight percent mixture of hydrochloric acid in water, also exist. As implied by the name, the boiling point of the azeotrope is greater than the boiling point of either pure component. To break azeotropic distillations and cross distillation boundaries, such as in the DeRosier Problem, it is necessary to increase the composition of the light key in the distillate. Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overlap to form a band. By exposing an azeotrope to a vacuum or positive pressure, it's possible to bias the boiling point of one component away from the other by exploiting the differing vapour pressure curves of each; the curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to be remain identical further along the pressure axis either side of the azeotropic point. When the bias is great enough, the two boiling points no longer overlap and so the azeotropic band disappears. This method can remove the need to add other chemicals to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks. Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates requires that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapours being lost to the vacuum source. Increased cooling demands will often require additional energy and possibly new equipment or a change of coolant. Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to the higher temperatures required to effect boiling. A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change in one direction, either positive or negative. Pressure-swing Distillation Pressure-swing distillation is essentially the same as the unidirectional distillation used to break azeotropic mixtures, but here both positive and negative pressures may be employed. This has an important impact on the selectivity of the distillation and allows a chemist to optimize a process such that fewer extremes of pressure and temperature are required and less energy is consumed. This is particularly important in commercial applications. Pressure-swing distillation is employed during the industrial purification of ethyl acetate after its catalytic synthesis from ethanol. Industrial distillation Typical industrial distillation towers Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Industrial distillation is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to 16 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 90 meters or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or products having different boiling points or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms. Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower Large-scale industrial towers use reflux to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficacy of the distillation tower. The more reflux is provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better is the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer theoretical plates are required. Such industrial fractionating towers are also used in air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and high purity argon. Distillation of chlorosilanes also enables the production of high-purity silicon for use as a semiconductor. Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble caps Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method or the Fenske equation can be used. For a multi-component feed, simulation models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor-liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient equilibrium stage. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor-liquid equilibrium stages. In industrial uses, sometimes a packing material is used in the column instead of trays, especially when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under vacuum. Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column Energy Institute website page This packing material can either be random dumped packing (1-3" wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor-liquid equilibrium, the vapor-liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical stages" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance. Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The height equivalent of a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references. Random Packing, Vapor and Liquid Distribution: Liquid and gas distribution in commercial packed towers, Moore, F., Rukovena, F., Chemical Plants & Processing, Edition Europe, August 1987, p. 11-15 Structured Packing, Liquid Distribution: A new method to assess liquid distributor quality, Spiegel, L., Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006), p. 1011-1017 Considerable work as been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI). Packed Tower Distributors: Commercial Scale Experiments That Provide Insight on Packed Tower Distributors, Kunesh, J. G., Lahm, L., Yanagi, T., Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 1987, vol. 26, p. 1845-1850 FRI (click on "Available Materials" and scroll to "Staff Publications") Distillation in food processing Distilled beverages Carbohydrate-containing plant materials are allowed to ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage. See also Zymurgy References Further reading Needham, Joseph (1954). Science and Civilisation in China (vol. 4) Cambridge University Press: ISBN 052108573X Allchin, F. R. (Mar., 1979). India: The Ancient Home of Distillation?. Man'', New Series, Vol. 14, No. 1 , pp. 55–63. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Gallery Chemistry on its beginnings used retorts as laboratory equipment exclusively for distillation processes. A simple set-up to distill dry and oxygen-free toluene.Diagram of an industrial-scale vacuum distillation column as commonly used in oil refineries A rotary evaporator is able to distill solvents more quickly at lower temperatures through the use of a vacuum. Distillation using semi-microscale apparatus. The jointless design eliminates the need to fit pieces together. The pear-shaped flask allows the last drop of residue to be removed, compared with a similarly-sized round-bottom flask The small holdup volume prevents losses. A pig is used to channel the various distillates into three receiving flasks. If necessary the distillation can be carried out under vacuum using the vacuum adapter at the pig. External links Alcohol distillation Case Study: Petroleum Distillation | Distillation |@lemmatized laboratory:13 display:2 distillation:171 heating:5 device:4 still:22 pot:11 head:1 thermometer:2 boil:37 point:33 temperature:17 condenser:12 cooling:9 water:18 distillate:23 receive:3 flask:6 vacuum:32 gas:10 inlet:3 receiver:4 heat:13 control:3 stirrer:5 speed:1 plate:11 oil:12 sand:1 bath:2 stirring:1 mean:6 e:5 g:3 magnetic:1 follower:1 show:5 anti:3 bumping:3 granule:3 mechanical:1 method:17 separate:12 mixture:36 base:1 difference:5 volatility:3 boiling:20 liquid:67 unit:4 operation:6 physical:1 separation:20 process:25 chemical:13 reaction:6 commercially:1 number:10 us:4 use:54 crude:3 fraction:15 specific:2 transport:2 power:2 generation:1 distil:10 remove:13 impurity:2 salt:2 seawater:1 air:7 component:44 notably:1 oxygen:3 nitrogen:3 argon:3 industrial:23 fermented:1 solution:9 since:2 ancient:3 time:5 produce:11 distilled:1 beverage:3 high:21 alcohol:11 content:2 premise:1 carry:3 especially:2 know:9 distillery:1 history:1 alembic:6 early:8 type:3 babylonian:2 mesopotamia:1 iraq:1 least:5 millennium:2 bc:3 martin:1 levey:1 chemistry:4 study:2 arabic:3 second:2 b:14 c:6 perfumery:3 osiris:1 p:6 archaeological:1 excavation:1 northwest:1 pakistan:2 yield:3 evidence:1 become:4 common:3 ad:2 allchin:2 later:2 greek:2 alchemist:3 century:12 late:1 development:4 large:12 scale:20 apparatus:13 occur:7 response:1 demand:2 spirit:3 accord:1 k:1 hoffmann:1 mention:1 destillatio:1 per:1 descensum:1 writing:2 aetius:1 physician:1 lovetoknow:1 hypatia:1 alexandria:1 credit:3 invent:3 biology:1 joan:1 solomon:1 pat:1 brien:1 peter:1 horsfall:1 nelson:1 thornes:1 first:9 clear:2 description:2 give:19 zosimos:1 panopolis:1 fourth:1 primitive:1 tribe:1 india:5 mahuda:1 liquor:2 effective:2 forbes:4 invention:2 highly:2 pure:16 persian:2 chemist:4 middle:2 east:1 isolate:4 purify:6 substance:4 purpose:4 natural:2 ester:2 perfume:1 robert:1 briffault:1 making:1 humanity:1 among:2 jabir:1 ibn:2 hayyan:1 geber:1 numerous:1 today:2 particular:1 retort:6 could:2 fully:1 precursor:1 design:6 serve:1 inspiration:1 modern:3 micro:1 hickman:1 stillhead:1 microscale:2 technique:12 mcmaster:1 university:2 isolation:1 ethanol:8 compound:20 achieve:5 arab:1 al:2 kindi:1 alkindus:1 petroleum:4 muhammad:1 zakarīya:1 rāzi:1 rhazes:1 kerosene:1 steam:6 avicenna:1 essential:4 work:6 eastern:1 scribe:1 make:8 way:3 part:2 indian:2 alchemy:2 several:2 text:1 dedicate:3 library:1 treatise:2 write:1 scholar:2 bagdad:1 title:1 ainu:1 sana:2 ah:2 wa:1 auna:1 jawbari:1 travel:4 akbari:1 well:6 introduce:2 medieval:1 europe:2 latin:1 translation:1 german:1 hieronymus:1 braunschweig:2 publish:2 liber:1 de:1 arte:1 destillandi:1 book:2 art:2 magnum:1 opus:1 hermetic:1 sourceworks:1 series:3 solely:1 subject:1 follow:1 much:2 expand:1 version:1 john:1 french:2 major:1 english:1 compendium:1 practice:1 though:1 claim:1 engineering:5 page:2 derive:1 include:7 diagram:4 people:1 rather:7 bench:1 evolve:1 science:2 vessel:4 call:7 form:10 glassware:2 long:2 neck:1 side:3 downward:2 angle:1 act:1 cool:6 condense:7 let:1 drip:1 collection:2 copper:1 riveted:1 joint:1 often:11 keep:2 tight:1 various:5 instance:2 dough:1 rye:1 flour:1 seal:1 access:2 november:2 feature:1 system:10 around:1 beak:1 cold:6 condensation:5 efficient:3 largely:1 supplant:1 however:5 widely:2 elaboration:1 fine:1 cognac:1 scotch:1 whisky:1 tequila:1 vodka:1 material:16 wood:3 clay:1 stainless:1 steel:1 also:13 bootlegger:1 country:1 small:4 sell:1 domestic:1 production:3 traditional:2 flower:2 batch:16 one:14 vaporization:5 purity:5 improve:3 condensate:6 great:5 volume:2 simply:1 repeat:4 report:1 many:3 order:3 obtain:2 f:5 othmer:1 step:2 w:1 furter:1 ed:2 isbn:2 basic:1 pre:1 reflux:13 develop:2 particularly:2 british:2 patent:4 issue:1 aeneas:1 coffey:2 whiskey:2 column:32 august:2 continuously:4 may:7 regard:1 archetype:1 petrochemical:2 ernest:1 solvay:1 grant:1 u:2 tray:11 ammonia:2 improvement:2 soda:1 manufacture:1 subsequent:1 year:1 saw:1 theme:1 emergence:1 discipline:1 end:3 scientific:1 empirical:1 apply:3 industry:1 provide:6 impetus:1 accurate:4 mccabe:2 thiele:2 fenske:2 equation:2 availability:1 powerful:1 computer:2 allow:8 direct:2 simulation:2 application:6 roughly:1 divide:1 four:1 group:1 herb:2 medicinals:1 herbal:2 food:3 processing:6 latter:1 two:12 distinct:1 former:1 true:1 purification:4 transfer:2 volatile:14 source:8 main:3 perform:4 wise:1 whereas:1 composition:15 vapor:56 change:10 charge:2 supply:1 feed:9 collect:8 sequentially:1 less:7 bottom:5 remain:5 non:3 recharge:1 continuous:13 constant:2 carefully:1 replenish:1 result:11 good:6 idealize:1 model:5 pressure:54 equal:3 enable:2 bubble:3 without:5 crush:1 special:1 case:7 normal:1 ambient:1 atmospheric:3 misconception:1 correspond:1 separately:3 purely:1 even:2 idealized:3 essentially:2 govern:2 raoult:11 law:15 dalton:3 assume:2 equilibrium:12 attain:1 contribute:1 total:5 proportion:3 percentage:4 succinctly:1 partial:9 mole:1 multiply:1 another:3 dependent:1 fail:1 state:5 sum:1 individual:1 multi:2 rise:8 thus:6 cause:2 reach:1 surround:1 occurs:1 turn:3 throughout:1 bulk:2 note:1 mutually:1 soluble:2 implication:1 light:5 never:1 cleanly:1 concentrate:3 heavy:2 necessarily:1 evaporate:3 albeit:1 indeed:1 fractionation:5 succeed:1 vary:2 evaporates:1 higher:2 contain:5 low:13 chemically:3 similar:1 benzene:1 toluene:3 severe:1 deviation:1 observe:1 famously:1 together:2 azeotrope:16 virtually:1 mixed:1 azeotropic:10 behaviour:1 although:1 computational:1 estimate:1 behavior:1 arbitrary:2 data:1 measurement:1 possible:3 completely:1 would:3 require:11 zero:2 ultra:1 product:14 goal:1 far:2 must:5 binary:2 practical:1 simple:8 evaporation:8 ideal:2 setup:2 depict:1 opening:1 figure:1 ratio:15 different:6 determine:2 original:1 prepare:2 enrich:3 due:3 see:3 go:1 initial:1 enriched:2 start:2 richer:1 phase:3 continue:2 increase:8 slowly:1 generally:2 express:1 beginning:2 ongoing:1 interruption:1 output:2 stream:2 pass:3 capture:2 always:1 residue:3 condensed:2 differs:1 respect:2 concentration:1 run:3 steady:2 amount:2 specified:1 variable:1 affect:3 theoretical:12 stage:9 practically:1 height:3 pack:10 flow:1 back:3 generate:3 recycle:1 refluxes:1 wide:2 holdup:2 conversely:1 taller:1 building:1 configuring:1 equipment:4 investment:1 cost:1 restrict:1 general:1 fractionating:7 top:2 surface:8 area:4 come:1 contact:3 help:1 consist:3 subsystem:1 dish:1 principle:1 example:5 fractionate:1 efficacy:2 vigreux:1 usually:6 glass:3 bead:1 metal:3 piece:2 inert:4 spin:4 band:6 almost:1 exclusively:2 sometimes:2 refer:5 minimum:1 reboiler:1 vapour:3 concentrated:1 exist:3 hot:4 immediately:1 channel:2 therefore:3 identical:2 compute:2 whose:1 differ:2 greatly:1 rule:1 thumb:1 didac:1 iupac:1 involatile:1 solid:2 sufficiently:4 neglect:1 insignificant:1 contribution:1 intend:1 fractional:5 close:2 take:2 consideration:1 cycle:3 within:1 packed:11 successive:1 rectification:1 wall:1 vaporize:3 fresh:2 reality:1 exactly:1 position:1 concept:1 lead:1 teflon:5 force:1 descend:1 r:2 instrument:1 corporation:1 accessed:1 september:1 like:2 sensitive:4 involve:4 heated:1 raw:1 target:1 accordance:1 layer:4 aromatic:1 watery:2 aromatherapy:2 skin:1 care:1 dimethyl:1 sulfoxide:1 distill:4 perkin:3 triangle:3 bar:2 tap:6 finger:3 lower:2 instead:4 rest:2 commence:1 commonly:4 find:2 rotary:3 evaporator:2 useful:2 beyond:2 decomposition:2 decompose:1 attempt:1 molecular:4 torr:2 vogel:1 fact:1 rarefied:1 medium:1 magnitude:1 free:2 path:8 molecule:1 comparable:1 size:2 gaseous:1 longer:4 exert:1 significant:1 consequently:1 rate:1 depend:2 continuum:1 assumption:1 fluid:3 dynamic:3 mass:2 short:8 necessary:3 typically:5 suspend:1 cover:1 film:1 next:1 line:1 sight:1 industrially:1 exemplify:1 whereby:1 replace:2 complete:2 satisfactory:1 desire:1 reduced:3 pig:3 adaptor:1 add:5 via:2 body:1 either:6 sample:4 stopper:1 evacuate:1 link:2 vertical:2 minimize:1 bent:1 distance:2 centimeter:2 classic:1 bulb:1 need:5 chamber:1 unstable:1 advantage:2 considerably:1 standard:2 kugelrohr:2 kind:1 reactive:1 significantly:1 reactant:2 v:1 downtime:1 workup:1 pervaporation:1 porous:1 membrane:2 extractive:2 define:1 presence:1 miscible:2 relatively:1 solvent:3 flash:1 saturate:1 undergo:1 reduction:1 throttling:2 valve:1 equivalent:3 codistillation:1 aspirator:1 pump:2 combination:1 oven:2 place:2 portion:2 outside:1 rotate:1 normally:1 dry:2 destructive:2 despite:1 name:3 truly:2 pyrolysis:2 reduce:1 atmosphere:1 methanol:1 root:1 freeze:3 analogous:1 recrystallization:1 mother:1 ice:2 beer:1 wine:1 sugar:1 respectively:1 unlike:2 ferment:2 poisonous:1 congener:1 interaction:2 create:2 property:1 unique:1 entail:1 nonideal:1 hold:1 behave:1 single:1 range:4 effect:2 ethyl:2 consider:1 break:5 set:4 jumping:1 additional:2 new:4 others:1 physically:1 sequester:1 drying:1 agent:1 desiccant:1 potassium:1 carbonate:1 convert:1 insoluble:1 crystallization:1 sieve:1 immiscible:1 easily:3 azeotropes:3 predict:1 separator:1 decanter:1 overhead:2 refluxed:1 weight:1 percent:1 hydrochloric:1 acid:1 imply:1 cross:1 boundary:1 derosier:1 problem:3 key:1 unidirectional:3 manipulation:1 overlap:3 expose:1 positive:4 bias:2 away:1 exploit:1 curve:3 unlikely:1 along:1 axis:1 enough:1 disappear:1 potential:1 drawback:1 negative:3 cooler:1 prevent:2 lose:1 energy:4 possibly:1 coolant:1 alternatively:2 pressurization:1 chance:1 rely:1 direction:1 swing:3 employ:2 important:2 impact:1 selectivity:1 optimize:1 extreme:1 consume:1 commercial:3 acetate:1 catalytic:1 synthesis:1 typical:3 tower:19 refinery:2 plant:4 cylindrical:1 diameter:1 meter:3 diverse:1 outlet:1 interval:1 withdrawal:1 exit:2 refers:1 return:1 upper:1 schematic:1 inside:1 downflowing:1 upflowing:1 thereby:1 desired:2 chlorosilanes:1 silicon:1 semiconductor:1 section:1 detail:1 cap:1 analytical:1 moreover:1 efficiency:3 hence:1 packing:10 drop:2 across:3 operate:1 institute:2 website:1 random:3 dump:1 raschig:1 ring:1 structured:2 sheet:1 tend:1 wet:1 wetted:1 conventional:1 every:1 represent:1 denote:1 differently:1 shaped:1 void:1 space:1 factor:2 performance:2 addition:1 shape:2 structure:1 distribution:6 enter:4 bed:6 calculate:1 evenly:2 distribute:2 superficial:1 correct:1 required:1 appear:1 properly:1 hetp:1 expect:1 mal:2 frequently:1 distributor:5 critical:1 maximum:1 evaluate:1 effectiveness:1 reference:2 moore:1 rukovena:1 edition:1 assess:1 quality:1 spiegel:1 l:2 considerable:1 topic:1 research:1 inc:1 fri:2 experiment:1 insight:1 kunesh:1 j:1 lahm:1 yanagi:1 ind:1 eng:1 chem:1 vol:3 click:1 available:1 scroll:1 staff:1 publication:1 carbohydrate:1 containing:1 dilute:2 rum:1 account:1 flavor:1 zymurgy:1 read:1 needham:1 joseph:1 civilisation:1 china:1 cambridge:1 press:1 mar:1 home:1 man:1 pp:1 royal:1 anthropological:1 britain:1 ireland:1 gallery:1 able:1 quickly:1 semi:1 jointless:1 eliminate:1 fit:1 pear:1 last:1 compare:1 similarly:1 round:1 loss:1 three:1 adapter:1 external:1 |@bigram crude_oil:2 millennium_bc:1 archaeological_excavation:1 distillation_apparatus:7 pat_brien:1 robert_briffault:1 jabir_ibn:1 ibn_hayyan:1 al_kindi:1 alchemist_muhammad:1 muhammad_ibn:1 ibn_zakarīya:1 zakarīya_rāzi:1 rāzi_rhazes:1 steam_distillation:5 magnum_opus:1 scotch_whisky:1 stainless_steel:1 batch_distillation:8 vapor_liquid:12 vapor_pressure:16 boiling_point:9 atmospheric_pressure:3 raoult_law:11 mole_fraction:1 fractionating_column:6 glass_bead:1 chemically_inert:1 almost_exclusively:1 fractional_distillation:4 vacuum_distillation:11 raw_material:1 aromatic_herb:1 inert_gas:2 azeotropic_distillation:3 ethyl_alcohol:1 potassium_carbonate:1 molecular_sieve:1 hydrochloric_acid:1 ethyl_acetate:1 petroleum_refinery:1 schematic_diagram:1 packed_bed:6 evenly_distribute:2 needham_joseph:1 oil_refinery:1 external_link:1 |
7,442 | Italy | Italy (), officially the Italian Republic ()(formed in 1947), is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within the Italian Peninsula, and Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The land known as Italy today has been the cradle of many European cultures and peoples, such as the Etruscans and the Romans, and later was the birthplace of the University, the Renaissance that began in Tuscany and spread all over Europe, Vitruvian Man, modern science and astronomy, heliocentrism and Opera. Italy's capital, Rome, was for centuries the center of Western civilization. Italy possessed a colonial empire from the second half of the nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. Today, Italy is a democratic republic and a developed country with the eighth-highest quality of life index rating in the world . It is a founding member of what is now the European Union, having signed the Treaty of Rome in 1957, and it is a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). It is a member of the G8, having the world's seventh-largest nominal GDP, and is also a member state of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Council of Europe, the Western European Union, and the Central European Initiative. Italy is a Schengen state. It has the world's seventh-largest defence budget and shares NATO's nuclear weapons. On 1 January 2007, Italy began a two-year term as a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. Etymology The origin of the term Italia, from OLD, p. 974: "first syll. naturally short (cf. Quint.Inst.1.5.18), and so scanned in Lucil.825, but in dactylic verse lengthened metri gratia." , is uncertain. According to one of the more common explanations, the term was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning "land of young cattle" (cf. Lat vitulus "calf", Umb vitlo "calf"). J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams, Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (London: Fitzroy and Dearborn, 1997), 24. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italian tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Samnite Wars. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy—according to Antiochus of Syracuse, the southern portion of the Bruttium peninsula (modern Calabria). But by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name "Italia" to a larger region, but it was not until the time of the Roman conquests that the term was expanded to cover the entire peninsula. Guillotining, M., History of Earliest Italy, trans. Ryle, M & Soper, K. in Jerome Lectures, Seventeenth Series, p.50 History Prehistory to Roman Empire The Colosseum in Rome, perhaps the most enduring symbol of Italy. Excavations throughout Italy reveal a modern human presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers 2001, ch. 2. ISBN 0306464632. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC Greek colonies were established all along the coast of Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula. Subsequently, Romans referred to this area as Magna Graecia, as it was so densely inhabited by Greeks. Luca Cerchiai, Lorena Jannelli, Fausto Longo, Lorena Janelli, 2004. The Greek Cities of Magna Graecia and Sicily (Getty Trust) ISBN 0-89236-751-2 T. J. Dunbabin, 1948. The Western Greeks A. G. Woodhead, 1962. The Greeks in the West Ancient Rome was at first a small agricultural community founded circa the 8th century BC that grew over the course of the centuries into a colossal empire encompassing the whole Mediterranean Sea, in which Ancient Greek and Roman cultures merged into one civilization. This civilization was so influential that parts of it survive in modern law, administration, philosophy and arts, forming the ground that Western civilization is based upon. In its twelve-century existence, it transformed itself from monarchy to republic and finally to autocracy. In steady decline since the 2nd century AD, the empire finally broke into two parts in 285 AD: the Western Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire in the East. The western part under the pressure of Goths finally dissolved, leaving the Italian peninsula divided into small independent kingdoms and feuding city states for the next 14 centuries, and leaving the eastern part sole heir to the Roman legacy. Middle Ages The Iron Crown with which Lombard rulers were crowned. Following a short recapture of the Italian peninsula by Byzantine Emperor Justinian in the 6th century AD from the Ostrogoths, a new wave of Germanic tribes, the Lombards, soon arrived in Italy from the north. For several centuries the armies of the Byzantines were strong enough to prevent Arabs, the Holy Roman Empire, or the Papacy from establishing a unified Italian Kingdom, but were at the same time too weak to fully unify the former Roman lands themselves. Nevertheless, during early Middle Ages Imperial dynasties such as the Carolingians, the Ottonians and the Hohenstaufens managed to impose their overlordship in Italy. Italy's regions were eventually subsumed by their neighbouring empires with their conflicting interests and would remain divided up to the 19th century. It was during this vacuum of authority that the region saw the rise of the Signoria and the Comune. In the anarchic conditions that often prevailed in medieval Italian city-states, people looked to strong men to restore order and disarm the feuding elites. In times of anarchy or crisis, cities sometimes offered the Signoria to individuals perceived as strong enough to save the state, most notably the Della Scala family in Verona, the Visconti in Milan and the Medici in Florence. Italy during this period became notable for its merchant Republics. These city-states, oligarchical in reality, had a dominant merchant class which under relative freedom nurtured academic and artistic advancement. The four classic Maritime Republics in Italy were Venice, Genoa, Pisa and Amalfi. During the late Middle Ages, the present-day region of Italy was a collection of smaller independent city states and kingdoms and their dependencies. Venice and Genoa were Europe's gateways to trade with the East, with the former producer of the renowned venetian glass. Florence was the capital of silk, wool, banks and jewelry. The Maritime Republics were heavily involved in the Crusades, taking advantage of the new political and trading opportunities, most evidently in the conquest of Zara and Constantinople funded by Venice. During the late Middle Ages Italy was divided into smaller city-states and territories: the kingdom of Naples controlled the south, the Republic of Florence and the Papal States the centre, the Genoese and the Milanese the north and west, and the Venetians the east. Fifteenth-century Italy was one of the most urbanised areas in Europe and the birthplace of Renaissance. Florence in particular, with the writings of Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (c. 1313–1375), as well as the painting of Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337), is considered the centre of this cultural movement. Scholars like Niccolò de' Niccoli and Poggio Bracciolini scoured the libraries in search of works of classical authors, such as Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy, Cicero and Vitruvius. The Black Death pandemic in 1348 left its mark on Italy by killing one third of the population. Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Biggest Epidemics of History" (La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire, in L'Histoire n°310, June 2006, pp.45–46 The recovery from the disaster led to a resurgence of cities, trade and economy which greatly stimulated the successive phases of Humanism and the Renaissance. In 1494 the French king Charles VIII opened the first of a series of invasions, lasting up to sixteenth century, in a competition between France and Spain for the possession of the country. Ultimately Spain prevailed through the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis which recognised Spanish dominance over the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples. The holy alliance between Habsburg Spain and the Holy See resulted in the systematic persecution of any Protestant movement. Austria succeeded Spain as hegemon in Italy under the Peace of Utrecht. Through Austrian domination, the northern part of Italy gained economic dynamism and intellectual fervor. The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars (1796–1815) introduced the ideas of equality, democracy, law and nation. Italy’s population between 1700 and 1800 rose by about one-third, to 18 million. Italy - Reform and Enlightenment in the 18th century. Encyclopædia Britannica. Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) Giuseppe Garibaldi leading the Expedition of the Thousand. The creation of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the House of Savoy to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire Italian Peninsula. In the context of the 1848 liberal revolutions that swept through Europe, an unsuccessful war was declared on Austria. Giuseppe Garibaldi, popular amongst southern Italians, led the Italian republican drive for unification in southern Italy, (Smith, Dennis Mack (1997). Modern Italy; A Political History. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472108956, p. 15. while the northern Italian monarchy of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia whose government was led by Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour, had the ambition of establishing a united Italian state under its rule. The kingdom successfully challenged the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence with the help of Napoleon III, liberating the Lombardy-Venetia. In 1866, Victor Emmanuel II aligned the kingdom with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War, waging the Third Italian War of Independence which allowed Italy to annex Venice. In 1870, as France during the disastrous Franco-Prussian War abandoned its positions in Rome, Italy rushed to fill the power gap by taking over the Papal State from French sovereignty. Italian unification finally was achieved, and shortly afterwards Italy's capital was moved to Rome. As Northern Italy was industrialized and modernized, the south became overcrowded, forcing millions of people to emigrate for a better life abroad. The Sardinian Statuto Albertino of 1848, extended to the whole Kingdom of Italy in 1861, provided for basic freedoms, but the electoral laws excluded the non-propertied and uneducated classes from voting. In 1913, male universal suffrage was adopted. The Socialist Party became the main political party, outclassing the traditional liberal and conservative organisations. The high point of Italian emigration was 1913, when 872,598 persons left Italy. Starting from the last two decades of the nineteenth century, Italy developed into a colonial power by forcing Somalia, Eritrea and later Libya and the Dodecanese under its rule. (Bosworth (2005), pp. 49.) During World War I, Italy at first stayed neutral but in 1915 signed the Treaty of London, entering Entente on the promise of receiving Trento, Trieste, Istria, Dalmatia and parts of Ottoman Empire. During the war, 600,000 Italians died, and the economy collapsed. Under the Peace Treaty of Saint-Germain, Italy obtained just Bolzano-Bozen, Trento, Trieste and Istria in a victory described as "mutilated" by the public. Benito Mussolini at the March on Rome. The turbulence that followed the devastation of World War I, inspired by the Russian Revolution, led to turmoil and anarchy. The liberal establishment, fearing a socialist revolution, started to endorse the small National Fascist Party, led by Benito Mussolini. In October 1922 the fascists attempted a coup (the Marcia su Roma, "March on Rome"), but the king ordered the army not to intervene, instead forming an alliance with Mussolini. Over the next few years, Mussolini banned all political parties and curtailed personal liberties, thus forming a dictatorship. In 1935, Mussolini subjugated Ethiopia after a surprisingly lengthy campaign. This resulted in international alienation and the exodus of the country from the League of Nations. A first pact with Nazi Germany was concluded in 1936, and a second in 1938. Italy strongly supported Franco in the Spanish civil war. The country was opposed to Adolf Hitler's annexations of Austria, but did not interfere with it. Italy supported Germany's annexation of Sudetenland, however . On 7 April 1939 Italy occupied Albania, a de facto protectorate for decades, and entered World War II in 1940, taking part in the late stages of the Battle of France. Mussolini, wanting a quick victory like Hitler's blitzkriegs in Poland and France, invaded Greece in October 1940 via Albania but was forced to accept a humiliating defeat after a few months. At the same time, Italy, after initially conquering British Somalia, saw an allied counter-attack lead to the loss of all possessions in the Horn of Africa. Italy was also defeated by British forces in North Africa and was only saved by the urgently dispatched German Africa Corps led by Erwin Rommel. Italy was invaded by the Allies in June 1943, leading to the collapse of the fascist regime and the arrest of Mussolini. In September 1943, Italy surrendered. The country remained a battlefield for the rest of the war, as the allies were moving up from the south and the north was the base for loyalist Italian fascist and German Nazi forces. The whole picture bacame more complex by the activity of the Italian partisans; see Italian resistance movement. The Nazis left the country on 25 April 1945. This led to the eventual disbanding of Italian fascist forces. The Italian Republic (1946-) Partisans parading in Milan after the liberation of the city. In 1946, Vittorio Emanuele III's son, Umberto II, was forced to abdicate. Italy became a republic after a referendum held on 2 June 1946, a day celebrated since as Republic Day. This was the first election in Italy allowing women to vote. Italia 1946: le donne al voto, dossier a cura di Mariachiara Fugazza e Silvia Cassamagnaghi The Republican Constitution was approved and came into force on 1 January 1948. Under the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947, the eastern border area was lost to Yugoslavia, and, later, the free territory of Trieste was divided between the two states. Fears in the Italian electorate of a possible Communist takeover proved crucial for the first universal suffrage electoral outcome on the 18th of April 1948 when the Democrazia Cristiana, under the undisputed leadership of Alcide De Gasperi, won a resounding victory with 48 percent of the vote. In the 50s Italy became a member of the NATO alliance and an ally of the United States, which helped to revive the Italian economy through the Marshall Plan: until the 60s the country saw a period of prolonged economic growth termed the "Economic Miracle". In 1957, Italy was a signatory to the Treaties of Rome founding the European Economic Community (EEC), which became the European Union () in 1993. From the late 1960s till late 1980s the country experienced a hard economic crisis and the Years of Lead, a period characterised by widespread social conflicts and terrorist acts carried out by extra-parliamentary movements. The Years of Lead culminated in the assassination of the Christian Democracy (DC) leader Aldo Moro in 1978, bringing to an end the "Historic Compromise" between the DC and the Communist Party. In the 1980s, for the first time since 1945, two governments were led by non-Christian-Democrat premiers: a republican (Giovanni Spadolini) and a socialist (Bettino Craxi); the DC remained, however, the main force supporting the government. The Socialist Party (PSI), led by Bettino Craxi, became more and more critical of the Communists and of the Soviet Union; Craxi himself pushed in favour of US president Ronald Reagan's positioning of Pershing missiles in Italy, a move the Communists hotly contested. The 1957 Treaties of Rome signing ceremony. From 1992 to 2009, Italy faced significant challenges, as voters, disenchanted with past political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organized crime's considerable influence (collectively called Tangentopoli after being uncovered by Mani pulite - "Clean hands") demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms. The scandals involved all major parties, but especially those in the government coalition: between 1992 and 1994 the DC underwent a severe crisis and was dissolved, splitting up into several pieces, while the PSI and the other governing minor parties completely dissolved. The 1994 elections put media magnate Silvio Berlusconi into the Prime Minister's seat. However, he was forced to step down in December when the Lega Nord Party withdrew its support. In April 1996, national elections led to the victory of a centre-left coalition under the leadership of Romano Prodi. Prodi's first government became the third-longest to stay in power before he narrowly lost a vote of confidence, by three votes, in October 1998. A new government was formed by Massimo D'Alema, but in April 2000 he resigned. In 2001, national elections led to the victory of a centre-right coalition under the leadership of Silvio Berlusconi, the centre-right formed a government, and Silvio Berlusconi was able to remain in power for a complete five-year mandate, but with two different governments. The first one (2001–2005) became the longest-lived government in post-war Italy. Italy participated in the US-led military coalition in Iraq. The elections in 2006 were won by the centre-left, allowing Prodi to form his second government, but in early 2008 he resigned because of the collapse of his coalition. In the ensuing new early elections in April 2008, Silvio Berlusconi convincingly won to form a government for a third time. Geography Topography Satellite image of Italy. Italy is located in Southern Europe and comprises the long, boot-shaped Italian Peninsula, the land between the peninsula and the Alps, and a number of islands including Sicily and Sardinia. Its total area is 301,230 km², of which 294,020 km² is land and 7,210 km² is water. Including islands, Italy has a coastline and border of 7,600 km on the Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian seas (740 km), and borders shared with France (488 km), Austria (430 km), Slovenia (232 km) and Switzerland; San Marino (39 km) and the Vatican City (3.2 km), both entirely surrounded by Italy, account for the remainder. The Apennine Mountains form the peninsula's backbone; the Alps form its northern boundary. The largest of its northern lakes is Garda (143 sq mi; 370 km²); in the centre is Trasimeno Lake. The Po, Italy's principal river, flows from the Alps on the western border and crosses the great Padan plain to the Adriatic Sea. Several islands form part of Italy; the largest are Sicily (9,926 sq mi; 25,708 km²) and Sardinia (9,301 sq mi; 24,090 km²). There are several active volcanoes in Italy: Etna, the largest active volcano in Europe; Vulcano; Stromboli; and Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe. Climate The climate in Italy is highly diverse and can be far from the stereotypical Mediterranean climate depending on the location. Most of the inland northern areas of Italy, for example Turin, Milan and Bologna, have a continental climate often classified as humid subtropical (Köppen climate classification Cfa). The coastal areas of Liguria and most of the peninsula south of Florence generally fit the Mediterranean stereotype (Köppen climate classification Csa). The coastal areas of the peninsula can be very different from the interior higher altitudes and valleys, particularly during the winter months when the higher altitudes tend to be cold, wet, and often snowy. The coastal regions have mild winters and warm and generally dry summers, although lowland valleys can be quite hot in summer. Government and politics President of the Republic Giorgio Napolitano. The politics of Italy take place in a framework of a parliamentary, democratic republic, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised collectively by the Council of Ministers, which is led by a President, informally referred to as "premier" or primo ministro (that is, "prime minister"). Legislative power is vested in the two houses of Parliament primarily, and secondarily in the Council of Ministers. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislative. Italy has been a democratic republic since 2 June 1946, when the monarchy was abolished by popular referendum (see "birth of the Italian Republic"). The constitution was promulgated on 1 January 1948. The President of the Italian Republic (Presidente della Repubblica) is elected for seven years by the parliament sitting jointly with a small number of regional delegates. As the head of state, the President of the Republic represents the unity of the nation and has many of the duties previously given to the King of Italy. The president serves as a point of connection between the three branches of power: he is elected by the lawmakers, he appoints the executive, he is the president of the judiciary and he is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president nominates the Prime Minister, who proposes the other ministers (formally named by the president). The Council of Ministers must obtain a confidence vote from both houses of Parliament. Legislative bills may originate in either house and must be passed by a majority in both. The Chamber of Deputies. Italy elects a parliament consisting of two houses, the Chamber of Deputies (Camera dei Deputati), which has 630 members and the Senate of the Republic (Senato della Repubblica), comprising 315 elected members and a small number of senators for life). Legislation may originate in either house and must be passed in identical form by a majority in each. The houses of parliament are popularly and directly elected through a complex electoral system (latest amendment in 2005) which combines proportional representation with a majority prize for the largest coalition. All Italian citizens 18 years of age and older can vote. However, to vote for the Senate, the voter must be 25 or older. The electoral system for the Senate is based upon regional representation. As of 15 May 2006 there are seven life senators (of which three are former Presidents). Both houses are elected for a maximum of five years, but both may be dissolved by the President before the expiration of their normal term if the Parliament is unable to elect a stable government. In post-war history, this has happened in 1972, 1976, 1979, 1983, 1994, 1996 and 2008. A peculiarity of the Italian Parliament is the representation given to Italian citizens permanently living abroad (about 2.7 million people). Among the 630 Deputies and the 315 Senators there are respectively 12 and 6 elected in four distinct overseas constituencies. Those members of Parliament were elected for the first time in April 2006, and they have the same rights as members elected in Italy. The Italian judicial system is based on Roman law modified by the Napoleonic code and later statutes. The Supreme Court of Cassation is the court of last resort for most disputes. The Constitutional Court of Italy (Corte Costituzionale) rules on the conformity of laws with the Constitution and is a post-World War II innovation. Foreign relations Silvio Berlusconi and Dimitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 Summit. Italy was a founding member of the European Community—now the European Union (EU). Italy was admitted to the United Nations in 1955 and is a member and strong supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization (GATT/WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the Council of Europe. Its recent turns in the rotating Presidency of international organisations include the Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), the forerunner of the OSCE, in 1994; G8; and the EU in 2001 and from July to December 2003. Italy supports the United Nations and its international security activities. Italy deployed troops in support of UN peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Mozambique, and East Timor and provides support for NATO and UN operations in Bosnia, Kosovo and Albania. Italy deployed over 2,000 troops to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in February 2003. Italy still supports international efforts to reconstruct and stabilize Iraq, but it has withdrawn its military contingent of some 3,200 troops as of November 2006, maintaining only humanitarian workers and other civilian personnel. In August 2006 Italy sent about 2,450 soldiers to Lebanon for the United Nations' peacekeeping mission UNIFIL. "Italian soldiers leave for Lebanon Corriere della Sera, 30 August 2006 Furthermore, since 2 February 2007 an Italian, Claudio Graziano, is the commander of the UN force in the country. Military Dardo IFV on exercise. The new aircraft carrier Cavour. Italian Eurofighter Typhoon. The Italian armed forces are under the command of the Supreme Defence Council, presided over by the President of the Italian Republic. In 2008 the military had 186,798 personnel on active duty, along with 114,778 in the national gendarmerie. Italy shares nuclear weapons with NATO, in the form of US nuclear weapons leased to the country. Total military spending in 2007 was $33.1 billion, equal to 1.8% of national GDP. The Italian armed forces are divided into four branches: Army The Italian Army (Esercito Italiano) is the ground defence force of the Italian Republic. It has recently become a professional all-volunteer force of active-duty personnel, numbering 109,703 in 2008. Its best-known combat vehicles are the Dardo infantry fighting vehicle, the Centauro tank destroyer and the Ariete tank, and among its aircraft the Mangusta attack helicopter, recently deployed in UN missions. The Esercito Italiano also has at its disposal a large number of Leopard 1 and M113 armored vehicles. Navy The Italian Navy (Marina Militare) in 2008 had a strength of 43,882 and ships of every type, such as aircraft carriers, destroyers, modern frigates, submarines, amphibious ships, and other smaller ships such as oceanographic research ships Italian Navy The Marina Militare is now equipping itself with a bigger aircraft carrier, (the Cavour), new destroyers, submarines and multipurpose frigates. In modern times the Italian Navy, being a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), has taken part in many coalition peacekeeping operations around the world. Air Force The Italian Air Force in 2008 has a strength of 43,882 and operates 585 aircraft, including 219 combat jets and 114 helicopters. As a stopgap and as replacement for leased Tornado ADV interceptors, the AMI has leased 30 F-16A Block 15 ADF and four F-16B Block 10 Fighting Falcons, with an option for more. The coming years also will see the introduction of 121 EF2000 Eurofighter Typhoons, replacing the leased F-16 Fighting Falcons. Further updates are foreseen in the Tornado IDS/IDT and AMX fleets. A transport capability is guaranteed by a fleet of 22 C-130Js and Aeritalia G.222s of which 12 are being replaced with the newly developed G.222 variant called the C-27J Spartan. Gendarmerie The Carabinieri are the gendarmerie and military police of Italy, providing the republic with a national police service. At the Sea Islands Conference of the G8 in 2004, the Carabinieri was given the mandate to establish a Center of Excellence for Stability Police Units (CoESPU) to spearhead the development of training and doctrinal standards for civilian police units attached to international peacekeeping missions. Administrative divisions Italy is subdivided into 20 regions (regioni, singular regione). Five of these regions have a special autonomous status that enables them to enact legislation on some of their local matters; these are marked by an asterisk (*) in the table below. The country is further divided into 109 provinces (province) and 8,101 municipalities (comuni). Region Capital Area (km²) Population Abruzzo L'Aquila Aosta Valley* Aosta Apulia Bari Basilicata Potenza Calabria Catanzaro Campania Naples Emilia-Romagna Bologna Friuli-Venezia Giulia* Trieste Lazio Rome Liguria Genoa Lombardy Milan Marche Ancona Molise Campobasso Piedmont Turin Sardinia* Cagliari Sicily* Palermo Tuscany Florence Trentino-Alto Adige* Trento Umbria Perugia Veneto Venice Demographics Population At the end of 2008, the Italian population surpassed 60 million. Italy currently has the fourth-largest population in the European Union and the 23rd-largest population worldwide. Italy's population density, at 199.2 persons per square kilometre, is the fifth highest in the European Union. The highest density is in Northern Italy, as that one-third of the country contains almost half of the total population. After World War II, Italy enjoyed a prolonged economic boom which caused a major rural exodus to the cities, and at the same time transormed the nation from a massive emigration country to a net immigrant-receiving country. High fertility persisted until the 1970s, when it plunged below the replacement rates, so that as of 2008, one in five Italians was over 65 years old. Despite this, thanks mainly to the massive immigration of the last two decades, in the 2000s Italy saw a crude birth rates growth (especially in the northern regions) for the first time in many years. The total fertility rate also significantly grew in the past few years, thanks both to rising births in foreign born and Italian women, as it climbed to 1.41 children per woman in 2008 compared to 2005 when it sat at 1.32. Cities and metropolitan areas Rank City Location Pop. Rank City Location Pop. 1 Rome Lazio 2,722,907 11 Venice Veneto 270,055 2 Milan Lombardy 1,294,797 12 Verona Veneto 265,795 3 Naples Campania 963,522 13 Messina Sicily 243,315 4 Turin Piedmont 909,193 14 Padua Veneto 211,632 5 Palermo Sicily 659,623 15 Trieste Friuli-Venezia Giulia 205,466 6 Genoa Liguria 611,556 16 Taranto Apulia 194,042 7 Bologna Emilia-Romagna 374,561 17 Brescia Lombardy 190,809 8 Florence Tuscany 365,744 19 Reggio Calabria Calabria 185,602 9 Bari Apulia 320,676 18 Prato Tuscany 185,193 10 Catania Sicily 296,816 20 Modena Emilia-Romagna 181,704 2008 ISTAT estimates <noinclude> According to the OECD, the largest metropolitan areas are: Metropolitan areaPopulation Milan 7.4 million Rome 3.7 million Naples 3.1 million Turin 2.2 million Migration and ethnic groups The number of foreigners counted in the resident population is continuously increasing: at the end of 2007 they were 3,432,651 (5.8% of total population). In relative terms the increase has been of 16.8% in the last year, 122% in the last 6 years . Since the expansion of the European Union, the most recent wave of migration has been from surrounding European nations, particularly Eastern Europe, and increasingly Asia, replacing North Africa as a major source of migrants. Some 625,287 Romanians are officially registered as living in Italy, replacing Albanians and Moroccans as the largest ethnic minority group, but unofficial estimates put the actual number of Romanians at double that figure or perhaps even more . As of 2007, migrants came from Eastern Europe (52.02%), North Africa (16.17%), Asia (16.08%), the Americas (8.5%) and sub-Saharan Africa (7.06%). Large numbers of people with full or significant Italian ancestry are found in Brazil (25 million), Consulta Nazionale Emigrazione. Progetto ITENETs – “Gli italiani in Brasile”; pp. 11, 19 (Accessed September 10, 2008) Argentina (20 million) and the United States (17.8 million). U.S Census Bureau - Selected Population Profile in the United States Nationality Population % of total* Italian 94.2%</tr> Romanian 1.05%</tr> North African 0.93%</tr> Albanian 0.67%</tr> Chinese 0.26%</tr> Ukrainian 0.22%</tr> Asian (non-Chinese) 0.66%</tr> South American 0.46%</tr> Sub-Saharan African 0.41%</tr> Other 1.09%</tr> Religion Roman Catholicism is by far the largest religion in the country, although the Catholic Church is no longer officially the state religion. Fully 87.8% of Italians identified themselves as Roman Catholic , although only about one-third of these described themselves as active members (36.8%). Other Christian groups in Italy include more than 700,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians including 180,000 Greek Orthodox The Holy Orthodox Archdiocese of Italy and Malta , 550,000 Pentecostals and Evangelicals (0.8%), of whom 400,000 are members of the Assemblies of God, 235,685 Jehovah's Witnesses (0.4%), Center for Studies on New Religions 30,000 Waldensians, Waldensian Evangelical Church 25,000 Seventh-day Adventists, 22,000 Mormons, 15,000 Baptists (plus some 5,000 Free Baptists), 7,000 Lutherans, 4,000 Methodists (affiliated with the Waldensian Church). World Council of Churches The country's oldest religious minority is the Jewish community, comprising roughly 45,000 people. It is no longer the largest non-Christian group. As a result of immigration from other parts of the world, some 825,000 Muslims UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (1.4% of the total population) live in Italy, though only 50,000 are Italian citizens. In addition, there are 50,000 Buddhists Italian Buddhist Union Italian Buddhist Institute "Soka Gakkai" 70,000 Sikh Etnomedia and 70,000 Hindus in Italy. Economy A Fiat 500 in Turin. Fiat is Italy's largest industrial company. According to the International Monetary Fund, in 2008 Italy was the seventh-largest economy in the world and the fourth-largest in Europe. The country is divided into a developed industrial north dominated by large private companies and an agricultural, state-assisted south. During the last decade the average annual growth was 1.23% in comparison to an average annual growth rate of 2.28% . Italy has often been referred the sick man of Europe , characterised by economic stagnation, political instability and problems in pursuing reform programs. A Valentino collection. Firstly, Italy suffers from structural weaknesses due to its geographical conformation and the lack of raw materials and energy resources. The territory is mostly mountainous, so much of the terrain is not suitable for intensive cultivation and communication is made more difficult. The energy sector is higly dependent on imports from abroad: in 2006 the country imported more than 86% of its total energy consumption (99.7% of the solid fuels demand, 92.5% of oil, 91.2% of natural gas and 15% of electricity) Secondly, the Italian economy is weakened by the lack of infrastructure development, market reforms and research investment. In the Index of Economic Freedom 2008, the country ranked 64th in the world and 29th in Europe, the lowest rating in the Eurozone. According to the World Bank, Italy has high levels of freedom for investments, business and trade. Despite this, the country has an inefficient state bureaucracy, low property rights protection and high levels of corruption, heavy taxation and public spending that accounts for about half of the national GDP. In addition, the most recent data show that Italy's spending in R&D in 2006 was equal to 1.14% of GDP, below the EU average of 1.84% and the Lisbon Strategy target of devoting 3% of GDP to research and development activities . Thirdly, Italy has a smaller number of world-class multinational corporations than other economies of comparable size, but there are a large number of small and medium companies. This has produced a manufacturing sector often focused on the export of niche market and luxury products, capable of facing the competition from China and other emerging Asian economies based on lower labour costs . Italy's major exports are motor vehicles (Fiat Group, Aprilia, Ducati, Piaggio); chemicals and petrochemicals (Eni); energy and electrical engineering (Enel, Edison); home appliances (Candy, Indesit), aerospace and defense technologies (Alenia, Agusta, Finmeccanica), firearms (Beretta), fashion (Armani, Valentino, Versace, Dolce & Gabbana, Roberto Cavalli, Benetton, Prada, Luxottica); food processing (Ferrero, Barilla Group, Martini & Rossi, Campari, Parmalat); sport and luxury vehicles (Ferrari, Maserati, Lamborghini, Pagani); yachts (Ferretti, Azimut). Tourism is one of the fastest growing and most profitable sectors the national economy: with 43.7 million international tourist arrivals and total receipts estimated at $42.7 billion, Italy is the fifth major tourist destination and the fourth highest tourist earner in the world. Transport Rome-Fiumicino Airport in 2008 was the sixth busiest airport in Europe. In 2004 the transport sector in Italy generated a tunrover of about 119.4 billion euros, employng 935,700 persons in 153,700 enterprises. Regarding to the national road network, in 2002 there were 668,721 km (415,612 mi) of serviceable roads in Italy, including 6,487 km (4,031 mi) of motorways, state-owned but privately operated by Atlantia company. In 2005, about 34,667,000 passenger cars (equal to 590 cars per 1,000 people) and 4,015,000 road good vehicles circulated on the national road network. The national railway network, state-owned and operated by Ferrovie dello Stato, in 2003 totalled 16,287 km (10,122 mi) of which 69% electrified, and on which 4,937 locomotives and railcars circulated. The national inland waterways network comprised 1,477 km (918 mi) of navigable rivers and channells in 2002. In 2004 there were approximately 30 main airports (including the two hubs of Malpensa International in Milan and Leonardo Da Vinci International in Rome) and 43 major seaports in Italy (including the seaport of Genoa, that is the country largest and the second largest in the Mediterranean Sea after Marseille). In 2005 Italy maintained a civilian air fleet of about 389,000 units and a merchant fleet of 581 ships. Culture Leonardo Da Vinci. Italy did not exist as a state until the country's unification in 1861. Due to this comparatively late unification, and the historical autonomy of the regions that comprise the Italian Peninsula, many traditions and customs that are now recognized as distinctly Italian can be identified by their regions of origin. Despite the political and social isolation of these regions, Italy's contributions to the cultural and historical heritage of Europe remain immense. Italy is home to the greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites (43) to date. Visual Art Italian painting is traditionally characterized by a warmth of colour and light, as exemplified in the works of Caravaggio and Titian, and a preoccupation with religious figures and motifs. Italian painting enjoyed preeminence in Europe for hundreds of years, from the Romanesque and Gothic periods, and through the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the latter two of which saw fruition in Italy. Notable artists who fall within these periods include Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Donatello, Botticelli, Fra Angelico, Tintoretto, Caravaggio, Bernini, Titian and Raphael. Thereafter, Italy was to experience a continual subjection to foreign powers which caused a shift of focus to political matters, leading to its decline as the artistic authority in Europe. Not until 20th century Futurism, primarily through the works of Umberto Boccioni and Giacomo Balla, would Italy recapture any of its former prestige as a seminal place of artistic evolution. Futurism was succeeded by the metaphysical paintings of Giorgio de Chirico, who exerted a strong influence on the Surrealists and generations of artists to follow. Literature Dante Alighieri. The basis of the modern Italian language was established by the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri, whose greatest work, the Divine Comedy, is considered amongst the foremost literary statements produced in Europe during the Middle Ages. There is no shortage of celebrated literary figures in Italy: Giovanni Boccaccio, Giacomo Leopardi, Alessandro Manzoni, Torquato Tasso, Ludovico Ariosto, and Petrarch, whose best-known vehicle of expression, the sonnet, was invented in Italy. Prominent philosophers include Giordano Bruno, Marsilio Ficino, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Giambattista Vico. Modern literary figures and Nobel laureates are nationalist poet Giosuè Carducci in 1906, realist writer Grazia Deledda in 1926, modern theatre author Luigi Pirandello in 1936, poets Salvatore Quasimodo in 1959 and Eugenio Montale in 1975, satirist and theatre author Dario Fo in 1997. Regarding the Italian theatre, it can be traced back to the Roman tradition which was heavily influenced by the Greek; as with many other literary genres, Roman dramatists tended to adapt and translate from the Greek. For example, Seneca's Phaedra was based on that of Euripides, and many of the comedies of Plautus were direct translations of works by Menander. During the 16th century and on into the 18th century, Commedia dell'arte was a form of improvisational theatre, and it is still performed today. Travelling troupes of players would set up an outdoor stage and provide amusement in the form of juggling, acrobatics, and, more typically, humorous plays based on a repertoire of established characters with a rough storyline, called canovaccio. Science Enrico Fermi. Through the centuries, Italy give birth to some of the major world science geniuses. One of the most notable, and perhaps the most famous polymath in history, Leonardo da Vinci made several contributions to a variety of fields including art, biology, and technology. Galileo Galilei was a physicist, mathematician, and astronomer who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism. The physicist Enrico Fermi, a Nobel prize laureate, was the leader of the team that built the first nuclear reactor and is also noted for his many other contributions to physics, including the co-development of the quantum theory. Other notable figures include the astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini, who made many important discoveries about the Solar System; the physicist Alessandro Volta, inventor of the electric battery; the mathematicians Lagrange, Fibonacci, and Gerolamo Cardano, whose Ars Magna is generally recognized as the first modern treatment on mathematics, made fundamental advances to the field; Marcello Malpighi, a doctor and founder of microscopic anatomy; the biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani, who conducted important research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory; and Guglielmo Marconi, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics for the invention of radio. Music Giacomo Puccini. From folk music to classical, music has always played an important role in Italian culture. Having given birth to opera, Italy provides many of the foundations of the classical music tradition. Instruments associated with classical music, including the piano and violin, were invented in Italy, and many of the prevailing classical music forms, such as the symphony, concerto, and sonata, can trace their roots back to innovations of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Italian music. Italy's most famous composers include the Renaissance composers Palestrina and Monteverdi, the Baroque composers Alessandro Scarlatti, Corelli and Vivaldi, the Classical composers Paganini and Rossini, and the Romantic composers Verdi and Puccini. Modern Italian composers such as Berio and Nono proved significant in the development of experimental and electronic music. While the classical music tradition still holds strong in Italy, as evidenced by the fame of its innumerable opera houses, such as La Scala of Milan and San Carlo of Naples, and performers such as the pianist Maurizio Pollini and the late tenor Luciano Pavarotti, Italians have been no less appreciative of their thriving contemporary music scene. Introduced in the early 1920s, jazz took a particularly strong foothold in Italy, and remained popular despite the anti-American cultural policies of the Fascist regime. Today, the most notable centers of jazz music in Italy include Milan, Rome, and Sicily. Later, Italy was at the forefront of the progressive rock movement of the 1970s, with bands like PFM and Goblin. Today, Italian pop music is represented annually with the Sanremo Music Festival, which served as inspiration for the Eurovision song contest, and the Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto. Singers such as pop diva Mina, classical crossover artist Andrea Bocelli, Grammy winner Laura Pausini, and European chart-topper Eros Ramazzotti have attained international acclaim. Cinema Federico Fellini. The history of Italian cinema began a few months after the Lumière brothers began motion picture exhibitions. The first Italian film was a few seconds long, showing Pope Leo XIII giving a blessing to the camera. The Italian film industry was born between 1903 and 1908 with three companies: the Roman Cines, the Ambrosio of Turin and the Itala Film. Other companies soon followed in Milan and in Naples. In a short time these first companies reached a fair producing quality, and films were soon sold outside Italy. The cinema was later used by Benito Mussolini as a form of propaganda until the World War II. After the war, Italian film was widely recognised and exported until an artistic decline around the 1980s. World-famous Italian film directors from this period include Vittorio De Sica, Federico Fellini, Sergio Leone, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Michelangelo Antonioni and Dario Argento. Movies include world cinema treasures such as La dolce vita, Il buono, il brutto, il cattivo and Ladri di biciclette. In recent years, the Italian scene has received only occasional international attention, with movies like La vita è bella directed by Roberto Benigni and Il postino with Massimo Troisi. Sport A Ferrari Formula One car. Popular sports include football, basketball, volleyball, waterpolo, fencing, rugby, cycling, ice hockey (mainly in Milan, Trentino-Alto Adige and Veneto), roller hockey and F1 motor racing. Winter sports are most popular in the northern regions, with Italians competing in international games and Olympic venues. Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympic Games. Sports are incorporated into Italian festivities like Palio (see also Palio di Siena), and the gondola race (regatta) that takes place in Venice on the first Sunday of September. Sports venues have extended from the gladiatorial games of Ancient Rome in the Colosseum to the Stadio Olimpico of contemporary Rome, where football clubs compete. The most popular sport in Italy is football, the Serie A being one of the most famous competitions in the world. Italy's national football team is the second-most-successful team in the world, with four World Cup victories, the first one of which was in 1934. Italy is also and the current (2006) FIFA world champion. Cricket is also slowly gaining popularity; the Italian national cricket team is administered by the Federazione Cricket Italiana (Italian Cricket Federation). They are currently ranked 27th in the world by the International Cricket Council and are ranked fifth amongst European non-Test teams. Traditional pizza Margherita. Cuisine The modern Italian cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political changes, with its roots reaching back to the 4th century BC. Significant change occurred with the discovery of the New World, when vegetables such as potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers, and maize became available. However, these central ingredients of modern Italian cuisine were not introduced in scale before the 18th century. Del Conte, 11-21. Ingredients and dishes vary by region. However, many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in different variations across the country. Cheese and wine are major parts of the cuisine, playing different roles both regionally and nationally with their many variations and Denominazione di origine controllata (regulated appellation) laws. Coffee, and more specifically espresso, has become highly important to the cultural cuisine of Italy. See also Index of Italy-related articles Italian diaspora Outline of Italy Notes According to Mitrica, an October 2005 Romanian report estimates that 1,061,400 Romanians are living in Italy, constituting 37.2% of 2.8 million immigrants in that country Mitrica, Mihai Un milion de romani s-au mutat in Italia ("One million Romanians have moved to Italy"). Evenimentul Zilei, 31 October 2005. Visited 11 April 2006. but it is unclear how the estimate was made, and therefore whether it should be taken seriously. See also (in Italian): L. Lepschy e G. Lepschy, La lingua italiana: storia, varietà d'uso, grammatica, Milano, Bompiani Official French maps show the border detouring south of the main summit, and claim the highest point in Italy is Mont Blanc de Courmayeur (4,748 m), but these are inconsistent with an 1861 convention and topographic watershed analysis. References External links Country profiles by the BBC News by the Economist by the U.S. Department of State by the World Bank General Italy at UCB Libraries GovPubs Government President of the Republic of Italy Parliament Chamber of Deputies Senate Main Institutional Portal Council of Ministries Constitutional Court Supreme Court Court of Accounts Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministry of the Interior Ministry of Education Ministry of Education: International Exchanges Ministry of Health Ministry of Defense Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare Ministry for Economic Development Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Justice Chief of State and Cabinet Members Public institutions National Statistics Office ENIT Italian State Tourism Board ENIT North America Italian Railways Italian National and Regional Parks Other History of Italy: Primary Documents List and maps of archaeological sites in Italy WWW-VL: History: Italy at IUE A history of the Italian language Italia Mia, a guide to Italy be-x-old:Італія | Italy |@lemmatized italy:135 officially:3 italian:86 republic:21 form:17 country:26 locate:2 peninsula:14 southern:8 europe:22 two:13 large:23 island:4 mediterranean:5 sea:6 sicily:10 sardinia:5 share:4 northern:10 alpine:1 boundary:2 france:6 switzerland:3 austria:5 slovenia:2 independent:4 state:26 san:3 marino:2 vatican:2 city:15 enclave:1 within:2 campione:1 italia:7 exclave:1 land:5 know:3 today:5 cradle:1 many:13 european:15 culture:5 people:7 etruscan:1 roman:16 later:6 birthplace:2 university:2 renaissance:5 begin:4 tuscany:4 spread:1 vitruvian:1 man:2 modern:14 science:3 astronomy:1 heliocentrism:1 opera:3 capital:4 rome:18 century:24 center:4 western:7 civilization:4 possess:1 colonial:2 empire:10 second:7 half:3 nineteenth:2 mid:1 twentieth:1 democratic:3 developed:2 eighth:1 high:11 quality:2 life:4 index:3 rating:2 world:31 founding:3 member:16 union:9 sign:2 treaty:10 north:12 atlantic:3 organization:6 nato:7 seventh:4 nominal:1 gdp:5 also:13 organisation:4 economic:12 co:5 operation:7 development:8 oecd:3 trade:6 wto:2 council:10 central:2 initiative:1 schengen:1 defence:3 budget:1 nuclear:4 weapon:3 january:3 year:17 term:7 non:6 permanent:1 united:9 nation:9 security:4 etymology:1 origin:2 old:6 p:4 first:18 syll:1 naturally:1 short:3 cf:2 quint:1 inst:1 scan:1 lucil:1 dactylic:1 verse:1 lengthen:1 metri:1 gratia:1 uncertain:1 accord:6 one:15 common:1 explanation:1 borrow:1 greek:11 oscan:1 víteliú:1 mean:1 young:1 cattle:1 lat:1 vitulus:1 calf:2 umb:1 vitlo:1 j:2 mallory:1 q:1 adam:1 encyclopedia:1 indo:1 london:2 fitzroy:1 dearborn:1 bull:1 symbol:3 tribe:2 often:6 depict:1 gore:1 wolf:1 defiant:1 free:3 samnite:1 war:19 name:4 originally:1 apply:3 part:13 antiochus:1 syracuse:1 portion:1 bruttium:1 calabria:4 time:12 oenotria:1 become:13 synonymous:1 lucania:1 well:2 gradually:1 come:4 region:14 conquests:1 expand:1 cover:1 entire:2 guillotining:1 history:10 early:5 trans:1 ryle:1 soper:1 k:1 jerome:1 lecture:1 seventeenth:2 series:2 prehistory:1 colosseum:2 perhaps:3 enduring:1 excavation:1 throughout:1 reveal:1 human:1 presence:1 date:2 back:4 palaeolithic:1 period:8 ago:1 kluwer:1 academic:2 plenum:1 publisher:1 ch:1 isbn:3 bc:3 colony:1 establish:7 along:2 coast:1 subsequently:1 refer:3 area:10 magna:3 graecia:2 densely:1 inhabit:1 luca:1 cerchiai:1 lorena:2 jannelli:1 fausto:1 longo:1 janelli:1 getty:1 trust:1 dunbabin:1 g:4 woodhead:1 west:2 ancient:3 small:10 agricultural:2 community:4 found:2 circa:1 grow:2 course:1 colossal:1 encompass:2 whole:3 merge:1 influential:1 survive:1 law:6 administration:1 philosophy:1 art:3 ground:2 base:7 upon:2 twelve:1 existence:1 transform:1 monarchy:3 finally:4 autocracy:1 steady:1 decline:3 since:6 ad:3 break:1 byzantine:3 east:4 pressure:1 goth:1 dissolve:4 leave:6 divide:7 kingdom:12 feud:1 next:2 eastern:5 sole:1 heir:1 legacy:1 middle:5 age:6 iron:1 crown:2 lombard:2 ruler:1 follow:4 recapture:2 emperor:1 justinian:1 ostrogoth:1 new:8 wave:2 germanic:1 soon:3 arrive:1 several:5 army:4 strong:7 enough:2 prevent:1 arab:1 holy:4 papacy:1 unified:1 weak:1 fully:2 unify:1 former:4 nevertheless:1 imperial:1 dynasty:1 carolingian:1 ottonians:1 hohenstaufens:1 manage:1 impose:1 overlordship:1 eventually:1 subsume:1 neighbouring:1 conflicting:1 interest:1 would:3 remain:6 vacuum:1 authority:2 saw:5 rise:3 signoria:2 comune:1 anarchic:1 condition:1 prevail:2 medieval:1 look:1 men:1 restore:1 order:2 disarm:1 feuding:1 elites:1 anarchy:2 crisis:3 sometimes:1 offer:1 individual:1 perceive:1 save:2 notably:1 della:4 scala:2 family:1 verona:2 visconti:1 milan:12 medici:1 florence:7 notable:5 merchant:3 oligarchical:1 reality:1 dominant:1 class:3 relative:2 freedom:5 nurture:1 artistic:4 advancement:1 four:5 classic:1 maritime:2 venice:7 genoa:5 pisa:1 amalfi:1 late:8 present:1 day:4 collection:2 dependency:1 gateway:1 producer:1 renowned:1 venetian:2 glass:1 silk:1 wool:1 bank:3 jewelry:1 heavily:2 involve:2 crusade:1 take:8 advantage:1 political:10 trading:1 opportunity:1 evidently:1 conquest:1 zara:1 constantinople:1 fund:2 territory:3 naples:7 control:1 south:7 papal:2 centre:7 genoese:1 milanese:1 fifteenth:1 urbanised:1 particular:1 writing:1 dante:3 alighieri:3 francesco:1 petrarch:2 giovanni:4 boccaccio:2 c:3 painting:3 giotto:1 di:6 bondone:1 consider:2 cultural:4 movement:5 scholar:1 like:5 niccolò:2 de:8 niccoli:1 poggio:1 bracciolini:1 scour:1 library:2 search:1 work:5 classical:8 author:3 plato:1 aristotle:1 euclid:1 ptolemy:1 cicero:1 vitruvius:1 black:1 death:1 pandemic:1 mark:2 kill:1 third:7 population:14 stéphane:1 barry:1 norbert:1 gualde:1 big:2 epidemic:1 la:5 plus:2 grande:1 épidémie:1 l:4 histoire:2 n:1 june:4 pp:3 recovery:1 disaster:1 lead:19 resurgence:1 economy:9 greatly:1 stimulate:1 successive:1 phase:1 humanism:1 french:4 king:3 charles:1 viii:1 open:1 invasion:1 last:7 sixteenth:2 competition:3 spain:4 possession:2 ultimately:1 cateau:1 cambresis:1 recognise:2 spanish:2 dominance:1 duchy:1 alliance:3 habsburg:1 see:7 result:4 systematic:1 persecution:1 protestant:1 succeed:2 hegemon:1 peace:3 utrecht:1 austrian:2 domination:1 gain:2 dynamism:1 intellectual:1 fervor:1 revolution:5 napoleonic:2 introduce:3 idea:1 equality:1 democracy:2 million:14 reform:4 enlightenment:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 giuseppe:2 garibaldi:2 expedition:1 thousand:1 creation:1 effort:2 nationalist:2 monarchist:1 loyal:1 house:9 savoy:1 context:1 liberal:3 sweep:1 unsuccessful:1 declare:1 popular:6 amongst:3 republican:3 drive:1 unification:4 smith:1 dennis:1 mack:1 ann:1 arbor:1 michigan:1 press:1 piedmont:3 whose:4 government:15 camillo:1 benso:1 conte:2 cavour:3 ambition:1 rule:3 successfully:1 challenge:2 independence:2 help:2 napoleon:1 iii:2 liberate:1 lombardy:4 venetia:1 victor:1 emmanuel:1 ii:6 align:1 prussia:1 austro:1 prussian:2 wag:1 allow:3 annex:1 disastrous:1 franco:2 abandon:1 position:1 rush:1 fill:1 power:8 gap:1 sovereignty:1 achieve:1 shortly:1 afterwards:1 move:4 industrialize:1 modernize:1 overcrowded:1 force:18 emigrate:1 good:2 abroad:3 sardinian:1 statuto:1 albertino:1 extend:2 provide:5 basic:1 electoral:4 exclude:1 propertied:1 uneducated:1 vote:8 male:1 universal:2 suffrage:2 adopt:1 socialist:4 party:10 main:5 outclass:1 traditional:2 conservative:1 point:3 emigration:2 person:3 start:2 decade:4 develop:2 somalia:3 eritrea:1 libya:1 dodecanese:1 bosworth:1 stayed:1 neutral:1 enter:2 entente:1 promise:1 receive:4 trento:3 trieste:5 istria:2 dalmatia:1 ottoman:1 die:1 collapse:3 saint:1 germain:1 obtain:2 bolzano:1 bozen:1 victory:6 describe:2 mutilate:1 public:3 benito:3 mussolini:8 march:2 turbulence:1 devastation:1 inspire:1 russian:1 turmoil:1 establishment:1 fear:2 endorse:1 national:16 fascist:6 october:5 attempt:1 coup:1 marcia:1 su:1 rom:1 intervene:1 instead:1 ban:1 curtail:1 personal:1 liberty:1 thus:1 dictatorship:1 subjugate:1 ethiopia:1 surprisingly:1 lengthy:1 campaign:1 international:14 alienation:1 exodus:2 league:1 pact:1 nazi:3 germany:2 conclude:1 strongly:1 support:10 civil:1 oppose:1 adolf:1 hitler:2 annexation:2 interfere:1 sudetenland:1 however:6 april:8 occupy:1 albania:3 facto:1 protectorate:1 stage:2 battle:1 want:1 quick:1 blitzkrieg:1 poland:1 invaded:1 greece:1 via:1 accept:1 humiliating:1 defeat:2 month:3 initially:1 conquer:1 british:2 allied:1 counter:1 attack:2 loss:1 horn:1 africa:6 urgently:1 dispatched:1 german:2 corp:1 erwin:1 rommel:1 invade:1 ally:3 regime:2 arrest:1 september:3 surrender:1 battlefield:1 rest:1 loyalist:1 picture:2 bacame:1 complex:2 activity:3 partisan:2 resistance:1 eventual:1 disbanding:1 parade:1 liberation:1 vittorio:2 emanuele:1 son:1 umberto:2 abdicate:1 referendum:2 held:1 celebrate:1 election:6 woman:3 le:1 donne:1 al:1 voto:1 dossier:1 cura:1 mariachiara:1 fugazza:1 e:2 silvia:1 cassamagnaghi:1 constitution:3 approve:1 paris:1 border:5 lose:2 yugoslavia:1 electorate:1 possible:1 communist:4 takeover:1 prove:2 crucial:1 outcome:1 democrazia:1 cristiana:1 undisputed:1 leadership:3 alcide:1 gasperi:1 win:3 resounding:1 percent:1 revive:1 marshall:1 plan:1 prolonged:2 growth:4 miracle:1 signatory:1 eec:1 till:1 experience:2 hard:1 characterise:2 widespread:1 social:4 conflict:1 terrorist:1 act:1 carry:1 extra:1 parliamentary:2 culminate:1 assassination:1 christian:5 dc:4 leader:2 aldo:1 moro:1 bring:1 end:3 historic:1 compromise:1 democrat:1 premier:2 spadolini:1 bettino:2 craxi:3 psi:2 critical:1 soviet:1 push:1 favour:1 u:5 president:13 ronald:1 reagan:1 positioning:1 pershing:1 missile:1 hotly:1 contest:2 signing:1 ceremony:1 face:2 significant:4 voter:2 disenchant:1 past:2 paralysis:1 massive:3 debt:1 extensive:1 corruption:2 organize:1 crime:1 considerable:1 influence:3 collectively:2 call:3 tangentopoli:1 uncover:1 mani:1 pulite:1 clean:1 hand:1 demanded:1 ethical:1 scandal:1 major:9 especially:2 coalition:7 undergo:1 severe:1 split:1 piece:1 govern:1 minor:1 completely:1 put:2 medium:2 magnate:1 silvio:5 berlusconi:5 prime:3 minister:7 seat:1 step:1 december:2 lega:1 nord:1 withdraw:2 left:2 romano:1 prodi:3 long:4 stay:1 narrowly:1 confidence:2 three:4 massimo:2 alema:1 resign:2 right:4 able:1 complete:1 five:4 mandate:2 different:4 lived:1 post:3 participate:1 military:6 iraq:2 ensue:1 convincingly:1 geography:1 topography:1 satellite:1 image:1 comprise:5 boot:1 shaped:1 alp:2 number:11 include:21 total:10 water:1 coastline:1 km:11 adriatic:2 ionian:1 tyrrhenian:1 entirely:1 surround:2 account:3 remainder:1 apennine:1 mountains:1 backbone:1 alps:1 lake:2 garda:1 sq:3 mi:7 trasimeno:1 po:1 principal:1 river:2 flow:1 cross:1 great:3 padan:1 plain:1 active:6 volcano:3 etna:1 vulcano:1 stromboli:1 vesuvius:1 mainland:1 climate:6 highly:2 diverse:1 far:3 stereotypical:1 depend:1 location:3 inland:2 example:2 turin:7 bologna:3 continental:1 classify:1 humid:1 subtropical:1 köppen:2 classification:2 cfa:1 coastal:3 liguria:3 generally:3 fit:1 stereotype:1 csa:1 interior:2 altitude:2 valley:3 particularly:3 winter:4 tend:2 cold:1 wet:1 snowy:1 mild:1 warm:1 dry:1 summer:2 although:3 lowland:1 quite:1 hot:1 politics:2 giorgio:2 napolitano:1 place:3 framework:1 multi:1 system:5 executive:3 exercise:2 informally:1 primo:1 ministro:1 legislative:3 vest:1 parliament:9 primarily:2 secondarily:1 judiciary:2 abolish:1 birth:5 promulgate:1 presidente:1 repubblica:2 elect:9 seven:2 sit:2 jointly:1 regional:4 delegate:1 head:1 represent:2 unity:1 duty:3 previously:1 give:6 serve:2 connection:1 branch:2 lawmaker:1 appoint:1 commander:2 chief:2 armed:3 nominate:1 propose:1 formally:1 must:4 bill:1 may:4 originate:2 either:2 pass:2 majority:3 chamber:3 deputy:4 consisting:1 camera:2 dei:1 deputati:1 senate:4 senato:1 elected:1 senator:3 legislation:2 identical:1 popularly:1 directly:1 amendment:1 combine:1 proportional:1 representation:3 prize:3 citizen:3 maximum:1 expiration:1 normal:1 unable:1 stable:1 happen:1 peculiarity:1 permanently:1 live:3 among:2 respectively:1 distinct:1 overseas:1 constituency:1 judicial:1 modify:1 code:1 statute:1 supreme:3 court:6 cassation:1 resort:1 dispute:1 constitutional:2 corte:1 costituzionale:1 conformity:1 innovation:2 foreign:5 relation:1 dimitry:1 medvedev:1 summit:2 eu:3 admit:1 supporter:1 general:2 agreement:1 tariff:1 gatt:1 osce:2 recent:4 turn:1 rotate:1 presidency:1 conference:2 csce:1 forerunner:1 july:1 deployed:1 troop:3 un:5 peacekeeping:4 mission:4 mozambique:1 timor:1 bosnia:1 kosovo:1 deploy:2 afghanistan:1 endure:1 oef:1 february:2 still:3 reconstruct:1 stabilize:1 contingent:1 november:1 maintain:2 humanitarian:1 worker:1 civilian:3 personnel:3 august:2 send:1 soldier:2 lebanon:2 unifil:1 corriere:1 serum:1 furthermore:1 claudio:1 graziano:1 dardo:2 ifv:1 aircraft:5 carrier:3 eurofighter:2 typhoon:2 command:1 preside:1 gendarmerie:3 lease:4 spending:3 billion:3 equal:3 esercito:2 italiano:2 recently:2 professional:1 volunteer:1 best:2 combat:2 vehicle:7 infantry:1 fight:1 centauro:1 tank:2 destroyer:3 ariete:1 mangusta:1 helicopter:2 disposal:1 leopard:1 armored:1 navy:4 marina:2 militare:2 strength:2 ship:5 every:1 type:1 frigate:2 submarine:2 amphibious:1 oceanographic:1 research:4 equip:1 multipurpose:1 around:2 air:3 operate:3 jet:1 stopgap:1 replacement:2 tornado:2 adv:1 interceptor:1 ami:1 f:3 block:2 adf:1 fighting:2 falcon:2 option:1 introduction:1 replace:4 update:1 foreseen:1 id:1 idt:1 amx:1 fleet:4 transport:3 capability:1 guarantee:1 aeritalia:1 newly:1 variant:1 spartan:1 carabinieri:2 police:4 service:1 islands:1 excellence:1 stability:1 unit:3 coespu:1 spearhead:1 training:1 doctrinal:1 standard:1 attach:1 administrative:1 division:1 subdivide:1 regioni:1 singular:1 regione:1 special:1 autonomous:1 status:1 enable:1 enact:1 local:1 matter:2 asterisk:1 table:1 province:2 municipality:1 comuni:1 abruzzo:1 aquila:1 aosta:2 apulia:3 bari:2 basilicata:1 potenza:1 catanzaro:1 campania:2 emilia:3 romagna:3 friuli:2 venezia:2 giulia:2 lazio:2 marche:1 ancona:1 molise:1 campobasso:1 cagliari:1 palermo:2 trentino:2 alto:2 adige:2 umbria:1 perugia:1 veneto:5 demographic:1 surpass:1 currently:2 fourth:3 worldwide:1 density:2 per:3 square:1 kilometre:1 fifth:3 contain:1 almost:1 enjoy:1 boom:1 cause:2 rural:1 transormed:1 net:1 immigrant:2 fertility:2 persist:1 plunge:1 rate:4 despite:4 thanks:2 mainly:2 immigration:2 crude:1 significantly:1 born:1 climb:1 child:1 compare:1 metropolitan:3 rank:5 pop:4 messina:1 padua:1 taranto:1 brescia:1 reggio:1 prato:1 catania:1 modena:1 istat:1 estimate:5 noinclude:1 areapopulation:1 migration:2 ethnic:2 group:6 foreigner:1 count:1 resident:1 continuously:1 increase:2 expansion:1 increasingly:1 asia:2 source:1 migrant:2 romanian:6 register:1 living:1 albanian:2 moroccan:1 minority:2 unofficial:1 actual:1 double:1 figure:5 even:1 america:2 sub:2 saharan:2 full:1 ancestry:1 find:1 brazil:1 consulta:1 nazionale:1 emigrazione:1 progetto:1 itenets:1 gli:1 italiani:1 brasile:1 accessed:1 argentina:1 census:1 bureau:1 select:1 profile:2 nationality:1 tr:10 african:2 chinese:2 ukrainian:1 asian:2 american:2 religion:4 catholicism:1 catholic:2 church:4 longer:2 identify:2 orthodox:3 archdiocese:1 malta:1 pentecostal:1 evangelicals:1 assembly:1 god:1 jehovah:1 witness:1 study:1 waldensians:1 waldensian:2 evangelical:1 adventist:1 mormon:1 baptist:2 lutheran:1 methodist:1 affiliate:1 religious:2 jewish:1 roughly:1 muslim:1 uk:1 commonwealth:1 office:2 though:1 addition:2 buddhist:3 institute:1 soka:1 gakkai:1 sikh:1 etnomedia:1 hindu:1 fiat:3 industrial:2 company:7 monetary:1 dominate:1 private:1 assist:1 average:3 annual:2 comparison:1 sick:1 stagnation:1 instability:1 problem:1 pursue:1 program:1 valentino:2 firstly:1 suffers:1 structural:1 weakness:1 due:2 geographical:1 conformation:1 lack:2 raw:1 material:1 energy:4 resource:1 mostly:1 mountainous:1 much:1 terrain:1 suitable:1 intensive:1 cultivation:1 communication:1 make:5 difficult:1 sector:4 higly:1 dependent:1 import:2 consumption:1 solid:1 fuel:1 demand:1 oil:1 natural:1 gas:1 electricity:1 secondly:1 weaken:1 infrastructure:1 market:2 investment:2 low:3 eurozone:1 level:2 business:1 inefficient:1 bureaucracy:1 property:1 protection:1 heavy:1 taxation:1 data:1 show:3 r:1 lisbon:1 strategy:1 target:1 devote:1 thirdly:1 multinational:1 corporation:1 comparable:1 size:1 produce:3 manufacturing:1 focus:2 export:3 niche:1 luxury:2 product:1 capable:1 china:1 emerge:1 labour:2 cost:1 motor:2 aprilia:1 ducati:1 piaggio:1 chemical:1 petrochemical:1 eni:1 electrical:1 engineering:1 enel:1 edison:1 home:2 appliance:1 candy:1 indesit:1 aerospace:1 defense:2 technology:2 alenia:1 agusta:1 finmeccanica:1 firearm:1 beretta:1 fashion:1 armani:1 versace:1 dolce:2 gabbana:1 roberto:2 cavalli:1 benetton:1 prada:1 luxottica:1 food:1 processing:1 ferrero:1 barilla:1 martini:1 rossi:1 campari:1 parmalat:1 sport:7 ferrari:2 maserati:1 lamborghini:1 pagani:1 yacht:1 ferretti:1 azimut:1 tourism:2 fast:1 growing:1 profitable:1 tourist:3 arrival:1 receipt:1 destination:1 earner:1 fiumicino:1 airport:3 sixth:1 busy:1 generate:1 tunrover:1 euro:1 employng:1 enterprise:1 regard:2 road:4 network:4 serviceable:1 motorway:1 privately:1 atlantia:1 passenger:1 car:3 circulate:2 railway:2 ferrovie:1 dello:1 stato:1 electrify:1 locomotive:1 railcar:1 waterways:1 navigable:1 channells:1 approximately:1 hub:1 malpensa:1 leonardo:4 da:4 vinci:4 seaport:2 marseille:1 exist:1 comparatively:1 historical:2 autonomy:1 tradition:4 custom:1 recognize:2 distinctly:1 isolation:1 contribution:3 heritage:2 immense:1 unesco:1 site:2 visual:1 traditionally:1 characterize:1 warmth:1 colour:1 light:1 exemplify:1 caravaggio:2 titian:2 preoccupation:1 motif:1 paint:1 enjoyed:1 preeminence:1 hundred:1 romanesque:1 gothic:1 baroque:2 latter:1 fruition:1 artist:3 fall:1 michelangelo:2 donatello:1 botticelli:1 fra:1 angelico:1 tintoretto:1 bernini:1 raphael:1 thereafter:1 continual:1 subjection:1 shift:1 futurism:2 boccioni:1 giacomo:3 balla:1 prestige:1 seminal:1 evolution:1 metaphysical:1 chirico:1 exert:1 surrealist:1 generation:1 literature:1 basis:1 language:2 florentine:1 poet:3 divine:1 comedy:2 foremost:1 literary:4 statement:1 shortage:1 celebrated:1 leopardi:1 alessandro:3 manzoni:1 torquato:1 tasso:1 ludovico:1 ariosto:1 expression:1 sonnet:1 invent:2 prominent:1 philosopher:1 giordano:1 bruno:1 marsilio:1 ficino:1 machiavelli:1 giambattista:1 vico:1 nobel:3 laureate:2 giosuè:1 carducci:1 realist:1 writer:1 grazia:1 deledda:1 theatre:4 luigi:1 pirandello:1 salvatore:1 quasimodo:1 eugenio:1 montale:1 satirist:1 dario:2 fo:1 trace:2 genre:1 dramatist:1 adapt:1 translate:1 seneca:1 phaedra:1 euripides:1 plautus:1 direct:2 translation:1 menander:1 commedia:1 dell:1 arte:1 improvisational:1 perform:1 travel:1 troupe:1 player:1 set:1 outdoor:1 amusement:1 juggling:1 acrobatics:1 typically:1 humorous:1 play:4 repertoire:1 character:1 rough:1 storyline:1 canovaccio:1 enrico:2 fermi:2 genius:1 famous:4 polymath:1 variety:1 field:2 biology:1 galileo:1 galilei:1 physicist:3 mathematician:2 astronomer:2 role:3 scientific:1 achievement:1 improvement:1 telescope:1 consequent:1 astronomical:1 observation:1 copernicanism:1 team:5 build:1 reactor:1 note:2 physic:2 quantum:1 theory:2 domenico:1 cassini:1 important:4 discovery:2 solar:1 volta:1 inventor:1 electric:1 battery:1 lagrange:1 fibonacci:1 gerolamo:1 cardano:1 ar:1 treatment:1 mathematics:1 fundamental:1 advance:1 marcello:1 malpighi:1 doctor:1 founder:1 microscopic:1 anatomy:1 biologist:1 lazzaro:1 spallanzani:1 conduct:1 bodily:1 function:1 animal:1 reproduction:1 cellular:1 guglielmo:1 marconi:1 invention:1 radio:1 music:13 puccini:2 folk:1 always:1 foundation:1 instrument:1 associate:1 piano:1 violin:1 prevailing:1 symphony:1 concerto:1 sonata:1 root:2 composer:6 palestrina:1 monteverdi:1 scarlatti:1 corelli:1 vivaldi:1 paganini:1 rossini:1 romantic:1 verdi:1 berio:1 nono:1 experimental:1 electronic:1 hold:1 evidence:1 fame:1 innumerable:1 carlo:1 performer:1 pianist:1 maurizio:1 pollini:1 tenor:1 luciano:1 pavarotti:1 less:1 appreciative:1 thriving:1 contemporary:2 scene:2 jazz:2 foothold:1 anti:1 policy:1 forefront:1 progressive:1 rock:1 band:1 pfm:1 goblin:1 annually:1 sanremo:1 festival:2 inspiration:1 eurovision:1 song:1 spoleto:1 singer:1 diva:1 mina:1 crossover:1 andrea:1 bocelli:1 grammy:1 winner:1 laura:1 pausini:1 chart:1 topper:1 eros:1 ramazzotti:1 attain:1 acclaim:1 cinema:4 federico:2 fellini:2 lumière:1 brother:1 motion:1 exhibition:1 film:6 pope:1 leo:1 xiii:1 blessing:1 industry:1 bear:1 cines:1 ambrosio:1 itala:1 reach:2 fair:1 sell:1 outside:1 use:1 propaganda:1 widely:1 director:1 sica:1 sergio:1 leone:1 pier:1 paolo:1 pasolini:1 antonioni:1 argento:1 movie:2 treasure:1 vita:2 il:4 buono:1 brutto:1 cattivo:1 ladri:1 biciclette:1 occasional:1 attention:1 è:1 bella:1 benigni:1 postino:1 troisi:1 formula:1 football:4 basketball:1 volleyball:1 waterpolo:1 fencing:1 rugby:1 cycling:1 ice:1 hockey:2 roller:1 racing:1 compete:2 game:3 olympic:2 venue:2 host:1 incorporate:1 festivity:1 palio:2 siena:1 gondola:1 race:1 regatta:1 sunday:1 gladiatorial:1 stadio:1 olimpico:1 club:1 serie:1 successful:1 cup:1 current:1 fifa:1 champion:1 cricket:5 slowly:1 popularity:1 administer:1 federazione:1 italiana:2 federation:1 test:1 pizza:1 margherita:1 cuisine:5 evolve:1 change:2 occur:1 vegetable:1 potato:1 tomato:1 bell:1 pepper:1 maize:1 available:1 ingredient:2 scale:1 del:1 dish:2 vary:1 proliferate:1 variation:2 across:1 cheese:1 wine:1 regionally:1 nationally:1 denominazione:1 origine:1 controllata:1 regulated:1 appellation:1 coffee:1 specifically:1 espresso:1 related:1 article:1 diaspora:1 outline:1 mitrica:2 report:1 constitute:1 mihai:1 milion:1 romani:1 au:1 mutat:1 evenimentul:1 zilei:1 visit:1 unclear:1 therefore:1 whether:1 seriously:1 lepschy:2 lingua:1 storia:1 varietà:1 uso:1 grammatica:1 milano:1 bompiani:1 official:1 map:2 detour:1 claim:1 mont:1 blanc:1 courmayeur:1 inconsistent:1 convention:1 topographic:1 watershed:1 analysis:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 bbc:1 news:1 economist:1 department:1 ucb:1 govpubs:1 institutional:1 portal:1 ministry:11 affair:1 education:2 exchange:1 health:1 welfare:1 agriculture:1 justice:1 cabinet:1 institution:1 statistic:1 enit:2 board:1 park:1 primary:1 document:1 list:1 archaeological:1 www:1 vl:1 iue:1 mia:1 guide:1 x:1 італія:1 |@bigram sicily_sardinia:2 san_marino:2 marino_vatican:1 vitruvian_man:1 nineteenth_century:2 twentieth_century:1 nominal_gdp:1 nuclear_weapon:3 indo_european:1 fitzroy_dearborn:1 kluwer_academic:1 magna_graecia:2 germanic_tribe:1 della_scala:1 venice_genoa:2 dante_alighieri:3 giovanni_boccaccio:2 plato_aristotle:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 giuseppe_garibaldi:2 ann_arbor:1 victor_emmanuel:1 austro_prussian:1 franco_prussian:1 shortly_afterwards:1 universal_suffrage:2 ottoman_empire:1 saint_germain:1 bolzano_bozen:1 benito_mussolini:3 adolf_hitler:1 de_facto:1 humiliating_defeat:1 erwin_rommel:1 cura_di:1 soviet_union:1 ronald_reagan:1 pershing_missile:1 hotly_contest:1 silvio_berlusconi:5 prime_minister:3 lega_nord:1 romano_prodi:1 geography_topography:1 tyrrhenian_sea:1 sq_mi:3 adriatic_sea:1 active_volcano:3 humid_subtropical:1 köppen_climate:2 giorgio_napolitano:1 judiciary_independent:1 constitution_promulgate:1 della_repubblica:2 commander_chief:1 chamber_deputy:3 proportional_representation:1 supreme_court:2 court_cassation:1 gatt_wto:1 un_peacekeeping:1 peacekeeping_mission:3 east_timor:1 endure_freedom:1 freedom_oef:1 corriere_della:1 della_serum:1 carrier_cavour:2 eurofighter_typhoon:2 marina_militare:2 tornado_adv:1 enact_legislation:1 aosta_valley:1 emilia_romagna:3 friuli_venezia:2 venezia_giulia:2 trentino_alto:2 alto_adige:2 square_kilometre:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 sub_saharan:2 saharan_africa:1 census_bureau:1 tr_tr:1 roman_catholicism:1 eastern_orthodox:1 orthodox_archdiocese:1 jehovah_witness:1 day_adventist:1 lutheran_methodist:1 soka_gakkai:1 monetary_fund:1 raw_material:1 intensive_cultivation:1 multinational_corporation:1 fast_growing:1 tourist_destination:1 busy_airport:1 leonardo_da:4 da_vinci:4 romanesque_gothic:1 renaissance_baroque:1 fra_angelico:1 de_chirico:1 alessandro_manzoni:1 ludovico_ariosto:1 giordano_bruno:1 marsilio_ficino:1 niccolò_machiavelli:1 nobel_laureate:1 grazia_deledda:1 commedia_dell:1 dell_arte:1 improvisational_theatre:1 enrico_fermi:2 galileo_galilei:1 nobel_prize:2 prize_laureate:1 nuclear_reactor:1 giovanni_domenico:1 domenico_cassini:1 alessandro_volta:1 gerolamo_cardano:1 ar_magna:1 microscopic_anatomy:1 guglielmo_marconi:1 giacomo_puccini:1 concerto_sonata:1 sixteenth_seventeenth:1 la_scala:1 eurovision_song:1 pop_diva:1 cinema_federico:1 federico_fellini:2 lumière_brother:1 motion_picture:1 pope_leo:1 leo_xiii:1 milan_naples:1 sergio_leone:1 pier_paolo:1 paolo_pasolini:1 michelangelo_antonioni:1 la_dolce:1 dolce_vita:1 roberto_benigni:1 basketball_volleyball:1 ice_hockey:1 roller_hockey:1 stadio_olimpico:1 potato_tomato:1 mont_blanc:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 ucb_library:1 library_govpubs:1 foreign_affair:1 |
7,443 | European_influence_in_Afghanistan | The European influence in Afghanistan refers to political, social, and sometimes imperialistic influence various European nations have had on this historical development of the territory today known as Afghanistan. Hellenistic Rule It took Alexander the Great nearly three years, from about 330 BC to 327 BC, to conquer what is now Afghanistan. Upon Alexander's death in 323 BC, his empire broke apart as his companions began to divide it amongst themselves. Alexander's cavalry commander, Seleucus, took control of the eastern lands including modern day Afghanistan and founded the Seleucid dynasty. Under the Seleucids the Greeks colonized Bactria, roughly corresponding to modern Afghanistan's borders as well as Pakistan. Later, Seleucus sought to guard his eastern frontier and moved Ionian Greeks to Bactria in the third century BC. Diodotus, governor for the Bactrian territory, asserted independence in around 246 BC to form the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Greco-Bactrian Kingdom The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world, covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 to 125 BC. The expansion of the Greco-Bactrians into northern India from 180 BC established the Indo-Greek Kingdom, which was to last until around 10 AD. The Rise of Dost Mohammad It was not until 1826 that the energetic Dost Mohammad Khan was able to exert sufficient control over his brothers to take over the throne in Kabul, where he proclaimed himself king. Dost Mohammad achieved prominence among his brothers through clever use of the support of his mother's Qizilbash tribesmen and his own youthful apprenticeship under his brother, Fateh Khan. Among the many problems he faced was repelling Sikh encroachment on the Pashtun areas east of the Khyber Pass. After working assiduously to establish control and stability in his domains around Kabul, the Emir next chose to confront the Sikhs. In 1834 Dost Mohammad defeated an invasion by the former ruler, Shuja Shah Durrani, but his absence from Kabul gave the Sikhs the opportunity to expand westward. Ranjit Singh's forces occupied Peshawar, moving from there into territory ruled directly by Kabul. In 1836 Dost Mohammad's forces, under the command of his son Mohammad Akbar Khan, defeated the Sikhs at Jamrud, a post fifteen kilometres west of Peshawar. This was a pyrrhic victory and they failed to fully dislodge the Sikhs from Jamrud. The Afghan leader did not follow up this triumph by retaking Peshawar, however, but instead contacted Lord Auckland, the new British governor general in British India, for help in dealing with the Sikhs. With this letter, Dost Mohammad formally set the stage for British intervention in Afghanistan. At the heart of the Great Game lay the willingness of Britain and Russia to subdue, subvert, or subjugate the small independent states that lay between Russia and British India. The Great Game Emir Shuja Shah Durrani, sitting at his Kabul Palace in 1839. The British became the major power in the Indian sub-continent after the Treaty of Paris (1763) and began to show interest in Afghanistan as early as their 1809 treaty with Shuja Shah Durrani. It was the threat of the expanding Russian Empire beginning to push for an advantage in the Afghanistan region that placed pressure on British India, in what became known as the "Great Game". The Great Game set in motion the confrontation of the British and Russian empires — whose spheres of influence moved steadily closer to one another until they met in Afghanistan. It also involved Britain's repeated attempts to impose a puppet government in Kabul. The remainder of the nineteenth century saw greater European involvement in Afghanistan and her surrounding territories and heightened conflict among the ambitious local rulers as Afghanistan's fate played out globally. The débâcle of the Afghan civil war left a vacuum in the Hindu Kush area that concerned the British, who were well aware of the many times in history it had been employed as the invasion route to South Asia. In the early decades of the nineteenth century, it became clear to the British that the major threat to their interests in India would not come from the fragmented Afghan empire, the Iranians, or the French, but from the Russians, who had already begun a steady advance southward from the Caucasus. At the same time, the Russians feared permanent British occupation in Central Asia as the British encroached northward, taking the Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir; later to become Pakistan. The British viewed Russia's absorption of the Caucasus, the Kyrgyz and Turkmen lands, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara with equal suspicion as a threat to their interests in the Asian subcontinent. In addition to this rivalry between Britain and Russia, there were two specific reasons for British concern over Russia's intentions. First was the Russian influence at the Iranian court, which prompted the Russians to support Iran in its attempt to take Herat, historically the western gateway to Afghanistan and northern India. In 1837 Iran advanced on Herat with the support and advice of Russian officers. The second immediate reason was the presence in Kabul in 1837 of a Russian agent, Captain P. Vitkevich, who was ostensibly there, as was the British agent Alexander Burnes, for commercial discussions. The British demanded that Dost Mohammad sever all contact with the Iranians and Russians, remove Vitkevich from Kabul, surrender all claims to Peshawar, and respect Peshawar's independence as well as that of Kandahar, which was under the control of his brothers at the time. In return, the British government intimated that it would ask Ranjit Singh to reconcile with the Afghans. When Auckland refused to put the agreement in writing, Dost Mohammad turned his back on the British and began negotiations with Vitkevich. In 1838 Auckland, Ranjit Singh, and Shuja signed an agreement stating that Shuja would regain control of Kabul and Kandahar with the help of the British and Sikhs; he would accept Sikh rule of the former Afghan provinces already controlled by Ranjit Singh, and that Herat would remain independent. In practice, the plan replaced Dost Mohammad with a British figurehead whose autonomy would be as limited as that of other Indian princes. It soon became apparent to the British that Sikh participation — advancing toward Kabul through the Khyber Pass while Shuja and the British advanced through Kandahar — would not be forthcoming. Auckland's plan in the spring of 1838 was for the Sikhs — with British support — to place Shuja on the Afghan throne. By summer's end, however, the plan had changed; now the British alone would impose the pliant Shuja Shah. First Anglo-Afghan War, 1838–1842 The encampment of the troops led by General Sir William Nott lay on the vast plain of Chaman-e-Shah in 1839-42. Kabul is pictured in the distance. To justify his plan, the Governor-General of India Lord Auckland issued the Simla Manifesto in October 1838, setting forth the necessary reasons for British intervention in Afghanistan. The manifesto stated that in order to ensure the welfare of India, the British must have a trustworthy ally on India's western frontier. The British pretense that their troops were merely supporting Shah Shuja's small army in retaking what was once his throne fooled no one. Although the Simla Manifesto stated that British troops would be withdrawn as soon as Shuja was installed in Kabul, Shuja's rule depended entirely on British arms to suppress rebellion and on British funds to buy the support of tribal chiefs. The British denied that they were invading Afghanistan, instead claiming they were merely supporting its legitimate Shuja government "against foreign interference and factious opposition". In November 1841 insurrection and massacre flared up in Kabul. The British vacillated and disagreed and were beleaguered in their inadequate cantonments. The British negotiated with the most influential sirdars, cut off as they were by winter and insurgent tribes from any hope of relief. Muhammad Akbar Khan, son of the captive Dost Muhammad, arrived in Kabul and became effective leader of the sirdars. At a conference with them Sir William MacNaghten was killed, but in spite of this, the sirdars' demands were agreed to by the British and they withdrew. During the withdrawal they were attacked by Ghilzai tribesmen and in running battles through the snowbound passes nearly the entire column of 4,500 troops and 12,000 civilians were massacred. Of the British only one, Dr. William Brydon, reached Jalalabad, while a few others were captured. Afghan forces loyal to Akbar Khan besieged the remaining British contingents at Kandahar, Ghazni and Jalalabad. Ghazni fell, but the other garrisons held out, and with the help of reinforcements from India their besiegers were defeated. While preparations were under way for a renewed advance on Kabul, the new Governor-General Lord Ellenborough ordered British forces to leave Afghanistan after securing the release of the prisoners from Kabul and taking reprisals. The forces from Kandahar and Jalalabad again defeated Akbar Khan, retook Ghazni and Kabul, inflicted widespread devastation and rescued the prisoners before withdrawing through the Khyber Pass. The mid-nineteenth century After months of chaos in Kabul, Mohammad Akbar Khan secured local control and in April 1843 his father Dost Mohammad, who had been released by the British, returned to the throne in Afghanistan. In the following decade, Dost Mohammad concentrated his efforts on reconquering Mazari Sharif, Konduz, Badakhshan, and Kandahar. Mohammad Akbar Khan died in 1845. During the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49), Dost Mohammad's last effort to take Peshawar failed. By 1854 the British wanted to resume relations with Dost Mohammad, whom they had essentially ignored in the intervening twelve years. The 1855 Treaty of Peshawar reopened diplomatic relations, proclaimed respect for each side's territorial integrity, and pledged both sides as friends of each other's friends and enemies of each other's enemies.Sher Ali Khan with CD Charles Chamberlain and Sir Richard F. Pollock in 1869. In 1857 an addendum to the 1855 treaty permitted a British military mission to become a presence in Kandahar (but not to Kabul) during a conflict with the Persians, who had attacked Herat in 1856. In 1863 Dost Mohammad retook Herat with British acquiescence. A few months later, Dost Mohammad died. Sher Ali, his third son, and proclaimed successor, failed to recapture Kabul from his older brother, Mohammad Afzal (whose troops were led by his son, Abdur Rahman) until 1868, after which Abdur Rahman retreated across the Amu Darya and bided his time. In the years immediately following the First Anglo-Afghan War, and especially after the 1857 uprising against the British in India, Liberal Party governments in London took a political view of Afghanistan as a buffer state. By the time Sher Ali had established control in Kabul in 1868, he found the British ready to support his regime with arms and funds, but nothing more. Over the next ten years, relations between the Afghan ruler and Britain deteriorated steadily. The Afghan ruler was worried about the southward encroachment of Russia, which by 1873 had taken over the lands of the khan, or ruler, of Khiva. Sher Ali sent an envoy seeking British advice and support. The previous year the British had signed an agreement with the Russians in which the latter agreed to respect the northern boundaries of Afghanistan and to view the territories of the Afghan amir as outside their sphere of influence. The British, however, refused to give any assurances to the disappointed Sher Ali. Political cartoon depicting the Afghan Amir Sher Ali with his "friends" Britain & Russia (1878). Second Anglo-Afghan War, 1878–1880 After tension between Russia and Britain in Europe ended with the June 1878 Congress of Berlin, Russia turned its attention to Central Asia. That same summer, Russia sent an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul. Sher Ali tried, but failed, to keep them out. Russian envoys arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878 and on 14 August, the British demanded that Sher Ali accept a British mission too. The amir not only refused to receive a British mission but threatened to stop it if it were dispatched. Lord Lytton, the viceroy, ordered a diplomatic mission to set out for Kabul in September 1878 but the mission was turned back as it approached the eastern entrance of the Khyber Pass, triggering the Second Anglo-Afghan War. A British force of about 40,000 fighting men was distributed into military columns which penetrated Afghanistan at three different points. An alarmed Sher Ali attempted to appeal in person to the tsar for assistance, but unable to do so, he returned to Mazari Sharif, where he died on 21 February 1879. Mohammad Yaqub Khan with Britain's Sir Pierre Cavagnari on May 26, 1879, when the Treaty of Gandamak was signed. With British forces occupying much of the country, Sher Ali's son and successor, Mohammad Yaqub Khan, signed the Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879 to prevent a British invasion of the rest of the country. According to this agreement and in return for an annual subsidy and vague assurances of assistance in case of foreign aggression, Yaqub relinquished control of Afghan foreign affairs to the British. British representatives were installed in Kabul and other locations, British control was extended to the Khyber and Michni passes, and Afghanistan ceded various frontier areas and Quetta to Britain. The British army then withdrew. Soon afterwards, an uprising in Kabul led to the slaughter of Britain’s Resident in Kabul, Sir Pierre Cavagnari and his guards and staff on 3 September 1879, provoking the second phase of the Second Afghan War. Major General Sir Frederick Roberts led the Kabul Field Force over the Shutargardan Pass into central Afghanistan, defeated the Afghan Army at Char Asiab on 6 October 1879 and occupied Kabul. Ghazi Mohammad Jan Khan Wardak staged an uprising and attacked British forces near Kabul in the Siege of the Sherpur Cantonment in December 1879, but his defeat there resulted in the collapse of this rebellion. Durban Maidan of Sherpur Cantonment in 1879. Yaqub Khan, suspected of complicity in the massacre of Cavagnari and his staff, was obliged to abdicate. The British considered a number of possible political settlements, including partitioning Afghanistan between multiple rulers or placing Yaqub's brother Ayub Khan on the throne, but ultimately decided to install his cousin Abdur Rahman Khan as emir instead. Ayub Khan, who had been serving as governor of Herat, rose in revolt, defeated a British detachment at the Battle of Maiwand in July 1880 and besieged Kandahar. Roberts then led the main British force from Kabul and decisively defeated Ayub Khan in September at the Battle of Kandahar, bringing his rebellion to an end. Abdur Rahman had confirmed the Treaty of Gandamak, leaving the British in control of the territories ceded by Yaqub Khan and ensuring British control of Afghanistan's foreign policy in exchange for protection and a subsidy. Abandoning the provocative policy of maintaining a British resident in Kabul, but having achieved all their other objectives, the British withdrew. The Iron Amir, 1880–1901 Emir Abdur Rahman Khan (The Iron Amir) in 1897. As far as British interests were concerned, Abdur Rahman answered their prayers: a forceful, intelligent leader capable of welding his divided people into a state; and he was willing to accept limitations to his power imposed by British control of his country's foreign affairs and the British buffer state policy. His twenty-one-year reign was marked by efforts to modernize and establish control of the kingdom, whose boundaries were delineated by the two empires bordering it. Abdur Rahman turned his considerable energies to what evolved into the creation of the modern state of Afghanistan. He achieved this consolidation of Afghanistan in three ways. He suppressed various rebellions and followed up his victories with harsh punishment, execution, and deportation. He broke the stronghold of Pashtun tribes by forcibly transplanting them. He transplanted his most powerful Pashtun enemies, the Ghilzai, and other tribes from southern and south-central Afghanistan to areas north of the Hindu Kush with predominantly non-Pashtun populations. The last non-Muslim Afghans of Kafiristan north of Kabul were forcefully converted to Islam. Finally, he created a system of provincial governorates different from old tribal boundaries. Provincial governors had a great deal of power in local matters, and an army was placed at their disposal to enforce tax collection and suppress dissent. Abdur Rahman kept a close eye on these governors, however, by creating an effective intelligence system. During his reign, tribal organization began to erode as provincial government officials allowed land to change hands outside the traditional clan and tribal limits. In addition to forging a nation from the splintered regions comprising Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman tried to modernize his kingdom by forging a regular army and the first institutionalized bureaucracy. Despite his distinctly authoritarian personality, Abdur Rahman called for a loya jirga, an assemblage of royal princes, important notables, and religious leaders. According to his autobiography, Abdur Rahman had three goals: subjugating the tribes, extending government control through a strong, visible army, and reinforcing the power of the ruler and the royal family. During his visit to Rawalpindi in 1885, the Amir requested the Viceroy of India to depute Muslim Envoy to Kabul having noble birth and of ruling family background. Mirza Atta Ullah Khan, Sardar Bahadur s/o Khan Bahadur Mirza Fakir Ullah Khan (Saman Burj Wazirabad), a direct descendent of Jarral Rajput Rajas of Rajauri was selected and approved by the Amir to be the British Envoy to Kabul. Abdur Rahman also paid attention to technological advancement. He brought foreign physicians, engineers (especially for mining), geologists, and printers to Afghanistan. He imported European machinery and encouraged the establishment of small factories to manufacture soap, candles, and leather goods. He sought European technical advice on communications, transport, and irrigation. Local Afghan tribes strongly resisted this modernization. Workmen making roads had to be protected by the army against local warriors. Nonetheless, despite these sweeping internal policies, Abdur Rahman's foreign policy was completely in foreign hands. The first important frontier dispute was the Panjdeh crisis of 1885, precipitated by Russian encroachment into Central Asia. Having seized the Merv (now Mary) Oasis by 1884, Russian forces were directly adjacent to Afghanistan. Claims to the Panjdeh Oasis were in debate, with the Russians keen to take over all the region's Turkoman domains. After battling Afghan forces in the spring of 1885, the Russians seized the oasis. Russian and British troops were quickly alerted, but the two powers reached a compromise; Russia was in possession of the oasis, and Britain believed it could keep the Russians from advancing any farther. Without an Afghan say in the matter, the Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed the Russians would relinquish the farthest territory captured in their advance but retain Panjdeh. This agreement on these border sections delineated for Afghanistan a permanent northern frontier at the Amu Darya but also the loss of much territory, especially around Panjdeh. The second section of Afghan border demarcated during Abdur Rahman's reign was in the Wakhan Corridor. The British insisted Abdur Rahman accept sovereignty over this remote region where unruly Kyrgyz held sway, he had no choice but to accept Britain's compromise. In 1895 and 1896 another Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed on the frontier boundary to the far northeast of Afghanistan, which bordered Chinese territory (although the Chinese did not formally accept this as a boundary between the two countries until 1964.) Afghanistan before the Durand agreement of 1893. For Abdur Rahman, delineating the boundary with India (through the Pashtun area) was far more significant, and it was during his reign that the Durand Line was drawn. Under pressure, Abdur Rahman agreed in 1893 to accept a mission headed by the British Indian foreign secretary, Sir Mortimer Durand, to define the limits of British and Afghan control in the Pashtun territories. Boundary limits were agreed on by Durand and Abdur Rahman before the end of 1893, but there is some question about the degree to which Abdur Rahman willingly ceded certain regions. There were indications that he regarded the Durand Line as a delimitation of separate areas of political responsibility, not a permanent international frontier, and that he did not explicitly cede control over certain parts (such as Kurram and Chitral) that were already in British control under the Treaty of Gandamak. The Durand Line cut through tribes and bore little relation to the realities of demography or military strategy. The line laid the foundation not for peace between the border regions, but for heated disagreement between the governments of Afghanistan and British India, and later, Afghanistan and Pakistan over what came to be known as the issue of Pashtunistan or 'Land of the Pashtuns'. (See Siege of Malakand). The clearest manifestation that Abdur Rahman had established control in Afghanistan was the peaceful succession of his eldest son, Habibullah Khan, to the throne on his father's death in October 1901. Although Abdur Rahman had fathered many children, he groomed Habibullah to succeed him, and he made it difficult for his other sons to contest the succession by keeping power from them and sequestering them in Kabul under his control. Habibullah Khan, 1901–1919 King Habibullah Khan of Afghanistan. Habibullah Khan, Abdur Rahman Khan's eldest son but child of a slave mother, kept a close watch on the palace intrigues revolving around his father's more distinguished wife (a granddaughter of Dost Mohammad), who sought the throne for her own son. Although made secure in his position as ruler by virtue of support from the army which was created by his father, Habibullah was not as domineering as Abdur Rahman. Consequently, the influence of religious leaders as well as that of Mahmud Tarzi, a cousin of the king, increased during his reign. Mahmud Tarzi, a highly educated, well-traveled poet and journalist, founded an Afghan nationalist newspaper with Habibullah's agreement, and until 1919 he used the newspaper as a platform for rebutting clerical criticism of Western-influenced changes in government and society, for espousing full Afghan independence, and for other reforms. Tarzi's passionate Afghan nationalism influenced a future generation of Asian reformers. The boundary with Iran was firmly delineated in 1904, replacing the ambiguous line made by a British commission in 1872. Agreement could not be reached, however, on sharing the waters of the Helmand River. Like all foreign policy developments of this period affecting Afghanistan, the conclusion of the "Great Game" between Russia and Britain occurred without the Afghan ruler's participation. The 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention (Entente, the Convention of St. Petersburg) not only divided the region into separate areas of Russian and British influence but also established foundations for Afghan neutrality. The convention provided for Russian acquiescence that Afghanistan was now outside this sphere of influence, and for Russia to consult directly with Britain on matters relating to Russian-Afghan relations. Britain, for its part, would not occupy or annex Afghan territory, or interfere in Afghanistan's internal affairs. During World War I, Afghanistan remained neutral despite pressure to support Turkey when its sultan proclaimed his nation's participation in what it considered a holy war. Habibullah did, however, entertain a Indo-German-Turkish mission in Kabul in 1915 that had as its titular head the Indian nationalist Mahendra Pratap and was led by Oskar Niedermayer and the German legate Werner Otto von Hentig. After much procrastination, he won an agreement from the Central Powers for a huge payment and arms provision in exchange for attacking British India. But the crafty Afghan ruler clearly viewed the war as an opportunity to play one side off against the other, for he also offered the British to resist a Central Powers attack on India in exchange for an end to British control of Afghan foreign policy. Amanullah Khan, 1919–1929 On 20 February 1919, Habibullah Khan was assassinated on a hunting trip. He had not declared a succession, but left his third son, Amanullah Khan, in charge in Kabul. Because Amanullah controlled both the national treasury and the army, he was well situated to seize power. The army's support allowed Amanullah to suppress other claims and imprison those relatives who would not swear loyalty to him. Within a few months, the new amir had gained the allegiance of most tribal leaders and established control over the cities. Amanullah Khan's reforms were heavily influenced by Europe. This came through the influence of Mahmud Tarzi, who was both Amanullah Khan's father-in-law and Foreign Minister. Mahmud Tarzi, a highly educated, well-traveled poet, journalist, and diplomat, was a key figure that brought Western dress and etiquette to Afghanistan. He also fought for progressive reforms such as woman's rights, educational rights, and freedom of press. All of these influences, brought by Tarzi and others, were welcomed by Amanullah Khan. In 1927 and 1928 Amanullah Khan and his wife Soraya Tarzi visited Europe. On this trip they were honored and feted. In fact, in 1928 the King and Queen of Afghanistan received honorary degrees from Oxford University. This was an era when other Muslim nations, like Turkey and Egypt were also on the path to modernization. King Amanullah was so impressed with the social progress of Europe that he tried to implement them right away, this met with heavy resistance from the conservative sect and eventually lead to his demise. Amanullah enjoyed quite a bit of early popularity within Afghanistan and he used his power to modernize the country. Amanullah created new cosmopolitan schools for both boys and girls in the region and overturned centuries-old traditions such as strict dress codes for women. He created a new capital city and increased trade with Europe and Asia. He also advanced a modernist constitution that incorporated equal rights and individual freedoms. This rapid modernization though, created a backlash, and a reactionary uprising known as the Khost rebellion which was suppressed in 1924. Third Anglo-Afghan War and Independence Amanullah's ten years of reign initiated a period of dramatic change in Afghanistan in both foreign and domestic politics. Amanullah declared full independence and sparked the Third Anglo-Afghan War. Amanullah altered foreign policy in his new relations with external powers and transformed domestic politics with his social, political, and economic reforms. Although his reign ended abruptly, he achieved some notable successes, and his efforts failed as much due to the centripetal forces of tribal Afghanistan and the machinations of Russia and Britain as to any political folly on his part. Amanullah came to power just as the entente between Russia and Britain broke down following the Russian Revolution of 1917. Once again Afghanistan provided a stage on which the great powers played out their schemes against one another. Keen to modernise his country and free it from foreign domination, Amanulla, sought to shore up his powerbase. Amidst intrigue in the Afghan court, and political and civil unrest in India, he sought to divert attention from the internal divisions of Afghanistan and unite all faction behind him by attacking the British. Barthorp, p. 151 Using the civil unrest in India as an excuse to move troops to the Durand Line, Afghan troops crossed the border at the western end of the Khyber Pass on 3 May 1919 and occupied the village of Bagh, the scene of an earlier uprising in April. Wilkinson-Latham & McBride, p. 23 In response, the Indian government ordered a full mobilisation and on 6 May 1919 declared war. For the British it had come at a time when they were still recovering from the First World War. The troops that were stationed in India were mainly reserves and Territorials, who were awaiting demobilisation and keen to return to Britain, whilst the few regular regiments that were available were tired and depleted from five years of fighting. Wilkinson-Latham & McBride, p. 23 Afghan forces achieved success in the initial days of the war, taking the British and Indians by surprise in two main thrusts as the Afghan regular army was joined by large numbers of Pashtun tribesmen from both sides of the border. A series of skirmishes then followed as the British and Indians recovered from their initial surprise. As a counter balance to deficiencies in manpower and morale, the British had a considerable advantage in terms of equipment, possessing machine guns, armoured cars, motor transport, wire less communications and aircraft and it was the latter that would prove decisive. Barthorp, p. 152 British forces used airpower to shock the Afghans, and the King's home was directly attacked in what is the first case of aerial bombardment in Afghanistan’s history. The attacks played a key role in forcing an armistice but brought an angry rebuke from King Amanullah. He wrote: "It is a matter of great regret that the throwing of bombs by zeppelins on London was denounced as a most savage act and the bombardment of places of worship and sacred spots was considered a most abominable operation. While we now see with our own eyes that such operations were a habit which is prevalent among all civilized people of the west" Citation needed The fighting concluded in August 1919 and Britain virtually dictated the terms of the Rawalpindi Agreement, a temporary armistice that provided, somewhat ambiguously, for Afghan self-determination in foreign affairs. Balthorp, p. 157 Before final negotiations were concluded in 1921, however, Afghanistan had already begun to establish its own foreign policy, including diplomatic relations with the new government in the Soviet Union in 1919. During the 1920s, Afghanistan established diplomatic relations with most major countries. References and Footnotes Sources Vogelsang, Willem. 2002. The Afghans, pp. 245-334. Blackwell Publishers. Oxford. ISBN 0-631-19841-5 Barthorp, Michael. 2002. Afghan Wars and the North-West Frontier 1839-1947. Cassell. London. ISBN 0-304-36294-8 Wilkinson-Latham, Robert & McBride, Angus. 1977. North-West Frontier 1837-1947. Men-at-Arms Series # 72. Osprey Publishing. London. ISBN 0-85045-275-9 See Also Imperialism in Asia External links Encyclopedia Britannica - Anglo Afghan Wars The Afghan Wars 1839-42 and 1878-80 by Archibald Forbes, from Project Gutenberg Afghanistan from countrystudies.us CIA World Factbook Afghanistan | European_influence_in_Afghanistan |@lemmatized european:5 influence:13 afghanistan:52 refers:1 political:8 social:3 sometimes:1 imperialistic:1 various:3 nation:4 historical:1 development:2 territory:11 today:1 know:4 hellenistic:2 rule:5 take:11 alexander:4 great:10 nearly:2 three:4 year:8 bc:7 conquer:1 upon:1 death:2 empire:5 break:3 apart:1 companion:1 begin:7 divide:2 amongst:1 cavalry:1 commander:1 seleucus:2 control:23 eastern:3 land:5 include:3 modern:3 day:2 found:2 seleucid:1 dynasty:1 seleucids:1 greek:3 colonize:1 bactria:3 roughly:1 correspond:1 border:8 well:7 pakistan:3 later:4 seek:6 guard:2 frontier:9 move:4 ionian:1 third:5 century:5 diodotus:1 governor:7 bactrian:4 assert:1 independence:5 around:5 form:1 greco:4 kingdom:6 easternmost:1 part:4 world:4 cover:1 sogdiana:1 central:8 asia:7 expansion:1 bactrians:1 northern:4 india:19 establish:9 indo:2 last:3 ad:1 rise:2 dost:17 mohammad:23 energetic:1 khan:35 able:1 exert:1 sufficient:1 brother:6 throne:7 kabul:38 proclaim:4 king:7 achieve:5 prominence:1 among:4 clever:1 use:5 support:12 mother:2 qizilbash:1 tribesman:3 youthful:1 apprenticeship:1 fateh:1 many:3 problem:1 face:1 repel:1 sikh:11 encroachment:3 pashtun:8 area:7 east:1 khyber:6 pas:6 work:1 assiduously:1 stability:1 domain:2 emir:4 next:2 chose:1 confront:1 defeat:8 invasion:3 former:2 ruler:10 shuja:12 shah:6 durrani:3 absence:1 give:2 opportunity:2 expand:2 westward:1 ranjit:4 singh:4 force:16 occupy:5 peshawar:7 directly:4 command:1 son:10 akbar:6 jamrud:2 post:1 fifteen:1 kilometres:1 west:4 pyrrhic:1 victory:2 fail:5 fully:1 dislodge:1 afghan:45 leader:6 follow:5 triumph:1 retake:3 however:7 instead:3 contact:2 lord:4 auckland:5 new:7 british:84 general:5 help:3 deal:2 letter:1 formally:2 set:4 stage:2 intervention:2 heart:1 game:5 lay:4 willingness:1 britain:18 russia:15 subdue:1 subvert:1 subjugate:2 small:3 independent:2 state:8 sit:1 palace:2 become:7 major:4 power:13 indian:7 sub:1 continent:1 treaty:8 paris:1 show:1 interest:4 early:4 threat:3 russian:25 push:1 advantage:2 region:8 place:5 pressure:3 motion:1 confrontation:1 whose:4 sphere:3 steadily:2 closer:1 one:6 another:3 meet:1 also:9 involve:1 repeat:1 attempt:3 impose:3 puppet:1 government:10 remainder:1 nineteenth:3 saw:1 involvement:1 surrounding:1 heighten:1 conflict:2 ambitious:1 local:5 fate:1 play:4 globally:1 débâcle:1 civil:3 war:18 leave:4 vacuum:1 hindu:2 kush:2 concern:3 aware:1 time:6 history:2 employ:1 route:1 south:2 decade:2 clear:2 would:13 come:5 fragment:1 iranian:3 french:1 already:4 steady:1 advance:8 southward:2 caucasus:2 fear:1 permanent:3 occupation:1 encroach:1 northward:1 punjab:1 sindh:1 kashmir:1 view:4 absorption:1 kyrgyz:2 turkmen:1 khanate:1 khiva:2 emirate:1 bukhara:1 equal:2 suspicion:1 asian:2 subcontinent:1 addition:2 rivalry:1 two:5 specific:1 reason:3 intention:1 first:7 court:2 prompt:1 iran:3 herat:6 historically:1 western:5 gateway:1 advice:3 officer:1 second:7 immediate:1 presence:2 agent:2 captain:1 p:6 vitkevich:3 ostensibly:1 burnes:1 commercial:1 discussion:1 demand:3 sever:1 remove:1 surrender:1 claim:4 respect:3 kandahar:9 return:5 intimate:1 ask:1 reconcile:1 refuse:3 put:1 agreement:10 writing:1 turn:4 back:2 negotiation:2 sign:4 regain:1 accept:7 province:1 remain:3 practice:1 plan:4 replace:2 figurehead:1 autonomy:1 limited:1 prince:2 soon:3 apparent:1 participation:3 toward:1 forthcoming:1 spring:2 summer:2 end:7 change:4 alone:1 pliant:1 anglo:11 encampment:1 troop:9 lead:7 sir:7 william:3 nott:1 vast:1 plain:1 chaman:1 e:1 picture:1 distance:1 justify:1 issue:2 simla:2 manifesto:3 october:3 forth:1 necessary:1 order:3 ensure:2 welfare:1 must:1 trustworthy:1 ally:1 pretense:1 merely:2 army:11 fool:1 although:5 withdraw:4 instal:2 depend:1 entirely:1 arm:4 suppress:5 rebellion:5 fund:2 buy:1 tribal:6 chief:1 deny:1 invade:1 legitimate:1 foreign:17 interference:1 factious:1 opposition:1 november:1 insurrection:1 massacre:3 flare:1 vacillate:1 disagree:1 beleaguer:1 inadequate:1 cantonment:3 negotiate:1 influential:1 sirdar:3 cut:2 winter:1 insurgent:1 tribe:6 hope:1 relief:1 muhammad:2 captive:1 arrive:2 effective:2 conference:1 macnaghten:1 kill:1 spite:1 agree:6 withdrawal:1 attack:8 ghilzai:2 run:1 battle:4 snowbound:1 pass:2 entire:1 column:2 civilian:1 dr:1 brydon:1 reach:3 jalalabad:3 others:2 capture:2 loyal:1 besiege:2 contingent:1 ghazni:3 fell:1 garrison:1 hold:2 reinforcement:1 besieger:1 preparation:1 way:2 renew:1 ellenborough:1 ordered:1 secure:3 release:2 prisoner:2 reprisal:1 inflict:1 widespread:1 devastation:1 rescue:1 mid:1 month:3 chaos:1 april:2 father:6 following:1 concentrate:1 effort:4 reconquer:1 mazari:2 sharif:2 konduz:1 badakhshan:1 die:3 want:1 resume:1 relation:8 essentially:1 ignore:1 intervening:1 twelve:1 reopen:1 diplomatic:5 side:4 territorial:2 integrity:1 pledge:1 friend:3 enemy:3 sher:10 ali:10 cd:1 charles:1 chamberlain:1 richard:1 f:1 pollock:1 addendum:1 permit:1 military:3 mission:8 persian:1 retook:1 acquiescence:2 successor:2 recapture:1 old:3 afzal:1 abdur:23 rahman:23 retreat:1 across:1 amu:2 darya:2 bid:1 immediately:1 especially:3 uprising:5 liberal:1 party:1 london:4 buffer:2 find:1 ready:1 regime:1 nothing:1 ten:2 deteriorate:1 worry:1 send:2 envoy:3 previous:1 latter:2 boundary:10 amir:8 outside:3 assurance:2 disappointed:1 cartoon:1 depict:1 tension:1 europe:5 june:1 congress:1 berlin:1 attention:3 uninvited:1 tried:1 keep:5 envoys:1 july:2 august:2 receive:2 threaten:1 stop:1 dispatch:1 lytton:1 viceroy:2 september:3 approach:1 entrance:1 trigger:1 fight:3 men:2 distribute:1 penetrate:1 different:2 point:1 alarmed:1 appeal:1 person:1 tsar:1 assistance:2 unable:1 february:2 yaqub:6 pierre:2 cavagnari:3 may:4 gandamak:4 much:4 country:7 prevent:1 rest:1 accord:2 annual:1 subsidy:2 vague:1 case:2 aggression:1 relinquish:2 affair:4 representative:1 location:1 extend:2 michni:1 cede:4 quetta:1 afterwards:1 slaughter:1 resident:2 staff:2 provoke:1 phase:1 frederick:1 roberts:1 field:1 shutargardan:1 char:1 asiab:1 ghazi:1 jan:1 wardak:1 stag:1 near:1 siege:2 sherpur:2 december:1 result:1 collapse:1 durban:1 maidan:1 suspect:1 complicity:1 oblige:1 abdicate:1 consider:3 number:2 possible:1 settlement:1 partition:1 multiple:1 ayub:3 ultimately:1 decide:1 install:1 cousin:2 serve:1 revolt:1 detachment:1 maiwand:1 robert:2 main:2 decisively:1 bring:5 confirm:1 policy:9 exchange:3 protection:1 abandon:1 provocative:1 maintain:1 objective:1 withdrew:1 iron:2 far:3 answer:1 prayer:1 forceful:1 intelligent:1 capable:1 weld:1 divided:1 people:2 willing:1 limitation:1 twenty:1 reign:7 mark:1 modernize:3 delineate:4 considerable:2 energy:1 evolve:1 creation:1 consolidation:1 harsh:1 punishment:1 execution:1 deportation:1 stronghold:1 forcibly:1 transplant:2 powerful:1 southern:1 north:4 predominantly:1 non:2 population:1 muslim:3 kafiristan:1 forcefully:1 convert:1 islam:1 finally:1 create:6 system:2 provincial:3 governorates:1 matter:4 disposal:1 enforce:1 tax:1 collection:1 dissent:1 close:2 eye:2 intelligence:1 organization:1 erode:1 official:1 allow:2 hand:2 traditional:1 clan:1 limit:3 forge:2 splintered:1 comprise:1 try:2 regular:3 institutionalized:1 bureaucracy:1 despite:3 distinctly:1 authoritarian:1 personality:1 call:1 loya:1 jirga:1 assemblage:1 royal:2 important:2 notable:2 religious:2 autobiography:1 goal:1 strong:1 visible:1 reinforce:1 family:2 visit:2 rawalpindi:2 request:1 depute:1 noble:1 birth:1 background:1 mirza:2 atta:1 ullah:2 sardar:1 bahadur:2 fakir:1 saman:1 burj:1 wazirabad:1 direct:1 descendent:1 jarral:1 rajput:1 raja:1 rajauri:1 select:1 approve:1 pay:1 technological:1 advancement:1 physician:1 engineer:1 mine:1 geologist:1 printer:1 import:1 machinery:1 encourage:1 establishment:1 factory:1 manufacture:1 soap:1 candle:1 leather:1 good:1 technical:1 communication:2 transport:2 irrigation:1 strongly:1 resist:2 modernization:3 workman:1 make:4 road:1 protect:1 warrior:1 nonetheless:1 sweeping:1 internal:3 completely:1 dispute:1 panjdeh:4 crisis:1 precipitate:1 seize:3 merv:1 mary:1 oasis:4 adjacent:1 debate:1 keen:3 turkoman:1 quickly:1 alert:1 compromise:2 possession:1 believe:1 could:2 farther:1 without:2 say:1 joint:2 commission:3 farthest:1 retain:1 section:2 loss:1 demarcate:1 wakhan:1 corridor:1 insist:1 sovereignty:1 remote:1 unruly:1 sway:1 choice:1 northeast:1 chinese:2 durand:7 significant:1 line:6 draw:1 head:2 secretary:1 mortimer:1 define:1 question:1 degree:2 willingly:1 certain:2 indication:1 regard:1 delimitation:1 separate:2 responsibility:1 international:1 explicitly:1 kurram:1 chitral:1 bore:1 little:1 reality:1 demography:1 strategy:1 foundation:2 peace:1 heated:1 disagreement:1 pashtunistan:1 see:3 malakand:1 manifestation:1 peaceful:1 succession:3 eldest:2 habibullah:9 child:2 groom:1 succeed:1 difficult:1 contest:1 sequester:1 slave:1 watch:1 intrigue:2 revolve:1 distinguished:1 wife:2 granddaughter:1 position:1 virtue:1 domineer:1 consequently:1 mahmud:4 tarzi:7 increase:2 highly:2 educate:2 travel:2 poet:2 journalist:2 nationalist:2 newspaper:2 platform:1 rebut:1 clerical:1 criticism:1 society:1 espouse:1 full:3 reform:4 passionate:1 nationalism:1 future:1 generation:1 reformer:1 firmly:1 ambiguous:1 share:1 water:1 helmand:1 river:1 like:2 period:2 affect:1 conclusion:1 occur:1 convention:3 entente:2 st:1 petersburg:1 neutrality:1 provide:3 consult:1 relate:1 annex:1 interfere:1 neutral:1 turkey:2 sultan:1 holy:1 entertain:1 german:2 turkish:1 titular:1 mahendra:1 pratap:1 oskar:1 niedermayer:1 legate:1 werner:1 otto:1 von:1 hentig:1 procrastination:1 win:1 huge:1 payment:1 provision:1 crafty:1 clearly:1 offer:1 amanullah:16 assassinate:1 hunting:1 trip:2 declare:3 charge:1 national:1 treasury:1 situate:1 imprison:1 relative:1 swear:1 loyalty:1 within:2 gain:1 allegiance:1 city:2 heavily:1 law:1 minister:1 diplomat:1 key:2 figure:1 dress:2 etiquette:1 progressive:1 woman:2 right:4 educational:1 freedom:2 press:1 welcome:1 soraya:1 honor:1 fete:1 fact:1 queen:1 honorary:1 oxford:2 university:1 era:1 egypt:1 path:1 impressed:1 progress:1 implement:1 away:1 met:1 heavy:1 resistance:1 conservative:1 sect:1 eventually:1 demise:1 enjoy:1 quite:1 bit:1 popularity:1 cosmopolitan:1 school:1 boy:1 girl:1 overturn:1 tradition:1 strict:1 code:1 capital:1 trade:1 modernist:1 constitution:1 incorporate:1 individual:1 rapid:1 though:1 backlash:1 reactionary:1 khost:1 initiate:1 dramatic:1 domestic:2 politics:2 spark:1 alter:1 external:2 transform:1 economic:1 abruptly:1 success:2 due:1 centripetal:1 machination:1 folly:1 revolution:1 scheme:1 modernise:1 free:1 domination:1 amanulla:1 shore:1 powerbase:1 amidst:1 unrest:2 divert:1 division:1 unite:1 faction:1 behind:1 barthorp:3 excuse:1 cross:1 village:1 bagh:1 scene:1 wilkinson:3 latham:3 mcbride:3 response:1 mobilisation:1 still:1 recover:2 station:1 mainly:1 reserve:1 await:1 demobilisation:1 whilst:1 regiment:1 available:1 tire:1 deplete:1 five:1 initial:2 surprise:2 thrust:1 join:1 large:1 series:2 skirmish:1 counter:1 balance:1 deficiency:1 manpower:1 morale:1 term:2 equipment:1 possess:1 machine:1 gun:1 armoured:1 car:1 motor:1 wire:1 le:1 aircraft:1 prove:1 decisive:1 airpower:1 shock:1 home:1 aerial:1 bombardment:2 role:1 armistice:2 angry:1 rebuke:1 write:1 regret:1 throwing:1 bomb:1 zeppelin:1 denounce:1 savage:1 act:1 worship:1 sacred:1 spot:1 abominable:1 operation:2 habit:1 prevalent:1 civilized:1 citation:1 need:1 fighting:1 conclude:2 virtually:1 dictate:1 temporary:1 somewhat:1 ambiguously:1 self:1 determination:1 balthorp:1 final:1 soviet:1 union:1 reference:1 footnote:1 source:1 vogelsang:1 willem:1 pp:1 blackwell:1 publisher:1 isbn:3 michael:1 cassell:1 angus:1 osprey:1 publishing:1 imperialism:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 archibald:1 forbes:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 countrystudies:1 u:1 cia:1 factbook:1 |@bigram seleucid_dynasty:1 greco_bactrian:3 bactrian_kingdom:3 dost_mohammad:16 khyber_pas:5 shuja_shah:4 shah_durrani:3 ranjit_singh:4 mohammad_akbar:3 akbar_khan:6 pyrrhic_victory:1 nineteenth_century:3 hindu_kush:2 punjab_sindh:1 kabul_kandahar:1 anglo_afghan:7 shah_shuja:1 retake_throne:1 lord_ellenborough:1 mazari_sharif:2 diplomatic_relation:3 territorial_integrity:1 sher_ali:10 abdur_rahman:23 amu_darya:2 diplomatic_mission:2 lord_lytton:1 yaqub_khan:4 foreign_affair:3 soon_afterwards:1 ayub_khan:3 rahman_khan:3 decisively_defeat:1 emir_abdur:1 pashtun_tribe:1 loya_jirga:1 technological_advancement:1 eldest_son:2 habibullah_khan:5 revolve_around:1 mahmud_tarzi:4 st_petersburg:1 amanullah_khan:6 swear_loyalty:1 centripetal_force:1 divert_attention:1 pashtun_tribesman:1 aerial_bombardment:1 self_determination:1 soviet_union:1 blackwell_publisher:1 osprey_publishing:1 external_link:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 project_gutenberg:1 countrystudies_u:1 |
7,444 | Metric_space | In mathematics, a metric space is a set where a notion of distance (called a metric) between elements of the set is defined. The metric space which most closely corresponds to our intuitive understanding of space is the 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In fact, the notion of "metric" is a generalization of the Euclidean metric arising from the four long known properties of the Euclidean distance. The Euclidean metric defines the distance between two points as the length of the straight line connecting them. The geometric properties of the space depends on the metric chosen, and by using a different metric we can construct interesting non-Euclidean geometries such as those used in the theory of general relativity. A metric space also induces topological properties like open and closed sets which leads to the study of even more abstract topological spaces. History Maurice Fréchet introduced metric spaces in his work Sur quelques points du calcul fonctionnel, Rendic. Circ. Mat. Palermo 22 (1906) 1–74. Definition A metric space is an ordered pair (M,d) where M is a set (which some authors require to be non-empty) and d is a metric on M, that is, a function such that for any x, y and z in M d(x, y) ≥ 0 (non-negativity) d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y (identity of indiscernibles) d(x, y) = d(y, x) (symmetry) d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) (triangle inequality). The first condition follows from the other three, since: 2d(x, y) = d(x, y) + d(y, x) ≥ d(x,x) = 0. A more compact definition replaces the above four axioms by: d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(z, y) The function d is also called distance function or simply distance. Often d is omitted and one just writes M for a metric space if it is clear from the context what metric is used. Relaxing the second requirement, or removing the third or fourth, leads to the concepts of a pseudometric space, a quasimetric space, or a semimetric space. If the function takes values in the extended real number line R∪{∞}, but otherwise satisfies above conditions, then it is called an extended metric and the corresponding space is called an -metric space. Examples of metric spaces Ignoring mathematical details, for any system of roads and terrains the distance between two locations can be defined as the length of the shortest route connecting those locations. To be a metric there shouldn't be any one-way roads. The triangle inequality expresses the fact that detours aren't shortcuts. Many of the examples below can be seen as concrete versions of this general idea. The real numbers with the distance function d(x, y) = |y − x| given by the absolute value, and more generally Euclidean n-space with the Euclidean distance, are complete metric spaces. The rational numbers with the same distance function are also a metric space, but are not complete. Any normed vector space is a metric space by defining d(x, y) = ||y − x||, see also . (If such a space is complete, we call it a Banach space). Examples: the Manhattan norm gives rise to the Manhattan distance, where the distance between any two points, or vectors, is the sum of the distances between corresponding coordinates. The maximum norm gives rise to the Chebyshev distance or chessboard distance, the minimal number of moves a chess king would take to travel from x to y. The British Rail metric (also called the Post Office metric or the SNCF metric) on a normed vector space, given by d(x, y) = ||x|| + ||y|| for distinct points x and y, and d(x, x) = 0. More generally ||.|| can be replaced with a function f taking an arbitrary set S to non-negative reals and taking the value 0 at most once: then the metric is defined on S by d(x, y)=f(x)+f(y) for distinct points x and y, and d(x, x) = 0. The name alludes to the tendency of railway journeys (or letters) to proceed via London (or Paris) irrespective of their final destination. If (M,d) is a metric space and X is a subset of M, then X becomes a metric space by restricting d to X×X. The discrete metric, where d(x,y)=0 if x = y and d(x,y)=1 otherwise, is a simple but important example, and can be applied to all non-empty sets. This, in particular, shows that for any non-empty set, there is always a metric space associated to it. Using this metric, any point is an open ball, and therefore every subset is open and the space has the discrete topology. The hyperbolic plane is a metric space. If X is some set and M is a metric space, then the set of all bounded functions f : X → M (i.e. those functions whose image is a bounded subset of M) can be turned into a metric space by defining d(f, g) = supx in X d(f(x), g(x)) for any bounded functions f and g. If M is complete, then this space is complete as well. If X is a topological (or metric) space and M is a metric space, then the set of all bounded continuous functions from X to M forms a metric space if we define the metric as above: d(f, g) = supx in X d(f(x), g(x)) for any bounded continuous functions f and g. If M is complete, then this space is complete as well. If M is a connected Riemannian manifold, then we can turn M into a metric space by defining the distance of two points as the infimum of the lengths of the paths (continuously differentiable curves) connecting them. If G is an undirected connected graph, then the set V of vertices of G can be turned into a metric space by defining d(x, y) to be the length of the shortest path connecting the vertices x and y. In geometric group theory this is applied to the Cayley graph of a group, yielding the word metric. The Levenshtein distance is a measure of the dissimilarity between two strings u and v, defined as the minimal number of character deletions, insertions, or substitutions required to transform u into v. This can be thought as a special case of the shortest path metric in a graph and is one example of an edit distance. Given a metric space (X,d) and an increasing concave function f:[0,∞)→[0,∞) such that f(x)=0 if and only if x=0, then f o d is also a metric on X. Given an injective function f from any set A to a metric space (X,d), d(f(x), f(y)) defines a metric on A. Using T-theory, the tight span of a metric space is also a metric space. The tight span is useful in several types of analysis. The set of all m by n matrices over some field is a metric space with respect to the rank distance d(X,Y) = rank(Y-X). The Helly metric is used in game theory. Open and closed sets, topology and convergence Every metric space is a topological space in a natural manner, and therefore all definitions and theorems about topological spaces also apply to all metric spaces. About any point x in a metric space M we define the open ball of radius r (>0) about x as the set B(x; r) = {y in M : d(x,y) < r}. These open balls generate a topology on M, making it a topological space. Explicitly, a subset U of M is called open if to every x in U there exists an r>0 such that B(x; r) is contained in U. The complement of an open set is called closed. A neighborhood of the point x is any subset of M that contains an open ball about x as a subset. A topological space which can arise in this way from a metric space is called a metrizable space; see the article on metrization theorems for further details. A sequence (xn) in a metric space M is said to converge to the limit x∈M iff for every r>0 there exists a natural number N such that d(xn,x) < r for all n>N. Equivalently, one can use the general definition of convergence available in all topological spaces. A subset A of the metric space M is closed if and only if every sequence in A that converges to a limit in M has its limit in A. Types of metric spaces Complete spaces A metric space is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence converges in . That is to say: if as both n and m independently go to infinity, then there is some with . Every Euclidean space is complete, as is every closed subset of a complete space. The rational numbers, using the absolute value metric d(x,y)=|x-y|, are not complete. Every metric space has a unique completion, which is a complete space that contains the given space as a dense subset. For example, the real numbers are the completion of the rationals. If X is a complete subset of the metric space M, then X is closed in M. Indeed, a space is complete if and only if it is closed in any containing metric space. Every complete metric space is a Baire space. Bounded and totally bounded spaces A metric space M is called bounded if there exists some number r, such that d(x,y) ≤ r for all x and y in M. The smallest possible such r is called the diameter of M. The space M is called precompact or totally bounded if for every r > 0 there exist finitely many open balls of radius r whose union covers M. Since the set of the centres of these balls is finite, it has finite diameter, from which it follows (using the triangle inequality) that every totally bounded space is bounded. The converse does not hold, since any infinite set can be given the discrete metric (one of the examples above) under which it is bounded and yet not totally bounded. Note that in the context of intervals in the space of real numbers and occasionally regions in a Euclidean space Rn a bounded set is referred to as "a finite interval" or "finite region". However boundedness should not in general be confused with "finite", which refers to the number of elements, not to how far the set extends; finiteness implies boundedness, but not conversely. Compact spaces A metric space M is compact if every sequence in M has a subsequence that converges to a point in M. This is known as sequential compactness and, in metric spaces (but not in general topological spaces), is equivalent to the topological notions of countable compactness and compactness defined via open covers. Examples of compact metric spaces include the closed interval [0,1] with the absolute value metric, all metric spaces with finitely many points, and the Cantor set. Every closed subset of a compact space is itself compact. A metric space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded. This is known as the Heine–Borel theorem. Note that compactness depends only on the topology, while boundedness depends on the metric. Lebesgue's number lemma states that for every open cover of a compact metric space M, there exists a "Lebesgue number" δ such that every subset of M of diameter < δ is contained in some member of the cover. Every compact metric space is second countable, PlanetMath: a compact metric space is second countable and is a continuous image of the Cantor set. (The latter result is due to Pavel Alexandrov and Urysohn.) Locally compact and proper spaces A metric space is said to be locally compact if every point has a compact neighborhood. Euclidean spaces are locally compact, but infinite-dimensional Banach spaces are not. A space is proper if every closed ball {y : d(x,y) ≤ r} is compact. Proper spaces are locally compact, but the converse is not true in general. Connectedness A metric space M is connected if the only subsets that are both open and closed are the empty set and M itself. A metric space M is path connected if two any two points x, y in M there exists a continuous map f:[0,1]→M with f(0)=x and f(1)=y. Every path connected space is connected, but the converse is not true in general. There are also local versions of these definitions: locally connected spaces and locally path connected spaces. Simply connected spaces are those that, in a certain sense, do not have "holes". Separable spaces A metric space is separable space if it has a countable dense subset. Typical examples are the real numbers or any Euclidean space. For metric spaces (but not for general topological spaces) separability is equivalent to second countability and also to the Lindelöf property. Types of maps between metric spaces Suppose (M1,d1) and (M2,d2) are two metric spaces. Continuous maps The map f:M1→M2 is continuous if it has one (and therefore all) of the following equivalent properties: general topological continuity for every open set U in M2, the preimage f -1(U) is open in M1 This is the general definition of continuity in topology. sequential continuity if (xn) is a sequence in M1 that converges to x in M1, then the sequence (f(xn)) converges to f(x) in M2. This is sequential continuity, due to Eduard Heine. ε-δ definition for every x in M1 and every ε>0 there exists δ>0 such that This uses the (ε, δ)-definition of limit, and is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy. Moreover, f is continuous if and only if it is continuous on every compact subset of M1. The image of every compact set under a continuous function is compact, and the image of every connected set under a continuous function is connected. Uniformly continuous maps The map ƒ : M1 → M2 is uniformly continuous if for every ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that Every uniformly continuous map ƒ : M1 → M2 is continuous. The converse is true if M1 is compact (Heine-Cantor theorem). Uniformly continuous maps turn Cauchy sequences in M1 into Cauchy sequences into M2. Lipschitz-continuous maps and contractions Given a number K > 0, the map ƒ : M1 → M2 is K-Lipschitz continuous if Every Lipschitz-continuous map is uniformly continuous, but the converse is not true in general. If K < 1, then ƒ is called a contraction. Suppose M2 = M1 and M1 is complete. If ƒ is a contraction, then ƒ admits a unique fixed point (Banach fixed point theorem). If M1 is compact, the condition can be weakened a bit: ƒ admits a unique fixed point if for all . Isometries The map f:M1→M2 is an isometry if Isometries are always injective; the image of a compact or complete set under an isometry is compact or complete, respectively. However, if the isometry is not surjective, then the image of a closed (or open) set need not be closed (or open). Quasi-isometries The map f:M1→M2 is a quasi-isometry if there exist constants A≥1 and B≥0 such that and a constant C≥0 such that every point in M2 has a distance at most C from some point in the image f(M1). Note that a quasi-isometry is not required to be continuous. Quasi-isometries compare the "large-scale structure" of metric spaces; they find use in geometric group theory in relation to the word metric. Notions of metric space equivalence Given two metric spaces (M1, d1) and (M2, d2): They are called homeomorphic (topologically isomorphic) if there exists a homeomorphism between them (i.e., a bijection continuous in both directions). They are called uniformic (uniformly isomorphic) if there exists a uniform isomorphism between them (i.e., a bijection uniformly continuous in both directions). They are called isometric if there exists a bijective isometry between them. In this case, the two metric spaces are essentially identical. They are called quasi-isometric if there exists a quasi-isometry between them. Topological properties Metric spaces are paracompact Rudin, Mary Ellen. A new proof that metric spaces are paracompact. Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, Vol. 20, No. 2. (Feb., 1969), p. 603. Hausdorff spaces and hence normal (indeed they are perfectly normal). An important consequence is that every metric space admits partitions of unity and that every continuous real-valued function defined on a closed subset of a metric space can be extended to a continuous map on the whole space (Tietze extension theorem). It is also true that every real-valued Lipschitz-continuous map defined on a subset of a metric space can be extended to a Lipschitz-continuous map on the whole space. Metric spaces are first countable since one can use balls with rational radius as a neighborhood base. The metric topology on a metric space M is the coarsest topology on M relative to which the metric d is a continuous map from the product of M with itself to the non-negative real numbers. Distance between points and sets; Hausdorff distance and Gromov metric A simple way to construct a function separating a point from a closed set (as required for a completely regular space) is to consider the . If (M,d) is a metric space, S is a subset of M and x is a point of M, we define the distance from x to S as d(x,S) = inf {d(x,s) : s ∈ S} Then d(x, S) = 0 if and only if x belongs to the closure of S. Furthermore, we have the following generalization of the triangle inequality: d(x,S) ≤ d(x,y) + d(y,S) which in particular shows that the map is continuous. Given two subsets S and T of M, we define their Hausdorff distance to be dH(S,T) = max { sup {d(s,T) : s ∈ S}, sup {d(t,S) : t ∈ T} } In general, the Hausdorff distance dH(S,T) can be infinite. Two sets are close to each other in the Hausdorff distance if every element of either set is close to some element of the other set. The Hausdorff distance dH turns the set K(M) of all non-empty compact subsets of M into a metric space. One can show that K(M) is complete if M is complete. (A different notion of convergence of compact subsets is given by the Kuratowski convergence.) One can then define the Gromov-Hausdorff distance between any two metric spaces by considering the minimal Hausdorff distance of isometrically embedded versions of the two spaces. Using this distance, the set of all (isometry classes of) compact metric spaces becomes a metric space in its own right. Product metric spaces If are metric spaces, and N is the Euclidean norm on Rn, then is a metric space, where the product metric is defined by , and the induced topology agrees with the product topology. By the equivalence of norms in finite dimensions, an equivalent metric is obtained if N is the taxicab norm, a p-norm, the max norm, or any other norm which is non-decreasing as the coordinates of a positive n-tuple increase (yielding the triangle inequality). Similarly, a countable product of metric spaces can be obtained using the following metric . An uncountable product of metric spaces need not be metrizable. For example, is not first-countable and thus isn't metrizable. Continuity of distance It is worth noting that in the case of a single space , the distance map (from the definition) is uniformly continuous with respect to any of the above product metrics (and in particular, continuous with respect to the product topology of ). Quotient metric spaces If M is a metric space with metric d, and ~ is an equivalence relation on M, then we can endow the quotient set M/~ with the following (pseudo)metric. Given two equivalence classes [x] and [y], we define where the infimum is taken over all finite sequences and with , , . In general this will only define a pseudometric, i.e. does not necessarily imply that [x]=[y]. However for nice equivalence relations (e.g., those given by gluing together polyhedra along faces), it is a metric. Moreover if M is a compact space, then the induced topology on M/~ is the quotient topology. The quotient metric d is characterized by the following universal property. If is a metric map between metric spaces (that is, for all x, y) satisfying f(x)=f(y) whenever then the induced function , given by , is a metric map A topological space is sequential if and only if it is a quotient of a metric space. Goreham, Anthony. Sequential convergence in Topological Spaces. Honours' Dissertation, Queen's College, Oxford (April, 2001), p. 14 See also Glossary of Riemannian and metric geometry Topology Triangle inequality Lipschitz continuity isometry, contraction mapping and metric map Category of metric spaces Measure (mathematics) Norm (mathematics) Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime Classical Wiener space Premetric space Expansion constant Notes References Victor Bryant, Metric Spaces: Iteration and Application, Cambridge University Press, 1985, ISBN 0-521-31897-1. Dmitri Burago, Yu D Burago, Sergei Ivanov, A Course in Metric Geometry, American Mathematical Society, 2001, ISBN 0-8218-2129-6. Mícheál Ó Searcóid, Metric Spaces, Springer Undergraduate Mathematics Series, 2006, ISBN 1-84628-369-8. External links Far and near — several examples of distance functions at cut-the-knot | Metric_space |@lemmatized mathematics:5 metric:126 space:144 set:36 notion:5 distance:32 call:17 element:4 define:21 closely:1 correspond:2 intuitive:1 understanding:1 dimensional:2 euclidean:12 fact:2 generalization:2 arise:2 four:2 long:1 known:1 property:7 two:15 point:21 length:4 straight:1 line:2 connect:11 geometric:3 depend:2 chosen:1 use:14 different:2 construct:2 interesting:1 non:9 geometry:3 theory:5 general:13 relativity:1 also:12 induce:1 topological:15 like:1 open:17 close:9 lead:2 study:1 even:1 abstract:1 history:1 maurice:1 fréchet:1 introduce:1 work:1 sur:1 quelques:1 du:1 calcul:1 fonctionnel:1 rendic:1 circ:1 mat:1 palermo:1 definition:9 ordered:1 pair:1 author:1 require:4 empty:5 function:20 x:93 z:5 negativity:1 identity:1 indiscernibles:1 symmetry:1 triangle:6 inequality:6 first:3 condition:3 follow:2 three:1 since:4 compact:27 replace:2 axiom:1 simply:2 often:1 omit:1 one:9 write:1 clear:1 context:2 relax:1 second:4 requirement:1 remove:1 third:1 fourth:1 concept:1 pseudometric:2 quasimetric:1 semimetric:1 take:5 value:7 extended:2 real:9 number:16 r:14 otherwise:2 satisfies:1 corresponding:1 example:11 ignore:1 mathematical:3 detail:2 system:1 road:2 terrains:1 location:2 short:3 route:1 way:3 express:1 detour:1 shortcut:1 many:3 see:4 concrete:1 version:3 idea:1 give:15 absolute:3 generally:2 n:9 complete:22 rational:4 normed:2 vector:3 banach:3 manhattan:2 norm:9 rise:2 sum:1 coordinate:2 maximum:1 chebyshev:1 chessboard:1 minimal:3 move:1 chess:1 king:1 would:1 travel:1 british:1 rail:1 post:1 office:1 sncf:1 distinct:2 f:29 arbitrary:1 negative:2 name:1 allude:1 tendency:1 railway:1 journey:1 letter:1 proceed:1 via:2 london:1 paris:1 irrespective:1 final:1 destination:1 subset:21 become:2 restrict:1 discrete:3 simple:2 important:2 apply:3 particular:3 show:3 always:2 associate:1 ball:8 therefore:3 every:34 topology:13 hyperbolic:1 plane:1 bound:9 e:5 whose:2 image:7 bounded:6 turn:5 g:9 supx:2 well:2 continuous:30 form:1 connected:4 riemannian:2 manifold:1 infimum:2 path:6 continuously:1 differentiable:1 curve:1 undirected:1 graph:3 v:3 vertex:2 group:3 cayley:1 yield:2 word:2 levenshtein:1 measure:2 dissimilarity:1 string:1 u:7 character:1 deletion:1 insertion:1 substitution:1 transform:1 think:1 special:1 case:3 edit:1 increase:2 concave:1 injective:2 tight:2 span:2 useful:1 several:2 type:3 analysis:1 matrix:1 field:1 respect:3 rank:2 helly:1 game:1 closed:8 convergence:5 natural:2 manner:1 theorem:6 radius:3 b:3 generate:1 make:1 explicitly:1 exist:13 contain:5 complement:1 neighborhood:3 metrizable:3 article:1 metrization:1 sequence:9 xn:4 say:4 converge:4 limit:4 iff:1 equivalently:1 available:1 cauchy:4 converges:2 independently:1 go:1 infinity:1 unique:3 completion:2 dense:2 indeed:2 baire:1 totally:5 small:1 possible:1 diameter:3 precompact:1 finitely:2 union:1 cover:4 centre:1 finite:7 converse:5 hold:1 infinite:3 yet:1 note:5 interval:3 occasionally:1 region:2 rn:2 refer:2 however:3 boundedness:3 confuse:1 far:2 extend:3 finiteness:1 implies:1 conversely:1 subsequence:1 know:2 sequential:5 compactness:4 equivalent:4 countable:7 include:1 cantor:3 heine:3 borel:1 depends:1 lebesgue:2 lemma:1 state:1 δ:6 member:1 planetmath:1 latter:1 result:1 due:3 pavel:1 alexandrov:1 urysohn:1 locally:6 proper:3 true:5 connectedness:1 map:22 local:1 certain:1 sense:1 hole:1 separable:2 typical:1 separability:1 countability:1 lindelöf:1 suppose:2 following:5 continuity:6 preimage:1 eduard:1 ε:4 augustin:1 louis:1 moreover:2 uniformly:8 ƒ:7 lipschitz:6 contraction:4 k:5 admit:2 fix:3 weaken:1 bit:1 isometry:12 respectively:1 surjective:1 need:2 quasi:6 isometries:1 constant:3 c:2 compare:1 large:1 scale:1 structure:1 find:1 relation:3 equivalence:5 homeomorphic:1 topologically:1 isomorphic:2 homeomorphism:1 bijection:2 direction:2 uniformic:1 uniform:1 isomorphism:1 isometric:2 bijective:1 essentially:1 identical:1 paracompact:2 rudin:1 mary:1 ellen:1 new:1 proof:1 proceeding:1 american:2 society:2 vol:1 feb:1 p:3 hausdorff:8 hence:1 normal:2 perfectly:1 consequence:1 admits:1 partition:1 unity:1 whole:2 tietze:1 extension:1 base:1 coarse:1 relative:1 product:8 gromov:2 separate:1 completely:1 regular:1 consider:2 inf:1 belongs:1 closure:1 furthermore:1 dh:3 max:2 sup:2 either:1 kuratowski:1 isometrically:1 embedded:1 class:2 right:1 induced:3 agree:1 dimension:1 obtain:2 taxicab:1 decreasing:1 positive:1 tuple:1 similarly:1 uncountable:1 thus:1 worth:1 single:1 quotient:5 endow:1 pseudo:1 necessarily:1 imply:1 nice:1 glue:1 together:1 polyhedron:1 along:1 face:1 characterize:1 universal:1 satisfy:1 whenever:1 goreham:1 anthony:1 honour:1 dissertation:1 queen:1 college:1 oxford:1 april:1 glossary:1 mapping:1 category:1 basic:1 introduction:1 curved:1 spacetime:1 classical:1 wiener:1 premetric:1 expansion:1 reference:1 victor:1 bryant:1 iteration:1 application:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:3 dmitri:1 burago:2 yu:1 sergei:1 ivanov:1 course:1 mícheál:1 ó:1 searcóid:1 springer:1 undergraduate:1 series:1 external:1 link:1 near:1 cut:1 knot:1 |@bigram dimensional_euclidean:1 euclidean_geometry:1 topological_space:10 ordered_pair:1 triangle_inequality:6 normed_vector:2 banach_space:2 riemannian_manifold:1 continuously_differentiable:1 metrizable_space:1 metrization_theorem:1 cauchy_sequence:3 closed_interval:1 heine_borel:1 borel_theorem:1 locally_compact:4 infinite_dimensional:1 ε_δ:2 augustin_louis:1 uniformly_continuous:7 lipschitz_continuous:5 sup_sup:1 equivalence_relation:2 riemannian_metric:1 contraction_mapping:1 curved_spacetime:1 external_link:1 cut_knot:1 |
7,445 | Genome | An image of multiple chromosomes, making up a genome In classical genetics, the genome of a diploid organism including eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a gamete; thereby, a regular somatic cell contains two full sets of genomes. In haploid organisms, including bacteria, archaea, viruses, and mitochondria, a cell contains only a single set of the genome, usually in a single circular or contiguous linear DNA (or RNA for retroviruses). In modern molecular biology the genome of an organism is its hereditary information encoded in DNA (or, for retroviruses, RNA). The genome includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA. Ridley, M. (2006). Genome. New York, NY: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-019497-9 The term was adapted in 1920 by Hans Winkler, Professor of Botany at the University of Hamburg, Germany. The Oxford English Dictionary suggests the name to be a portmanteau of the words gene and chromosome; however, many related -ome words already existed, such as biome and rhizome, forming a vocabulary into which genome fits systematically. More precisely, the genome of an organism is a complete genetic sequence on one set of chromosomes; for example, one of the two sets that a diploid individual carries in every somatic cell. The term genome can be applied specifically to mean that stored on a complete set of nuclear DNA (i.e., the "nuclear genome") but can also be applied to that stored within organelles that contain their own DNA, as with the mitochondrial genome or the chloroplast genome. Additionally, the genome can comprise nonchromosomal genetic elements such as viruses, plasmids, and transposable elements . When people say that the genome of a sexually reproducing species has been "sequenced", typically they are referring to a determination of the sequences of one set of autosomes and one of each type of sex chromosome, which together represent both of the possible sexes. Even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as "a genome sequence" may be a composite read from the chromosomes of various individuals. In general use, the phrase "genetic makeup" is sometimes used conversationally to mean the genome of a particular individual or organism. The study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as genomics, which distinguishes it from genetics which generally studies the properties of single genes or groups of genes. Both the number of base pairs and the number of genes vary widely from one species to another, and there is little connection between the two (an observation known as the C-value paradox). At present, the highest known number of genes is around 60,000, for the protozoan causing trichomoniasis (see List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes), almost three times as many as in the human genome. An analogy to the human genome stored on DNA is that of instructions stored in a book: The book would be over one billion words long; The book would be bound in 5000 volumes, each one 300 pages long; The book fits into a cell nucleus the size of a pinpoint; A copy of the book (all 5000 volumes) is contained in almost every cell; Types Most biological entities that are more complex than a virus sometimes or always carry additional genetic material besides that which resides in their chromosomes. In some contexts, such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe, "genome" is meant to include information stored on this auxiliary material, which is carried in plasmids. In such circumstances then, "genome" describes all of the genes and information on non-coding DNA that have the potential to be present. In eukaryotes such as plants, protozoa and animals, however, "genome" carries the typical connotation of only information on chromosomal DNA. So although these organisms contain mitochondria that have their own DNA, the genes in this mitochondrial DNA are not considered part of the genome. In fact, mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome, often referred to as the "mitochondrial genome". Genomes and genetic variation Note that a genome does not capture the genetic diversity or the genetic polymorphism of a species. For example, the human genome sequence in principle could be determined from just half the information on the DNA of one cell from one individual. To learn what variations in genetic information underlie particular traits or diseases requires comparisons across individuals. This point explains the common usage of "genome" (which parallels a common usage of "gene") to refer not to the information in any particular DNA sequence, but to a whole family of sequences that share a biological context. Although this concept may seem counter intuitive, it is the same concept that says there is no particular shape that is the shape of a cheetah. Cheetahs vary, and so do the sequences of their genomes. Yet both the individual animals and their sequences share commonalities, so one can learn something about cheetahs and "cheetah-ness" from a single example of either. Sequencing and mapping The Human Genome Project was organized to map and to sequence the human genome. Other genome projects include mouse, rice, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the puffer fish, bacteria like E. coli, etc. In 1976, Walter Fiers at the University of Ghent (Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral RNA-genome (bacteriophage MS2). The first DNA-genome project to be completed was the Phage Φ-X174, with only 5368 base pairs, which was sequenced by Fred Sanger in 1977 . The first bacterial genome to be completed was that of Haemophilus influenzae, completed by a team at The Institute for Genomic Research in 1995. The development of new technologies has dramatically decreased the difficulty and cost of sequencing, and the number of complete genome sequences is rising rapidly. Among many genome database sites, the one maintained by the US National Institutes of Health is inclusive. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=Genome&itool=toolbar These new technologies open up the prospect of personal genome sequencing as an important diagnostic tool. A major step toward that goal was the May 2007 New York Times announcement that the full genome of DNA pioneer James D. Watson was deciphered. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/31/science/31cnd-gene.html?em&ex=1180843200&en=19e1d55639350b73&ei=5087%0A Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome. http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/whats_a_genome/Chp3_1.shtml http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/mapping.html Comparison of different genome sizes Organism typeOrganism Genome size (base pairs) NoteVirusBacteriophage MS23,569 First sequenced RNA-genome VirusSV405,224 VirusPhage Φ-X1745,386First sequenced DNA-genome VirusPhage λ48,502BacteriumHaemophilus influenzae 1,830,000First genome of living organism, July 1995 BacteriumCarsonella ruddii159,662Smallest non-viral genome. BacteriumBuchnera aphidicola600,000BacteriumWigglesworthia glossinidia700,000BacteriumEscherichia coli4,600,000 BacteriumSolibacter usitatus (strain Ellin 6076)9,970,000Largest known Bacterial genomeAmoebaAmoeba dubia670,000,000,000Largest known genome. PlantArabidopsis thaliana157,000,000First plant genome sequenced, December 2000. PlantGenlisea margaretae63,400,000Smallest recorded flowering plant genome, 2006.PlantFritillaria assyrica130,000,000,000PlantPopulus trichocarpa480,000,000First tree genome, September 2006MossPhyscomitrella patens480,000,000First genome of a bryophyte, January 2008 Daniel Lang, Andreas D. Zimmer, Stefan A. Rensing, Ralf Reski(2008): Exploring plant biodiversity: the Physcomitrella genome and beyond. Trends in Plant Science 13, 542-549. YeastSaccharomyces cerevisiae12,100,000 http://www.yeastgenome.org/ FungusAspergillus nidulans30,000,000NematodeCaenorhabditis elegans98,000,000First multicellular animal genome, December 1998 InsectDrosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)130,000,000 InsectBombyx mori (silk moth)530,000,000InsectApis mellifera (honey bee)1,770,000,000FishTetraodon nigroviridis (type of puffer fish)385,000,000Smallest vertebrate genome knownMammalHomo sapiens3,200,000,000FishProtopterus aethiopicus (marbled lungfish)130,000,000,000Largest vertebrate genome known Note: The DNA from a single human cell has a length of ~1.8 m (but at a width of ~2.4 nanometers). Since genomes and their organisms are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multicellular organisms (see Developmental biology). The work is both in vivo and in silico. Genome evolution Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be measured and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as chromosome number (karyotype), genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005). Duplications play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplications may range from extension of short tandem repeats, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplications of entire chromosomes or even entire genomes. Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty. Horizontal gene transfer is invoked to explain how there is often extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many microbes. Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to their nuclear chromosomes. See also Full Genome Sequencing Gene Gene family Genome Comparison Human genome Human microbiome project List of omics topics in biology List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes List of sequenced bacterial genomes List of sequenced archeal genomes List of sequenced plastomes Minimal Genome Project Mitochondrial genome Molecular systematics Molecular evolution Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium National Human Genome Research Institute References Further reading </div> External links Genomics Directory: A genomics and biotechnology database for scientists and students DNA Interactive: The History of DNA Science DNA From The Beginning All About The Human Genome Project from Genome.gov Animal genome size database Plant genome size database GOLD:Genomes OnLine Database The Genome News Network NCBI Entrez Genome Project database NCBI Genome Primer BBC News - Final genome 'chapter' published The Plant Genome IMG The Integrated Microbial Genomes system, for genome analysis by the DOE-JGI. CAMERA Cyberinfrastructure for Metagenomics, data repository and bioinformatics tools for metagenomic research GeneCards an integrated database of human genes. What Genomes Can Tell Us About the Past - lecture by Sydney Brenner Genome metaphor, reflecting from formal-net hierarchies, and software binaries. | Genome |@lemmatized image:1 multiple:1 chromosome:10 make:1 genome:100 classical:1 genetics:2 diploid:2 organism:15 include:5 eukarya:1 refers:1 full:4 set:7 gene:21 gamete:1 thereby:1 regular:1 somatic:2 cell:9 contains:1 two:4 haploid:1 bacteria:2 archaea:1 virus:3 mitochondrion:3 contain:4 single:6 usually:2 circular:1 contiguous:1 linear:1 dna:20 rna:4 retrovirus:2 modern:1 molecular:3 biology:3 hereditary:1 information:7 encode:1 non:3 cod:1 sequence:23 ridley:1 new:4 york:2 ny:1 harper:1 perennial:1 isbn:1 term:2 adapt:1 han:1 winkler:1 professor:1 botany:1 university:2 hamburg:1 germany:1 oxford:1 english:1 dictionary:1 suggest:1 name:1 portmanteau:1 word:3 however:2 many:4 relate:2 ome:1 already:1 exist:3 biome:1 rhizome:1 form:1 vocabulary:1 fit:2 systematically:1 precisely:1 complete:7 genetic:10 one:13 example:3 individual:6 carry:4 every:3 apply:2 specifically:1 mean:3 store:5 nuclear:3 e:2 also:3 within:1 organelle:1 mitochondrial:5 chloroplast:2 additionally:1 comprise:1 nonchromosomal:1 element:2 plasmid:2 transposable:1 people:1 say:3 sexually:1 reproduce:1 specie:4 typically:1 refer:4 determination:1 autosome:1 type:3 sex:3 together:1 represent:1 possible:1 even:2 describe:2 may:5 composite:1 read:2 various:1 general:1 use:2 phrase:1 makeup:1 sometimes:3 conversationally:1 particular:5 study:3 global:1 property:2 related:1 genomics:3 distinguish:1 generally:1 group:1 number:6 base:4 pair:3 vary:2 widely:1 another:1 little:1 connection:1 observation:1 know:4 c:1 value:1 paradox:1 present:2 high:1 known:1 around:2 protozoan:1 cause:1 trichomoniasis:1 see:4 list:7 sequenced:5 eukaryotic:3 almost:2 three:1 time:2 human:11 analogy:1 instruction:1 book:5 would:2 billion:1 long:2 bind:1 volume:2 page:1 nucleus:1 size:6 pinpoint:1 copy:1 biological:2 entity:1 complex:2 always:1 additional:1 material:3 besides:1 reside:1 context:2 pathogenic:1 microbe:2 auxiliary:1 circumstance:1 coding:1 potential:1 eukaryote:1 plant:8 protozoa:1 animal:4 typical:1 connotation:1 chromosomal:1 although:2 consider:1 part:1 fact:1 often:2 variation:2 note:2 capture:1 diversity:1 polymorphism:1 principle:1 could:2 determine:2 half:1 learn:2 underlie:1 trait:3 disease:1 require:1 comparison:3 across:1 point:1 explain:2 common:3 usage:3 parallel:1 whole:1 family:2 share:2 concept:2 seem:3 counter:1 intuitive:1 shape:3 cheetah:4 yet:1 commonality:1 something:1 ness:1 either:1 sequencing:2 map:4 project:7 organize:1 mouse:1 rice:1 arabidopsis:1 thaliana:1 puffer:2 fish:2 like:1 coli:1 etc:1 walter:1 fiers:1 ghent:1 belgium:1 first:4 establish:1 nucleotide:1 viral:2 bacteriophage:1 phage:1 φ:2 fred:1 sanger:1 bacterial:3 haemophilus:1 influenzae:2 team:1 institute:3 genomic:1 research:4 development:1 technology:2 dramatically:1 decrease:1 difficulty:1 cost:1 rise:1 rapidly:1 among:2 database:7 site:1 maintain:1 u:2 national:2 health:1 inclusive:1 http:5 www:5 ncbi:4 nlm:2 nih:2 gov:3 sit:1 entrez:2 db:1 itool:1 toolbar:1 open:1 prospect:1 personal:1 important:1 diagnostic:1 tool:2 major:2 step:1 toward:1 goal:1 announcement:1 pioneer:1 james:1 watson:1 decipher:1 nytimes:1 com:1 science:3 html:2 em:1 ex:1 en:1 ei:1 whereas:1 order:2 identify:1 landmark:1 less:1 detailed:1 aid:1 navigate:1 genomenewsnetwork:1 org:2 resource:1 shtml:1 primer:2 mapping:1 different:1 typeorganism:1 notevirusbacteriophage:1 virusphage:2 living:1 july:1 bacteriumcarsonella:1 bacteriumbuchnera:1 bacteriumsolibacter:1 usitatus:1 strain:1 ellin:1 genomeamoebaamoeba:1 plantarabidopsis:1 december:2 plantgenlisea:1 record:1 flowering:1 plantfritillaria:1 tree:1 september:1 bryophyte:1 january:1 daniel:1 lang:1 andreas:1 zimmer:1 stefan:1 rensing:1 ralf:1 reski:1 explore:1 biodiversity:1 physcomitrella:1 beyond:1 trend:1 yeastsaccharomyces:1 yeastgenome:1 fungusaspergillus:1 multicellular:2 insectdrosophila:1 melanogaster:1 fruit:1 fly:1 insectbombyx:1 mori:1 silk:1 moth:1 mellifera:1 honey:2 bee:2 nigroviridis:1 vertebrate:2 knownmammalhomo:1 aethiopicus:1 marbled:1 lungfish:1 length:1 width:1 nanometer:1 since:1 strategy:1 reduce:1 bare:1 minimum:1 still:1 question:1 survive:1 experimental:1 work:2 minimal:3 well:1 developmental:1 vivo:1 silico:1 evolution:2 sum:1 measure:1 without:1 reference:2 detail:1 product:1 researcher:1 compare:1 karyotype:1 codon:1 bias:1 gc:1 content:1 mechanism:1 produce:1 great:1 variety:1 today:1 recent:1 overview:1 brown:1 saccone:1 pesole:1 benfey:1 protopapas:1 gibson:1 muse:1 reese:1 gregory:1 duplication:5 play:1 role:1 range:1 extension:1 short:1 tandem:1 repeat:1 cluster:1 way:1 entire:2 probably:1 fundamental:1 creation:1 novelty:1 horizontal:2 transfer:3 invoke:1 extreme:1 similarity:1 small:1 portion:1 otherwise:1 distantly:1 experience:1 microbiome:1 omics:1 topic:1 archeal:1 plastomes:1 systematics:1 consortium:1 div:1 external:1 link:1 directory:1 biotechnology:1 scientist:1 student:1 interactive:1 history:1 begin:1 gold:1 online:1 news:2 network:1 bbc:1 final:1 chapter:1 publish:1 img:1 integrated:2 microbial:1 system:1 analysis:1 doe:1 jgi:1 camera:1 cyberinfrastructure:1 metagenomics:1 data:1 repository:1 bioinformatics:1 metagenomic:1 genecards:1 genomes:1 tell:1 past:1 lecture:1 sydney:1 brenner:1 metaphor:1 reflect:1 formal:1 net:1 hierarchy:1 software:1 binary:1 |@bigram diploid_organism:1 somatic_cell:2 bacteria_archaea:1 dna_rna:1 molecular_biology:1 harper_perennial:1 mitochondrial_genome:4 transposable_element:1 sexually_reproduce:1 list_sequenced:5 eukaryotic_genome:2 mitochondrial_dna:1 counter_intuitive:1 arabidopsis_thaliana:1 e_coli:1 viral_rna:1 bacterial_genome:2 haemophilus_influenzae:1 http_www:5 www_ncbi:2 ncbi_nlm:2 nlm_nih:2 nih_gov:2 www_nytimes:1 nytimes_com:1 en_ei:1 viral_genome:1 flowering_plant:1 honey_bee:2 bare_minimum:1 multicellular_organism:1 developmental_biology:1 distantly_relate:1 eukaryotic_cell:1 molecular_systematics:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 sydney_brenner:1 |
7,446 | Demographics_of_China | The demographics of the People's Republic of China are characterized by a large population with a relatively small youth cohort, which is partially a result of the People's Republic of China's one-child policy. The population policies implemented in China since 1979 have helped to prevent an extra 400 million births which would have placed the current population near 1.7 billion. Others believe this figure is greatly exaggerated and that the true impact is closer to 50-60 million. Pascal Rocha da Silva, La politique de l'enfant unique en République populaire de Chine, p. 116, cf. History Census The People's Republic of China conducted censuses in 1953, 1964, and 1982. In 1987 the government announced that the fourth national census would take place in 1990 and that there would be one every ten years thereafter. The 1982 census, which reported a total population of 1,008,180,738, is generally accepted as significantly more reliable, accurate, and thorough than the previous two. Various international organizations eagerly assisted the Chinese in conducting the 1982 census, including the United Nations Fund for Population Activities which donated US$15.6 million for the preparation and execution of the census. China has been the world's most populous nation for many centuries. When China took its first post-1949 census in 1953, the population stood at 582 million; by the fifth census in 2000, the population had more than doubled, reaching 1.2 billion. In the 1920s and 1930s, Chinese interest in social programs through reproductive control, including eugenics, intensified. Beginning in the mid-1950s, the Chinese government introduced, with varying degrees of success, a number of family planning, or population control, campaigns and programs. China’s fast-growing population was a major policy matter for its leaders in the mid-twentieth century, so that in the early 1970s, the government implemented the stringent one-child policy (publicly announced in 1979). Under this policy, which had different guidelines for national minorities, married couples were officially permitted only one child. As a result of the policy, China successfully achieved its goal of a more stable and much-reduced fertility rate; in 1971 women had an average of 5.4 children versus an estimated 1.7 children in 2004. Enforcement of the program, however, varied considerably from place to place, depending on the vigilance of local population control workers. In 1982 China conducted its first population census since 1964. It was by far the most thorough and accurate census taken since 1949 and confirmed that China was a nation of more than 1 billion people, or about one-fifth of the world's population. The census provided demographers with a set of data on China's age-sex structure, fertility and mortality rates, and population density and distribution. Information was also gathered on minority ethnic groups, urban population, and marital status. For the first time since the People's Republic of China was founded, demographers had reliable information on the size and composition of the Chinese work force. The nation began preparing for the 1982 census in late 1976. Chinese census workers were sent to the United States and Japan to study modern census-taking techniques and automation. Computers were installed in every provincial-level unit except Xizang and were connected to a central processing system in the Beijing headquarters of the State Statistical Bureau. Pretests and smallscale trial runs were conducted and checked for accuracy between 1980 and 1981 in twenty-four provincial-level units. Census stations were opened in rural production brigades and urban neighborhoods. Beginning 1 July 1982, each household sent a representative to a census station to be enumerated. The census required about a month to complete and employed approximately 5 million census takers. The 1982 census collected data in nineteen demographic categories relating to individuals and households. The thirteen areas concerning individuals were name, relationship to head of household, sex, age, nationality, registration status, educational level, profession, occupation, status of nonworking persons, marital status, number of children born and still living, and number of births in 1981. The six items pertaining to households were type (domestic or collective), serial number, number of persons, number of births in 1981, number of deaths in 1981, and number of registered persons absent for more than one year. Information was gathered in a number of important areas for which previous data were either extremely inaccurate or simply nonexistent, including fertility, marital status, urban population, minority ethnic groups, sex composition, age distribution, and employment and unemployment. A fundamental anomaly in the 1982 statistics was noted by some Western analysts. They pointed out that although the birth and death rates recorded by the census and those recorded through the household registration system were different, the two systems arrived at similar population totals. The discrepancies in the vital rates were the result of the underreporting of both births and deaths to the authorities under the registration system; families would not report some births because of the one-child policy and would not report some deaths so as to hold on to the rations of the deceased. Chinese and foreign demographers used the 1982 census age-sex structure as the base population for forecasting and making assumptions about future fertility trends. The data on age-specific fertility and mortality rates provided the necessary base-line information for making population projections. The census data also were useful for estimating future manpower potential, consumer needs, and utility, energy, and health-service requirements. The sudden abundance of demographic data also helped population specialists estimate world population growth. Fertility and mortality In 1949 crude death rates were probably higher than 30 per 1,000, and the average life expectancy was only 32 years. Beginning in the early 1950s, mortality steadily declined; it continued to decline through 1978 and remained relatively constant through 1987. One major fluctuation was reported in a computer reconstruction of China's population trends from 1953 to 1987 produced by the United States Bureau of the Census. The computer model showed that the crude death rate increased dramatically during the famine years associated with the Great Leap Forward (1958-60). According to Chinese government statistics, the crude birth rate followed five distinct patterns from 1949 to 1982. It remained stable from 1949 to 1954, varied widely from 1955 to 1965, experienced fluctuations between 1966 and 1969, dropped sharply in the late 1970s, and increased from 1980 to 1981. Between 1970 and 1980, the crude birth rate dropped from 36.9 per 1,000 to 17.6 per 1,000. The government attributed this dramatic decline in fertility to the wan xi shao (later marriages, longer intervals between births, and fewer children) birth control campaign. However, elements of socioeconomic change, such as increased employment of women in both urban and rural areas and reduced infant mortality (a greater percentage of surviving children would tend to reduce demand for additional children), may have played some role. The birth rate increased in both 1981 and 1982 to a level of 21 per 1,000, primarily as a result of a marked rise in marriages and first births. The rise was an indication of problems with the one-child policy of 1979. Chinese sources, however, indicated that the birth rate decreased to 17.8 in 1985 and remained relatively constant thereafter. In urban areas, the housing shortage may have been at least partly responsible for the decreased birth rate. Also, the policy in force during most of the 1960s and the early 1970s of sending large numbers of high school graduates to the countryside deprived cities of a significant proportion of persons of childbearing age and undoubtedly had some effect on birth rates (see Cultural Revolution (1966-76)). Primarily for economic reasons, rural birth rates tended to decline less than urban rates. The right to grow and sell agricultural products for personal profit and the lack of an oldage welfare system were incentives for rural people to produce many children, especially sons, for help in the fields and for support in old age. Because of these conditions, it is unclear to what degree education had been able to erode traditional values favoring large families. Today, the population continues to grow. There is also a serious gender imbalance. Census data obtained in 2000 revealed that 119 boys were born for every 100 girls, and among China’s "floating population" the ratio was as high as 128:100. These situations led the government in July 2004 to ban selective abortions of female fetuses. It is estimated that this imbalance will rise until 2025–2030 to reach 20% then slowly decrease. Pascal Rocha da Silva, Projection de la population chinoise 2000-2050, p. 9, cf. China now has an increasingly aging population; it is projected that 11.8% of the population in 2020 will be 65 years of age and older. Health care has improved dramatically in China since 1949. Major diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and scarlet fever have been brought under control. Life expectancy has more than doubled, and infant mortality has dropped significantly. On the negative side, the incidence of cancer, cerebrovascular disease, and heart disease has increased to the extent that these have become the leading causes of death. Economic reforms initiated in the late 1970s fundamentally altered methods of providing health care; the collective medical care system has been gradually replaced by a more individual-oriented approach. In Hong Kong, the birth rate of 0.9% is lower than its death rate. Hong Kong's population increases because of immigration from the mainland and a large expatriate population comprising about 4%. Like Hong Kong, Macau also has a low birth rate relying on immigration to maintain its population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. No statistics have been included for areas currently governed by the Republic of China. Unless stated otherwise, statistics refer only to mainland China. (See Demographics of Hong Kong and Demographics of Macau.) Population Mainland only: 1,338,612,968 (2009) Hong Kong: 7,055,071 (2009) Macau: 559,846 (2009) Total: 1,346,227,885 (2009). Population rank: 1 (See List of countries by population.) Population projection 2000: 1,264,587,054 2010: 1,347,000,000 2020: 1,430,000,000 2030: 1,461,000,000 2040: 1,463,144,780 2050: 1,465,224,000 Population density National average density: 137.0 persons per km2 (2007) Urban-rural ratio Urban: 42.3% (2007) - 562,000,000 Rural: 57.7% (2007) - 767,000,000 Age structure 0-14 years: 20.4% (male 143,527,634/female 126,607,344) (2007) 15-64 years: 71.7% (male 487,079,770/female 460,596,384) (2007) 65 years and over: 7.9% (male 49,683,856/female 54,356,900) (2007) Further breakdown of age distribution Under 15: 20.3% (2007) 15–29: 22.8% (2007) 30–44: 26.7% (2007) 45–59: 18.2% (2007) 60–74: 9.4% (2007) 75–84: 2.3% (2007) 85 and over: 0.3% (2007) Median age Total: 33.2 years (2007) Male: 32.7 years (2007) Female: 33.7 years (2007) Population growth rate Population growth rate: 0.606% (2007) Natural increase rate: 6.06/1,000 population (2007) Birth rate Birth rate: 13.45 births/1,000 population (2007) Death rate Death rate: 7 deaths/1,000 population (2007) Net migration rate Net migration rate: -0.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007) Sex distribution Sex distribution: male 51.53%; female 48.47% (2007) Sex ratio At birth: 1.11 male(s)/female (2007) Under 15 years: 1.134 male(s)/female (2007) 15-64 years: 1.057 male(s)/female (2007) 65 years and over: 0.914 male(s)/female (2007) Total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2007) Infant mortality rate Total: 22.12 deaths/1,000 live births (2007) Male: 20.01 deaths/1,000 live births (2007) Female: 24.47 deaths/1,000 live births (2007) Child mortality 415,000 children (under 16) died in China in 2006 (4.3 percent of the world total) Taipei Times - archives Life expectancy at birth Total population: 72.88 years (2007) Male: 71.13 years (2007) Female: 74.82 years (2007) Total fertility rate Total fertility rate: 1.75 (avg. births per woman in childbearing years) (2007) According to the 2000 census, the TFR was 1.22 (0.86 for cities, 1.08 for towns and 1.43 for villages/outposts). Beijing had the lowest TFR at 0.67, while Guizhou had the highest at 2.19. It should be noted that Xiangyang district of Jiamusi city (Heilongjiang) have a TFR of 0.41, which is the lowest TFR recorded anywhere in the world in recorded history. Other extreme low TFR counties are: 0.43 in the Heping district of Tianjin city (Tianjin), and 0.46 in the Mawei district of Fuzhou city (Fujian). At the other end TFR was 3.96 in Geji County (Tibet), 4.07 in Jiali County (Tibet), and 5.47 in Baqing County (Tibet). FERTILITY IN CHINA IN 2000: A COUNTY LEVEL ANALYSIS Marriage and divorce Marriage rate: 6.3/1,000 population (2006) Divorce rate: 1.0/1,000 population (2006) Literacy rate Age 15 and over can read and write: Total population: 90.9% (2000 census) Male: 95.1% (2000 census) Female: 86.5% (2000 census) Educational attainment As of 2000, percentage of population age 15 and over having: no schooling and incomplete primary: 15.6% completed primary: 35.7% some secondary: 34.0% complete secondary: 11.1% some postsecondary through advanced degree: 3.6% Religious affiliation Predominantly: Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism (Ancestor Worship). Minorities: Christianity (3% - 4%), Islam (1.5%), others. Note: State atheism, but traditionally pragmatic and eclectic. Sources: CIA Factbook - China Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs - Background Note: China Chinese Religions Travel China Guide Han Chinese people China - Religion Major cities Only urban population stated (over 1 million people at least), as of 2005: Shanghai 10,030,800 Beijing 7,699,300 Tianjin 4,933,100 Guangzhou 4,653,100 Wuhan 4,593,400 Chongqing 4,239,700 Shenyang 3,995,500 Nanjing 2,966,000 Harbin 2,735,100 Chengdu 2,664,000 Xi’an 2,657,900 Jinan 2,346,000 Changchun 2,283,800 Dalian 2,181,600 Hangzhou 2,059,800 Shijiazhuang 1,971,000 Taiyuan 1,970,300 Qingdao 1,930,200 Zhengzhou 1,770,800 Kunming 1,597,800 Lanzhou 1,576,400 Changsha 1,562,200 Xiamen 1,532,200. Households Average household size: 3.1 Total households: 351,233,698 Of which are family households: 340,491,197 (96.9%) Of which are collective households: 10,742,501 (3.1%) HIV See HIV/AIDS in the People's Republic of China. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV: 0.15% (2008) People living with HIV/AIDS: 100,000 (2008) HIV/AIDS deaths: 44,000 (2003) Causes of death Major causes of death per 100,000 population, based on 2004 urban population samples: malignant neoplasms (cancers): 119.7 cerebrovascular disease: 88.4 respiratory diseases: 78.1 heart diseases: 74.1 accidents, violence, and poisoning: 43.5 Income As of 2003, the distribution of urban household income: Average per capita disposable income by quintile: Y 9,061 [U.S.$1,095] first quintile: Y 3,285 second quintile: Y 5,377 third quintile: Y 7,279 fourth quintile: Y 9,763 fifth quintile: Y 17,431 Working life Quality of working life: Average workweek: 40 hours (1998) Annual rate per 100,000 workers for: (1997) injury or accident: 0.7 industrial illness: 36 death: 1.4 Death toll from work accidents: 127,000 (2005) Funds for pensions and social welfare relief: Y 26,668,000,000 (2001)pudding Access to services Percentage of population having access to electricity (2000): 98.6% Percentage of total population with safe public water supply (2002): 83.6% (urban, rural: 94.0%, 73.0%) Sewage system (1999): total (urban, rural) households with flush apparatus 20.7% (50.0%, 4.3%) with pit latrines 69.3% (33.6%, 86.7%) with no latrine 5.3% (7.8%, 4.1%) Social participation Eligible voters participating in last national election: n/a Population participating in voluntary work: n/a Trade union membership in total labor force (2005): 18% Practicing religious population in total affiliated population: n/a Social deviance Annual reported arrest rate per 100,000 population (2006) for: Property violation: 20.7 Infringing personal rights: 7.2 Disruption of social administration: 3.3 Endangering public security: 1.010 Material wellbeing Urban households possessing (number per household; 2003): bicycles: 1.4 color televisions: 1.3 washing machines: 0.9 refrigerators: 0.9 cameras: 0.5 Rural families possessing (number per household; 2003): bicycles: 1.2 color televisions: 0.7 washing machines: 0.2 refrigerators: 0.1 cameras: 0.02 Household income and expenditure Average household size (2005) 3.1; rural households 3.3; urban households 3.0. Average annual per capita disposable income of household (2005): rural households Y 3,255 (U.S.$397), urban households Y 10,493 (U.S.$1,281). Sources of income (2003): rural households — income from household businesses 75.7%, wages 19.1%, transfers 3.7%, other 1.5%; urban households — wages 70.7%, transfers 23.3%, business income 4.5%, other 1.5%. Expenditure: rural (urban) households — food 45.6% (37.1%), housing 15.9% (10.7%), education and recreation 12.1% (14.4%), transportation and communications 8.4% (11.1%), clothing 5.7% (9.8%), medicine and medical service 6.0% (7.1%), household furnishings 4.2% (6.3%). Employment Population economically active (2003): total 760,800,000. Activity rate of total population 58.9% (participation rates: over age 15 [2001] 77.7%; female [2001] 37.8%; registered unemployed in urban areas [December 2004] 4.2%). Urban employed workforce (2001): 239,400,000; by sector: state enterprises 76,400,000, collectives 28,130,000, self-employment or privately run enterprises 134,870,000. Rural employed workforce: 490,850,000. Population control Initially, China's post-1949 leaders were ideologically disposed to view a large population as an asset. But the liabilities of a large, rapidly growing population soon became apparent. For one year, starting in August 1956, vigorous support was given to the Ministry of Public Health's mass birth control efforts. These efforts, however, had little impact on fertility. After the interval of the Great Leap Forward, Chinese leaders again saw rapid population growth as an obstacle to development, and their interest in birth control revived. In the early 1960s, schemes somewhat more muted than during the first campaign, emphasized the virtues of late marriage. Birth control offices were set up in the central government and some provincial-level governments in 1964. The second campaign was particularly successful in the cities, where the birth rate was cut in half during the 1963-66 period. The upheavel of the Cultural Revolution brought the program to a halt, however. In 1972 and 1973 the party mobilized its resources for a nationwide birth control campaign administered by a group in the State Council. Committees to oversee birth control activities were established at all administrative levels and in various collective enterprises. This extensive and seemingly effective network covered both the rural and the urban population. In urban areas public security headquarters included population control sections. In rural areas the country's "barefoot doctors" distributed information and contraceptives to people's commune members. By 1973 Mao Zedong was personally identified with the family planning movement, signifying a greater leadership commitment to controlled population growth than ever before. Yet until several years after Mao's death in 1976, the leadership was reluctant to put forth directly the rationale that population control was necessary for economic growth and improved living standards. Population growth targets were set for both administrative units and individual families. In the mid-1970s the maximum recommended family size was two children in cities and three or four in the country. Since 1979 the government has advocated a one-child limit for both rural and urban areas and has generally set a maximum of two children in special circumstances. As of 1986 the policy for minority nationalities was two children per couple, three in special circumstances, and no limit for ethnic groups with very small populations. The overall goal of the one-child policy was to keep the total population within 1.2 billion through the year 2000, on the premise that the Four Modernizations program would be of little value if population growth was not brought under control. The one-child policy was a highly ambitious population control program. Like previous programs of the 1960s and 1970s, the one-child policy employed a combination of public education, social pressure, and in some cases coercion. The one-child policy was unique, however, in that it linked reproduction with economic cost or benefit. Under the one-child program, a sophisticated system rewarded those who observed the policy and penalized those who did not. Couples with only one child were given a "one-child certificate" entitling them to such benefits as cash bonuses, longer maternity leave, better child care, and preferential housing assignments. In return, they were required to pledge that they would not have more children. In the countryside, there was great pressure to adhere to the one-child limit. Because the rural population accounted for approximately 60 percent of the total, the effectiveness of the one-child policy in rural areas was considered the key to the success or failure of the program as a whole. In rural areas the day-to-day work of family planning was done by cadres at the team and brigade levels who were responsible for women's affairs and by health workers. The women's team leader made regular household visits to keep track of the status of each family under her jurisdiction and collected information on which women were using contraceptives, the methods used, and which had become pregnant. She then reported to the brigade women's leader, who documented the information and took it to a monthly meeting of the commune birth-planning committee. According to reports, ceilings or quotas had to be adhered to; to satisfy these cutoffs, unmarried young people were persuaded to postpone marriage, couples without children were advised to "wait their turn," women with unauthorized pregnancies were pressured to have abortions, and those who already had children were urged to use contraception or undergo sterilization. Couples with more than one child were exhorted to be sterilized. The one-child policy enjoyed much greater success in urban than in rural areas. Even without state intervention, there were compelling reasons for urban couples to limit the family to a single child. Raising a child required a significant portion of family income, and in the cities a child did not become an economic asset until he or she entered the work force at age sixteen. Couples with only one child were given preferential treatment in housing allocation. In addition, because city dwellers who were employed in state enterprises received pensions after retirement, the sex of their first child was less important to them than it was to those in rural areas. Numerous reports surfaced of coercive measures used to achieve the desired results of the one-child policy. The alleged methods ranged from intense psychological pressure to the use of physical force, including some grisly accounts of forced abortions and infanticide. Chinese officials admitted that isolated, uncondoned abuses of the program occurred and that they condemned such acts, but they insisted that the family planning program was administered on a voluntary basis using persuasion and economic measures only. International reaction to the allegations were mixed. The UN Fund for Population Activities and the International Planned Parenthood Association were generally supportive of China's family planning program. The United States Agency for International Development, however, withdrew US$10 million from the Fund in March 1985 based on allegations that coercion had been used. Observers suggested that an accurate assessment of the one-child program would not be possible until all women who came of childbearing age in the early 1980s passed their fertile years. As of 1987 the one-child program had achieved mixed results. In general, it was very successful in almost all urban areas but less successful in rural areas. Rapid fertility reduction associated with the one-child policy has potentially negative results. For instance, in the future the elderly might not be able to rely on their children to care for them as they have in the past, leaving the state to assume the expense, which could be considerable. Based on United Nations and Chinese government statistics, it was estimated in 1987 that by the year 2000 the population 60 years and older (the retirement age is 60 in urban areas) would number 127 million, or 10.1 percent of the total population; the projection for 2025 was 234 million elderly, or 16.4 percent. According to projections based on the 1982 census, if the one-child policy were maintained to the year 2000, 25 percent of China's population would be age 65 or older by the year 2040. Population density and distribution Pie chart showing China's population distribution by internal subdivision. Notice the insignificance of the western regions - Xinjiang, Tibet, Gansu and Qinghai - and Inner Mongolia in relation to their size. Overall While China is the most populated country in the world, its national population density (137/km2) is not so high, similar to those of Switzerland and the Czech Republic. The overall population density of PRC conceals major regional variations, the western and northern part have a few million people, while China proper has about 1.2 billion. The vast majority of China's population lives in the fertile plains of the east. Coast and China proper In the 11 provinces, special municipalities, and autonomous regions along the southeast coast, population density was 320.6 people per km2. Broadly speaking, the population was concentrated in China Proper, east of the mountains and south of the Great Wall. The most densely populated areas included the Yangtze River Valley (of which the delta region was the most populous), Sichuan Basin, North China Plain, Pearl River Delta, and the industrial area around the city of Shenyang in the northeast. Western areas Population is most sparse in the mountainous, desert, and grassland regions of the northwest and southwest. In Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, portions are completely uninhabited, and only a few sections have populations denser than ten people per km2. The Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Xizang autonomous regions and Qinghai and Gansu provinces comprise 55 percent of the country's land area but in 1985 contained only 5.7 percent of its population. Area (km²) pop density China 9,650,000 (100%) 1,300,000,000 (100%) 134.7 h/km² 5 provinces 5 246 400 km² (54.45%) 79 533 000 h. (16.345%) 15.16 h/km² Inner Mongolia 1,183,000 (12.28% ) 24,051,000 Xinjiang 1,660,000 (17.23%) 20,952,000 Xizang 1,228,400 (12.75%) 2,842,000 Qinghai 721,000 (7.48%) 5,516,000 Gansu 454,000 (4.71%) 26,172,000 China proper 4,403,605 (45,55%) 1,221,000,000 (83,655%) 277.27 h/km² Source: National Bureau of Statistics Men/Women concern Future challenges for China will be the gender disparity partially caused by the preference for boys under the 'one-child' system, and the aging of the population, with an increasing problem of young-old disparity. The latter is likely to be tied to the former, as the lack of sufficient female partners for males coming of age is expected to reduce total births. Migration Urbanization Ethnic groups Ethnolinguistic map of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) The People's Republic of China (PRC) officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are Han, who constitute about 91.9% of the total population. Ethnic minorities constitute 8.1% or 107.1 million of China's population. Large ethnic minorities include the Zhuang (16 million or 1.30%), Manchu (10 million or 0.86%), Uyghur (9 million or 0.79%), Hui (9 million or 0.79%), Miao (8 million or 0.72%), Yi (7 million or 0.65%), Tujia (5.75 million or 0.62%), Mongols (5 million or 0.47%), Tibetan (5 million or 0.44%), Buyi (3 million or 0.26%), and Korean (2 million or 0.15%). Ethnic minorities currently experience higher growth rates than the majority Han population. Their proportion of the population in China has grown from 6.1% in 1953, to 8.04% in 1990, 8.41% in 2000 and 9.44% in 2005. Recent surveys indicate that the population growth rate for ethnic minorities is about 7 times greater than that for the Han population. Communiqué on Major Data of 1% National Population Sample Survey in 2005 Neither Hong Kong nor Macau recognizes the official ethnic classifications maintained by the central government. In Macau the largest substantial ethnic groups of non-Chinese descent are the Macanese, of mixed Chinese and Portuguese descent, as well as migrants from the Philippines and Thailand. Overseas Filipinas working as domestic workers comprise the largest non-Chinese ethnic group in Hong Kong. Languages The official spoken standard in the People's Republic of China is Putonghua. Its pronunciation is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin Other languages and dialects include other Mandarin dialects, and Wu (Shanghainese), Yue (Cantonese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien or Taiwanese, Teochiu), Xiang, Gan and Hakka, as well as languages of the minorities. The seven major mutually unintelligible Chinese dialects which are considered by some to be different languages of the Chinese language family, and by some others to be dialects of the Chinese language. Each of these dialects has many sub-dialects. Over 70% of the Han ethnic group are native speakers of the Mandarin group of dialects spoken in northern and southwestern China. The rest, concentrated in south and southeast China, speak one of the six other major Chinese dialects. In addition to the local dialect, nearly all also speak Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua) which pronunciation is based on the Beijing dialect, which inself is one of the Mandarin group of dialects, and is the language of instruction in all schools and is used for formal and official purposes. Non-Chinese languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur and other Turkic languages (in Xinjiang), Korean (in the northeast), and Vietnamese (in the southeast). In addition to Chinese, in the special administrative regions, English is an official language of Hong Kong and Portuguese is an official language of Macau. Patuá is a Portuguese creole spoken by a small number of Macanese. English, though not official, is widely used in Macau. In both of the special administrative regions, the dominant spoken form of Chinese is Cantonese. For written Chinese, the PRC officially uses simplified Chinese characters in mainland China, while traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong and Macau. The de-facto spoken standard in Hong Kong and Macao is Yue (Cantonese), although officially it is the Chinese language, not specifying, which spoken form is standard. The written official standard in Hong Kong and Macao is in Standard Mandarin in traditional Chinese characters. On 1 January 1979, the PRC Government officially adopted the hanyu pinyin system for spelling Chinese names and places in mainland China in Roman letters. A system of romanization invented by the Chinese, pinyin has long been widely used in mainland China on street and commercial signs as well as in elementary Chinese textbooks as an aid in learning Chinese characters. Variations of pinyin also are used as the written forms of several minority languages. Pinyin replaced other conventional spellings in mainland China's English-language publications. The U.S. Government and United Nations also adopted the pinyin system for all names of people and places in mainland China. For example, the capital of the PRC is spelled "Beijing" rather than "Peking". Religions The Chinese Communist Government has implemented state atheism since 1949, which makes it difficult to ascertain data on the religious population figures. Thus making the relation between Government and religions was not smooth in the past. But in fact, the people are still holding private worship of traditional religions (Buddhism/Taoism) at home. CIA - The World Factbook: China In recent years, the Chinese government has opened up to religion, especially traditional religions such as Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism because the Government also continued to emphasize the role of religion in building a "Harmonious Society," which was a positive development with regard to the Government's respect for religious freedom. U.S. Department of States: International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau) According to the old Chinese government estimate, there were "over 100 million followers of various faiths" in China Religious beliefs . Other estimates put about 100 million or about 8% Chinese who follow Buddhism, with the second largest religion as Taoism (no data), Islam (19 million or 1.5%) and Christianity (14 million or 1%; 4 million Roman Catholics and 10 million Protestants). China in Brief - china.org.cn According to the 1993 edition of The Atlas of Religion, the number of atheists in China is between 10 and 14 percent. O'Brien, Joanne, and Palmer, Martin. "The Atlas of Religion". University of California Press (Berkely, 1993) in Zuckerman, pg. 53 Additionally, the BBC reported in February 2007 that "a poll of 4,500 people by Shanghai university professors found 31.4% of people above the age of 16 considered themselves as religious", a figure that represents 300 million people BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Survey finds 300m China believers . Among those surveyed, about 2/3 were "Buddhists, Taoists or worshipers of legendary figures such as the Dragon King and God of Fortune." Other religions represented significantly in that survey were Christianity (40 million) and Islam. China is also known to have small numbers of people who follow Hinduism, Dongbaism, Bon and a number of new religions and sects (particularly Xiantianism and Falun Gong). The official China Daily called the Shanghai professors' research "the country's first major survey on religious beliefs". "Religious Believers Thrice The Official Estimate Poll". China Daily, 7 February 2007. Chinadaily.com.cn The Chinese government have accepted these new numbers. The wide disparity among these estimates underscores the difficulty of accurately surveying the religious view of a nation of over a billion people and the lack of reliable data. However, some surveys suggest that the cultural adherents or even outright religious adherents of Buddhism could number as high as 50% to 80% of the population, or about 660 million to over 1 billion Buddhists in the world SEANET Work - "Counting the Buddhist World Fairly," by Dr. Alex Smith . Some estimates for Taoism as high as 400 million or about 30% of the total population, [http://asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=468&Itemid=34 Asia Sentinel - How Now Tao? but Adherents.com argues that these are actually numbers for Chinese folk religion or Chinese traditional religion, not Confucianism and Taoism themselves. Adherents.com - Major Religions Ranked by Size The number of adherents to these religions can be overlaid in percentage due to the fact that mostly Chinese consider themselves both Buddhist and Taoist. Religions and Beliefs in China SACU Religion in China Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions The Diaspora Han Chinese However, it was difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they did not have congregational memberships and often did not participate in public ceremonies. U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau) The minority religions are Christianity (between 40 million, 3%, and 54 million, 4% China Survey Reveals Fewer Christians than Some Evangelicals Want to Believe ), Islam (20 million, 1.5%), Hinduism, Dongbaism, Bon and a number of new religions and sects (particularly Xiantianism and Falun Gong). According to the surveys of Phil Zuckerman on Adherents.com; in 1993, 59% (over 700 million) Adherents.com of the Chinese population was irreligious but in the newest survey (same author) in 2005, it was only 14% (over 180 million). Adherents.com . Top 50 Countries With Highest Proportion of Atheists / Agnostics (Zuckerman, 2005) There are intrinsic logistical difficulties in trying to count the number of religious people anywhere, as well as difficulties peculiar to China. According to Phil Zuckerman, "low response rates," "non-random samples," and "adverse political/cultural climates" are all persistent problems in establishing accurate numbers of religious believers in a given locality. Zuckerman, Phil. "Atheism: Contemporary Numbers and Patterns". In Martin, Michael "The Cambridge Companion to Atheism". (New York: Cambridge University Press) 2006. pg. 47 Similar difficulties arise in attempting to subdivide religious people into sects. These issues are especially pertinent in China for two reasons. First, it is a matter of current debate whether several important belief systems in China constitute "religions." As Daniel L. Overmeyer writes, in recent years there has been a "new appreciation...of the religious dimensions of Confucianism, both in its ritual activities and in the inward search for an ultimate source of moral order". Overmeyer, Daniel L. et al. "Introduction". The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 54, No. 2 (May, 1995). pp. 314-321 Many Chinese belief systems have concepts of a sacred and sometimes spiritual natural world yet do not always invoke a concept of personal god (with the exception of Heaven worship). Ethel R. Nelson, Richard E. Broadberry, and Ginger Tong Chock. God's Promise to the Chinese. p 8. ISBN 0-937869-01-5. The constitution affirms religious toleration subject to several important restrictions. The government places limits on religious practice outside officially recognized organizations. Only two Christian organizations, a Catholic church without ties to the Holy See in Rome and the "Three-Self-Patriotic" Protestant church, are sanctioned by the PRC Government. Unauthorized churches have sprung up in many parts of the country, and unofficial religious practice is flourishing. In some regions authorities have tried to control activities of these unregistered churches. In other regions registered and unregistered groups are treated similarly by authorities, and congregates worship in both types of churches. On 20 July 1999, the Chinese authorities banned Xinhua, China Bans Falun Gong, People's Daily, 22 July 1999 and initiated a crackdown on Falun Gong in mainland China. The Basic Law of Hong Kong protects freedom of religion as a fundamental right. There are a large variety of religious groups in the Hong Kong: Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Christianity including Catholicism, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism and Judaism all have a considerable number of adherents. The Macau Basic Law similarly recognizes freedom of religion though the Religious Freedom Ordinance requires registration of religious organizations. The major religions practiced in Macau are Buddhism and traditional beliefs with a smaller minority claiming no religious belief. A small minority of Christians, mostly Catholic, exists. See also Society of the People's Republic of China Metropolitan Regions of China Notes References China Statistical Information Net Chinese Embassy in the United States China, CIA World Factbook Population by Age and Sex, 1950 - 2050; Proportion Elderly, Working Age, and Children at China-Profile Literacy rate in China at Pinyin news | Demographics_of_China |@lemmatized demographic:7 people:29 republic:12 china:77 characterize:1 large:12 population:99 relatively:3 small:6 youth:1 cohort:1 partially:2 result:7 one:31 child:46 policy:20 implement:3 since:7 help:3 prevent:1 extra:1 million:37 birth:35 would:11 place:7 current:2 near:1 billion:7 others:3 believe:2 figure:4 greatly:1 exaggerated:1 true:1 impact:2 close:1 pascal:2 rocha:2 da:2 silva:2 la:2 politique:1 de:4 l:3 enfant:1 unique:2 en:1 république:1 populaire:1 chine:1 p:3 cf:2 history:2 census:29 conduct:4 government:22 announce:2 fourth:2 national:7 take:5 every:3 ten:2 year:28 thereafter:2 report:11 total:24 generally:3 accept:2 significantly:3 reliable:3 accurate:4 thorough:2 previous:3 two:7 various:3 international:6 organization:4 eagerly:1 assist:1 chinese:48 include:13 united:7 nation:7 fund:4 activity:6 donate:1 u:8 preparation:1 execution:1 world:13 populous:2 many:5 century:2 first:9 post:2 stand:1 fifth:3 double:2 reach:2 interest:2 social:6 program:14 reproductive:1 control:17 eugenics:1 intensified:1 begin:4 mid:3 introduce:1 vary:3 degree:3 success:3 number:27 family:15 planning:4 campaign:5 fast:1 grow:5 major:12 matter:2 leader:5 twentieth:1 early:5 stringent:1 publicly:1 different:3 guideline:1 minority:15 marry:1 couple:7 officially:6 permit:1 successfully:1 achieve:3 goal:2 stable:2 much:2 reduce:3 fertility:12 rate:42 woman:10 average:8 versus:1 estimated:1 enforcement:1 however:9 considerably:1 depend:1 vigilance:1 local:2 worker:5 far:2 confirm:1 provide:3 demographer:3 set:4 data:11 age:24 sex:9 structure:3 mortality:8 density:8 distribution:8 information:8 also:12 gather:2 ethnic:14 group:13 urban:27 marital:3 status:6 time:3 found:1 size:6 composition:2 work:10 force:5 prepare:1 late:5 send:3 state:16 japan:1 study:2 modern:1 technique:1 automation:1 computer:3 instal:1 provincial:3 level:8 unit:3 except:1 xizang:3 connect:1 central:3 processing:1 system:14 beijing:6 headquarters:2 statistical:2 bureau:4 pretests:1 smallscale:1 trial:1 run:2 check:1 accuracy:1 twenty:1 four:3 station:2 open:2 rural:23 production:1 brigade:3 neighborhood:1 july:4 household:28 representative:1 enumerate:1 require:4 month:1 complete:3 employ:5 approximately:2 taker:1 collect:2 nineteen:1 category:1 relate:1 individual:4 thirteen:1 area:21 concern:2 name:3 relationship:1 head:1 nationality:2 registration:4 educational:2 profession:1 occupation:1 nonworking:1 person:5 bear:2 still:2 living:3 six:2 item:1 pertain:1 type:2 domestic:2 collective:4 serial:1 death:20 registered:1 absent:1 important:4 either:1 extremely:1 inaccurate:1 simply:1 nonexistent:1 employment:4 unemployment:1 fundamental:2 anomaly:1 statistic:8 note:5 western:4 analyst:1 point:1 although:2 record:3 arrive:1 similar:3 discrepancy:1 vital:1 underreporting:1 authority:4 hold:2 ration:1 deceased:1 foreign:1 use:14 base:8 forecasting:1 make:5 assumption:1 future:4 trend:2 specific:1 necessary:2 line:1 projection:5 useful:1 estimate:10 manpower:1 potential:1 consumer:1 need:1 utility:1 energy:1 health:5 service:3 requirement:1 sudden:1 abundance:1 specialist:1 growth:10 crude:4 probably:1 high:9 per:16 life:6 expectancy:3 steadily:1 decline:4 continue:3 remain:3 constant:2 fluctuation:2 reconstruction:1 produce:2 model:1 show:2 increase:7 dramatically:2 famine:1 associate:2 great:8 leap:2 forward:2 accord:8 follow:3 five:1 distinct:2 pattern:2 widely:4 experience:2 drop:3 sharply:1 attribute:1 dramatic:1 wan:1 xi:2 shao:1 marriage:6 long:3 interval:2 element:1 socioeconomic:1 change:1 increased:1 reduced:1 infant:3 percentage:5 survive:1 tend:2 demand:1 additional:1 may:3 play:1 role:2 primarily:2 marked:1 rise:3 indication:1 problem:3 source:5 indicate:3 decrease:2 housing:4 shortage:1 least:2 partly:1 responsible:2 decreased:1 school:2 graduate:1 countryside:2 deprive:1 city:11 significant:2 proportion:4 childbearing:3 undoubtedly:1 effect:1 see:6 cultural:4 revolution:2 economic:6 reason:3 less:3 right:3 sell:1 agricultural:1 product:1 personal:3 profit:1 lack:3 oldage:1 welfare:2 incentive:1 especially:3 son:1 field:1 support:2 old:6 condition:1 unclear:1 education:3 able:2 erode:1 traditional:7 value:2 favor:1 today:1 serious:1 gender:2 imbalance:2 obtain:1 reveal:2 boy:2 girl:1 among:3 float:1 ratio:3 situation:1 lead:1 ban:3 selective:1 abortion:3 female:16 fetus:1 slowly:1 chinoise:1 increasingly:1 project:1 care:5 improve:2 disease:6 cholera:1 typhoid:1 scarlet:1 fever:1 bring:3 negative:2 side:1 incidence:1 cancer:2 cerebrovascular:2 heart:2 extent:1 become:4 leading:1 cause:4 reform:1 initiate:2 fundamentally:1 alter:1 method:3 medical:2 gradually:1 replace:2 orient:1 approach:1 hong:15 kong:15 low:6 immigration:2 mainland:9 expatriate:1 comprise:3 like:2 macau:12 rely:2 maintain:3 cia:5 factbook:5 following:1 unless:2 otherwise:2 currently:2 govern:1 refer:1 rank:2 list:1 country:8 male:14 breakdown:1 median:1 natural:2 net:3 migration:3 migrant:2 live:4 die:1 percent:8 taipei:1 archive:1 avg:1 tfr:6 town:1 village:1 outpost:1 guizhou:1 xiangyang:1 district:3 jiamusi:1 heilongjiang:1 anywhere:2 recorded:1 extreme:1 county:5 heping:1 tianjin:3 mawei:1 fuzhou:2 fujian:1 end:1 geji:1 tibet:6 jiali:1 baqing:1 analysis:1 divorce:2 literacy:2 read:1 write:5 attainment:1 schooling:1 incomplete:1 primary:2 secondary:2 postsecondary:1 advanced:1 religious:23 affiliation:1 predominantly:1 buddhism:7 taoism:7 confucianism:5 ancestor:1 worship:4 christianity:5 islam:5 atheism:4 traditionally:1 pragmatic:1 eclectic:1 east:3 asian:2 pacific:2 affair:2 background:1 religion:26 travel:1 guide:1 han:6 shanghai:3 guangzhou:1 wuhan:1 chongqing:1 shenyang:2 nanjing:1 harbin:1 chengdu:1 jinan:1 changchun:1 dalian:1 hangzhou:1 shijiazhuang:1 taiyuan:1 qingdao:1 zhengzhou:1 kunming:1 lanzhou:1 changsha:1 xiamen:1 hiv:5 aid:4 adult:1 sample:3 malignant:1 neoplasm:1 respiratory:1 accident:3 violence:1 poisoning:1 income:9 caput:2 disposable:2 quintile:6 second:3 third:1 quality:1 workweek:1 hour:1 annual:3 injury:1 industrial:2 illness:1 toll:1 pension:2 relief:1 pudding:1 access:2 electricity:1 safe:1 public:6 water:1 supply:1 sewage:1 flush:1 apparatus:1 pit:1 latrine:2 participation:2 eligible:1 voter:1 participate:3 last:1 election:1 n:3 voluntary:2 trade:1 union:1 membership:2 labor:1 practice:4 affiliated:1 deviance:1 arrest:1 property:1 violation:1 infringe:1 disruption:1 administration:1 endanger:1 security:2 material:1 wellbeing:1 possess:2 bicycle:2 color:2 television:2 wash:2 machine:2 refrigerator:2 camera:2 expenditure:2 business:2 wage:2 transfer:2 food:1 recreation:1 transportation:1 communication:1 clothing:1 medicine:1 furnishing:1 economically:1 active:1 register:2 unemployed:1 december:1 workforce:2 sector:1 enterprise:4 collectives:1 self:2 privately:1 initially:1 ideologically:1 dispose:1 view:3 asset:2 liability:1 rapidly:1 soon:1 apparent:1 start:1 august:1 vigorous:1 give:4 ministry:1 mass:1 effort:2 little:2 saw:1 rapid:2 obstacle:1 development:3 revive:1 scheme:1 somewhat:1 muted:1 emphasize:2 virtue:1 office:1 particularly:3 successful:3 cut:1 half:1 period:1 upheavel:1 halt:1 party:1 mobilize:1 resource:1 nationwide:1 administer:2 council:1 committee:2 oversee:1 establish:2 administrative:4 extensive:1 seemingly:1 effective:1 network:1 cover:1 section:2 barefoot:1 doctor:1 distribute:1 contraceptive:2 commune:2 member:1 mao:2 zedong:1 personally:1 identify:1 movement:1 signify:1 leadership:2 commitment:1 ever:1 yet:2 several:4 reluctant:1 put:2 forth:1 directly:1 rationale:1 standard:7 target:1 maximum:2 recommend:1 three:3 advocate:1 limit:5 special:5 circumstance:2 overall:3 keep:2 within:1 premise:1 modernization:1 highly:1 ambitious:1 combination:1 pressure:4 case:1 coercion:2 link:1 reproduction:1 cost:1 benefit:2 sophisticated:1 reward:1 observe:1 penalize:1 certificate:1 entitle:1 cash:1 bonus:1 maternity:1 leave:2 good:1 preferential:2 assignment:1 return:1 pledge:1 adhere:2 account:2 effectiveness:1 consider:4 key:1 failure:1 whole:1 day:2 cadre:1 team:2 regular:1 visit:1 track:1 jurisdiction:1 pregnant:1 document:1 monthly:1 meeting:1 ceiling:1 quota:1 satisfy:1 cutoff:1 unmarried:1 young:2 persuade:1 postpone:1 without:3 advise:1 wait:1 turn:1 unauthorized:2 pregnancy:1 already:1 urge:1 contraception:1 undergo:1 sterilization:1 exhort:1 sterilize:1 enjoy:1 even:2 intervention:1 compel:1 single:1 raise:1 portion:2 enter:1 sixteen:1 treatment:1 allocation:1 addition:3 dweller:1 receive:1 retirement:2 numerous:1 surface:1 coercive:1 measure:2 desired:1 alleged:1 range:1 intense:1 psychological:1 physical:1 grisly:1 forced:1 infanticide:1 official:10 admit:1 isolated:1 uncondoned:1 abuse:1 occur:1 condemn:1 act:1 insist:1 plan:3 basis:1 persuasion:1 reaction:1 allegation:2 mixed:3 un:1 parenthood:1 association:1 supportive:1 agency:1 withdraw:1 march:1 observer:1 suggest:2 assessment:1 possible:1 come:2 pass:1 fertile:2 general:1 almost:1 reduction:1 potentially:1 instance:1 elderly:3 might:1 past:2 assume:1 expense:1 could:2 considerable:2 pie:1 chart:1 internal:1 subdivision:1 notice:1 insignificance:1 region:11 xinjiang:4 gansu:3 qinghai:3 inner:4 mongolia:4 relation:2 populated:2 switzerland:1 czech:1 prc:6 conceals:1 regional:1 variation:2 northern:2 part:2 proper:4 vast:1 majority:2 plain:2 coast:2 province:3 municipality:1 autonomous:3 along:1 southeast:3 broadly:1 speak:7 concentrate:2 mountain:1 south:2 wall:1 densely:1 yangtze:1 river:2 valley:1 delta:2 sichuan:1 basin:1 north:1 pearl:1 around:1 northeast:2 sparse:1 mountainous:1 desert:1 grassland:1 northwest:1 southwest:1 completely:1 uninhabited:1 dense:1 land:1 contain:1 pop:1 h:4 men:1 challenge:1 disparity:3 preference:1 aging:1 latter:1 likely:1 tie:2 former:1 sufficient:1 partner:1 expect:1 urbanization:1 ethnolinguistic:1 map:1 taiwan:1 recognize:4 constitute:3 zhuang:1 manchu:1 uyghur:2 hui:1 miao:1 yi:1 tujia:1 mongol:1 tibetan:2 buyi:1 korean:2 recent:3 survey:11 communiqué:1 neither:1 classification:1 substantial:1 non:4 descent:2 macanese:2 portuguese:3 well:4 philippine:1 thailand:1 overseas:1 filipinas:1 languages:1 spoken:3 putonghua:2 pronunciation:2 dialect:12 mandarin:6 language:13 wu:1 shanghainese:1 yue:2 cantonese:3 minbei:1 minnan:1 hokkien:1 taiwanese:1 teochiu:1 xiang:1 gan:1 hakka:1 seven:1 mutually:1 unintelligible:1 sub:1 native:1 speaker:1 southwestern:1 rest:1 nearly:1 inself:1 instruction:1 formal:1 purpose:1 mongolian:1 turkic:1 vietnamese:1 english:3 patuá:1 creole:1 though:2 dominant:1 form:3 simplify:1 character:4 facto:1 macao:2 specify:1 january:1 adopt:2 hanyu:1 pinyin:6 spell:2 roman:2 letter:1 romanization:1 invent:1 street:1 commercial:1 sign:1 elementary:1 textbook:1 learn:1 conventional:1 spelling:1 publication:1 example:1 capital:1 rather:1 peking:1 communist:1 difficult:2 ascertain:1 thus:1 smooth:1 fact:2 private:1 home:1 mahayana:1 build:1 harmonious:1 society:2 positive:1 regard:1 respect:1 freedom:6 department:2 follower:1 faith:1 belief:7 catholic:3 protestant:2 brief:1 org:1 cn:2 edition:1 atlas:2 atheist:2 brien:1 joanne:1 palmer:1 martin:2 university:3 california:1 press:2 berkely:1 zuckerman:5 pg:2 additionally:1 bbc:2 february:2 poll:2 professor:2 find:2 represent:2 news:2 asia:2 believer:3 buddhist:5 taoist:2 worshiper:1 legendary:1 dragon:1 king:1 god:3 fortune:1 know:1 hinduism:3 dongbaism:2 bon:2 new:6 sect:3 xiantianism:2 falun:4 gong:4 daily:3 call:1 research:1 thrice:1 chinadaily:1 com:7 wide:1 underscore:1 difficulty:4 accurately:2 adherent:9 outright:1 seanet:1 count:2 fairly:1 dr:1 alex:1 smith:1 http:1 asiasentinel:1 index:2 php:1 option:1 task:1 id:1 itemid:1 sentinel:1 tao:1 argue:1 actually:1 folk:1 overlay:1 due:1 mostly:2 sacu:1 philosophy:1 diaspora:1 congregational:1 often:1 ceremony:1 christian:3 evangelicals:1 want:1 phil:3 irreligious:1 author:1 top:1 agnostic:1 intrinsic:1 logistical:1 try:2 peculiar:1 response:1 random:1 adverse:1 political:1 climate:1 persistent:1 locality:1 contemporary:1 michael:1 cambridge:2 companion:1 york:1 arise:1 attempt:1 subdivide:1 issue:1 pertinent:1 debate:1 whether:1 daniel:2 overmeyer:2 appreciation:1 dimension:1 ritual:1 inward:1 search:1 ultimate:1 moral:1 order:1 et:1 al:1 introduction:1 journal:1 vol:1 pp:1 concept:2 sacred:1 sometimes:1 spiritual:1 always:1 invoke:1 exception:1 heaven:1 ethel:1 r:1 nelson:1 richard:1 e:1 broadberry:1 ginger:1 tong:1 chock:1 promise:1 isbn:1 constitution:1 affirm:1 toleration:1 subject:1 restriction:1 outside:1 church:5 holy:1 rome:1 patriotic:1 sanction:1 spring:1 unofficial:1 flourish:1 unregistered:2 treat:1 similarly:2 congregate:1 xinhua:1 crackdown:1 basic:2 law:2 protects:1 variety:1 catholicism:1 sikhism:1 judaism:1 ordinance:1 claim:1 exist:1 metropolitan:1 reference:1 embassy:1 profile:1 |@bigram da_silva:2 l_enfant:1 twentieth_century:1 fertility_rate:3 mortality_rate:3 marital_status:3 census_taker:1 life_expectancy:3 infant_mortality:3 childbearing_age:2 selective_abortion:1 health_care:2 scarlet_fever:1 cerebrovascular_disease:2 hong_kong:15 kong_macau:6 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:2 rate_migrant:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:2 educational_attainment:1 religious_affiliation:1 buddhism_taoism:4 taoism_confucianism:3 cia_factbook:1 hiv_aid:3 household_income:3 per_caput:2 disposable_income:2 eligible_voter:1 asset_liability:1 mao_zedong:1 preferential_treatment:1 plan_parenthood:1 inner_mongolia:4 czech_republic:1 vast_majority:1 densely_populated:1 yangtze_river:1 mutually_unintelligible:1 de_facto:1 hanyu_pinyin:1 mahayana_buddhism:1 bbc_news:1 buddhist_taoist:2 falun_gong:4 index_php:1 id_itemid:1 confucianism_taoism:1 atheist_agnostic:1 et_al:1 religious_toleration:1 |
7,447 | Chile | Chile, officially the Republic of Chile (Spanish: ), is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow coastal strip wedged between the Andes mountains and the Pacific Ocean. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage at the country's southernmost tip. It is one of only two countries in South America that does not have a border with Brazil. The Pacific forms the country's entire western border, with a coastline that stretches over 6,435 kilometres. Chilean territory extends to the Pacific Ocean which includes the overseas territories of Juan Fernández Islands, the Salas y Gómez islands, the Desventuradas Islands and Easter Island located in Polynesia. Chile claims of territory in Antarctica. Chile's unusual, ribbon-like shape — long and on average wide — has given it a varied climate, ranging from the world's driest desert — the Atacama — in the north, through a Mediterranean climate in the centre, to a snow-prone Alpine climate in the south, with glaciers, fjords and lakes. The northern Chilean desert contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. The relatively small central area dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area also is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century, when it incorporated its northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border. Prior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century, northern Chile was under Inca rule while the indigenous Araucanians inhabited central and southern Chile. Although Chile declared its independence in 1810, decisive victory over the Spanish was not achieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific (1879-83), Chile defeated Peru and Bolivia and won its present northern regions. It was not until the 1880s that the Araucanian Indians were completely subjugated. The country, which had been relatively free of the coups and arbitrary governments that blighted the South American continent, endured a 17 year military dictatorship (1973-1990) that left more than 3,000 people dead and missing. Currently, Chile is one of South America's most stable and prosperous nations. Within the greater Latin American context it leads in terms of human development, gross domestic product per capita (at market prices and purchasing power parity ), competitiveness, quality of life, political stability, globalization, economic freedom, low perception of corruption and comparatively low poverty rates. It also ranks high regionally in freedom of the press and democratic development. It has a high income inequality, as measured by the Gini index. Etymology There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile. According to a theory proposed by 18th century Spanish chronicler Diego de Rosales, http://www.chile.com/tpl/articulo/detalle/ver.tpl?cod_articulo=7225 the Incas of Peru called the valley of the Aconcagua "Chili" by corruption of the name of a Picunche tribal chief ("cacique") called Tili, who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/459648/Picunche Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Other theories say Chile may derive its name from the indigenous Mapuche word chilli, which may mean "where the land ends," "the deepest point of the Earth," or "sea gulls;" or from the Quechua chin, "cold", or the Aymara tchili, meaning "snow". Another meaning attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of a bird call. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535-36 called themselves the "men of Chilli." Ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. History The Mapuche were the original inhabitants of central and southern Chile. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present day Chile. Example settlement sites from the very early human habitation are Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Crater's lava tube. C. Michael Hogan (2008) Pali Aike, Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the Mapuche successfully resisted many attempts by the Inca Empire to subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization. http://books.google.com/books?id=Nf8SnJ_ZJbkC&pg=PA27&lpg=PA27&dq=inca+did+not+conquer+araucanians&source=web&ots=GKMOvVrZk4&sig=o4L95tJNazXsyNh72Zb89viAlNM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA27,M1 They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the earth, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named after him, the Strait of Magellan. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered hundreds of thousands of Native Americans from various cultures in the area that modern Chile now occupies. These cultures supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarro's lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on February 12, 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Pedro de Valdivia. Conquest of the land took place only gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks at the hands of the local population. A massive Mapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of slavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission. Despite the royal prohibitions relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference. Bárbaros, page 66. David J. Weber Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche (or Araucanians), to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous colonies in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontier garrison, the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by Araucanians and by Spain's European enemies, especially the British and the Dutch. In addition to the Araucanians, buccaneers and English adventurers menaced the colony, as was shown by Sir Francis Drake's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the principal port. Because Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, it was one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a drain on the treasury of Peru. The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph in 1808. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand—heir to the deposed king—was formed on September 18, 1810. The junta proclaimed Chile an autonomous republic within the Spanish monarchy. A movement for total independence soon won a wide following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the "Reconquista" led to a prolonged struggle. Bernardo O'Higgins. Intermittent warfare continued until 1817, when an army led by Bernardo O'Higgins, Chile's most renowned patriot, and José de San Martín, hero of the Argentine War of Independence, crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On February 12, 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic under O'Higgins' leadership. The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful. War of the Pacific: The Battle of Iquique on May 21, 1879. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by ruthlessly suppressing the Mapuche during the Occupation of Araucanía. In 1881, it signed a treaty with Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan. As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. The Chilean Civil War in 1891 brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established a parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards who had strong ties to foreign investors. The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, Arturo Alessandri Palma, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose. Diego Portales (1793-1837), the most influential politician of the 1830's. A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932. The longest lasting of the ten governments between those years was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a de facto dictatorship, although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that has often bedeviled the rest of Latin America and certainly not comparable to the violent and repressive regime of Augusto Pinochet decades later. By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term. The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals. In 1970, Senator Salvador Allende Gossens won a plurality of votes in a three-way contest. He was a Marxist physician and member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed the "Popular Unity" (UP or "Unidad Popular") coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action. Development and Breakdown of Democracy, 1830-1973, U.S. Library of Congress Country Study on Chile (TOC) based on information available as of 31 March 1994. Despite pressure from the government of the United States, the Chilean Congress, keeping with tradition, conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri and chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers party and could not make common cause with the right-wing. The United States and Chile: coming in from the cold The Secret history of the CIA An economic depression that began in 1967 peaked in 1970, exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward. http://books.google.com/books?id=99ZLX52z_noC&pg=PA52&lpg=PA52&dq=%C3%A1rea+de+propiedad+social&source=bl&ots=knbSRkrBtL&sig=Q37iA9bnmSyNK2daJAonKfwzJAQ&hl=en&ei=LErySdigNs_gtgfsxOnBDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1 Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of the banking sector was nationalized. Many enterprises within the copper, coal, iron, nitrate, and steel industries were expropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year. Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests. http://grace.evergreen.edu/~arunc/texts/chile/torre/Allende.html ; , replacing judicial system with "socialist legality" , nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy , and strengthening "popular militias" known as MIR . Started under former President Frei, the Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment. The measure was passed unanimously by Congress. http://books.google.com/books?id=99ZLX52z_noC&pg=PA52&lpg=PA52&dq=%C3%A1rea+de+propiedad+social&source=bl&ots=knbSRkrBtL&sig=Q37iA9bnmSyNK2daJAonKfwzJAQ&hl=en&ei=LErySdigNs_gtgfsxOnBDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1 As a result , the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to quickly destabilize Allende’s government. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch01-01.htm http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch27-01.htm http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch05-01.htm http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm In addition, American financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile. http://www.fas.org/irp/ops/policy/church-chile.htm The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending which was financed mostly by printing money and poor credit ratings given by commercial banks. The controversial General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte The Cuban packages scandal revealed arms smuggling from the Communist Cuba to Chile; Allende - surrounded by KGB advisors - had turned Chile into a center for Soviet operations in Latin America. Vasili Mitrokhin and Christopher Andrew, The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World, Basic Books (2005) hardcover, ISBN 0-465-00311-7, pages 69-85. Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, and organizations, helping to accelerate a campaign of domestic destabilization, some of which was helped by the United States. http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/chile/doc/hinchey.html http://www.fas.org/irp/ops/policy/church-chile.htm By early 1973, inflation was out of control. The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous strikes by physicians, teachers, students, truck owners, copper workers, and the small business class. On 26 May 1973, Chile’s Supreme Court, which was no friend of Allende's government, unanimously denounced the Allende disruption of the legality of the nation. Although, illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet seizure of power. Transition to Democracy in Latin America: The Role of the judiciary Finally, a military coup overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace (Palacio de La Moneda), Allende reportedly committed suicide. A military junta, led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, took over control of the country. The first years of the regime were marked by allegations of human rights violations. On October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death. According to the Rettig Report and Valech Commission, several thousand were killed. A new Constitution was approved by a controversial plebiscite on September 11, 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an 8-year term. In the late 1980s, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity. The government launched market-oriented reforms, which have continued ever since. Chile moved toward a free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened for competition. In a plebiscite on October 5, 1988, General Pinochet was denied a second 8-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress on December 14, 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación, received an absolute majority of votes (55%). President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period. In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%). Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile. In January 2006 Chileans elected their first woman president Michelle Bachelet Jeria, of the Socialist Party, extending the Concertación government for another four years. Geography Parinacota Volcano in northern Chile. Elqui Valley in north-central Chile. Conguillío National Park in south-central Chile. Grey Glacier in southern Chile. A long and narrow coastal Southern Cone country on the west side of the Andes Mountains, Chile stretches over 4,630 kilometres (2,880 mi) north to south, but only 430 kilometres (265 mi) at its widest point east to west. This encompasses a remarkable variety of landscapes. It contains of land area. The northern Atacama Desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and nitrates. The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area also is the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late nineteenth century, when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests, grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border. Chile is the longest north-south country in the world, and also claims of Antarctica as part of its territory. However, this latter claim is suspended under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty, of which Chile is signatory. Antarctic Treaty and how Antarctica is governed. Chile controls Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and Robinson Crusoe Island, more than from the mainland, in the Juan Fernández archipelago. Easter Island is nowadays a province of Chile. Also controlled but only temporally inhabited (by some local fishermen) are the small islands of Sala y Gómez, San Ambrosio and San Felix. These islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific. Derecho de Aguas by Alejandro Vergara Blanco Administrative divisions Chile is divided into 15 regions, each of which is headed by an intendant appointed by the President of Chile. Every region is further divided into provinces, with a provincial governor also appointed by the president. Finally each province is divided into communes which are administered by municipalities, each with its own mayor and councilmen elected by their inhabitants for four years. Each region is designated by a name and a Roman numeral, assigned from north to south. The only exception is the region housing the nation's capital, which is designated RM, that stands for Región Metropolitana (Metropolitan Region). Two new regions, Arica and Parinacota in the north, and Los Ríos in the south, were created in 2006, and became operative in October 2007. In the numbering scheme, Region XIII was skipped; Arica and Parinacota was designated Region XV, while Los Ríos was designated Region XIV. Chile's 15 regions.Key Name Spanish CapitalXVArica and ParinacotaRegión de Arica y ParinacotaAricaITarapacáRegión de TarapacáIquiqueIIAntofagastaRegión de AntofagastaAntofagastaIIIAtacamaRegión de AtacamaCopiapóIVCoquimboRegión de CoquimboLa SerenaVValparaísoRegión de ValparaísoValparaisoVIO'HigginsRegión del Libertador General Bernardo O'HigginsRancaguaVIIMauleRegión del MauleTalcaVIIIBiobíoRegión del BiobíoConcepciónIXAraucaníaRegión de la AraucaníaTemucoXIVLos RíosRegión de Los RíosValdiviaXLos LagosRegión de Los LagosPuerto MonttXIAisénRegión Aisén del General Carlos Ibáñez del CampoCoihaiqueXIIMagallanesRegión de Magallanes y de la Antártica ChilenaPunta ArenasRMSantiagoRegión Metropolitana de SantiagoSantiago Climate A Glacier in southern Chile. The climate of Chile comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale, extending across 38 degrees in latitude, making generalisations difficult. According to the Köppen system, Chile within its borders hosts at least seven major climatic subtypes, ranging from desert in the north, to alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south east, humid subtropical in Easter Island, Oceanic in the south and mediterranean climate in central Chile. There are four seasons in most of the country: summer (December to February), autumn (March to May), winter (June to August), and spring (September to November). Time zones Because of the distance between the mainland and Easter Island, Chile uses 4 different UTC offsets: The mainland uses UTC-4, and in summer as daylight saving time UTC-3. Easter Island uses UTC-6, and in summer as daylight saving time UTC-5. Economy Chilean notes currently in circulation. After a decade of impressive growth rates, Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999, brought on by unfavorable global economic conditions related to the Asian financial crisis, which began in 1997. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% real GDP growth. Chile GDP - real growth rate The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6.0%. Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4.0% growth in 2006. GDP expanded 5.1% in 2007. Chilean (blue) and average South American (orange) GDP per Capita (1945-2003). Sound economic policies, maintained consistently since the 1980s, have contributed to steady growth and reduced poverty rates by over half. Chile: Overview of economy The 1973-90 military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have continued privatization, though at a slower pace. The government's role in the economy is mostly limited to regulation, although the state continues to operate copper giant CODELCO and a few other enterprises (there is one state-run bank). Chile is strongly committed to free trade and has welcomed large amounts of foreign investment. Chile has signed free trade agreements (FTAs) with a whole network of countries, including an FTA with the United States, which was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004. USA-Chile FTA Final Text Over the last several years, Chile has signed FTAs with the European Union, South Korea, New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, China, and Japan. It reached a partial trade agreement with India in 2005 and began negotiations for a full-fledged FTA with India in 2006. Chile conducted trade negotiations in 2007 with Australia, Malaysia, and Thailand, as well as with China to expand an existing agreement beyond just trade in goods. Chile concluded FTA negotiations with Australia and the expanded agreement with China in 2008. The members of the P4 (Chile, Singapore, New Zealand, and Brunei) also plan to conclude a chapter on finance and investment in 2008. The economic international organization the OECD agreed to invite Chile to be among four countries to open discussions in becoming an official member. High domestic savings and investment rates helped propel Chile's economy to average growth rates of 8% during the 1990s. The privatized national pension system (AFP) has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP. The Chilean pension system However, the AFP is not without its critics, who cite low participation rates (only 55% of the working population is covered), with groups such as the self-employed outside the system. There has also been criticism of the inefficiency and high costs because of a lack of competition among pension funds. Critics cite loopholes in the use of pension savings through lump sum withdraws for the purchase of a second home or payment of university fees as fundamental weaknesses of the AFP. The Bachelet administration plans substantial reform, but not an overhaul, of the AFP during the next several years. Santiago's growing skyline. Unemployment hovered in the 8%-10% range after the start of the economic slowdown in 1999, above the 7% average for the 1990s. Unemployment finally dipped to 7.8% for 2006, and has kept falling in 2007, averaging 6.8% monthly (up to August). Wages have risen faster than inflation as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The percentage of Chileans with household incomes below the poverty line—defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs—fell from 45.1% in 1987 to 13.7% in 2006, according to government polls. Critics in Chile, however, argue true poverty figures are considerably higher than those officially published, because the government uses an outdated 1987 household budget poll, updated every 10 years. According to these critics, using the 1997 household budget data, the poverty rate rises to 29%. Using the relative yardstick favoured in many European countries, 27% of Chileans would be poor, according to Juan Carlos Feres of the ECLAC. Despite enjoying a comparatively higher GDP and more robust economy compared to most other countries of Latin America, Chile also suffers from one of the most uneven distributions of wealth in the world, ahead only of Brazil in the Latin American region and lagging behind even of most developing sub-Saharan African nations. Chile's top 10 richest percentile possesses 47 percent of the country's wealth. In relation to income distribution, some 6.2% of the country populates the upper economic income bracket, 15% the middle bracket, 21% the lower middle, 38% the lower bracket, and 20% the extreme poor. Airbus A340 of Chile's LAN Airlines. Chile's independent Central Bank pursues an inflation target of between 2% and 4%. Inflation has not exceeded 5% since 1998. Chile registered an inflation rate of 3.2% in 2006. The Chilean peso's rapid appreciation against the U.S. dollar in recent years has helped dampen inflation. Most wage settlements and loans are indexed, reducing inflation's volatility. Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds. Total foreign direct investment (FDI) was only $3.4 billion in 2006, up 52% from a poor performance in 2005. However, 80% of FDI continues to go to only four sectors: electricity, gas, water and mining. Much of the jump in FDI in 2006 was also the result of acquisitions and mergers and has done little to create new employment in Chile. The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, which is tasked with identifying new sectors and industries to promote. It is hoped that this, combined with some tax reforms to encourage domestic and foreign investment in research and development, will bring in additional FDI and to new parts of the economy. As of 2006, Chile invested only 0.6% of its annual GDP in research and development (R&D). Even then, two-thirds of that was government spending. Beyond its general economic and political stability, the government also has encouraged the use of Chile as an "investment platform" for multinational corporations planning to operate in the region, but this will have limited value given the developing business climate in Chile itself. Chile's approach to foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans. Registration is reported to be simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital. Faced with an international economic downturn the government announced a $4 billion economic stimulus plan to spur employment and growth despite the global financial crisis, aiming for an expansion of between 2 percent and 3 percent of GDP for 2009. Nonetheless, economic analysts differ from the government stimates and forecast economic growth at a median of 1.5 percent. http://www.reuters.com/article/economicNews/idUSN1027661220090110 Foreign trade Chile is responsible for over a third of world's copper production. 2006 was a record year for Chilean trade. Total trade registered a 31% increase over 2005. During 2006, exports of goods and services totaled US$58 billion, an increase of 41%. This figure was somewhat distorted by the skyrocketing price of copper. In 2006, copper exports reached a historical high of US$33.3 billion. Imports totaled US$35 billion, an increase of 17% compared to the previous year. Chile thus recorded a positive trade balance of US$23 billion in 2006. The main destinations for Chilean exports were the Americas (US$39 billion), Asia (US$27.8 billion) and Europe (US$22.2 billion). Seen as shares of Chile's export markets, 42% of exports went to the Americas, 30% to Asia and 24% to Europe. Within Chile's diversified network of trade relationships, its most important partner remained the United States. Total trade with the U.S. was US$14.8 billion in 2006. Since the U.S.-Chile Free Trade Agreement went into effect on January 1, 2004, U.S.-Chilean trade has increased by 154%. Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then. Total trade with Europe also grew in 2006, expanding by 42%. The Netherlands and Italy were Chile's main European trading partners. Total trade with Asia also grew significantly at nearly 31%. Trade with Korea and Japan grew significantly, but China remained Chile's most important trading partner in Asia. Chile's total trade with China reached U.S. $8.8 billion in 2006, representing nearly 66% of the value of its trade relationship with Asia. Chile is the world's fifth largest exporter of wine. The growth of exports in 2006 was mainly caused by a strong increase in sales to the United States, the Netherlands, and Japan. These three markets alone accounted for an additional US$5.5 billion worth of Chilean exports. Chilean exports to the United States totaled US$9.3 billion, representing a 37.7% increase compared to 2005 (US$6.7 billion). Exports to the European Union were US$15.4 billion, a 63.7% increased compared to 2005 (US$9.4 billion). Exports to Asia increased from US$15.2 billion in 2005 to US$19.7 billion in 2006, a 29.9% increase. During 2006, Chile imported US$26 billion from the Americas, representing 54% of total imports, followed by Asia at 22%, and Europe at 16%. Mercosur members were the main suppliers of imports to Chile at US$9.1 billion, followed by the United States with US$5.5 billion and the European Union with US$5.2 billion. From Asia, China was the most important exporter to Chile, with goods valued at US$3.6 billion. Year-on-year growth in imports was especially strong from a number of countries—Ecuador (123.9%), Thailand (72.1%), Korea (52.6%), and China (36.9%). Chile's overall trade profile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports. The state-owned firm CODELCO is the world's largest copper-producing company, with recorded copper reserves of 200 years. Chile has made an effort to expand nontraditional exports. The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh fruit and processed food, fishmeal and seafood, and wine. Successive Chilean governments have actively pursued trade-liberalizing agreements. During the 1990s, Chile signed free trade agreements (FTA) with Canada, Mexico, and Central America. Chile also concluded preferential trade agreements with Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. An association agreement with Mercosur—Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay—went into effect in October 1996. Continuing its export-oriented development strategy, Chile completed landmark free trade agreements in 2002 with the European Union and South Korea. Chile, as a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) organization, is seeking to boost commercial ties to Asian markets. To that end, it has signed trade agreements in recent years with New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, India, China, and most recently Japan. In 2007, Chile held trade negotiations with Australia, Thailand, Malaysia, and China. In 2008, Chile hopes to conclude an FTA with Australia, and finalize an expanded agreement (covering trade in services and investment) with China. The P4 (Chile, Singapore, New Zealand, and Brunei) also plan to expand ties through adding a finance and investment chapter to the existing P4 agreement. Chile's trade talks with Malaysia and Thailand are also scheduled to continue in 2008. San Antonio port in Chile. After two years of negotiations, the United States and Chile signed an agreement in June 2003 that will lead to completely duty-free bilateral trade within 12 years. The U.S.-Chile FTA entered into force January 1, 2004, following approval by the U.S. and Chilean congresses. The bilateral FTA has inaugurated greatly expanded U.S.-Chilean trade ties, with total bilateral trade jumping by 154% during the FTA's first three years. Chile unilaterally lowered its across-the-board import tariff for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement to 6% in 2003. Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands. The price bands were ruled inconsistent with Chile's World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations in 2002, and the government has introduced legislation to modify them. Under the terms of the U.S.-Chile FTA, the price bands will be completely phased out for U.S. imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar within 12 years. Chile is a strong proponent of pressing ahead on negotiations for a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and is active in the WTO's Doha round of negotiations, principally through its membership in the G-20 and Cairns Group. Finance Skyline of Santiago's Financial District. Chile's financial sector has grown quickly in recent years, with a banking reform law approved in 1997 that broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. The Chilean Government implemented a further liberalization of capital markets in 2001, and there is further pending legislation proposing further liberalization. Over the last ten years, Chileans have enjoyed the introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards. The introduction of these new products has also been accompanied by an increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $70 billion at the end of 2006, has been an important source of investment capital for the capital market. However, by 2009, it has been reported that $21 billion had been lost from the pension system to the global financial crisis. http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/chile/090121/uncertain-future Chile maintains one of the best credit ratings (S&P A+) in Latin America. Chile: Overview of economy There are three main ways for Chilean firms to raise funds abroad: bank loans, issuance of bonds, and the selling of stocks on U.S. markets through American Depository Receipts (ADRs). Nearly all of the funds raised through these means go to finance domestic Chilean investment. The government is required by law to run a fiscal surplus of at least 1% of GDP. In 2006, the Government of Chile ran a surplus of $11.3 billion, equal to almost 8% of GDP. The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006. Demographics A view of the capital Santiago. Population of Chile from 1820, projected up to 2050. Chile's 2002 census reported a population of 15,116,435. Its growth has been declining since 1990, because of a decreasing birth rate. By 2050 the population is expected to reach approximately 20.2 million. About 85% of the country's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living in Greater Santiago. The largest agglomerations according to the 2002 census are Greater Santiago with 5.6 million people, Greater Concepción with 861,000 and Greater Valparaíso with 824,000. Racial and ethnic structure Congregation of people in Chile The Chilean population is approximately 30% white, with mestizos of predominantly white (castizos) ancestry further estimated at 65%. Another recent study estimates that the white population corresponds to about 8.8 millions or 52,7% of Chileans. The White and Mestizo figures appear combined in some sources, so that Chile's population is classified as 95.4% white and white-amerindian by publications such as the World Factbook. World Factbook Argentina, como Chile y Uruguay, su población está formada casi exclusivamente por una población blanca e blanca mestiza procedente del sur de Europa, más del 90% E. García Zarza, 1992, 19. The white segment, also consists mainly of Spanish descent, as well as Italian, Irish, French, German, English, Swiss or Croat ancestry, alone or combined among themselves. The mestizo segment, and derives from the racial mixture between colonial Spanish settlers (mainly Andalusians and Castilian) and indigenous tribes (mainly Picunches, Diaguitas and Mapuches). In that respect, Chile is relatively homogeneous, with the majority of the people sharing a common ethnic identity stemming from what is known locally as Chilenidad. The Afro-Chilean population was negligible, reaching a high of 25,000 during the colonial period; their racial contribution is less than 1%. The current Native American population is small (see below) according to the censuses; their numbers are boosted when taking into consideration those that are associated to them either linguistically or socially. According to the Census 2002, 4.6% of the Chilean population was Indian, although most show varying degrees of miscegenation. El gradiente sociogenético chileno y sus implicaciones ético-sociales. Indigenous communities Those belonging to recognised indigenous communities (2002) Alacaluf 2,622 0.02% Mapuche 604,349 4.00% Atacameño 21,015 0.14% Quechua 6,175 0.04% Aymara 48,501 0.32% Rapanui 4,647 0.03% Colla 3,198 0.02% Yámana 1,685 0.01% The 1907 census reported 101,118 Araucanian Indians, or 3.1% of the total country population. Only those that practiced their native culture or spoke their native language were considered, irrespective of their "racial purity." 1907 census. At the 1992 census, a total of 10.33% of the total Chilean population surveyed declared themselves indigenous, irrespective of whether they currently practiced a native culture or spoke a native language; almost one million people (9.61% of Chileans) declared themselves Mapuche, 0.50% declared to be Aymara, and 0.23% reported as Rapanui. At the 2002 census, only indigenous people that still practiced a native culture or spoke a native language were surveyed: 4.6% of the population (692,192 people) fit that description; of these, 87.3% declared themselves Mapuche. although most show varying degrees of miscegenation. Immigration German influence is visible in southern Chile: Puerto Varas Church. Immigrants were important to the evolution of Chilean society and Chile as a nation. Basque families arrived from Spain and regions in the south of France. Who migrated to Chile in the 18th century vitalized the economy and joined the old Castilian aristocracy to become the political elite that still dominates the country. Chile. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-24684 Chileans of Basque descent are estimated at 10% (1,600,000) or as high as 27% (4,500,000) of the Chilean population. Diariovasco. entrevista al Presidente de la Cámara vasca. vascos Ainara Madariaga: Autora del estudio "Imaginarios vascos desde Chile La construcción de imaginarios vascos en Chile durante el siglo XX". Basques au Chili. <ref>Contacto Interlingüístico e intercultural en el mundo hispano. Instituto Valenciano de lenguas y culturas. Universitat de València Cita: Un 20% de la población chilena tiene su origen en el País Vasco.</ref> Some non-Spanish European immigrants arrived in Chile mainly to the northern and southern extremities of the country during the 19th and 20th centuries, including English, Germans, Irish, Italians, French, Croatians, and former Yugoslavians. The prevalence of non-Hispanic European surnames among the governing body of modern Chile are a testament to their disproportionate contribution and influence on the country. Also worth mentioning are the Croatians, were the most numerous Chile has an estimated 380,000 with the highest number of descendants of Croats. Diaspora Croata. hrvatski. and especially Palestinian communities, the latter being the largest colony of that people outside of the Arab world. descendientes de árabes en porcentajes. 500,000 descendientes de palestinos en Chile. immigrants Palestinians in Chile. The volume of immigrants from neighboring countries to Chile during those same periods was of a similar value. Houses on the hills of Valparaíso. After independence and during the republican era, English and Irish descendants between 350,000 to 420,000. , Italian, and French merchants established themselves in the growing cities of Chile and incidentally joined the political or economic elites of the country. In 1848 an important and sizable German immigration took place, laying the foundations of a present German-Chilean community. Sponsored by the Chilean government with aims of colonising the southern region. These Germans (which included German-speaking Swiss, Silesians, Alsatians and Austrians), markedly influenced the cultural composition of the southern of Chile. During the second half of the 19th century was exceptional. Small numbers of displaced eastern European Jews and Christian Syrians and Palestinians fleeing the Ottoman Empire arrived in Chile. Today they spearhead financial and small manufacturing operations. Greeks have also immigrated to Chile and have formed a notable ethnic identity .Greeks Estimated to be descendants from 90,000 to 120,000 http://viajerosgriegos.ar.vg/ Most of them live either in the Santiago area or in the Antofagasta area. Chile is one of the 5 countries with more descendants of Greeks in the world. Griegos de Chile European immigration, and to a lesser degree in the Middle East, produced during the second half of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (large "waves" in America), after corresponding to the Atlantic coasts of the Southern Cone ( that is, Argentina, Uruguay and South Brazil), was the most significant Latin America is favored mainly by the intense traffic that is produced through extreme south of the country until the opening of the Panama Canal in 1920, although other numbers came from Argentina, across the Cordillera. Currently, immigration from neighboring countries to Chile is greatest. http://bibliotecavirtual.clacso.org.ar/ar/libros/becas/2000/stefoni.pdf http://www.ansa.it/ansalatina/notizie/notiziari/peru/20071222155634546440.html Chile’s 2002 census counted 184,464 immigrants in the country, 26 percent of whom were from Argentina, 21 percent from Peru and 6 percent from Bolivia. http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=39794 Emigration of Chileans has decreased during the last decade: It is estimated that 857,781 Chileans live abroad, 50.1% of those being in Argentina, 13.3% in the United States, 8.8% in Brazil, 4.9% in Sweden, and around 2% in Australia. http://www.gobiernodechile.cl/chilenos_exterior/registro_chilenos_exterior.pdf http://www.lanacion.cl/prontus_noticias/site/artic/20050816/pags/20050816125322.html Religion According to the most recent census (2002), 70 percent of the population over age 14 identify as Roman Catholic and 15.1 percent as evangelical. In the census, the term "evangelical" referred to all non-Catholic Christian churches with the exception of the Orthodox Church (Greek, Persian, Serbian, Ukrainian, and Armenian), the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Seventh-day Adventists, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Approximately 90 percent of evangelicals are Pentecostal. Wesleyan, Lutheran, Reformed Evangelical, Presbyterian, Anglican, Episcopalian, Baptist, and Methodist churches are also present. The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and other laws and policies contribute to the generally free practice of religion. The law at all levels protects this right in full against abuse, either by governmental or private actors. Church and state are officially separate. The 1999 law on religion prohibits religious discrimination; however, the Catholic Church enjoys a privileged status and occasionally receives preferential treatment. Government officials attend Catholic events and also major Protestant and Jewish ceremonies. The Government observes Christmas, Good Friday, the Feast of the Virgin of Carmen, the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, the Feast of the Assumption, All Saints' Day, and the Feast of the Immaculate Conception as national holidays. The government has recently declared October 31st, a public national holiday, in honor of the Protestant churches of the country. http://www.economist.com/world/americas/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12564066&fsrc=rss http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/specials/2007/en_nombre_de_la_fe/newsid_7701000/7701290.stm Languages Spanish The Spanish spoken in Chile is distinctively accented and quite unlike that of neighbouring South American countries because final syllables and 's' sounds are dropped, and some consonants have a soft pronunciation. Accent varies only very slightly from north to south; more noticeable are the small differences in accent based on social class or whether one lives in the city or the country. The fact that the Chilean population essentially was formed in a relatively small section of the center of the country and then migrated in modest numbers to the north and south helps explain this relative lack of differentiation, which is now maintained by the national reach of radio and especially of television. The media diffuse and homogenize colloquial expressions. Country Studies. German and Croatian is spoken in southern Chile. http://www.research-worldwide.de/article-chile2005.html English language learning and teaching is popular among students, academics and professionals, with some English words being absorbed and appropriated into everyday Spanish speech. Anglicism in Chilean Spanish. Indigenous languages There are several indigenous languages spoken in Chile: Mapudungun, Quechua and Rapa Nui. After the Spanish invasion, Spanish took over as the lingua franca and the indigenous languages have become minority languages, with some now extinct or close to extinction. Government and politics Palacio de La Moneda in downtown Santiago. The Constitution of Chile was approved in a highly irregular national plebiscite in September 1980, under the military government of Augusto Pinochet. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution. In September 2005, President Ricardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years. Chileans voted in the first round of presidential elections on December 11, 2005. None of the four presidential candidates won more than 50% of the vote. As a result, the top two vote-getters—center-left Concertación coalition's Michelle Bachelet and center-right Alianza coalition's Sebastián Piñera—competed in a run-off election on January 15, 2006, which Michelle Bachelet won. She was sworn in on March 11, 2006. This was Chile's fourth presidential election since the end of the Pinochet era. All four have been judged free and fair. The president is constitutionally barred from serving consecutive terms. The Congress of Chile has a 38-seat Senate and a 120-member Chamber of Deputies. Senators serve for 8 years with staggered terms, while deputies are elected every 4 years. The current Senate has a 20-18 split in favor of pro-government senators. The last congressional elections were held on December 11, 2005, concurrently with the presidential election. The current lower house—the Chamber of Deputies—contains 63 members of the governing center-left coalition and 57 from the center-right opposition. The Congress is located in the port city of Valparaíso, about 140 kilometres (84 mi) west of the capital, Santiago. Chile's congressional elections are governed by a binomial system that rewards large representations. Therefore, there are only two senate and two deputy seats apportioned to each electoral district, parties are forced to form wide coalitions and, historically, the two largest coalitions (Concertación and Alianza) split most of the seats in a district. Only if the leading coalition ticket out-polls the second place coalition by a margin of more than 2-to-1 does the winning coalition gain both seats. In the 2001 congressional elections, the conservative Independent Democratic Union surpassed the Christian Democrats for the first time to become the largest party in the lower house. In the 2005 parliamentary election, both leading parties, the Christian Democrats and the UDI lost representation in favor of their respective allies Socialist Party (which became the biggest party in the Concertación block) and National Renewal in the right-wing alliance. The Communist Party again failed to gain any seats in the election. Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the Supreme Court of Chile. In June 2005, Chile completed a nation-wide overhaul of its criminal justice system. The reform has replaced inquisitorial proceedings with an adversarial system more similar to that of the United States. Defense Chile's Armed Forces are subject to civilian control exercised by the president through the Minister of Defense. The president has the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces. The commander in chief of the Chilean Army is General Oscar Izurieta Ferrer. The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in Santiago, seven divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade in Rancagua, and a Special Forces Command in Colina. The Chilean Army is one of the most professional and technologically advanced armies in Latin America. Chilean frigate Almirante Blanco Encalada (FF-15) at Pearl Harbor, 2006. Admiral Rodolfo Codina directs the 21,773-person Chilean Navy http://www.armada.cl/p4_ingles/site/artic/20050707/pags/20050707095041.html , including 2,500 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only eight are operational major combatants (frigates). Those ships are based in Valparaiso. http://www.armada.cl/p4_ingles/site/artic/20050719/pags/20050719132710.html The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates four submarines based in Talcahuano. http://www.armada.cl/p4_ingles/site/artic/20050719/pags/20050719132849.html Gen. Ricardo Ortega Perrier heads 12,500 strong Chilean Air Force. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on King George Island, Antarctica. The Air Force took delivery of the final 2 of 10 F-16s, all purchased from the U.S., in March 2007. Chile also took delivery in 2007 of a number of reconditioned Block 15 F-16s from the Netherlands, bringing to 18 the total of F-16s purchased from the Dutch. After the military coup in September 1973, the Chilean national police (Carabineros) were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remained under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Eduardo Gordon is the head of the national police force of 40,964 Carabineros de Chile, accessed on May 31, 2008 men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile. Foreign relations President Michelle Bachelet saluting with world leaders at the inauguration ceremony in Valparaíso. Since the early decades after independence, Chile has always had an active involvement in foreign affairs. In 1837 the country aggressively challenged the dominance of Peru's port of Callao for preeminence in the Pacific trade routes, defeating the short-lived alliance between Peru and Bolivia, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836-39) in the War of the Confederation. The war dissolved the confederation while distributing power in the Pacific. A second international war, the War of the Pacific (1879-83), further increased Chile's regional role, while adding considerably to its territory. During the nineteenth century, Chile's commercial ties were primarily with Britain, a country that had a decisive influence on the organization of the navy. The French influenced Chile's legal and educational systems and had a decisive impact on Chile, through the architecture of the capital in the boom years at the turn of the century. German influence came from the organization and training of the army by Prussians. On June 26, 1945, Chile participated as a founding member of the United Nations being among 50 countries that signed the United Nations Charter in San Francisco, California. With the military coup of 1973, Chile became isolated politically as a result of widespread human rights abuses. Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile completed a 2-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005. Jose Miguel Insulza, a Chilean national, was elected Secretary General of the Organization of American States in May 2005. Chile is currently serving on the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Board of Governors, and the 2007-2008 chair of the board is Chile's ambassador to the IAEA, Milenko E. Skoknic. The country is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities. It is currently bidding for a seat on the UN Human Rights Council. Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004. It also hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005 and the Ibero-American Summit in November 2007. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile has been an important actor on international economic issues and hemispheric free trade. The Chilean Government has diplomatic relations with most countries. It settled its territorial disputes with Argentina during the 1990s. Chile and Bolivia severed diplomatic ties in 1978 over Bolivia's desire to reacquire territory it lost to Chile in 1879-83 War of the Pacific. The two countries maintain consular relations and are represented at the Consul General level. Culture Gabriela Mistral, Nobel Prize for Literature (1945). Pablo Neruda, Nobel Prize for Literature (1971). During the period between early agricultural settlements and to the late pre-Hispanic period, northern Chile was a region of Andean culture that was influenced by altiplano traditions spreading to the coastal valleys of the north. While southern regions were areas of Mapuche cultural activities. Through the colonial period following the conquest, and during the early Republican period, the country's culture was dominated by the Spanish. Other European influences, primarily English, French, and German began in the 19th century and have continued to this day. German migrants influenced the Bavarian style rural architecture and cuisine in the south of Chile in cities such as Valdivia, Frutillar, Puerto Varas, Osorno, Temuco, Pucón and Puerto Montt. Music and dance Music in Chile ranges from folkloric music , popular music and also to classical music. Its large geography generates different musical expressions in the north, center and south of the country, including also Easter Island and Mapuche music Memoria Chilena . The national dance is the cueca. Another form of traditional Chilean song, though not a dance, is the tonada. Arising from music imported by the Spanish colonists, it is distinguished from the cueca by an intermediate melodic section and a more prominent melody. Between 1950 and 1970 appears a rebirth in folk music leading by groups such as Los de Ramon and Los Huasos Quincheros among others Conjuntos Folkloricos de Chile with composers such as Raul de Ramon, Violeta Parra, Nicanor Molinare and others Folkloristas de Chile . In the mid-1960s native musical forms were revitalized by the Parra family with the Nueva Canción Chilena, which was associated with political activists and reformers such as Victor Jara, and by the folk singer and researcher on folklore and Chilean ethnography, Margot Loyola. Literature Chileans call their country país de poetas—country of poets. http://www.protocolo.com.mx/articulos.php?id_sec=2&id_art=600 http://www.uchile.cl/cultura/poetasjovenes/bianchi26.htm Gabriela Mistral was the first Chilean to win a Nobel Prize for Literature (1945). Chile's most famous poet, however, is Pablo Neruda, who also won the Nobel Prize for Literature (1971) and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics. His three highly individualistic homes, located in Isla Negra, Santiago and Valparaíso are popular tourist destinations. Cuisine Chilean cuisine is a reflection of the country's topographical variety, featuring an assortment of seafood, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Traditional recipes include cazuela, empanadas, humitas, and curanto. The South American Table by Maria Baez Kijac Sports Rodeo is a national sport in rural Chile. Marcelo Ríos was chosen Chilean sportsman of the century. Chile's most popular sport is association football (soccer). Chile has appeared in seven FIFA World Cups which includes hosting the 1962 FIFA World Cup where the national football team finished third. Other results achieved by the national football team include four finals at the Copa América, one silver and two bronze medals at the Pan American Games, a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics and two third places finishes in the FIFA under-17 and under-20 youth tournaments. The main soccer clubs are Colo-Colo, CF Universidad de Chile and CD Universidad Católica. Colo-Colo is the country's most successful club, winning 46 national tournaments and three international championships, including the coveted Copa Libertadores South American club tournament. Tennis is the country's most successful sport. Its national team won the World Team Cup clay tournament twice in 2003-04, and played the Davis Cup final against Italy in 1976. At the 2004 Summer Olympics the country captured gold and bronze in men's singles and gold in men's doubles. Marcelo Ríos became the first Latin American man to reach the number one spot in the ATP singles rankings in 1998. Anita Lizana won the US Open in 1937, becoming the first women from Latin America to win a grand slam tournament. Luis Ayala was twice a runner-up at the French Open and both Ríos and Fernando González reached the Australian Open men's singles finals. At the Olympic Games Chile boasts two gold medals (tennis), seven silver medals (athletics, equestrian, boxing, shooting and tennis) and four bronze medals (tennis, boxing and football). Rodeo is the country's national sport and is practiced in the more rural areas of the country. A sport similar to hockey called chueca was played by the Mapuche people during the Spanish conquest. Skiing and snowboarding are practiced at ski centers located in the Central Andes, while surfing is popular at some coastal towns. Polo is professionally practiced within Chile and in 2008 Chile achieved top prize in the World Polo Championship a tournament where the country has earned both second and third places medals in previous editions. Basketball is a popular sport in which Chile has earned a bronze medal in the first men's FIBA World Championship held in 1950 and winning a second bronze medal when Chile hosted the 1959 FIBA World Championship. Chile hosted the first FIBA World Championship for Women in 1953 finishing the tournament with the silver medal. Tourism San Pedro de Atacama. Tourism in Chile has experienced sustained growth over the last few decades. In 2005, tourism grew by 13.6%, generating more than 4.5 billion dollars of which 1.5 billion is attributed to foreign tourists. According to the National Service of Tourism (Sernatur), 2 million people a year visit the country. Most of these visitors come from other countries in the American continent, mainly Argentina; followed by a growing number from the United States, Europe, and Brazil with a growing number of Asians from South Korea and PR China. Easter Island. The main attractions for tourists are places of natural beauty situated in the extreme zones of the country: San Pedro de Atacama, in the north, is very popular with foreign tourists who arrive to admire the Incaic architecture, the altiplano lakes, and the Valley of the Moon. In Putre, also in the North, there is the Chungará Lake, as well as the Parinacota and the Pomerape volcanoes, with altitudes of 6,348 m and 6,282 m, respectively. Throughout the central Andes there are many ski resorts of international repute, like Portillo and Valle Nevado. In the south, the main tourist sites are the Chiloé Archipelago and Patagonia, which includes Laguna San Rafael National Park, with its many glaciers, and the Torres del Paine National Park. The central port city of Valparaíso, with its unique architecture, is also popular. Finally, Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean is one of the main Chilean tourist destinations. Torres del Paine. For locals, tourism is concentrated mostly in the summer (December to March), and mainly in the coastal beach towns. Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, La Serena and Coquimbo are the main summer centres in the north, and Pucón on the shores of Lake Villarrica is the main one in the south. Because of its proximity to Santiago, the coast of the Valparaíso Region, with its many beach resorts, receives the largest number of tourists. Viña del Mar, Valparaíso's northern affluent neighbor, is popular because of its beaches, casino, and its annual song festival, the most important musical event in Latin America. In November 2005, the government launched a campaign under the brand "Chile: All Ways Surprising," intended to promote the country internationally for both business and tourism. National symbols The Andean condor is the national bird of Chile. A red copihue. The national flower is the copihue (Lapageria rosea, Chilean bellflower), which grows in the woods of southern Chile. The coat of arms depicts the two national animals: the condor (Vultur gryphus, a very large bird that lives in the mountains) and the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus, an endangered white tail deer). It also has the legend Por la razón o la fuerza (By right or might or By reason or by force). The flag of Chile consists of two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red stands for the blood spilled to achieve independence. International rankings See also Notes and references Bibliography Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, United States Department of State, August 2006 Library of Congress country profile Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chile - Country Page Disputes between Chile and Argentine External links Official resources Gobierno - Government (English version) Ministerio del Interior - Interior Ministry Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores - Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministerio de Hacienda - Ministry of Finance (English version) Congreso Nacional - National Congress Senado - Senate Cámara de Diputados - Chamber of Deputies Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional - Library of National Congress Poder Judicial - Judiciary Banco Central - Central Bank (English version) Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas (INE) - National Statistics Institute Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Chile at UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Several links compiled by LANIC Council of Hemispheric Affairs An independent source of Latin American News and Opinion Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Chile Invest in Chile Native flora species be-x-old:Чылі | Chile |@lemmatized chile:209 officially:3 republic:4 spanish:29 country:60 south:31 america:22 occupy:2 long:5 narrow:2 coastal:6 strip:1 wedge:1 andes:9 mountain:6 pacific:14 ocean:4 border:8 peru:14 north:16 bolivia:8 northeast:1 argentina:10 east:6 drake:2 passage:2 southernmost:1 tip:1 one:18 two:15 brazil:6 form:10 entire:1 western:2 coastline:1 stretch:2 kilometre:4 chilean:67 territory:10 extend:5 include:18 overseas:1 juan:3 fernández:2 island:20 salas:1 gómez:3 desventuradas:1 easter:9 locate:6 polynesia:2 claim:4 antarctica:4 unusual:1 ribbon:1 like:2 shape:1 average:5 wide:6 give:4 varied:1 climate:7 range:5 world:23 driest:1 desert:5 atacama:4 mediterranean:2 centre:2 snow:3 prone:1 alpine:2 glacier:5 fjord:3 lake:6 northern:11 contain:4 great:10 mineral:4 wealth:4 principally:3 copper:14 relatively:5 small:9 central:15 area:13 dominate:4 term:13 population:21 agricultural:5 resource:4 also:36 cultural:3 political:11 center:11 expand:9 late:4 century:15 incorporate:3 southern:21 region:20 rich:3 forest:2 graze:2 land:5 feature:3 string:2 volcano:4 coast:5 labyrinth:2 inlet:2 canal:3 twist:2 peninsula:2 eastern:3 prior:1 come:6 inca:8 rule:5 indigenous:10 araucanians:5 inhabited:1 although:9 declare:6 independence:7 decisive:3 victory:2 achieve:6 war:11 defeat:4 win:13 present:4 araucanian:2 indian:3 completely:3 subjugate:2 free:12 coup:5 arbitrary:2 government:38 blight:1 american:18 continent:2 endure:1 year:34 military:10 dictatorship:3 leave:2 people:11 dead:1 miss:1 currently:6 stable:1 prosperous:1 nation:8 within:8 latin:13 context:1 lead:12 human:5 development:7 gross:1 domestic:8 product:3 per:2 caput:2 market:10 price:7 purchase:4 power:7 parity:1 competitiveness:1 quality:1 life:3 stability:2 globalization:1 economic:19 freedom:4 low:7 perception:1 corruption:3 comparatively:2 poverty:5 rate:11 rank:1 high:12 regionally:1 press:2 democratic:5 income:5 inequality:1 measure:3 gini:1 index:1 etymology:1 various:2 theory:4 origin:1 word:3 accord:11 propose:2 chronicler:1 diego:4 de:47 rosales:1 http:30 www:22 com:10 tpl:2 articulo:1 detalle:1 ver:1 call:9 valley:11 aconcagua:2 chili:3 name:10 picunche:2 tribal:1 chief:5 cacique:1 tili:1 time:6 incan:1 conquest:6 britannica:5 ebchecked:1 topic:1 another:7 point:4 similarity:1 casma:1 town:3 say:1 may:7 derive:2 mapuche:15 chilli:3 mean:3 end:9 deep:1 earth:2 sea:1 gull:1 quechua:3 chin:1 cold:2 aymara:3 tchili:1 meaning:1 attribute:2 onomatopoeic:1 cheele:2 imitation:1 bird:3 conquistador:2 hear:1 survivor:1 almagro:3 first:12 expedition:1 men:6 ultimately:1 credit:5 universalization:1 mapocho:1 history:2 original:1 inhabitant:2 ago:1 migrate:3 native:12 settle:2 fertile:1 day:6 example:1 settlement:4 sit:1 early:6 habitation:1 cueva:1 del:18 milodon:1 pali:2 aike:2 crater:1 lava:1 tube:1 c:1 michael:1 hogan:1 megalithic:1 portal:1 ed:1 andy:1 burnham:1 briefly:2 empire:3 successfully:1 resist:1 many:8 attempt:3 despite:5 lack:3 state:24 organization:8 book:7 google:3 id:3 pg:3 lpg:3 dq:3 conquer:1 source:6 web:1 ots:3 sig:3 hl:3 en:8 sa:3 x:4 oi:3 resnum:3 ct:3 result:13 fight:1 sapa:1 tupac:1 yupanqui:1 army:9 bloody:1 three:8 confrontation:1 know:3 battle:3 maule:2 river:1 circumnavigate:1 ferdinand:2 magellan:3 discover:1 strait:2 next:3 european:14 reach:11 band:7 seek:3 gold:5 encounter:2 hundred:1 thousand:2 culture:8 modern:2 support:3 slash:1 burn:1 agriculture:1 hunting:1 begin:8 earnest:1 carry:1 pedro:4 valdivia:4 francisco:2 pizarro:1 lieutenant:1 found:1 city:6 santiago:15 february:3 find:3 extensive:2 silver:4 recognize:1 potential:1 become:13 part:3 viceroyalty:1 take:8 place:8 gradually:2 suffer:2 repeated:1 setback:1 hand:1 local:4 massive:1 insurrection:2 death:2 destruction:1 colony:6 principal:2 subsequent:1 major:6 group:5 revolt:2 drive:2 northward:2 abolition:1 slavery:1 crown:1 recognition:1 enslave:1 intensify:1 resistance:1 rather:1 cow:1 submission:1 royal:1 prohibition:1 relation:5 remain:7 strained:1 continual:1 colonialist:1 interference:1 bárbaros:1 page:3 david:1 j:1 weber:1 cut:1 west:4 centralized:1 homogeneous:2 serve:5 sort:1 frontier:1 garrison:1 mission:1 forestall:1 encroachment:1 spain:3 enemy:1 especially:4 british:1 dutch:2 addition:2 buccaneer:1 english:10 adventurer:1 menace:1 show:5 sir:1 francis:1 raid:1 valparaíso:9 port:5 host:7 large:15 standing:1 militarized:1 possession:1 well:4 drain:1 treasury:1 precipitate:1 usurpation:1 throne:1 napoleon:1 brother:1 joseph:1 national:30 junta:3 heir:1 deposed:1 king:2 september:7 proclaim:2 autonomous:1 monarchy:1 movement:2 total:17 soon:1 following:1 impose:1 reconquista:1 prolonged:2 struggle:1 bernardo:3 higgins:3 intermittent:1 warfare:1 continue:9 renowned:2 patriot:1 josé:1 san:8 martín:1 hero:1 argentine:2 cross:1 royalist:1 independent:6 leadership:1 bring:5 little:2 social:7 change:1 however:10 society:2 preserve:1 essence:1 stratified:1 colonial:4 structure:2 greatly:2 influence:9 family:4 politics:3 roman:3 catholic:5 church:11 strong:9 presidency:2 eventually:1 emerge:3 wealthy:1 landowner:1 powerful:3 iquique:3 toward:2 nineteenth:4 consolidate:1 position:3 ruthlessly:1 suppress:1 occupation:1 araucanía:1 sign:10 treaty:3 confirm:1 sovereignty:1 almost:3 third:7 eliminate:2 access:3 acquire:1 valuable:1 nitrate:3 deposit:2 exploitation:1 era:3 affluence:1 civil:2 brought:1 redistribution:1 president:18 congress:13 establish:2 parliamentary:2 style:2 democracy:5 contest:2 favor:4 industry:4 banking:3 interest:3 particularly:2 house:4 edward:1 tie:6 foreign:18 investor:3 economy:14 partially:1 degenerate:1 system:15 protect:2 ruling:1 oligarchy:1 middle:5 working:1 class:4 enough:2 elect:7 reformist:1 arturo:1 alessandri:4 palma:1 whose:1 program:4 frustrate:1 conservative:3 marxist:2 popular:16 arise:2 portales:1 influential:1 politician:3 general:13 luis:2 altamirano:1 set:1 period:10 instability:1 last:6 lasting:1 ten:2 carlos:3 ibáñez:5 campo:4 hold:4 facto:1 really:1 comparable:2 harshness:1 type:1 often:1 bedevil:1 rest:1 certainly:1 violent:1 repressive:1 regime:2 augusto:4 pinochet:9 decade:5 later:1 relinquish:1 democratically:2 successor:1 retain:1 respect:2 segment:3 viable:1 thirty:1 spite:1 vague:1 shifting:1 nature:2 ideology:1 constitutional:4 restore:1 party:14 radical:3 key:2 force:15 coalition:12 dominance:2 increase:17 role:4 voter:1 return:3 office:1 six:2 jorge:2 succeed:2 conservatism:1 back:2 presidential:7 election:11 christian:9 democrat:7 eduardo:4 frei:9 montalva:2 absolute:3 majority:5 initiate:1 reform:10 slogan:1 revolution:1 liberty:1 administration:4 embark:1 far:4 education:1 housing:2 agrarian:1 rural:4 unionization:1 worker:4 opposition:3 leftist:1 charge:2 inadequate:1 excessive:1 fully:1 ambitious:1 goal:1 senator:5 salvador:1 allende:16 gossens:1 plurality:1 vote:8 way:4 physician:2 member:13 socialist:7 head:4 unity:2 unidad:1 communist:3 along:1 dissident:1 unitary:1 action:2 mapu:1 breakdown:1 u:35 library:5 study:3 toc:1 base:4 information:2 available:1 march:6 pressure:2 united:15 keep:2 tradition:2 conduct:2 runoff:2 candidate:3 former:3 choose:2 refuse:1 alliance:4 oppose:1 ground:1 could:1 make:3 common:2 cause:2 right:9 wing:2 secret:2 cia:1 depression:1 peak:1 exacerbate:2 capital:9 flight:1 plummet:1 private:6 investment:15 withdrawal:1 bank:8 response:1 production:2 fell:3 unemployment:5 rise:3 adopt:1 freeze:1 wage:3 tax:2 consumer:1 spending:3 redistribute:1 downward:1 propiedad:2 bl:2 knbsrkrbtl:2 ei:2 joint:1 public:5 work:3 project:2 help:6 reduce:3 much:2 sector:5 nationalize:2 enterprise:2 coal:1 iron:1 steel:1 expropriate:1 subject:2 intervention:1 industrial:1 output:1 sharply:1 advancement:1 grace:1 evergreen:1 edu:5 arunc:1 text:2 torre:1 html:8 replace:2 judicial:2 legality:2 nationalization:2 others:3 bankruptcy:1 strengthen:2 militia:1 mir:1 start:2 platform:2 mine:1 amendment:3 pass:2 unanimously:2 richard:1 nixon:1 organize:2 insert:1 operative:2 order:1 quickly:2 destabilize:1 gwu:4 nsarchiv:4 nsaebb:4 htm:7 financial:8 restrict:1 international:10 fa:2 org:4 irp:2 ops:2 policy:4 problem:1 finance:6 mostly:3 print:1 money:1 poor:4 rating:2 commercial:3 controversial:2 ugarte:2 cuban:1 package:1 scandal:1 reveal:1 arm:3 smuggle:1 cuba:1 surround:1 kgb:2 advisor:1 turn:2 soviet:1 operation:2 vasili:1 mitrokhin:1 christopher:1 andrew:1 go:6 basic:1 hardcover:1 isbn:1 simultaneously:1 medium:2 accelerate:1 campaign:2 destabilization:1 derechos:1 nizkor:1 doc:1 hinchey:1 inflation:8 control:8 crippled:1 batter:1 sometimes:1 simultaneous:1 strike:1 teacher:1 student:2 truck:1 owner:1 business:3 supreme:2 court:5 friend:1 denounce:1 disruption:1 illegal:1 constitution:6 seizure:1 transition:2 judiciary:3 finally:4 overthrow:1 armed:3 bombard:1 palace:1 palacio:2 la:10 moneda:2 reportedly:1 commit:2 suicide:1 mark:1 allegation:1 violation:1 october:5 least:3 murder:1 caravan:1 rettig:1 report:7 valech:1 commission:1 several:6 kill:1 new:12 approve:3 plebiscite:4 permit:1 assembly:1 speech:2 association:3 trade:37 union:6 activity:4 launch:2 orient:2 ever:1 since:10 move:1 saw:1 important:10 open:5 competition:3 deny:1 second:8 chamber:4 december:6 patricio:1 aylwin:2 concertación:6 receive:3 consider:2 ruiz:2 tagle:2 son:1 previous:3 ricardo:3 lagos:2 unprecedented:1 joaquín:1 lavín:1 rightist:1 january:6 woman:4 michelle:4 bachelet:5 jeria:1 four:11 geography:2 parinacota:4 elqui:1 conguillío:1 park:3 grey:1 cone:2 side:2 mi:3 encompass:1 remarkable:1 variety:2 landscape:1 primarily:3 historical:2 integrate:1 latter:3 suspend:1 antarctic:2 signatory:1 govern:4 sala:2 easternmost:1 robinson:1 crusoe:1 mainland:3 archipelago:2 nowadays:1 province:3 temporally:1 inhabit:1 fisherman:1 ambrosio:1 felix:1 notable:2 territorial:2 water:2 derecho:1 agua:1 alejandro:1 vergara:1 blanco:2 administrative:1 division:2 divide:3 intendant:1 appoint:3 every:3 provincial:1 governor:2 commune:1 administer:1 municipality:1 mayor:1 councilman:1 designate:4 numeral:1 assign:1 exception:2 rm:1 stand:2 región:1 metropolitana:2 metropolitan:1 arica:4 los:6 ríos:5 create:2 numbering:1 scheme:1 xiii:1 skip:1 xv:1 xiv:1 capitalxvarica:1 parinacotaregión:1 parinacotaaricaitarapacáregión:1 tarapacáiquiqueiiantofagastaregión:1 antofagastaantofagastaiiiatacamaregión:1 atacamacopiapóivcoquimboregión:1 coquimbola:1 serenavvalparaísoregión:1 valparaísovalparaisovio:1 higginsregión:1 libertador:1 higginsrancaguaviimauleregión:1 mauletalcaviiibiobíoregión:1 biobíoconcepciónixaraucaníaregión:1 araucaníatemucoxivlos:1 ríosregión:1 ríosvaldiviaxlos:1 lagosregión:1 lagospuerto:1 monttxiaisénregión:1 aisén:1 campocoihaiquexiimagallanesregión:1 magallanes:1 antártica:1 chilenapunta:1 arenasrmsantiagoregión:1 santiagosantiago:1 comprise:1 weather:1 condition:2 across:4 geographic:1 scale:1 degree:4 latitude:1 generalisation:1 difficult:1 köppen:1 seven:4 climatic:1 subtypes:1 tundra:1 humid:1 subtropical:1 oceanic:1 season:1 summer:7 autumn:1 winter:1 june:4 august:3 spring:1 november:3 zone:2 distance:1 use:9 different:2 utc:5 offset:1 daylight:2 save:2 note:2 circulation:1 impressive:1 growth:14 experience:2 moderate:1 downturn:2 unfavorable:1 global:3 relate:1 asian:3 crisis:3 sluggish:1 clear:1 recovery:1 real:3 gdp:12 finish:4 fall:2 blue:3 orange:1 sound:2 maintain:4 consistently:1 contribute:3 steady:1 reduced:1 half:3 overview:2 sell:1 company:2 privatization:1 though:2 slow:1 pace:1 limit:2 regulation:1 operate:5 giant:1 codelco:2 run:4 strongly:1 welcome:1 amount:1 agreement:15 ftas:2 whole:1 network:2 fta:10 implement:2 usa:1 final:6 korea:5 zealand:4 singapore:4 brunei:4 china:11 japan:4 partial:1 india:3 negotiation:7 full:3 fledge:1 australia:5 malaysia:3 thailand:4 exist:2 beyond:2 good:4 conclude:4 plan:5 chapter:2 oecd:1 agree:1 invite:1 among:8 discussion:1 official:4 saving:3 propel:1 privatized:1 pension:7 afp:4 encourage:3 estimate:7 approximately:4 without:1 critic:4 cite:2 participation:1 cover:2 self:1 employ:1 outside:2 criticism:1 inefficiency:1 cost:2 fund:4 loophole:1 lump:1 sum:1 withdraws:1 home:3 payment:1 university:1 fee:1 fundamental:1 weakness:1 substantial:1 overhaul:2 grow:11 skyline:2 hover:1 slowdown:1 dip:1 monthly:1 faster:1 productivity:1 boost:3 living:2 standard:1 percentage:1 household:3 line:1 define:1 twice:3 satisfy:1 person:2 minimal:1 nutritional:1 need:1 poll:3 argue:1 true:1 figure:4 considerably:2 publish:1 outdated:1 budget:2 update:1 data:1 relative:2 yardstick:1 favour:1 would:1 feres:1 eclac:1 enjoy:3 robust:1 compare:4 uneven:1 distribution:2 ahead:2 lag:1 behind:1 even:3 develop:2 sub:1 saharan:1 african:1 top:4 percentile:1 possess:1 percent:10 populate:1 upper:1 bracket:3 extreme:3 airbus:1 lan:1 airline:1 pursues:1 target:1 exceed:1 register:2 peso:1 rapid:1 appreciation:1 dollar:2 recent:6 dampen:1 loan:4 indexed:1 volatility:1 compulsory:1 formal:1 employee:1 pay:2 salary:1 privately:1 manage:1 direct:3 fdi:4 billion:28 performance:1 electricity:1 gas:1 mining:1 jump:1 acquisition:1 merger:1 employment:2 council:4 innovation:1 task:1 identify:2 promote:2 hop:1 combine:3 research:4 additional:2 invest:2 annual:2 r:2 multinational:1 corporation:1 value:4 approach:1 codify:1 law:8 treatment:2 registration:1 simple:1 transparent:1 guaranteed:1 exchange:1 repatriate:1 profit:1 face:1 announce:1 stimulus:1 spur:1 aim:2 expansion:1 nonetheless:1 analyst:1 differ:1 stimates:1 forecast:1 median:1 reuters:1 article:3 economicnews:1 responsible:2 record:3 export:14 service:4 somewhat:1 distort:1 skyrocketing:1 import:10 thus:1 positive:1 balance:1 main:10 destination:3 asia:9 europe:5 see:3 share:2 diversify:1 relationship:2 partner:3 effect:2 internal:1 factor:2 bilateral:4 netherlands:3 italy:2 trading:2 significantly:2 nearly:3 represent:5 fifth:1 exporter:2 wine:2 mainly:8 sale:1 alone:2 account:1 worth:3 follow:5 mercosur:3 supplier:1 number:11 ecuador:2 overall:1 profile:2 traditionally:1 dependent:1 upon:1 owned:1 firm:2 produce:3 reserve:1 effort:1 nontraditional:1 non:5 forestry:1 wood:2 fresh:1 fruit:2 process:1 food:1 fishmeal:1 seafood:2 successive:1 actively:1 pursue:1 liberalizing:1 canada:1 mexico:1 preferential:2 venezuela:1 colombia:1 paraguay:1 uruguay:3 strategy:1 complete:3 landmark:1 cooperation:1 apec:3 recently:2 hope:1 finalize:1 expanded:2 add:2 talk:1 schedule:1 antonio:1 duty:1 enter:2 approval:1 inaugurate:1 jumping:1 unilaterally:1 lower:1 board:3 tariff:2 higher:1 effective:1 wheat:4 flour:2 sugar:2 inconsistent:1 wto:2 obligation:1 introduce:1 legislation:2 modify:1 phase:1 proponent:1 ftaa:1 active:4 doha:1 round:2 membership:1 g:1 cairn:1 district:3 broaden:1 scope:1 permissible:1 liberalization:2 pending:1 introduction:2 tool:1 equity:1 currency:1 future:3 option:1 leasing:1 debit:1 card:2 accompany:1 traditional:3 instrument:1 asset:2 roughly:1 lose:3 globalpost:1 dispatch:1 uncertain:1 best:1 p:1 raise:2 abroad:2 issuance:1 bond:1 selling:1 stock:1 depository:1 receipt:1 adrs:1 require:1 fiscal:1 surplus:2 equal:2 debt:2 demographics:1 view:1 census:11 decline:1 decrease:2 birth:1 expect:1 million:5 urban:1 agglomeration:1 concepción:1 racial:4 ethnic:3 congregation:1 white:13 mestizo:3 predominantly:1 castizos:1 ancestry:2 corresponds:1 appear:3 classify:1 amerindian:1 publication:1 factbook:2 como:1 su:2 población:3 está:1 formada:1 casi:1 exclusivamente:1 por:2 una:1 blanca:2 e:4 mestiza:1 procedente:1 sur:1 europa:1 más:1 garcía:1 zarza:1 consist:1 descent:2 italian:3 irish:3 french:6 german:11 swiss:2 croat:2 mixture:1 settler:1 andalusians:1 castilian:2 tribe:1 picunches:1 diaguitas:1 mapuches:1 identity:2 stem:1 locally:1 chilenidad:1 afro:1 negligible:1 contribution:2 less:2 current:3 consideration:1 associate:3 either:3 linguistically:1 socially:1 vary:3 miscegenation:2 el:4 gradiente:1 sociogenético:1 chileno:1 sus:1 implicaciones:1 ético:1 sociales:1 community:5 belong:1 recognise:1 alacaluf:1 atacameño:1 rapanui:2 colla:1 yámana:1 practice:7 speak:5 language:8 irrespective:2 purity:1 survey:2 whether:2 still:2 fit:1 description:1 immigration:4 visible:1 puerto:4 vara:2 immigrant:5 evolution:1 basque:2 arrive:4 france:1 vitalize:1 join:2 old:2 aristocracy:1 elite:2 encyclopædia:2 retrieve:1 july:1 online:1 eb:1 diariovasco:1 entrevista:1 al:1 presidente:1 cámara:2 vasca:1 vascos:3 ainara:1 madariaga:1 autora:1 estudio:1 imaginarios:2 desde:1 construcción:1 durante:1 siglo:1 xx:1 basques:1 au:1 ref:2 contacto:1 interlingüístico:1 intercultural:1 mundo:1 hispano:1 instituto:2 valenciano:1 lenguas:1 culturas:1 universitat:1 valència:1 cita:1 un:5 chilena:3 tiene:1 origen:1 país:2 vasco:1 extremity:1 croatian:3 yugoslavian:1 prevalence:1 hispanic:2 surname:1 body:1 testament:1 disproportionate:1 mention:1 numerous:1 descendant:4 diaspora:1 croata:1 hrvatski:1 palestinian:3 arab:1 descendientes:2 árabes:1 porcentajes:1 palestinos:1 volume:1 neighbor:3 similar:3 hill:1 republican:2 merchant:1 incidentally:1 sizable:1 lay:1 foundation:1 sponsor:1 colonise:1 speaking:1 silesians:1 alsatian:1 austrian:1 markedly:1 composition:1 exceptional:1 displaced:1 jew:1 syrian:1 flee:1 ottoman:1 today:1 spearhead:1 manufacturing:1 greek:4 immigrate:1 viajerosgriegos:1 ar:3 vg:1 live:5 antofagasta:3 griegos:1 twentieth:1 wave:1 correspond:1 atlantic:1 significant:1 intense:1 traffic:2 opening:1 panama:1 cordillera:1 bibliotecavirtual:1 clacso:1 libros:1 becas:1 stefoni:1 pdf:2 ansa:1 ansalatina:1 notizie:1 notiziari:1 count:1 ipsnews:1 net:1 news:3 asp:1 idnews:1 emigration:1 sweden:1 around:1 gobiernodechile:1 cl:6 lanacion:1 site:5 artic:4 pags:4 religion:4 age:1 evangelical:3 refer:1 orthodox:1 persian:1 serbian:1 ukrainian:1 armenian:1 jesus:1 christ:1 saint:3 mormon:1 seventh:1 adventist:1 jehovah:1 witness:1 evangelicals:1 pentecostal:1 wesleyan:1 lutheran:1 presbyterian:1 anglican:1 episcopalian:1 baptist:1 methodist:1 provide:1 generally:1 level:2 abuse:2 governmental:1 actor:2 separate:1 prohibits:1 religious:1 discrimination:1 privileged:1 status:1 occasionally:1 attend:1 event:2 protestant:2 jewish:1 ceremony:2 observe:1 christmas:1 friday:1 feast:4 virgin:1 carmen:1 peter:1 paul:1 assumption:1 immaculate:1 conception:1 holiday:2 honor:2 economist:1 displaystory:1 cfm:1 fsrc:1 bbc:1 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 special:2 stm:1 languages:1 spoken:1 distinctively:1 accent:3 quite:1 unlike:1 neighbour:1 syllable:1 drop:1 consonant:1 soft:1 pronunciation:1 slightly:1 noticeable:1 difference:1 fact:1 essentially:1 section:2 modest:1 explain:1 differentiation:1 radio:1 television:1 diffuse:1 homogenize:1 colloquial:1 expression:2 worldwide:1 learning:1 teaching:1 academic:1 professional:2 absorb:1 appropriate:1 everyday:1 anglicism:1 mapudungun:1 rapa:1 nui:1 invasion:1 lingua:1 franca:1 minority:1 extinct:1 close:1 extinction:1 downtown:1 highly:2 irregular:1 amend:1 ease:1 provision:1 grant:1 authority:2 remove:2 commander:3 none:1 getters:1 alianza:2 sebastián:1 piñera:1 compete:1 swear:1 fourth:1 judge:1 fair:1 constitutionally:1 bar:1 consecutive:1 seat:6 senate:4 deputy:5 staggered:1 split:2 pro:1 congressional:4 concurrently:1 left:1 binomial:1 reward:1 representation:2 therefore:1 apportion:1 electoral:1 historically:1 ticket:1 margin:1 gain:2 surpass:1 udi:1 respective:1 ally:1 big:1 block:2 renewal:1 fail:1 appeal:1 tribunal:1 criminal:1 justice:1 inquisitorial:1 proceeding:1 adversarial:1 defense:5 civilian:1 exercise:1 minister:1 oscar:1 izurieta:1 ferrer:1 headquarters:1 throughout:3 air:6 brigade:2 rancagua:1 command:1 colina:1 technologically:1 advanced:1 frigate:2 almirante:1 encalada:1 ff:1 pearl:1 harbor:1 admiral:1 rodolfo:1 codina:1 navy:5 armada:3 marine:1 fleet:1 surface:1 vessel:1 eight:1 operational:2 combatant:1 ship:1 valparaiso:1 aircraft:2 transport:1 patrol:1 fighter:1 bomber:1 submarine:1 talcahuano:1 gen:2 ortega:1 perrier:1 distribute:2 five:2 headquarter:1 montt:2 punta:1 arena:2 airbase:1 george:1 delivery:2 f:3 reconditioned:1 police:3 carabineros:2 ministry:6 interior:3 nominal:1 gordon:1 enforcement:1 management:1 narcotic:1 suppression:1 counter:1 terrorism:1 salute:1 leader:1 inauguration:1 always:1 involvement:1 affair:4 aggressively:1 challenge:1 callao:1 preeminence:1 route:1 short:1 bolivian:1 confederation:3 dissolve:1 regional:1 britain:1 influenced:1 legal:1 educational:1 impact:1 architecture:4 boom:1 training:1 prussian:1 participate:1 founding:1 charter:1 california:1 isolated:1 politically:1 widespread:1 participant:1 permanent:1 security:1 jose:1 miguel:1 insulza:1 secretary:1 atomic:1 energy:1 agency:2 iaea:2 chair:1 ambassador:1 milenko:1 skoknic:1 participates:1 peacekeeping:1 bid:1 ministerial:2 summit:2 related:1 meeting:1 april:1 ibero:1 issue:1 hemispheric:2 diplomatic:2 dispute:2 sever:1 desire:1 reacquire:1 consular:1 consul:1 gabriela:2 mistral:2 nobel:4 prize:5 literature:5 pablo:2 neruda:2 pre:1 andean:2 altiplano:2 spread:1 migrant:1 bavarian:1 cuisine:3 frutillar:1 osorno:1 temuco:1 pucón:2 music:8 dance:3 folkloric:1 classical:1 generates:1 musical:3 memoria:1 cueca:2 song:2 tonada:1 colonist:1 distinguish:1 intermediate:1 melodic:1 prominent:1 melody:1 rebirth:1 folk:2 ramon:2 huasos:1 quincheros:1 conjuntos:1 folkloricos:1 composer:1 raul:1 violeta:1 parra:2 nicanor:1 molinare:1 folkloristas:1 mid:1 revitalize:1 nueva:1 canción:1 activist:1 reformer:1 victor:1 jara:1 singer:1 researcher:1 folklore:1 ethnography:1 margot:1 loyola:1 poetas:1 poet:2 protocolo:1 mx:1 articulos:1 php:1 uchile:1 cultura:1 poetasjovenes:1 famous:1 romance:1 individualistic:1 isla:1 negra:1 tourist:7 reflection:1 topographical:1 assortment:1 beef:1 vegetable:1 recipe:1 cazuela:1 empanadas:1 humitas:1 curanto:1 table:1 maria:1 baez:1 kijac:1 sport:7 rodeo:2 marcelo:2 sportsman:1 football:4 soccer:2 fifa:3 cup:4 team:4 copa:2 américa:1 bronze:6 medal:9 pan:1 game:2 olympics:2 youth:1 tournament:7 club:3 colo:4 cf:1 universidad:2 cd:1 católica:1 successful:2 championship:5 coveted:1 libertadores:1 tennis:4 clay:1 play:2 davis:1 capture:1 single:3 double:1 man:1 spot:1 atp:1 ranking:2 anita:1 lizana:1 grand:1 slam:1 ayala:1 runner:1 fernando:1 gonzález:1 australian:1 olympic:1 boast:1 athletics:1 equestrian:1 boxing:2 shoot:1 hockey:1 chueca:1 skiing:1 snowboarding:1 ski:2 surf:1 polo:2 professionally:1 earn:2 edition:1 basketball:1 fiba:3 tourism:6 sustain:1 generate:1 sernatur:1 visit:1 visitor:1 pr:1 attraction:1 natural:1 beauty:1 situate:1 admire:1 incaic:1 moon:1 putre:1 chungará:1 pomerape:1 altitude:1 respectively:1 resort:2 repute:1 portillo:1 valle:1 nevado:1 chiloé:1 patagonia:1 laguna:1 rafael:1 torres:2 paine:2 unique:1 concentrate:1 beach:3 serena:1 coquimbo:1 shore:1 villarrica:1 proximity:1 viña:1 mar:1 affluent:1 casino:1 festival:1 brand:1 surprise:1 intend:1 internationally:1 symbols:1 condor:2 red:3 copihue:2 flower:1 lapageria:1 rosea:1 bellflower:1 coat:1 depict:1 animal:1 vultur:1 gryphus:1 huemul:1 hippocamelus:1 bisulcus:1 endanger:1 tail:1 deer:1 legend:1 razón:1 fuerza:1 might:1 reason:1 flag:1 consists:1 horizontal:1 square:2 height:1 hoist:1 bear:1 star:1 guide:1 progress:1 symbolize:1 sky:1 covered:1 blood:1 spill:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 bureau:1 hemisphere:1 department:1 encyclopaedia:1 external:1 link:2 gobierno:1 version:3 ministerio:3 relaciones:1 exteriores:1 hacienda:1 congreso:2 nacional:3 senado:1 diputados:1 biblioteca:1 poder:1 banco:1 estadísticas:1 ine:1 statistic:1 institute:1 cabinet:1 ucb:1 govpubs:1 compile:1 lanic:1 opinion:1 cr:1 regard:1 flora:1 specie:1 чылі:1 |@bigram andes_mountain:5 pacific_ocean:3 southernmost_tip:1 juan_fernández:2 decisive_victory:1 peru_bolivia:3 gross_domestic:1 per_caput:2 gini_index:1 http_www:22 com_ebchecked:1 ebchecked_topic:1 spanish_conquistador:2 lava_tube:1 michael_hogan:1 megalithic_portal:1 andy_burnham:1 id_pg:3 pg_lpg:3 lpg_dq:3 web_ots:1 ots_sig:1 sig_hl:3 hl_en:3 x_oi:3 oi_resnum:1 resnum_ct:1 sapa_inca:1 ferdinand_magellan:1 strait_magellan:2 hundred_thousand:1 slash_burn:1 francisco_pizarro:1 gold_silver:1 viceroyalty_peru:1 abolition_slavery:1 francis_drake:1 bernardo_higgins:2 san_martín:1 wealthy_landowner:1 nineteenth_century:3 bolivia_chile:1 carlos_ibáñez:2 ibáñez_del:5 del_campo:4 de_facto:1 augusto_pinochet:4 democratically_elect:1 jorge_alessandri:2 presidential_election:4 eduardo_frei:3 frei_montalva:2 agrarian_reform:1 salvador_allende:1 bl_ots:2 en_ei:2 ei_sa:2 oi_ct:2 constitutional_amendment:2 richard_nixon:1 www_gwu:4 gwu_edu:4 edu_nsarchiv:4 nsarchiv_nsaebb:4 nsaebb_htm:4 vasili_mitrokhin:1 supreme_court:2 la_moneda:2 commit_suicide:1 concertación_coalition:2 ricardo_lagos:2 michelle_bachelet:4 kilometre_mi:3 atacama_desert:1 robinson_crusoe:1 humid_subtropical:1 utc_offset:1 daylight_save:2 economic_downturn:2 singapore_brunei:2 full_fledge:1 malaysia_thailand:2 pension_fund:1 lump_sum:1 economic_slowdown:1 household_income:1 juan_carlos:1 lag_behind:1 sub_saharan:1 investment_fdi:1 multinational_corporation:1 trading_partner:2 owned_firm:1 nontraditional_export:1 venezuela_colombia:1 colombia_ecuador:1 cooperation_apec:1 san_antonio:1 greatly_expanded:1 wheat_flour:2 doha_round:1 broaden_scope:1 debit_card:1 depository_receipt:1 del_sur:1 quechua_aymara:1 racial_purity:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_online:1 siglo_xx:1 el_mundo:1 de_valència:1 la_población:1 el_país:1 ottoman_empire:1 twentieth_century:1 argentina_uruguay:1 panama_canal:1 jesus_christ:1 day_adventist:1 jehovah_witness:1 preferential_treatment:1 immaculate_conception:1 displaystory_cfm:1 uk_hi:1 rapa_nui:1 lingua_franca:1 commander_chief:3 presidential_candidate:1 vote_getters:1 chamber_deputy:3 santiago_chile:1 judiciary_independent:1 technologically_advanced:1 pearl_harbor:1 fighter_bomber:1 brigade_headquarter:1 puerto_montt:2 punta_arena:1 counter_terrorism:1 foreign_affair:2 bolivia_peru:1 san_francisco:1 miguel_insulza:1 agency_iaea:1 un_peacekeeping:1 diplomatic_relation:1 sever_diplomatic:1 nobel_prize:4 pablo_neruda:2 tourist_destination:2 fruit_vegetable:1 football_soccer:1 bronze_medal:5 summer_olympics:2 grand_slam:1 slam_tournament:1 gold_medal:1 san_pedro:2 billion_dollar:1 ski_resort:1 coat_arm:1 la_fuerza:1 snow_covered:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 external_link:1 ministerio_de:2 congreso_nacional:2 cámara_de:1 instituto_nacional:1 ucb_library:1 library_govpubs:1 hemispheric_affair:1 |
7,448 | Politics_of_Japan | The politics of Japan is in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, where the Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament; the Diet with the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. In academic studies, Japan is generally considered a constitutional monarchy, based largely upon the British system with strong influences from European continental civil law countries such as the German Bundestag. For example, in 1896 the Japanese government established Minpo, the Civil Code, on the French model. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan. "Japanese Civil Code", Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 14 May 2006. The Emperor The Imperial Palace in Tokyo is the primary residence of the emperor The Imperial Household of Japan is headed by the Emperor of Japan. The Constitution of Japan defines the emperor to be "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people." He performs ceremonial duties and holds no real power, not even emergency reserve powers. Power is held mainly by the Prime Minister and other elected members of the Diet. Sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people by the constitution. Though his official status is disputed, on diplomatic occasions the emperor tends to behave as though he were a head of state (with widespread public support). Executive branch |Emperor |Akihito | |7 January 1989 |- |Prime Minister |Taro Aso |Liberal Democratic Party |24 September 2008 |} The executive branch reports to the Diet. The chief of the executive branch, the Prime Minister, is appointed by the Emperor as directed by the Diet. He must be a member of either house of the Diet and a civilian. The Cabinet, which he organizes, must also be civilian. Since the Liberal Democratic Party (the LDP) has been in power, it has been convention that the President of the LDP serves as prime minister. The Cabinet is composed of a Prime Minister and ministers of state, and is responsible to the Diet. The Prime Minister must be a member of the Diet, and is designated by his colleagues. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The liberal conservative LDP has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan. Legislative branch National Diet Building in Tokyo By the Constitution, the Diet is the most powerful from the three branches and consists of two houses; the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors. The Diet directs the Emperor in the appointment and removal of the chiefs of the executive and judicial branches. Political parties and elections House of Representatives Election in 2005 House of Councilors Election in 2007 The LDP has been the dominant party for most of the post-war period since 1955, and is composed of several factions. Judicial branch The judicial branch is independent of the other two. Its judges are appointed by the Emperor as directed by the prime minister. Japan's judicial system - drawn from customary law, civil law, and Anglo-American common law - consists of several levels of courts, with the Supreme Court as the final judicial authority. The Japanese constitution, drawn up on May 3, 1947 includes a bill of rights similar to the United States Bill of Rights, and the Supreme Court has the right of judicial review. Japanese courts do not use a jury system, and there are no administrative courts or claims courts. Because of the judicial system's basis, court decisions are made in accordance with legal statutes. Only Supreme Court decisions have any direct effect on later interpretation of the law. See also: Japanese law, Judicial system of Japan Policy making Despite an increasingly unpredictable domestic and international environment, policy making conforms to well established postwar patterns. The close collaboration of the ruling party, the elite bureaucracy and important interest groups often make it difficult to tell who exactly is responsible for specific policy decisions. The tendency for insiders to guard information on such matters compounds the difficulty, especially for foreigners wishing to understand how domestic decision making can be influenced to reduce trade problems. Human factor The most important human factor in the policy-making process is the homogeneity of the political and business elites. They are graduates of a relatively small number of top-ranked universities, such as the University of Tokyo, Waseda University, and so on. These shared educational backgrounds encourage a feeling of community, as is reflected in the finely meshed network of marriage alliances between top official and financial circle (zaikai) families. The institution of early retirement also fosters homogeneity. In the practice of amakudari, literally descent from heaven, as it is popularly known, bureaucrats retiring in their fifties often assume top positions in public corporations and private enterprise. They also become politicians. By the late 1980s, most postwar prime ministers had civil service backgrounds. This homogeneity facilitates the free flow of ideas among members of the elite in informal settings. Bureaucrats and business people that are associated with a single industry, such as electronics, often hold regular informal meetings in Tokyo hotels and restaurants. Political scientist T.J. Pempel has pointed out that the concentration of political and economic power in Tokyo—particularly the small geographic area of its central wards—makes it easy for leaders, who are almost without exception denizens of the capital, to have repeated personal contact. Another often overlooked factor is the tendency of elite males not to be family men, even though they usually have wives and children. Late night work and bar-hopping schedules give them ample ways of doing this outstanding opportunity to hash and rehash policy matters and engage in haragei (literally, belly art), or intimate, often nonverbal communication. Comparable to the warriors of ancient Sparta, who lived in barracks apart from their families during much of their childhood and adulthood, the business and bureaucratic elites are expected to sacrifice their private lives for the national good. Policy development After a largely informal process within elite circles in which ideas were discussed and developed, steps might be taken to institute more formal policy development. This process often took place in deliberation councils (shingikai). There were about 200 shingikai, each attached to a ministry; their members were both officials and prominent private individuals in business, education, and other fields. The shingikai played a large role in facilitating communication among those who ordinarily might not meet. Given the tendency for real negotiations in Japan to be conducted privately (in the nemawashi, or root binding, process of consensus building), the shingikai often represented a fairly advanced stage in policy formulation in which relatively minor differences could be thrashed out and the resulting decisions couched in language acceptable to all. These bodies were legally established but had no authority to oblige governments to adopt their recommendations. The most important deliberation council during the 1980s was the Provisional Commission for Administrative Reform, established in March 1981 by Prime Minister Suzuki Zenko. The commission had nine members, assisted in their deliberations by six advisers, twenty-one "expert members," and around fifty "councillors" representing a wide range of groups. Its head, Keidanren president Doko Toshio, insisted that government agree to take its recommendations seriously and commit itself to reforming the administrative structure and the tax system. In 1982 the commission had arrived at several recommendations that by the end of the decade had been actualized. These implementations included tax reform; a policy to limit government growth; the establishment, in 1984, of the Management and Coordination Agency to replace the Administrative Management Agency in the Office of the Prime Minister; and privatization of the state-owned railroad and telephone systems. In April 1990, another deliberation council, the Election Systems Research Council, submitted proposals that included the establishment of single-seat constituencies in place of the multiple-seat system. Another significant policy-making institution in the early 1990's were the LDP's Policy Research Council. It consisted of a number of committees, composed of LDP Diet members, with the committees corresponding to the different executive agencies. Committee members worked closely with their official counterparts, advancing the requests of their constituents, in one of the most effective means through which interest groups could state their case to the bureaucracy through the channel of the ruling party. See also: Industrial policy of Japan; Monetary and fiscal policy of Japan; Mass media and politics in Japan Post-war political development Political parties had begun to revive almost immediately after the occupation began. Left-wing organizations, such as the Japan Socialist Party and the Japanese Communist Party, quickly reestablished themselves, as did various conservative parties. The old Rikken Seiyūkai and Rikken Minseito came back as, respectively, the Liberal Party (Nihon Jiyuto) and the Japan Progressive Party (Nihon Shimpoto). The first postwar elections were held in 1948 (women were given the franchise for the first time in 1947), and the Liberal Party's vice president, Yoshida Shigeru (1878-1967), became prime minister. For the 1947 elections, anti-Yoshida forces left the Liberal Party and joined forces with the Progressive Party to establish the new Democratic Party (Minshuto). This divisiveness in conservative ranks gave a plurality to the Japan Socialist Party, which was allowed to form a cabinet, which lasted less than a year. Thereafter, the socialist party steadily declined in its electoral successes. After a short period of Democratic Party administration, Yoshida returned in late 1948 and continued to serve as prime minister until 1954. Even before Japan regained full sovereignty, the government had rehabilitated nearly 80,000 people who had been purged, many of whom returned to their former political and government positions. A debate over limitations on military spending and the sovereignty of the emperor ensued, contributing to the great reduction in the Liberal Party's majority in the first post-occupation elections (October 1952). After several reorganizations of the armed forces, in 1954 the Japan Self-Defense Forces were established under a civilian director. Cold War realities and the hot war in nearby Korea also contributed significantly to the United States-influenced economic redevelopment, the suppression of communism, and the discouragement of organized labor in Japan during this period. Continual fragmentation of parties and a succession of minority governments led conservative forces to merge the Liberal Party (Jiyuto) with the Japan Democratic Party (Nihon Minshuto), an offshoot of the earlier Democratic Party, to form the Liberal Democratic Party (Jiyu-Minshuto; LDP) in November 1955. This party continuously held power from 1955 through 1993, when it was replaced by a new minority government. LDP leadership was drawn from the elite who had seen Japan through the defeat and occupation; it attracted former bureaucrats, local politicians, businessmen, journalists, other professionals, farmers, and university graduates. In October 1955, socialist groups reunited under the Japan Socialist Party, which emerged as the second most powerful political force. It was followed closely in popularity by the Komeito (Clean Government Party), founded in 1964 as the political arm of the Soka Gakkai (Value Creation Society), until 1991 a lay organization affiliated with the Nichiren Shoshu Buddhist sect. The Komeito emphasized traditional Japanese beliefs and attracted urban laborers, former rural residents, and many women. Like the Japan Socialist Party, it favored the gradual modification and dissolution of the Japan-United States Mutual Security Assistance Pact. Recent political developments LDP domination lasted until the Diet Lower House elections on July 18, 1993, in which the LDP failed to win a majority. A coalition of new parties and existing opposition parties formed a governing majority and elected a new prime minister, Morihiro Hosokawa, in August 1993. His government's major legislative objective was political reform, consisting of a package of new political financing restrictions and major changes in the electoral system. The coalition succeeded in passing landmark political reform legislation in January 1994. In April 1994, Prime Minister Hosokawa resigned. Prime Minister Tsutomu Hata formed the successor coalition government, Japan's first minority government in almost 40 years. Prime Minister Hata resigned less than two months later. Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama formed the next government in June 1994, a coalition of his Japan Socialist Party (JSP), the LDP, and the small New Party Sakigake. The advent of a coalition containing the JSP and LDP shocked many observers because of their previously fierce rivalry. Prime Minister Murayama served from June 1994 to January 1996. He was succeeded by Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto, who served from January 1996 to July 1998. Prime Minister Hashimoto headed a loose coalition of three parties until the July 1998 Upper House election, when the two smaller parties cut ties with the LDP. Hashimoto resigned due to a poor electoral showing by the LDP in those Upper House elections. He was succeeded as party president of the LDP and prime minister by Keizo Obuchi, who took office on July 30, 1998. The LDP formed a governing coalition with the Liberal Party in January 1999, and Keizo Obuchi remained prime minister. The LDP-Liberal coalition expanded to include the New Komeito Party in October 1999. Prime Minister Obuchi suffered a stroke in April 2000 and was replaced by Yoshiro Mori. After the Liberal Party left the coalition in April 2000, Prime Minister Mori welcomed a Liberal Party splinter group, the New Conservative Party, into the ruling coalition. The three-party coalition made up of the LDP, New Komeito, and the New Conservative Party maintained its majority in the Diet following the June 2000 Lower House elections. After a turbulent year in office in which he saw his approval ratings plummet to the single digits, Prime Minister Mori agreed to hold early elections for the LDP presidency in order to improve his party's chances in crucial July 2001 Upper House elections. On April 24, 2001, riding a wave of grassroots desire for change, maverick politician Junichiro Koizumi defeated former Prime Minister Hashimoto and other party stalwarts on a platform of economic and political reform. Koizumi was elected as Japan's 87th Prime Minister on April 26, 2001. On October 11, 2003, the Prime Minister Koizumi dissolved the lower house after he was re-elected as the president of the LDP. (See Japan general election, 2003) Likewise, that year, the LDP won the election, even though it suffered setbacks from the new opposition party, the liberal and social-democratic Democratic Party (DPJ). A similar event occurred during the 2004 Upper House Elections. On August 8, 2005, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi called a snap election to the lower house, as threatened, after LDP stalwarts and opposition DPJ parliamentarians defeated his proposal for a large-scale reform and privatisation of Japan Post, which besides being Japan's state-owned postal monopoly is arguably the world's largest financial institution, with nearly 331 trillion yen of assets. The election was scheduled for September 11, 2005, and was won in a landslide by Junichiro Koizumi's LDP. On February 16, 2006, DPJ member Hisayasu Nagata made false allegations that the son of LDP Secretary-General Tsutomu Takebe illicitly received money from the former president of Livedoor, Takafumi Horie. The only evidence for this allegation was an e-mail allegedly sent from Takafumi Horie to Tsutomu Takebe. The allegations were immediately contested, and on March 2, 2006, Nagata admitted that the e-mail was forged, but stated that he truly believed at the time of the allegation that the e-mail was real. This naturally led to the disgrace of the DPJ, and many party members resigned as a result, including Nagata and party president Seiji Maehira. As of April 5, 2006, Naoto Kan and Ichirō Ozawa were running for the party presidency. On September 26, 2006 new LDP President Shinzo Abe was elected by a special session of the Diet to succeed Junichiro Koizumi as Prime Minister. He is Japan's youngest post-World War II prime minister and the first born after the war. On September 12, 2007, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe surprised Japan by announcing his resignation from office. He was eventually replaced by Yasuo Fukuda. On November 4, 2007, main opposition leader Ichiro Ozawa announced his resignation from the post as party president, after controversy over an offer to the DPJ to join the ruling coalition in a grand coalition. DPJ leader Ozawa hands in resignation over grand coalition controversy - Japan News Review , but has since, with some embarrassment, rescinded his resignation. On January 11, 2008, Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda forced a bill allowing ships to continue a refueling mission in the Indian Ocean in support of US-led operations in Afghanistan. To do so, PM Fukuda used the LDP's overwhelming majority in the Lower House to ignore a previous 'no-vote' of the opposition-controlled Upper House. This is the first time in 50 years that the Lower House has voted to ignore the opinion of the Upper House. Fukuda resigned suddenly on September 1, 2008, just a few weeks after reshuffling his cabinet. On September 1, 2008, Fukuda's resignation was designed so that the LDP did not suffer a “power vacuum.” Fukuda's resignation will not necessarily trigger a general election, since the Liberal Democratic Party must choose a new leader and win the confidence of parliament's lower house to lead Japan's coalition government. guardian.co.uk, Japanese PM Yasuo Fukuda resigns It thus caused a leadership election within the LDP, and the winner would automatically serve as prime minister until the government dissolves parliament and calls a general election. timesonline.co.uk, Japanese PM, Yasuo Fukuda, in shock resignation after just one year in job Fukuda failed, however, to indicate its effectivity, but presumably until the Liberal Democratic Party chooses a new leader to put for parliamentary vote. General elections must be held by September, 2009. Taro Aso has to lead the LDP, since he was elected as the new party President on 22 September 2008 and on 24 September 2008, he was appointed the 92nd Prime Minister after the House of Representatives voted in his favor in the extraordinary session of the Diet. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20080924x1.html Census The government of Japan collects information on the population. The 2005 census collected information on population, age, sex, household size, work and income as of the end of September. Foreign relations Japan is a member state of the United Nations and a non-permanent member of the Security Council; it is currently one of the "G4 nations" seeking permanent membership. Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military forces to wage war against other countries. However, the government maintains "Self-Defense Forces" which include air, land and sea components. Japan's deployment of non-combat troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II. As an economic power, Japan is a member of the G8 and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), and has developed relations with ASEAN as a member of "ASEAN plus three" and the East Asia Summit. It is a major donor in international aid and development efforts, donating 0.19% of its Gross National Income in 2004. , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 11 April 2005. Retrieved 14 May 2006. Japan currently has territorial disputes with Russia over the Kuril Islands (Northern Territories), with South Korea over Liancourt Rocks (known as "Dokdo" in Korea, "Takeshima" in Japan), with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands and with China over the status of Okinotorishima. These disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of crude oil and natural gas. In recent years, Japan has an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and nuclear weapons program. References - Japan External links Electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies Discussions on current Japanese politics The Japan Considered Project (Univ. of S. Carolina) | Politics_of_Japan |@lemmatized politics:3 japan:45 framework:1 parliamentary:2 representative:5 democratic:13 monarchy:2 prime:37 minister:39 head:5 government:21 multi:1 party:58 system:11 executive:7 power:12 exercise:1 legislative:3 vest:2 two:5 chamber:1 parliament:3 diet:16 house:22 councillor:3 judiciary:1 independent:2 legislature:1 academic:1 study:2 generally:1 consider:2 constitutional:1 base:1 largely:2 upon:1 british:1 strong:1 influence:2 european:1 continental:1 civil:5 law:6 country:2 german:1 bundestag:1 example:1 japanese:13 establish:6 minpo:1 code:3 french:1 model:1 post:7 world:4 war:9 ii:3 modification:2 remain:2 effect:2 present:1 day:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 retrieve:2 may:3 emperor:10 imperial:2 palace:1 tokyo:5 primary:1 residence:1 household:2 constitution:5 define:1 symbol:1 state:11 unity:1 people:4 perform:1 ceremonial:1 duty:1 hold:7 real:3 even:4 emergency:1 reserve:2 mainly:1 elect:6 member:16 sovereignty:3 though:4 official:4 status:2 dispute:4 diplomatic:1 occasion:1 tend:1 behave:1 widespread:1 public:2 support:2 branch:8 akihito:1 january:6 taro:2 aso:2 liberal:17 september:10 report:1 chief:2 appoint:4 direct:4 must:6 either:1 civilian:3 cabinet:4 organize:2 also:6 since:7 ldp:29 convention:1 president:10 serf:1 compose:3 responsible:2 designate:1 colleague:1 remove:1 majority:6 conservative:6 except:1 short:2 lived:1 coalition:16 form:7 opposition:7 large:4 social:2 national:3 building:2 powerful:2 three:4 consists:1 appointment:1 removal:1 judicial:8 political:14 election:22 councilors:1 dominant:1 period:3 several:4 faction:1 judge:1 drawn:1 customary:1 anglo:1 american:1 common:1 consist:3 level:1 court:8 supreme:3 final:1 authority:2 draw:2 include:6 bill:3 right:3 similar:2 united:4 review:2 use:4 jury:1 administrative:4 claim:1 basis:1 decision:5 make:7 accordance:1 legal:1 statute:1 late:4 interpretation:1 see:4 policy:13 despite:1 increasingly:1 unpredictable:1 domestic:2 international:2 environment:1 making:3 conforms:1 well:1 postwar:3 pattern:1 close:1 collaboration:1 rule:2 elite:7 bureaucracy:2 important:3 interest:2 group:5 often:7 difficult:1 tell:1 exactly:1 specific:1 tendency:3 insider:1 guard:1 information:3 matter:2 compound:1 difficulty:1 especially:1 foreigner:1 wish:1 understand:1 reduce:1 trade:1 problem:1 human:2 factor:3 process:4 homogeneity:3 business:4 graduate:2 relatively:2 small:4 number:2 top:3 ranked:1 university:4 waseda:1 share:1 educational:1 background:2 encourage:1 feeling:1 community:1 reflect:1 finely:1 meshed:1 network:1 marriage:1 alliance:1 financial:2 circle:2 zaikai:1 family:3 institution:3 early:4 retirement:1 foster:1 practice:1 amakudari:1 literally:2 descent:1 heaven:1 popularly:1 know:2 bureaucrat:3 retire:1 fifty:2 assume:1 position:2 corporation:1 private:3 enterprise:1 become:2 politician:3 service:1 facilitate:2 free:1 flow:1 idea:2 among:2 informal:3 setting:1 associate:1 single:3 industry:1 electronics:1 regular:1 meeting:1 hotel:1 restaurant:1 scientist:1 j:1 pempel:1 point:1 concentration:1 economic:6 particularly:1 geographic:1 area:1 central:1 ward:1 easy:1 leader:5 almost:3 without:1 exception:1 denizen:1 capital:1 repeat:1 personal:1 contact:1 another:3 overlook:1 male:1 men:1 usually:1 wife:1 child:1 night:1 work:3 bar:1 hopping:1 schedule:2 give:4 ample:1 way:1 outstanding:1 opportunity:1 hash:1 rehash:1 engage:1 haragei:1 belly:1 art:1 intimate:1 nonverbal:1 communication:2 comparable:1 warrior:1 ancient:1 sparta:1 live:1 barrack:1 apart:1 much:1 childhood:1 adulthood:1 bureaucratic:1 expect:1 sacrifice:1 life:1 good:1 development:6 within:2 discuss:1 develop:2 step:1 might:2 take:4 institute:1 formal:1 place:2 deliberation:4 council:6 shingikai:4 attach:1 ministry:1 prominent:1 individual:1 education:1 field:1 play:1 role:1 ordinarily:1 meet:1 negotiation:1 conduct:1 privately:1 nemawashi:1 root:1 binding:1 consensus:1 represent:2 fairly:1 advanced:1 stage:1 formulation:1 minor:1 difference:1 could:2 thrash:1 resulting:1 couch:1 language:1 acceptable:1 body:1 legally:1 oblige:1 adopt:1 recommendation:3 provisional:1 commission:3 reform:7 march:2 suzuki:1 zenko:1 nine:1 assist:1 six:1 adviser:1 twenty:1 one:4 expert:1 around:1 wide:1 range:1 keidanren:1 doko:1 toshio:1 insist:1 agree:2 seriously:1 commit:1 structure:1 tax:2 arrive:1 end:2 decade:1 actualize:1 implementation:1 limit:1 growth:1 establishment:2 management:2 coordination:1 agency:3 replace:4 office:4 privatization:1 railroad:1 telephone:1 april:8 research:2 submit:1 proposal:2 seat:2 constituency:1 multiple:1 significant:1 committee:3 correspond:1 different:1 closely:2 counterpart:1 advance:1 request:1 constituent:1 effective:1 mean:1 case:1 channel:1 industrial:1 monetary:1 fiscal:1 mass:1 medium:1 begin:2 revive:1 immediately:2 occupation:3 leave:3 wing:1 organization:2 socialist:7 communist:1 quickly:1 reestablish:1 various:1 old:1 rikken:2 seiyūkai:1 minseito:1 come:1 back:1 respectively:1 nihon:3 jiyuto:2 progressive:2 shimpoto:1 first:7 woman:2 franchise:1 time:3 vice:1 yoshida:3 shigeru:1 anti:1 force:9 join:2 new:15 minshuto:3 divisiveness:1 rank:1 plurality:1 allow:2 last:2 less:2 year:7 thereafter:1 steadily:1 decline:1 electoral:3 success:1 administration:1 return:2 continue:2 serve:4 regain:1 full:1 rehabilitate:1 nearly:2 purge:1 many:4 former:5 debate:1 limitation:1 military:3 spending:1 ensue:1 contribute:2 great:1 reduction:1 october:4 reorganization:1 armed:1 self:2 defense:2 director:1 cold:1 reality:1 hot:1 nearby:1 korea:4 significantly:1 influenced:1 redevelopment:1 suppression:1 communism:1 discouragement:1 labor:1 continual:1 fragmentation:1 succession:1 minority:3 lead:5 merge:1 offshoot:1 jiyu:1 november:2 continuously:1 leadership:2 defeat:3 attract:2 local:1 businessmen:1 journalist:1 professional:1 farmer:1 reunite:1 emerge:1 second:1 follow:2 popularity:1 komeito:4 clean:1 found:1 arm:1 soka:1 gakkai:1 value:1 creation:1 society:1 lay:1 affiliate:1 nichiren:1 shoshu:1 buddhist:1 sect:1 emphasize:1 traditional:1 belief:1 urban:1 laborer:1 rural:1 resident:1 like:1 favor:2 gradual:1 dissolution:1 mutual:1 security:2 assistance:1 pact:1 recent:2 domination:1 low:7 july:5 fail:2 win:4 exist:1 govern:2 morihiro:1 hosokawa:2 august:2 major:3 objective:1 package:1 financing:1 restriction:1 change:2 succeed:4 pass:1 landmark:1 legislation:1 resign:6 tsutomu:3 hata:2 successor:1 month:1 later:1 tomiichi:1 murayama:2 next:1 june:3 jsp:2 sakigake:1 advent:1 contain:1 shock:2 observer:1 previously:1 fierce:1 rivalry:1 ryutaro:1 hashimoto:4 loose:1 upper:6 cut:1 tie:1 due:1 poor:1 showing:1 keizo:2 obuchi:3 expand:1 suffer:3 stroke:1 yoshiro:1 mori:3 welcome:1 splinter:1 ruling:2 maintain:2 turbulent:1 saw:1 approval:1 rating:1 plummet:1 digit:1 presidency:2 order:1 improve:1 chance:1 crucial:1 rid:1 wave:1 grassroots:1 desire:1 maverick:1 junichiro:4 koizumi:6 stalwart:2 platform:1 dissolve:2 general:5 likewise:1 setback:1 dpj:6 event:1 occur:1 call:2 snap:1 threaten:1 parliamentarian:1 scale:1 privatisation:1 besides:1 postal:1 monopoly:1 arguably:1 trillion:1 yen:1 asset:1 landslide:1 february:1 hisayasu:1 nagata:3 false:1 allegation:4 son:1 secretary:1 takebe:2 illicitly:1 receive:1 money:1 livedoor:1 takafumi:2 horie:2 evidence:1 e:3 mail:3 allegedly:1 send:1 contest:1 admit:1 forge:1 truly:1 believe:1 naturally:1 disgrace:1 result:1 seiji:1 maehira:1 naoto:1 kan:1 ichirō:1 ozawa:3 run:1 shinzo:2 abe:2 special:1 session:2 young:1 born:1 surprise:1 announce:2 resignation:7 eventually:1 yasuo:4 fukuda:9 main:1 ichiro:1 controversy:2 offer:1 grand:2 hand:1 news:1 embarrassment:1 rescind:1 ship:1 refueling:1 mission:1 indian:1 ocean:1 u:1 operation:2 afghanistan:1 pm:3 overwhelm:1 ignore:2 previous:1 vote:4 control:2 opinion:1 suddenly:1 week:1 reshuffle:1 design:1 vacuum:1 necessarily:1 trigger:1 choose:2 confidence:1 guardian:1 co:4 uk:2 thus:1 cause:1 winner:1 would:1 automatically:1 timesonline:1 job:1 however:2 indicate:1 effectivity:1 presumably:1 put:1 extraordinary:1 http:1 search:1 japantimes:1 jp:1 cgi:1 bin:1 html:1 census:2 collect:2 population:2 age:1 sex:1 size:1 income:2 foreign:1 relation:2 nation:2 non:2 permanent:2 currently:2 seek:1 membership:1 current:2 prohibit:1 wage:1 air:1 land:1 sea:1 component:1 deployment:1 combat:1 troop:1 iraq:1 marked:1 overseas:1 asia:2 pacific:1 cooperation:1 apec:1 asean:2 plus:1 east:1 summit:1 donor:1 aid:1 effort:1 donate:1 gross:1 organisation:1 territorial:1 russia:1 kuril:1 island:2 northern:1 territory:1 south:1 liancourt:1 rock:1 dokdo:1 takeshima:1 china:2 taiwan:1 senkaku:1 okinotorishima:1 part:1 marine:1 natural:2 resource:1 possible:1 crude:1 oil:1 gas:1 ongoing:1 north:1 abduction:1 citizen:1 nuclear:1 weapon:1 program:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 electronic:1 journal:1 contemporary:1 discussion:1 project:1 univ:1 carolina:1 |@bigram prime_minister:37 judiciary_independent:1 constitutional_monarchy:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 emperor_akihito:1 short_lived:1 legislative_branch:1 judicial_branch:3 supreme_court:3 decision_making:1 waseda_university:1 nonverbal_communication:1 seat_constituency:1 monetary_fiscal:1 vice_president:1 soka_gakkai:1 nichiren_shoshu:1 fierce_rivalry:1 approval_rating:1 junichiro_koizumi:4 minister_junichiro:1 trillion_yen:1 shinzo_abe:2 yasuo_fukuda:4 timesonline_co:1 cgi_bin:1 cooperation_apec:1 asean_plus:1 kuril_island:1 liancourt_rock:1 crude_oil:1 nuclear_weapon:1 external_link:1 |
7,449 | Anah | This article is about the town of Anah. For the district, see Anah (district), and for the character in the Book of Book of Genesis, see List of minor Biblical figures: Anah. Anah, or `Ana, a town on the Euphrates, about mid-way between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Persian Gulf. It is called Hanat in a Babylonian letter (about 2200 BC), a-na-at by the scribes of Tukulti-Ninurta (885 BC), and An-at by the scribe of Assur-nasir-pal (879 B.C.), Anatho (Isidore Charax), Anatha (Ammianus Marcellinus) by Greek and Latin writers in the early Christian centuries, `Ana (sometimes, as if plural, `Anat) by Arabic writers. The name has been connected with that of the deity Anat. Whilst `Ana has thus retained its name for forty-one centuries the site is variously described. Most early writers concur in placing it on an island; so Tukulti-Ninurta II, Assur-nasir-pal, Isidore, Ammianus Marcellinus, Ibn Serapion, al-Istakri, Abulfeda and al-Karamani. Ammianus (lib. 24, c. 2) calls it a munimentum, Theophylactus Simocatta (iv. 10, v. 1, 2) to 'Anathon frourion, Zosimus (iii. 14) a frourion, opp. Fathusai, which may be the Beth(th) ina of Ptolemy (v. 19).1 Leonhart Rauwolff, in AD 1574, found it "divided ... into two towns," the one "Turkish," "so surrounded by the river, that you cannot go into it but by boats," the other, much larger, on the Arabian side of the river.2 GA Olivier in the beginning of the 19th century describes it as a long street (5 or 6 m. long), parallel to the right bank of the Euphrates--some 100 yards from the water's edge and 300 to 400 paces from the rocky barrier of the Arabian desert--with, over against its lower part, an island bearing at its north end the ruins of a fortress (p. 451). This southernmost town of Mesopotamia proper (Gezira) must have shared the chequered history of that land. Of `Ana's fortunes under the early Babylonian empire the records have not yet been unearthed; but in a letter dating from the third millennium BC, six men of Hanat (Ha-na-atK1) are mentioned in a statement as to certain disturbances which had occurred in the sphere of the Babylonian Resident of Suhi, which would include the district of `Ana. How `Ana fared at the hands of the Mitanni and others is unknown. The suggestion that Amenophis (Amenhotep) I. (16th century BC) refers to it is improbable; but we seem to be justified in holding `Ana to be the town "in the middle of the Euphrates" opposite (ina put) to which Assur-nasir-pal halted in his campaign of 879 BC. The supposed reference to `Ana in the speech put into the mouth of Sennacherib's messengers to Hezekiah (2 Kings xix. 13, Is. xxxvii. 13) is exceedingly improbable. The town may be mentioned, however, in four 7th century documents edited by Claude Hermann Walter Johns.3 It was at `Ana that the emperor Julian met the first opposition on his disastrous expedition against Persia (363), when he got possession of the place and transported the people; and there that Ziyad and Shureih with the advanced guard of `Ali's army were refused passage across the Euphrates (36/657) to join `Ali in Mesopotamia (Tabari i. 3261). Later `Ana was the place of exile of the caliph Qaim (al-qaim bi-amr-illah) when Basisiri was in power (450/1058.) In the 14th century `Ana was the seat of a Catholicos, primate of the Persians (Marin Sanuto). In 1610 Della Valle found a Scot, George Strachan, resident at `Ana (to study Arabic) as physician to the amir (i. 671-681). In 1835 the steamer "Tigris" of the English Euphrates expedition went down in a hurricane just above `Ana, near where Julian's force had suffered from a similar storm. Della Valle described `Ana as the chief Arab town on the Euphrates, an importance which it owes to its position on one of the routes from the west to Baghdad; Texeira said that the power of its amir extended to Palmyra (early 17th century); but Olivier found the ruling prince with only twenty-five men in his service, the town becoming more depopulated every day from lack of protection from the Arabs of the desert. Von Oppenheim (1893) reported that Turkish troops having been recently stationed at the place, it had no longer to pay blackmail (huwwa) to the Arabs. FR Chesney (1835) reported some 1800 houses, 2 mosques and 16 water-wheels; WF Ainsworth (also 1835) reported the Arabs as inhabiting the northwestern part of the town, the Christians the centre, and the Jews the southeast; Della Valle (1610) found some sun-worshippers still there. Modern `Ana lies from west to east on the right bank along a bend of the river just before it turns south towards Hit, and presents an attractive appearance. It extends, chiefly as a single street, for several miles along a narrow strip of land between the river and a ridge of rocky hills. The houses are separated from one another by fruit gardens. `Ana marks the boundary between the olive (north) and the date (south). Arab poets celebrated its wine (Yuqut, iii. 593 f.), and Mustaufi (8/14th century) tells of the fame of its palm-groves. In the river, facing the town, is a succession of equally productive islands. The most easterly contains the ruins of the old castle, whilst the remains of the ancient Anatho extend from this island for about 2 miles down the left bank. Coarse cloth is almost the only manufacture. References Further reading In addition to the authorities cited above may be mentioned: G. A. Olivier, Voyage dans l'empire othoman, etc., iii. 450-459 (1807); Carl Ritter, Erdkunde von Asien, vii. b., pp. 716- 726 (1844); W. F. Ainsworth, Euphrates Expedition, i. 401-418 (1888). Steph. Byz. (sub Turos) says that Arrian calls Anatha Turos. Texeira (1610) says that "Anna" lay on both banks of the river, and so Della Valle (i. 671). Ass. Deeds and Doc. nos. 23, 168, 228, 385. The characters used are DIS TU, which may mean Ana-tu. | Anah |@lemmatized article:1 town:10 anah:4 district:3 see:2 character:2 book:2 genesis:1 list:1 minor:1 biblical:1 figure:1 ana:17 euphrates:7 mid:1 way:1 gulf:2 alexandretta:1 persian:2 call:3 hanat:2 babylonian:3 letter:2 bc:5 na:2 scribe:2 tukulti:2 ninurta:2 assur:3 nasir:3 pal:3 b:2 c:2 anatho:2 isidore:2 charax:1 anatha:2 ammianus:3 marcellinus:2 greek:1 latin:1 writer:3 early:4 christian:2 century:7 sometimes:1 plural:1 anat:2 arabic:2 name:2 connect:1 deity:1 whilst:2 thus:1 retain:1 forty:1 one:4 centuries:1 site:1 variously:1 describe:3 concur:1 place:4 island:4 ii:1 ibn:1 serapion:1 al:3 istakri:1 abulfeda:1 karamani:1 lib:1 munimentum:1 theophylactus:1 simocatta:1 iv:1 v:2 anathon:1 frourion:2 zosimus:1 iii:3 opp:1 fathusai:1 may:4 beth:1 th:1 ina:2 ptolemy:1 leonhart:1 rauwolff:1 ad:1 find:4 divide:1 two:1 turkish:2 surround:1 river:6 cannot:1 go:2 boat:1 much:1 large:1 arabian:2 side:1 ga:1 olivier:3 beginning:1 long:2 street:2 parallel:1 right:2 bank:4 yard:1 water:2 edge:1 pace:1 rocky:2 barrier:1 desert:2 low:1 part:2 bearing:1 north:2 end:1 ruin:2 fortress:1 p:1 southernmost:1 mesopotamia:2 proper:1 gezira:1 must:1 share:1 chequered:1 history:1 land:2 fortune:1 empire:2 record:1 yet:1 unearth:1 date:2 third:1 millennium:1 six:1 men:2 ha:1 mention:3 statement:1 certain:1 disturbance:1 occur:1 sphere:1 resident:2 suhi:1 would:1 include:1 fare:1 hand:1 mitanni:1 others:1 unknown:1 suggestion:1 amenophis:1 amenhotep:1 refer:1 improbable:2 seem:1 justify:1 hold:1 middle:1 opposite:1 put:2 halt:1 campaign:1 supposed:1 reference:2 speech:1 mouth:1 sennacherib:1 messenger:1 hezekiah:1 king:1 xix:1 xxxvii:1 exceedingly:1 however:1 four:1 document:1 edit:1 claude:1 hermann:1 walter:1 john:1 emperor:1 julian:2 meet:1 first:1 opposition:1 disastrous:1 expedition:3 persia:1 get:1 possession:1 transport:1 people:1 ziyad:1 shureih:1 advanced:1 guard:1 ali:2 army:1 refused:1 passage:1 across:1 join:1 tabari:1 later:1 exile:1 caliph:1 qaim:2 bi:1 amr:1 illah:1 basisiri:1 power:2 seat:1 catholicos:1 primate:1 marin:1 sanuto:1 della:4 valle:4 scot:1 george:1 strachan:1 study:1 physician:1 amir:2 steamer:1 tigris:1 english:1 hurricane:1 near:1 force:1 suffer:1 similar:1 storm:1 chief:1 arab:5 importance:1 owe:1 position:1 route:1 west:2 baghdad:1 texeira:2 say:3 extend:3 palmyra:1 ruling:1 prince:1 twenty:1 five:1 service:1 become:1 depopulated:1 every:1 day:1 lack:1 protection:1 von:2 oppenheim:1 report:3 troop:1 recently:1 station:1 longer:1 pay:1 blackmail:1 huwwa:1 fr:1 chesney:1 house:2 mosque:1 wheel:1 wf:1 ainsworth:2 also:1 inhabit:1 northwestern:1 centre:1 jew:1 southeast:1 sun:1 worshipper:1 still:1 modern:1 lie:1 east:1 along:2 bend:1 turn:1 south:2 towards:1 hit:1 present:1 attractive:1 appearance:1 chiefly:1 single:1 several:1 mile:2 narrow:1 strip:1 ridge:1 hill:1 separate:1 another:1 fruit:1 garden:1 mark:1 boundary:1 olive:1 poet:1 celebrate:1 wine:1 yuqut:1 f:2 mustaufi:1 tell:1 fame:1 palm:1 grove:1 face:1 succession:1 equally:1 productive:1 easterly:1 contain:1 old:1 castle:1 remains:1 ancient:1 left:1 coarse:1 cloth:1 almost:1 manufacture:1 far:1 reading:1 addition:1 authority:1 cite:1 g:1 voyage:1 dans:1 l:1 othoman:1 etc:1 carl:1 ritter:1 erdkunde:1 asien:1 vii:1 pp:1 w:1 steph:1 byz:1 sub:1 turos:2 arrian:1 anna:1 lay:1 deed:1 doc:1 use:1 dis:1 tu:2 mean:1 |@bigram persian_gulf:1 tukulti_ninurta:2 ammianus_marcellinus:2 millennium_bc:1 della_valle:4 voyage_dans:1 |
7,450 | Foreign_relations_of_El_Salvador | El Salvador is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies, the Organization of American States (OAS), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN), and the Central American Integration System (SICA). It actively participates in the Central American Security Commission (CASC), which seeks to promote regional arms control. El Salvador also is a member of the World Trade Organization and is pursuing regional free trade agreements. An active participant in the Summit of the Americas process, El Salvador chairs a working group on market access under the Free Trade Area of the Americas initiative. El Salvador has joined its six Central American neighbors in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA or CONCAUSA to promote sustainable economic development in the region. El Salvador maintains diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan) instead of the People's Republic of China. Disputes - international: In July 1969, El Salvador and Honduras fought the 100-hour Football War over disputed border areas and friction resulting from the 300,000 Salvadorans who had emigrated to Honduras in search of land and employment. The catalyst was nationalistic feelings aroused by a series of soccer matches between the two countries. The two countries formally signed a peace treaty on October 30, 1980, which put the border dispute before the International Court of Justice. In September 1992, the court issued a 400-page ruling, awarding much of the disputed land to Honduras. Although there have been tensions between citizens on both sides of the border, the two countries have worked to maintain stability and signed an agreement in November 1996 to establish a framework for negotiating the final disposition of citizens and property in the affected areas. El Salvador and Honduras share normal diplomatic and trade relations. The Honduras-El Salvador Border Protocol ratified by Honduras in May 1999 established a framework for a long-delayed border demarcation, which is currently underway; with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua likely would be required. Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine; cannabis produced for local consumption; domestic drug use on the rise. See also Diplomatic missions of El Salvador List of diplomatic missions in El Salvador | Foreign_relations_of_El_Salvador |@lemmatized el:11 salvador:11 member:2 united:1 nation:1 several:1 specialized:1 agency:1 organization:2 american:6 state:1 oas:1 central:5 common:1 market:2 cacm:1 parliament:1 parlacen:1 integration:1 system:1 sica:1 actively:1 participate:1 security:1 commission:2 casc:1 seek:1 promote:2 regional:2 arm:1 control:1 also:2 world:1 trade:4 pursue:1 free:2 agreement:2 active:1 participant:1 summit:1 america:2 process:1 chair:1 work:2 group:1 access:1 area:3 initiative:1 join:1 six:1 neighbor:1 sign:3 alliance:1 sustainable:2 development:2 know:1 conjunta:1 centroamerica:1 usa:1 concausa:1 economic:1 region:1 maintains:1 diplomatic:4 relation:2 republic:2 china:2 taiwan:1 instead:1 people:1 dispute:2 international:2 july:1 honduras:8 fight:1 hour:1 football:1 war:1 disputed:2 border:5 friction:1 result:1 salvadoran:1 emigrate:1 search:1 land:2 employment:1 catalyst:1 nationalistic:1 feeling:1 arouse:1 series:1 soccer:1 match:1 two:3 country:3 formally:1 peace:1 treaty:1 october:1 put:1 court:2 justice:1 september:1 issue:1 page:1 ruling:1 award:1 much:1 although:1 tension:1 citizen:2 side:1 maintain:1 stability:1 november:1 establish:2 framework:2 negotiate:1 final:1 disposition:1 property:1 affected:1 share:1 normal:1 protocol:1 ratify:1 may:1 long:1 delay:1 demarcation:1 currently:1 underway:1 respect:1 maritime:1 boundary:2 golfo:1 de:1 fonseca:1 icj:1 refer:1 line:1 determine:1 nicaragua:2 mixed:1 advise:1 tripartite:1 resolution:1 among:1 likely:1 would:1 require:1 illicit:1 drug:2 transshipment:1 point:1 cocaine:1 cannabis:1 produce:1 local:1 consumption:1 domestic:1 use:1 rise:1 see:1 mission:2 list:1 |@bigram el_salvador:11 diplomatic_relation:1 salvador_honduras:3 golfo_de:1 honduras_nicaragua:2 illicit_drug:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
7,451 | Alberto_Giacometti | Alberto Giacometti (October 10, 1901 – January 11, 1966) was a Swiss sculptor, painter, draftsman, and printmaker. Biography "Woman of Venice II", 1956, painted bronze sculpture, Metropolitan Museum of Art Early life Alberto Giacometti was born in Borgonovo, now part of the Swiss municipality of Stampa, near the Italian border. His father, Giovanni Giacometti, was a painter. Alberto attended the School of Fine Arts in Geneva. In 1922 he moved to Paris to study under the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, an associate of Auguste Rodin. It was there that Giacometti experimented with cubism and surrealism and came to be regarded as one of the leading surrealist sculptors. Among his associates were Joan Miró, Max Ernst, Pablo Picasso and Balthus. Between 1936 and 1940, Giacometti concentrated his sculpting on the human head, focusing on the model's gaze, followed by a unique artistic phase in which his statues became stretched out; their limbs elongated. Obsessed with creating his sculptures exactly as he envisioned through his unique view of reality, he often carved until they were as thin as nails and reduced to the size of a pack of cigarettes, much to his consternation. A friend of his once said that if Giacometti decided to sculpt you, "he would make your head look like the blade of a knife." After his marriage his tiny sculptures became larger, but the larger they grew, the thinner they became. Giacometti said that the final result represented the sensation he felt when he looked at a woman. His paintings underwent a parallel procedure. The figures appear isolated, are severely attenuated, and are the result of continuous reworking. Subjects were frequently revisited: one of his favorite models was his younger brother Diego Giacometti. Tate Collection: Seated Man by Alberto Giacometti Retrieved July 13, 2007. A third brother Bruno Giacometti is a Swiss architect. Later years In 1962, he was awarded the grand prize for sculpture at the Venice Biennale, and the award brought with it worldwide fame. Even when he had achieved popularity and his work was in demand, he still reworked models, often destroying them or setting them aside to be returned to years later. The prints produced by Giacometti are often overlooked but the catalogue raisonné, Giacometti - The Complete Graphics and 15 Drawings by Herbert Lust (Tudor 1970), comments on their impact and gives details of the number of copies of each print. Some of his most important images were in editions of only 30 and many were described as rare in 1970. "Three Men Walking II", 1949, painted bronze sculpture Metropolitan Museum of Art| "Woman with Her Throat Cut", 1932 (cast 1949), Museum of Modern Art, New York City In his later years Giacometti's works were shown in a number of large exhibitions throughout Europe. Riding a wave of international popularity, and despite his declining health, he traveled to the United States in 1965 for an exhibition of his works at the New York Museum of Modern Art. As his last work he prepared the text for the book Paris sans fin, a sequence of 150 lithographs containing memories of all the places where he had lived. Giacometti died in 1966 of heart disease (pericarditis) and chronic bronchitis at the Kantonsspital in Chur, Switzerland. His body was returned to his birthplace in Borgonovo, where he was interred close to his parents. In May 2007 the executor of his widow's estate, French foreign minister Roland Dumas, was convicted of illegally selling Giacometti's works to a top auctioneer. The auctioneer, Jacques Tajan, was also convicted. Both were ordered to pay €850,000 to the Alberto and Annette Giacometti Foundation. Artistic analysis "Cat", 1954, Metropolitan Museum of Art Giacometti was a key player in the Surrealist Movement, but his work resists easy categorization. Some describe it as formalist, others argue it is expressionist or otherwise having to do with what Deleuze calls 'blocs of sensation' (as in Deleuze's analysis of Francis Bacon). Even after his excommunication from the Surrealist group, while the intention of his sculpting was usually imitation, the end products were an expression of his emotional response to the subject. He attempted to create renditions of his models the way he saw them, and the way he thought they ought to be seen. He once said that he was sculpting not the human figure but "the shadow that is cast." His figures resembled the way he looked upon himself. Scholar William Barrett in Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy (1962), argues that the attenuated forms of Giacometti's figures reflect the view of 20th century modernism and existentialism that modern life is increasingly devoid of meaning and empty. "All the sculptures of today, like those of the past, will end one day in pieces... So it is important to fashion ones work carefully in its smallest recess and charge every particle of matter with life." Legacy His work is in numerous public collections, including the Tate Modern, Tate Liverpool and Tate Britain, in Britain, Kunsthaus Zürich, the Museum of Modern Art, in New York, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York, the National Gallery of Art, in Washington, DC, the Art Institute of Chicago, The University of Michigan Museum of Art in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and the Carnegie Museum of Art, in Pittsburgh. He created the monument on the grave of Gerda Taro at Père Lachaise Cemetery. Robert Whelan, "Robert Capa, the definitive collection", p8, Phaidon press 2001 ISBN 978-0-7148-4449-7 In 2001 he was included in the Painting the Century 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900-2000 exhibition held at the National Portrait Gallery, London. In November 2000 "Grande Femme Debout I" by Giacometti sold for $14.3 million. Art record Picasso painting goes for £38m at auction | World news | The Guardian Giacometti's bronze "Grande Femme Debout II" was bought by the Gagosian Art Gallery for $27.4 million at Christie's auction in New York City on May 6, 2008. Afp.google.com, Monet fetches record price at New York auction Giacometti and his sculpture Three Men Walking appear on the current 100 Swiss Franc banknote. Notes References Jacques Dupin (1962) "Alberto Giacometti", Paris, Maeght Reinhold Hohl (1971) "Alberto Giacometti", Stuttgart: Gerd Hatje Die Sammlung der Alberto Giacometti-Stiftung (1990), Zürich, Zürcher Kunstgesellschaft Alberto Giacometti. Sculptures - peintures - dessins. Paris, Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris, 1991-92. Jean Soldini (1993) "Alberto Giacometti. Le colossal, la mère, le sacré", Lausanne, L'Age d'Homme David Sylvester (1996) Looking at Giacometti, Henry Holt & Co. Alberto Giacometti 1901-1966. Kunsthalle Wien, 1996 James Lord (1997) Giacometti: A Biography, Farrar, Straus and Giroux* Alberto Giacometti. Kunsthaus Zürich, 2001; New York, The Museum of Modern Art, 2001-2002. Yves Bonnefoy (2006) Alberto Giacometti: A Biography of His Work, New edition, Flammarion External links Works of Alberto Giacometti: The UNESCO Works of Art Collection Museum of Modern Art smARThistory: Giacometti's City Square Life of Alberto Giacometti: Chronology of his life with illustrations from the Museum of Modern Art Exhibition at Kunsthaus Zürich from 27 February until 24 May 2009 | Alberto_Giacometti |@lemmatized alberto:15 giacometti:34 october:1 january:1 swiss:4 sculptor:3 painter:2 draftsman:1 printmaker:1 biography:3 woman:3 venice:2 ii:3 paint:3 bronze:3 sculpture:8 metropolitan:3 museum:13 art:19 early:1 life:5 bear:1 borgonovo:2 part:1 municipality:1 stampa:1 near:1 italian:1 border:1 father:1 giovanni:1 attend:1 school:1 fine:2 geneva:1 move:1 paris:5 study:2 antoine:1 bourdelle:1 associate:2 auguste:1 rodin:1 experiment:1 cubism:1 surrealism:1 come:1 regard:1 one:4 lead:1 surrealist:3 among:1 joan:1 miró:1 max:1 ernst:1 pablo:1 picasso:2 balthus:1 concentrate:1 sculpting:2 human:2 head:2 focus:1 model:4 gaze:1 follow:1 unique:2 artistic:2 phase:1 statue:1 become:3 stretch:1 limb:1 elongate:1 obsess:1 create:3 exactly:1 envision:1 view:2 reality:1 often:3 carve:1 thin:1 nail:1 reduce:1 size:1 pack:1 cigarette:1 much:1 consternation:1 friend:1 say:3 decide:1 sculpt:2 would:1 make:1 look:4 like:2 blade:1 knife:1 marriage:1 tiny:1 large:3 grow:1 thinner:1 final:1 result:2 represent:1 sensation:2 felt:1 painting:2 undergo:1 parallel:1 procedure:1 figure:4 appear:2 isolate:1 severely:1 attenuate:1 continuous:1 rework:2 subject:2 frequently:1 revisit:1 favorite:1 young:1 brother:2 diego:1 tate:4 collection:4 seat:1 man:2 retrieve:1 july:1 third:1 bruno:1 architect:1 late:2 year:3 award:2 grand:1 prize:1 biennale:1 bring:1 worldwide:1 fame:1 even:2 achieve:1 popularity:2 work:11 demand:1 still:1 destroy:1 set:1 aside:1 return:2 later:1 print:2 produce:1 overlook:1 catalogue:1 raisonné:1 complete:1 graphic:1 drawing:1 herbert:1 lust:1 tudor:1 comment:1 impact:1 give:1 detail:1 number:2 copy:1 important:2 image:1 edition:2 many:1 describe:2 rare:1 three:2 men:2 walk:2 throat:1 cut:1 cast:2 modern:8 new:8 york:7 city:3 show:1 exhibition:4 throughout:1 europe:1 rid:1 wave:1 international:1 despite:1 decline:1 health:1 travel:1 united:1 state:1 last:1 prepare:1 text:1 book:1 sans:1 fin:1 sequence:1 lithograph:1 contain:1 memory:1 place:1 live:1 die:2 heart:1 disease:1 pericarditis:1 chronic:1 bronchitis:1 kantonsspital:1 chur:1 switzerland:1 body:1 birthplace:1 inter:1 close:1 parent:1 may:3 executor:1 widow:1 estate:1 french:1 foreign:1 minister:1 roland:1 duma:1 convict:2 illegally:1 sell:2 top:1 auctioneer:2 jacques:2 tajan:1 also:1 order:1 pay:1 annette:1 foundation:1 analysis:2 cat:1 key:1 player:1 movement:1 resists:1 easy:1 categorization:1 formalist:1 others:1 argue:2 expressionist:1 otherwise:1 deleuze:2 call:1 bloc:1 francis:1 bacon:1 excommunication:1 group:1 intention:1 usually:1 imitation:1 end:2 product:1 expression:1 emotional:1 response:1 attempt:1 rendition:1 way:3 saw:1 think:1 ought:1 see:1 shadow:1 resemble:1 upon:1 scholar:1 william:1 barrett:1 irrational:1 existential:1 philosophy:1 attenuated:1 form:1 reflect:1 century:2 modernism:1 existentialism:1 increasingly:1 devoid:1 meaning:1 empty:1 today:1 past:1 day:1 piece:1 fashion:1 carefully:1 small:1 recess:1 charge:1 every:1 particle:1 matter:1 legacy:1 numerous:1 public:1 include:2 liverpool:1 britain:2 kunsthaus:3 zürich:4 boston:1 solomon:1 r:1 guggenheim:1 national:2 gallery:3 washington:1 dc:1 institute:1 chicago:1 university:1 michigan:2 ann:1 arbor:1 carnegie:1 pittsburgh:1 monument:1 grave:1 gerda:1 taro:1 père:1 lachaise:1 cemetery:1 robert:2 whelan:1 capa:1 definitive:1 phaidon:1 press:1 isbn:1 portrait:2 masterpiece:1 hold:1 london:1 november:1 grande:2 femme:2 debout:2 million:2 record:2 go:1 auction:3 world:1 news:1 guardian:1 buy:1 gagosian:1 christie:1 afp:1 google:1 com:1 monet:1 fetch:1 price:1 current:1 franc:1 banknote:1 note:1 reference:1 dupin:1 maeght:1 reinhold:1 hohl:1 stuttgart:1 gerd:1 hatje:1 sammlung:1 der:1 stiftung:1 zürcher:1 kunstgesellschaft:1 peintures:1 dessins:1 musée:1 moderne:1 de:2 la:2 ville:1 jean:1 soldini:1 le:2 colossal:1 mère:1 sacré:1 lausanne:1 l:1 age:1 homme:1 david:1 sylvester:1 henry:1 holt:1 co:1 kunsthalle:1 wien:1 james:1 lord:1 farrar:1 straus:1 giroux:1 yves:1 bonnefoy:1 flammarion:1 external:1 link:1 unesco:1 smarthistory:1 square:1 chronology:1 illustration:1 february:1 |@bigram alberto_giacometti:13 sculptor_painter:1 auguste_rodin:1 joan_miró:1 pablo_picasso:1 pack_cigarette:1 catalogue_raisonné:1 francis_bacon:1 guggenheim_museum:1 washington_dc:1 ann_arbor:1 arbor_michigan:1 père_lachaise:1 lachaise_cemetery:1 christie_auction:1 afp_google:1 swiss_franc:1 franc_banknote:1 la_ville:1 farrar_straus:1 straus_giroux:1 external_link:1 |
7,452 | KA9Q | KA9Q, also called KA9Q NOS or simply NOS, was a popular early implementation of TCP/IP and associated protocols for amateur packet radio systems and smaller personal computers connected via serial lines. It was named after the amateur radio callsign of Phil Karn, who first wrote the software for a CP/M system and then ported it to DOS on the IBM PC. As the KA9Q code was open-source, many radio amateurs modified it, so many different versions were available at the same time. KA9Q was later maintained by Anthony Frost (callsign G8UDV) and Adam Goodfellow. It was ported to the Acorn Archimedes by Jonathan Naylor (G4KLX). Until 1995 it was the standard access software provided by British dial-up internet service provider Demon Internet. Most modern operating systems provide a built-in implementation of TCP/IP protocol. Especially Linux includes all the necessary kernel functions and support utilities for TCP/IP over amateur radio systems. Therefore NOS is regarded as obsolete by its original developer. It still may have its uses for embedded systems that are too small for Linux . KA9Q is also a name for the IP-over-IP Tunneling protocol. References External links Phil Karn's web page on KA9Q NOS | KA9Q |@lemmatized also:2 call:1 simply:1 nos:2 popular:1 early:1 implementation:2 tcp:3 ip:5 associated:1 protocol:3 amateur:4 packet:1 radio:4 system:5 small:2 personal:1 computer:1 connect:1 via:1 serial:1 line:1 name:2 callsign:2 phil:2 karn:2 first:1 write:1 software:2 cp:1 port:2 ibm:1 pc:1 code:1 open:1 source:1 many:2 modify:1 different:1 version:1 available:1 time:1 later:1 maintain:1 anthony:1 frost:1 adam:1 goodfellow:1 acorn:1 archimedes:1 jonathan:1 naylor:1 standard:1 access:1 provide:2 british:1 dial:1 internet:2 service:1 provider:1 demon:1 modern:1 operate:1 built:1 especially:1 linux:2 include:1 necessary:1 kernel:1 function:1 support:1 utility:1 therefore:1 regard:1 obsolete:1 original:1 developer:1 still:1 may:1 us:1 embedded:1 tunnel:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 page:1 |@bigram tcp_ip:3 ibm_pc:1 acorn_archimedes:1 external_link:1 |
7,453 | Fred_Brooks | Frederick Phillips Brooks, Jr. (born April 19, 1931) is a software engineer and computer scientist, best-known for managing the development of OS/360, then later writing candidly about the process in his seminal book The Mythical Man-Month. "It is a very humbling experience to make a multi-million-dollar mistake, but it is also very memorable." Brooks received a Turing Award in 1999 and many other awards. Life and career Born in Durham, North Carolina, he attended Duke University, graduating in 1953, and he received a Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics (Computer Science) from Harvard University in 1956. Howard Aiken was his advisor. Brooks joined IBM in 1956, working in Endicott and Yorktown, New York. He worked on the architecture of the Stretch (a $10m scientific supercomputer for the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory) and Harvest computers and then was manager for the development of the System/360 family of computers and the OS/360 software they ran. It was in The Mythical Man-Month that Brooks made the now-famous statement: "Adding manpower to a late software project makes it later." This has since come to be known as "Brooks's law." In addition to The Mythical Man-Month, Brooks is also known for the paper No Silver Bullet: Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering. In 1964, Brooks left IBM to found the Department of Computer Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and chaired it for 20 years. he is still engaged in active research there, primarily in virtual worlds and molecular graphics. In the mid 1980s, Brooks gave a talk at De Anza College, near the headquarters of Apple Computer. Apple executive Jean-Louis Gassée had ordered a copy of The Mythical Man-Month for every Apple engineer, technical writer, and other product-development employee. The lecture hall was filled with Apple employees, most holding well-thumbed copies of the book. After the lecture, Brooks had a number of interesting conversations with Apple employees, many of whom had learned the book's lessons the hard way. In January 2005 he gave the IEE/BCS annual Turing Lecture in London on the subject of "Collaboration and Telecollaboration in Design". In 1994 he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. A "20th anniversary" edition of The Mythical Man-Month with four additional chapters was published in 1995. He is also an evangelical Christian who is active with InterVarsity Christian Fellowship and the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students. Faculty Biography at UNC. Bibliography (Reprinted with corrections, January 1982) (A republication of The Mythical Man-Month with four extra chapters.) (Reprinted in the 1995 edition of The Mythical Man-Month) Service and Memberships He has served on a number of U.S. national boards and committees. Home Page National Science Board (1987–92) Defense Science Board (1983–86) Chairman, Military Software Task Force (1985–87) Member, Computers in Simulation and Training Task Force (1986–87) Member, Artificial Intelligence Task Force (1983–84) Awards In chronological order, from Page Eckert-Mauchly Award, Association for Computing Machinery and The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers–Computer Society (2004) Member, National Academy of Science (2001) Fellow Award, The Computer Museum History Center (2001) A.M. Turing Award, Association for Computing Machinery (1999) CyberEdge Journal Annual Sutherland Award (April, 1997) Bower Award and Prize in Science, Franklin Institute (1995) Allen Newell Award, Association for Computing Machinery (1994) Fellow (initial inductee), Association for Computer Machinery (1994) Distinguished Fellow, British Computer Society (1994) Foreign Member, Royal Academy of Engineering, UK (1994) Foreign Member, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1991) John von Neumann Medal, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1993) Honorary Doctor of Technical Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich (1991) Harry H. Goode Memorial Award, American Federation of Information Processing Societies (1989) National Medal of Technology (1985) McDowell Award for Outstanding Contribution to the Computer Art, IEEE Computer Group (1970) Distinguished Service Award, Association for Computing Machinery (1987) Thomas Jefferson Award, UNC-Chapel Hill (1986) Member, National Academy of Engineering (1976) Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1976) Guggenheim Fellowship for studies on computer architecture and human factors of computer systems, Cambridge University, England (1975) Computer Pioneer Award, IEEE Computer Society (1982) Computer Sciences Distinguished Information Services Award, Information Technology Professionals (1970) Fellow, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (1968) Order of the Golden Fleece, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill See also Gerrit Blaauw Simulated reality References External links Fred Brooks' homepage | Fred_Brooks |@lemmatized frederick:1 phillips:1 brook:10 jr:1 born:1 april:2 software:5 engineer:5 computer:18 scientist:1 best:1 know:3 manage:1 development:3 os:1 later:2 write:1 candidly:1 process:1 seminal:1 book:3 mythical:7 man:7 month:7 humbling:1 experience:1 make:3 multi:1 million:1 dollar:1 mistake:1 also:4 memorable:1 receive:2 turing:3 award:15 many:2 life:1 career:1 bear:1 durham:1 north:3 carolina:3 attend:1 duke:1 university:5 graduate:1 ph:1 applied:1 mathematics:1 science:10 harvard:1 howard:1 aiken:1 advisor:1 join:1 ibm:2 work:2 endicott:1 yorktown:1 new:1 york:1 architecture:2 stretch:1 scientific:2 supercomputer:1 los:1 alamos:1 laboratory:1 harvest:1 manager:1 system:2 family:1 run:1 famous:1 statement:1 add:1 manpower:1 late:1 project:1 since:1 come:1 law:1 addition:1 paper:1 silver:1 bullet:1 essence:1 accident:1 engineering:3 leave:1 find:1 department:1 chapel:3 hill:3 chair:1 year:1 still:1 engage:1 active:2 research:1 primarily:1 virtual:1 world:1 molecular:1 graphic:1 mid:1 give:2 talk:1 de:1 anza:1 college:1 near:1 headquarters:1 apple:5 executive:1 jean:1 louis:1 gassée:1 order:3 copy:2 every:1 technical:2 writer:1 product:1 employee:3 lecture:3 hall:1 fill:1 hold:1 well:1 thumbed:1 number:2 interesting:1 conversation:1 learn:1 lesson:1 hard:1 way:1 january:2 iee:1 bcs:1 annual:2 london:1 subject:1 collaboration:1 telecollaboration:1 design:1 induct:1 fellow:6 association:6 compute:5 machinery:6 anniversary:1 edition:2 four:2 additional:1 chapter:2 publish:1 evangelical:2 christian:2 intervarsity:1 fellowship:3 international:1 student:1 faculty:1 biography:1 unc:2 bibliography:1 reprint:2 correction:1 republication:1 extra:1 service:3 membership:1 serve:1 u:1 national:5 board:3 committee:1 home:1 page:2 defense:1 chairman:1 military:1 task:3 force:3 member:6 simulation:1 training:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 chronological:1 eckert:1 mauchly:1 institute:5 electrical:3 electronics:2 society:4 academy:5 museum:1 history:1 center:1 cyberedge:1 journal:1 sutherland:1 bower:1 prize:1 franklin:1 allen:1 newell:1 initial:1 inductee:1 distinguish:3 british:1 foreign:2 royal:2 uk:1 netherlands:1 art:3 john:1 von:1 neumann:1 medal:2 honorary:1 doctor:1 swiss:1 federal:1 technology:3 eth:1 zurich:1 harry:1 h:1 goode:1 memorial:1 american:2 federation:1 information:3 processing:1 mcdowell:1 outstanding:1 contribution:1 ieee:2 group:1 thomas:1 jefferson:1 guggenheim:1 study:1 human:1 factor:1 cambridge:1 england:1 pioneer:1 professional:1 electronic:1 golden:1 fleece:1 see:1 gerrit:1 blaauw:1 simulate:1 reality:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 fred:1 homepage:1 |@bigram north_carolina:3 applied_mathematics:1 los_alamos:1 carolina_chapel:2 compute_machinery:5 artificial_intelligence:1 allen_newell:1 von_neumann:1 eth_zurich:1 thomas_jefferson:1 guggenheim_fellowship:1 golden_fleece:1 external_link:1 |
7,454 | Foreign_relations_of_Estonia | Following restoration of independence from the Soviet Union, Russia was one the first nations to recognize Estonia's independence (the first country to do so was Iceland on 22 August 1991). Estonia's immediate priority after regaining its independence was the withdrawal of Russian (formerly Soviet) forces from Estonian territory. In August 1994, this was completed. However, relations with Moscow have remained strained primarily because Russia decided not to ratify the border treaty it had signed with Estonia in 1999. Since regaining independence, Estonia has pursued a foreign policy of close cooperation with Western European nations. President Toomas Hendrik Ilves and President George W. Bush, in Estonia 2006. The two most important policy objectives in this regard have been accession into NATO and the European Union, achieved in March and May 2004 respectively. Estonia's international realignment toward the West has been accompanied by a general deterioration in relations with Russia, most recently demonstrated by the controversy surrounding relocation of the Bronze Soldier WWII memorial in Tallinn. BBC NEWS | Europe | Estonia blames Russia for unrest An important element in Estonia's post-independence reorientation has been closer ties with the Nordic countries, especially Finland and Sweden. Indeed, Estonians consider themselves a Nordic people rather than Balts, Estonian foreign ministry publication, 2004 Estonian foreign ministry publication, 2002 based on their historical ties with Denmark and particularly Finland and Sweden. In December 1999 Estonian foreign minister (and since 2006, president of Estonia) Toomas Hendrik Ilves delivered a speech entitled "Estonia as a Nordic Country" to the Swedish Institute for International Affairs. NATO :: NATO :: Estonia as a Nordic Country In 2003, the foreign ministry also hosted an exhibit called "Estonia: Nordic with a Twist". Estonia - Nordic with a Twist And in 2005, Estonia joined the European Union's Nordic Battle Group. It has also shown continued interest in joining the Nordic Council. Whereas in 1992 Russia accounted for 92% of Estonia's international trade, The Estonian Economic Miracle today there is extensive economic interdependence between Estonia and its Nordic neighbors: three quarters of foreign investment in Estonia originates in the Nordic countries (principally Finland and Sweden), to which Estonia sends 42% of its exports (as compared to 6.5% going to Russia, 8.8% to Latvia, and 4.7% to Lithuania). On the other hand, the Estonian political system, its flat rate of income tax, and its non-welfare-state model distinguish it from the other Nordic states, and indeed from many other European countries. http://www.investinestonia.com/pdf/ForeignTrade2007.pdf Foreign investment Estonia is a party to 181 international organizations, including the BIS, CBSS, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (member since 1 May 2004), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, ITUC, NATO, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNTSO, UPU, WCO, WEU (associate partner), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO. International disputes Estonian and Russian negotiators reached a technical border agreement in December 1996. The border treaty was initialed in 1999. On 18 May 2005 Estonian Foreign Minister Urmas Paet and his Russian colleague Sergei Lavrov signed in Moscow the “Treaty between the Government of the Republic of Estonia and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Estonian-Russian border” and the “Treaty between the Government of the Republic of Estonia and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Delimitation of the Maritime Zones in the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Narva”. The Riigikogu (Estonian Paliament) ratified the treaties on 20 June 2005 and the President of Estonia Arnold Rüütel announced them on 22 June 2005. On 31 August 2005 Russian President Putin gave a written order to the Russian Foreign Ministry to notify the Estonian side of “Russia’s intention not to participate in the border treaties between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Estonia”. On 6 September 2005 the Foreign Ministry of the Russian Federation forwarded a note to Estonia, in which Russia informed that it did not intend to become a party to the border treaties between Estonia and Russia and did not consider itself bound by the circumstances concerning the object and the purposes of the treaties. Diplomatic relationships Estonia established diplomatic relations with Kazakhstan on May 27, 1992. Estonia is represented in Kazakhstan through its embassy in Moscow (Russia). Kazakhstan is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Vilnius (Lithuania). Uruguay was among the countries that refused to recognise the Soviet occupation of the Baltic countries. Uruguay re-recognised Estonia’s independence on August 28, 1991. Estonia and Uruguay established diplomatic relations on September 30, 1992. Estonia is represented in Uruguay through an honorary consulate in Montevideo. Uruguay is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden) and an honorary consulate in Tallinn. Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 1992-08-23 Armenia is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland) and an honorary consulate in Tallinn. Estonia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan. There are around 2,000 of Armenian descent living in Estonia. Site of the Armenian community in Estonia (in Armenian, Estonian and Russian only) Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia 1991-08-27See Australia–Estonia relations Australia first recognised Estonia on September 22, 1921. Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on November 21, 1991. Australia is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden), and through an honorary consulate in Tallinn. Estonia is represented in Australia through its embassy in Tokyo (Japan) and through 3 honorary consulates (in Claremont, Hobart, and 2 in Sydney). Australia is host to one of the largest communities of Estonians abroad, with 8,232 people identifying as Estonian in the 2006 Australian Census. Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Estonia - Brief Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Australia 1991-08-28 Austria recognised Estonia on June 26, 1921. Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on January 8, 1992. Austria has an embassy in Tallinn. Estonia has an embassy in Vienna and an honorary consulate in Salzburg. Estonian embassy in Vienna Austrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Estonia (in German only) Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Austria 1992-04-20 Azerbaijan is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Riga (Latvia). Azerbaijani embassy in Riga (also accredited to Estonia) Estonia is represented in Azerbaijan through its embassy in Ankara (Turkey). Estonian embassy in Ankara (also accredited to Azerbaijan) Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). Azerbaijani Ministry of Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Estonia Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Azerbaijan 1992-04-06 Belarus has a Consulate General in Tallinn. Belarussian consulate general in Tallinn Estonia opened its Consulate General in Minsk on July 21, 1995. Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Belarus See Belgium–Estonia relationsSee Bulgaria–Estonia relationsSee Canada–Estonia relationsSee Chile–Estonia relationsSee Croatia–Estonia relationsSee Cyprus–Estonia relationsSee Czech Republic – Estonia relationsSee Denmark–Estonia relations 1992-01-02 Egypt re-recognised Estonia on September 6, 1991. Egypt is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Helsinki (Finland). Egyptian embassy in Helsinki (also accredited to Estonia) Estonia is represented in Egypt through a non resident ambassador based in Tallinn (in the Foreign Ministry). Estonian interests in Egypt are represented by the Swedish embassy in Cairo. Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean. January 2005 – Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs Kristiina Ojuland visit to Egypt November 2005 – Prime Minister of Estonia Andrus Ansip in Barcelona at the Euromed Summit met with Egyptian Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif. December 2007 – Prime Minister of Estonia Andrus Ansip met with Egyptian Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif in the framework of the EU- African Union Summit in Lisbon. Estonian Ministry of foreign Affairs about the relation with Egypt Special Mission of the Republic of Estonia to the Arab Republic of EgyptSee Estonia–Finland relationsSee Estonia–France relationsSee Estonia–Georgia relationsSee Estonia–Greece relationsSee Estonia – Holy See relationsSee Estonia–Hungary relationsSee Estonia–Iceland relationsSee Estonia–India relationsSee Estonia–Ireland relationsSee Estonia–Israel relationsSee Estonia–Italy relationsSee Estonia–Japan relationsSee Estonia–Kosovo relationsSee Estonia–Latvia relationsSee Estonia–Lithuania relations 1991-08-29See Estonia–Luxembourg relations Luxembourg recognised Estonia on February 22, 1923 and re-recognised Estonia on August 27, 1991. Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on August 29, 1991. Estonia is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussels (Belgium) and an honorary consulate in Luxembourg. Luxembourg is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Prague (Czech Republic). 1992-01-01 Malta recognised Estonia on August 26, 1991. Estonia is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Direction of the Estonian representation in Malta Malta is represented in Estonia through a non resident embassy based in Valletta (in the Foreign Affairs Ministry) and through an honorary consulate in Tallinn. Direction of the Maltese representation in Estonia Both countries are full members of the European Union. Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Malta 1992-11-10 Moldova recognized Estonia on August 28, 1991 and Estonia recognized Moldova on February 20, 1992. Estonia is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Kiev (Ukraine) and through an honorary consulate in Chişinău. Moldova has an embassy in Tallinn. Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe. Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Moldova Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with EstoniaSee Estonia–Netherlands relationsSee Estonia–Norway relationsSee People's Republic of China – Estonia relationsSee Estonia–Poland relationsSee Estonia–Portugal relationsSee Estonia–Romania relationsSee Estonia–Russia relationsSee Estonia–Serbia relationsSee Estonia–Slovakia relationsSee Estonia–Slovenia relationsSee Estonia – South Korea relationsSee Estonia–Spain relationsSee Estonia–Sweden relationsSee Estonia–Tunisia relationsSee Estonia–Ukraine relationsSee Estonia – United Kingdom relationsSee Estonia – United States relations See also Diplomatic missions of Estonia List of diplomatic missions in Estonia References | Foreign_relations_of_Estonia |@lemmatized follow:1 restoration:1 independence:6 soviet:3 union:6 russia:11 one:2 first:3 nation:2 recognize:3 estonia:110 country:17 iceland:2 august:8 immediate:1 priority:1 regain:2 withdrawal:1 russian:11 formerly:1 force:1 estonian:28 territory:1 complete:1 however:1 relation:24 moscow:3 remain:1 strained:1 primarily:1 decide:1 ratify:2 border:6 treaty:10 sign:2 since:3 pursue:1 foreign:25 policy:2 close:2 cooperation:1 western:1 european:5 president:5 toomas:2 hendrik:2 ilves:2 george:1 w:1 bush:1 two:1 important:2 objective:1 regard:1 accession:1 nato:4 achieve:1 march:1 may:4 respectively:1 international:5 realignment:1 toward:1 west:1 accompany:1 general:4 deterioration:1 recently:1 demonstrate:1 controversy:1 surround:1 relocation:1 bronze:1 soldier:1 wwii:1 memorial:1 tallinn:10 bbc:1 news:1 europe:4 blame:1 unrest:1 element:1 post:1 reorientation:1 tie:2 nordic:11 especially:1 finland:6 sweden:6 indeed:2 consider:2 people:3 rather:1 balts:1 ministry:18 publication:2 base:3 historical:1 denmark:2 particularly:1 december:3 minister:7 deliver:1 speech:1 entitle:1 swedish:2 institute:1 affair:15 also:6 host:2 exhibit:1 call:1 twist:2 join:2 battle:1 group:1 show:1 continued:1 interest:2 council:3 whereas:1 account:1 inter:1 national:1 trade:2 economic:2 miracle:1 today:1 extensive:1 interdependence:1 neighbor:1 three:1 quarter:1 investment:2 originates:1 principally:1 send:1 export:1 compare:1 go:1 latvia:3 lithuania:3 hand:1 political:1 system:1 flat:1 rate:1 income:1 tax:1 non:3 welfare:1 state:3 model:1 distinguish:1 many:1 http:1 www:1 investinestonia:1 com:1 pdf:2 party:2 organization:3 include:1 bi:1 cbss:1 ce:1 eapc:1 ebrd:1 ece:1 eu:2 member:5 fao:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icrm:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 iho:1 ilo:1 imf:1 maritime:2 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 observer:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 itu:1 ituc:1 opcw:1 osce:2 pfp:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unmibh:1 unmik:1 untso:1 upu:1 wco:1 weu:1 associate:1 partner:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wto:1 dispute:1 negotiator:1 reach:1 technical:1 agreement:1 initial:1 urmas:1 paet:1 colleague:1 sergei:1 lavrov:1 government:4 republic:8 federation:4 delimitation:1 zone:1 gulf:2 narva:1 riigikogu:1 paliament:1 june:3 arnold:1 rüütel:1 announce:1 putin:1 give:1 write:1 order:1 notify:1 side:1 intention:1 participate:1 september:4 forward:1 note:1 inform:1 intend:1 become:1 bind:1 circumstance:1 concern:1 object:1 purpose:1 diplomatic:8 relationship:1 establish:5 kazakhstan:3 represent:18 embassy:23 vilnius:1 uruguay:5 among:1 refuse:1 recognise:8 occupation:1 baltic:1 honorary:10 consulate:13 montevideo:1 stockholm:2 formal:1 begannotes:1 armenia:3 warsaw:1 poland:2 athens:1 greece:2 yerevan:1 around:1 armenian:3 descent:1 living:1 site:1 community:2 australia:6 november:2 tokyo:1 japan:2 claremont:1 hobart:1 sydney:1 large:1 abroad:1 identify:1 australian:2 census:1 department:1 brief:1 austria:3 january:2 vienna:2 salzburg:1 austrian:1 list:3 bilateral:2 german:1 azerbaijan:4 riga:2 azerbaijani:2 accredit:3 ankara:2 turkey:1 full:4 security:1 co:1 operation:1 belarus:2 belarussian:1 open:1 minsk:1 july:1 see:3 belgium:2 relationssee:37 bulgaria:1 canada:1 chile:1 croatia:1 cyprus:1 czech:2 egypt:6 helsinki:2 egyptian:3 resident:2 ambassador:1 cairo:1 mediterranean:1 kristiina:1 ojuland:1 visit:1 prime:4 andrus:2 ansip:2 barcelona:1 euromed:1 summit:2 meet:2 ahmed:2 nazif:2 framework:1 african:1 lisbon:1 special:1 mission:3 arab:1 egyptsee:1 france:1 georgia:1 holy:1 hungary:1 india:1 ireland:1 israel:1 italy:2 kosovo:1 luxembourg:5 february:2 brussels:1 prague:1 malta:5 rome:1 direction:2 representation:2 valletta:1 maltese:1 moldova:5 kiev:1 ukraine:2 chişinău:1 moldovan:1 estoniasee:1 netherlands:1 norway:1 china:1 portugal:1 romania:1 serbia:1 slovakia:1 slovenia:1 south:1 korea:1 spain:1 tunisia:1 unite:1 kingdom:1 united:1 reference:1 |@bigram soviet_union:1 w_bush:1 bbc_news:1 latvia_lithuania:1 income_tax:1 http_www:1 ce_eapc:1 eapc_ebrd:1 ebrd_ece:1 ece_eu:1 fao_iaea:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icrm:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_iho:1 iho_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_observer:1 iso_correspondent:1 correspondent_itu:1 itu_ituc:1 opcw_osce:1 pfp_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unmibh_unmik:1 untso_upu:1 upu_wco:1 wco_weu:1 weu_associate:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wto:1 diplomatic_relation:5 embassy_vilnius:1 vilnius_lithuania:1 honorary_consulate:10 montevideo_uruguay:1 stockholm_sweden:2 consulate_tallinn:4 relation_begannotes:1 tallinn_estonia:4 consulate_yerevan:1 foreign_affair:14 bilateral_treaty:2 embassy_riga:2 riga_latvia:1 ankara_turkey:1 azerbaijan_belarus:1 estonia_relationssee:8 relationssee_chile:1 relationssee_cyprus:1 relationssee_czech:1 czech_republic:2 embassy_helsinki:2 helsinki_finland:1 prime_minister:4 relationssee_estonia:29 estonia_latvia:1 latvia_relationssee:1 brussels_belgium:1 luxembourg_luxembourg:1 prague_czech:1 malta_embassy:1 malta_malta:1 maltese_representation:1 embassy_kiev:1 kiev_ukraine:1 chişinău_moldova:1 moldova_moldovan:1 moldovan_ministry:1 romania_relationssee:1 slovakia_relationssee:1 ukraine_relationssee:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
7,455 | Book_of_Leviticus | Leviticus (Greek: Λευιτικός, "relating to the Levites") or Vayikra (Hebrew: ויקרא, literally "and He called") is the third book of the Hebrew Bible/Christian Old Testament, and the third of five books of the Jewish Torah or Pentateuch. Leviticus contains laws and priestly rituals, but in a wider sense is about the working out of God's covenant with Israel set out in Genesis and Exodus - what is seen in the Torah as the consequences of entering into a special relationship with God. These consequences are set out in terms of community relationships and behaviour. The first 16 chapters and the last chapter make up the Priestly Code, with rules for ritual cleanliness, sin-offerings, and the Day of Atonement, including Chapter 12 which mandates male circumcision. Chapters 17-26 contain the Holiness Code, including the injunction in chapter 19 to "love one's neighbor as oneself" (the Great Commandment). The book is largely concerned with "abominations", largely dietary and sexual restrictions. The rules are generally addressed to the Israelites, except for the prohibition in chapter 20 against sacrificing children to Molech, which applies equally to "the strangers that sojourn in Israel." According to tradition, Moses authored Leviticus Gordon J. Wenham, The Book of Leviticus. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company (1995): 8. "The Traditional View ... is the view that Leviticus was compiled by Moses himself, or at least that the material in the book, if not its final shape, goes back to Moses." as well as the other four books of the Torah Maas, Anthony. "Pentateuch." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911., "The voice of tradition, both Jewish and Christian, is so unanimous and constant in proclaiming the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch that down to the seventeenth century it did not allow the rise of any serious doubt." . Modern biblical scholars believe Leviticus to be almost entirely from the priestly source (P), marked by emphasis on priestly concerns, composed c 550-400 BC, and incorporated into the Torah c 400 BC. Baruch A. Levine, ""Leviticus: Its Literary History and Location in Biblical Literature, in The Book of Leviticus: Composition and Reception, ed. Rolf Rendtorff and Robert A. Kugler (Brill, 2006), pp.11-23 Title In Hebrew the book is called Vayikra (Hebrew: ויקרא) literally "and He called" Wenham (1995): 3. "The first word of the book serves as its Hebrew title, wayyiqrā, "and he called." , from the first word of the Hebrew text, in line with the other four books of the Torah. When the Bible was translated into Greek in the 3rd century BC to produce the Septuagint, the name given was biblion to Levitikon (Greek: βιβλίον το Λευιτικόν), meaning "book of the Levites". This was in line with the Septuagint use of subject themes as book names. The Latin name became Liber Leviticus, from which the English name is derived. These names are somewhat misleading, as the book makes a very strong distinction between the priesthood, descended from Aaron, and mere Levites. Summary The book is generally considered to consist of two large sections, both of which contain several mitzvot. The first part Leviticus 1-16, and Leviticus 27, constitutes the main portion of the Priestly Code, which describes the details of rituals, and of worship, as well as details of ritual cleanliness and uncleanliness. Within this section are: Laws regarding the regulations for different types of sacrifice (Leviticus 1-7): Burnt-offerings, meal-offerings, and thank-offerings (Leviticus 1-3) Sin-offerings (for unintentional sins), and trespass-offerings (Leviticus 4-5) Priestly duties and rights concerning the offering of sacrifices (Leviticus 6-7) The practical application of the sacrificial laws, within a narrative of the consecration of Aaron and his sons (Leviticus 8-10) Aaron's first offering for himself and the people (Leviticus 8) The incident in which "strange fire" is brought to the Tabernacle by Aaron's sons Nadav and Avihu, leading to their death directly at the hands of God for doing so (Leviticus 9-10) Laws concerning purity and impurity (Leviticus 11-16) Laws about clean and unclean animals (Leviticus 11) Laws concerning ritual cleanliness after childbirth (Leviticus 12) Laws concerning tzaraath of people, and of clothes and houses, often translated as leprosy, and mildew, respectively (Leviticus 13-14) Laws concerning bodily discharges (such as blood, pus, etc.) and purification (Leviticus 15) Laws regarding a day of national atonement, Yom Kippur (Leviticus 16) Laws concerning the commutation of vows (Leviticus 27) The second part, Leviticus 17-26, is known as the Holiness Code, and places particular, and noticeable, emphasis on holiness, and the holy; it contains commandments intended not just for the priests but for the whole congregation. Wenham (1995): 3. "It would be wrong, however, to describe Leviticus simply as a manual for priests. It is equally, if not more, concerned with the part the laity should play in worship." It is notably more of a miscellany of laws. Within this section are: Laws concerning idolatry, the slaughter of animals, dead animals, and the consumption of blood (Leviticus 17) Laws concerning sexual conduct - incest, bestiality, same-sex relationships among men, laws concerning sorcery, and moloch (Leviticus 18, and also Leviticus 20, in which penalties are given) Laws concerning molten gods, peace-offerings, scraps of the harvest, fraud, the deaf, blind, elderly, and poor, poisoning the well, hate, sex with slaves, self harm, shaving, prostitution, sabbaths, sorcery, familiars, strangers, and just weights and measure (Leviticus 19) Laws concerning priestly conduct, and prohibitions against the disabled, ill, and superfluously blemished, from becoming priests, or becoming sacrifices, for descendants of Aaron, and animals, respectively (Leviticus 21-22) Laws concerning the observation of the annual feasts, and the sabbath, (Leviticus 23) Laws concerning the altar of incense (Leviticus 24:1-9) The case law lesson of a blasphemer being stoned to death, and other applications of the death penalty (Leviticus 24:10-23), including anyone having "a familiar ghost or spirit", a child insulting its parents (Leviticus 20), and a special case for prostitution (burning them alive) (Leviticus 21) Laws concerning the Sabbath, Jubilee years and slavery. (Leviticus 25). A hortatory conclusion to the section, giving promises regarding obedience to these commandments, and warnings and threats for those that might disobey them, including sending wild animals to devour their children. (Leviticus 26:22) These ordinances, in the book, are said to have been delivered in the space of a month, specifically the first month of the second year after the exodus. A major Chiastic structure runs through practically all of this book. For more detailed information see the article on Chiastic structure. Structure and composition According to traditional belief, Leviticus is the word of Yahweh, dictated to Moses from the Tent of Meeting before Mount Sinai. Since the 19th century, scholars have regarded Leviticus as being almost entirely a product of the priestly source, (more recent scholarship prefers to refer to a "priestly school" of editors rather than a single priestly source), originating amongst the Aaronid priesthood c 550-400 BC. Leviticus consists of several layers of laws. The base of this accretion is the Holiness Code (chapters 17-26), regarded as an early independent document related the Covenant Code presented earlier in the Bible. Wellhausen regarded the Priestly source as a later, rival, version of the stories contained within JE (a hypothetical intermediate source text of the Torah), the Holiness Code thus being the law code that the priestly source presented as being dictated to Moses at Sinai, in the place of the Covenant Code. Different writers inserted laws, some from earlier independent collections. These additional laws, in the views of those who follow Wellhausen's theories, are those which subsequently formed the Priestly Code, and thus the other portion of Leviticus. Themes Leviticus defines the most important rituals of ancient Israel, from sacrifice to cleanliness, the holy days to to the calendar, birth and death. Gordon Wenham, quoting the early 20th century anthropologist Monica Wilson, points out that ritual is the key to understanding a society's central values; it makes up the markers by which a group of people recognise themselves as a group, and distinguish themselves from their neighbours. Gordon Wenham, "Exploring the Old Testament: The Pentateuch" (SPCK, 2003), pp.83-84 Leviticus in subsequent tradition Judaism Leviticus constitutes a major source of Jewish law. In Talmudic literature, there is evidence that this is the first book of the Tanakh which was taught, in the Rabbinic system of education in Talmudic times. A possible reason may be that, of all the books of the Torah, Leviticus is the closest to being purely devoted to mitzvot and its study thus is able to go hand-in-hand with their performance. There are two main Midrashim on Leviticus - the halakhic one (Sifra) and a more aggadic one (Vayikra Rabbah). Christianity Christians do not consider themselves to be bound by the Levitical laws, due to the antinomianism of passages such as Paul's 1 Corinthians 10:23-26, which permits believers to "eat anything sold in the meat market, without raising questions of conscience". The Epistle to the Hebrews gives a theological justification for this view: it views Jesus as the perfect High Priest, "entering heaven not with the blood of bulls and goats (i.e., the sacrificial rules set out in Leviticus), but with his own blood"; and whereas the Jewish High Priest offered sacrifices continually and was permitted to enter the holy of holies only once a year, "Jesus offered just one sacrifice and is seated at God's right hand continually making intercession for his people." Similarly, the Synoptic Gospels speak of the veil separating the holy of holies from the outer courtyard being torn in two when Jesus dies, symbolizing that God is now directly accessible. Most radically of all, the Jewish food laws, which symbolize the unique status of the Jews as the only people of God, are explicitly abrogated in Matthew 15:1-28 and in Acts 10:1-29. Gordon Wenham, "Exploring the Old Testament: The Pentateuch" (SPCK, 2003), pp.99-100 See also Torah The Bible and homosexuality Weekly Torah portions in Leviticus: Vayikra, Tzav, Shemini, Tazria, Metzora, Acharei, Kedoshim, Emor, Behar, and Bechukotai References External links Online translations of Leviticus: Jewish translations: Leviticus at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) Leviticus (The Living Torah) Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org Vayikra - Levitichius (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org ויקרא Vayikra - Leviticus (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org (King James Version) oremus Bible Browser (New Revised Standard Version) oremus Bible Browser (Anglicized New Revised Standard Version) Related article: Book of Leviticus article (Jewish Encyclopedia) The Literary Structure of Leviticus (chaver.com) Leviticus in Skeptic's Annotated Bible Free Online Bibliography on Leviticus: BiBIL Lego reenactments of key passages of Leviticus http://www.thebricktestament.com/the_law/index.html | Book_of_Leviticus |@lemmatized leviticus:59 greek:3 λευιτικός:1 relate:2 levite:3 vayikra:6 hebrew:8 ויקרא:3 literally:2 call:4 third:2 book:19 bible:8 christian:4 old:3 testament:3 five:1 jewish:8 torah:10 pentateuch:5 contain:5 law:27 priestly:13 ritual:7 wider:1 sense:1 work:1 god:7 covenant:3 israel:3 set:3 genesis:1 exodus:2 see:3 consequence:2 enter:3 special:2 relationship:3 term:1 community:1 behaviour:1 first:7 chapter:7 last:1 make:4 code:10 rule:3 cleanliness:4 sin:3 offering:9 day:3 atonement:2 include:4 mandate:1 male:1 circumcision:1 holiness:5 injunction:1 love:1 one:4 neighbor:1 oneself:1 great:1 commandment:3 largely:2 concerned:1 abomination:1 dietary:1 sexual:2 restriction:1 generally:2 address:1 israelite:1 except:1 prohibition:2 sacrifice:7 child:3 molech:1 apply:1 equally:2 stranger:2 sojourn:1 accord:2 tradition:3 moses:5 author:1 gordon:4 j:1 wenham:6 grand:1 rapid:1 michigan:1 william:1 b:1 eerdmans:1 publish:1 company:2 traditional:2 view:5 compile:1 least:1 material:1 final:1 shape:1 go:2 back:1 well:3 four:2 maas:1 anthony:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:2 vol:1 new:3 york:1 robert:2 appleton:1 voice:1 unanimous:1 constant:1 proclaim:1 mosaic:1 authorship:1 seventeenth:1 century:4 allow:1 rise:1 serious:1 doubt:1 modern:1 biblical:2 scholar:2 believe:1 almost:2 entirely:2 source:7 p:1 mark:1 emphasis:2 concern:16 compose:1 c:3 bc:4 incorporate:1 baruch:1 levine:1 literary:2 history:1 location:1 literature:2 composition:2 reception:1 ed:1 rolf:1 rendtorff:1 kugler:1 brill:1 pp:3 title:2 word:3 serve:1 wayyiqrā:1 text:2 line:2 translate:2 produce:1 septuagint:2 name:5 give:4 biblion:1 levitikon:1 βιβλίον:1 το:1 λευιτικόν:1 mean:1 use:1 subject:1 theme:2 latin:1 become:3 liber:1 english:2 derive:1 somewhat:1 misleading:1 strong:1 distinction:1 priesthood:2 descend:1 aaron:5 mere:1 summary:1 consider:2 consist:2 two:3 large:1 section:4 several:2 mitzvot:2 part:3 constitute:2 main:2 portion:3 describe:2 detail:2 worship:2 uncleanliness:1 within:4 regard:6 regulation:1 different:2 type:1 burnt:1 meal:1 thank:1 unintentional:1 trespass:1 duty:1 right:2 practical:1 application:2 sacrificial:2 narrative:1 consecration:1 son:2 people:5 incident:1 strange:1 fire:1 bring:1 tabernacle:1 nadav:1 avihu:1 lead:1 death:4 directly:2 hand:4 purity:1 impurity:1 clean:1 unclean:1 animal:5 childbirth:1 tzaraath:1 clothes:1 house:1 often:1 leprosy:1 mildew:1 respectively:2 bodily:1 discharge:1 blood:4 pu:1 etc:1 purification:1 national:1 yom:1 kippur:1 commutation:1 vow:1 second:2 know:1 place:2 particular:1 noticeable:1 holy:6 intend:1 priest:5 whole:1 congregation:1 would:1 wrong:1 however:1 simply:1 manual:1 laity:1 play:1 notably:1 miscellany:1 idolatry:1 slaughter:1 dead:1 consumption:1 conduct:2 incest:1 bestiality:1 sex:2 among:1 men:1 sorcery:2 moloch:1 also:2 penalty:2 molten:1 peace:1 scrap:1 harvest:1 fraud:1 deaf:1 blind:1 elderly:1 poor:1 poison:1 hate:1 slave:1 self:1 harm:1 shave:1 prostitution:2 sabbath:3 familiar:2 weight:1 measure:1 disabled:1 ill:1 superfluously:1 blemish:1 descendant:1 observation:1 annual:1 feast:1 altar:1 incense:1 case:2 lesson:1 blasphemer:1 stone:1 anyone:1 ghost:1 spirit:1 insult:1 parent:1 burn:1 alive:1 jubilee:1 year:3 slavery:1 hortatory:1 conclusion:1 promise:1 obedience:1 warning:1 threat:1 might:1 disobey:1 send:1 wild:1 devour:1 ordinance:1 say:1 deliver:1 space:1 month:2 specifically:1 major:2 chiastic:2 structure:4 run:1 practically:1 detailed:1 information:1 article:3 belief:1 yahweh:1 dictate:2 tent:1 meeting:1 mount:1 sinai:2 since:1 product:1 recent:1 scholarship:1 prefers:1 refer:1 school:1 editor:1 rather:1 single:1 originate:1 amongst:1 aaronid:1 layer:1 base:1 accretion:1 early:3 independent:2 document:1 present:2 earlier:1 wellhausen:2 later:1 rival:1 version:4 story:1 je:1 hypothetical:1 intermediate:1 thus:3 writer:1 insert:1 collection:1 additional:1 follow:1 theory:1 subsequently:1 form:1 define:1 important:1 ancient:1 calendar:1 birth:1 quote:1 anthropologist:1 monica:1 wilson:1 point:1 key:2 understand:1 society:2 central:1 value:1 marker:1 group:2 recognise:1 distinguish:1 neighbour:1 explore:2 spck:2 subsequent:1 judaism:1 talmudic:2 evidence:1 tanakh:1 teach:1 rabbinic:1 system:1 education:1 time:1 possible:1 reason:1 may:1 close:1 purely:1 devote:1 study:1 able:1 performance:1 midrash:1 halakhic:1 sifra:1 aggadic:1 rabbah:1 christianity:1 bind:1 levitical:1 due:1 antinomianism:1 passage:2 paul:1 corinthian:1 permit:2 believer:1 eat:1 anything:1 sell:1 meat:1 market:1 without:1 raise:1 question:1 conscience:1 epistle:1 theological:1 justification:1 jesus:3 perfect:1 high:2 heaven:1 bull:1 goat:1 e:1 whereas:1 offer:2 continually:2 seat:1 intercession:1 similarly:1 synoptic:1 gospel:1 speak:1 veil:1 separate:1 outer:1 courtyard:1 tear:1 die:1 symbolize:2 accessible:1 radically:1 food:1 unique:1 status:1 jew:1 explicitly:1 abrogate:1 matthew:1 act:1 homosexuality:1 weekly:1 tzav:1 shemini:1 tazria:1 metzora:1 acharei:1 kedoshim:1 emor:1 behar:1 bechukotai:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 online:3 translation:6 mechon:2 mamre:2 publication:1 living:1 rabbi:1 aryeh:1 kaplan:1 commentary:2 ort:1 org:4 levitichius:1 judaica:1 press:1 rashi:1 chabad:1 gospelhall:1 king:1 james:1 oremus:2 browser:2 revise:2 standard:2 anglicized:1 related:1 chaver:1 com:2 skeptic:1 annotate:1 free:1 bibliography:1 bibil:1 lego:1 reenactment:1 http:1 www:1 thebricktestament:1 index:1 html:1 |@bigram hebrew_bible:1 torah_pentateuch:1 robert_appleton:1 mosaic_authorship:1 somewhat_misleading:1 burnt_offering:1 yom_kippur:1 deaf_blind:1 mount_sinai:1 gordon_wenham:3 synoptic_gospel:1 external_link:1 mechon_mamre:2 mamre_jewish:1 aryeh_kaplan:1 ort_org:1 translation_rashi:1 rashi_commentary:1 commentary_chabad:1 chabad_org:1 mamre_org:1 bible_gospelhall:1 gospelhall_org:1 version_oremus:2 oremus_bible:2 http_www:1 |
7,456 | School_voucher | A school voucher, also called an education voucher, is a certificate issued by the government by which parents can pay for the education of their children at a school of their choice, rather than the public school to which they are assigned. History The oldest continuing school voucher programs existing today in the United States are the Town Tuitioning programs in Vermont and Maine, beginning in 1869 and 1873 respectively. Because some towns in these states operate neither local high schools nor elementary schools, students in these towns "are eligible for a voucher to attend [either] public schools in other towns or non-religious private schools. In these cases, the 'sending' towns pay tuition directly to the 'receiving' schools." In some Southern states during the 1960s, school vouchers were used as a method of perpetuating segregation. In a few instances, public schools were closed outright and vouchers were issued to parents. The vouchers, in many cases, were only good at privately segregated schools, known as segregation academies. Deseret Morning News - Do vouchers equal segregation? Today, all modern voucher programs prohibit against racial discrimination. Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman argued for the modern concept of vouchers in the 1950s, stating that competition would improve schools and cost efficiency. The view further gained popularity with the 1980 TV broadcast of Friedman's series "Free to Choose" for which volume 6 was devoted entirely to promoting "educational freedom" through programs like school vouchers. See Volume 6 - "What's Wrong with our Schools" Vouchers have since been introduced in countries all over the world but are controversial as they reflect political and ideological splits as well as limiting the role of unions in education. Controversy Proponents Proponents assert that voucher systems would promote free market competition among schools of all types, which would provide schools incentive to improve. Successful schools would attract students, while bad schools would be forced to reform or close. The goal of this system is to localize accountability as opposed to relying on government standards. Under non-voucher education systems citizens that currently pay for private schooling are still charged taxes that are used to fund public schools. Therefore, it seems that their cost for education is doubled as they are funding both public and private schools simultaneously. Vouchers are designed to provide citizens freedom to spend their tax money as they choose for the type of school they want. ()http://www.allianceforschoolchoice.org/ResearchResources This causes controversy as it puts public education in direct competition with private education, threatening to reduce public school funding if parents choose to withdraw their children in favor of a private school. Proponents argue that competition through free market capitalism would increase the quality of education for both private and public education sectors as it has for higher education with publicly funded state universities directly competing against private universities. Also, similar competition has helped in manufacturing, energy, transportation, and parcel postal (UPS, FedEx vs. USPS) sectors of government that have been socialized and later opened up to free market competition. ( http://www.fee.org/publications/the-freeman/article.asp?aid=2237()http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/713.shtml http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_Express_Statutes Frequently, institutions are forced to operate at higher efficiencies when they are allowed to compete ()http://www.allianceforschoolchoice.org/UploadedFiles/ResearchResources/Competition-%20Hoxby.pdf and any loss of supply and demand for public institutions would be offset and equalized by the increased demand for private institutions. For example, if the demand for private schools increased, they would need to hire more teachers and staff to compensate for their increased growth, so any jobs lost from the public sector would be offset by jobs gained in the private sector. ()http://www.friedmanfoundation.org/friedman/downloadFile.do?id=284 Proponents also note that school vouchers would allow for greater economic diversity by offering lower income students opportunities to attend previously unaffordable private schools. School voucher proponent and Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman observed that the poor have an incentive to support school choice, as their children attend substandard schools, and would thus benefit most from alternative schools. Friedrich von Hayek explains: "As has been shown by Professor Milton Friedman (M. Friedman, The role of government in education,1955), it would now be entirely practicable to defray the costs of general education out of the public purse without maintaining government schools, by giving the parents vouchers covering the cost of education of each child which they could hand over to schools of their choice. It may still be desirable that government directly provide schools in a few isolated communities where the number of children is too small (and the average cost of education therefore too high) for privately run schools. But with respect to the great majority of the population, it would undoubtedly be possible to leave the organization and management of education entirely to private efforts, with the government providing merely the basic finance and ensuring a minimum standard for all schools where the vouchers could be spent." (F. A. Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty, section 24.3) Other influential supporters include Newark Mayor Cory Booker, South Carolina's current governor Mark Sanford, http://www.charlestonbusiness.com/pub/6_2/news/2771-1.html billionaire and American philanthropist John T. Walton, http://www.blackfive.net/main/2005/06/godspeed_john_w.html Former Mayor of Baltimore Kurt L. Schmoke, http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/cb_20.htm Former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney http://www.ourcampaigns.com/CandidateDetail.html?CandidateID=2075 and John McCain, who believed that, "School choice stimulates improvement and creates expanded opportunities for our children to get a quality education." http://mccain.senate.gov/press_office/view_article.cfm?id=587 The Liberty and Democracy Party supports vouchers as a stepping-stone to abolishing public schools. LDP spokesman Shem Bennett said, "Initially some public schools would remain. But under the LDP’s plan, schools would slowly privatise and diversify as there’d be no need for government ownership." Abolish Public Schools. LDP press releases. Some proponents of school vouchers, including the Sutherland Institute and many supporters of the Utah voucher effort, see it as a remedy for historic cultural genocide committed against demographic minorities by compulsory public schools. During the run-up to the November referendum election Sutherland issued a controversial publication: http://www.sutherlandinstitute.org/uploads/vouchersvows.pdf Sutherland Institute | Vouchers Vows & Vexations] Voucher, Vows, & Vexations Deseret Morning News | Voucher foe in 'lion's den'? . Sutherland called the publication an important review of the history of education in Utah while critics just called it revisionist history The Sutherland Institute . Sutherland then released the subsequent companion article in a peer-reviewed law journal Removing Classrooms from the Battlefield: Liberty, Paternalism, and the Redemptive Promise of Educational Choice, 2008 BYU Law Review 377 as part of an academic conference about school choice. Law School Conference on School Choice The Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice, founded by Milton and Rose Friedman in 1996, is a non-profit organization that promotes universal school vouchers and other forms of school choice. In defense of vouchers, it cites empirical research showing that students who were randomly assigned to receive vouchers had higher academic outcomes than students who applied for vouchers but lost a random lottery and didn’t receive them; and that vouchers improve academic outcomes at public schools, reduce racial segregation, deliver better services to special education students, and do not drain money from public schools. Forster, Greg. (2007) Monopoly Versus Markets Opponents Among the strongest critics are public school teacher unions, ()()Teacher unions fight to stop vouchers most notably the National Education Association (the largest labor union in the USA) who has spent millions litigating and lobbying against vouchers for concern that it could erode educational standards, reduce funding, and ultimately cost public teachers their jobs as students leave public schools for private schools. () ()List of NEA beliefs and legal fights against vouchers Critics of the voucher system note that it is possible to have a choice between different schools within the public school system without vouchers. One reason given for being allowed to choose private schools is the belief that private schools offer better education – a belief disputed by the United States Department of Education in their 2006 study of the public education they oversee. () Dept. of Education This report concludes that average test scores for reading and mathematics, when adjusted for student and school characteristics, tend to be very similar among public schools and private schools although private schools do slightly better in both. One argument against vouchers is that, given the limited budget for schools, a voucher system weakens public schools while at the same time not necessarily providing enough money for people to attend private schools. The opponents assert a tendency of the costs of tuition to rise along with its demand, which would compound the problem. However, this naively assumes there would not be an increase in supply. Some critics assert that a voucher is like a discount coupon for those who can already afford the full cost of a private school education. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, 76% of the money handed out for Arizona’s voucher program has gone to children already in private schools. In a 2002 case before the US Supreme Court, Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, the court considered whether school vouchers constituted a violation of the United States Constitution's Establishment Clause, as many voucher programs would allow children receiving vouchers to attend church-run schools. Chief Justice William Rehnquist, writing for the majority, stated that "The incidental advancement of a religious mission, or the perceived endorsement of a religious message, is reasonably attributable to the individual aid recipients not the government, whose role ends with the disbursement of benefits." The Supreme Court ruled that the Ohio program did not violate the Establishment Clause, because it passed a five part test developed by the Court in this case, titled the Private Choice Test. Some economist critics point to the problem of "cream skimming," a variety of adverse selection in the educational market. With a greater pool of applicants, the private schools could be more selective over which students to admit, excluding those who do not belong to a preferred group (for instance, religion or ethnicity), those with disabilities such as autism or multiple sclerosis, and those with disciplinary problems. By law, public schools must accept any student. Thus, it has been suggested that a voucher system would lead to such students becoming concentrated within the public school system. This would likely further undermine the reputation and competitiveness of the public schools, leading to a vicious circle that tends toward the total abolition of the public schools and perhaps the end of universal education. Other opponents in the U.S. object on different grounds. They believe that granting government money, even indirectly, to private and religious schools will inevitably lead to increased governmental control over non-government education, and possibly over the teachings of the sponsoring religious group (most often a church). Individuals who oppose vouchers on these grounds are often libertarian; most also call for the abolition of all state sponsorship of education, which they believe to be wrong in principle. The Alliance for the Separation of School & State opposes education vouchers on the grounds that "if vouchers become commonplace, private and religious schools will become more and more like public schools." Moreover, they suggest that if it is wrong in principle for the government to tax in order to fund public education, then one should not accept any portion of the ill-gotten money to fund private education. Yet another argument against the implementation of a school voucher system is its lack of accountability to the taxpayer. In many states, members of a community's board of education are elected by voters. Similarly, a school budget faces a referendum. Meetings of the Board of Education must be announced in advance, and members of the public are permitted to voice their concerns directly to board members. Although vouchers may be used in private and religious schools, taxpayers are not able to vote on budgetary issues, elect members of the board or even attend board meetings. Opponents of vouchers assert that this disenfranchisement amounts to taxation without representation. Implementations Chile In Chile, there is an extensive voucher system in which the State pays private and municipal schools directly based on student attendance. This system covers nearly 90% of its students. While studying the private school system, Dr. Martin Carnoy of Stanford, Patrick J. McEwan and others have found that when controls for the student's background (parental income and education) are introduced, the difference in performance between public and private subsectors is not significant. Europe In most European countries, education for all primary and secondary schools is fully subsidized. In some countries, parents are free to choose which school their child attends. Schools are often funded on a grant system based on the number of students on their rolls. Ireland Most schools in Ireland are State-aided parish schools, established under diocesan patronage but with capital costs, teachers salaries and a per head fee paid to the school Irish Government Department of Education website</ref> . These are given to the school regardless of whether or not it requires its students to pay fees. (Although fee-paying schools are in the minority, there has been much criticism over the State-aid they receive with opponants claiming this gives them an unfair advantage.) There is a recent trend towards multi-denominational schools established by parents, which are organised as limited companies without share capital. Parents and students are free to choose their own school. In the event of a school failing to attract students it immediately loses its per-head fee and over time loses its teaching posts- and teachers are moved to other schools which are attracting students. The system is perceived to have achieved very successful outcomes for most Irish children.<ref>OECD report on Irish Education The 1995-7 Rainbow Coalition (which contained parties of the centre and the left) introduced free third-level education to primary degree level. Critics of the latter development charge that it has not increased the number of students from economically deprived backgrounds attending university. However, studies have shown that the removal of tuition fees at third level, has increased the number of students overall and those from lower socio-economic backgrounds. This concurs with evidence from the UK of a decrease in attendance numbers after the introduction of fees. However, since the economic crisis, there has been extensive talk and debate regarding the reintroduction of third-level fees. See also: Education in the Republic of Ireland Sweden In Sweden, the 1991-1994 government introduced a voucher system at primary and secondary school level, enabling free choice among public and independent schools (friskolor) in the community. Over 10% of Swedish pupils were enrolled in private schools in 2008 and the number is growing fast. Sweden is internationally known for this innovative model that provides pupils with the opportunity to choose the school they prefer. Per Unckel, Governor of Stockholm and former Minister of Education, sums up the advantages of Swedish system: "Education is so important that you can’t just leave it to one producer. Because we know from monopoly systems that they do not fulfill all wishes". The Swedish system has been recommended to Barack Obama. The Netherlands For more than 80 years, parents have preferred independent schools. Today, around 70% of primary and secondary pupils attend private independent schools. In the Netherlands, the government funds "bijzondere" ("special") schools, which are run by independent non-profit boards, on the condition that they charge no more tuition than public schools do and otherwise abide by practically the same rules as public schools. Parents are free to choose any public or special school for their children, although in some urban areas, such as Amsterdam, admissions procedures do exist. Many, but not all, special schools are religious in nature. The system arose in the early 1900s after a prolonged political battle known as the Battle of the Schools (in Dutch: "De Schoolstrijd") between religious and secular political parties, and is considered a political third rail even today. The emergence of Islamic schools is putting the issue back into the spotlight, though. Any voucher proposals in The Netherlands, and countries with similar systems such as Belgium, are complicated by the historical background of the Battle of the Schools. For a more detailed discussion, see Hooker in 'Bibliography'. Hong Kong A voucher system for children three to six years-old who attend a non-profit kindergarten was implemented in Hong Kong in 2007. Each child will get HK$13,000 pa. The $13,000 subsidy will be separated into two parts. $10,000 is used to subsidize the school fee and the remaining $3,000 is used for kindergarten teachers to pursue further education and obtain a certificate in Education. Also, there are some restrictions on the voucher system. Parents can only choose those non-profit making with yearly fee less than $24,000. It is hoped by the government that by the year of 2011-2012, all kindergarten teachers can obtain a certificate in Education and the government will adjust the subsidy amount to $16000 for each students and all of the money is for the school fee subsidy. Milton Friedman criticised the system, saying "I do not believe that [CE] Mr. Tsang's proposal is properly structured". He said that the whole point of a voucher system is to provide a competitive market place, therefore, it shouldn't be limited to non-profit kindergartens. After protests by parents with children enrolled in for profit kindergartens, the program was extended to children in for- profit kindergartens, but only for children enrolled in or before September 2007. The government will also provide up to HK$30,000 subsidy to for profit kindergartens wanting to convert to non profit. United States In the 1980s, the Reagan administration pushed for vouchers, as did the George W. Bush administration in the initial education-reform proposals leading up to the No Child Left Behind Act. This year, it is estimated that nearly 171,000 students will benefit from 18 existing school choice programs in 10 states and the District of Columbia. Most of these programs are offered to students in low-income families, low performing schools, or special-education programs. The city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin led the way in 1990 and now has nearly 15,000 students using vouchers. The 2006-2007 school year will mark the first time in Milwaukee that more than $100 million will be paid in vouchers. Twenty-six percent of Milwaukee students will receive public funding to attend schools outside the traditional Milwaukee Public School system. In fact, if the voucher program alone were considered a school district, it would mark the sixth-largest district in Wisconsin. St. Anthony Catholic School, located on Milwaukee's south side, boasts 966 voucher students, meaning that it very likely receives more public money for general school support of a parochial elementary or high school than any before it in American history. Under the current state formula for paying school vouchers, however, Milwaukee residents pay more in property taxes for voucher students than for students attending public schools. This imbalance has received considerable criticism, and is the subject of 2007 legislative proposals designed to alter the formula. The school voucher question in the United States has also received a considerable amount of judicial review in the early 2000s. A program launched in the city of Cleveland in 1995 and authorized by the state of Ohio was challenged in court on the grounds that it violated both the federal constitutional principle of separation of church and state and the guarantee of religious liberty in the Ohio Constitution. These claims were rejected by the Ohio Supreme Court, but the federal claims were upheld by the local federal district court and by the Sixth Circuit appeals court. The fact that nearly all of the families using vouchers attended Catholic schools in the Cleveland area was cited in the decisions. In a 2002 ruling in the case Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in a 5-4 vote that the Ohio program was constitutional. The justices cited the private choice made by the parents and affirmed that the ultimate purpose (improving elementary education) was secular. In 2006, the Florida Supreme Court struck down legislation known as the Opportunity Scholarship Program (OSP), which would have implemented a system of school vouchers in Florida. The court ruled that the OSP violated article IX, section 1(a) of the Florida Constitution: "Adequate provision shall be made by law for a uniform, efficient, safe, secure, and high quality system of free public schools." Political support for school vouchers in the United States is mixed. On the left/right spectrum, conservatives are more likely to support vouchers. Some state legislatures have enacted voucher laws. As of 2006, the federal government operates the largest voucher program, for evacuees from the region affected by Hurricane Katrina. The Federal government also provides a voucher program for 7,500 residents of Washington, D.C. - the D.C. Opportunity Scholarship Program. However, in early March 2009 congressional Democrats were moving to close down the program and remove children from their voucher-funded school places at the end of the 09/10 school year under the $410 billion Omnibus Appropriations Act of 2009 Under Title IV of H.R.1015 which, as of March 7 had passed the House and was pending in the Senate. The Obama administration stated that it preferred to allow children already enrolled in the program to finish their schooling while closing the program to new entrants. However, its preference on this matter does not appear to be strong enough to prevent the President from signing the Bill. Some public opinion surveys show that support for vouchers has increased in the last few years, although just how much is debatable. Majorities seem to favor improving existing schools over providing vouchers, yet as many as 40% of those surveyed admit that they don't know enough to form an opinion or don't understand the system of school vouchers. In November 2000, a voucher system proposed by Tim Draper was placed on the California ballot as Proposition 38. It was unusual among school voucher proposals in that it required neither accreditation on the part of schools accepting vouchers, nor proof of need on the part of families applying for them; neither did it have any requirement that schools accept vouchers as payment-in-full, nor any other provision to guarantee a reduction in the real cost of private school tuition. The measure was defeated by a final percentage tally of 70.6 to 29.4. A state-wide universal school voucher system providing a maximum tuition subsidy of $3000 was passed in Utah in 2007, but voters repealed it in a statewide referendum before it took effect. In Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania the privately funded Extra Mile Education Foundation has had very positive results with using private donations to pay the tuition for low income African-American children to attend private Catholic schools. No tax money is used for the vouchers. Most of the students who are enrolled in the program are non-Catholic. 70% of the students come from families whose income is low enough to qualify for free or reduced priced lunches. Of the students who graduate from the program (i.e., from 8th grade), not a single student has ever failed 9th grade, and 96% of the students graduate from high school within 4 years. http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07028/757451-53.stm See also School choice Daniel E. Witte Milton Friedman Timothy Draper References Notes Bibliography External links The Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice has substantial information on school vouchers. Alliance for School Choice, Leading U.S. Pro-Voucher Organization The Ten Principles of School Choice The Heartland Institute. National Education Association, School Vouchers (NEA's position) School Vouchers: The Wrong Choice for Public Education (The Anti-Defamation League's position) Wikipedia--Daniel E. Witte--(Under "Clerkship, Early Career, and Collaboration with Dr. Milton Friedman"). Friedman's views about economics of home education and school choice. Voucher Strategy Center The National School Boards Association provides information including the legal and educational arguments against vouchers, as well as state-by-state data on the status of voucher legislation. Peabody, Michael. "The Lure of School Vouchers," Liberty Magazine, July/August 2000. Argues that acceptance of vouchers would introduce governmental regulation of parochial school curriculum. "On Thin Ice: How Advocates and Opponents Could Misread the Public's Views on Vouchers and Charter Schools," Public Agenda, 1999 Public opinion study that concluded most Americans did not understand the voucher concept, even in communities that already had such programs. Milton Friedman, "Public Schools: Make Them Private," 1995 20/20 Report on the American public school system The Great School Voucher Hoax - article on the "discount coupon" effect of school vouchers. 700-word op-ed 2007 Salt Lake Tribune op-ed by attorney explaining why Utah’s controversial school voucher law was not a violation of the federal or state constitutions faircompare, "What's up with Utah Referendum 1?," 2007 | School_voucher |@lemmatized school:153 voucher:94 also:10 call:4 education:50 certificate:3 issue:5 government:20 parent:12 pay:11 child:20 choice:20 rather:1 public:48 assign:2 history:4 old:2 continue:1 program:24 exist:4 today:4 united:7 state:29 town:5 tuitioning:1 vermont:1 maine:1 begin:1 respectively:1 operate:3 neither:3 local:2 high:8 elementary:3 student:34 eligible:1 attend:13 either:1 non:10 religious:10 private:36 case:5 send:1 tuition:7 directly:5 receive:9 southern:1 use:9 method:1 perpetuate:1 segregation:4 instance:2 close:4 outright:1 many:6 good:3 privately:3 segregate:1 know:6 academy:1 deseret:2 morning:2 news:3 equal:1 modern:2 prohibit:1 racial:2 discrimination:1 nobel:2 prize:2 win:2 economist:3 milton:8 friedman:14 argue:3 concept:2 competition:7 would:23 improve:5 cost:10 efficiency:2 view:3 far:1 gain:2 popularity:1 tv:1 broadcast:1 series:1 free:11 choose:9 volume:2 devote:1 entirely:3 promote:3 educational:7 freedom:2 like:3 see:5 wrong:4 since:2 introduce:5 country:4 world:1 controversial:3 reflect:1 political:5 ideological:1 split:1 well:3 limit:2 role:3 union:4 controversy:2 proponent:6 assert:4 system:31 market:6 among:5 type:2 provide:12 incentive:2 successful:2 attract:3 bad:1 force:2 reform:2 goal:1 localize:1 accountability:2 oppose:2 rely:1 standard:3 citizens:1 currently:1 schooling:2 still:2 charge:3 tax:5 fund:8 therefore:3 seem:2 double:1 simultaneously:1 design:2 citizen:1 spend:3 money:9 want:2 http:13 www:11 allianceforschoolchoice:2 org:8 researchresources:2 cause:1 put:2 direct:1 threaten:1 reduce:4 funding:3 withdraw:1 favor:2 capitalism:1 increase:6 quality:3 sector:4 publicly:1 university:3 compete:2 similar:3 help:1 manufacturing:1 energy:1 transportation:1 parcel:1 postal:1 ups:1 fedex:1 v:3 usps:1 socialize:1 later:1 open:1 fee:11 publication:3 freeman:1 article:4 asp:1 aid:4 lexingtoninstitute:1 shtml:1 en:1 wikipedia:2 wiki:1 frequently:1 institution:3 allow:5 uploadedfiles:1 pdf:2 loss:1 supply:2 demand:4 offset:2 equalize:1 increased:3 example:1 need:3 hire:1 teacher:8 staff:1 compensate:1 growth:1 job:3 lose:4 friedmanfoundation:1 downloadfile:1 id:2 note:3 great:4 economic:3 diversity:1 offer:3 low:6 income:5 opportunity:5 previously:1 unaffordable:1 observe:1 poor:1 support:6 substandard:1 thus:2 benefit:3 alternative:1 friedrich:1 von:1 hayek:2 explain:2 show:4 professor:1 practicable:1 defray:1 general:2 purse:1 without:4 maintain:1 give:5 cover:2 could:5 hand:2 may:2 desirable:1 isolated:1 community:4 number:6 small:1 average:2 run:4 respect:1 majority:3 population:1 undoubtedly:1 possible:2 leave:4 organization:3 management:1 effort:2 merely:1 basic:1 finance:1 ensure:1 minimum:1 f:1 constitution:5 liberty:5 section:2 influential:1 supporter:2 include:3 newark:1 mayor:2 cory:1 booker:1 south:2 carolina:1 current:2 governor:3 mark:3 sanford:1 charlestonbusiness:1 com:3 pub:1 html:4 billionaire:1 american:5 philanthropist:1 john:2 walton:1 blackfive:1 net:1 main:1 former:3 baltimore:1 kurt:1 l:1 schmoke:1 manhattan:1 institute:5 htm:1 massachusetts:1 mitt:1 romney:1 ourcampaigns:1 candidatedetail:1 candidateid:1 mccain:2 believe:4 stimulates:1 improvement:1 creates:1 expand:1 get:2 senate:2 gov:1 cfm:1 democracy:1 party:3 step:1 stone:1 abolish:2 ldp:3 spokesman:1 shem:1 bennett:1 say:3 initially:1 remain:2 plan:1 slowly:1 privatise:1 diversify:1 ownership:1 press:1 release:2 sutherland:6 utah:5 remedy:1 historic:1 cultural:1 genocide:1 commit:1 demographic:1 minority:2 compulsory:1 november:2 referendum:4 election:1 sutherlandinstitute:1 uploads:1 vouchersvows:1 vow:2 vexation:2 foe:1 lion:1 den:1 important:2 review:4 critic:6 revisionist:1 subsequent:1 companion:1 peer:1 law:7 journal:1 remove:2 classroom:1 battlefield:1 paternalism:1 redemptive:1 promise:1 byu:1 part:5 academic:3 conference:3 foundation:3 found:1 rise:2 profit:9 universal:3 form:2 defense:1 cite:3 empirical:1 research:1 randomly:1 outcome:3 apply:2 random:1 lottery:1 deliver:1 service:1 special:5 drain:1 forster:1 greg:1 monopoly:2 versus:1 opponents:1 strong:2 fight:2 stop:1 notably:1 national:4 association:3 large:3 labor:1 usa:1 million:2 litigate:1 lobby:1 concern:2 erode:1 ultimately:1 list:1 nea:2 belief:3 legal:2 different:2 within:3 one:4 reason:1 dispute:1 department:2 study:4 oversee:1 dept:1 report:3 conclude:2 test:3 score:1 reading:1 mathematics:1 adjust:2 characteristic:1 tend:2 although:5 slightly:1 argument:3 limited:2 budget:2 weaken:1 time:3 necessarily:1 enough:4 people:1 opponent:4 tendency:1 along:1 compound:1 problem:3 however:6 naively:1 assume:1 discount:2 coupon:2 already:4 afford:1 full:2 accord:1 legislature:2 arizona:1 go:1 u:3 supreme:5 court:11 zelman:2 simmons:2 harris:2 consider:3 whether:2 constitute:1 violation:2 establishment:2 clause:2 church:3 chief:1 justice:2 william:1 rehnquist:1 write:1 incidental:1 advancement:1 mission:1 perceived:1 endorsement:1 message:1 reasonably:1 attributable:1 individual:2 recipient:1 whose:2 end:3 disbursement:1 rule:4 ohio:5 violate:3 pass:3 five:1 develop:1 title:2 point:2 cream:1 skim:1 variety:1 adverse:1 selection:1 pool:1 applicant:1 selective:1 admit:2 exclude:1 belong:1 preferred:1 group:2 religion:1 ethnicity:1 disability:1 autism:1 multiple:1 sclerosis:1 disciplinary:1 must:2 accept:4 suggest:2 lead:6 become:3 concentrate:1 likely:3 undermine:1 reputation:1 competitiveness:1 vicious:1 circle:1 toward:1 total:1 abolition:2 perhaps:1 object:1 ground:4 grant:2 even:4 indirectly:1 inevitably:1 governmental:2 control:2 possibly:1 teaching:2 sponsor:1 often:3 libertarian:1 sponsorship:1 principle:4 alliance:2 separation:2 opposes:1 commonplace:1 moreover:1 order:1 portion:1 ill:1 gotten:1 yet:2 another:1 implementation:2 lack:1 taxpayer:2 member:4 board:7 elect:2 voter:2 similarly:1 face:1 meeting:2 announce:1 advance:1 permit:1 voice:1 able:1 vote:2 budgetary:1 disenfranchisement:1 amount:3 taxation:1 representation:1 chile:2 extensive:2 municipal:1 base:2 attendance:2 nearly:4 dr:2 martin:1 carnoy:1 stanford:1 patrick:1 j:1 mcewan:1 others:1 find:1 background:4 parental:1 difference:1 performance:1 subsectors:1 significant:1 europe:1 european:1 primary:4 secondary:3 fully:1 subsidize:2 attends:1 roll:1 ireland:3 parish:1 establish:2 diocesan:1 patronage:1 capital:2 salary:1 per:3 head:2 irish:3 website:1 ref:2 regardless:1 require:2 much:2 criticism:2 opponants:1 claim:3 unfair:1 advantage:2 recent:1 trend:1 towards:1 multi:1 denominational:1 organise:1 company:1 share:1 event:1 fail:2 immediately:1 post:2 move:2 perceive:1 achieve:1 oecd:1 rainbow:1 coalition:1 contain:1 centre:1 left:2 third:4 level:5 degree:1 latter:1 development:1 economically:1 deprive:1 removal:1 overall:1 socio:1 concurs:1 evidence:1 uk:1 decrease:1 introduction:1 crisis:1 talk:1 debate:1 regard:1 reintroduction:1 republic:1 sweden:3 enable:1 independent:4 friskolor:1 swedish:3 pupil:3 enrol:5 grow:1 fast:1 internationally:1 innovative:1 model:1 prefer:3 unckel:1 stockholm:1 minister:1 sum:1 producer:1 fulfill:1 wish:1 recommend:1 barack:1 obama:2 netherlands:3 year:8 around:1 bijzondere:1 condition:1 otherwise:1 abide:1 practically:1 urban:1 area:2 amsterdam:1 admission:1 procedure:1 nature:1 arise:1 early:4 prolonged:1 battle:3 dutch:1 de:1 schoolstrijd:1 secular:2 rail:1 emergence:1 islamic:1 back:1 spotlight:1 though:1 proposal:5 belgium:1 complicate:1 historical:1 detailed:1 discussion:1 hooker:1 bibliography:2 hong:2 kong:2 three:1 six:2 kindergarten:7 implement:2 hk:2 pa:1 subsidy:5 separate:1 two:1 pursue:1 obtain:2 restriction:1 making:1 yearly:1 less:1 hop:1 criticise:1 ce:1 mr:1 tsang:1 properly:1 structure:1 whole:1 competitive:1 place:3 protest:1 extend:1 september:1 convert:1 reagan:1 administration:3 push:1 george:1 w:1 bush:1 initial:1 behind:1 act:2 estimate:1 district:4 columbia:1 family:4 performing:1 city:2 milwaukee:6 wisconsin:2 way:1 first:1 twenty:1 percent:1 outside:1 traditional:1 fact:2 alone:1 sixth:2 st:1 anthony:1 catholic:4 locate:1 side:1 boast:1 mean:1 parochial:2 formula:2 resident:2 property:1 imbalance:1 considerable:2 subject:1 legislative:1 alter:1 question:1 judicial:1 launch:1 cleveland:2 authorize:1 challenge:1 federal:6 constitutional:2 guarantee:2 reject:1 uphold:1 circuit:1 appeal:1 decision:1 ruling:1 make:3 affirm:1 ultimate:1 purpose:1 florida:3 strike:1 legislation:2 scholarship:2 osp:2 ix:1 adequate:1 provision:2 shall:1 uniform:1 efficient:1 safe:1 secure:1 mixed:1 right:1 spectrum:1 conservative:1 enact:1 evacuee:1 region:1 affect:1 hurricane:1 katrina:1 washington:1 c:2 march:2 congressional:1 democrat:1 funded:1 billion:1 omnibus:1 appropriation:1 iv:1 h:1 r:1 house:1 pending:1 finish:1 new:1 entrant:1 preference:1 matter:1 appear:1 prevent:1 president:1 sign:1 bill:1 opinion:3 survey:2 last:1 debatable:1 understand:2 propose:1 tim:1 draper:2 california:1 ballot:1 proposition:1 unusual:1 accreditation:1 proof:1 requirement:1 payment:1 reduction:1 real:1 measure:1 defeat:1 final:1 percentage:1 tally:1 wide:1 maximum:1 repeal:1 statewide:1 take:1 effect:2 pittsburgh:1 pennsylvania:1 extra:1 mile:1 positive:1 result:1 donation:1 african:1 come:1 qualify:1 price:1 lunch:1 graduate:2 e:3 grade:2 single:1 ever:1 gazette:1 pg:1 stm:1 daniel:2 witte:2 timothy:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 substantial:1 information:2 pro:1 ten:1 heartland:1 position:2 anti:1 defamation:1 league:1 clerkship:1 career:1 collaboration:1 economics:1 home:1 strategy:1 center:1 data:1 status:1 peabody:1 michael:1 lure:1 magazine:1 july:1 august:1 acceptance:1 regulation:1 curriculum:1 thin:1 ice:1 advocate:1 misread:1 charter:1 agenda:1 hoax:1 word:1 op:2 ed:2 salt:1 lake:1 tribune:1 attorney:1 faircompare:1 |@bigram pay_tuition:2 racial_discrimination:1 nobel_prize:2 milton_friedman:7 http_www:11 en_wikipedia:1 org_wiki:1 cfm_id:1 peer_review:1 randomly_assign:1 racial_segregation:1 supreme_court:5 william_rehnquist:1 multiple_sclerosis:1 vicious_circle:1 unfair_advantage:1 tuition_fee:1 socio_economic:1 barack_obama:1 hong_kong:2 profit_kindergarten:5 kindergarten_teacher:2 w_bush:1 milwaukee_wisconsin:1 hurricane_katrina:1 pittsburgh_pennsylvania:1 external_link:1 heartland_institute:1 anti_defamation:1 defamation_league:1 |
7,457 | Intel_80188 | The Intel 80188 is a version of the Intel 80186 microprocessor with an 8 bit external data bus, instead of 16 bit. This makes it less expensive to connect to peripherals. Since the 80188 is very similar to the 80186, it had a throughput of 1 million instructions per second. As the 8086, the 80188 featured four 16-bit general registers, which could also be accessed as eight 8-bit registers. It also included six more 16-bit registers, which included, for example, the stack pointer, the instruction pointer, index registers, or a status word register that acted like a flag, for example, in comparison operations. Just like the 8086, the processor also included four 16-bit segment registers that enabled the addressing of more than 64 KB of memory, which is the limit of a 16-bit architecture, by introducing an offset value that was added, after being shifted left 4 bits, to the value of another register. This addressing system provided a total of 1 MB of addressable memory, a value that, at the time, was considered to be very far away from the total memory a computer would ever need. External links Intel 80186/80188 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de Scan of the Intel 80188 data book at datasheetarchive.com | Intel_80188 |@lemmatized intel:4 version:1 microprocessor:1 bit:8 external:2 data:2 bus:1 instead:1 make:1 less:1 expensive:1 connect:1 peripheral:1 since:1 similar:1 throughput:1 million:1 instruction:2 per:1 second:1 feature:1 four:2 general:1 register:7 could:1 also:3 access:1 eight:1 include:3 six:1 example:2 stack:1 pointer:2 index:1 status:1 word:1 act:1 like:2 flag:1 comparison:1 operation:1 processor:1 segment:1 enable:1 addressing:1 kb:1 memory:3 limit:1 architecture:1 introduce:1 offset:1 value:3 add:1 shift:1 leave:1 another:1 address:1 system:1 provide:1 total:2 mb:1 addressable:1 time:1 consider:1 far:1 away:1 computer:1 would:1 ever:1 need:1 link:1 image:1 description:1 cpu:1 collection:1 de:1 scan:1 book:1 datasheetarchive:1 com:1 |@bigram intel_microprocessor:1 stack_pointer:1 external_link:1 |
7,458 | Horace | This article is about the Roman poet Horace. For other uses, see Horace (disambiguation). Horace, as imagined by Anton von Werner Quintus Horatius Flaccus, (Venosa, December 8, 65 BC – Rome, November 27, 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace, was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus. Life Born in the small town of Venosa (known then as Venusia) in the border region between Apulia and Lucania. Horace was the son of a freedman, who owned a small farm in Venusia, and later moved to Rome to work as a coactor (a middleman between buyers and sellers at auctions, receiving 1% of the purchase price from each for his services). The elder Horace was able to spend considerable money on his son's education, accompanying him first to Rome for his primary education, and then sending him to Athens to study Greek and philosophy. The poet later expressed his gratitude in a tribute to his father: If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. Satires 1.6.65–92 After the assassination of Julius Caesar, Horace joined the army, serving under the generalship of Brutus. He fought as a staff officer (tribunus militum) in the Battle of Philippi. Alluding to famous literary models, he later claimed that he saved himself by throwing away his shield and fleeing. When an amnesty was declared for those who had fought against the victorious Octavian (later Augustus), Horace returned to Italy, only to find his estate confiscated; his father likely having died by then. Horace claims that he was reduced to poverty. Nevertheless, he had the means to gain a profitable lifetime appointment as a scriba quaestorius, an official of the Treasury, which allowed him to practice his poetic art. Horace was a member of a literary circle that included Virgil and Lucius Varius Rufus, who introduced him to Maecenas, friend and confidant of Augustus. Maecenas became his patron and close friend and presented Horace with an estate near Tibur in the Sabine Hills (contemporary Tivoli). He died in Rome a few months after the death of Maecenas at age 57. Upon his death bed, having no heirs, Horace relinquished his farm to his friend, the emperor Augustus, for imperial needs and it stands today as a spot of pilgrimage for his admirers. Works Horace is generally considered by classicists to be one of the greatest Latin poets and is known for having coined many Latin phrases that remain in use today, whether in Latin or translation, including carpe diem ("pluck the day" literally, more commonly used in English as "seize the day"), Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori (It is sweet and fitting to die for one's country), Nunc est bibendum (Now we must drink), and aurea mediocritas ("golden mean."). His works, like those of all but the earliest Latin poets, are written in Greek metres, ranging from the hexameters which were relatively easy to adapt into Latin to the more complex measures used in the Odes, such as alcaics and sapphics, which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and syntax. Alphabetically, his works include: Ars Poetica, or The Epistle to the Pisones (18 BC) Carmen Saeculare or Song of the Ages (17 BC) Carminum liber primus or Odes I (23 BC) Carminum liber quartus or Odes IV (13 BC) Carminum liber secundus or Odes II (23 BC) Carminum liber tertius or Odes III (23 BC) Epistularum liber primus (20 BC) Epistularum liber secundus (14 BC) Epodes (30 BC) Sermonum liber primus or Satirae I (35 BC) Sermonum liber secundus or Satirae II (30 BC) Among the better known works of Horace are: Odes (or Carmina) (23-13 BC) Epodes (30 BC) Satirae I (Sermonum liber primus) (35 BC) and Satirae II (Sermonum liber secundus) (30 BC) Ars Poetica, or The Epistle to the Pisones (18 BC) Epistularum liber primus (20 BC) Epistularum liber secundus (14 BC) Carmen Saeculare or Song of the Ages Translation Perhaps the finest English translator of Horace was John Dryden, who successfully adapted three of the Odes (and one Epode) into verse for readers of his own age. Samuel Johnson favored the versions of Philip Francis. Others favor unrhymed translations. In 1964 James Michie published a translation of the Odes—many of them fully rhymed—including a dozen of the poems in the original Sapphic and Alcaic metres. Ars Poetica was first translated into English by Ben Johnson. In popular culture Dante Alighieri, in the Inferno, places him alongside Lucan, Homer, Ovid and Virgil in Limbo (Inferno, IV,88). Hannibal Lecter quotes Horace in the film Red Dragon In the Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law episode "Gone Efficien...t", Harvey's frenetic attempt at efficiency is stymied by having to wait for the closing arguments of a drawling defence attorney who, in summation of his arguments, insists on quoting Horace at length. Wilfred Owen's poem "Dulce Et Decorum Est" quotes and takes its title from one of Horace's odes (iii 2.13). References External links Espace Horace The works of Horace at The Latin Library Selected Poems of Horace The Perseus Project — Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace Biography and chronology Litweb Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky | Horace |@lemmatized article:1 roman:2 poet:5 horace:24 us:1 see:1 disambiguation:1 imagine:1 anton:1 von:1 werner:1 quintus:1 horatius:1 flaccus:1 venosa:2 december:1 bc:20 rome:4 november:1 know:4 english:5 speaking:1 world:1 lead:1 lyric:1 time:1 augustus:4 life:2 bear:1 small:2 town:1 venusia:2 border:1 region:1 apulia:1 lucania:1 son:3 freedman:2 farm:2 later:4 move:1 work:7 coactor:1 middleman:1 buyer:1 seller:1 auction:1 receive:1 purchase:1 price:1 service:1 elder:1 able:1 spend:1 considerable:1 money:1 education:2 accompany:1 first:2 primary:1 send:1 athens:1 study:1 greek:3 philosophy:1 express:1 gratitude:2 tribute:1 father:4 character:1 flaw:1 minor:1 fault:1 otherwise:2 decent:1 moral:1 point:1 scattered:1 blemish:1 immaculate:1 surface:1 one:5 accuse:1 greed:1 prurience:1 profligacy:1 live:1 virtuous:1 free:1 defilement:1 pardon:1 moment:1 self:1 praise:2 friend:5 good:2 deserve:2 credit:1 unstinting:1 could:1 never:1 ashamed:1 feel:1 need:2 many:3 people:1 apologize:1 satires:1 assassination:1 julius:1 caesar:1 join:1 army:1 serve:1 generalship:1 brutus:1 fight:2 staff:1 officer:1 tribunus:1 militum:1 battle:1 philippi:1 allude:1 famous:1 literary:2 model:1 claim:2 save:1 throw:1 away:1 shield:1 fleeing:1 amnesty:1 declare:1 victorious:1 octavian:1 return:1 italy:1 find:1 estate:2 confiscate:1 likely:1 die:3 reduce:1 poverty:1 nevertheless:1 mean:2 gain:1 profitable:1 lifetime:1 appointment:1 scriba:1 quaestorius:1 official:1 treasury:1 allow:1 practice:1 poetic:1 art:1 member:1 circle:1 include:5 virgil:2 lucius:1 varius:1 rufus:1 introduce:1 maecenas:3 confidant:1 become:1 patron:1 close:1 present:1 near:1 tibur:1 sabine:1 hill:1 contemporary:1 tivoli:1 month:1 death:2 age:4 upon:1 bed:1 heir:1 relinquish:1 emperor:1 imperial:1 stand:1 today:2 spot:1 pilgrimage:1 admirer:1 generally:1 consider:1 classicist:1 great:1 latin:8 coin:1 phrase:1 remain:1 use:3 whether:1 translation:5 carpe:1 diem:1 pluck:1 day:2 literally:1 commonly:1 seize:1 dulce:2 et:2 decorum:2 est:3 pro:1 patria:1 mori:1 sweet:1 fit:2 country:1 nunc:1 bibendum:1 must:1 drink:1 aurea:1 mediocritas:1 golden:1 like:1 early:1 write:1 metre:2 range:1 hexameter:1 relatively:1 easy:1 adapt:2 complex:1 measure:1 ode:10 alcaic:2 sapphics:1 sometimes:1 difficult:1 structure:1 syntax:1 alphabetically:1 ar:2 poetica:3 epistle:2 pisones:2 carmen:2 saeculare:2 song:2 carminum:4 liber:12 primus:5 quartus:1 iv:2 secundus:5 ii:3 tertius:1 iii:2 epistularum:4 epodes:2 sermonum:4 satirae:4 among:1 carmina:1 ars:1 perhaps:1 fine:1 translator:1 john:1 dryden:1 successfully:1 three:1 epode:1 verse:1 reader:1 samuel:1 johnson:2 favor:2 version:1 philip:1 francis:1 others:1 unrhymed:1 james:1 michie:1 publish:1 fully:1 rhyme:1 dozen:1 poem:3 original:1 sapphic:1 translate:1 ben:1 popular:1 culture:1 dante:1 alighieri:1 inferno:2 place:1 alongside:1 lucan:1 homer:1 ovid:1 limbo:1 hannibal:1 lecter:1 quote:3 film:1 red:1 dragon:1 harvey:2 birdman:1 attorney:2 law:1 episode:1 go:1 efficien:1 frenetic:1 attempt:1 efficiency:1 stymie:1 wait:1 closing:1 argument:2 drawling:1 defence:1 summation:1 insists:1 length:1 wilfred:1 owen:1 take:1 title:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 espace:1 library:1 select:1 perseus:1 project:1 author:1 biography:1 chronology:1 litweb:1 text:1 concordance:1 frequency:1 list:1 sorgll:1 read:1 robert:1 sonkowsky:1 |@bigram buyer_seller:1 express_gratitude:1 julius_caesar:1 friend_confidant:1 dulce_et:2 et_decorum:2 decorum_est:2 pro_patria:1 ar_poetica:2 liber_primus:5 liber_secundus:5 horace_ode:3 dante_alighieri:1 hannibal_lecter:1 wilfred_owen:1 external_link:1 text_concordance:1 concordance_frequency:1 |
7,459 | Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky | Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (; ) (–September 19, 1935) was an Imperial Russian and Soviet rocket scientist and pioneer of the astronautic theory. He is considered by many to be the father of theoretical astronautics. His works later inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers such as Sergey Korolyov and Valentin Glushko and contributed to the early success of the Soviet space program. Tsiolkovsky spent most of his life in a log house on the outskirts of Kaluga, about 200 km (125 miles) southwest of Moscow. A misanthrope by nature, he appeared strange and bizarre to his fellow-townsmen. Biography He was born in Izhevskoye (now in Spassky District, Ryazan Oblast), in the Russian Empire, to a middle-class family. His father, Edward Tsiolkovsky (in Polish: Ciołkowski), was Polish; his mother, Maria Yumasheva, was an educated Russian woman. His father was a Polish patriot deported to Russia as a result of his revolutionary political activities. At the age of 9, Konstantin caught a serious illness and became hard of hearing . He was not accepted at elementary schools because of his hearing problem, so he was self-taught. Tsiolkovsky theorized many aspects of space travel and rocket propulsion. He is considered the father of human spaceflight and the first man to conceive the space elevator, becoming inspired in 1895 by the newly-constructed Eiffel Tower in Paris. He was also an adherent of philosopher Nikolai Fyodorov, and believed that colonizing space would lead to the perfection of the human race, with immortality and a carefree existence. Nearly deaf, he worked as a high school mathematics teacher until retiring in 1920. Only from the mid 1920s onwards was the importance of his work acknowledged by others, and Tsiolkovsky was honoured for it. He died on 19 September 1935 in Kaluga and was buried in state. Work Monument to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in Moscow In the late 19th and early 20th century, Tsiolkovsky delved into theories of heavier-than-air flying machines, independently working through many of the same calculations that the Wright brothers were doing at the same time. However, he never built any practical models, and his interest shifted to more ambitious topics. Because Tsiolkovsky's ideas were little known outside Imperial Russia, the field lagged until German and other scientists independently made the same calculations decades later. In 1923, German physicist Hermann Oberth published his thesis By Rocket into Planetary Space, which triggered wide-scale interest and scientific research on the topic of space flight. It also reminded Friedrich Zander about once having read an article on the subject. After contacting the author, he became active in promoting and further developing Tsiolkovsky's work. In 1924 Zander established the first astronautics society in the Soviet Union, the Society for Studies of Interplanetary Travel, and later researched and built liquid-fuelled rockets named OR-1 (1930) and OR-2 (1933). In 1924, a writer for the Russian newspaper Izvestiia reported on A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, a groundbreaking work on the rocketry experiments being done by Robert Goddard, which had been published in 1919 but was not noticed in the Soviet Union until Hermann Oberth referenced it in his later work. When news of the article reached Tsiolkovsky, he decided to republish his early works along with a flurry of new articles about space. 1 ruble, 1987 Only late in his lifetime was Tsiolkovsky honoured for his pioneering work. On 23 August 1924 he was elected as a first professor of the Military Aerial Academy named after N. E. Zhukovsky (). His most important work, published in 1903, was The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices (), arguably the first academic treatise on rocketry. Tsiolkovsky calculated that the horizontal speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth is 8,000 m/s (5 miles per second) and that this could be achieved by means of a multistage rocket fueled by liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. Monument to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in Moscow During his lifetime he published over 500 works on space travel and related subjects, including science fiction novels. Among his works are designs for rockets with steering thrusters, multi-stage boosters, space stations, airlocks for exiting a spaceship into the vacuum of space, and closed cycle biological systems to provide food and oxygen for space colonies. Tsiolkovsky had been developing the idea of the air cushion since 1921, publishing fundamental paper on it in 1927, entitled "Air Resistance and the Express Train" (). In 1929 Tsiolkovsky proposed the construction of multistage rockets in his book Space Rocket Trains (). Tsiolkovsky's work influenced later rocketeers throughout Europe, like Wernher von Braun, and was also studied by the Americans in the 1950s and 1960s as they sought to understand the Soviet Union's successes in space flight. Tributes Draft first space ship by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky The basic equation for rocket propulsion, the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, is named after him. The State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics in Kaluga now bears his name. The crater Tsiolkovskiy (the most prominent crater on the far side of the Moon) was named after him, while asteroid 1590 Tsiolkovskaja was named after his wife. (The Soviet Union obtained naming rights by operating Luna 3, the first space device to successfully transmit images of the side of the moon not seen from Earth. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunarussr.html ) SF writer Alexander Beliaev has written a book in which a city and a space station are named after him. A fictional ship, the К. Э. Циолковский (K. E. Tsiolkovsky), was named after him for the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation. The episode it appeared in was entitled "The Naked Now". A copy of the dedication plaque of that vessel, with a rough rendering of Tsiolkovsky's Cyrillic name, was seen in the ship's set dressing. (the artist mistakenly used "З" instead of "Э" for the middle initial, and "п" instead of "л" in the last name). See also its entry at Memory Alpha. A space station is named Tsiolkovsky 1 in William Gibson's short story Hinterlands. The character Aeolia Schenberg in the anime series Mobile Suit Gundam 00 is based on Tsiolkovsky. See also The cover of the book "The Will of the Universe. The Unknown Intelligence." by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, 1928 Russian philosophy Space exploration Spaceflight Space colonization History of the internal combustion engine Timeline of hydrogen technologies Tsiolkovsky rocket equation Works Modern Day References In the computer game, , when the player researches rocketry the quote, "The Earth is the cradle of the mind, but one cannot eternally live in a cradle.", appears on screen. Notes External links Tsiolkovsky's Imperative in the 21st Century Academic paper Virtual Matchbox Labels Museum - Russian labels - Space - Page 2 - Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Historic images Tsiolkovsky from Russianspaceweb.com Spaceflight or Extinction: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Excerpts from "The Aims of Astronautics", The Call of the Cosmos The Foundations of the Space Age | Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky |@lemmatized konstantin:8 eduardovich:1 tsiolkovsky:28 september:2 imperial:2 russian:6 soviet:7 rocket:12 scientist:2 pioneer:1 astronautic:1 theory:2 consider:2 many:3 father:4 theoretical:1 astronautics:3 work:15 later:3 inspire:2 lead:2 engineer:1 sergey:1 korolyov:1 valentin:1 glushko:1 contribute:1 early:3 success:2 space:22 program:1 spend:1 life:1 log:1 house:1 outskirt:1 kaluga:3 km:1 mile:2 southwest:1 moscow:3 misanthrope:1 nature:1 appear:3 strange:1 bizarre:1 fellow:1 townsman:1 biography:1 bear:2 izhevskoye:1 spassky:1 district:1 ryazan:1 oblast:1 empire:1 middle:2 class:1 family:1 edward:1 polish:3 ciołkowski:1 mother:1 maria:1 yumasheva:1 educated:1 woman:1 patriot:1 deport:1 russia:2 result:1 revolutionary:1 political:1 activity:1 age:2 catch:1 serious:1 illness:1 become:3 hard:1 hear:1 accept:1 elementary:1 school:2 hearing:1 problem:1 self:1 taught:1 theorize:1 aspect:1 travel:3 propulsion:2 human:2 spaceflight:3 first:6 man:1 conceive:1 elevator:1 newly:1 construct:1 eiffel:1 tower:1 paris:1 also:5 adherent:1 philosopher:1 nikolai:1 fyodorov:1 believe:1 colonize:1 would:1 perfection:1 race:1 immortality:1 carefree:1 existence:1 nearly:1 deaf:1 high:1 mathematics:1 teacher:1 retire:1 mid:1 onwards:1 importance:1 acknowledge:1 others:1 honour:2 die:1 bury:1 state:2 monument:2 late:4 century:2 delve:1 heavy:1 air:3 fly:1 machine:1 independently:2 calculation:2 wright:1 brother:1 time:1 however:1 never:1 build:2 practical:1 model:1 interest:2 shift:1 ambitious:1 topic:2 idea:2 little:1 known:1 outside:1 field:1 lag:1 german:2 make:1 decade:1 physicist:1 hermann:2 oberth:2 publish:5 thesis:1 planetary:2 trigger:1 wide:1 scale:1 scientific:1 research:3 flight:2 remind:1 friedrich:1 zander:2 read:1 article:3 subject:2 contact:1 author:1 active:1 promote:1 develop:2 establish:1 society:2 union:4 study:2 interplanetary:1 liquid:3 fuel:2 name:12 writer:2 newspaper:1 izvestiia:1 report:1 method:1 reach:2 extreme:1 altitude:1 groundbreaking:1 rocketry:3 experiment:1 robert:1 goddard:1 notice:1 reference:2 news:1 decide:1 republish:1 along:1 flurry:1 new:1 ruble:1 lifetime:2 pioneering:1 august:1 elect:1 professor:1 military:1 aerial:1 academy:1 n:1 e:2 zhukovsky:1 important:1 exploration:2 cosmic:1 mean:2 reaction:1 device:2 arguably:1 academic:2 treatise:1 calculate:1 horizontal:1 speed:1 require:1 minimal:1 orbit:1 around:1 earth:3 per:1 second:1 could:1 achieve:1 multistage:2 oxygen:2 hydrogen:2 related:1 include:1 science:1 fiction:1 novel:1 among:1 design:1 steer:1 thruster:1 multi:1 stage:1 booster:1 station:3 airlock:1 exit:1 spaceship:1 vacuum:1 close:1 cycle:1 biological:1 system:1 provide:1 food:1 colony:1 cushion:1 since:1 fundamental:1 paper:2 entitle:2 resistance:1 express:1 train:2 propose:1 construction:1 book:3 influence:1 rocketeers:1 throughout:1 europe:1 like:1 wernher:1 von:1 braun:1 american:1 seek:1 understand:1 tribute:1 draft:1 ship:3 basic:1 equation:3 museum:2 history:2 cosmonautics:1 crater:2 tsiolkovskiy:1 prominent:1 far:1 side:2 moon:2 asteroid:1 tsiolkovskaja:1 wife:1 obtain:1 right:1 operate:1 luna:1 successfully:1 transmit:1 image:2 see:4 http:1 nssdc:1 gsfc:1 nasa:1 gov:1 lunar:1 lunarussr:1 html:1 sf:1 alexander:1 beliaev:1 write:1 city:1 fictional:1 к:1 э:2 циолковский:1 k:1 television:1 series:2 star:1 trek:1 next:1 generation:1 episode:1 naked:1 copy:1 dedication:1 plaque:1 vessel:1 rough:1 rendering:1 cyrillic:1 set:1 dressing:1 artist:1 mistakenly:1 use:1 з:1 instead:2 initial:1 п:1 л:1 last:1 entry:1 memory:1 alpha:1 william:1 gibson:1 short:1 story:1 hinterland:1 character:1 aeolia:1 schenberg:1 anime:1 mobile:1 suit:1 gundam:1 base:1 cover:1 universe:1 unknown:1 intelligence:1 philosophy:1 colonization:1 internal:1 combustion:1 engine:1 timeline:1 technology:1 modern:1 day:1 computer:1 game:1 player:1 quote:1 cradle:2 mind:1 one:1 cannot:1 eternally:1 live:1 screen:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 imperative:1 virtual:1 matchbox:1 label:2 page:1 historic:1 russianspaceweb:1 com:1 extinction:1 excerpt:1 aim:1 call:1 cosmos:1 foundation:1 |@bigram rocket_propulsion:2 eiffel_tower:1 konstantin_tsiolkovsky:6 soviet_union:4 interplanetary_travel:1 science_fiction:1 wernher_von:1 von_braun:1 nasa_gov:1 star_trek:1 suit_gundam:1 internal_combustion:1 combustion_engine:1 external_link:1 |
7,460 | Percolozoa | The Percolozoa are a group of colourless protozoa, including many that can transform between amoeboid, flagellate, and encysted stages. Terminology and classification These are collectively referred to as schizopyrenids, amoeboflagellates, or vahlkampfids. They also include the acrasids, a group of social amoebae that aggregate to form sporangia. The entire group is usually called the Heterolobosea, but this may be restricted to members with amoeboid stages. One Heterolobosea classification system is as follows: Schizopyrenida Vahlkampfiidae Gruberellidae Acrasida Pleurostomum flabellatum has recently been added to Heterolobosea. Characteristics Most Percolozoa are found as bacterivores in soil, freshwater, and on feces. There are a few marine and parasitic forms, including the species Naegleria fowleri, which can become pathogenic in humans and is often fatal. The group is closely related to the Euglenozoa, and share with them the unusual though not unique characteristic of having mitochondria with discoid cristae. The presence of a ventral feeding groove in the flagellate stage, as well as other features, suggests that they are part of the excavate group. The amoeboid stage is roughly cylindrical, typically around 20-40 μm in length. They are traditionally considered lobose amoebae, but are not related to the others and unlike them do not form true lobose pseudopods. Instead, they advance by eruptive waves, where hemispherical bulges appear from the front margin of the cell, which is clear. The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove. Usually the amoeboid form is taken when food is plentiful, and the flagellate form is used for rapid locomotion. However, not all members are able to assume both forms. The genera Percolomonas, Lyromonas, and Psalteriomonas are known only as flagellates, while Vahlkampfia, Pseudovahlkampfia, and the acrasids do not have flagellate stages. As mentioned above, under unfavourable conditions, the acrasids aggregate to form sporangia. These are superficially similar to the sporangia of the dictyostelids, but the amoebae only aggregate as individuals or in small groups and do not die to form the stalk. History The Heterolobosea were first defined by Page and Blanton in 1985 as a class of amoebae, and so only included those forms with amoeboid stages. Cavalier-Smith created the phylum Percolozoa for the extended group, together with the enigmatic flagellate Stephanopogon . Cavalier-Smith maintained the Heterolobosea as a class for amoeboid forms. He has defined Percolozoa as "Heterolobosea plus Percolatea classis nov." Most others have expanded them to include the flagellates as well. References External links Tree of Life Heterolobosea | Percolozoa |@lemmatized percolozoa:4 group:7 colourless:1 protozoa:1 include:5 many:1 transform:1 amoeboid:6 flagellate:8 encysted:1 stage:7 terminology:1 classification:2 collectively:1 refer:1 schizopyrenids:1 amoeboflagellates:1 vahlkampfids:1 also:1 acrasids:3 social:1 amoeba:4 aggregate:3 form:10 sporangium:3 entire:1 usually:2 call:1 heterolobosea:7 may:1 restrict:1 member:2 one:1 system:1 follow:1 schizopyrenida:1 vahlkampfiidae:1 gruberellidae:1 acrasida:1 pleurostomum:1 flabellatum:1 recently:1 add:1 characteristic:2 find:1 bacterivores:1 soil:1 freshwater:1 feces:1 marine:1 parasitic:1 specie:1 naegleria:1 fowleri:1 become:1 pathogenic:1 human:1 often:1 fatal:1 closely:1 relate:2 euglenozoa:1 share:1 unusual:1 though:1 unique:1 mitochondrion:1 discoid:1 cristae:1 presence:1 ventral:1 feeding:2 groove:2 well:2 feature:1 suggest:1 part:1 excavate:1 roughly:1 cylindrical:1 typically:1 around:1 μm:1 length:1 traditionally:1 consider:1 lobose:2 others:2 unlike:1 true:1 pseudopod:1 instead:1 advance:1 eruptive:1 wave:1 hemispherical:1 bulge:1 appear:1 front:1 margin:1 cell:1 clear:1 slightly:1 small:2 two:1 four:1 anterior:2 flagellum:1 take:1 food:1 plentiful:1 use:1 rapid:1 locomotion:1 however:1 able:1 assume:1 genus:1 percolomonas:1 lyromonas:1 psalteriomonas:1 know:1 vahlkampfia:1 pseudovahlkampfia:1 mention:1 unfavourable:1 condition:1 superficially:1 similar:1 dictyostelids:1 individual:1 die:1 stalk:1 history:1 first:1 define:2 page:1 blanton:1 class:2 cavalier:2 smith:2 create:1 phylum:1 extended:1 together:1 enigmatic:1 stephanopogon:1 maintain:1 plus:1 percolatea:1 classis:1 nov:1 expand:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 tree:1 life:1 |@bigram closely_relate:1 external_link:1 |
7,461 | Bulgaria | Bulgaria (, ),officially the Republic of Bulgaria (, , ) lies in the Balkans in south-eastern Europe. It borders five other countries: Romania to the north (mostly along the River Danube), Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia to the west, and Greece and Turkey to the south. The Black Sea defines the extent of the country to the east. Bulgaria includes parts of the Roman provinces of Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia. Old European culture within the territory of Bulgaria started to produce golden artifacts by the fifth millennium BC. The first Bulgarian kingdoms on European soil date back to the early Middle Ages (7th century). All Bulgarian political entities that subsequently emerged preserved the traditions (in ethnic name, language and alphabet) of the First Bulgarian Empire (632/681 1018), which at times covered most of the Balkans and spread its alphabet, literature and culture among the Slavic and other peoples of Eastern Europe. Centuries later, with the decline of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185 1396/1422), Bulgarian kingdoms came under Ottoman rule for nearly five centuries. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 led to the re-establishment of a Bulgarian state as a constitutional monarchy in 1878, with the Treaty of San Stefano marking the birth of the Third Bulgarian State. In 1908, with social strife brewing at the core of the Ottoman Empire, the Alexander Malinov government and Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria formally proclaimed the full sovereignty of the Bulgarian state at the ancient capital of Veliko Turnovo. Crampton, R.J., Bulgaria, 2007, pp.174, Oxford University Press After World War II, in 1945 Bulgaria became a communist state and part of the Eastern Bloc. Todor Zhivkov dominated Bulgaria politically for 33 years (from 1956 to 1989). In 1990, after the Revolutions of 1989, the Communist Party gave up its monopoly on power and Bulgaria transitioned to democracy and free-market capitalism. Bulgaria functions as a parliamentary democracy under a unitary constitutional republic. A member of the European Union since 2007 and of NATO since 2004, it has a population of approximately 7.6 million. Bulgaria has a high Human Development Index, ranking 56th in the world in 2008. Geography Geographically and in terms of climate, Bulgaria features notable diversity with the landscape ranging from the Alpine snow-capped peaks in Rila, Pirin and the Balkan Mountains to the mild and sunny Black Sea coast; from the typically continental Danubian Plain (ancient Moesia) in the north to the strong Mediterranean climatic influence in the valleys of Macedonia and in the lowlands in the southernmost parts of Thrace. Phytogeographically, Bulgaria straddles the Illyrian and Euxinian provinces of the Circumboreal region within the Boreal kingdom. According to the WWF and to the European Environment Agency's Digital Map of European Ecological Regions, the territory of Bulgaria subdivides into two main ecoregions: the Balkan mixed forests and Rhodope montane mixed forests. Small parts of four other ecoregions also occur on Bulgarian territory. Relief The Trigrad gorge The Balkan Peninsula derives its name from the Balkan or Stara Planina mountain-range, which runs through the centre of Bulgaria and extends into eastern Serbia. Bulgaria comprises portions of the regions known in classical times as Moesia, Thrace, and Macedonia. The mountainous southwest of the country has two alpine ranges — Rila and Pirin — and further east stand the lower but more extensive Rhodope Mountains. The Rila range includes the highest peak of the Balkan Peninsula, Musala, at 2,925 meters (9,596 ft); the long range of the Balkan mountains runs west-east through the middle of the country, north of the famous Rose Valley. Hilly country and plains lie to the southeast, along the Black Sea coast in the east, and along Bulgaria's main river, the Danube in the north. Strandja is the largest mountain in the southeast. Mountains and hills in the northeast region of Dobrudja are scarce, if any. Mineral resources The country possesses relatively rich mineral-resources, including vast reserves of lignite and anthracite coal; non-ferrous ores such as copper, lead, zinc and gold. Lignite coal is extracted mostly in the Maritsa river basin, where several large thermal powerplants are also situated. Anthracite coal reserves in Stara Planina largely remain unexploited. Zinc and lead ore is found mostly in the Eastern Rhodopes. It has large deposits of manganese ore in the north-east and of uranium in the south-west. Smaller deposits exist of iron, silver, chromite, nickel and others. Bulgaria has abundant non-metalliferous minerals such as rock-salt, gypsum, kaolin and marble. Hydrography Lake Mandrensko Bulgaria has a dense network of about 540 rivers, but with the notable exception of the Danube, most have short lengths and low water-levels. Most rivers flow through mountainous areas; fewer in the Danubian Plain, Upper Thracian Plain and especially Dobrudzha. Two catchment basins exist: the Black Sea (57% of the territory and 42% of the rivers) and the Aegean Sea (43% of the territory and 58% of the rivers) basins. The longest river located solely in Bulgarian territory, the Iskar, has a length of 368 km. Other major rivers include the Struma and the Maritsa River in the south. Rila and Pirin feature around 260 glacial lakes; the country also has several large lakes on the Black Sea coast and more than 2,200 dam lakes. Many mineral springs exist, located mainly in the south-western and central parts of the country along the faults between the mountains. The Bulgarian word for spa, баня, transliterated as banya, appears in some of the names of more than 50 spa towns and resorts including Sapareva Banya, Hisarya, Sandanski, Bankya, Varshets, Pavel Banya, Devin, Velingrad and many others. Climate Bulgaria has a temperate climate, with cold winters (with considerable snowfall) and hot summers (rainy at first and dry during the second half). The Black Sea coast has a milder climate than rest of the country, but strong winds and violent local storms occur frequently during the winter. The barrier effect of the Balkan Mountains has some influence on climate throughout the country: northern Bulgaria is colder and receives more rain than the southern regions. The Northern Thracian Plain (middle-south Bulgaria) has a climate resembling that of the Corn Belt in the United States. Precipitation in Bulgaria averages about 630 millimetres per year. Drier areas include Dobrudja and the northern coastal strip, while the higher parts of the Rila, Pirin and Stara Planina (Balkan) Mountains receive the highest levels of precipitation. In summer, temperatures in the southest Bulgaria often exceed 40 degrees Celsius, but remain cooler by the coast. The town of Sadovo, near Plovdiv, has recorded the highest known temperature: 45.2 degrees Celsius. The recorded absolute minimum temperature of -39.3 degrees celsius occurred west of Sofia, near the town of Trun. The usual temperature around the Stara Planina region averages 10 to 15 degrees celsius. The highest mountains (over 900 or 1000 meters above sea-level) have an alpine climate. The lowest parts of the Struma and Maritza valleys have a subtropical (Mediterranean) influences, as do the Eastern Rhodope or Low Rhodope mountains. The extreme south-west part of Bulgaria (where the towns of Sandanski and Petrich are situated) is one of the warmest in the country. Urban geography Landscapes from Bulgaria. Clockwise from top left: a cloudy forest; Todorka Peak in Pirin; Belogradchik Rocks; Lake Shabla on the Black Sea coast. Bulgaria's larger cities include: Head Direction of Residential Registration and Administrative Service. Population table by permanent and present address as of 15 March 2008. Place City Population Place City Population 1. Sofia 6. Stara Zagora 2. Plovdiv 7. Pleven 3. Varna 8. Sliven 4. Burgas 9. Dobrich 5. Rousse 10. Shumen Bulgaria operates a scientific station, the St. Kliment Ohridski Base, on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands off the coast of Antarctica. History Prehistory and antiquity 250|The Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari, a 3rd century BC tomb listed as one of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites Prehistoric cultures in the Bulgarian lands include the Neolithic Hamangia culture and Vinča culture (6th to 3rd millennia BC), the eneolithic Varna culture (5th millennium BC; see also Varna Necropolis), and the Bronze Age Ezero culture. The Karanovo chronology serves as a gauge for the prehistory of the wider Balkans region. The Thracians, the earliest known identifiable people to inhabit the present-day territory of Bulgaria, have left traceable marks among all the Balkan region despite its tumultuous history of many conquests. The Thracians lived divided into numerous separate tribes until King Teres united most of them around 500 BC in the Odrysian kingdom, which peaked under the kings Sitalces and Cotys I (383-359 BC). In 188 BC the Romans invaded Thrace, and warfare continued until 45 AD when Rome finally conquered the region. The conquerors quickly Romanised or hellenised the population. By the time the Slavs arrived, the Thracians had already lost their indigenous identity and had dwindled in number following frequent invasions. The Slavs emerged from their original homeland in the early 6th century and spread to most of the eastern Central Europe, Eastern Europe and the Balkans, forming in the process three main branches: the West Slavs, the East Slavs and the South Slavs. Some eastern South Slavs became ancestors of the modern Bulgarians. They assimilated what remained of the Thracians. s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bulgaria/History First Bulgarian Empire The Battle of Anchialos (917), in which the Bulgarians defeated the Byzantines: one of the bloodiest battles of the Middle Ages. Bojidar Dimitrov: Bulgaria Illustrated History. BORIANA Publishing House 2002, ISBN 9545000449 In 632, the Bulgars, a semi-nomadic people, probably of Turkic descent, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online - Bulgars originally from Central Asia, formed under the leadership of Khan Kubrat an independent state that became known as Great Bulgaria. Pressure from the Khazars led to the subjugation of Great Bulgaria in the second half of the 7th century. Kubrat’s successor, Khan Asparuh, migrated with some of the Bulgar tribes to the lower courses of the rivers Danube, Dniester and Dniepr (known as Ongal), and conquered Moesia and Scythia Minor (Dobrudzha) from the Byzantine Empire, expanding his new khanate further into the Balkan Peninsula. Runciman, p. 26 A peace treaty with Byzantium in 681 and the establishment of the Bulgar capital of Pliska south of the Danube mark the beginning of the First Bulgarian Empire. At the same time one of Asparuh's brothers, Kuber, settled with another Bulgar group in Macedonia. Иван Микулчиќ, "Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македониjа", Скопjе, "Македонска цивилизациjа", 1996, стр. 29-33. During the siege of Constantinople in 717-718 the Bulgars honoured their treaty with the Byzantines by sending troops to help the populace of the imperial city. According to the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes, in the decisive battle the Bulgarians killed 22,000 Arabs. C. de Boor (ed), Theophanis chronographia, vol. 1. Leipzig: Teubner, 1883 (repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1963), 397, 25-30 (AM 6209)"φασί δε τινές ότι και ανθρώπους τεθνεώτας και την εαυτών κόπρον εις τα κλίβανα βάλλοντες και ζυμούντες ήσθιον. ενέσκηψε δε εις αυτούς και λοιμική νόσος και αναρίθμητα πλήθη εξ αυτών ώλεσεν. συνήψε δε προς αυτούς πόλεμον και τον των Βουλγάρων έθνος, και, ως φασίν οι ακριβώς επιστάμενοι, [ότι] κβ χιλάδας Αράβων κατέσφαξαν." The influence and territorial expansion of Bulgaria increased further during the rule of Khan Krum, Runciman, p. 52 who in 811 won a decisive victory against the Byzantine army led by Nicephorus I in the Battle of Pliska. s:Chronographia/Chapter 61 The baptism of Boris I In 864, Bulgaria accepted Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Georgius Monachus Continuatus, loc. cit. [work not previously referenced], Logomete Bulgaria became a major European power in the ninth and the tenth centuries, while fighting with the Byzantine Empire for the control of the Balkans. This happened under the rule (852–889) of Boris I. During his reign, the Cyrillic alphabet originated in Preslav and Ohrid, Vita S. démentis adapted from the Glagolitic alphabet invented by the monks Saints Cyril and Methodius. Barford, P. M. (2001). The Early Slavs. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press The Cyrillic alphabet became the basis for further cultural development. Centuries later, this alphabet, along with the Old Bulgarian language, fostered the intellectual written language (lingua franca) for Eastern Europe, known as Church Slavonic. The greatest territorial extension of the Bulgarian Empire — covering most of the Balkans — occurred under Simeon I, the first Bulgarian Tsar (Emperor), son of Boris I. Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, pp. 144-148. The Bulgarian Empire c. 927 However, Simeon's greatest achievement consisted of Bulgaria developing a rich, unique Christian Slavonic culture, which became an example for the other Slavonic peoples in Eastern Europe and also ensured the continued existence of the Bulgarian nation despite forces that threatened to tear it into pieces throughout its long and war-ridden history. Bulgaria declined in the mid-tenth century, worn out by wars with Croatia, by frequent Serbian rebellions sponsored by Byzantine gold, and by disastrous Magyar and Pecheneg invasions. Theophanes Continuatus, pp. 462—3, 480 Because of this, Bulgaria collapsed in the face of an assault of the Rus' in 969-971. Cedrenus: II, p. 383 The Byzantines then began campaigns to conquer Bulgaria. In 971, they seized the capital Preslav and captured Emperor Boris II. Leo Diaconus, pp. 158-9 Resistance continued under Tsar Samuil in the western Bulgarian lands for nearly half a century. The country managed to recover and defeated the Byzantines in several major battles, taking the control of the most of the Balkans and in 991 invaded the Serbian state. Шишић [Šišić], p. 331 But the Byzantines led by Basil II ("the Bulgar-Slayer") destroyed the Bulgarian state in 1018 after their victory at Kleidion. Skylitzes, p. 457 Byzantine Bulgaria Bulgarians nominate Peter II Delyan as Emperor of Bulgaria. John Skylitzes, Chronicle In the first decade after the establishment of Byzantine rule, no evidence remains of major resistance or any uprising of the Bulgarian population or nobility. Given the existence of such irreconcilable opponents to Byzantium as Krakra, Nikulitsa, Dragash and others, such apparent passivity seems difficult to explain. Some historians Zlatarski, vol. II, pp. 1-41 explain this by concessions that Basil II granted the Bulgarian nobility in order to gain their obedience. In the first place, Basil II guaranteed the indivisibility of Bulgaria in its former geographic borders and did not officially abolish the local rule of the Bulgarian nobility that now became part of Byzantine aristocracy as archons or strategoi. Second, special charters (royal decrees) of Basil II recognised the autocephaly of the Bulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid and set up its boundaries, securing the continuation of the dioceses already existing under Samuel, their property and other privileges. Averil Cameron, The Byzantines, Blackwell Publishing (2006), p. 170 The people of Bulgaria challenged Byzantine rule several times in the 11th century and again in the early 12th century. The biggest uprising occurred under the leadership of Peter II Delyan (proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria in Belgrade in 1040). In the mid to late 11th century, the Normans, fresh from their recent conquests in southern Italy and Sicily, landed in the Balkans and began advancing against the Byzantine Empire. They posed a constant threat to Byzantine Bulgaria, and it took Byzantium until 1185 to drive them out. In 1091, another invasion came in the form of the Pechenegs. However, they too were crushed by Byzantium at Levounion and again around 1120. After that, the Hungarians made an attempt to increase their influence beyond the Danube river; John Comnenus' campaigns along the Danube eventually drove back the Hungarians as well by c.1140. It would be another 45 years before Bulgaria would attain independence. Until then, Bulgarian nobles ruled the province in the name of the Byzantine Empire until a rebellion by Ivan Asen I and Peter IV of Bulgaria led to the establishment of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Second Bulgarian Empire The ktitors of the Boyana Church sevastokrator Kaloyan and his wife Desislava. From 1185, the Second Bulgarian Empire once again established Bulgaria as an important power in the Balkans for two more centuries with its capital based in Veliko Tarnovo and under the Asen dynasty. Kaloyan, the third of the Asen monarchs, extended his dominions to Belgrade, Nish and Skopie (Uskub); he acknowledged the spiritual supremacy of the pope, and received the royal crown from a papal legate. The Bulgarian ruler from 1218 to 1241, Ivan Asen II extended his rule over Albania, Epirus, Macedonia and Thrace. Jiriček, p.295 During his reign, the state saw a period of cultural growth, with important artistic achievements of the Tarnovo artistic school. The Asen dynasty ended in 1257, and due to Tatar invasions (beginning in the later 13th century), internal conflicts, and constant attacks from the Byzantines and the Hungarians, the power of the country declined. It was regained from 1300, under Emperor Theodore Svetoslav. But by the end of the 14th century, it had disintegrated into several feudal principalities, which the Ottoman Empire eventually conquered. Ottoman rule By the end of the 14th century, factional divisions between Bulgarian feudal landlords (boyars) had gravely weakened the cohesion of the Second Bulgarian Empire. It split into three small Tsardoms and several semi-independent principalities which fought among themselves, and also with Byzantines, Hungarians, Serbs, Venetians, and Genoese. In these battles, they often allied with the Ottoman Turks. Similar situations of internecine quarrel and infighting existed also in Byzantium and Serbia. In the period 1365-1370, the Ottomans conquered most Bulgarian towns and fortresses south of the Balkan Mountains. Jiriček, p. 382 Painting depicting the Battle of Nicopolis, 1396 In 1393, the Ottomans captured Tarnovo, the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire, after a three-month siege. In 1396, the Vidin Tsardom fell after the defeat of a Christian crusade at the Battle of Nicopolis. With this, the Ottomans finally subjugated and occupied Bulgaria. Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, Morrow QuillPaperback Edition, 1979 R.J. Crampton, A Concise History of Bulgaria, 1997, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-567-19-X D. Hupchick, The Balkans, 2002 A Polish-Hungarian crusade commanded by Władysław III of Poland set out to free the Balkans in 1444, but the Turks defeated it in the battle of Varna. Some accounts of the five centuries of Ottoman rule highlight its violence and oppression. The Ottomans decimated the Bulgarian population, which lost most of its cultural relics. Turkish authorities destroyed most of the medieval Bulgarian fortresses in order to prevent rebellions. Large towns and the areas where Ottoman power predominated remained severely depopulated until the 19th century. The new authorities dismantled Bulgarian institutions at anything above the village or communal level, and merged the separate Bulgarian Church into the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople, although a small, autocephalous Bulgarian archbishopric of Ohrid survived until January 1767. Bulgarians in the Ottoman empire had to endure a number of disabilities; they paid more taxes than Moslems, they lacked legal equality with Moslems, they could not carry arms, their clothes could not rival those of Moslems in color, nor could their churches tower as high as mosques. Crampton, R.J. Bulgaria 1878-1918, p.2. East European Monographs, 1983. ISBN 0880330295. Bulgarians who converted to Islam, the Pomaks, retained Bulgarian language, dress and some customs compatible with Islam. The Ottoman system started to decline by the 17th century, and at the end of the 18th had all but collapsed. Central government weakened over the decades, and this had allowed a number of local Ottoman holders of large estates to establish personal ascendancy over separate regions. Kemal H. Karpat, Social Change and Politics in Turkey: A Structural-Historical Analysis, BRILL, 1973, ISBN 9004038175, pp. 36-39 During the last two decades of the 18th and first decades of the 19th centuries the Balkan Peninsula dissolved into virtual anarchy, a period known in Bulgarian as the kurdjaliistvo. Armed bands of Turks, called kurdjalii, plagued the area at this time. In many regions, thousands of peasants fled from the countryside either to local towns or (more probably) to the hills or forests; some even fled beyond the Danube to Moldova, Wallachia or southern Russia. Dennis P. Hupchick: The Balkans: from Constantinople to Communism, 2002 Shipka memorial (located near Kazanlak) — built in honor of the Battle of Shipka Pass; one of the important symbols of Bulgarian liberation. In the 18th and especially the 19th century, conditions improved in certain areas. Some towns — such as Gabrovo, Tryavna, Karlovo, Koprivshtitsa, Lovech, Skopie — prospered. The Bulgarian peasants actually possessed their land, although it officially belonged to the sultan. The 19th century also brought improved communications, transportation and trade. The first factory in the Bulgarian lands opened in Sliven in 1834, and the first railway system started running (between Rousse and Varna) in 1865. Throughout the five centuries of Ottoman rule, the Bulgarian people organized many attempts to re-establish their own state. The National awakening of Bulgaria became one of the key factors in the struggle for liberation. The 19th century saw the creation of the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee and the Internal Revolutionary Organisation led by liberal revolutionaries such as Vasil Levski, Hristo Botev, Lyuben Karavelov and many others. In 1876, the April uprising broke out: the largest and best-organized Bulgarian rebellion against the Ottoman Empire. Though crushed by the Ottoman authorities, the uprising (together with the 1875 rebellion in Bosnia) prompted the Great Powers to convene the 1876 Conference of Constantinople, which delimited the ethnic Bulgarian territories as of the late 19th century, and elaborated the legal and political arrangements for establishing two autonomous Bulgarian provinces. The Ottoman Government declined to comply with the Great Powers’ decisions. This allowed Russia to seek a solution by force without risking military confrontation with other Great Powers as in the Crimean War of 1854 to 1856. Kingdom of Bulgaria Bulgaria according to the Treaty of San Stefano In the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878, Russian soldiers together with a Romanian expeditionary force and volunteer Bulgarian troops defeated the Ottoman armies. The Treaty of San Stefano (3 March 1878), set up an autonomous Bulgarian principality. But the Western Great Powers immediately rejected the treaty, fearing that a large Slavic country in the Balkans might serve Russian interests. This led to the Treaty of Berlin (1878) which provided for an autonomous Bulgarian principality comprising Moesia and the region of Sofia. Alexander, Prince of Battenberg, became Bulgaria's first Prince. Alexander, Prince of Battenberg Most of Thrace became part of the autonomous region of Eastern Rumelia, whereas the rest of Thrace and all of Macedonia returned to the sovereignty of the Ottomans. After the Serbo-Bulgarian War and unification with Eastern Rumelia in 1885, the Bulgarian principality proclaimed itself a fully independent kingdom on 5 October (22 September O.S.), 1908, during the reign of Ferdinand I of Bulgaria. Ferdinand, of the ducal family of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, became the Bulgarian Prince after Alexander von Battenberg abdicated in 1886 following a coup d'état staged by pro-Russian army-officers. (Although the counter-coup coordinated by Stefan Stambolov succeeded, Prince Alexander decided not to remain the Bulgarian ruler without the approval of Alexander III of Russia.) The struggle for liberation of the Bulgarians in the Adrianople Vilayet and in Macedonia continued throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, culminating with the Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising organised by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization in 1903. Bulgarians overrun a Turkish position at bayonet-point during the First Balkan War of 1912-1913, by Jaroslav Věšín Balkan Wars and World War I In 1912 and 1913, Bulgaria became involved in the Balkan Wars, first entering into conflict alongside Greece, Serbia and Montenegro against the Ottoman Empire. The First Balkan War (1912-1913) proved a success for the Bulgarian army, but a conflict over the division of Macedonia arose among the victorious allies. The Second Balkan War (1913) pitted Bulgaria against Greece and Serbia, joined by Romania and Turkey. After its defeat in the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria lost considerable territory conquered in the first war, as well as Southern Dobrudzha and parts of the region of Macedonia. During World War I, Bulgaria found itself fighting again on the losing side as a result of its alliance with the Central Powers. Defeat in 1918 led to new territorial losses (the Western Outlands to Serbia, Western Thrace to Greece and the re-conquered Southern Dobrudzha to Romania). The Balkan Wars and World War I led to the influx of over 250,000 Bulgarian refugees from Macedonia, Eastern and Western Thrace and Southern Dobrudzha. Interwar years In September 1918, Tsar Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his son Boris III in order to head off revolutionary tendencies. Under the Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919), Bulgaria ceded its Aegean coastline to Greece, recognized the existence of Yugoslavia, ceded nearly all of its Macedonian territory to that new state, and had to give Dobrudzha back to Romania. The country had to reduce its army to 20,000 men, and to pay reparations exceeding $400 million. Bulgarians generally refer to the results of the treaty as the "Second National Catastrophe". Elections in March 1920 gave the Agrarians a large majority, and Aleksandar Stamboliyski formed Bulgaria's first peasant government. He faced huge social problems, but succeeded in carrying out many reforms, although opposition from the middle and upper classes, the landlords and the officers of the army remained powerful. In March 1923, Stamboliyski signed an agreement with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia recognising the new border and agreeing to suppress Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (VMRO), which favoured a war to regain Macedonia from Bulgaria. This triggered a nationalist reaction, and the Bulgarian coup d'état of 9 June 1923 eventually resulted in Stamboliykski's assassination. A right-wing government under Aleksandar Tsankov took power, backed by the army and the VMRO, which waged a White terror against the Agrarians and the Communists. In 1926, the Tsar persuaded Tsankov to resign, a more moderate government under Andrey Lyapchev took office and an amnesty was proclaimed, although the Communists remained banned. A popular alliance including the re-organised Agrarians won elections in 1931 under the name Popular Bloc. In May 1934, another coup took place, removing the Popular Bloc from power and establishing an authoritarian military régime headed by Kimon Georgiev. A year later, Tsar Boris managed to remove the military régime from power, restoring a form of parliamentary rule (without the re-establishment of the political parties) and under his own strict control. The Tsar's regime proclaimed neutrality, but gradually Bulgaria gravitated into alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. World War II Bulgarian soldier on his post, Sofia, 1942 After occuping Southern Dobrudzha in 1940, Bulgaria became allied with the Axis Powers, although it never declared war on the USSR and declined to participate in Operation Barbarossa. During World War II Nazi Germany allowed Bulgaria to occupy parts of Greece and of Yugoslavia. Bulgaria became one of only three countries (along with Finland and Denmark) that saved its entire Jewish population (around 50,000 people) from the Nazi camps by refusing to comply with a 31 August 1943 resolution. In early September 1944, the Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria and invaded the country, meeting no resistance. This enabled the Bulgarian Communists (the Bulgarian Workers' Party) to seize power and establish a communist state. The new régime turned Bulgaria's forces against Germany. The 450,000-man army of 1944 dwindled to 130,000 by 1945. However, the authorities deported almost the entire Jewish population of the Bulgarian-occupied Yugoslav and Greek territories to the Treblinka death camp in occupied Poland. People's Republic of Bulgaria In World War II Bulgaria had again allied itself with Germany following the promise of the return of Macedonia. On September 8, 1944 the USSR declared war on Bulgaria and crossed the Danube. Bulgarian army officers and partisan brigades joined forces with the Soviets and Sofia fell. On the next day the invading forces took the rest of Bulgaria. (9 September became known as "Liberation Day".) The Fatherland Front took over the government and the Communist party increased its membership from 15,000 to 250,000 during the following six months. After World War II, Bulgaria fell within the Soviet sphere of influence. It became a People's Republic in 1946 and one of the USSR's staunchest allies. In the late 1970s, it began normalizing relations with Greece. The People's Republic ended in 1989 as many Communist regimes in Eastern Europe, as well as the Soviet Union itself, began to collapse. Opposition forces removed the Bulgarian Communist leader Todor Zhivkov and his right-hand man Milko Balev from power on 10 November 1989. Republic of Bulgaria In February 1990, the Communist Party voluntarily gave up its monopoly on power, and in June 1990 free elections took place, won by the moderate wing of the Communist Party (renamed the Bulgarian Socialist Party — BSP). In July 1991, the country adopted a new constitution which provided for a relatively weak elected President and for a Prime Minister accountable to the legislature. The anti-Communist Union of Democratic Forces took office, and between 1992 and 1994 carried through the privatization of land and industry, and faced massive unemployment and economic difficulties. The reaction against economic reform allowed BSP to take office again in 1995, but by 1996 the BSP government had also encountered difficulties, and in the presidential elections of that year the UDF's Petar Stoyanov was elected. In 1997, the BSP government collapsed and the UDF came to power. Unemployment remained high and the electorate became increasingly dissatisfied with both parties. Relations with Turkey began to normalise in the 1990s. On 17 June 2001, Simeon II, the son of Tsar Boris III and the former Head of state (as Tsar of Bulgaria from 1943 to 1946), won a narrow victory in elections. The king's party — National Movement Simeon II ("NMSII") — won 120 of the 240 seats in Parliament and overturned the two pre-existing political parties. Simeon's popularity declined during his four-year rule as Prime Minister, and the BSP won the elections in 2005, but could not form a single-party government and had to seek a coalition. Since 1989, Bulgaria has held multi-party elections and privatized its economy, but economic difficulties and a tide of corruption have led over 800,000 Bulgarians, including many qualified professionals, to emigrate in a "brain drain". The reform package introduced in 1997 restored positive economic growth, but led to rising social inequality. Bulgaria became a member of NATO in 2004 and of the European Union in 2007. Politics The Largo, the home of the Presidency and of the Council of Ministers Bulgaria joined NATO on 29 March 2004 and signed the European Union Treaty of Accession on 25 April 2005. It became a full member of the European Union on 1 January 2007. The country had joined the United Nations in 1955, and became a founding member of OSCE in 1995. As a Consultative Party to the Antarctic Treaty, Bulgaria takes part in the administration of the territories situated south of 60° south latitude. The Antarctic Treaty system: An introduction. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). Signatories to the Antarctic Treaty. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). Georgi Parvanov, the President of Bulgaria since 22 January 2002, won re-election on 29 October 2006 and began his second term in office in January 2007. (Bulgarian voters directly elect their presidents for a five-year term with the right to one re-election.) The president is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He also chairs the Consultative Council for National Security. While unable to initiate legislation other than Constitutional amendments, the President can return a bill for further debate, although the parliament can override the President's veto by vote of a majority of all MPs. Since 17 August 2005, Sergei Stanishev as Prime Minister has chaired the Council of Ministers, the principal body of the executive branch, which consists of 20 ministers. The Prime Minister — usually nominated by the largest parliamentary group — receives the mandate of the President to form a cabinet. The Council of Ministers building The governmental coalition comprises the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP), National Movement Simeon II (NMSII) and the Movement for Rights and Freedoms (representing mainly the Turkish minority). The Bulgarian unicameral parliament, the National Assembly or Narodno Sabranie (Народно събрание), consists of 240 deputies, each elected for four-year terms by popular vote. The votes go to parties or to coalition-lists of candidates for each of the 28 administrative divisions. A party or coalition must win a minimum of 4% of the vote in order to enter parliament. Parliament enacts laws, approves the budget, schedules presidential elections, selects dismisses the Prime Minister and other ministers, declares war, deploys troops outside of Bulgaria, and ratifies international treaties and agreements. The elections took place in June 2005. The scheduled elections should take place in summer 2009. The Bulgarian judicial system consists of regional, district and appeal courts, as well as a Supreme Court of Cassation. In addition, Bulgaria has a Supreme Administrative Court and a system of military courts. The Bulgarian Parliament building A qualified majority of two-thirds of the membership of the Supreme Judicial Council elects the Presidents of the Supreme Court of Cassation and of the Supreme Administrative Court, as well as the Prosecutor General, from among its members; the President of the Republic then appoints those elected. The Supreme Judicial Council has charge of the self-administration and organization of the Judiciary. The Constitutional Court supervises the review of the constitutionality of laws and statutes brought before it, as well as the compliance of these laws with international treaties that the Government has signed. Parliament elects the 12 members of the Constitutional Court by a two-thirds majority. The members serve for a nine-year term. The territory of the Republic of Bulgaria subdivides into provinces and municipalities. Bulgaria has 28 provinces, each headed by a provincial governor appointed by the government. In addition, the country includes 263 municipalities. Currently, Bulgaria has excellent relations with the United States, Russia, France, Japan, South Korea and China. Military A Bulgarian Air Force MiG-29 The military of Bulgaria consists of three services: the Bulgarian land forces the Bulgarian Navy the Bulgarian Air Force The armed forces have as their patron saint Sveti Georgi (St. George), and Bulgarians celebrate his feast day (6 May) nationally as Valour and Army Day. Despite active participation in all major European wars since the end of the nineteenth century, Bulgarian forces have never lost a flag. Bulgaria first became a major military power in Europe under Khan Krum and Tsar Simeon I, in a series of wars with the Byzantine Empire for control of the Balkan Peninsula, in the late ninth century. By the use of approximately 12,000 heavy cavalry in tactics resembling those of feudal knights, Simeon I's forces reached as far as the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, in AD 896 . A formal peace treaty lasted until 912, when both sides became engaged in a war which ended with several major defeats of the Byzantines, including one of the bloodiest battles in the Middle Ages at Anchialus in AD 917. Bulgarian and American paratroops on a joint exercise Bulgaria again became a significant military power under the rule of the Asen dynasty in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. During the rule of Tsar Kaloyan (1197-1207) Bulgaria became the first European country to defeat the Crusader knights. After declaring total independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1908, Bulgaria has functioned as a minor European power, frequently included in plans and wars of the Great Powers. In 1912, the Bulgarian forces invented the world's first aircraft-dropped bombs and soon after became the first military in the world to utilize aviation bombardment, in the siege of Odrin. Thus the Bulgarian Air Force, inheritor of one of the oldest traditions of powered aircraft combat in the world, became an early innovator in aviation military technology and in air-to-surface attack strategies/tactics. Following a series of reductions beginning in 1989, the active troops of Bulgaria's army number 45,000 . Reserve forces include 303,000 soldiers and officers. "PLAN 2004", an effort to modernize Bulgaria's armed forces, aims to better meet the perceived military needs of NATO and the European Union. An S-300 SAM launcher on Army day parade Bulgarian military personnel have participated in international missions in Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq. Starting in 2008, Bulgaria completely abolished compulsory military service. Bulgaria's naval and air forces became fully professional in 2006, and the land forces followed suit at the end of 2008. Bulgaria's Special Forces have conducted missions with the SAS, Delta Force, KSK, and the Spetsnaz of Russia. In April 2006 Bulgaria and the United States signed a defence-cooperation agreement providing for the development of the Bulgarian air bases at Bezmer (near Yambol) and Graf Ignatievo (near Plovdiv), the Novo Selo training-range (near Sliven), and a logistics centre in Aytos as joint US-Bulgarian military facilities. Bulgaria's navy comprises mainly Soviet-era ships, and three submarines. With of coastline, Bulgaria does not regard assault by sea as a major risk. In the course of recent modernization efforts, Bulgaria purchased a new frigate from Belgium, and the navy seems likely to acquire four Gowind corvettes from the French company DCN. Bulgaria's air forces also use a large amount of Soviet equipment. Plans to acquire transport and attack helicopters are underway, in addition to a major overhaul on old Soviet weapon systems. Military spending accounts for 1,98% of GDP. Provinces and municipalities Between 1987 and 1999 Bulgaria consisted of nine provinces (oblasti, singular oblast); since 1999, it has consisted of twenty-eight. All take their names from their respective capital cities: Blagoevgrad Burgas Dobrich Gabrovo Haskovo Kardzhali Kyustendil Lovech Montana Pazardzhik Pernik Pleven Plovdiv RazgradRousse Shumen Silistra Sliven Smolyan Sofia City Sofia Province Stara Zagora Targovishte Varna Veliko Tarnovo Vidin Vratsa Yambol The provinces subdivide into 264 municipalities. Economy Mall of Sofia Modern building in Sofia Bulgaria became a member of the European Union in 2007. The World Bank classifies it as an "upper-middle-income economy". Bulgaria has experienced rapid economic growth . The country continues to rank as the second-poorest member state of the EU, Above Romania: GDP per capita for 2008 but standards of living have risen. Due to high-profile allegations of corruption, and an apparent lack of willingness to tackle high-level corruption, the European Union has partly frozen EU funds of about €450 million and may freeze more if Bulgarian authorities do not show solid progress in fighting corruption and in speeding up reforms. Bulgaria has tamed its inflation since the deep economic crisis in 1996-1997, but figures show an increase in the inflation-rate to 12.5% for 2007. Unemployment declined from more than 17% in the mid 1990s to nearly 7% in 2007, but the unemployment-rate in some rural areas continues in high double-digits. Bulgaria's inflation means that the country's adoption of the euro might not take place until the year 2013-2014. Plovdiv Bulgaria's economy contracted dramatically after 1987 with the dissolution of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), with which the Bulgarian economy had integrated closely. The standard-of-living fell by about 40%, but it regained pre-1990 levels in June 2004. United Nations sanctions against Yugoslavia and Iraq took a heavy toll on the Bulgarian economy. The first signs of recovery emerged in 1994 when the GDP grew and inflation fell. During the government of Zhan Videnov's cabinet in 1996, the economy collapsed due to lack of international economic support and an unstable banking system. Since 1997, the country has been on the path to recovery, with GDP growing at a 4%–5% rate, increasing FDI, macroeconomic stability and European Union membership. The former NMSII government elected in 2001 pledged to maintain the fundamental economic policy-objectives adopted by its predecessor in 1997, specifically: retaining the Currency Board, implementing sound financial policies, accelerating privatisation, and pursuing structural reforms. Economic forecasts for 2005 and 2006 predicted continued growth for the economy. Economists predicted annual year-on-year GDP growth for 2005 and 2006 of 5.3% and 6.0% respectively. Forecasters expected industrial output in 2005 to rise by 11.9% from the previous year, and by 15.2% in 2006. Projections of unemployment envisaged 11.5% for 2005, 9% for 2006 and 7.25% for 2007. As of 2006 the GDP structure comprised: agriculture 8.0% industry 26.1% services 65.9%. Agriculture A market with agrucultural production in Kurdzhali Agricultural output has decreased overall since 1989, but production has grown in , and together with related industries like food-processing it still plays a key role in the Bulgarian economy. Arable farming predominates over stock-breeding. The country has a lack of modern equipment. Alongside aeroplanes and other equipment, Bulgarian agriculture has over 150,000 tractors and 10,000 combine harvesters. Production of the most important crops (according to the FAO) in 2006 (in '000 tons) amounted to: wheat 3301.9; sunflower 1196.6; maize 1587.8; grapes 266.2; tobacco 42.0; tomatoes 213.0; barley 546.3; potatoes 386.1; peppers 156.7; cucumbers 61.5; cherries 18.2; watermelons 136.0; cabbage 72.7; apples 26.1; plums 18.0; strawberries 8.8. Bulgaria ranks as one of the top world producers of agricultural commodities such as: FAO - Bulgaria country rank Anise - 6th Donkey meat - 7th Sunflower seed - 11th Cereals - 12th Raspberries and sheep milk - 13th Buffalo milk and Melon seed - 14th Asparagus and tobacco leaves - 15th Mustard seed - 17th Chili peppers - 18th Chestnuts and flax fibre - 19th Eggs (excl. hen), goat milk and lentils - 20th Energy Republika Power Plant near Pernik Machine room of Unit 5, Kozloduy NPP Although Bulgaria is not very rich in natural fuels such as coal, oil and gas, it has very well developed energy sector which is of crucial importance for the Balkans and the whole South Eastern Europe. Bulgaria is a major producer and exporter of electricity in the region and plays an important role for the energy balance in the Balkans. The country's strategic geographical location makes it a major hub for transit and distribution of oil and gas from Russia to Western Europe and other Balkan states. The production of electricity is 38.07 billion kWh (as of 2006) Photius.com, Electricity production as of 2006 (for example, Romania, which has a population nearly three times larger than Bulgaria, produced 51.7 billion kW·h in the same year). In production per capita, the country is in fourth place in Eastern Europe. In 2008 the Government of Bulgaria set up a state-owned energy holding company Bulgarian Energy Holding EAD, composed of gas company Bulgargaz, Bulgartransgaz, power company NEK EAD, Electricity System Operator EAD, Kozloduy nuclear power plant, Maritza-Iztok II thermal power plant, the Mini Maritza Iztok (Maritza Iztok mines), and Bulgartel EAD. The state holds a 100% stake in the holding company. Bulgaria is the most important exporter of electricity in the Balkan region due to the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant, which has a total capacity of , but after the closure of its four small reactors (440 MW each), exports of electricity declined significantly. The Belene Nuclear Power Plant is currently under construction, with a projected capacity of . A $1.4bn project for the construction of an additional block for the Maritza Iztok 1 Thermal Power Plant is underway. Thermal power plants are of high importance with most of the capacity concentrated in the Maritsa Iztok Complex. The largest TPPs are: "Maritsa Iztok 2" - 1,450 MW "Varna" - 1,260 MW "Maritsa Iztok 3" - 870 MW "Bobov Dol" - 630 MW "Ruse Iztok" - 600 MW "Maritsa Iztok 1" - 500 MW Industry and mining "Elatsite" gold and copper mine, one of the largest in South-Eastern Europe. Casting process at Kremikovtsi Steel Complex Industry plays a key role in the economy. Although Bulgaria lacks large reserves of oil and gas, it produces significant quantities of minerals, metals and electricity. Bulgaria is a minor oil producer, ranked 97 with a total production of 3,520 bbl/day. Oil producing countries rank table, CIA The first oil field was discovered near Tyulenovo in 1951. Proved reserves amount to 15,000,000 bbl. Natural gas production has been halted in the late 1990s, although suggestions have been made to restore gas extraction. Proved reserves of natural gas amount to 5.663 bln. cu m. Natural gas producing countries rank table, CIA Mining is an important source of export earnings, and is pivotal to the economy. The country is the 19th largest coal producer in the world, See List of countries by coal production. 9th largest bismuth producer, See List of countries by bismuth production 19th largest copper producer, See List of countries by copper mine production and the 26th largest zinc producer. See List of countries by zinc production The "Elatsite" copper mine and reprocessing facility, built during Vulko Chervenkov's rule, is one of the largest in South-Eastern Europe. It produces 50,000 tonnes of copper concentrate and 1.5 tonnes of gold each year. The proven reserves of copper in the area amount to some 12 million tonnes. Ferrous metallurgy has major importance. Much of the production of steel and pig iron takes place in Kremikovtsi and Pernik, with a third metallurgical base in Debelt. In production of steel and steel products per capita the country heads the Balkans. Recently the fate of Kremikovtsi steel factories has come under debate, because of serious pollution of the capital, Sofia. The largest refineries for lead and zinc operate in Plovdiv (the biggest refinery between Italy and the Ural mountains), Kardzhali and Novi Iskar; for copper in Pirdop and Eliseina; for aluminium in Shumen. In production of many metals per capita, Bulgaria ranks first in Eastern Europe. About 14% of the total industrial production relates to machine-building, and 24% of the people work in this field. Its importance has decreased since 1989. Electronics and electric equipment-production have developed to a high degree. The largest centres include Sofia, Plovdiv and the surrounding area, Botevgrad, Stara Zagora, Varna, Pravets and many other cities. These plants produce household appliances, computers, CDs, telephones, medical and scientific equipment. In the past, the "Elektronika" factory in Sofia was one of the largest computer and electronic calculator producers in Europe. Many factories producing transportation equipment do not operate at full capacity. Plants produce trains (Burgas, Dryanovo), trams (Sofia), trolleys (Dupnitsa), buses (Botevgrad), trucks (Shumen), motor trucks (Plovdiv, Lom, Sofia, Lovech). Lovech has an automotive assembly plant. Rousse serves as the main centre for agricultural machinery. Most Bulgarian shipbuilding takes place in Varna, Burgas and Rousse. Bulgarian arms production mainly operates in central Bulgaria (Kazanlak, Sopot, Karlovo). Foreigners seeking additional homes have boosted the Bulgarian properties market. Buyers come from across Europe, but mostly from the United Kingdom, encouraged by relatively cheap property-prices and the country's easy accessibility via air-travel. A very Bulgarian building boom BBC Science, technology and telecommunications Sokol type space suit, developed by the Bulgarian Space Agency and used by cosmonauts Georgi Ivanov and Aleksandar Aleksandrov The 200 cm telescope at the Rozhen Observatory Bulgaria was once known as the Silicon Valley of the Eastern Bloc. Today it is regaining its position as a leading centre of hi-tech research and development, particularly in information technology and nanotechnology research, development, production and distribution. According to the Brainbench Global IT IQ report, Bulgaria ranks 1st in Europe in terms of IT certified specialists per capita, and 8th in the world in total ITC specialists, outperforming countries with far larger populations. Bulgaria's scientific and technological knowhow is supported by more than 47 universities currently operating within its small territory. According to MENSA International, Bulgaria ranks 2nd in the world in Mensa IQ test scores and the its students are second in the world in SAT scores.Bulgaria is also the first country in Central and Eastern Europe (excluding Russia) to develop a national nanotechnology R&D centre. Leading multinational companies have set up regional technology development centres, offices and headquarters in Bulgaria. Most notable is the nanotechnology R&D centre currently under development by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, the Bulgarian government and IBM. This is the first time in IBM's history that the company has signed such a comprehensive agreement with a nation-state and its leading scientific institutions. Another example is Hewlett-Packard, which built its Global Service Centre for Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA) in Sofia. In 2005, SAP built its leading Java application server, Composite Application Framework and NetWeaver platform development R&D laboratories in Bulgaria. Telecommunications has become one of the growing industries in the country. Three GSM mobile-telephone operators — Globul, Mtel and Vivatel — provide almost 100% coverage each. They have a network of service-centers throughout the country. Bulgarians made use of some 10 million cellular phones as of 2006. Mobikom provides the only NMT 450 mobile-phone service. Bulgarians in towns can access the Internet, and most villages have acquired fast connectivity and VoIP; BTK offers DSL connection in larger cities. Bulgaria had about 298,781 Statistics of Bulgarian communications Internet hosts as of 2007. Bulgaria supplied many scientific and research instruments for the Soviet space-program, and also sent two men into space: Georgi Ivanov on Soyuz 33 (1979) and Alexander Alexandrov on Soyuz TM-5 (1988). The country participates in India's lunar exploration mission, Chandrayaan-1. Bulgaria became one of the first European countries to develop serial production of personal computers (Pravetz series 8) in the beginning of the 1980s, and has experience in pharmaceutical research and development. Ivan Stranski (1897 - 1979) developed the molecular-kinetic theory of crystal formation and crystal growth. The results of his works on crystal structure and behaviour have been widely applied in the areas of physical chemistry, metallurgy and mining. John Vincent Atanasoff (1903-1995), an American physicist of Bulgarian heritage, invented the first electronic digital computer, a special-purpose machine that became known as the Atanasoff–Berry Computer at Iowa State University in Ames, Iowa. Asen Yordanov (1896-1967), the founder of aeronautical engineering in Bulgaria, worked as an aviator, engineer and inventor; he also contributed to the development of aviation in the United States. He played a significant role in U.S. aircraft development and took part in many other projects. An IBM Blue Gene/P supercomputer The Bulgarian-American inventor and scientist Peter Petroff became best known for his work in NASA. Petroff also invented the first digital watch (1970). www.allbusiness.com - "Peter Petroff, Digital Watch Inventor, Dies at Age 83". Compare the [http://www.engology.com/eng5nakamatsu.htm claim of Yoshiro Nakamatsu to have invented a digital watch in 1953. U.S. chemist Carl Djerassi, who developed the first oral contraceptive pill (OCP), has Bulgarian ancestry. The Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, the leading scientific institution in the country, employs most of Bulgaria's researchers working in its numerous branches. Some of its most significant equipment is currently non-operational due to severe mismanagement in the Ministry of Education and Science (responsible for funding scientific projects), such as an electrostatic accelerator, a research reactor and a neutron generator. The most powerful supercomputer in Eastern Europe (one of the top 100 in the world as of 2009), an IBM Blue Gene P, has been installed in September 2008 at the State Agency of Information Technology. It is operated by scientists from the Sofia University and the BAS. Вече си имаме и суперкомпютър, Dir.bg, 9 September 2008 Bulgaria hosts two major astronomical observatories: the Rozhen Observatory, the largest in Southeastern Europe, and the Belogradchik Observatory with three telescopes; as well as several "public astronomical observatories" with planetaria, focused on educational and outreach activities. Transport Musagenitsa station of the Sofia Metro Bulgaria occupies a unique and strategically important geographic location. Since ancient times, the country has served as a major crossroads between Europe, Asia and Africa. Roads Five of the ten Trans-European corridors run through its territory. Bulgaria's roads have a total length of , of them paved and of them motorways. The country has several motorways in planning, under construction, or partially built: Trakia motorway, Hemus motorway, Cherno More motorway, Struma motorway, Maritza motorway and Lyulin motorway. Other planned motorways await finalisation of their routes. They include a link between the capital Sofia and Vidin, a link between the Struma and Trakia motorways south of Rila Mountain, a link between Rousse and Veliko Tarnovo, and the Sofia ringroad. Many roads have undergone reconstruction. Railways Bulgaria has of railway track, more than 60% electrified. A €360,000,000 project exists for the modernisation and electrification of the Plovdiv-Kapitan Andreevo railway. The only high-speed railway in the region, between Sofia and Vidin, will operate by 2017, at a cost of €3,000,000,000. Влак-стрела ще минава през Ботевград до 2017 г. Air transportation Sofia International Airport Air transportation has developed relatively comprehensively. Bulgaria has five official international airports — at Sofia, Burgas, Varna, Plovdiv and Gorna Oryahovitsa. Massive investment plans exist for the first three. Important domestic airports include those of Vidin, Pleven, Silistra, Targovishte, Stara Zagora, Kardzhali, Haskovo and Sliven. After the fall of communism in 1989, most of them stood unused as the importance of domestic flights declined. The country has many military airports and agricultural airfields. 128 of the 213 airports in Bulgaria are paved. Shipping The most important ports by far, Varna and Burgas, have the largest turnover. Like Burgas, Sozopol, Nesebar and Pomorie support large fishing fleets. Large ports on the Danube River include Rousse and Lom (which serves the capital). Intra-city transportation The cities and many smaller towns have well-organised public transport systems, using buses, trolleybuses (in about 20 cities) and trams (in Sofia). The Sofia Metro in the capital has three planned lines with total length of about and 52 stations, but much remained uncompleted . Demographics According to the 2001 census, National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria. Retrieved 31 July 2006 Bulgaria's population consists mainly of ethnic Bulgarian (83.9%), with two sizable minorities, Turks (9.4%) and Roma (4.7%). Of the remaining 2.0%, 0.9% comprises some 40 smaller minorities, most prominently in numbers the Russians, Armenians, Arabs, Vlachs, Jews, Crimean Tatars and Sarakatsani (historically known also as Karakachans). 1.1% of the population did not declare their ethnicity in the latest census in 2001. The 2001 Bulgarian census defines an ethnic group as a "community of people, related to each other by origin and language, and close to each other by mode of life and culture"; and one's mother tongue as "the language which a person speaks best and which is usually used for communication in the family (household)". Native Language By ethnic group By mother tongue PercentageBulgarian 6 655 000 6 697 000 84.46%Turkish 747 000 763 000 9.62%Gypsies (roma) 371 000 328 000 4.13% Others 69 000 71 000 0.89%Total 7 929 000 7 929 000 100% Most Bulgarians (82.6%) belong, at least nominally, to the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, the national Eastern Orthodox Church. Other religious denominations include Islam (12.2%), various Protestant denominations (0.8%) and Roman Catholicism (0.5%); with other denominations, atheists and undeclared totalling approximately 4.1%. In years Bulgaria has had one of the slowest population growth-rates in the world. Negative population growth has occurred since the early 1990s, due to economic collapse and high emigration. In 1989 the population comprised 9,009,018 people, in 2001 7,950,000 and in 2009 7,606,000. information source - NSI population table as of 31.12.2008 Bulgaria faces a severe demographic crisis: the population had a fertility-rate of 1.48 children per woman as of 2008. The fertility-rate will need to reach 2.2 to restore natural growth in population. Culture National Palace of Culture Ivan Vazov National Theatre Bulgarian Neo-Baroque architecture in Rousse Bulgarian girls in traditional clothing Bulgaria functioned as the hub of Slavic Europe during much of the Middle Ages, exerting considerable literary and cultural influence over the Eastern Orthodox Slavic world by means of the Preslav and Ohrid Literary Schools. Bulgaria also gave the world the Cyrillic alphabet, the second most-widely used alphabet in the world, which originated in these two schools in the tenth century AD. A number of ancient civilizations, most notably the Thracians, Greeks, Romans, Slavs, and Bulgars, have left their mark on the culture, history and heritage of Bulgaria. The country has nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites: The early medieval large rock relief Madara Rider two Thracian tombs (one in Sveshtari and one in Kazanlak) three monuments of medieval Bulgarian culture (the Boyana Church, the Rila Monastery and the Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo) two examples of natural beauty: the Pirin National Park and the Srebarna Nature Reserve the ancient city of Nesebar, a unique combination of European cultural interaction, as well as, historically, one of the most important centres of seaborne trade in the Black Sea Note also the Varna Necropolis, a 3500-3200BC burial-site, purportedly containing the oldest examples of worked gold in the world. Bulgaria's contribution to humanity continued throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with individuals such as John Atanasoff — a United States citizen of Bulgarian descent, regarded as the father of the digital computer. A number of noted opera-singers (Nicolai Ghiaurov, Boris Christoff, Raina Kabaivanska, Ghena Dimitrova, Anna Tomowa-Sintow, Vesselina Kasarova), pianist Alexis Weissenberg, harpist Anna-Maria Ravnopolska-Dean and successful artists (Christo Yavashev, Pascin, Vladimir Dimitrov) popularized the culture of Bulgaria abroad. One of the best internationally-known artists, Valya Balkanska sang the song Izlel e Delyu Haydutin, part of the Voyager Golden Record selection of music included in the two Voyager spacecraft launched in 1977. The Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir also known as Mystery of Bulgarian voices has also attained a considerable degree of fame. A characteristic custom called nestinarstvo distinguishes the Strandzha region. The custom involves dancing into fire or over live embers. Music Bulgaria has an early musical tradition, which can be traced back to the early Middle ages. One of the earliest known composers of Medieval Europe was Yoan Kukuzel (ca. 1280 - 1360), famous for his work Polieleion of the Bulgarian Woman. About 90 of his works have survived to this day. Kukuzel also reformed the Byzantine musical writing system, and was known as The Angel-voiced for his singing abilities. Regional folk musical styles abound in Bulgaria. Dobrudzha, Sofia, Rodopi, Macedonia, Thrace and the Danube shore all have distinctive sounds. Folk music revolved around holidays like Christmas, New Year's Day, midsummer, and the Feast of St. Lazarus, as well as the Strandzha region's unusual Nestinarstvo rites, in which villagers fell into a trance and danced on hot coals as part of the joint feast of Saints Konstantin and Elena on May 21. Music also formed a part of more personal celebrations such as weddings. Singing has a long tradition for both men and women. Women often sang songs at work parties such as the sedenka (often attended by young men and women in search of partners to court), betrothal ceremonies, and just for fun. Women had an extensive repertoire of songs that they sang while working in the fields. Young women eligible for marriage played a particularly important role at the dancing in the village square (which represented the major form of "entertainment" in the village and formed a very important social scene). The dancing — every Sunday and for three days on major holidays like Easter — began not with instrumental music, but with two groups of young women singing, one leading each end of the dance line. Later on, instrumental musicians might arrive and the singers would no longer act as the dance leaders. Singers performed laments not only at funerals but also upon the departure of young men for military service. The Sofia-based State Ensemble for Folk Songs and Dances, led by Philip Koutev (1903-1982), became the most important state-supported orchestra of this era. Koutev became perhaps the most influential musician of 20th-century Bulgaria, and updated rural music with more accessible harmonies to great domestic acclaim. In 1951, Koutev founded the group known as the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir, which became famous worldwide after the release of a series of recordings entitled Le Mystère des Voix Bulgares. The distinctive sounds of women's choirs in Bulgarian folk music come partly from their unique rhythms, harmony and polyphony, such as the use of close intervals like the major second and the singing of a drone accompaniment underneath the melody, especially common in songs from the Shope region around the Bulgarian capital Sofia and the Pirin region. In addition to Koutev, who pioneered many of the harmonies, and composed several songs which other groups (especially Tedora) covered, various women's vocal groups gained popularity, including Trio Bulgarka, consisting of Yanka Roupkina, Eva Georgieva, and Stoyanka Boneva, some of whom appeared in the "Mystery of the Bulgarian Voices" tours. Visual art A painting in the Rila Monastery, condemning witchcraft Wedding in Momchilovtsi, a 19th century painting by Ivan Mrkvička Bulgaria has a rich heritage in visual arts, especially frescoes, murals and icons. The Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak offers fine examples of excellently preserved ancient thracian art. Tomb art is one of the most important sources of information about thracian lifestile and culture. Visual arts on the lands of Bulgaria experienced an upsurge during the entire period of the Middle ages. A large collection of medieval icons is exhibited in the crypt of the Alexander Nevski cathedral. The earliest of those dates from around the 9th century AD. The Tarnovo Artistic School was the mainstream of the Bulgarian fine arts and architecture between 13th and 14th centuries named after the capital and the main cultural center of the Second Bulgarian Empire, Tarnovo. Although it was influenced by some tendencies of the Palaeogan Renaissance in the Byzantine Empire, the Tarnovo painting had its own unique features which makes it a separate Artistic School. Graba, A. La peinture religiouse en Bulgarie., Paris, 1928, p. 95 Depending on whether it was mural decoration of the churches or easel painting it could be divided into two types: Mural painting and Iconography. The works of that school have some extent of realism, portrait individualism and psychology. Цончева, М. За Търновската живописна школа. - В: Търновска книйовна школа. 1371-1971, С., 1974, с. 343. The unique and realistic portraits in the Boyana Church are considered to be forerunners of the Renaissance. "Старобългарско изкуство", Том ІІ - Никола Мавродинов, издателство "Наука и изкуство", София, 1959 г. The wall piers and the arches were often decorated with medallion-shaped bust images of saints. Magnificent examples of those can be observed in SS Peter and Paul Church in Tarnovo. Along with the traditional scenes such as "Christ's passions" and "Feast cycle" in the second layer; "Christ Pantokrator" in the dome and the Madonna with the infant Christ in the apse, there were also specific images and scenes. During the period of Ottoman rule (1396-1878) Bulgarian art was strongly suppressed. Many churches were destroyed, and newly built ones were somewhat moderate. In the end of the 18th century the theocratic Islamic Ottoman empire becan to decay slowly, thus the Bulgarian National Revival occurred. Bulgaria experienced a revival in every area of culture. Following the liberation in 1878, fine arts rapidly recovered and were influenced by European artistic currents such as the late Romantism. Cuisine Owing to the relatively warm climate and diverse geography affording excellent growth conditions for a variety of vegetables, herbs and fruits, Bulgarian cuisine (Bulgarian: българска кухня, bulgarska kuhnya) offers great diversity. Famous for its rich salads required at every meal, Bulgarian cuisine also features diverse quality dairy products and a variety of wines and local alcoholic drinks such as rakia, mastika and menta. Bulgarian cuisine features also a variety of hot and cold soups, for example tarator. Many different Bulgarian pastries exist as well, such as banitsa, a traditional pastry prepared by layering a mixture of whisked eggs and pieces of sirene (Bulgarian Feta cheese) between filo pastry and then baking it in an oven. Traditionally, Bulgarian cooks put lucky charms into their pastry on certain occasions, particularly on Christmas Eve, the first day of Christmas, or New Year's Eve. Such charms may include coins or small symbolic objects (such as a small piece of a dogwood branch with a bud, symbolizing health or longevity). , people have started writing happy wishes on small pieces of paper and wrapping them in tin foil. Wishes may include happiness, health, or success throughout the new year. Bulgarians eat banitsa — hot or cold — for breakfast with plain yogurt, ayran, or boza. Some varieties include banitsa with spinach (spanachena banitsa) or the sweet version, banitsa with milk (mlechna banitsa) or pumpkin (tikvenik). Certain entries, salads, soups and dishes go well with alcoholic beverages, especially Bulgarian wine. Tourism The châteauesque summer palace Euxinograd near Varna Alpine landscape of the Rila mountains In the northern-hemisphere winter, Samokov, Borovets, Bansko and Pamporovo become well-attended ski-resorts. Summer resorts exist on the Black Sea at Sozopol, Nessebur, Golden Sands, Sunny Beach, Sveti Vlas, Albena, Saints Constantine and Helena and many others. Spa resorts such as Bankya, Hisarya, Sandanski, Velingrad, Varshets and many others attract visitors throughout the year. Bulgaria to become an attractive tourist destination mostly due to prices well below those in Western Europe. Bulgaria has enjoyed a substantial growth in income from international tourism over the . Beach-resorts attract tourists from Germany, Romania, Russia, Scandinavia, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. The ski-resorts have become a preferred destination for British and Irish tourists. Varna beach A winter forest landscape As a country with a historical and cultural heritage, and attractive natural landscapes, Bulgaria has become a desired tourist destination, ranking 15th in terms of tourist visits in the , and 39th worldwide with a total of 5.2 million tourists attracted. See World Tourism rankings Tourism, as an industry, has proved an important source of economic growth. Tourists from the top three countries of origin — Greece, Romania and Germany — account for 40% of all visitors. In 2008 the Bulgarian Tourism Agency expected to welcome an estimated 6 million visitors. Statistics from the Bulgarian Tourism Agency The country has historical cities and towns, summer beaches, and mountain ski resorts. New types of tourism, including cultural, architectural and historic tours, eco-tourism, and adventure tours, expand the range of services available to visitors. Winter tourist centres, such as Borovetz, Bansko, Pamporovo and Vitosha provide picturesque and popular ski resorts. The Bulgarian summer resorts along the Black Sea coast include destinations such as the summer resorts: Sozopol, Nessebur, Golden Sands, Sunny Beach, Sveti Vlas, Albena and St. St. Constantine & Helena. Some guests, such as the Germans, Russians or Scandinavians, favour the summer beach resorts, while winter tourism, and the ski resorts, have become the favorites of the British. Pirin is the second-highest mountain after Rila. A view of Sveshtnik peak Emerging types of tourist activities, such as "ethno-tourism" and "architectural-cultural" tourism, increasingly gain ground, catering to specialized tastes. These new types of tours involve interaction with and living amongst the local people in small mountain villages. For the more adventurous, active recreation, involving mountain hiking and bike tourism, provides a close connection with nature. Climbers scale the granite mountains of Rila, Pirin and the Balkan. Hikers enjoy the mountains of Vitosha and the Rhodopes - the latter the mythical birthplace of Orpheus. Mountain biking and bicycle racing also feature. Bulgaria, like only six other countries, annually hosts the official 1,200 km Randonnees — ultra-marathon bicycle rides patterned after Paris-Brest-Paris. Kavarna is one of the more popular sea resorts, and is widely known in Bulgaria as a "rock capital" due to the large number of concerts of world-famed bands and musicians such as Scorpions, Dream Theater, Deep Purple, Motörhead, In Flames, Alice Cooper, Manowar and many others. Situated at the crossroads of the East and West, Bulgarian territory has hosted many civilizations - Thracians, Romans, Byzantines, Slavs, Proto-Bulgarians, and Ottomans. Although Bulgaria has many historical artifacts, many of the museums and monasteries still lack proper advertising and maintenance, and tourists may find some of the most interesting heritage sites somewhat inaccessible, due to poor infrastructure. Yet some visitors regard such "underdevelopment" as desirable - those who prefer to experience history first-hand rather than look at artefacts behind glass. Bulgaria attracts close to 7 million visitors yearly. Tourism in Bulgaria makes a major contribution towards the country's annual economic growth of 6% to 6.5%. Sports Kotooshu receives the Emperor's Cup for winning the May 2008 tournament Football has become by far the most popular sport in Bulgaria. Many Bulgarian fans closely follow the top Bulgarian league, the Bulgarian "A" Professional Football Group; as well as the leagues of other European countries. The Bulgaria national football team achieved its greatest success with a fourth-place finish at the 1994 FIFA World Cup in the United States. Dimitar Berbatov ranks as the most popular Bulgarian footballer. Georgi Asparuhov-Gundi (1943-1971), also became extremely popular at home and abroad, having had offers from clubs in Italy and Portugal, and having won the Bulgarian football player №1 award for the twentieth century. "Gundi pips Stoichkov to Top Footballer of the century" (article in Bulgarian) Hristo Stoichkov has arguably become the best-known Bulgarian footballer of all time. His career peaked between 1992 and 1995, while he played for FC Barcelona, winning the Ballon d'Or in 1994. Additionally, he featured in the FIFA 100 rankings. Three Bulgarians have won the European top scorers' Golden Boot award: Stoichkov,Georgi Slavkov and Petar Jekov. PFC CSKA Sofia (champion of Bulgaria 31 times (), National cup holder 13 times, European Cup semi-finalist 2 times, Cup Winners' Cup semi-finalist), PFC Levski Sofia (25 times champion of Bulgaria and 26 times National Cup holder), PFC Slavia Sofia (the second oldest football- and sports-club in Bulgaria, PFC Botev Plovdiv is the oldest one, 8 times football champion of Bulgaria and 12 times holder of the National Cup, Cup Winners' Cup semi-finalist) have become the most successful Bulgarian football-clubs. Other popular clubs include PFC Botev Plovdiv, PFC Lokomotiv Sofia, PFC Litex Lovech, PFC Cherno More Varna and PFC Lokomotiv Plovdiv. PFC Levski Sofia became the first Bulgarian team to participate in the modern UEFA Champions League group stage, having achieved this by qualifying for the 2006/2007 competition. Dimitar Berbatov Apart from football, Bulgaria boasts great achievements in a great variety of other sports. Maria Gigova and Maria Petrova have each held a record of three world-titles in rhythmic gymnastics. Other famous gymnasts include Simona Peycheva and Neshka Robeva (a highly successful coach as well). Yordan Yovtchev ranks as the most famous Bulgarian competitor in Artistic Gymnastics. Bulgarians also dominate in weightlifting, with around 1,000 gold medals in different competitions, although cases of doping have occurred among Bulgarian weightlifters, which led to the expulsion of the entire Bulgarian team from the 2000 Summer Olympics, and their voluntary withdrawal from the 1988 Summer Olympics. Olympic authorities stripped a number of Bulgarian weightlifters of medals in 2004; and the country's entire weightlifting team withdrew in 2008. Stefan Botev, Nickolai Peshalov, Demir Demirev and Yoto Yotov figure among the most distinguished weightlifters. In wrestling, Boyan Radev, Serafim Barzakov, Armen Nazarian, Plamen Slavov, Kiril Sirakov and Sergey Moreyko rank as world-class wrestlers. Dan Kolov became a wrestling legend in the early 20th century after leaving for United States. Albena Denkova and Maksim Staviski Bulgarians have made many significant achievements in athletics. Stefka Kostadinova, who still holds the women's high jump world record, jumped 209 centimetres at the 1987 World Championships in Athletics in Rome to clinch the coveted title. , Bulgaria takes pride in its sprinters, especially Ivet Lalova and Tezdzhan Naimova. Volleyball experienced a big resurgence. The Bulgarian national volleyball team, one of the strongest teams in Europe, ranks fourth in the FIVB ranklist. At the 2006 Volleyball World Championship this team won the bronze medal. Chess has achieved great popularity. One of the top chess-masters and a former world champion, Veselin Topalov, plays for Bulgaria. At the end of 2005, both men's and women's world chess-champions came from Bulgaria, as well as the junior world champion. Albena Denkova and Maxim Staviski have won the ISU world figure skating championships twice in a row (2006 and 2007) for ice-dance. Bulgarians have also achieved major successes in tennis. The Maleeva sisters: Katerina, Manuela and Magdalena, have each reached the top ten in world rankings, and became the only set of three sisters ranked in the top ten at the same time. Bulgaria has other well-known tennis players such as Tsvetana Pironkova, Sesil Karatancheva and Grigor Dimitrov, who in 2008 became the Wimbledon junior champion and US Open junior champion. Bulgaria also has strengths in shooting sports. Maria Grozdeva and Tanyu Kiriakov have won Olympic gold medals, and Ekaterina Dafovska won the Olympic gold in biathlon in the 1998 Winter Olympic Games. Petar Stoychev set a new swimming world record for crossing the English Channel in 2007. The country has strong traditions in amateur boxing and in martial-arts competitions. Bulgaria has achieved major success with its judo and karate teams in European and World championships. Kaloyan Stefanov Mahlyanov, best known as Kotoōshū Katsunori, has become well-known worldwide for his sumo prowess. Religion Alexander Nevsky Cathedral Sofia Synagogue Banya Bashi Mosque Most citizens of Bulgaria have associations — at least nominally — with the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. Founded in 870 AD under the Patriarchate of Constantinople (from which it obtained its first primate, its clergy and theological texts), the Bulgarian Orthodox Church has had autocephalous status since 927 AD. The Orthodox Church re-established the Bulgarian Patriarchate in Sofia in the 1950s after the promulgation of the Bulgarian Exarchate in 1870. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church, as the independent national church of Bulgaria (like the other national branches of Eastern Orthodoxy in their respective countries) plays a role as an inseparable element of Bulgarian national consciousness. The Church became subordinate within the Patriarchate of Constantinople, twice during the periods of Byzantine (1018 – 1185) and Ottoman (1396 – 1878) domination but has been revived every time as a symbol of Bulgarian statehood without breaking away from the Orthodox dogma. In 2001, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church had 6,552,000 members in Bulgaria (82.6% of the population). However, many people raised during the 45 years of communist rule are not religious, even though they may formally be members of the Church. Despite the dominant position of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church in Bulgarian cultural life, a number of Bulgarian citizens belong to other religious denominations, most notably Islam, Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Islam came to Bulgaria at the end of the fourteenth century after the conquest of the country by the Ottomans. It gradually gained ground throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries through the introduction of Turkish colonists and the conversion of native Bulgarians. One Islamic sect, Ahmadiyya, faces problems in Bulgaria. Some officials have moved against Ahmadis on the grounds that other countries also attack the religious rights of Ahmadis, whom many Muslims regard as heretical. In the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries, missionaries from Rome converted Bulgarian Paulicians in the districts of Plovdiv and Svishtov to Roman Catholicism. their descendants form the bulk of Bulgarian Catholics, whose number stood at 44,000 in 2001. Missionaries from the United States introduced Protestantism into Bulgarian territory in 1857. Missionary work continued throughout the second half of the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century. In 2001 Bulgaria had some 42,000 Protestants. According to the most recent Eurostat "Eurobarometer" poll, in 2005, 40% of Bulgarian citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 40% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force", 13% that "they do not believe there is a God, spirit, nor life force", and 6% did not answer. See also List of Bulgarian monarchs History of Communist Bulgaria Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II Notes Further reading Crampton, R. J. A Concise History of Bulgaria (2005) Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521616379 Detrez, Raymond Historical Dictionary of Bulgaria (2006) Second Edition lxiv + 638 pp. Maps, bibliography, appendix, chronology ISBN 978-0-8108-4901-3 Lampe, John R., and Marvin R. Jackson Balkan Economic History, 1550-1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations (1982) Lampe, John R. The Bulgarian Economy in the Twentieth Century (1986) London: Croom Helm ISBN 0709916442 Pre 1939 Fox, Frank, Sir Bulgaria (1915) London: A. and C. Black, Ltd., book scanned by Project Gutenberg Hall, Richard C. Bulgaria's Road to the First World War (1996) New York: Columbia University Press ISBN 088033357X Perry, Duncan M. Stefan Stambolov and the Emergence of Modern Bulgaria, 1870-1895 (1993) Durham: Duke University Press ISBN 0822313138 (Васил Н. Златарски, История на българската държава през средните векове, Част II, II изд., Наука и изкуство, София 1970) World War II Bar-Zohar, Michael Beyond Hitler's Grasp: The Heroic Rescue of Bulgaria's Jews Groueff, Stephane Crown of Thorns: The Reign of King Boris III of Bulgaria, 1918–1943 Todorov, Tzvetan The fragility of goodness: why Bulgaria’s Jews survived the Holocaust: a collection of texts with commentary (2001) Princeton: Princeton University Press ISBN 0691088322 Communist era Todorov, Tzvetan Voices from the Gulag: Life and Death in Communist Bulgaria Dimitrova, Alexenia The Iron Fist — Inside the Bulgarian secret archives Bell, John D., ed. Bulgaria in Transition: Politics, Economics, Society, and Culture after Communism. Westview. (1998) ISBN 978-0813390109 Guide-books Annie Kay Bradt Guide: Bulgaria Paul Greenway Lonely Planet World Guide: Bulgaria Pettifer, James Blue Guide: Bulgaria Timothy Rice Music of Bulgaria Jonathan Bousfield The Rough Guide To Bulgaria External links Government Official governmental site President of The Republic of Bulgaria National Assembly of the Republic of Bulgaria Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Bulgaria information from the United States Department of State Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress Article Eco Friendly Bulgaria Bulgaria at UCB Libraries GovPubs Travel Bulgaria - video presentations from Bulgaria Tourism Authority All cities and villages The mountains of Bulgaria Image Gallery of Bulgaria Image Gallery of Bulgaria under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 License Large Image Gallery of Bulgaria be-x-old:Баўгарыя | Bulgaria |@lemmatized bulgaria:206 officially:3 republic:11 lie:2 balkan:40 south:20 eastern:27 europe:26 border:3 five:7 country:59 romania:8 north:5 mostly:5 along:9 river:13 danube:11 serbia:6 macedonia:14 west:7 greece:8 turkey:4 black:11 sea:14 define:2 extent:2 east:9 include:28 part:17 roman:7 province:10 moesia:5 thrace:10 old:8 european:25 culture:17 within:5 territory:17 start:5 produce:9 golden:5 artifact:2 fifth:1 millennium:3 bc:7 first:37 bulgarian:184 kingdom:9 soil:1 date:2 back:5 early:16 middle:11 age:8 century:46 political:4 entity:1 subsequently:1 emerge:4 preserve:2 tradition:5 ethnic:5 name:7 language:7 alphabet:8 empire:25 time:19 cover:3 spread:2 literature:1 among:7 slavic:4 people:16 later:4 decline:10 second:23 come:8 ottoman:28 rule:18 nearly:5 russo:2 turkish:7 war:34 lead:20 establishment:5 state:36 constitutional:5 monarchy:1 treaty:16 san:3 stefano:3 mark:4 birth:1 third:5 social:5 strife:1 brewing:1 core:1 alexander:9 malinov:1 government:17 prince:6 ferdinand:4 formally:2 proclaim:4 full:3 sovereignty:2 ancient:6 capital:14 veliko:4 turnovo:1 crampton:4 r:10 j:4 pp:7 oxford:1 university:10 press:7 world:46 ii:23 become:50 communist:16 bloc:4 todor:2 zhivkov:2 dominate:2 politically:1 year:22 revolution:1 party:17 give:6 monopoly:2 power:31 transition:2 democracy:2 free:3 market:3 capitalism:1 function:3 parliamentary:3 unitary:1 member:12 union:11 since:14 nato:4 population:20 approximately:3 million:8 high:17 human:1 development:11 index:1 rank:16 geography:3 geographically:1 term:7 climate:8 feature:7 notable:3 diversity:2 landscape:5 range:7 alpine:4 snow:1 capped:1 peak:6 rila:11 pirin:9 mountains:5 mild:1 sunny:3 coast:8 typically:1 continental:1 danubian:2 plain:6 strong:4 mediterranean:2 climatic:1 influence:9 valley:4 lowland:1 southernmost:1 phytogeographically:1 straddle:1 illyrian:1 euxinian:1 circumboreal:1 region:21 boreal:1 accord:8 wwf:1 environment:1 agency:5 digital:6 map:2 ecological:1 subdivides:2 two:18 main:5 ecoregions:2 mixed:2 forest:5 rhodope:4 montane:1 small:12 four:5 also:33 occur:8 relief:2 trigrad:1 gorge:1 peninsula:5 derive:1 stara:8 planina:4 mountain:18 run:4 centre:11 extend:3 comprise:6 portion:1 know:19 classical:1 mountainous:2 southwest:1 stand:3 low:5 extensive:2 musala:1 meter:2 ft:1 long:4 famous:6 rise:4 hilly:1 southeast:2 strandja:1 large:34 hill:2 northeast:1 dobrudja:2 scarce:1 mineral:5 resource:2 possess:2 relatively:5 rich:5 vast:1 reserve:8 lignite:2 anthracite:2 coal:7 non:3 ferrous:2 ore:3 copper:8 zinc:5 gold:8 extract:1 maritsa:6 basin:3 several:10 thermal:4 powerplants:1 situate:4 largely:1 remain:11 unexploited:1 find:3 rhodopes:2 deposit:2 manganese:1 uranium:1 exist:10 iron:3 silver:1 chromite:1 nickel:1 others:8 abundant:1 metalliferous:1 rock:5 salt:1 gypsum:1 kaolin:1 marble:1 hydrography:1 lake:5 mandrensko:1 dense:1 network:2 exception:1 short:1 length:4 water:1 level:6 flow:1 area:10 upper:3 thracian:13 especially:7 dobrudzha:8 catchment:1 aegean:2 locate:3 solely:1 iskar:2 km:2 major:20 struma:4 around:9 glacial:1 dam:1 many:30 spring:1 mainly:5 western:8 central:8 fault:1 word:1 spa:3 баня:1 transliterate:1 banya:4 appear:2 town:11 resort:13 sapareva:1 hisarya:2 sandanski:3 bankya:2 varshets:2 pavel:1 devin:1 velingrad:2 temperate:1 cold:4 winter:7 considerable:4 snowfall:1 hot:4 summer:11 rainy:1 dry:2 half:5 milder:1 rest:3 wind:1 violent:1 local:6 storm:1 frequently:2 barrier:1 effect:1 throughout:10 northern:4 receive:5 rain:1 southern:7 resemble:2 corn:1 belt:1 united:14 precipitation:2 average:2 millimetre:1 per:7 coastal:1 strip:2 temperature:4 often:5 exceed:2 degree:6 celsius:4 cooler:1 sadovo:1 near:9 plovdiv:14 record:5 known:3 recorded:1 absolute:1 minimum:2 sofia:34 trun:1 usual:1 maritza:6 subtropical:1 extreme:1 petrich:1 one:33 warm:2 urban:1 clockwise:1 top:10 left:1 cloudy:1 todorka:1 belogradchik:2 shabla:1 city:14 head:7 direction:1 residential:1 registration:1 administrative:4 service:9 table:4 permanent:1 present:2 address:1 march:5 place:12 zagora:4 pleven:3 varna:15 sliven:5 burgas:7 dobrich:2 rousse:7 shumen:4 operate:7 scientific:9 station:3 st:5 kliment:1 ohridski:1 base:5 livingston:1 island:2 shetland:1 antarctica:1 history:12 prehistory:2 antiquity:1 tomb:5 sveshtari:2 list:7 unesco:2 heritage:7 sit:2 prehistoric:1 land:9 neolithic:1 hamangia:1 vinča:1 eneolithic:1 see:7 necropolis:2 bronze:2 ezero:1 karanovo:1 chronology:2 serve:5 gauge:1 wider:1 balkans:1 identifiable:1 inhabit:1 day:11 leave:4 traceable:1 despite:4 tumultuous:1 conquest:3 live:3 divide:2 numerous:2 separate:4 tribe:2 king:4 teres:1 unite:1 odrysian:1 sitalces:1 cotys:1 invade:3 warfare:1 continue:7 ad:7 rome:3 finally:2 conquer:6 conqueror:1 quickly:1 romanise:1 hellenised:1 slav:9 arrive:2 already:2 lose:4 indigenous:1 identity:1 dwindle:2 number:11 follow:7 frequent:2 invasion:4 original:1 homeland:1 form:11 process:2 three:17 branch:5 ancestor:1 modern:5 assimilate:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:2 battle:11 anchialos:1 defeat:9 byzantine:27 bloody:2 bojidar:1 dimitrov:3 illustrate:1 boriana:1 publishing:2 house:1 isbn:11 bulgars:4 semi:5 nomadic:1 probably:2 turkic:1 descent:2 encyclopaedia:1 online:1 originally:1 asia:2 leadership:2 khan:4 kubrat:2 independent:4 great:15 pressure:1 khazars:1 subjugation:1 successor:1 asparuh:2 migrate:1 bulgar:4 course:2 dniester:1 dniepr:1 ongal:1 scythia:1 minor:3 expand:2 new:17 khanate:1 far:6 runciman:2 p:14 peace:2 byzantium:5 pliska:2 beginning:2 brother:1 kuber:1 settle:1 another:5 group:10 иван:1 микулчиќ:1 средновековни:1 градови:1 и:4 тврдини:1 во:1 македониjа:1 скопjе:1 македонска:1 цивилизациjа:1 стр:1 siege:3 constantinople:7 honour:1 send:2 troop:4 help:1 populace:1 imperial:2 chronicler:1 theophanes:2 decisive:2 kill:1 arab:2 c:5 de:2 boor:1 ed:2 theophanis:1 chronographia:2 vol:2 leipzig:1 teubner:1 repr:1 hildesheim:1 olm:1 φασί:1 δε:3 τινές:1 ότι:2 και:7 ανθρώπους:1 τεθνεώτας:1 την:1 εαυτών:1 κόπρον:1 εις:2 τα:1 κλίβανα:1 βάλλοντες:1 ζυμούντες:1 ήσθιον:1 ενέσκηψε:1 αυτούς:2 λοιμική:1 νόσος:1 αναρίθμητα:1 πλήθη:1 εξ:1 αυτών:1 ώλεσεν:1 συνήψε:1 προς:1 πόλεμον:1 τον:1 των:1 βουλγάρων:1 έθνος:1 ως:1 φασίν:1 οι:1 ακριβώς:1 επιστάμενοι:1 κβ:1 χιλάδας:1 αράβων:1 κατέσφαξαν:1 territorial:3 expansion:1 increase:5 krum:2 win:16 victory:3 army:12 nicephorus:1 chapter:1 baptism:1 boris:9 accept:1 orthodox:11 christianity:1 georgius:1 monachus:1 continuatus:2 loc:1 cit:1 work:12 previously:1 reference:1 logomete:1 ninth:2 tenth:3 fight:4 control:4 happen:1 reign:4 cyrillic:3 originate:2 preslav:3 ohrid:4 vita:1 démentis:1 adapt:1 glagolitic:1 invent:5 monk:1 saint:5 cyril:1 methodius:1 barford:1 ithaca:1 york:3 cornell:1 basis:1 cultural:10 foster:1 intellectual:1 write:2 lingua:1 franca:1 church:21 slavonic:3 extension:1 simeon:8 tsar:10 emperor:6 son:3 fine:4 medieval:6 however:4 achievement:4 consist:8 develop:9 unique:6 christian:2 example:8 ensure:1 continued:2 existence:3 nation:5 force:26 threaten:1 tear:1 piece:4 ridden:1 mid:3 wear:1 croatia:1 serbian:2 rebellion:5 sponsor:1 disastrous:1 magyar:1 pecheneg:1 collapse:6 face:5 assault:2 ru:1 cedrenus:1 begin:9 campaign:2 seize:2 capture:2 leo:1 diaconus:1 resistance:4 samuil:1 manage:2 recover:2 take:20 шишић:1 šišić:1 basil:4 slayer:1 destroy:3 kleidion:1 skylitzes:2 nominate:2 peter:6 delyan:2 john:7 chronicle:1 decade:4 evidence:1 uprising:4 nobility:3 irreconcilable:1 opponent:1 krakra:1 nikulitsa:1 dragash:1 apparent:2 passivity:1 seem:2 difficult:1 explain:2 historian:1 zlatarski:1 concession:1 grant:1 order:4 gain:4 obedience:1 guarantee:1 indivisibility:1 former:4 geographic:2 abolish:2 aristocracy:1 archons:1 strategoi:1 special:3 charter:1 royal:2 decree:1 recognise:2 autocephaly:1 archbishopric:2 set:7 boundary:1 secure:1 continuation:1 diocese:1 samuel:1 property:3 privilege:1 averil:1 cameron:1 blackwell:1 challenge:1 big:3 proclaimed:1 belgrade:2 late:9 norman:1 fresh:1 recent:3 italy:4 sicily:1 advance:1 pose:1 constant:2 threat:1 drive:2 pechenegs:1 crush:2 levounion:1 hungarian:5 make:7 attempt:2 beyond:3 comnenus:1 eventually:3 well:21 would:3 attain:2 independence:2 noble:1 ivan:5 asen:7 iv:1 ktitors:1 boyana:3 sevastokrator:1 kaloyan:4 wife:1 desislava:1 establish:7 important:16 tarnovo:9 dynasty:3 monarch:1 dominion:1 nish:1 skopie:2 uskub:1 acknowledge:1 spiritual:1 supremacy:1 pope:1 crown:2 papal:1 legate:1 ruler:2 albania:1 epirus:1 jiriček:2 saw:2 period:6 growth:13 artistic:6 school:6 end:12 due:9 tatar:2 internal:4 conflict:3 attack:4 regain:4 theodore:1 svetoslav:1 disintegrate:1 feudal:3 principality:5 factional:1 division:3 landlord:2 boyars:1 gravely:1 weaken:2 cohesion:1 split:1 tsardoms:1 serb:1 venetian:1 genoese:1 ally:4 turks:1 similar:1 situation:1 internecine:1 quarrel:1 infighting:1 fortress:2 paint:2 depict:1 nicopolis:2 month:2 vidin:5 tsardom:1 fell:6 crusade:2 subjugate:1 occupy:3 lord:1 kinross:1 morrow:1 quillpaperback:1 edition:2 concise:2 cambridge:3 x:2 hupchick:2 polish:1 command:1 władysław:1 iii:5 poland:2 turk:3 account:3 highlight:1 violence:1 oppression:1 decimate:1 relic:1 authority:7 prevent:1 predominate:1 severely:1 depopulate:1 dismantle:1 institution:3 anything:1 village:5 communal:1 merge:1 ecumenical:1 patriarchate:4 although:13 autocephalous:2 survive:3 january:4 endure:1 disability:1 pay:2 tax:1 moslem:3 lack:6 legal:2 equality:1 could:5 carry:3 arm:4 clothes:1 rival:1 color:1 tower:1 mosque:2 monograph:1 convert:2 islam:5 pomaks:1 retain:2 dress:1 custom:3 compatible:1 system:10 allow:4 holder:4 estate:1 personal:3 ascendancy:1 kemal:1 h:2 karpat:1 change:1 politics:3 structural:2 historical:5 analysis:1 brill:1 last:2 dissolve:1 virtual:1 anarchy:1 kurdjaliistvo:1 armed:2 band:2 call:2 kurdjalii:1 plague:1 thousand:1 peasant:3 flee:2 countryside:1 either:1 even:2 moldova:1 wallachia:1 russia:8 dennis:1 communism:3 shipka:2 memorial:1 kazanlak:4 build:8 honor:1 pas:1 symbol:2 liberation:5 condition:2 improve:1 certain:3 gabrovo:2 tryavna:1 karlovo:2 koprivshtitsa:1 lovech:5 prosper:1 actually:1 belong:3 sultan:1 bring:2 improved:1 communication:3 transportation:5 trade:2 factory:4 open:2 railway:5 organize:2 national:22 awakening:1 key:3 factor:1 struggle:2 creation:1 revolutionary:6 committee:3 organisation:1 liberal:1 vasil:1 levski:3 hristo:2 botev:4 lyuben:1 karavelov:1 april:3 uprise:1 break:2 best:6 though:2 together:3 bosnia:2 prompt:1 convene:1 conference:1 delimit:1 elaborate:1 arrangement:1 autonomous:4 comply:2 decision:1 seek:3 solution:1 without:4 risk:2 military:17 confrontation:1 crimean:2 russian:5 soldier:3 romanian:1 expeditionary:1 volunteer:1 immediately:1 reject:1 fear:1 might:3 interest:1 berlin:1 provide:7 battenberg:3 rumelia:2 whereas:2 return:3 serbo:1 unification:1 fully:2 october:2 september:7 ducal:1 family:2 saxe:1 coburg:1 gotha:1 von:1 abdicate:2 coup:4 état:2 stag:1 pro:1 officer:4 counter:1 coordinate:1 stefan:3 stambolov:2 succeed:2 decide:1 approval:1 adrianople:1 vilayet:1 culminate:1 ilinden:1 preobrazhenie:1 organise:2 macedonian:3 organization:3 overrun:1 position:3 bayonet:1 point:1 jaroslav:1 věšín:1 involve:4 enter:2 alongside:2 montenegro:1 prove:3 success:5 arose:1 victorious:1 pit:1 join:4 losing:1 side:2 result:4 alliance:3 loss:1 outlands:1 conquered:1 influx:1 refugee:1 interwar:1 favour:3 tendency:2 neuilly:1 november:2 cede:2 coastline:2 recognize:1 yugoslavia:4 reduce:1 men:6 reparation:1 generally:1 refer:1 catastrophe:1 election:12 agrarians:3 majority:4 aleksandar:3 stamboliyski:2 huge:1 problem:2 reform:6 opposition:2 class:2 powerful:2 sign:6 agreement:4 agree:1 suppress:2 vmro:2 trigger:1 nationalist:1 reaction:2 june:5 stamboliykski:1 assassination:1 right:5 wing:2 tsankov:2 wag:1 white:1 terror:1 persuade:1 resign:1 moderate:3 andrey:1 lyapchev:1 office:5 amnesty:1 ban:1 popular:10 organised:1 may:9 remove:3 authoritarian:1 régime:3 kimon:1 georgiev:1 restore:4 strict:1 regime:2 neutrality:1 gradually:2 gravitate:1 nazi:3 germany:6 fascist:1 post:1 occuping:1 allied:1 axis:1 never:2 declare:4 ussr:3 participate:4 operation:1 barbarossa:1 finland:1 denmark:1 save:1 entire:5 jewish:2 camp:2 refuse:1 august:2 resolution:1 soviet:8 meet:2 enable:1 worker:1 turn:1 man:2 deport:1 almost:2 occupied:2 yugoslav:1 greek:2 treblinka:1 death:2 promise:1 declared:1 cross:2 partisan:1 brigade:1 next:1 invading:1 fatherland:1 front:1 membership:3 following:1 six:2 sphere:1 staunchest:1 normalize:1 relation:3 leader:2 hand:2 milko:1 balev:1 february:1 voluntarily:1 rename:1 socialist:2 bsp:6 july:2 adopt:2 constitution:1 weak:1 elect:8 president:10 prime:5 minister:10 accountable:1 legislature:1 anti:1 democratic:1 privatization:1 industry:7 massive:2 unemployment:5 economic:14 difficulty:3 encounter:1 presidential:2 udf:2 petar:3 stoyanov:1 electorate:1 increasingly:2 dissatisfy:1 normalise:1 narrow:1 movement:4 nmsii:3 seat:1 parliament:7 overturn:1 pre:3 popularity:3 single:1 coalition:4 hold:7 multi:1 privatize:1 economy:12 tide:1 corruption:4 qualified:2 professional:3 emigrate:1 brain:1 drain:1 package:1 introduce:2 positive:1 inequality:1 largo:1 home:3 presidency:1 council:7 accession:1 founding:1 osce:1 consultative:2 antarctic:5 administration:2 latitude:1 introduction:2 research:7 scar:2 signatory:1 georgi:6 parvanov:1 voter:1 directly:1 commander:1 chief:2 chair:2 security:1 unable:1 initiate:1 legislation:1 amendment:1 bill:1 debate:2 override:1 veto:1 vote:4 mp:1 sergei:1 stanishev:1 principal:1 body:1 executive:1 usually:2 mandate:1 cabinet:3 governmental:2 freedom:1 represent:2 minority:3 unicameral:1 assembly:3 narodno:1 sabranie:1 народно:1 събрание:1 deputy:1 go:2 candidate:1 must:1 enacts:1 law:3 approve:1 budget:1 schedule:1 selects:1 dismiss:1 declares:1 deploy:1 outside:1 ratify:1 international:8 scheduled:1 judicial:3 regional:3 district:2 appeal:1 court:9 supreme:6 cassation:2 addition:4 prosecutor:1 general:2 appoints:1 charge:1 self:1 judiciary:1 supervise:1 review:1 constitutionality:1 statute:1 compliance:1 nine:3 municipality:4 provincial:1 governor:1 appoint:1 currently:5 excellent:2 france:1 japan:1 korea:1 china:1 air:10 mig:1 consists:1 navy:3 patron:1 sveti:3 george:1 celebrate:1 feast:4 nationally:1 valour:1 active:3 participation:1 nineteenth:3 flag:1 series:4 use:8 heavy:2 cavalry:1 tactic:2 knight:2 reach:3 formal:1 engage:1 anchialus:1 american:3 paratroops:1 joint:3 exercise:1 significant:5 twelfth:1 thirteenth:1 crusader:1 total:9 plan:6 aircraft:3 drop:1 bomb:1 soon:1 utilize:1 aviation:3 bombardment:1 odrin:1 thus:2 inheritor:1 combat:1 innovator:1 technology:5 surface:1 strategy:1 reduction:1 effort:2 modernize:1 aim:1 perceived:1 need:2 sam:1 launcher:1 parade:1 personnel:1 mission:3 cambodia:1 herzegovina:1 kosovo:1 afghanistan:1 iraq:2 completely:1 compulsory:1 naval:1 suit:2 conduct:1 sa:1 delta:1 ksk:1 spetsnaz:1 defence:1 cooperation:1 bezmer:1 yambol:2 graf:1 ignatievo:1 novo:1 selo:1 train:2 logistics:1 aytos:1 u:4 facility:2 comprises:1 era:3 ship:2 submarine:1 regard:4 modernization:1 purchase:1 frigate:1 belgium:1 likely:1 acquire:3 gowind:1 corvette:1 french:1 company:7 dcn:1 amount:5 equipment:7 transport:3 helicopter:1 underway:2 overhaul:1 weapon:1 spending:1 gdp:6 oblasti:1 singular:1 oblast:1 twenty:1 eight:1 respective:2 blagoevgrad:1 haskovo:2 kardzhali:3 kyustendil:1 montana:1 pazardzhik:1 pernik:3 razgradrousse:1 silistra:2 smolyan:1 targovishte:2 vratsa:1 subdivide:1 mall:1 building:3 bank:1 classify:1 income:2 experience:6 rapid:1 poor:2 eu:2 caput:4 standard:2 living:2 profile:1 allegation:1 willingness:1 tackle:1 partly:2 freeze:2 fund:2 show:2 solid:1 progress:1 speed:2 tame:1 inflation:4 deep:2 crisis:2 figure:3 rate:6 rural:2 double:1 digit:1 mean:2 adoption:1 euro:1 contract:1 dramatically:1 dissolution:1 mutual:1 assistance:1 comecon:1 integrate:1 closely:2 sanction:1 toll:1 recovery:2 grow:4 zhan:1 videnov:1 support:4 unstable:1 banking:1 path:1 fdi:1 macroeconomic:1 stability:1 pledge:1 maintain:1 fundamental:1 policy:2 objective:1 predecessor:1 specifically:1 currency:1 board:1 implement:1 sound:3 financial:1 accelerate:1 privatisation:1 pursue:1 forecast:1 predict:2 economist:1 annual:2 respectively:1 forecaster:1 expect:2 industrial:2 output:2 previous:1 projection:1 envisage:1 structure:2 agriculture:3 agrucultural:1 production:20 kurdzhali:1 agricultural:4 decrease:2 overall:1 related:1 like:7 food:1 processing:1 still:3 play:8 role:6 arable:1 farm:1 predominates:1 stock:1 breeding:1 aeroplane:1 tractor:1 combine:1 harvester:1 crop:1 fao:2 ton:1 wheat:1 sunflower:2 maize:1 grape:1 tobacco:2 tomato:1 barley:1 potato:1 pepper:2 cucumber:1 cherry:1 watermelon:1 cabbage:1 apple:1 plum:1 strawberry:1 producer:8 commodity:1 anise:1 donkey:1 meat:1 seed:3 cereal:1 raspberry:1 sheep:1 milk:4 buffalo:1 melon:1 asparagus:1 mustard:1 chili:1 chestnut:1 flax:1 fibre:1 egg:2 excl:1 hen:1 goat:1 lentils:1 energy:5 republika:1 plant:10 machine:3 room:1 unit:1 kozloduy:3 npp:1 natural:7 fuel:1 oil:6 gas:8 developed:1 sector:1 crucial:1 importance:5 whole:1 exporter:2 electricity:7 balance:1 strategic:1 geographical:1 location:2 hub:2 transit:1 distribution:2 billion:2 kwh:1 photius:1 com:3 kw:1 fourth:3 ead:4 compose:2 bulgargaz:1 bulgartransgaz:1 nek:1 operator:2 nuclear:3 iztok:9 mini:1 mine:4 bulgartel:1 stake:1 capacity:4 closure:1 reactor:2 mw:7 export:2 significantly:1 belene:1 construction:3 projected:1 project:5 additional:2 block:1 concentrate:2 complex:2 tpps:1 bobov:1 dol:1 ruse:1 mining:3 elatsite:2 cast:1 kremikovtsi:3 steel:5 quantity:1 metal:2 bbl:2 cia:2 field:3 discover:1 tyulenovo:1 halt:1 suggestion:1 extraction:1 proved:1 bln:1 cu:1 source:4 earnings:1 pivotal:1 bismuth:2 reprocess:1 vulko:1 chervenkov:1 tonne:3 proven:1 metallurgy:2 much:3 pig:1 metallurgical:1 debelt:1 product:2 capita:1 recently:1 fate:1 serious:1 pollution:1 refinery:2 ural:1 novi:1 pirdop:1 eliseina:1 aluminium:1 relate:2 electronics:1 electric:1 surround:1 botevgrad:2 pravets:1 household:2 appliance:1 computer:6 cd:1 telephone:2 medical:1 past:1 elektronika:1 electronic:2 calculator:1 dryanovo:1 tram:2 trolley:1 dupnitsa:1 bus:2 truck:2 motor:1 lom:2 automotive:1 serf:1 machinery:1 shipbuilding:1 sopot:1 foreigner:1 boost:1 buyer:1 across:1 encourage:1 cheap:1 price:2 easy:1 accessibility:1 via:1 travel:2 boom:1 bbc:1 science:4 telecommunication:2 sokol:1 type:5 space:4 cosmonaut:1 ivanov:2 aleksandrov:1 cm:1 telescope:2 rozhen:2 observatory:5 silicon:1 today:1 hi:1 tech:1 particularly:3 information:6 nanotechnology:3 brainbench:1 global:2 iq:2 report:1 certify:1 specialist:2 itc:1 outperform:1 technological:1 knowhow:1 mensa:2 test:1 score:2 student:1 sat:1 exclude:1 multinational:1 headquarters:1 academy:2 ibm:4 comprehensive:1 leading:2 hewlett:1 packard:1 africa:2 emea:1 sap:1 java:1 application:2 server:1 composite:1 framework:1 netweaver:1 platform:1 laboratory:1 gsm:1 mobile:2 globul:1 mtel:1 vivatel:1 coverage:1 center:2 cellular:1 phone:2 mobikom:1 nmt:1 access:1 internet:2 fast:1 connectivity:1 voip:1 btk:1 offer:4 dsl:1 connection:2 statistic:2 host:4 supply:1 instrument:1 program:1 soyuz:2 alexandrov:1 tm:1 india:1 lunar:1 exploration:1 chandrayaan:1 serial:1 pravetz:1 pharmaceutical:1 stranski:1 molecular:1 kinetic:1 theory:1 crystal:3 formation:1 behaviour:1 widely:3 apply:1 physical:1 chemistry:1 vincent:1 atanasoff:3 physicist:1 purpose:1 berry:1 iowa:2 ames:1 yordanov:1 founder:1 aeronautical:1 engineering:1 aviator:1 engineer:1 inventor:3 contribute:1 blue:3 gene:2 supercomputer:2 scientist:2 petroff:3 nasa:1 watch:3 www:2 allbusiness:1 die:1 compare:1 http:1 engology:1 htm:1 claim:1 yoshiro:1 nakamatsu:1 chemist:1 carl:1 djerassi:1 oral:1 contraceptive:1 pill:1 ocp:1 ancestry:1 employ:1 researcher:1 operational:1 severe:2 mismanagement:1 ministry:1 education:1 responsible:1 electrostatic:1 accelerator:1 neutron:1 generator:1 instal:1 ba:1 вече:1 си:1 имаме:1 суперкомпютър:1 dir:1 bg:1 astronomical:2 southeastern:1 public:2 planetarium:1 focus:1 educational:1 outreach:1 activity:2 musagenitsa:1 metro:2 strategically:1 crossroad:2 road:4 ten:3 trans:1 corridor:1 pave:2 motorway:10 planning:1 partially:1 trakia:2 hemus:1 cherno:2 lyulin:1 await:1 finalisation:1 route:1 link:4 ringroad:1 undergone:1 reconstruction:1 track:1 electrify:1 modernisation:1 electrification:1 kapitan:1 andreevo:1 cost:1 влак:1 стрела:1 ще:1 минава:1 през:2 ботевград:1 до:1 г:2 airport:5 comprehensively:1 official:4 gorna:1 oryahovitsa:1 investment:1 domestic:3 fall:1 unused:1 flight:1 airfield:1 port:2 turnover:1 sozopol:3 nesebar:2 pomorie:1 fish:1 fleet:1 intra:1 trolleybus:1 line:2 uncompleted:1 demographic:2 census:3 statistical:1 institute:1 retrieve:1 sizable:1 rom:2 prominently:1 armenian:1 vlachs:1 jew:3 sarakatsani:1 historically:2 karakachans:1 ethnicity:1 community:1 origin:2 close:4 mode:1 life:5 mother:2 tongue:2 person:1 speak:1 native:2 percentagebulgarian:1 gypsy:1 least:2 nominally:2 religious:4 denomination:4 various:2 protestant:2 catholicism:3 atheist:1 undeclared:1 totalling:1 slow:1 negative:1 emigration:1 nsi:1 fertility:2 child:1 woman:12 palace:2 vazov:1 theatre:1 neo:1 baroque:1 architecture:2 girl:1 traditional:3 clothing:1 exert:1 literary:2 civilization:2 notably:2 site:3 madara:1 rider:1 monument:1 monastery:3 hewn:1 ivanovo:1 beauty:1 park:1 srebarna:1 nature:2 combination:1 interaction:2 seaborne:1 note:2 burial:1 purportedly:1 contain:1 worked:1 contribution:2 humanity:1 twentieth:4 individual:1 citizen:4 father:1 noted:1 opera:1 singer:3 nicolai:1 ghiaurov:1 christoff:1 raina:1 kabaivanska:1 ghena:1 dimitrova:2 anna:2 tomowa:1 sintow:1 vesselina:1 kasarova:1 pianist:1 alexis:1 weissenberg:1 harpist:1 maria:4 ravnopolska:1 dean:1 successful:3 artist:2 christo:1 yavashev:1 pascin:1 vladimir:1 popularize:1 abroad:2 internationally:1 valya:1 balkanska:1 sing:3 song:6 izlel:1 e:1 delyu:1 haydutin:1 voyager:2 selection:1 music:8 spacecraft:1 launch:1 television:2 female:2 vocal:3 choir:3 mystery:2 voice:4 fame:1 characteristic:1 nestinarstvo:2 distinguish:1 strandzha:2 dance:6 fire:1 ember:1 musical:3 trace:1 composer:1 yoan:1 kukuzel:2 ca:1 polieleion:1 writing:1 angel:1 singing:3 ability:1 folk:4 style:1 abound:1 rodopi:1 shore:1 distinctive:2 revolve:1 holiday:2 christmas:3 midsummer:1 lazarus:1 unusual:1 rite:1 villager:1 trance:1 konstantin:1 elena:1 celebration:1 wedding:2 sang:1 sedenka:1 attend:2 young:4 search:1 partner:1 betrothal:1 ceremony:1 fun:1 repertoire:1 eligible:1 marriage:1 dancing:2 square:1 entertainment:1 scene:3 every:4 sunday:1 easter:1 instrumental:2 musician:3 longer:1 act:1 perform:1 lament:1 funeral:1 upon:1 departure:1 ensemble:1 philip:1 koutev:4 orchestra:1 perhaps:1 influential:1 updated:1 accessible:1 harmony:3 acclaim:1 found:2 worldwide:3 release:1 recording:1 entitle:1 le:1 mystère:1 voix:1 bulgares:1 rhythm:1 polyphony:1 interval:1 drone:1 accompaniment:1 underneath:1 melody:1 common:2 shope:1 pioneer:1 tedora:1 trio:1 bulgarka:1 yanka:1 roupkina:1 eva:1 georgieva:1 stoyanka:1 boneva:1 tour:4 visual:3 art:9 painting:4 condemn:1 witchcraft:1 momchilovtsi:1 mrkvička:1 fresco:1 mural:3 icon:2 excellently:1 lifestile:1 upsurge:1 collection:2 exhibit:1 crypt:1 nevski:1 cathedral:2 mainstream:1 palaeogan:1 renaissance:2 graba:1 la:1 peinture:1 religiouse:1 en:1 bulgarie:1 paris:3 depend:1 whether:1 decoration:1 easel:1 iconography:1 realism:1 portrait:2 individualism:1 psychology:1 цончева:1 м:1 за:1 търновската:1 живописна:1 школа:2 в:1 търновска:1 книйовна:1 с:2 realistic:1 consider:1 forerunner:1 старобългарско:1 изкуство:3 том:1 іі:1 никола:1 мавродинов:1 издателство:1 наука:2 софия:2 wall:1 pier:1 arch:1 decorate:1 medallion:1 shape:1 bust:1 image:5 magnificent:1 observe:1 paul:2 christ:3 passion:1 cycle:1 layer:2 pantokrator:1 dome:1 madonna:1 infant:1 apse:1 specific:1 strongly:1 newly:1 somewhat:2 theocratic:1 islamic:2 becan:1 decay:1 slowly:1 revival:2 rapidly:1 current:1 romantism:1 cuisine:4 owe:1 diverse:2 afford:1 variety:5 vegetable:1 herb:1 fruit:1 българска:1 кухня:1 bulgarska:1 kuhnya:1 salad:2 require:1 meal:1 quality:1 dairy:1 wine:2 alcoholic:2 drink:1 rakia:1 mastika:1 menta:1 soup:2 tarator:1 different:2 pastry:4 banitsa:6 prepare:1 mixture:1 whisk:1 sirene:1 feta:1 cheese:1 filo:1 bake:1 oven:1 traditionally:1 cook:1 put:1 lucky:1 charm:2 occasion:1 eve:2 coin:1 symbolic:1 object:1 dogwood:1 bud:1 symbolize:1 health:2 longevity:1 happy:1 wish:2 paper:1 wrap:1 tin:1 foil:1 happiness:1 eat:1 breakfast:1 yogurt:1 ayran:1 boza:1 spinach:1 spanachena:1 sweet:1 version:1 mlechna:1 pumpkin:1 tikvenik:1 entry:1 dish:1 beverage:1 tourism:14 châteauesque:1 euxinograd:1 hemisphere:1 samokov:1 borovets:1 bansko:2 pamporovo:2 ski:5 nessebur:2 sand:2 beach:6 vlas:2 albena:4 constantine:2 helena:2 attract:4 visitor:6 attractive:2 tourist:10 destination:4 enjoy:2 substantial:1 scandinavia:1 netherlands:1 preferred:1 british:2 irish:1 desired:1 visit:1 ranking:3 welcome:1 estimated:1 architectural:2 historic:1 eco:2 adventure:1 available:1 borovetz:1 vitosha:2 picturesque:1 guest:1 german:1 scandinavian:1 favorite:1 view:1 sveshtnik:1 ethno:1 ground:3 cater:1 specialize:1 taste:1 amongst:1 adventurous:1 recreation:1 hiking:1 bike:1 climber:1 scale:1 granite:1 hiker:1 latter:1 mythical:1 birthplace:1 orpheus:1 biking:1 bicycle:2 racing:1 annually:1 randonnees:1 ultra:1 marathon:1 ride:1 pattern:1 brest:1 kavarna:1 concert:1 famed:1 scorpion:1 dream:1 theater:1 purple:1 motörhead:1 flame:1 alice:1 cooper:1 manowar:1 proto:1 museum:1 proper:1 advertising:1 maintenance:1 interesting:1 inaccessible:1 infrastructure:1 yet:1 underdevelopment:1 desirable:1 prefer:1 rather:1 look:1 artefact:1 behind:1 glass:1 yearly:1 towards:1 sport:5 kotooshu:1 cup:10 tournament:1 football:8 fan:1 league:3 team:8 achieve:5 finish:1 fifa:2 dimitar:2 berbatov:2 footballer:3 asparuhov:1 gundi:2 extremely:1 club:4 portugal:1 player:2 award:2 pip:1 stoichkov:3 article:2 arguably:1 career:1 fc:1 barcelona:1 ballon:1 additionally:1 scorer:1 boot:1 slavkov:1 jekov:1 pfc:10 cska:1 champion:9 finalist:3 winner:2 slavia:1 lokomotiv:2 litex:1 uefa:1 stage:1 qualify:1 competition:3 apart:1 boast:1 gigova:1 petrova:1 title:2 rhythmic:1 gymnastics:2 gymnast:1 simona:1 peycheva:1 neshka:1 robeva:1 highly:1 coach:1 yordan:1 yovtchev:1 competitor:1 weightlifting:2 medal:4 case:1 dope:1 weightlifter:3 expulsion:1 olympics:2 voluntary:1 withdrawal:1 olympic:4 withdraw:1 nickolai:1 peshalov:1 demir:1 demirev:1 yoto:1 yotov:1 distinguished:1 wrestling:2 boyan:1 radev:1 serafim:1 barzakov:1 armen:1 nazarian:1 plamen:1 slavov:1 kiril:1 sirakov:1 sergey:1 moreyko:1 wrestler:1 dan:1 kolov:1 legend:1 denkova:2 maksim:1 staviski:2 athletics:2 stefka:1 kostadinova:1 jump:2 centimetre:1 championship:4 clinch:1 coveted:1 pride:1 sprinter:1 ivet:1 lalova:1 tezdzhan:1 naimova:1 volleyball:3 resurgence:1 fivb:1 ranklist:1 chess:3 master:1 veselin:1 topalov:1 junior:3 maxim:1 isu:1 skate:1 twice:2 row:1 ice:1 tennis:2 maleeva:1 sister:2 katerina:1 manuela:1 magdalena:1 tsvetana:1 pironkova:1 sesil:1 karatancheva:1 grigor:1 wimbledon:1 strength:1 shoot:1 grozdeva:1 tanyu:1 kiriakov:1 ekaterina:1 dafovska:1 biathlon:1 game:1 stoychev:1 swimming:1 english:1 channel:1 amateur:1 boxing:1 martial:1 judo:1 karate:1 stefanov:1 mahlyanov:1 kotoōshū:1 katsunori:1 sumo:1 prowess:1 religion:1 nevsky:1 synagogue:1 bashi:1 association:1 obtain:1 primate:1 clergy:1 theological:1 text:2 status:1 promulgation:1 exarchate:1 orthodoxy:1 inseparable:1 element:1 consciousness:1 subordinate:1 domination:1 revive:1 statehood:1 away:1 dogma:1 raise:1 dominant:1 protestantism:2 fourteenth:1 fifteenth:1 sixteenth:2 colonist:1 conversion:1 sect:1 ahmadiyya:1 move:1 ahmadis:2 muslim:1 heretical:1 seventeenth:1 missionary:3 paulicians:1 svishtov:1 descendant:1 bulk:1 catholic:1 whose:1 eurostat:1 eurobarometer:1 poll:1 respond:1 believe:3 god:2 answer:2 sort:1 spirit:2 monarchs:1 reading:1 uk:1 detrez:1 raymond:1 dictionary:1 lxiv:1 bibliography:1 appendix:1 lampe:2 marvin:1 jackson:1 borderland:1 london:2 croom:1 helm:1 fox:1 frank:1 sir:1 ltd:1 book:2 scan:1 gutenberg:1 hall:1 richard:1 columbia:1 perry:1 duncan:1 emergence:1 durham:1 duke:1 васил:1 н:1 златарски:1 история:1 на:1 българската:1 държава:1 средните:1 векове:1 част:1 изд:1 bar:1 zohar:1 michael:1 hitler:1 grasp:1 heroic:1 rescue:1 groueff:1 stephane:1 thorn:1 todorov:2 tzvetan:2 fragility:1 goodness:1 holocaust:1 commentary:1 princeton:2 gulag:1 alexenia:1 fist:1 inside:1 secret:1 archive:1 bell:1 economics:1 society:1 westview:1 guide:5 annie:1 kay:1 bradt:1 greenway:1 lonely:1 planet:1 pettifer:1 jam:1 timothy:1 rice:1 jonathan:1 bousfield:1 rough:1 external:1 department:1 portal:1 library:2 congress:1 friendly:1 ucb:1 govpubs:1 video:1 presentation:1 villages:1 gallery:3 creative:1 attribution:1 license:1 баўгарыя:1 |@bigram republic_macedonia:1 moesia_thrace:2 thrace_macedonia:3 millennium_bc:3 russo_turkish:2 constitutional_monarchy:1 san_stefano:3 ottoman_empire:7 eastern_bloc:2 parliamentary_democracy:1 snow_capped:1 rila_pirin:5 balkan_mountains:4 danubian_plain:2 province_circumboreal:1 circumboreal_region:1 boreal_kingdom:1 balkan_peninsula:5 stara_planina:4 rhodope_mountain:2 meter_ft:1 anthracite_coal:2 lignite_coal:1 manganese_ore:1 thracian_plain:2 aegean_sea:1 temperate_climate:1 degree_celsius:4 stara_zagora:4 encyclopædia_britannica:1 semi_nomadic:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 britannica_online:1 byzantine_chronicler:1 de_boor:1 leipzig_teubner:1 decisive_victory:1 eastern_orthodox:3 loc_cit:1 ninth_tenth:1 cyrillic_alphabet:3 glagolitic_alphabet:1 cyril_methodius:1 lingua_franca:1 averil_cameron:1 blackwell_publishing:1 veliko_tarnovo:3 papal_legate:1 macedonia_thrace:2 ottoman_turks:1 battle_nicopolis:2 kinross_ottoman:1 ecumenical_patriarchate:1 patriarchate_constantinople:3 eastern_rumelia:2 serbo_bulgarian:1 saxe_coburg:1 coburg_gotha:1 coup_état:2 ilinden_preobrazhenie:1 serbia_montenegro:1 abdicate_favour:1 tsar_boris:2 operation_barbarossa:1 soviet_union:2 prime_minister:5 presidential_election:2 georgi_parvanov:1 commander_chief:1 constitutional_amendment:1 unicameral_parliament:1 supreme_court:2 court_cassation:2 patron_saint:1 nineteenth_century:1 twelfth_thirteenth:1 bosnia_herzegovina:1 sofia_bulgaria:1 per_caput:4 unemployment_rate:1 plovdiv_bulgaria:1 macroeconomic_stability:1 combine_harvester:1 barley_potato:1 sunflower_seed:1 chili_pepper:1 billion_kwh:1 bbl_day:1 proved_reserve:1 export_earnings:1 per_capita:1 ural_mountain:1 household_appliance:1 silicon_valley:1 hi_tech:1 hewlett_packard:1 cellular_phone:1 mobile_phone:1 soyuz_tm:1 atanasoff_berry:1 ames_iowa:1 aeronautical_engineering:1 http_www:1 oral_contraceptive:1 contraceptive_pill:1 astronomical_observatory:2 strategically_important:1 sizable_minority:1 crimean_tatar:1 protestant_denomination:1 roman_catholicism:3 fertility_rate:2 twentieth_century:4 anna_maria:1 revolve_around:1 le_mystère:1 dairy_product:1 alcoholic_drink:1 feta_cheese:1 bake_oven:1 christmas_eve:1 alcoholic_beverage:1 northern_hemisphere:1 ski_resort:5 tourist_destination:2 eco_tourism:1 mountain_biking:1 alice_cooper:1 fc_barcelona:1 top_scorer:1 semi_finalist:3 uefa_champion:1 rhythmic_gymnastics:1 artistic_gymnastics:1 gold_medal:2 summer_olympics:2 bronze_medal:1 veselin_topalov:1 figure_skate:1 amateur_boxing:1 martial_art:1 alexander_nevsky:1 bulgarian_patriarchate:1 bulgarian_exarchate:1 eastern_orthodoxy:1 catholicism_protestantism:1 fifteenth_sixteenth:1 sixteenth_seventeenth:1 eurobarometer_poll:1 project_gutenberg:1 crown_thorn:1 princeton_princeton:1 lonely_planet:1 external_link:1 eco_friendly:1 ucb_library:1 library_govpubs:1 |
7,462 | Enniskillen | Enniskillen () is the county town (and largest town) in County Fermanagh. It is located almost exactly in the centre of the county between the Upper and Lower sections of Lough Erne. It had a population of 13,599 in the 2001 Census. It is also the seat of local government for Fermanagh District Council. History The earliest building is the Maguire's stone castle, built by Hugh the Hospitable who died in 1428. An earthwork, the Skonce on the lough shore, may the remains of an earlier motte. The castle was the stronghold of the junior branch of the Maguires. The first water-gate was built around 1580 by Cú Chonnacht Maguire, though subsequent lowering of the level of the lough has left it without water. The strategic position of the castle made it important for the English to capture in 1593 for their plantation plans which was achieved by a Captain Dowdall. Maguire then laid siege to it and defeated a relieving force at the Battle of the Ford of the Bicuits at Drumane Bridge. Although the defenders were relieved, Maguire was in possession of the castle from 1595-8 and it wasn't till 1607 that it was finally captured by the English. This was part of a wider campaign to bring the province of Ulster under English control; there had been a major siege of Enniskillen Castle in 1594. The Plantation of Ulster followed during which the lands of the native Irish were seized and handed over to planters loyal to the English Crown. The Maguires were supplanted by William Cole, originally from Devon, who was appointed by James I to build an English settlement there. Captain Cole was installed as Constable and strengthened the castle wall and built a "fair house" on the old foundation as the centrepoint of the county town. The first Protestant parish church was erected on the hilltop in 1627. The Royal Free School of Fermanagh was moved onto the island in 1643. The first bridges were drawbridges and permanent bridges were not installed before 1688. By 1689 the town had grown significantly. During the conflict which resulted from the ousting of King James II by his Protestant rival, William III, Enniskillen and Derry were the focus of Williamite resistance in Ireland, including the nearby Battle of Newtownbutler. As a direct result of this conflict Enniskillen developed not only as a market town but also as a garrison which became home to two regiments. Military history Enniskillen is the site of the foundation of two British Army regiments: Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers The Inniskillings (6th Dragoons) The town's name (with the archaic spelling) continues to form part of the title to the The Royal Irish Regiment (27th (Inniskilling) 83rd and 87th and Ulster Defence Regiment). The Troubles The Remembrance Day Bombing (8 November 1987) was one of the most notable events of The Troubles. Eleven people were killed and hundreds injured as a result of a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) bomb. The IRA later claimed that their target was a colour guard of British soldiers. At the same time as the Enniskillen bombing, the IRA also planted a bomb 20 miles away in Tullyhommon, near Pettigo, where the Boys' Brigade and the Girls' Brigade were due to participate in a Remembrance Day service. The bomb failed to detonate, preventing the further loss of innocent life. The Enniskillen bomb is acknowledged by some as a turning point in the Northern Ireland peace process. For more information see The Troubles in Enniskillen, which includes a list of incidents in Enniskillen during the Troubles resulting in fatalities. Miscellaneous The Irish singer/songwriter Tommy Makem wrote a lighthearted song about the town, "Fare Thee Well, Enniskillen," covered by The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem and The Dubliners. The Chieftains sing a song that mentions Enniskillin titled "North Amerikay". Demographics Enniskillen is classified as a "medium town" by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) (ie with population between 10,000 and 18,000 people). On census day (29 April 2001) there were 13,599 people living in Enniskillen. 23.2% were aged under 16 years and 17.4% were aged 60 and over 48.1% of the population were male and 51.9% were female 61.5% were from a Roman Catholic background and 36.3% were from a Protestant background 5.2% of people aged 16-74 were unemployed. For more details see: NI Neighbourhood Information Service Places of interest Cole's Monument Ardhowen Theatre Castle Coole Enniskillen Collegiate Grammar School Cole's Monument Enniskillen Castle Portora Royal School St Macartin's Cathedral The Diamond and Town Hall The Clinton Centre St. Michael's College (Enniskillen) International events In recent years, Enniskillen has hosted an array of international events, most notably, stages of the World Waterski World Cup annually from 2005 to 2007, at the Broadmeadow . Despite its success, Enniskillen was not chosen as a World Cup Stop for 2008. Also, a Pro wakeboard competition, 'Wakejam', took place between July 27 and July 29 2007, where top riders from around the world, as well as local riders, took part in the event, hosted by Erne Wakeboard Club (EWC). In January 2009, Enniskillen hosted the ceremonial start of Rally Ireland 2009, the first stage of the WRC FIA World Rally Championship 2009 Calendar. People The following are people born or brought up in or around Enniskillen. Locally, people are only considered to be truly from Enniskillen if they were born "between the bridges", i.e. on the island. Oscar Wilde, satirist and playwright, educated at Portora Royal School Neil Hannon, lead singer/composer of the pop band The Divine Comedy educated at Portora Royal School Samuel Beckett, playwright, educated at Portora Royal School Roy Carroll, goalkeeper for Derby County FC Jim Cleary, former Glentoran footballer and member of Northern Ireland's 1982 World Cup squad. Adrian Dunbar, actor, born and brought up in Enniskillen Frank Hoy, professional wrestler, was born in the town David Robinson, photographer and publisher, educated at Portora Royal School Ted Keenan, Channel Swimmer, born & lives in Enniskillen Edward Kernan, a Roman Catholic bishop Kyle Lafferty, striker, professional football player for Rangers and Northern Ireland international. Charles Lawson, most notable for playing Jim McDonald in Coronation Street Andrew Little (footballer), professional football player for Rangers and Northern Ireland international. Rodney Edwards, journalist, broadcaster and columnist Henry Francis Lyte, hymn composer, most notably Abide With Me, educated at Portora Royal School Nial Fulton, film and television producer, educated at Portora Royal School Bobby Kerr, Olympic 100 m gold medalist in the 1908 Olympics for Canada Michael McGovern, goalkeeper, currently with Dundee United F.C. Kieran McKenna, midfielder, currently with Tottenham Hotspur Ciarán McMenamin, television actor Frank Ormsby, poet Claire Falconer, actress and painter Seán Quinn, entrepreneur and Ireland's richest man (originally from Derrylin) Duke of Westminster, formerly the UK's richest man, brought up at the family's estate at Ely Lodge David McCann, author of children's books Mick Softley singer and song writer for Bob Dylan, currently lives in the town Gordon Wilson (peace campaigner), peace campaigner and Irish senator Ron Wilson (newsreader) is a news anchor with Network Ten in Australia E Charles Nelson, Botanist and Botanical Author, educated at Portora Royal School John White, Royal Navy, Surgeon General New South Wales (1788), Sailed in First Fleet HMS Sirius. Educated at Portora Royal School. Gavin Noble, Irish international triathlete. Education There are numerous schools and colleges in and around the Enniskillen area, from primary level to secondary level, including some further education colleges such as the technical college. Primary level Erne Integrated Primary school Model primary school Holy Trinity Primary School Jones Memorial Primary School Saint Patrick's Primary School, Mullanaskea Secondary level Erne Integrated College Devenish College (a collaboration of Enniskillen High School and the Duke of Westminster College in Kesh) Enniskillen Collegiate Grammar School Portora Royal School Mount Lourdes Enniskillen; convent girls grammar school Historic houseSt Michael's College; boys grammar school St Fanchea's College St Joseph's College Colleges Enniskillen College of Agriculture, Food and Rural Enterprise Enniskillen Campus South West College Transport Until 1957, the town was a junction on the Great Northern Railway and had rail links to Clones, Omagh and Bundoran, and the shared station was the eastern terminus of the SL&NCR railway, which ran passenger and freight services to Sligo. There is extensive bus service in Enniskillen; both Ulsterbus and Bus Eireann serve Fermanagh through the main bus station in Enniskillen. The town is also home to a World War II era airport, Enniskillen/St Angelo Airport. While the airport had scheduled flights in the past, it now serves mainly private traffic. The town is located on the main A4/N16 route from Belfast to Sligo, and on the main Dublin to Ballyshannon route, the N3/A46/A509. Twinning Enniskillen is twinned with Bielefeld, Germany. Enniskillen was originally twinned with Brackwede - a Bielefeld suburb - where the Inniskillen Dragoon Guards were stationed at the end of World War II ; however, this suburb was incorporated into Stadt Bielefeld in 1973, the city with which Enniskillen is now officially twinned. Bielefeld, North Rhine-Westphalia - Germany References Culture Northern Ireland Enniskillen Gaels GFC. See also List of towns in Northern Ireland List of villages in Northern Ireland Battle of Newtownbutler External links Enniskillen.Com Enniskillen Hotels | Enniskillen |@lemmatized enniskillen:37 county:5 town:15 large:1 fermanagh:4 locate:2 almost:1 exactly:1 centre:2 upper:1 low:1 section:1 lough:3 erne:4 population:3 census:2 also:6 seat:1 local:2 government:1 district:1 council:1 history:2 early:2 building:1 maguire:4 stone:1 castle:8 build:4 hugh:1 hospitable:1 die:1 earthwork:1 skonce:1 shore:1 may:1 remains:1 motte:1 stronghold:1 junior:1 branch:1 maguires:2 first:5 water:2 gate:1 around:4 cú:1 chonnacht:1 though:1 subsequent:1 lowering:1 level:5 leave:1 without:1 strategic:1 position:1 make:1 important:1 english:5 capture:2 plantation:2 plan:1 achieve:1 captain:2 dowdall:1 lay:1 siege:2 defeat:1 relieve:2 force:1 battle:3 ford:1 bicuits:1 drumane:1 bridge:4 although:1 defender:1 possession:1 till:1 finally:1 part:3 wider:1 campaign:1 bring:4 province:1 ulster:3 control:1 major:1 follow:1 land:1 native:1 irish:6 seize:1 hand:1 planter:1 loyal:1 crown:1 supplant:1 william:2 cole:4 originally:3 devon:1 appoint:1 james:2 settlement:1 instal:2 constable:1 strengthen:1 wall:1 fair:1 house:1 old:1 foundation:2 centrepoint:1 protestant:3 parish:1 church:1 erect:1 hilltop:1 royal:14 free:1 school:22 move:1 onto:1 island:2 drawbridge:1 permanent:1 grow:1 significantly:1 conflict:2 result:4 ousting:1 king:1 ii:3 rival:1 iii:1 derry:1 focus:1 williamite:1 resistance:1 ireland:11 include:3 nearby:1 newtownbutler:2 direct:1 develop:1 market:1 garrison:1 become:1 home:2 two:2 regiment:4 military:1 site:1 british:2 army:2 inniskilling:2 fusilier:1 inniskillings:1 dragoon:2 name:1 archaic:1 spelling:1 continue:1 form:1 title:2 defence:1 trouble:4 remembrance:2 day:3 bombing:2 november:1 one:1 notable:2 event:4 eleven:1 people:7 kill:1 hundred:1 injure:1 provisional:1 republican:1 ira:3 bomb:4 later:1 claim:1 target:1 colour:1 guard:2 soldier:1 time:1 plant:1 mile:1 away:1 tullyhommon:1 near:1 pettigo:1 boy:1 brigade:2 girl:2 due:1 participate:1 service:4 fail:1 detonate:1 prevent:1 loss:1 innocent:1 life:2 acknowledge:1 turn:1 point:1 northern:9 peace:3 process:1 information:2 see:3 list:3 incident:1 fatality:1 miscellaneous:1 singer:3 songwriter:1 tommy:2 makem:2 write:1 lighthearted:1 song:3 fare:1 thee:1 well:2 cover:1 clancy:1 brother:1 dubliner:1 chieftain:1 sing:1 mention:1 enniskillin:1 north:2 amerikay:1 demographic:1 classify:1 medium:1 statistic:1 research:1 agency:1 nisra:1 ie:1 april:1 live:2 age:3 year:2 male:1 female:1 roman:2 catholic:2 background:2 unemployed:1 detail:1 ni:1 neighbourhood:1 place:2 interest:1 monument:2 ardhowen:1 theatre:1 coole:1 collegiate:2 grammar:4 portora:10 st:5 macartin:1 cathedral:1 diamond:1 hall:1 clinton:1 michael:3 college:13 international:5 recent:1 host:3 array:1 notably:2 stage:2 world:8 waterski:1 cup:3 annually:1 broadmeadow:1 despite:1 success:1 choose:1 stop:1 pro:1 wakeboard:2 competition:1 wakejam:1 take:2 july:2 top:1 rider:2 club:1 ewc:1 january:1 ceremonial:1 start:1 rally:2 wrc:1 fia:1 championship:1 calendar:1 following:1 born:1 locally:1 consider:1 truly:1 bear:4 e:2 oscar:1 wilde:1 satirist:1 playwright:2 educate:8 neil:1 hannon:1 lead:1 composer:2 pop:1 band:1 divine:1 comedy:1 samuel:1 beckett:1 roy:1 carroll:1 goalkeeper:2 derby:1 fc:1 jim:2 cleary:1 former:1 glentoran:1 footballer:2 member:1 squad:1 adrian:1 dunbar:1 actor:2 frank:2 hoy:1 professional:3 wrestler:1 david:2 robinson:1 photographer:1 publisher:1 ted:1 keenan:1 channel:1 swimmer:1 edward:2 kernan:1 bishop:1 kyle:1 lafferty:1 striker:1 football:2 player:2 ranger:2 charles:2 lawson:1 play:1 mcdonald:1 coronation:1 street:1 andrew:1 little:1 rodney:1 journalist:1 broadcaster:1 columnist:1 henry:1 francis:1 lyte:1 hymn:1 abide:1 nial:1 fulton:1 film:1 television:2 producer:1 bobby:1 kerr:1 olympic:1 gold:1 medalist:1 olympics:1 canada:1 mcgovern:1 currently:3 dundee:1 united:1 f:1 c:1 kieran:1 mckenna:1 midfielder:1 tottenham:1 hotspur:1 ciarán:1 mcmenamin:1 ormsby:1 poet:1 claire:1 falconer:1 actress:1 painter:1 seán:1 quinn:1 entrepreneur:1 richest:2 man:2 derrylin:1 duke:2 westminster:2 formerly:1 uk:1 family:1 estate:1 ely:1 lodge:1 mccann:1 author:2 child:1 book:1 mick:1 softley:1 writer:1 bob:1 dylan:1 gordon:1 wilson:2 campaigner:2 senator:1 ron:1 newsreader:1 news:1 anchor:1 network:1 ten:1 australia:1 nelson:1 botanist:1 botanical:1 john:1 white:1 navy:1 surgeon:1 general:1 new:1 south:2 wale:1 sail:1 fleet:1 hm:1 sirius:1 gavin:1 noble:1 triathlete:1 education:2 numerous:1 area:1 primary:7 secondary:2 technical:1 integrate:1 model:1 holy:1 trinity:1 jones:1 memorial:1 saint:1 patrick:1 mullanaskea:1 integrated:1 devenish:1 collaboration:1 high:1 kesh:1 mount:1 lourdes:1 convent:1 historic:1 housest:1 boys:1 fanchea:1 joseph:1 agriculture:1 food:1 rural:1 enterprise:1 campus:1 west:1 transport:1 junction:1 great:1 railway:2 rail:1 link:2 clone:1 omagh:1 bundoran:1 share:1 station:3 eastern:1 terminus:1 sl:1 ncr:1 run:1 passenger:1 freight:1 sligo:2 extensive:1 bus:3 ulsterbus:1 eireann:1 serve:2 main:3 war:2 era:1 airport:3 angelo:1 schedule:1 flight:1 past:1 mainly:1 private:1 traffic:1 route:2 belfast:1 dublin:1 ballyshannon:1 twin:4 bielefeld:4 germany:2 brackwede:1 suburb:2 inniskillen:1 end:1 however:1 incorporate:1 stadt:1 city:1 officially:1 rhine:1 westphalia:1 reference:1 culture:1 gael:1 gfc:1 village:1 external:1 com:1 hotel:1 |@bigram county_fermanagh:1 lough_erne:1 plantation_ulster:1 royal_inniskilling:1 inniskilling_fusilier:1 singer_songwriter:1 tommy_makem:2 male_female:1 portora_royal:10 oscar_wilde:1 educate_portora:8 neil_hannon:1 samuel_beckett:1 professional_wrestler:1 gold_medalist:1 tottenham_hotspur:1 bob_dylan:1 passenger_freight:1 dragoon_guard:1 rhine_westphalia:1 external_link:1 |
7,463 | Burkina_Faso | {{Infobox Country |native_name = Burkina Faso |common_name = Burkina Faso |image_flag = Flag of Burkina Faso.svg |image_coat = Burkina Faso COA.png |national_motto = "Unité, Progrès, Justice"(French)"Unity, Progress, Justice" |image_map = LocationBurkinaFaso.svg |national_anthem = Une Seule Nuit<small>(French)One Single Night - Thomas Sankara</small> |official_languages = French |regional_languages = Mòoré, Dioula |demonym = Burkinabé |capital = Ouagadougou |latd=12 |latm=20 |latNS=N |longd=1 |longm=40 |longEW=W |largest_city = capital |government_type = Semi-presidential republic |leader_title1 = President |leader_name1 = Blaise Compaoré |leader_title2 = Prime Minister |leader_name2 = Tertius Zongo |sovereignty_type = Independence |sovereignty_note = from France |established_event1 = Date |established_date1 = August 5, 1960 |area_km2 = 274,000 |area_sq_mi = 105,792 |area_rank = 74th |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |percent_water = 0.1% |population_estimate = 13,228,000 |population_estimate_year = 2005 |population_estimate_rank = 66th |population_census = 10,312,669 |population_census_year = 1996 |population_density_km2 = 48 |population_density_sq_mi = 124 |population_density_rank = 145th |GDP_PPP_year = 2008 |GDP_PPP = $17.773 billion |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,265 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $8.103 billion |GDP_nominal_year = 2008 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $577 |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI = 0.372 |HDI_rank = 173rd |HDI_category = low |Gini = 39.5 |Gini_year = 2003 |Gini_category = medium |currency = West African CFA franc CFA Franc BCEAO. Codes: XOF / 952 ISO 4217 currency names and code elements. ISO. Accessed 2009-05-08. |currency_code = XOF |time_zone = GMT |utc_offset = |time_zone_DST = not observed |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = right |cctld = .bf |calling_code = 226 |footnote1 = The data here is an estimation for the year 2005 produced by the International Monetary Fund in April 2005. }} Burkina Faso ( or /byʁ.ki.na fa.so/ in French), also known by its short-form name Burkina, is a landlocked nation in West Africa. It is surrounded by six countries: Mali to the north, Niger to the east, Benin to the south east, Togo and Ghana to the south, and Côte d'Ivoire to the south west. Its size is 274,000 km² with an estimated population of more than 13,200,000. Formerly called the Republic of Upper Volta, it was renamed on August 4, 1984, by President Thomas Sankara to mean "the land of upright people" in Moré and Dioula, the major native languages of the country. Literally, "Burkina" may be translated, "men of integrity," from the Moré language, and "Faso" means "father's house" in Dioula. The inhabitants of Burkina Faso are known as Burkinabè ( ). Burkina Faso's capital is Ouagadougou. After gaining independence from France in 1960, the country underwent many governmental changes until arriving at its current form, a semi-presidential republic. The president is Blaise Compaoré. The country occupies the second-last place on the Human Development Index. History Early history Burkina Faso was populated early, between 12000 and 5000 BCE, by hunter-gatherers in the northwestern part of the country, whose tools, such as scrapers, chisels and arrowheads, were discovered in 1973. Settlements appeared between 3600 and 2600 BCE with farmers. Based on traces of the farmers' structures, the settlements appear to have been permanent. The use of iron, ceramics and polished stone developed between 1500 and 1000 BCE, as well as a preoccupation with spiritual matters, as shown by burial remains. Relics of the Dogon are found in Burkina Faso's north and northwest regions. The Dogon left the area between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to settle in the cliffs of Bandiagara. Elsewhere, the remains of high walls are localized in the southwest of Burkina Faso (as well as in the Côte d'Ivoire), but the people who built them have not been identified. The central part of Burkina Faso included a number of Mossi kingdoms, the most powerful of which were that of Wagadogo (Ouagadougou) and Yatenga. These kingdoms emerged probably in the early sixteenth century from obscure origins veiled by legend featuring a heterogeneous set of warrior figures. Michel Izard, Moogo. L'émergence d'un espace étatique ouest-africain au XVIe siècle From colony to independence Traditional huts in south-east Burkina Faso After a decade of intense rivalry and competition between the English and the French, waged through treaty-making expeditions under military or civilian explorers, the Mossi kingdom of Ouagadougou was defeated by French colonial forces and became a French protectorate in 1896. The eastern region and the western region, where a standoff against the forces of the powerful ruler Samori Ture complicated the situation, came under French occupation in 1897. By 1898, the majority of the territory corresponding to Burkina Faso today was nominally conquered; however, control of many parts remained uncertain. The French and English convention of 14 June 1898 ended the scramble between the two colonial powers and drew the borders between the countries' colonies. On the French side, a war of conquest against local communities and political powers continued for about five years. In 1904, the largely pacified territories of the Volta basin were integrated into the Upper Senegal and Niger colony of French West Africa as part of the reorganization of the French West African colonial empire. The colony had its capital in Bamako. Draftees from the territory participated in the European fronts of World War I in the battalions of the Senegalese Rifles. Between 1915 and 1916, the districts in the western part of what is now Burkina Faso and the bordering eastern fringe of Mali became the stage of one of the most important armed oppositions to colonial government, known as the Volta-Bani War. Mahir Saul and Patrick Royer, West African Challenge to Empire, 2001 The French government finally suppressed the movement, but only after suffering defeats and being forced to gather the largest expeditionary force of its colonial history up to that point. Armed opposition also wracked the Sahelian north when the Tuareg and allied groups of the Dori region ended their truce with the government. French Upper Volta was established on March 1, 1919. This move was a result of French fears of the recurrence of armed uprising along with economic considerations, and the colonial government separated the present territory of Burkina Faso from Upper Senegal and Niger to bolster its administration. The new colony was named Haute Volta and François Charles Alexis Édouard Hesling became its first governor. Hesling initiated an ambitious road-making program and promoted the growth of cotton for export. The cotton policy, based on coercion, failed, and revenue stagnated. The colony was later dismantled on September 5, 1932, being split up between the Côte d’Ivoire, French Sudan and Niger. Côte d'Ivoire received the largest share, which contained most of the population as well as the cities of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso. Children of the 1983-1987 revolution The decision was reversed during the intense anti-colonial agitation that followed the end of World War II. After World War II, on September 4, 1947, the colony was revived as a part of the French Union, with its previous boundaries. On 11 December 1958, it achieved self-government and became the Republic of Upper Volta and a member of the Franco-African Community. A revision in the organization of French Overseas Territories began with the passage of the Basic Law (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956. This act was followed by reorganizational measures approved by the French parliament early in 1957 that ensured a large degree of self-government for individual territories. Upper Volta became an autonomous republic in the French community on December 11, 1958. Full independence from France was attained in 1960. Upper Volta The Republic of Upper Volta () was established on December 11, 1958, as a self-governing colony within the French Community. The name Upper Volta indicated that the country contains the upper part of the Volta River. The river is divided into three parts, called the Black Volta, White Volta and Red Volta, and the colors of the national flag corresponded to the parts of the river. Before attaining autonomy it had been French Upper Volta and part of the French Union. On August 5, 1960 it attained full independence from France. The first president, Maurice Yaméogo, was the leader of the Voltaic Democratic Union (UDV). The 1960 constitution provided for election by universal suffrage of a president and a national assembly for 5-year terms. Soon after coming to power, Yaméogo banned all political parties other than the UDV. The government lasted until 1966 when after much unrest—mass demonstrations and strikes by students, labor unions, and civil servants—the military intervened. The military coup deposed Yaméogo, suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly, and placed Lt. Col. Sangoulé Lamizana at the head of a government of senior army officers. The army remained in power for 4 years, and on June 14, 1970, the Voltans ratified a new constitution that established a 4-year transition period toward complete civilian rule. Lamizana remained in power throughout the 1970s as president of military or mixed civil-military governments. After conflict over the 1970 constitution, a new constitution was written and approved in 1977, and Lamizana was reelected by open elections in 1978. Lamizana's government faced problems with the country's traditionally powerful trade unions, and on November 25, 1980, Col. Saye Zerbo overthrew President Lamizana in a bloodless coup. Colonel Zerbo established the Military Committee of Recovery for National Progress as the supreme governmental authority, thus eradicating the 1977 constitution. Colonel Zerbo also encountered resistance from trade unions and was overthrown two years later, on November 7, 1982, by Maj. Dr. Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo and the Council of Popular Salvation (CSP). The CSP continued to ban political parties and organizations, yet promised a transition to civilian rule and a new constitution. Factional infighting developed between moderates in the CSP and the radicals, led by Capt. Thomas Sankara, who was appointed prime minister in January 1983. The internal political struggle and Sankara's leftist rhetoric led to his arrest and subsequent efforts to bring about his release, directed by Capt. Blaise Compaoré. This release effort resulted in yet another military coup d'état on August 4, 1983. After the coup, Sankara formed the National Council for the Revolution (CNR), with himself as president. Sankara also established Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDRs) to "mobilize the masses" and implement the CNR's revolutionary programs. The CNR, whose exact membership remained secret until the end, contained two small intellectual Marxist-Leninist groups. Sankara, Compaore, Capt. Henri Zongo, and Maj. Jean-Baptiste Lingani—all leftist military officers—dominated the regime. Under the direction of Sankara the name of the state was changed on August 4, 1984, from Upper Volta to Burkina Faso, meaning "the country of honorable people". Politics The constitution of 2 June 1991 established a semi-presidential government with a parliament which can be dissolved by the President of the Republic, who is elected for a term of seven years. In 2000, however, the constitution was amended to reduce the presidential term to five years. The amendment took effect during the 2005 elections. The amendment also would have prevented the sitting president, Blaise Compaoré, from being reelected; however, notwithstanding a challenge by other presidential candidates, the constitutional council ruled in October 2005 that because Compaoré was the sitting president in 2000, the amendment would not apply to him until the end of his second term in office. This cleared the way for his candidacy in the 2005 election. On 13 November, Compaoré was reelected in a landslide due to a divided political opposition. The parliament consists of two chambers: the lower house, known as the National Assembly, and the upper house, the House of Representatives. There is also a constitutional chamber, composed of ten members, and an economic and social council whose roles are purely consultative. Regions, provinces, and departments Regions of Burkina Faso. Burkina Faso is divided into thirteen regions, forty-five provinces, and 301 departments. The regions are: Boucle du Mouhoun Cascades Centre Centre-Est Centre-Nord Centre-Ouest Centre-Sud Est Hauts-Bassins Nord Plateau-Central Sahel Sud-Ouest Geography and climate Burkina Faso is made up of two major types of countryside. The larger part of the country is covered by a peneplain, which forms a gently undulating landscape with, in some areas, a few isolated hills, the last vestiges of a Precambrian massif. The southwest of the country, on the other hand, forms a sandstone massif, where the highest peak, Ténakourou, is found at an elevation of 749 meters (2,450 feet). The massif is bordered by sheer cliffs up to 150 meters (490 ft) high. The average altitude of Burkina Faso is 400 meters (1,300 ft) and the difference between the highest and lowest terrain is no greater than 600 meters (2,000 ft). Burkina Faso is therefore a relatively flat country. The country owes its former name of Upper Volta to three rivers which cross it: the Black Volta (or Mouhoun), the White Volta (Nakambé) and the Red Volta (Nazinon). The Black Volta, along with the Komoé, which flows to the southwest, is one of the country's only two rivers which flow year-round. The basin of the Niger River also drains 27% of the country's surface. Its tributaries, the Béli, the Gorouol, the Goudébo and the Dargol, are seasonal streams and only flow for four to six months a year. They still, however, can cause large floods. The country also contains numerous lakes. The principal lakes are Tingrela, Bam and Dem. The country also contains large ponds, such as Oursi, Béli, Yomboli and Markoye. Water shortages are often a problem, especially in the north of the country. Savannah near the Gbomblora Department, on the road from Gaoua to Batié. Burkina Faso has a primarily tropical climate with two very distinct seasons. In the rainy season, the country receives between 600 and 900 millimeters (24-35 inches) of rainfall, and in the dry season, the harmattan, a hot dry wind from the Sahara, blows. The rainy season lasts approximately four months, May/June to September, and is shorter in the north of the country. Three climatic zones can be defined: the Sahel, the Sudan-Sahel, and the Sudan-Guinea. The Sahel in the north typically receives less than 600 millimeters (24 inches) of rainfall per year and has high temperatures, 5–47 °C (40–115 °F). A relatively dry tropical savanna, the Sahel extends beyond the borders of Burkina Faso, from the Horn of Africa to the Atlantic Ocean, and borders the Sahara to its north and the fertile region of the Sudan to the South. Situated between 11°3' and 13°5' north latitude, the Sudan-Sahel region is a transitional zone with regards to rainfall and temperature. Further to the south, the Sudan-Guinea zone receives more than 900 millimeters (35 inches) of rain each year and has cooler average temperatures. Burkina Faso's natural resources include manganese, limestone, marble, phosphates, pumice, salt and small deposits of gold. Burkina Faso's fauna and flora are protected in two national parks and several reserves, see List of national parks in Africa. Economy Shop in Burkina Faso. Burkina Faso has one of the lowest GDP per capita incomes in the world: $1,200. Agriculture represents 32% of its gross domestic product and occupies 80% of the working population. It consists mostly of livestock but also, especially in the south and southwest, of growing sorghum, pearl millet, maize (corn), peanuts, rice and cotton. Unemployment causes a high rate of emigration. For example, three million citizens of Burkina Faso live in Côte d'Ivoire. According to the Central Bank of West African States, these migrants send substantial amounts of money back to Burkina Faso each year. Since the 1967 expulsions from Ghana, this situation has provoked tensions in the recipient countries. The most recent crisis occurred owing to the events of 2003 in Côte d'Ivoire, which led to the return of 300,000 migrants. A large part of the economic activity of the country is funded by international aid. The currency of Burkina faso is the CFA franc. There is mineral exploitation of copper, iron, manganese and, above all, gold. Burkina Faso also hosts the International Art and Craft Fair, Ouagadougou, better known by its French name as SIAO, Le Salon International de l' Artisanat de Ouagadougou, one of the most important African handicraft fairs. Burkina Faso is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). Demographics United Nations Square in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Burkina Faso's 15.3 million people belong to two major West African cultural groups—the Voltaic and the Mande (whose common language is Dioula). The Voltaic Mossi make up about one-half of the population. The Mossi claim descent from warriors who migrated to present-day Burkina Faso from Ghana and established an empire that lasted more than 800 years. Predominantly farmers, the Mossi kingdom is still led by the Mogho Naba, whose court is in Ouagadougou. "Burkina Faso". U.S. Department of State (June 2008). Burkina Faso is an ethnically integrated, secular state. Most of Burkina's people are concentrated in the south and center of the country, sometimes exceeding 48 per square kilometer (125/sq. mi.). Hundreds of thousands of Burkinabe migrate to Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana, many for seasonal agricultural work. These flows of workers are obviously affected by external events; the September 2002 coup attempt in Cote d'Ivoire and the ensuing fighting there have meant that hundreds of thousands of Burkinabe returned to Burkina Faso. Burkina Faso has an estimated life expectancy at birth of 52.55 years of age. The median age of its inhabitants is 16.7. The estimated population growth rate is 3.109%. CIA World Factbook, Burkina Faso Religion The Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso While exact statistics on religion in Burkina Faso are not available and estimates vary widely, the Government of Burkina Faso stated in its most recent census (1996) that approximately 60 percent of the population practice Islam, and that the majority of this group belong to the Sunni branch, while remaining minorities adhere to the Shi'a branch, and significant numbers of Sunni Muslims identify with the Tijaniyah Sufi, or Salafi traditions. International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Burkina Faso. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (September 14, 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. The Government also estimated that 24 percent of the population maintains traditional indigenous beliefs, 17 percent practices Roman Catholicism, and 3 percent are members of various Protestant denominations. A common proverb in Burkina Faso claims that "50% are Muslim, 50% are Christian, and 100% are Animist". This shows the large level of acceptance of the various religions amongst each other. Even for Muslims and Christians, ancient Animist rites are still highly valued. The Great Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso was built by people of all faiths working together. Culture Cinema Sanyon in Bobo-Dioulasso. Literature in Burkina Faso is based on the oral tradition, which remains important. In 1934, during French occupation, Dim-Dolobsom Ouedraogo published his Maximes, pensées et devinettes mossi (Maximes, Thoughts and Riddles of the Mossi), a record of the oral history of the Mossi people. The oral tradition continued to have an influence on Burkinabè writers in the post-independence Burkina Faso of the 1960s, such as Nazi Boni and Roger Nikiema. The 1960s saw a growth in the number of playwrights being published. Since the 1970s, literature has developed in Burkina Faso with many more writers being published. The theatre of Burkina Faso combines traditional Burkinabè performance with the colonial influences and post-colonial efforts to educate rural people to produce a distinctive national theatre. Traditional ritual ceremonies of the many ethnic groups in Burkina Faso have long involved dancing with masks. Western-style theatre became common during colonial times, heavily influenced by French theatre. With independence came a new style of theatre inspired by forum theatre aimed at educating and entertaining Burkina Faso's rural people. The cuisine of Burkina Faso, typically of west African cuisine, is based around staple foods of sorghum, millet, rice, maize, peanuts, potatoes, beans, yams and okra. The most common sources of protein are chicken, chicken eggs and fresh water fish. A typical Burkinabè beverage is Banji or Palm Wine, which is fermented palm sap. Especially the town of Banfora is known for its good quality Banji, though you should be wary of the Banji sold by hawkers as it is often not very fresh may contain added water. The cinema of Burkina Faso is an important part of West African and African film industry. Spaas, p.232 Education Education in Burkina Faso is divided into primary, secondary and higher education. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Burkina-Faso-EDUCATION.html However schooling is not free. Secondary school costs approximately CFA 50,000 ($97 USD) per year, which is far above the means of most Burkinabè families. Boys receive preference in schooling; as such, girls' education and literacy rates are far lower than their male counterparts. An increase in girls' schooling has been observed due to the government's policy of making school cheaper for girls and granting them more scholarships. In order to proceed from elementary to middle school, middle to high school or high school to college, national exams must be passed. Institutions of higher education include the University of Ouagadougou, The Polytechnical University in Bobo-Dioulasso and the University of Koudougou, which is also a teacher training institution. There are private colleges in the capital city of Ouagadougou but these are affordable by only a small portion of the population. There is also an International School of Ouagadougou (ISO), which is an American-based private school located in Ouagadougou. The United Nations Development Program Report ranks Burkina Faso as the country with the lowest level of literacy in the world, despite a concerted effort to double its literacy rate from 12.8% in 1990 to 25.3% in 2008. See also References External links Government Premier Ministère official government portal (in French) Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Burkina Faso from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' News media News headline links from AllAfrica.com Travel be-x-old:Буркіна Фасо | Burkina_Faso |@lemmatized infobox:1 country:25 burkina:59 faso:57 flag:2 svg:2 coa:1 png:1 unité:1 progrès:1 justice:2 french:27 unity:1 progress:2 locationburkinafaso:1 une:1 seule:1 nuit:1 small:5 one:6 single:1 night:1 thomas:3 sankara:8 mòoré:1 dioula:4 demonym:1 burkinabé:1 capital:5 ouagadougou:13 latd:1 latm:1 latns:1 n:1 longd:1 longm:1 longew:1 w:1 semi:3 presidential:5 republic:7 president:11 blaise:4 compaoré:6 prime:2 minister:2 tertius:1 zongo:2 independence:7 france:4 date:1 august:5 billion:2 hdi:1 low:6 gini:1 medium:2 currency:3 west:10 african:10 cfa:4 franc:3 bceao:1 code:2 xof:2 iso:3 name:7 element:1 accessed:1 gmt:1 observe:2 right:2 cctld:1 bf:1 data:1 estimation:1 year:16 produce:2 international:6 monetary:1 fund:2 april:1 byʁ:1 ki:1 na:1 fa:1 also:15 know:6 short:1 form:5 landlocked:1 nation:3 africa:6 surround:1 six:2 mali:2 north:8 niger:5 east:3 benin:1 south:8 togo:1 ghana:4 côte:6 ivoire:8 size:1 estimated:2 population:8 formerly:1 call:2 upper:14 volta:21 rename:1 mean:5 land:1 upright:1 people:9 moré:2 major:3 native:1 language:3 literally:1 may:3 translate:1 men:1 integrity:1 father:1 house:4 inhabitant:2 burkinabè:5 gain:1 undergo:1 many:5 governmental:2 change:2 arrive:1 current:1 occupy:2 second:2 last:5 place:2 human:2 development:2 index:1 history:4 early:4 populate:1 bce:3 hunter:1 gatherer:1 northwestern:1 part:13 whose:5 tool:1 scraper:1 chisel:1 arrowhead:1 discover:1 settlement:2 appear:2 farmer:3 base:5 trace:1 structure:1 permanent:1 use:1 iron:2 ceramic:1 polish:1 stone:1 develop:3 well:3 preoccupation:1 spiritual:1 matter:1 show:2 burial:1 remains:2 relic:1 dogon:2 find:2 northwest:1 region:10 leave:1 area:2 fifteenth:1 sixteenth:2 century:2 settle:1 cliff:2 bandiagara:1 elsewhere:1 high:10 wall:1 localize:1 southwest:4 build:2 identify:2 central:3 include:3 number:3 mossi:8 kingdom:4 powerful:3 wagadogo:1 yatenga:1 emerge:1 probably:1 obscure:1 origin:1 veil:1 legend:1 feature:1 heterogeneous:1 set:1 warrior:2 figure:1 michel:1 izard:1 moogo:1 l:2 émergence:1 un:1 espace:1 étatique:1 ouest:3 africain:1 au:1 xvie:1 siècle:1 colony:8 traditional:4 hut:1 decade:1 intense:2 rivalry:1 competition:1 english:2 wag:1 treaty:1 make:5 expedition:1 military:8 civilian:3 explorer:1 defeat:2 colonial:10 force:4 become:6 protectorate:1 eastern:2 western:3 standoff:1 ruler:1 samori:1 ture:1 complicate:1 situation:2 come:3 occupation:2 majority:2 territory:6 correspond:2 today:1 nominally:1 conquer:1 however:5 control:1 remain:6 uncertain:1 convention:1 june:5 end:5 scramble:1 two:9 power:5 draw:1 border:4 side:1 war:5 conquest:1 local:1 community:4 political:5 continue:3 five:3 largely:1 pacified:1 basin:2 integrate:1 senegal:2 reorganization:1 empire:3 bamako:1 draftee:1 participate:1 european:1 front:1 world:6 battalion:1 senegalese:1 rifle:1 district:1 bordering:1 fringe:1 stage:1 important:4 arm:2 opposition:3 government:16 bani:1 mahir:1 saul:1 patrick:1 royer:1 challenge:2 finally:1 suppress:1 movement:1 suffer:1 gather:1 large:8 expeditionary:1 point:1 wrack:1 sahelian:1 tuareg:1 allied:1 group:5 dori:1 truce:1 establish:7 march:1 move:1 result:2 fear:1 recurrence:1 armed:1 uprise:1 along:2 economic:3 consideration:1 separate:1 present:2 bolster:1 administration:1 new:5 haute:1 françois:1 charles:1 alexis:1 édouard:1 hesling:2 first:2 governor:1 initiate:1 ambitious:1 road:2 program:3 promote:1 growth:3 cotton:3 export:1 policy:2 coercion:1 fail:1 revenue:1 stagnate:1 later:2 dismantle:1 september:5 split:1 sudan:6 receive:5 share:1 contain:6 city:2 bobo:5 dioulasso:5 child:1 revolution:3 decision:1 reverse:1 anti:1 agitation:1 follow:2 ii:2 revive:1 union:6 previous:1 boundary:1 december:3 achieve:1 self:3 member:5 franco:1 revision:1 organization:3 overseas:1 begin:1 passage:1 basic:1 law:2 loi:1 cadre:1 july:1 act:1 reorganizational:1 measure:1 approve:2 parliament:3 ensure:1 degree:1 individual:1 autonomous:1 full:2 attain:3 governing:1 within:1 indicate:1 river:6 divide:3 three:4 black:3 white:2 red:2 color:1 national:10 autonomy:1 maurice:1 yaméogo:3 leader:1 voltaic:3 democratic:1 udv:2 constitution:9 provide:1 election:4 universal:1 suffrage:1 assembly:3 term:4 soon:1 ban:2 party:2 much:1 unrest:1 mass:2 demonstration:1 strike:1 student:1 labor:2 civil:2 servant:1 intervene:1 coup:5 depose:1 suspend:1 dissolve:2 lt:1 col:2 sangoulé:1 lamizana:5 head:1 senior:1 army:2 officer:2 voltans:1 ratify:1 transition:2 period:1 toward:1 complete:1 rule:3 throughout:1 mixed:1 conflict:1 write:1 reelect:3 open:1 face:1 problem:2 traditionally:1 trade:2 november:3 saye:1 zerbo:3 overthrow:2 bloodless:1 colonel:2 committee:2 recovery:1 supreme:1 authority:1 thus:1 eradicate:1 encounter:1 resistance:1 maj:2 dr:1 jean:2 baptiste:2 ouédraogo:1 council:4 popular:1 salvation:1 csp:3 yet:2 promise:1 factional:1 infighting:1 moderate:1 radical:1 lead:4 capt:3 appoint:1 january:1 internal:1 struggle:1 leftist:2 rhetoric:1 arrest:1 subsequent:1 effort:4 bring:1 release:2 direct:1 another:1 état:1 cnr:3 defense:1 cdrs:1 mobilize:1 implement:1 revolutionary:1 exact:2 membership:1 secret:1 intellectual:1 marxist:1 leninist:1 compaore:1 henri:1 lingani:1 dominate:1 regime:1 direction:1 state:7 honorable:1 politics:1 elect:1 seven:1 amend:1 reduce:1 amendment:3 take:1 effect:1 would:2 prevent:1 sit:2 notwithstanding:1 candidate:1 constitutional:2 october:1 apply:1 office:1 clear:1 way:1 candidacy:1 landslide:1 due:2 divided:1 consist:2 chamber:2 representative:1 compose:1 ten:1 social:1 role:1 purely:1 consultative:1 province:2 department:4 thirteen:1 forty:1 boucle:1 du:1 mouhoun:2 cascade:1 centre:5 est:2 nord:2 sud:2 hauts:1 bassins:1 plateau:1 sahel:6 geography:1 climate:2 type:1 countryside:1 cover:1 peneplain:1 gently:1 undulating:1 landscape:1 isolated:1 hill:1 vestige:1 precambrian:1 massif:3 hand:1 sandstone:1 peak:1 ténakourou:1 elevation:1 meter:4 foot:1 sheer:1 ft:3 average:2 altitude:1 difference:1 terrain:1 great:2 therefore:1 relatively:2 flat:1 owe:2 former:1 cross:1 nakambé:1 nazinon:1 komoé:1 flow:4 round:1 drain:1 surface:1 tributary:1 béli:2 gorouol:1 goudébo:1 dargol:1 seasonal:2 stream:1 four:2 month:2 still:3 cause:2 flood:1 numerous:1 lake:2 principal:1 tingrela:1 bam:1 dem:1 pond:1 oursi:1 yomboli:1 markoye:1 water:3 shortage:1 often:2 especially:3 savannah:1 near:1 gbomblora:1 gaoua:1 batié:1 primarily:1 tropical:2 distinct:1 season:4 rainy:2 millimeter:3 inch:3 rainfall:3 dry:3 harmattan:1 hot:1 wind:1 sahara:2 blow:1 approximately:3 shorter:1 climatic:1 zone:3 define:1 guinea:2 typically:2 less:1 per:4 temperature:3 c:1 f:1 savanna:1 extend:1 beyond:1 horn:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 fertile:1 situate:1 latitude:1 transitional:1 regard:1 far:3 rain:1 cooler:1 natural:1 resource:1 manganese:2 limestone:1 marble:1 phosphate:1 pumice:1 salt:1 deposit:1 gold:2 fauna:1 flora:1 protect:1 park:2 several:1 reserve:1 see:2 list:1 economy:1 shop:1 gdp:1 caput:1 income:1 agriculture:1 represent:1 gross:1 domestic:1 product:1 work:3 mostly:1 livestock:1 grow:1 sorghum:2 pearl:1 millet:2 maize:2 corn:1 peanut:2 rice:2 unemployment:1 rate:4 emigration:1 example:1 million:2 citizen:1 live:1 accord:1 bank:1 migrant:2 send:1 substantial:1 amount:1 money:1 back:1 since:2 expulsion:1 provoke:1 tension:1 recipient:1 recent:2 crisis:1 occur:1 event:2 return:2 activity:1 aid:1 mineral:1 exploitation:1 copper:1 host:1 art:1 craft:1 fair:2 good:2 siao:1 le:1 salon:1 de:2 artisanat:1 handicraft:1 harmonization:1 business:1 ohada:1 demographic:1 united:3 square:2 belong:2 cultural:1 mande:1 common:4 half:1 claim:2 descent:1 migrate:2 day:1 predominantly:1 mogho:1 naba:1 court:1 u:1 ethnically:1 integrated:1 secular:1 concentrate:1 center:1 sometimes:1 exceed:1 kilometer:1 sq:1 mi:1 hundred:2 thousand:2 burkinabe:2 cote:2 agricultural:1 worker:1 obviously:1 affect:1 external:2 attempt:1 ensue:1 fighting:1 estimate:3 life:1 expectancy:1 birth:1 age:2 median:1 cia:1 factbook:1 religion:3 grand:1 mosque:2 statistic:1 available:1 vary:1 widely:1 census:1 percent:4 practice:2 islam:1 sunni:2 branch:2 minority:1 adhere:1 shi:1 significant:1 muslim:3 tijaniyah:1 sufi:1 salafi:1 tradition:3 religious:1 freedom:1 report:2 bureau:1 democracy:1 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:2 public:1 domain:1 maintain:1 indigenous:1 belief:1 roman:1 catholicism:1 various:2 protestant:1 denomination:1 proverb:1 christian:2 animist:2 level:2 acceptance:1 amongst:1 even:1 ancient:1 rite:1 highly:1 value:1 faith:1 together:1 culture:1 cinema:2 sanyon:1 literature:2 oral:3 dim:1 dolobsom:1 ouedraogo:1 publish:3 maximes:2 pensées:1 et:1 devinettes:1 thought:1 riddle:1 record:1 influence:3 writer:2 post:2 nazi:1 boni:1 roger:1 nikiema:1 saw:1 playwright:1 theatre:6 combine:1 performance:1 educate:2 rural:2 distinctive:1 ritual:1 ceremony:1 ethnic:1 long:1 involve:1 dancing:1 mask:1 style:2 time:1 heavily:1 inspire:1 forum:1 aim:1 entertain:1 cuisine:2 around:1 staple:1 food:1 potato:1 bean:1 yam:1 okra:1 protein:1 chicken:2 egg:1 fresh:2 fish:1 typical:1 beverage:1 banji:3 palm:2 wine:1 ferment:1 sap:1 town:1 banfora:1 quality:1 though:1 wary:1 sell:1 hawker:1 added:1 film:1 industry:1 spaas:1 p:1 education:6 primary:1 secondary:2 http:1 www:1 nationsencyclopedia:1 com:2 html:1 school:9 free:1 cost:1 usd:1 family:1 boy:1 preference:1 girl:3 literacy:3 male:1 counterpart:1 increase:1 schooling:1 cheap:1 grant:1 scholarship:1 order:1 proceed:1 elementary:1 middle:2 college:2 exam:1 must:1 pass:1 institution:2 university:3 polytechnical:1 koudougou:1 teacher:1 training:1 private:2 affordable:1 portion:1 american:1 locate:1 rank:1 despite:1 concerted:1 double:1 reference:1 link:2 premier:1 ministère:1 official:1 portal:1 chief:1 cabinet:1 general:1 information:1 ucb:1 library:1 govpubs:1 news:2 headline:1 allafrica:1 travel:1 x:1 old:1 буркіна:1 фасо:1 |@bigram burkina_faso:56 faso_burkina:5 latns_n:1 n_longd:1 blaise_compaoré:4 prime_minister:2 cfa_franc:3 franc_cfa:1 monetary_fund:1 côte_ivoire:6 upper_volta:10 hunter_gatherer:1 fifteenth_sixteenth:1 xvie_siècle:1 volta_basin:1 bobo_dioulasso:5 loi_cadre:1 self_governing:1 universal_suffrage:1 lt_col:1 bloodless_coup:1 jean_baptiste:2 coup_état:1 marxist_leninist:1 presidential_candidate:1 elevation_meter:1 meter_ft:3 rainy_season:2 climatic_zone:1 sahel_sudan:2 tropical_savanna:1 atlantic_ocean:1 fauna_flora:1 per_caput:1 gross_domestic:1 pearl_millet:1 millet_maize:1 maize_corn:1 organization_harmonization:1 harmonization_business:1 africa_ohada:1 ouagadougou_burkina:2 square_kilometer:1 kilometer_sq:1 sq_mi:1 hundred_thousand:2 cote_ivoire:2 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 sunni_muslim:1 roman_catholicism:1 protestant_denomination:1 christian_animist:1 sorghum_millet:1 rice_maize:1 http_www:1 www_nationsencyclopedia:1 nationsencyclopedia_com:1 concerted_effort:1 external_link:1 ucb_library:1 library_govpubs:1 allafrica_com:1 |
7,464 | Irving_Langmuir | Irving Langmuir (31 January 1881 – 16 August 1957) was an American chemist and physicist. His most noted publication was the famous 1919 article "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules" in which, building on Gilbert N. Lewis's cubical atom theory and Walther Kossel's chemical bonding theory, he outlined his "concentric theory of atomic structure". Langmuir, I. (1919). "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules", Journal of the American Chemical Society. Vol. 41, No. 6, 868. Langmuir became embroiled in a priority dispute with Lewis over this work; Langmuir's presentation skills were largely responsible for the popularization of the theory, although the credit for the theory itself belongs mostly to Lewis. Patrick Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry, Oxford University Press, 2008: 134-146 While at General Electric, from 1909-1950, Langmuir advanced several basic fields of physics and chemistry, invented the gas-filled incandescent lamp, the hydrogen welding technique, and was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in surface chemistry. He was the first industrial chemist to become a Nobel laureate. The Langmuir Laboratory for Atmospheric Research near Socorro, New Mexico was named in his honor as was the American Chemical Society journal for Surface Science, called Langmuir. Biography Early years Irving Langmuir was born in Brooklyn, New York on January 31, 1881. He was the third child of four of Charles Langmuir and Sadie, née Comings. During his childhood, Langmuir's parents encouraged him to carefully observe nature and to keep a detailed record of his various observations. When Irving was eleven, it was discovered that he had poor eyesight. When this problem was corrected, details that had previously eluded him were revealed, and his interest in the complications of nature was heightened. During his childhood, Langmuir was influenced by his older brother, Arthur Langmuir. Arthur was a research chemist who encouraged Irving to be curious about nature and how things work. Arthur helped Irving set up his first chemistry lab in the corner of his bedroom, and he was content to answer the myriad of questions that Irving would pose. Langmuir's hobbies included mountaineering, skiing, piloting his own plane, and classical music. In addition to his professional interest in the politics of atomic energy, he was concerned about wilderness conservation. Education Langmuir attended his early education at various schools and institutes in America and Paris (1892-1895). Langmuir graduated high school from Chestnut Hill Academy,(1898)an elite private school located in the affluent Chestnut Hill area in Philadelphia. He graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree. in metallurgical engineering from the Columbia University School of Mines (the first mining and metallurgy school in the U.S., established,1864 and presently known as Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science) in 1903. He earned his Ph.D. degree in 1906 under Nobel laureate Walther Nernst in Göttingen, for research done using the "Nernst glower", an electric lamp invented by Nernst. His doctoral thesis was entitled “On the Partial Recombination of Dissolved Gases During Cooling.” He later did postgraduate work in chemistry. Langmuir then taught at Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey, until 1909, when he began working at the General Electric research laboratory (Schenectady, New York). In 1912, he married Marion Mersereau. Research His initial contributions to science came from his study of light bulbs (a continuation of his Ph.D. work). His first major development was the improvement of the diffusion pump, which ultimately led to the invention of the high-vacuum tube. A year later, he and colleague Lewi Tonks discovered that the lifetime of a tungsten filament was greatly lengthened by filling the bulb with an inert gas, such as argon. He also discovered that twisting the filament into a tight coil improved its efficiency. These were important developments in the history of the incandescent light bulb. His work in surface chemistry began at this point, when he discovered that molecular hydrogen introduced into a tungsten-filament bulb dissociated into atomic hydrogen and formed a layer one atom thick on the surface of the bulb. Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: 64-70 His assistant in vacuum tube research was his cousin William Comings White. Anderson, J.M., Power Engineering Review, IEEE, Volume 22, Issue 3, March 2002 Page(s):4 - 4 In 1917, he published a paper on the chemistry of oil films Irving Langmuir, "The Constitution and Fundamental Properties of Solids and Liquids. II," Journal of the American Chemical Society 39 (1917): 1848-1906. that later became the basis for the award of the 1932 Nobel Prize in chemistry. Langmuir theorized that oils consisting of an aliphatic chain with a hydrophilic end group (perhaps an alcohol or acid) were oriented as a film one molecule thick upon the surface of water, with the hydrophilic group down in the water and the hydrophobic chains clumped together on the surface. The thickness of the film could be easily determined from the known volume and area of the oil, which allowed investigation of the molecular configuration before spectroscopic techniques were available. Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: 128-131 Irving Langmuir - chemist and physicist As he continued to study filaments in vacuum and different gas environments, he began to study the emission of charged particles from hot filaments (thermionic emission). He was one of the first scientists to work with plasmas and was the first to call these ionized gases by that name, because they reminded him of blood plasma. What is Plasma? - Coalition for Plasma Science Langmuir and Tonks discovered electron density waves in plasmas that are now known as Langmuir waves. He introduced the concept of electron temperature and in 1924 invented the diagnostic method for measuring both temperature and density with an electrostatic probe, now called a Langmuir probe and commonly used in plasma physics. The current of a biased probe tip is measured as a function of bias voltage to determine the local plasma temperature and density. He also discovered atomic hydrogen, which he put to use by inventing the atomic hydrogen welding process; the first plasma weld ever made. Plasma welding has since been developed into gas tungsten arc welding. Later years Following World War I Langmuir contributed to atomic theory and the understanding of atomic structure by defining the modern concept of valence shells and isotopes. He joined Katharine B. Blodgett to study thin films and surface adsorption. They introduced the concept of a monolayer (a layer of material one molecule thick) and the two-dimensional physics which describe such a surface. In 1932 he received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry "for his discoveries and investigations in surface chemistry." In 1938, Langmuir's scientific interests began to turn to atmospheric science and meteorology. One of his first ventures, although tangentially related, was a refutation of the claim of entomologist Charles H. T. Townsend that the deer botfly flew at speeds in excess of 800 miles per hour. Langmuir estimated the fly's true speed at 25 miles per hour. After observing windrows of drifting seaweed in the Sargasso Sea he discovered a wind-driven surface circulation in the sea. It is now called the Langmuir circulation. Langmuir's house in Schenectady During World War II, Langmuir worked on improving naval sonar for submarine detection, and later to develop protective smoke screens and methods for deicing aircraft wings. This research led him to theorize that the introduction of dry ice and iodide into a sufficiently moist cloud of low temperature could induce precipitation (cloud seeding); though in frequent practice, particularly in Australia and the People's Republic of China, the efficiency of this technique remains controversial today. In 1953 Langmuir coined the term "pathological science", describing research conducted with accordance to the scientific method, but tainted by unconscious bias or subjective effects. This is in contrast to pseudoscience, which has no pretense of following the scientific method. In his original speech, he presented ESP and flying saucers as examples of pathological science; since then, the label has been applied to polywater and cold fusion. His house in Schenectady, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976. Personal life While in the University of Columbia, Langmuir was ice skating on Redwood Lake. He lost balance, slipped and fell. He woke up with an ability to remember things or memories back when he was ten. He used this ability in planning WWII plans by using enemy tactics in WWI. Langmuir then was married to Marion Mersereau in 1912 with whom he adopted two children: Kenneth and Barbara. After a short illness, he died in Woods Hole, Massachusetts from a heart attack in 1957. His obituary ran on the front page of The New York Times. Patents Langmuir, , "Incandescent Electric Lamp" Langmuir, , "Electron-discharge apparatus and method of operating the same" Langmuir, , "Method of and apparatus for controlling x-ray tubes" See also Langmuir isotherm Langmuir probe Child-Langmuir Law Langmuir Trough References Further reading Patrick Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry, Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-532134-0 External links Langmuir Journal ACS Chemistry Journal of Surfaces and Colloids "Langmuir, Irving" Infoplease.com. " Irving Langmuir's Ball Lightning Tube". Ball Lightning Page. Science Hobbyist. "Irving Langmuir shows Whitney one of his inventions, the Pliotron tube. ca. 1920.". Willis Rodney Whitney: the "Father of basic research in industry". "Pathological Science" - noted lecture of 18 December 1953 at GE Labs "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules" JACS, Vol. 41, No. 6, 868. "The adsorption of gases on plane surfaces of glass, mica and platinum" JACS, Vol. 40, No. 9, 1361. "Irving Langmuir a great physical Chemist" Key Participants: Irving Langmuir - Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History | Irving_Langmuir |@lemmatized irving:13 langmuir:44 january:2 august:1 american:4 chemist:5 physicist:2 noted:2 publication:1 famous:1 article:1 arrangement:3 electron:6 atom:5 molecule:5 build:1 gilbert:1 n:1 lewis:3 cubical:1 theory:6 walther:2 kossel:1 chemical:5 bonding:1 outline:1 concentric:1 atomic:7 structure:2 journal:5 society:3 vol:3 become:3 embroil:1 priority:1 dispute:1 work:9 presentation:1 skill:1 largely:1 responsible:1 popularization:1 although:2 credit:1 belong:1 mostly:1 patrick:2 coffey:4 cathedral:4 science:14 personality:2 rivalry:2 make:3 modern:3 chemistry:13 oxford:2 university:4 press:2 general:2 electric:4 advanced:1 several:1 basic:2 field:1 physic:3 invent:4 gas:7 fill:2 incandescent:3 lamp:3 hydrogen:5 welding:3 technique:3 award:2 nobel:5 prize:3 surface:12 first:8 industrial:1 laureate:2 laboratory:2 atmospheric:2 research:9 near:1 socorro:1 new:5 mexico:1 name:2 honor:1 call:4 biography:1 early:2 year:3 bear:1 brooklyn:1 york:3 third:1 child:3 four:1 charles:2 sadie:1 née:1 coming:2 childhood:2 parent:1 encourage:2 carefully:1 observe:2 nature:4 keep:1 detailed:1 record:1 various:2 observation:1 eleven:1 discover:7 poor:1 eyesight:1 problem:1 correct:1 detail:1 previously:1 elude:1 reveal:1 interest:3 complication:1 heighten:1 influence:1 old:1 brother:1 arthur:3 curious:1 thing:2 help:1 set:1 lab:2 corner:1 bedroom:1 content:1 answer:1 myriad:1 question:1 would:1 pose:1 hobby:1 include:1 mountaineering:1 skiing:1 pilot:1 plane:2 classical:1 music:1 addition:1 professional:1 politics:1 energy:1 concern:1 wilderness:1 conservation:1 education:2 attend:1 school:6 institute:2 america:1 paris:1 graduate:2 high:2 chestnut:2 hill:2 academy:1 elite:1 private:1 locate:1 affluent:1 area:2 philadelphia:1 bachelor:1 degree:2 metallurgical:1 engineering:3 columbia:2 mine:1 mining:1 metallurgy:1 u:1 establish:1 presently:1 know:3 fu:1 foundation:1 applied:1 earn:1 ph:2 nernst:3 göttingen:1 use:5 glower:1 doctoral:1 thesis:1 entitle:1 partial:1 recombination:1 dissolved:1 cool:1 later:4 postgraduate:1 teach:1 stevens:1 technology:1 hoboken:1 jersey:1 begin:4 schenectady:3 marry:2 marion:2 mersereau:2 initial:1 contribution:1 come:1 study:4 light:2 bulb:5 continuation:1 major:1 development:2 improvement:1 diffusion:1 pump:1 ultimately:1 lead:2 invention:2 vacuum:3 tube:5 colleague:1 lewi:1 tonks:2 lifetime:1 tungsten:3 filament:5 greatly:1 lengthen:1 inert:1 argon:1 also:3 twist:1 tight:1 coil:1 improve:2 efficiency:2 important:1 history:2 point:1 molecular:2 introduce:3 dissociate:1 form:1 layer:2 one:6 thick:3 assistant:1 cousin:1 william:1 white:1 anderson:1 j:1 power:1 review:1 ieee:1 volume:2 issue:1 march:1 page:3 publish:1 paper:1 oil:3 film:4 constitution:1 fundamental:1 property:1 solid:1 liquid:1 ii:2 basis:1 theorize:2 consist:1 aliphatic:1 chain:2 hydrophilic:2 end:1 group:2 perhaps:1 alcohol:1 acid:1 orient:1 upon:1 water:2 hydrophobic:1 clump:1 together:1 thickness:1 could:2 easily:1 determine:2 allow:1 investigation:2 configuration:1 spectroscopic:1 available:1 continue:1 different:1 environment:1 emission:2 charge:1 particle:1 hot:1 thermionic:1 scientist:1 plasma:9 ionized:1 remind:1 blood:1 coalition:1 density:3 wave:2 concept:3 temperature:4 diagnostic:1 method:6 measure:2 electrostatic:1 probe:4 commonly:1 current:1 biased:1 tip:1 function:1 bias:2 voltage:1 local:1 put:1 weld:2 process:1 ever:1 since:2 develop:2 arc:1 late:1 follow:2 world:2 war:2 contribute:1 understanding:1 define:1 valence:1 shell:1 isotope:1 join:1 katharine:1 b:1 blodgett:1 thin:1 adsorption:2 monolayer:1 material:1 two:2 dimensional:1 describe:2 receive:1 discovery:1 scientific:3 turn:1 meteorology:1 venture:1 tangentially:1 relate:1 refutation:1 claim:1 entomologist:1 h:1 townsend:1 deer:1 botfly:1 fly:3 speed:2 excess:1 mile:2 per:2 hour:2 estimate:1 true:1 windrows:1 drift:1 seaweed:1 sargasso:1 sea:2 wind:1 driven:1 circulation:2 house:2 naval:1 sonar:1 submarine:1 detection:1 protective:1 smoke:1 screen:1 deice:1 aircraft:1 wing:1 introduction:1 dry:1 ice:2 iodide:1 sufficiently:1 moist:1 cloud:2 low:1 induce:1 precipitation:1 seed:1 though:1 frequent:1 practice:1 particularly:1 australia:1 people:1 republic:1 china:1 remain:1 controversial:1 today:1 coin:1 term:1 pathological:3 conduct:1 accordance:1 taint:1 unconscious:1 subjective:1 effect:1 contrast:1 pseudoscience:1 pretense:1 original:1 speech:1 present:1 esp:1 saucer:1 example:1 label:1 apply:1 polywater:1 cold:1 fusion:1 designate:1 national:1 historic:1 landmark:1 personal:1 life:1 skate:1 redwood:1 lake:1 lose:1 balance:1 slip:1 fell:1 wake:1 ability:2 remember:1 memory:1 back:1 ten:1 plan:2 wwii:1 enemy:1 tactic:1 wwi:1 adopt:1 kenneth:1 barbara:1 short:1 illness:1 die:1 wood:1 hole:1 massachusetts:1 heart:1 attack:1 obituary:1 ran:1 front:1 time:1 patent:1 discharge:1 apparatus:2 operate:1 control:1 x:1 ray:1 see:1 isotherm:1 law:1 trough:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 acs:1 colloid:1 infoplease:1 com:1 ball:2 lightning:2 hobbyist:1 show:1 whitney:2 pliotron:1 ca:1 willis:1 rodney:1 father:1 industry:1 lecture:1 december:1 ge:1 jacs:2 glass:1 mica:1 platinum:1 great:1 physical:1 key:1 participant:1 linus:1 pauling:1 bond:1 documentary:1 |@bigram irving_langmuir:8 chemist_physicist:2 patrick_coffey:2 coffey_cathedral:4 incandescent_lamp:1 nobel_prize:3 nobel_laureate:2 poor_eyesight:1 metallurgical_engineering:1 mining_metallurgy:1 doctoral_thesis:1 light_bulb:2 diffusion_pump:1 vacuum_tube:2 inert_gas:1 incandescent_light:1 thermionic_emission:1 ionized_gas:1 arc_welding:1 valence_shell:1 sargasso_sea:1 fly_saucer:1 cold_fusion:1 historic_landmark:1 ice_skate:1 external_link:1 infoplease_com:1 linus_pauling:1 |
7,465 | Transport_in_Liberia | Transport in Liberia is as follows: Railways total: 490 km (328 km single track) note: in 1989, Liberia had three rail systems owned and operated by foreign steel and financial interests in conjunction with the Liberian Government; one of these, the Lamco Railroad, closed in 1989 after iron ore production ceased; the other two were shut down by the civil war; large sections of the rail lines have been dismantled; approximately 60 km of railroad track was exported for scrap (2001) standard gauge: 345 km 1.435-m gauge narrow gauge: 145 km 1.067-m gauge There are two separate systems, with two lines from Monrovia and one line from Buchanan. Railway links with adjacent countries Sierra Leone - no - break-of-gauge 1067mm Guinea - no - break-of-gauge - 1435mm & 1067mm Ivory Coast - no - break-of-gauge 1000mm 2007 Talks started with the Mittal Steel company to reopen the former Lamco iron mine and railway. 2006 UPGRADE FOR BONG - 15 June 2006 - Negotiations for upgrading the 250km Bong Mining Railway are at an advanced stage. Ircon (the Indian Railway Construction Corporation), the preferred bidder, hopes to sign a contract worth some $US110 million before the end of June, according to managing director. Railways Africa - UPGRADE FOR BONG Maps UN Map UNJLC Map ReliefWeb Map Towns served by rail Existing Monrovia - port and national capital - 1435mm and 1067mm Brewerville Vonzuahn Tubmanburg Mano River Jenje, Liberia - railhead - 145km (1067mm) Careysburg Bong, Liberia - railhead and mine - 78km (1435mm) Buchanan - port on 1435mm gauge line Mehla Yela, Liberia Sanokwelle Sanniquellie Yekepa - iron ore mine Nimba, Liberia - railhead (Lamco) and mine. Proposed Closed References Railways of Liberia Highways total: 10,600 km (there is major deterioration on all highways due to heavy rains and lack of maintenance) paved: 657 km unpaved: 9,943 km (1996 est.) When construction and reconstruction of roads in Liberia is complete, Trans-West African Coastal Highway will cross the country, connecting it to Freetown (Sierra Leone), Abidjan (Côte d'Ivoire), and eventually to 11 other nations of ECOWAS. Ports and harbors Buchanan - railhead of 1435mm gauge for civil war affected iron mine at Nimba Greenville Harper Monrovia Merchant marine total: 1,513 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 51,912,244 GRT/ ships by type: barge carrier 3, bulk 313, cargo 89, chemical tanker 167, combination bulk 16, combination ore/oil 32, container 318, liquefied gas 99, multi-functional large-load carrier 4, passenger 23, petroleum tanker 302, refrigerated cargo 69, roll on/roll off 20, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 13, vehicle carrier 42 note: includes some foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: Argentina 9, Australia 2, Austria 15, Belgium 9, Brazil 5, Canada 4, Cayman Islands 1, Chile 7, China 39, Croatia 11, Denmark 4, Ecuador 1, Estonia 1, Germany 437, Greece 154, Hong Kong 69, India 5, Indonesia 1, Israel 1, Italy 5, Japan 90, Latvia 20, Man, Isle of 5, Monaco 56, Netherlands 12, New Zealand 1, Nigeria 1, Norway 103, Pakistan 1, Portugal 5, Russia 66, Saudi Arabia 21, Singapore 20, Slovenia 1, South Africa 1, South Korea 10, Spain 2, Sweden 9, Switzerland 17, Taiwan 29, Turkey 3, Ukraine 4, United Arab Emirates 12, United Kingdom 39, United States 113, Uruguay 3, Vietnam 1 (2002 est.) Airports 47 (1999 est.) Airports - with paved runways total: 2 over 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2002) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 45 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 7 under 914 m: 34 (2002) See also Liberia References | Transport_in_Liberia |@lemmatized transport:1 liberia:9 follow:1 railway:7 total:6 km:8 single:1 track:2 note:2 three:1 rail:3 system:2 operate:1 foreign:2 steel:2 financial:1 interest:1 conjunction:1 liberian:1 government:1 one:2 lamco:3 railroad:2 close:1 iron:4 ore:3 production:1 cease:1 two:3 shut:1 civil:2 war:2 large:2 section:1 line:4 dismantle:1 approximately:1 export:1 scrap:1 standard:1 gauge:9 narrow:1 separate:1 monrovia:3 buchanan:3 link:1 adjacent:1 country:2 sierra:2 leone:2 break:3 guinea:1 ivory:1 coast:1 talk:1 start:1 mittal:1 company:1 reopen:1 former:1 mine:5 upgrade:3 bong:4 june:2 negotiation:1 mining:1 advanced:1 stage:1 ircon:1 indian:1 construction:2 corporation:1 preferred:1 bidder:1 hop:1 sign:1 contract:1 worth:1 million:1 end:1 accord:1 manage:1 director:1 africa:2 map:4 un:1 unjlc:1 reliefweb:1 town:1 serve:1 exist:1 port:3 national:1 capital:1 brewerville:1 vonzuahn:1 tubmanburg:1 mano:1 river:1 jenje:1 railhead:4 careysburg:1 mehla:1 yela:1 sanokwelle:1 sanniquellie:1 yekepa:1 nimba:2 propose:1 closed:1 reference:2 highway:3 major:1 deterioration:1 due:1 heavy:1 rain:1 lack:1 maintenance:1 pave:2 unpaved:2 est:3 reconstruction:1 road:1 complete:1 trans:1 west:1 african:1 coastal:1 cross:1 connect:1 freetown:1 abidjan:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 eventually:1 nation:1 ecowas:1 harbor:1 affect:1 greenville:1 harper:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:3 grt:2 type:1 barge:1 carrier:3 bulk:2 cargo:2 chemical:1 tanker:3 combination:2 oil:1 container:1 liquefy:1 gas:1 multi:1 functional:1 load:1 passenger:2 petroleum:1 refrigerate:1 roll:2 short:1 sea:1 specialize:1 vehicle:1 include:1 register:1 flag:1 convenience:1 argentina:1 australia:1 austria:1 belgium:1 brazil:1 canada:1 cayman:1 islands:1 chile:1 china:1 croatia:1 denmark:1 ecuador:1 estonia:1 germany:1 greece:1 hong:1 kong:1 india:1 indonesia:1 israel:1 italy:1 japan:1 latvia:1 man:1 isle:1 monaco:1 netherlands:1 new:1 zealand:1 nigeria:1 norway:1 pakistan:1 portugal:1 russia:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 singapore:1 slovenia:1 south:2 korea:1 spain:1 sweden:1 switzerland:1 taiwan:1 turkey:1 ukraine:1 united:2 arab:1 emirates:1 unite:1 kingdom:1 state:1 uruguay:1 vietnam:1 airport:2 runway:2 airports:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram iron_ore:2 narrow_gauge:1 sierra_leone:2 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 abidjan_côte:1 côte_ivoire:1 merchant_marine:1 ship_grt:1 grt_total:1 total_grt:1 grt_ship:1 liquefy_gas:1 petroleum_tanker:1 tanker_refrigerate:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 specialize_tanker:1 cayman_islands:1 hong_kong:1 saudi_arabia:1 arab_emirates:1 pave_runway:1 airports_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 |
7,466 | Letter_case | <center>Williamsburg eighteenth century press letters In orthography and typography, letter case (or just case) is the distinction between majuscule (capital or upper-case) and minuscule (lower-case) letters. The term originated with the shallow drawers called type cases still used to hold the movable type for letterpress printing. Most occidental languages (certainly those based on the Latin, Cyrillic, Greek and Armenian alphabets) use multiple letter-cases in their written form as an aid to clarity. Scripts using two separate cases are also called "bicameral scripts", while those with only one case are "unicase scripts". In English, capital letters are used as the first letter of a sentence, a proper noun, or a proper adjective, and for initials or abbreviations. The first-person pronoun "I" and the interjection "O" are also capitalized. Lower-case letters are normally used for all other purposes. There are however situations where further capitalization may be used to give added emphasis, for example in headings and titles or to pick out certain words (often using small capitals). There are also a few pairs of words of different meanings whose only difference is capitalization of the first letter. Other languages vary in their use of capitals. For example, in German the first letter of all nouns is capitalized, while in Romance languages the names of days of the week, months of the year, and adjectives of nationality, religion, etc., begin with a lower-case letter. If an alphabet has case, all or nearly all letters have both a majuscule and minuscule form. Both forms in each pair are considered to be the same letter: they have the same name, same pronunciation, and will be treated identically when sorting in alphabetical order. Languages have capitalization rules to determine whether majuscules or minuscules are to be used in a given context. An example of a letter without both forms is the German ß (ess-tsett), which exists only in minuscule. When capitalized it normally becomes two letters, "SS" (although use of ß as a capital has been deemed permissible according to the recent spelling reform). This is because ß was originally a ligature of the two letters "ſs" (a long s and an s), both of which become "S" when capitalized. It later evolved into a letter in its own right. (ß is also occasionally referred to as a ligature of "sz", which recalls the way this consonant was pronounced in some medieval German dialects. The original spelling "sz" is preserved in Hungarian, which is pronounced as [s].) Case comparison Here is a comparison of the majuscule and minuscule versions of each letter used in the English language. The exact representation will vary according to the font used. Upper Case:ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZLower Case:abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Origins of the term Movable type on a composing stick, lying on a lower case with larger boxes for more common letters. The terms upper case and lower case originated in the early days of the printing press used with movable type in letterpress printing. The individual type blocks used in hand typesetting are stored in shallow wooden or metal drawers, known as cases, with subdivisions into compartments known as boxes to store each individual letter. In many countries the majuscules and minuscules are stored separately, with a pair of boxes for each typeface at a specific size. For typesetting, the two cases are taken out of the storage rack and placed on a rack on the compositor's desk. By convention, the case containing the capitals (and small capitals) stands at a steeper angle at the back of the desk, with the case for the small letters, punctuation and spaces, at a shallower angle below it to the front of the desk, hence upper and lower case. Type Cases, David Bolton, The Alembic Press, 1997, retrieved 2007-23-04 Various patterns of cases are available, often with the compartments for lower-case letters varying in size according to the frequency of use of letters, so that the commonest letters are grouped together in larger "boxes" at the centre of the case. The compositor takes the letter blocks from the compartments and places them in a composing stick, working from left to right and placing the letters upside down with the "nick" to the top, then sets the assembled type in a "galley". The Oxford Universal Dictionary on Historical Advanced Proportional Principles (reprinted 1952) indicates that this usage of "case" (as the box or frame used by a compositor in the printing trade) was first used in 1588. Originally one large case was used for each typeface, then "divided cases", pairs of cases for upper and lower case, were introduced in Belgium by 1563, England by 1588, and France before 1723. Though pairs of cases were used in English-speaking countries and many European countries in Germany and Scandinavia the single case continued in use. Other forms of case The distinction between hiragana and katakana in Japanese is similar to, but not the same as, case; it may also be considered analogous to upright and italics characters. While each sound has both a hiragana and katakana, any given word will use only one of the two scripts normally. If a word is written with hiragana, it is not normally considered correct to write it with katakana, and vice versa. However, katakana may be substituted for hiragana or kanji to add emphasis or make them stand out, similar to the use of capitalization or italics in English. Also similar to case is recent usage in Georgian, where some authors use isolated letters from the Asomtavruli alphabet within a text otherwise written in Mkhedruli in a fashion that is reminiscent of modern usage of letter case in the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic alphabets. Choice of case in text A variety of styles is used in various circumstances: Capitalization: writing the first letter of a word in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase. Sentence case - The most common in English prose. Only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other words which are generally capitalized by a more specific rule. Title case - All words are capitalized, except for non-initial articles, short prepositions , and some other short words, e.g., The War of the Worlds. ALL CAPS - Only capital letters are used. - Capital letters are used which are the size of the lower-case "x". Slightly larger small caps can be used in a fashion. Used for initialisms, names, mathematical entities, computer commands in printed text, and other situations where a given phrase needs to be distinguished from the main text. lowercase only - Sometimes used for artistic effect, such as in poetry. Also commonly seen in computer commands and SMS language, to avoid pushing the Shift key or other inconvenience. Headings and publication titles In English-language publications, varying conventions are used for capitalizing words in publication titles and headlines, including chapter and section headings. The rules differ substantially between individual house styles. The main examples are (from most to least capitals used): Example Rule THE VITAMINS ARE IN MY FRESH CALIFORNIA RAISINS All-uppercase letters The Vitamins Are In My Fresh California Raisins "Start case" - capitalization of all words, regardless of the part of speech The Vitamins Are in My Fresh California Raisins Capitalization of all words, except for internal articles, prepositions, and conjunctions The Vitamins are in My Fresh California Raisins Capitalization of all words, except for internal articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and forms of to be The Vitamins are in my Fresh California Raisins Capitalization of all words, except for internal closed-class words The Vitamins are in my fresh California Raisins Capitalization of all nouns The vitamins are in my fresh California raisins Sentence case - Only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other specific rules which apply to English prose the vitamins are in my fresh California raisins Capitalization of proper nouns only the vitamins are in my fresh california raisins All-lowercase letters Among U.S. publishers, it is a common typographic practice to capitalize additional words in titles. This is an old form of emphasis, similar to the more modern practice of using a larger or boldface font for titles. Most capitalize all words except for internal closed-class words, or internal articles, prepositions and conjunctions. Some capitalize longer prepositions such as "between", but not shorter ones. Some capitalize only nouns, others capitalize all words. This family of typographic conventions is known as title case. The convention followed by many British publishers (including scientific publishers, like Nature, magazines, like The Economist and New Scientist, and newspapers, like The Guardian and The Times) is the same used in other languages (e.g., French), namely to use sentence-style capitalization in titles and headlines, where capitalization follows the same rules that apply for sentences. This convention is sometimes called sentence case where a term is desired to clarify that title case shall not be applied. It is also widely used in the U.S., especially in bibliographic references and library catalogues. Examples of global publishers whose English-language house styles prescribe sentence-case titles and headings include the International Organization for Standardization. In creative typography, such as music record covers and other artistic material, all styles are commonly encountered, including all-lowercase letters and mixed case (StudlyCaps). One of the very few British style guides that do actually mention a form of title case is R.M. Ritter's "Oxford Manual of Style" (2002), which suggests capitalizing "the first word and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, but generally not articles, conjunctions and short prepositions". Oxford Manual of Style, R. M. Ritter ed., Oxford University Press, 2002 Computers Some sentence cases are not used in standard English, but are common in computer programming and other specialised fields: CamelCase (a.k.a. PascalCase) - First letter of each word capitalized, spaces and punctuation removed. This can be useful for technical situations where spaces are not allowed. Start Case - First letter of each word capitalized, spaces separate words. All words including short articles and prepositions start with a capital letter. For example: This Is A Start Case. snake_case - punctuation is removed and spaces are replaced by single underscores. Normally the letters share the same case (either UPPER_CASE_EMBEDDED_UNDERSCORE or lower_case_embedded_underscore) but the case can be mixed. sTuDlYcApS - Mixed case, with no semantic or syntactic significance to the use of the capitals. Sometimes only vowels are upper-case, at other times upper and lower case are alternated, but often it is just random. The name comes from the fact that it was used to imply coolness on the part of the writer, although nowadays it is more often used ironically. (It is also used to mock the violation of standard English case conventions by marketing people in the naming of computer software packages, even when there is no technical requirement to do so, e.g., Sun's naming of a windowing system NeWS.) Case folding The conversion of letter case in a string is common practice in computer applications, for instance to make case-insensitive comparisons. Many high-level programming languages provide simple methods for case folding, at least for the ASCII character set. Methods In some forms of BASIC there are two methods for case folding: UpperA$ = UCASE$("a") LowerA$ = LCASE$("A") C and C++, as well as any C-like language that conforms to its standard library, provide these functions in the file ctype.h: char upperA = toupper('a'); char lowerA = tolower('A'); Case folding is different with different character sets. In ASCII, case can be folded in the following way, in C: #define toupper(c) islower(c) ? (c) - 'a' + 'A' : (c) #define tolower(c) isupper(c) ? (c) - 'A' + 'a' : (c) This only works because the alphanumeric letters are consecutive. This would not work, for instance, with EBCDIC. Some computer programming languages offer facilities for converting text to a form in which all words are first-letter capitalized. Visual Basic calls this "proper case"; Python calls it "title case". This differs from usual title casing conventions, such as the English convention in which minor words are not capitalized. Unicode case folding Unicode defines case folding through the three case-mapping properties of each character: uppercase, lowercase and titlecase. These properties relate all characters in scripts with differing cases to the other case variants of the character. Importance of case in the identification of scripts As briefly discussed in Unicode Technical Note #26, Unicode Technical Note #26: On the Encoding of Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, and Han, retrieved 2007-23-04 "In terms of implementation issues, any attempt at a unification of Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic would wreak havoc [and] make casing operations an unholy mess, in effect making all casing operations context sensitive [...]". In other words, while the shapes of letters like A, B, E, H, K, M, O, P, T, X, Y and so on are shared between the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic alphabets (and small differences in their canonical forms may be considered to be of a merely typographical nature), it would still be problematic for a multilingual character set or a font to provide only a single codepoint for, say, uppercase letter B, as this would make it quite difficult for a wordprocessor to change that single uppercase letter to one of the three different choices for the lower case letter, b (Latin), β (Greek), or в (Cyrillic). Without letter case, a 'unified European alphabet'—such as ABБCГDΔΕZЄЗFΦGHIИJ...Z, with an appropriate subset for each language—is feasible; but considering letter case, it becomes very clear that these alphabets are rather distinct sets of symbols. See also Sentence case Capitalization Unicase CamelCase StudlyCaps References | Letter_case |@lemmatized center:1 williamsburg:1 eighteenth:1 century:1 press:4 letter:47 orthography:1 typography:2 case:80 distinction:2 majuscule:5 capital:12 upper:7 minuscule:6 low:11 term:5 originate:2 shallow:3 drawer:2 call:5 type:7 still:2 use:40 hold:1 movable:3 letterpress:2 printing:4 occidental:1 language:12 certainly:1 base:1 latin:6 cyrillic:6 greek:6 armenian:1 alphabet:7 multiple:1 write:5 form:11 aid:1 clarity:1 script:6 two:6 separate:2 also:10 bicameral:1 one:6 unicase:2 english:11 first:12 sentence:9 proper:6 noun:6 adjective:3 initial:2 abbreviation:1 person:1 pronoun:2 interjection:1 capitalize:19 normally:5 purpose:1 however:2 situation:3 capitalization:14 may:4 give:4 added:1 emphasis:3 example:7 heading:4 title:13 pick:1 certain:1 word:28 often:4 small:5 pair:5 different:4 meaning:1 whose:2 difference:2 vary:4 german:3 romance:1 languages:1 name:3 day:2 week:1 month:1 year:1 nationality:1 religion:1 etc:1 begin:1 nearly:1 consider:5 pronunciation:1 treat:1 identically:1 sort:1 alphabetical:1 order:1 rule:6 determine:1 whether:1 context:2 without:2 ß:4 ess:1 tsett:1 exist:1 become:3 although:2 deem:1 permissible:1 accord:3 recent:2 spelling:2 reform:1 originally:2 ligature:2 ſs:1 long:2 later:1 evolve:1 right:2 occasionally:1 refer:1 sz:2 recall:1 way:2 consonant:1 pronounce:2 medieval:1 dialect:1 original:1 preserve:1 hungarian:1 comparison:3 version:1 exact:1 representation:1 font:3 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzlower:1 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz:1 origin:1 composing:2 stick:2 lie:1 large:5 box:5 common:6 early:1 individual:3 block:2 hand:1 typesetting:1 store:3 wooden:1 metal:1 know:3 subdivision:1 compartment:3 many:4 country:3 separately:1 typeface:2 specific:3 size:3 typeset:1 take:2 storage:1 rack:2 place:3 compositor:3 desk:3 convention:8 contain:1 stand:2 steep:1 angle:2 back:1 punctuation:3 space:5 front:1 hence:1 david:1 bolton:1 alembic:1 retrieve:2 various:2 pattern:1 available:1 frequency:1 group:1 together:1 centre:1 work:3 leave:1 upside:1 nick:1 top:1 set:5 assembled:1 galley:1 oxford:4 universal:1 dictionary:1 historical:1 advanced:1 proportional:1 principle:1 reprinted:1 indicate:1 usage:3 frame:1 trade:1 divide:1 introduce:1 belgium:1 england:1 france:1 though:1 speaking:1 european:2 germany:1 scandinavia:1 single:4 continue:1 hiragana:4 katakana:4 japanese:1 similar:4 analogous:1 upright:1 italics:1 character:7 sound:1 correct:1 vice:1 versa:1 substitute:1 kanji:1 add:1 make:5 italic:1 georgian:1 author:1 isolated:1 asomtavruli:1 within:1 text:5 otherwise:1 mkhedruli:1 fashion:2 reminiscent:1 modern:2 choice:2 variety:1 style:8 circumstance:1 uppercase:5 remain:1 lowercase:5 prose:2 except:7 generally:2 non:1 article:6 short:5 preposition:7 e:4 g:3 war:1 world:1 cap:2 x:2 slightly:1 initialisms:1 names:1 mathematical:1 entity:1 computer:7 command:2 printed:1 phrase:1 need:1 distinguish:1 main:2 sometimes:3 artistic:2 effect:2 poetry:1 commonly:2 see:2 sms:1 avoid:1 push:1 shift:1 key:1 inconvenience:1 publication:3 headline:2 include:5 chapter:1 section:1 differ:2 substantially:1 house:2 least:2 vitamin:9 fresh:9 california:9 raisins:7 raisin:2 start:4 regardless:1 part:2 speech:1 internal:5 conjunction:4 close:2 class:2 nouns:2 apply:3 among:1 u:2 publisher:4 typographic:2 practice:3 additional:1 old:1 boldface:1 others:1 family:1 follow:2 british:2 scientific:1 like:5 nature:2 magazine:1 economist:1 new:1 scientist:1 newspaper:1 guardian:1 time:2 french:1 namely:1 desire:1 clarify:1 shall:1 widely:1 especially:1 bibliographic:1 reference:2 library:2 catalogue:1 global:1 prescribe:1 international:1 organization:1 standardization:1 creative:1 music:1 record:1 cover:1 material:1 encounter:1 mixed:3 studlycaps:3 guide:1 actually:1 mention:1 r:2 ritter:2 manual:2 suggest:1 verb:1 adverb:1 ed:1 university:1 standard:3 programming:2 specialised:1 field:1 camelcase:2 k:2 pascalcase:1 remove:2 useful:1 technical:4 allow:1 replace:1 underscore:1 share:2 either:1 semantic:1 syntactic:1 significance:1 vowel:1 alternate:1 random:1 come:1 fact:1 imply:1 coolness:1 writer:1 nowadays:1 ironically:1 mock:1 violation:1 market:1 people:1 naming:2 software:1 package:1 even:1 requirement:1 sun:1 windowing:1 system:1 news:1 fold:4 conversion:1 string:1 application:1 instance:2 insensitive:1 high:1 level:1 provide:3 simple:1 method:3 folding:3 ascii:2 basic:2 uppera:2 ucase:1 lowera:2 lcase:1 c:12 well:1 conform:1 function:1 file:1 ctype:1 h:2 char:2 toupper:2 tolower:2 following:1 define:2 islower:1 isupper:1 alphanumeric:1 consecutive:1 would:4 ebcdic:1 program:1 offer:1 facility:1 convert:1 visual:1 python:1 differs:1 usual:1 minor:1 unicode:4 defines:1 three:2 mapping:1 property:2 titlecase:1 relate:1 variant:1 importance:1 identification:1 briefly:1 discuss:1 note:2 encoding:1 han:1 implementation:1 issue:1 attempt:1 unification:1 wreak:1 havoc:1 operation:2 unholy:1 mess:1 sensitive:1 shape:1 b:3 p:1 canonical:1 merely:1 typographical:1 problematic:1 multilingual:1 codepoint:1 say:1 quite:1 difficult:1 wordprocessor:1 change:1 β:1 в:1 unified:1 abбcгdδεzєзfφghiиj:1 z:1 appropriate:1 subset:1 feasible:1 clear:1 rather:1 distinct:1 symbol:1 |@bigram letterpress_printing:2 romance_languages:1 alphabetical_order:1 hiragana_katakana:2 vice_versa:1 cyrillic_alphabet:2 vitamin_fresh:9 california_raisins:7 uppercase_letter:3 raisins_capitalization:5 organization_standardization:1 wreak_havoc:1 context_sensitive:1 |
7,467 | Ericales | The Ericales are a large and diverse order of dicotyledons, including for example tea, persimmon, blueberry, Brazil nut, and azalea. The order includes trees and bushes, lianas and herbaceous plants. Together with ordinary autophytic plants, the Ericales include chlorophyll-deficient myco-heterotrophic plants (e. g. Sarcodes sanguinea) and carnivorous plants (e. g. genus Sarracenia). Many species have five petals, often grown together. Mycorrhiza is an interesting property, frequently associated with the Ericales. Indeed, the symbiosis with root fungi is quite common among the order representatives, and there are even three kinds of it which can be found exclusively among Ericales (namely, ericoid, arbutoid and monotropoid mycorrhiza). In additional, some families among the order are notable for their exceptional ability to accumulate aluminum (Jansen et al., 2004). Ericales are a cosmopolitic order. Areas of distribution of families vary largely - while some are restricted to tropics, others exist mainly in Arctic or temperate regions. The entire order contains over 8000 species, of which the Ericaceae account for 2000-4000 species (by various estimates). Economical importance The most profitable plant in the order is tea (Camellia sinensis) from the Theaceae family. The order also includes some edible fruits, including kiwi fruit (Actinidia deliciosa), persimmon (genus Diospyros), blueberry, huckleberry and cranberry, Brazil nut, and Mamey sapote. The order also includes shea (Vitellaria paradoxa), which is the major dietary lipid source for millions of sub-Saharan Africans. Many Ericales species are cultivated for their showy flowers: well-known examples are azalea, rhododendron, camellia, polyanthus, cyclamen, phlox, and busy Lizzie. Classification The following families are typical of newer classifications: Family Actinidiaceae (kiwifruit family) Family Balsaminaceae (balsam family) Family Clethraceae (clethra family) Family Cyrillaceae (cyrilla family) Family Diapensiaceae Family Ebenaceae (ebony and persimmon family) Family Ericaceae (heath, rhododendron, and blueberry family) Family Fouquieriaceae (Ocotillo family) Family Lecythidaceae (Brazil nut family) Family Maesaceae Family Marcgraviaceae Family Mitrastemonaceae Family Myrsinaceae (cyclamen and scarlet pimpernel family) Family Pellicieraceae Family Pentaphyllacaceae Family Polemoniaceae (phlox family) Family Primulaceae (primrose and snowbell family) Family Roridulaceae Family Sapotaceae (sapodilla family) Family Sarraceniaceae (American pitcher plant family) Family Sladeniaceae Family Styracaceae (silverbell family) Family Symplocaceae (sapphireberry family) Family Ternstroemiaceae (see Pentaphyllacaceae) Family Tetrameristaceae Family Theaceae (tea and camellia family) Family Theophrastaceae These make up a basal group of asterids. Under the Cronquist system, the Ericales included a smaller group of plants, which were placed among the Dilleniidae: Family Ericaceae Family Cyrillaceae Family Clethraceae Family Grubbiaceae Family Empetraceae Family Epacridaceae Family Pyrolaceae Family Monotropaceae References B. C. J. du Mortier (1829). Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent, 28. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay. S. Jansen, T. Watanabe, P. Caris, K. Geuten, F. Lens, N. Pyck, E. Smets (2004). The Distribution and Phylogeny of Aluminium Accumulating Plants in the Ericales. Plant Biology (Stuttgart) 6, 498-505. Thieme, Stuttgart. (Available online: DOI | Abstract) W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition. pp. 425-436 (Ericales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0-87893-403-0. E. Smets, N. Pyck (Feb 2003). Ericales (Rhododendron). In: Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Nature Publishing Group, London. (Available online: ELS Site) | Ericales |@lemmatized ericales:10 large:1 diverse:1 order:9 dicotyledon:1 include:7 example:2 tea:3 persimmon:3 blueberry:3 brazil:3 nut:3 azalea:2 tree:1 bush:1 liana:1 herbaceous:1 plant:10 together:2 ordinary:1 autophytic:1 chlorophyll:1 deficient:1 myco:1 heterotrophic:1 e:5 g:2 sarcodes:1 sanguinea:1 carnivorous:1 genus:2 sarracenia:1 many:2 specie:4 five:1 petal:1 often:1 grow:1 mycorrhiza:2 interesting:1 property:1 frequently:1 associate:2 indeed:1 symbiosis:1 root:1 fungi:1 quite:1 common:1 among:4 representative:1 even:1 three:1 kind:1 find:1 exclusively:1 namely:1 ericoid:1 arbutoid:1 monotropoid:1 additional:1 family:55 notable:1 exceptional:1 ability:1 accumulate:2 aluminum:1 jansen:2 et:1 al:1 cosmopolitic:1 area:1 distribution:2 vary:1 largely:1 restrict:1 tropic:1 others:1 exist:1 mainly:1 arctic:1 temperate:1 region:1 entire:1 contains:1 ericaceae:3 account:1 various:1 estimate:1 economical:1 importance:1 profitable:1 camellia:3 sinensis:1 theaceae:2 also:2 edible:1 fruit:2 kiwi:1 actinidia:1 deliciosa:1 diospyros:1 huckleberry:1 cranberry:1 mamey:1 sapote:1 shea:1 vitellaria:1 paradoxa:1 major:1 dietary:1 lipid:1 source:1 million:1 sub:1 saharan:1 african:1 cultivate:1 showy:1 flower:1 well:1 know:1 rhododendron:3 polyanthus:1 cyclamen:2 phlox:2 busy:1 lizzie:1 classification:2 following:1 typical:1 new:1 actinidiaceae:1 kiwifruit:1 balsaminaceae:1 balsam:1 clethraceae:2 clethra:1 cyrillaceae:2 cyrilla:1 diapensiaceae:1 ebenaceae:1 ebony:1 heath:1 fouquieriaceae:1 ocotillo:1 lecythidaceae:1 maesaceae:1 marcgraviaceae:1 mitrastemonaceae:1 myrsinaceae:1 scarlet:1 pimpernel:1 pellicieraceae:1 pentaphyllacaceae:2 polemoniaceae:1 primulaceae:1 primrose:1 snowbell:1 roridulaceae:1 sapotaceae:1 sapodilla:1 sarraceniaceae:1 american:1 pitcher:1 sladeniaceae:1 styracaceae:1 silverbell:1 symplocaceae:1 sapphireberry:1 ternstroemiaceae:1 see:1 tetrameristaceae:1 theophrastaceae:1 make:1 basal:1 group:3 asterids:1 cronquist:1 system:1 small:1 place:1 dilleniidae:1 grubbiaceae:1 empetraceae:1 epacridaceae:1 pyrolaceae:1 monotropaceae:1 reference:1 b:1 c:2 j:3 du:1 mortier:1 analyse:1 de:4 familles:1 plantes:1 avec:1 l:1 indication:1 principaux:1 genre:1 qui:1 rattachent:1 imprimerie:1 casterman:1 tournay:1 watanabe:1 p:2 caris:1 k:1 geuten:1 f:2 lens:1 n:2 pyck:2 smets:2 phylogeny:1 aluminium:1 biology:1 stuttgart:2 thieme:1 available:2 online:2 doi:1 abstract:1 w:1 judd:1 campbell:1 kellogg:1 stevens:1 donoghue:1 systematics:1 phylogenetic:1 approach:1 edition:1 pp:1 sinauer:1 sunderland:1 massachusetts:1 isbn:1 feb:1 nature:2 encyclopedia:1 life:1 science:1 publish:1 london:1 el:1 site:1 |@bigram herbaceous_plant:1 et_al:1 edible_fruit:1 sub_saharan:1 scarlet_pimpernel:1 de_familles:1 familles_de:1 donoghue_plant:1 systematics_phylogenetic:1 sinauer_associate:1 sunderland_massachusetts:1 |
7,468 | Craps | Craps is a dice game played against other players or a bank. Craps developed from a simplification of the Old English game hazard. Its origins are highly complex and may date to the Crusades, later being influenced by French gamblers. What was to become the modern American version of the game was brought to New Orleans by Bernard Xavier Philippe de Marigny de Mandeville, scion of wealthy Louisiana landowners and a gambler and politician. Bridges, Tyler, Bad Bet in the Bayou Farrar, Strauss & Giroux (2001) The game, first known as crapaud (a French word meaning "toad") reportedly owes its modern popularity from its being spread through the African-American community Asbury, Suckers progress; an informal history of gambling in America from the colonies to Canfield. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. (1938) . In craps, players may wager money against each other (street craps) or the bank (bank craps) on the outcome of one roll, or of a series of rolls of two dice. Because it requires very little equipment, craps can easily be played in less formal settings, and is said to be popular among soldiers. In such situations side bets are more frequent, with one or several participants covering or "fading" bets against the dice. The rules of play against a bank or casino Bank craps is a game played by one or more players against a casino. The casino covers all player bets at a table and sets the odds on its payout. Players take turns rolling two dice. The player rolling the dice is called the "shooter." Other players at the table will make bets on the shooter's dice rolls. The game is played in rounds, with the first roll of a new round called the "come-out roll". The second round resolves with a point being rolled or a seven. To begin, a player wishing to play as the shooter must bet at least the table minimum on either the "Pass" line or the "Don't Pass" line (pass and don’t pass are sometimes called “Win” or "Right" and “Don’t Win” or "Wrong" bets for the outcome of a shooter’s round). The right to roll the dice is rotated clockwise around the craps table. A player next in turn to become shooter may refuse the dice, but can continue to bet on the shooter's rolls; the dice then pass to the next player willing to become the shooter. The shooter is then presented with multiple dice (typically five) by the stickman, and must choose two to roll with. The remaining dice are returned to the stickman's bowl and are not used. At this point, the shooter makes a "come-out roll" with the intention of establishing a point. If the shooter's come-out roll is a 2, 3 or 12, it is called "craps" (the shooter is said to "crap out") and the round ends with players losing their pass line bets (don't pass wins on 2 and 3, and pushes on 12). A come-out roll of 7 or 11 is called a "natural," resulting in a win for pass line bets (and a loss for don't pass bets). Either way, the come-out roll continues for the same shooter until a point is established. If the numbers 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, or 10 are rolled on the come-out, this number becomes the "point" and the come out roll is now over. The dealers will move an "On" button to the point number which identifies the point number to all players at the table. The shooter will now continue rolling until either the point is rolled or a seven. If the shooter is successful in rolling the point, the result is a win for the pass line (and a loss for the don't pass). If the shooter rolls a seven (called a "seven-out"), the pass line loses (and the don't pass wins). A seven-out ends the round with the dice being passed (clockwise) to the next player who wishes to become the new shooter. A player wishing to play craps without being the shooter should approach the craps table and first check to see if the dealer's "On" button is on any of the point numbers. If the point number is "Off" then the table is in the come-out round. If the dealer's button is on, the table is in the point round where some casinos may allow a pass/don't pass bet to be placed, but the player should check with the dealer. All single or multi roll proposition bets may be placed in either of the two rounds. Between dice rolls by the shooter, there is a period for dealers to make pay outs and collect losing bets. When the dealers are finished, players are then allowed to place new bets. The stickman monitors the action at a table and decides when to give the shooter the dice, after which no more betting is allowed. In a casino, players will make bets with chips on a specially made craps table with a table cloth made of felt that displays the various betting possibilities. In most casinos, craps table are double sided. The layouts on both sides of the table are identical, with the center bets in the middle. This allows for more players to participate. Players can make a large number of bets for each turn, round, or roll and should become familiar with the craps layout. A casino craps table is run by four casino employees: a boxman who guards the chips, supervises the dealers and handles coloring out players (exchanging small chip denominations for larger denominations in order to preserve the chips at a table); two base dealers who stand to either side of the boxman and collect and pay bets; and a stickman who stands directly across the table from the boxman, takes bets in the center of the table (hard ways, yo, craps, horn etc), announces the results of each roll, collects the dice with an elongated wooden stick, and directs the base dealers to pay winners from bets in the center of the table. Each employee makes sure the other is paying out winners correctly. Occasionally, during off-peak times, only one base dealer will be attending the table, rendering only half the table open for bettors or one of the two base dealers will assume the role of the stickman. The dealers will insist that the shooter roll with one hand and that the dice bounce off the far wall surrounding the table. These requirements are meant to keep the game fair (preventing switching the dice or making a "controlled shot"). If a die leaves the table, the shooter will usually be asked to select another die from the remaining three but can request using the same die if it passes the boxman's inspection. This requirement is used to keep the game fair (and reduce the chance of loaded dice). Nicknaming the rolls comes with making the game more interesting. Locals often have their own names. Nine is often called a "Centerfield Nine" because 9 is the center of the Field bet. Five is often called "No Field Five" to remind the players that 5 is not paid in the Field bets. Some dealers and players refer to any nine (5-4 or 6-3) as a "Lou Brown." The 4 (usually hard) is sometimes referred to as "Little Joe, from Kokomo." In Atlantic City, a 4-5 is called a "Railroad Nine." Eleven is called out as "Yo" or "Yo'Leven" because it can often be mistaken for a seven. Rolls of 4, 6, 8, and 10 are called "hard" or "easy" (e.g. "Six the Hard Way", "Easy Eight", "Hard Ten") depending on whether they were rolled as a "double" or as any other combination of values, because of their significance in center table bets known as the "hard ways". Types of wagers Line bets Standard layout for craps (without Big 6/8) The shooter is required to make either a Pass Line bet or a Don't Pass bet if he wants to shoot. Line bets are based around points. Pass line bet: The fundamental bet in craps is the pass line bet, also called the win line in some countries. A pass line bet is won immediately if the come-out roll is a 7 or 11. If the come-out roll is 2, 3 or 12, the bet loses (known as "crapping out"). If the roll is any other value, it establishes a point; if that point is rolled again before a seven, the bet wins. If, with a point established, a seven is rolled before the point is re-rolled, the bet loses ("seven out"). A pass line win pays even money. Don't pass line bet: The don't pass line bet is almost the opposite of the pass line bet. The don't pass bet is opposite in that it loses if the come-out roll is 7 or 11 and wins if the come-out roll is 2 or 3. A 12 will draw (this depends on the casino— in some places a 12 will win and a 2 will draw); either way a player cannot lose if 12 is rolled. A draw (the word "BAR," printed on the Craps layout, means "Standoff") on 12 is done to ensure the casino maintains a house edge regardless of whether players are betting pass or don't pass. If a point is established and that point is rolled again, the don't pass bet loses. If a 7 is rolled instead of the point being re-rolled, the don't pass bet wins. There are two very slightly different ways to calculate the odds and house edge of this bet. A Craps Tutorial - Part 2 The table below gives the numbers considering that the game ends in a push when a 12 is rolled, rather than being undetermined. Betting on don't pass is often called "playing the dark side," and it is considered by some players to be in poor taste, or even taboo, because it goes directly against conventional play. Pass odds: If a 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, or 10 is thrown on the come-out roll (i.e., if a point is set), most casinos allow pass line bettors to take odds by placing from one to five times (and at some casinos, up to 100 times) the pass line bet behind the pass line. This additional bet wins if the point is rolled again before a 7 is rolled (the point is made) and pays at the true odds of 2-to-1 if 4 or 10 is the point, 3-to-2 if 5 or 9 is the point, and 6-to-5 if 6 or 8 is the point. Some casinos offer "3-4-5X Odds," where the maximum allowed odds bet depends on the point (three times if the point is 4 or 10, four times on 5 or 9, and five times on 6 or 8). This rule simplifies the calculation of winnings: a maximum pass odds bet on a 3-4-5X table will always be paid at six times the pass line bet regardless of the point. As odds bets are paid at true odds, in contrast with the pass line which is always even money, playing pass odds on a minimum pass line bet lessens the house advantage. A maximum odds bet on a minimum pass line bet gives the lowest house edge available in the casino. Don't pass odds: If a player is playing don't pass instead of pass, they may also lay odds by placing chips behind the don't pass line. If a 7 comes instead of the point coming, the odds pay at true odds of 1-to-2 if 4 or 10 is the point, 2-to-3 if 5 or 9 is the point, 5-to-6 if 6 or 8 is the point. Come bet: A come bet is played in two rounds and is played similar to a pass line bet. If a 7 or 11 is rolled on the first round, it wins. If a 2, 3 or 12 is rolled, it loses. If instead the roll is 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 then the come bet will be moved by the base dealer onto a box representing the number the shooter threw. This number becomes the come bet point and the player is allowed to add odds to the bet. The dealer will place the odds on top of the come bet, but slightly off center in order to differentiate between the original bet and the odds. The second round wins if the shooter rolls the come bet before a seven. If the seven comes before the number (the come-bet), the bet loses. On a come-out roll for the pass line the come bet is in play, but traditionally the odds are not working unless the player indicates otherwise to the dealer. Come wagers can only be made after a point has been established. On a come out roll the come bet is placed on the pass line as they are an identical bet. Because of the come bet, if the shooter makes their point, a player can find themselves in the situation where they have a come bet (possibly with odds on it) and the next roll is a come-out roll. In this situation odds bets on the come wagers are presumed to be not working for the come-out roll. That means that if the shooter rolls a 7 on the come-out roll, any players with active come bets waiting for a come-point lose their initial wager but will have their odds money returned to them. If the come-point is rolled the odds do not win but the come bet does and the odds are returned. The player can tell the dealer that they want their odds working, such that if the shooter rolls a number that matches the come point, the odds bet will win along with the come bet, and if a seven is rolled both lose. Don't come bet: A don't come bet is played in two rounds. If a 2 or 3 is rolled in the first round, it wins. If a 7 or 11 is rolled, it loses. If a 12 is rolled, it is a standoff and the player has the option to revoke their bet. If instead the roll is 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 then the don't come bet will be moved by the base dealer onto a box representing the number the shooter threw. The second round wins if the shooter rolls a seven before the don't come point. Don't come wagers can only be made after the come-out roll when a point has already been established. Odds can also be placed on a don't come-bet just like a pass line bet; in this case the dealer (not the player) places the odds bet on top of the bet in the box, because of limited space, slightly offset to signify that it is an odds bet and not part of the original don't come bet. Single roll bets Single-roll bets or proposition bets are resolved in one dice roll by the shooter. Only the stickman can place these bets for players, and they are located at the center of most craps tables. The bets include: 2 (snake eyes, or Aces): Wins if shooter rolls a 2. 3 (ace-deuce): Wins if the shooter rolls a 3. Yo: Wins if the shooter rolls 11. 12 (boxcars, or midnight): Wins if shooter rolls a 12. 2 or 12 (hi-lo): Wins if shooter rolls a 2 or 12. The stickman places this bet on the line dividing the 2 and 12 bets. Any Craps (Three-Way): Wins if the shooter rolls 2, 3 or 12. C & E: A combined bet, a player is betting half their bet on craps and the other half on yo (11). One of the two bets will always lose, the other may win. Any seven: Wins if the shooter rolls a 7. This bet is also nicknamed Big Red, since the 7 on its betting space on the layout is usually large and red. Field: This bet is a wager that one of the numbers 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, or 12 will appear on the next roll of the dice. This bet typically pays more 2:1 or 3:1 if 2 or 12 is rolled, and 1:1 if 3, 4, 9, 10 or 11 is rolled. Unlike the other proposition bets which are handled by the dealers or stickman, the field bet is placed directly by the player. The Horn: This is a bet that involves betting on 1 unit each for 2, 3, 11 and 12 at the same time for the next roll. The bet is actually four separate bets, and pays off depending on which number is actually rolled, minus three units for the other three losing bets. Many players, in order to eliminate the confusion of tossing four chips to the center of the table or having change made while bets are being placed, will make a five-unit Horn High bet, which is a four-way bet with the extra unit going to one specific number. For example, if you toss a $5 chip into the center and say "horn high yo," you are placing four $1 bets on each of the horn numbers and the extra dollar will go on the yo (11). Whirl or World: bet is a five-unit bet that is a combination of a horn and any-seven bet, with the idea that if a seven is rolled the bet is a push, because the money won on the seven is lost on the horn portions of the bet. On the Hop This is a single roll bet on any particular combination of the two dice on the next roll. For example, if you bet on "5 and 1" on the hop, you are betting that the next roll will have a 5 on one die and a 1 on the other die. The bet pays 15:1 (just like a bet on 3 or 11) except for doubles (i.e. 3 and 3 on the hop) which pay 30:1 (just like a bet on 12, which is the same as 6 and 6 on the hop). The true odds are 17:1 and 35:1, resulting in a house edge of 11.11% and 13.89% respectively. When presented, hop bets are located at the center of the craps layout with the other proposition bets. If hop bets are not on the craps layout, they still may be bet on by players. Multi roll bets These are bets that may not be settled on the first roll and may need any number of subsequent rolls before an outcome is determined. Most multi-roll bets may fall into the situation where a point is made by the shooter before the outcome of the multi roll bet is decided. These bets are considered "not working" in the new come-out roll until the next point is established, unless the player calls the bet as "working." Casino rules vary on this; some of these bets may not be callable, while others may be considered "working" during the come-out. If a non-working point number placed, bought or laid becomes the new point as the result of a come-out, the bet is usually refunded, or can be moved to another number for free. Hard way: A bet that the shooter will throw a 4, 6, 8 or 10 the "hard way", before he throws a seven or the corresponding "easy way". A hard way is when both dice show identical values, also known as "doubles," so 2-2 is hard way 4. Easy way: Opposite of hard way is a bet that the shooter will throw a specific easy way (either 4, 6, 8 or 10), before he throws a seven. An easy way is a value that does not have two dice identical, so 3-1 is easy way 4. These are rarely available as bets except by placing on a point number (which pays off on easy or hard rolls of that number). Big 6 and Big 8: A player can choose either the 6 or 8 being rolled before the shooter throws a seven. These wagers are usually avoided by experienced craps players since they pay even money (1:1) while a player can make place bets on the 6 or the 8, which pay more (7:6). Some casinos do not even offer the Big 6 & 8. The bets are located in the corners behind the pass line, and bets may be placed directly by players. Place and buy: Players can buy or place any point number (4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10) by placing their wager in the come area and telling the dealer, "place the 6" or "buy the 8". Both place and buy bets are bets that the number bet on will be rolled before a 7 is rolled. These bets are considered working bets, and will continue to be paid out each time a shooter rolls the place or buy point number. Place bets are paid at odds slightly worse than the true odds, while buy bets are paid at true odds, but a 5% commission is charged. Traditionally, the buy bet commission is paid no matter what, but in recent years a number of casinos have changed their policy to charge the commission only when the buy bet wins. Some casinos charge the commission as a one-time fee to buy the number; payouts are then always at true odds. Most casinos usually charge only $1 for a $25 green-chip bet (4% commission), or $2 for $50 (two green chips), reducing the house advantage a bit more. Where commission is charged only on wins, the commission is often deducted from the winning payoff--a winning $25 buy bet on the 10 would pay $49, for instance. The house edges stated in the table assume the commission is charged on all bets. They are reduced by at least a factor of two if commission is charged on winning bets only. Rarely casinos offer the place bet to lose. This bet is the opposite of the place bet and wins if a 7 is rolled before the specific point number. The place bet to lose typically carries a lower house edge than a place bet. Types of Craps Bets Lay: A lay bet is the opposite of a buy/place bet, where a player bets on a 7 to roll before the number that is laid. The lay bets pay true odds, but a 5% commission is charged. In some casinos the commission is only charged if the bet wins. Like the buy bet the commission is adjusted to suit the betting unit such that fraction of a dollar payouts are not needed. Player bets Fire Bet: Before the shooter begins, some casinos will allow a bet known as a fire bet to be placed. A fire bet is a bet of between 1-5 dollars (the Rio in Las Vegas allows up to $10) in the hopes that the next shooter will have a hot streak of setting and getting many points of different values. As different individual points are made by the shooter, they will be marked on the craps layout with a fire symbol. The first three points will not pay out on the fire bet, but the fourth, fifth and sixth will pay out at increasing odds. The fourth point pays at 25-1 (a maximum of $125 for a $5 bet), the fifth point pays at 250-1 (a maximum of $1,250 for a $5 bet) and the 6th point pays at 1,000-1 (a maximum of $5,000 for a $5 bet). Note that the points must all be different numbers for them to count towards the fire bet. For example, a shooter who successfully hits a point of 10 twice will only garner credit for the first one on the fire bet. Bet odds Note: Individual casinos may pay some of these bets at different "Odds Paid" ratios than those listed below. The payoff odds listed are the most common throughout North American casinos.Note: "Actual Odds" do not vary. BetActual OddsOdds PaidHouse EdgePass / Come251:2441:11.41%Don’t Pass / Don’t Come (Bar 12)1031:9491:11.36%Pass Odds / Come OddsSame as paid2:1 on 4 or 103:2 on 5 or 96:5 on 6 or 80%Don’t Pass Odds / Don’t Come OddsSame as paid1:2 against 4 or 102:3 against 5 or 95:6 against 6 or 80%Yo (11)17:115:111.11%317:115:111.11%235:130:113.89%1235:130:113.89%Hi-Lo17:115:111.11%Craps8:17:111.11%C & E5:13:1 on craps7:1 on 1111.11%Any 75:14:116.67%Field5:41:1 on 3,4,9,10 or 112:1 on 2 and 125.56%Field5:41:1 on 3,4,9,10 or 112:1 on 2, 3:1 on 122.78%The Horn5:127:4 on 2 or 123:1 on 3 or 1112.5%Whirl/World2:126:5 on 2 or 1211:5 on 3 or 110:1 (push) on 713.33%Hard way 4 / Hard way 108:17:111.11%Hard way 6 / Hard way 810:19:19.09%Big 66:51:19.09%Big 86:51:19.09%Place 4 / Place 102:19:56.67%Place 5 / Place 93:27:54%Place 6 / Place 86:57:61.52%Buy 4 / Buy 102:12:1 + 5% commission4.76%Buy 5 / Buy 93:23:2 + 5% commission4.76%Buy 6 / Buy 86:56:5 + 5% commission4.76%Lay 4 / Lay 101:21:2 + 5% commission2.44%Lay 5 / Lay 92:32:3 + 5% commission3.23%Lay 6 / Lay 85:65:6 + 5% commission4.00% The probability of dice combinations determine the odds of the payout. The following chart shows the dice combinations needed to roll each number. The two and twelve are the hardest to roll since only one combination of dice is possible. The game of craps is built around the dice roll of seven, since it is the most easily rolled dice combination. Dice RollPossible Dice Combinations21-1 31-2, 2-1 41-3, 2-2, 3-1 51-4, 2-3, 3-2, 4-1 61-5, 2-4, 3-3, 4-2, 5-1 71-6, 2-5, 3-4, 4-3, 5-2, 6-1 82-6, 3-5, 4-4, 5-3, 6-2 93-6, 4-5, 5-4, 6-3 104-6, 5-5, 6-4 115-6, 6-5 126-6 The expected value of all bets is negative, such that the average player will always lose money. This is because the house always sets the paid odds to below the actual odds. The only exception is the "odds" bet that the player is allowed to make after a point is established on a pass/come don't pass/don't come bet (the odds portion of the bet has a long-term expected value of 0). However, the "free odds" bet cannot be made independently, so the expected value of the entire bet, including odds, is still negative. Since there is no correlation between die rolls, there is no possible long-term winning strategy in craps. Maximizing the size of the odds bet in relation to the line bet will reduce, but never eliminate the house edge, and will increase variance. Many casinos have a limit on how large the odds bet can be in relation to the flat bet, with single, double, and five times odds common. Some casinos offer 3-4-5 odds, referring to the maximum multiple of the line bet a player can place in odds for the points of 4 and 10, 5 and 9, and 6 and 8, respectively. During promotional periods, a casino may even offer 100x odds bets, which reduces the house edge to almost nothing, but dramatically increases variance, as the player will be betting in large betting units. Since several of the multiple roll bets pay off in ratios of fractions on the dollar, it is important that the player bets in multiples that will allow a correct payoff in complete dollars. Normally, payoffs will be rounded down to the nearest dollar, resulting in a higher house advantage. These bets include all place bets, taking odds, and buying on numbers 6, 8, 5, and 9, as well as laying all numbers. Betting Variants These variants depend on the casino and the table, and sometimes a casino will have different tables that use or omit these variants and others. 11 is a point number instead of a natural. Rolling an 11 still pays "Yo" center-table bets, however the Pass line does not automatically win (and the Don't Pass line doesn't automatically lose) when 11 is rolled on the come-out. Making the point pays 3:1 on Pass/Come odds bets (1:3 on Don't Pass/Come odds); all line bets are still even money. This slightly reduces the odds of a natural and of making the point in general, increasing the house edge on the pass line. 12 pays 3:1 on the field. This is generally seen in rooms that have two different table minimums, on the tables with the higher minimums. The lower minimum ones will then have 2:1 odds. 11 pays 2:1 on the field. This variant is normally used when 12 pays 3:1, and further lowers the house edge on the field. Big 6/8 are unavailable. These bets are equivalent to placing or buying 6 or 8 as points, which have better payout for the same real odds, so Big 6/8 are rarely used and many casinos simply omit them from the layout. Optimal betting Since all bets have a house advantage, and a negative expected value, the optimal strategy is to be the house. Failing that, one can reduce one's average losses by only placing bets with the smallest house advantage. The pass/don't line, come/don't line, place 6, place 8, buy 4 and buy 10 (only under the casino rules where commission is charged only on wins) are the best bets with the lowest house edge in the casino, and all other bets will on average lose money between three and twelve times faster because of the difference in house edges. The place bets and buy bets differ from the pass/don't line and come/don't line, in that place bets and buy bets can be removed at any time, since they are one-time propositions, whereas pass/don't line bets and come/don't line bets must be resolved as "win or lose" once placed. Among these, and the remaining numbers and possible bets, there are a myriad of systems and progressions that can be used with many combinations of numbers. An important alternative metric is house advantage per roll (rather than per bet), which may be expressed in loss per hour http://wizardofodds.com/craps . The typical pace of rolls varies depending on the number of players, but 102 rolls per hour is a cited rate for a nearly full table http://wizardofodds.com/craps . This same reference states that only "29.6% of total rolls are come out rolls, on average," so for this alternative metric, needing extra rolls to resolve the pass line bet, for example, is factored. This number then permits calculation of rate of loss per hour, and per the 4 day/5 hour per day gambling trip: $10 Pass line bets 0.42% per roll, $4.28 per hour, $86 per trip $10 Place 6,8 bets 0.46% per roll, $4.69 per hour, $94 per trip $10 Place 5,9 bets 1.11% per roll, $11.32 per hour, $226 per trip $10 Place 4,10 bets 1.19% per roll, $12.14 per hour, $243 per trip $1 Single Hardways 2.78% per roll, $2.84 per hour, $56.71 per trip $1 All hardways 2.78% per roll, $11.34 per hour, $227 per trip $5 All hardways 2.78% per roll, $56.71 per hour, $1134 per trip $1 Craps only on come out 3.29% per roll, $3.35 per hour, $67.09 per trip $1 Eleven only on come out 3.29% per roll, $3.35 per hour, $67.09 per trip More important than any particular system is simply to follow the same principles as with most casino games: play within one's means (i.e. within one's budget, a.k.a. bankroll) pick a specific system per shooter or per session, and stay with that system set limits on how much one will lose in a session (dollar amount or number of successive losses) set win goals for the session, i.e. resist the urge to pour all profits into the next bet to increase winnings (or worse, to use a Martingale system to attempt to recover losses) above all do not bet on the assumption that a number is either due to come up or due to stop coming up (see gambler's fallacy) Etiquette Besides the rules of the actual game, certain unwritten rules of etiquette exist while playing craps and are expected to be followed. Many consider these guidelines as important as the actual rules themselves. New players should familiarize themselves with them before approaching a craps table. Rules related to casino security Players are not supposed to handle the dice with more than one hand (such as passing them from hand to hand before rolling) nor take the dice past the edge of the table. The only way to change hands when throwing dice, if permitted at all, is to set the dice on the table, let go, then take them with the other hand. This reduces or eliminates the possibility of the shooter switching dice by sleight-of-hand. When throwing the dice, the player is expected to hit the farthest wall at the opposite end of the table. Some casinos refer to throws that do not hit the opposite wall as "Mellenberg Rolls." Most casinos will allow a roll that does not hit the opposite wall as long as the dice are thrown past the middle of the table, occasionally a short roll will be called a "no roll" due to the more controllable nature of such a roll. The dice may not be slid across the table and must be tossed. Typically, players are asked not to throw the dice higher than the eye level of the dealers. The dice cannot land in the boxman's bank, the stickman's bowl (where the extra three dice are kept between rolls), or in rail around the top of the table where players chips are kept. Dice can land on players bets on the table, the dealer's working stacks, on the marker puck or with one die resting on top of the other. If a die or both dice leave the table, it is also a "no roll" and the boxman will examine the dice before letting it come back into the game. However, the player may request the same die or dice. When either of the dice land on or come to rest leaning against chips, markers, or the side of the table, the number that would be on top if the object the die is leaning on were removed, is the number that is used to make the call. If one or both dice hits a player or dealer and rolls back onto the table, the roll counts as long as the person being hit did not interfere with either of the dice, though some casinos will rule "no roll" for this situation. In most cases the shooter may "set" the dice to a particular configuration, but if they do, they are often asked to be quick about it so as not to delay the game. Some casinos have "no setting" rules. Dealers are not allowed to touch the players or hand chips directly to a player, and vice versa. If "buying in" (paying cash for chips) at the table, players are expected to lay the cash down on the layout, which the dealer will take and then place chips in front of the player. Many craps table layouts state "NO CALL BETS". This means a player is not allowed to call out a bet without having at least the right amount of chips on the table. If the chips exceed the bet, for example a $100 chip is placed and bets called out of "$25 on five and nine", the dealer will say "it's a bet" and return $50 change to the player. The dealer doesn't have to actually place the bet in the proper place on the table to constitute a valid bet. This method is consistent with the fast action of the game, allowing a player to make a last-second bet while the dice are about to be thrown. The NO CALL BET rule may exist to prevent confusion on the amount bet, possibly going back to the days of 25 cent tables. For example "three fifty" could mean $3.50 or $350. If the dealer is not clear about the intention of the player he may state "no bet" and push the chips back to the player. Like any other table game, the casino can ask a player to leave the table or the casino for any reason. Commonly observed etiquette It is generally preferable to place chips on the board rather than tossing them. Tossed chips may roll on edge out of the dealer's reach and/or upset other stacks of chips. Craps Etiquette... and its effect on winning A center bet controlled by the stickman (usually the hardest person to reach) can be made by passing chips to the nearest dealer, who will relay the bet to the stickman. When chips must be tossed it is polite to gain the dealer or stickman's attention and toss as few chips as necessary to cover the bet (a $25 chip is preferable to a stack of five $5 chips). When offered the dice to shoot, a player may pass the dice to the next player without fear of offending anyone; however, at least one player must always be a "shooter" betting on either the pass line or don't pass line for the game to continue. ♠Craps - Strategy and Odds by The Wizard of Odds When tipping, the most common way is simply to toss chips onto the table and say, "For the dealers" or "For the boys" (the second is considered acceptable even though dealers often are women). It's also common to place a bet for the dealers. If the bet is one handled by the dealers, such as a Place bet or one of the proposition bets handled by the stick-man, the chip(s) should be placed, or thrown, and announced as a dealer bet, such as "Dealer's hard eight", or "Place the eight for the dealers". A "two-way" bet is one that is part for the player and part for the dealers. Usually, the dealers' bet is smaller than the player's bet, but it is appreciated. The part of the bet for the dealer is called a "toke" bet; this is from the $1 slot machine coins or tokens that are sometimes used to place bets for the dealers in a casino. Most casinos require the dealers to pick up their winning bets, including the original tip, rather than "let it ride" as the player may choose to do. If the player wants the original dealer bet to remain in place, the phrase "I control the bet" should be clearly stated by the tipper, and acknowledged by the one of the crew, immediately upon announcing the dealer bet. This indicates that any winnings for that bet will be picked up by the dealers, and the original amount will remain in play until a losing decision. The $1 "yo" (eleven) bet, split with the dealers on come-out rolls by calling out "two-way yo," tends to be a favorite with many players as means of tipping the dealers without giving up too much per gambling trip. If eleven comes out on the come out roll, the pass line win bets and the more substantial "yo" bet splits (see see reference). After the come-out roll, it is considered bad luck to say the word "seven". A common "nickname" for this number is "Big Red", or just "Red". It is considered bad luck to change dice in the middle of a roll. If one or both dice leave the table, and the shooter does not want a new die (or dice) substituted into the game, the shooter should immediately and loudly call "Same Dice!". The retrieved die (or dice) will then be returned to play after close inspection by the boxman. Most casinos will immediately begin the process of introducing new dice unless the shooter has requested otherwise, though some casinos will inspect the dice by default. Proposition bets, the bets in the center of the table, are made by tossing chips to the center of the table and calling out the intended bet; the stickman will then place the chips correctly for the player. As mentioned above, care should be taken when tossing chips. Players furthest from the stickman can often elect to place a center bet with a dealer who will relay the bet to the center. It is considered rude to "late bet," or make wagers while the dice are no longer in the middle of the table. While entirely permissible, excessive late betting will generally garner a warning. At their discretion or that of a "pit boss", dealers can disallow a bet made after the dice have left the center. Food, drinks, cigarettes, and other items should remain off the chip rail and should not be held over the table. Players feel it is bad luck for the shooter to leave the table after a successful come-out roll. A shooter retains the right to roll and is expected to continue rolling until he or she sevens out. If the shooter leaves the game before a decision is reached on a point number, the dice will be passed to the next player to continue where the shooter left off. Once a decision is reached, the "substitute" shooter can, at the discretion of the boxman, continue to roll the dice for a new "come out" as would have been the case had the previous shooter completed their roll. When the shooter is ready to roll, players should remove their hands from the table area in order to avoid interfering with the dice. The stickman will often say "hands high, let 'em fly" or "dice are out, hands high". When making bets in the field or on the Big 6 or Big 8, it is the player's responsibility to track his or her bet. Place bets and Come Line bets will be tracked by the dealer, who will pay the player directly. Hardway and other proposition bets are tracked by the stickman and will be paid by the dealer to the player directly based on instructions from the stickman. Systems Martingale system No wagering system can consistently beat casino games of pure chance such as craps, but that does not stop hopeful gamblers believing in them. One of the best known systems is the Martingale System, in which the player starts by betting a given amount, for instance $1, and doubles his bet whenever he loses. Upon winning, he starts over at the initial amount. The idea is to realize a net win equal to the initial amount after every eventual win. This system fails because the player will either run out of money after having to double his bet several times in a row after a streak of losing bets, or he will be unable to bet the amount dictated by the system because it would exceed the maximum bet allowed by the casino. The Martingale system also only yields a profit equal to the initial bet amount every time the player wins. If the initial amount is small, the payout from each Martingale sequence will be just as small. Gambler's fallacy Other systems depend on the gambler's fallacy, which in craps terms is the belief that past dice rolls influence the probabilities of future dice rolls. For example, the gambler's fallacy indicates that a craps player should bet on eleven if an eleven has not appeared or has appeared too often in the last 20 rolls. In reality, each roll of the dice is an independent event, so the probability of rolling an eleven is exactly 1/18 on every roll, even if eleven has not come up in the last 100 rolls, or if eleven has come up five times in the last five rolls. Even if the dice are actually biased toward particular results ("loaded"), each roll is still independent of all of the previous ones. The common term to describe this is "dice have no memory". Parity hedge system The parity hedge system is a hoax promulgated by Quatloos. Despite the fact that no such system exists (indeed, it is a mathematical impossibility), several gambling-related web sites have retold the 'parity hedge' story without attribution. Dice setting or dice control Another approach is to "set" the dice in a particular orientation, and then throw them in such a manner that they do not tumble randomly. The theory is that the dice will be more likely to show certain numbers. Unlike other systems, this one is mathematically plausible, because if it were possible to alter the probabilities of each outcome, then winning systems could be devised. Casinos do take steps to prevent this. The dice are required to hit the back wall of the table, which makes controlled spins more difficult. Whether it is possible for human beings to consistently exercise the precise physical control necessitated by the theory is a source of controversy. A small but dedicated community of controlled shooters maintain records and claim proof of dice influencing in casino conditions. Frank Scoblete, Stanford Wong and Jerry L. Patterson, authors of books that feature dice control techniques, believe that it is possible to alter the odds in the player's favor by dice control. Chris Pawlicki, a mechanical engineer who (under the pseudonym "Sharpshooter") wrote a book on dice setting called Get The Edge At Craps: How to Control the Dice as a part of the Frank Scoblete "Get the Edge Guides," defined the math and science behind dice control. Math Behind why Dice Control Works In addition, some people offer to teach dice-setting skills for a substantial fee. Currently there has been no independent conclusive evidence that such methods can be successfully applied in a real casino. The rules of play against other players Recreational or informal playing of craps outside of a casino is referred to as street craps or private craps. The most notable difference between playing street craps and bank craps is that there is no bank or house to cover bets in street craps. Players must bet against each other by covering or fading each others bets for the game to be played. The History Of Craps by Meaghan Hutton If money is used instead of chips and depending on the laws of where it is being played, street craps can be an illegal form of gambling. Private Craps There are many variations of street craps. The simplest way is to either agree on or roll a number as the point, then roll the point again before you roll a seven. Unlike more complex proposition bets offered by casinos, street craps has more simplified betting options. The shooter is required to make either a Pass or a Don't Pass bet if he wants to roll the dice. Another player must choose to cover the shooter to create a stake for the game to continue. If there are several players, the rotation of the player who must cover the shooter may change with the shooter (comparable to a blind in poker). The person covering the shooter will always bet against the shooter. For example, if the shooter made a "Pass" bet, the person covering the shooter would make a "Don't Pass" bet to win. Once the shooter is covered, other players may make Pass/Don't Pass bets, or any other proposition bets, as long as there is another player willing to cover. See also Box cars (slang) Craps principle Dice Floating craps Gonna Roll the Bones Guys and Dolls Illusion of control Probability Snake eyes (slang) References External links | Craps |@lemmatized crap:56 dice:85 game:23 play:23 player:98 bank:8 develop:1 simplification:1 old:1 english:1 hazard:1 origin:1 highly:1 complex:2 may:27 date:1 crusade:1 later:1 influence:2 french:2 gambler:7 become:8 modern:2 american:3 version:1 bring:1 new:11 orleans:1 bernard:1 xavier:1 philippe:1 de:2 marigny:1 mandeville:1 scion:1 wealthy:1 louisiana:1 landowner:1 politician:1 bridge:1 tyler:1 bad:6 bet:287 bayou:1 farrar:1 strauss:1 giroux:1 first:8 know:5 crapaud:1 word:3 meaning:1 toad:1 reportedly:1 owe:1 popularity:1 spread:1 african:1 community:2 asbury:1 sucker:1 progress:1 informal:2 history:2 gamble:5 america:1 colony:1 canfield:1 york:1 dodd:1 mead:1 co:1 wager:11 money:11 street:7 outcome:5 one:34 roll:156 series:1 two:18 require:5 little:2 equipment:1 easily:2 less:1 formal:1 setting:2 say:7 popular:1 among:2 soldier:1 situation:5 side:6 frequent:1 several:5 participant:1 cover:11 fading:1 rule:12 casino:48 table:61 set:12 odds:65 payout:4 take:9 turn:3 call:25 shooter:70 make:36 round:17 come:80 second:5 resolve:4 point:66 seven:23 begin:3 wishing:2 must:10 least:4 minimum:6 either:16 pas:71 line:49 sometimes:4 win:48 right:4 wrong:1 rotate:1 clockwise:2 around:4 next:13 refuse:1 continue:9 pass:8 willing:2 present:2 multiple:4 typically:4 five:12 stickman:17 choose:4 remain:6 return:5 bowl:2 use:11 intention:2 establish:9 end:4 lose:25 push:5 natural:3 result:7 loss:7 way:27 number:46 dealer:53 move:4 button:3 identify:1 successful:2 wish:1 without:6 approach:3 check:2 see:6 allow:16 place:64 single:6 multi:4 proposition:10 period:2 pay:39 collect:3 finish:1 monitor:1 action:2 decide:2 give:5 betting:4 chip:33 specially:1 cloth:1 felt:1 display:1 various:1 possibility:2 double:7 layout:11 identical:4 center:17 middle:4 participate:1 large:5 familiar:1 run:2 four:6 employee:2 boxman:8 guard:1 supervise:1 handle:5 color:1 exchange:1 small:6 denomination:2 order:4 preserve:1 base:8 stand:2 directly:7 across:2 hard:19 yo:12 horn:7 etc:1 announce:3 elongated:1 wooden:1 stick:2 direct:1 winner:2 sure:1 correctly:2 occasionally:2 peak:1 time:17 attend:1 render:1 half:3 open:1 bettor:2 assume:2 role:1 insist:1 hand:11 bounce:1 far:1 wall:5 surround:1 requirement:2 mean:7 keep:4 fair:2 prevent:3 switch:2 control:12 shot:1 die:12 leave:8 usually:8 ask:4 select:1 another:5 three:9 request:3 inspection:2 reduce:8 chance:2 loaded:2 nickname:3 interesting:1 local:1 often:11 name:1 nine:5 centerfield:1 field:9 remind:1 refer:5 lou:1 brown:1 joe:1 kokomo:1 atlantic:1 city:1 railroad:1 eleven:9 leven:1 mistake:1 easy:8 e:6 g:1 six:2 eight:3 ten:1 depend:7 whether:3 combination:8 value:9 significance:1 type:2 standard:1 big:12 want:5 shoot:2 fundamental:1 also:9 country:1 immediately:4 even:10 almost:2 opposite:8 draw:3 cannot:3 bar:2 print:1 standoff:2 ensure:1 maintain:2 house:21 edge:16 regardless:2 instead:7 slightly:5 different:7 calculate:1 craps:1 tutorial:1 part:6 consider:10 rather:4 undetermined:1 dark:1 poor:1 taste:1 taboo:1 go:5 conventional:1 throw:14 behind:5 additional:1 true:8 offer:8 maximum:8 depends:1 simplify:2 calculation:2 winning:5 always:8 contrast:1 lessen:1 advantage:6 low:4 available:2 lay:14 similar:1 onto:4 box:4 represent:2 threw:2 add:1 top:5 differentiate:1 original:5 traditionally:2 work:10 unless:3 indicate:3 otherwise:2 find:1 possibly:2 presume:1 active:1 wait:1 initial:5 tell:2 match:1 along:1 option:2 revoke:1 already:1 like:5 case:3 limited:1 space:2 offset:1 signify:1 locate:3 include:4 snake:2 eye:3 ace:2 deuce:1 boxcar:1 midnight:1 hi:2 lo:1 divide:1 c:2 combined:1 red:4 since:8 appear:3 unlike:3 involve:1 unit:7 actually:4 separate:1 minus:1 many:9 eliminate:3 confusion:2 toss:10 change:6 high:7 extra:4 specific:4 example:8 dollar:7 whirl:2 world:1 idea:2 portion:2 hop:6 particular:5 except:2 respectively:2 still:5 settle:1 need:4 subsequent:1 determine:2 fall:1 vary:2 callable:1 others:3 non:1 buy:25 refund:1 free:2 corresponding:1 show:3 rarely:3 avoid:2 experienced:1 corner:1 area:2 commission:13 charge:10 matter:1 recent:1 year:1 policy:1 casinos:3 fee:2 payouts:2 green:2 bit:1 deduct:1 payoff:4 would:5 instance:2 state:5 factor:2 carry:1 adjust:1 suit:1 fraction:2 fire:7 rio:1 la:1 vega:1 hope:1 hot:1 streak:2 get:3 individual:2 mark:1 symbol:1 fourth:2 fifth:2 sixth:1 increase:5 note:3 count:2 towards:1 successfully:2 hit:7 twice:1 garner:2 credit:1 ratio:2 list:2 common:6 throughout:1 north:1 actual:4 betactual:1 oddsodds:1 paidhouse:1 edgepass:1 oddssame:2 probability:5 following:1 chart:1 twelve:2 possible:6 build:1 rollpossible:1 expect:7 negative:3 average:4 paid:1 exception:1 long:5 term:4 however:4 independently:1 expected:1 entire:1 correlation:1 strategy:3 maximize:1 size:1 relation:2 never:1 variance:2 limit:2 flat:1 promotional:1 nothing:1 dramatically:1 important:4 correct:1 complete:2 normally:2 near:2 well:1 variant:4 omit:2 automatically:2 general:1 generally:3 room:1 lower:1 unavailable:1 equivalent:1 good:1 real:2 simply:3 optimal:2 fail:2 best:2 faster:1 difference:2 differ:1 remove:3 whereas:1 myriad:1 system:19 progression:1 alternative:2 metric:2 per:37 express:1 hour:13 http:2 wizardofodds:2 com:2 typical:1 pace:1 varies:1 cited:1 rate:2 nearly:1 full:1 reference:3 total:1 permit:2 day:3 trip:11 hardways:3 follow:2 principle:2 within:2 budget:1 k:1 bankroll:1 pick:3 session:3 stay:1 much:2 amount:10 successive:1 goal:1 resist:1 urge:1 pour:1 profit:2 martingale:5 attempt:1 recover:1 assumption:1 due:3 stop:2 fallacy:4 etiquette:4 besides:1 certain:2 unwritten:1 exist:2 guideline:1 familiarize:1 relate:2 security:1 suppose:1 past:3 let:4 sleight:1 farthest:1 mellenberg:1 short:1 controllable:1 nature:1 slid:1 level:1 land:3 rail:2 stack:3 marker:2 puck:1 rest:2 examine:1 back:5 lean:2 object:1 person:4 interfere:2 though:3 configuration:1 quick:1 delay:1 touch:1 vice:1 versa:1 buying:1 cash:2 front:1 exceed:2 proper:1 constitute:1 valid:1 method:2 consistent:1 fast:1 last:4 cent:1 fifty:1 could:2 clear:1 reason:1 commonly:1 observe:1 preferable:2 board:1 reach:4 upset:1 effect:1 relay:2 polite:1 gain:1 attention:1 necessary:1 fear:1 offend:1 anyone:1 wizard:1 tipping:1 boy:1 acceptable:1 woman:1 man:1 appreciate:1 toke:1 slot:1 machine:1 coin:1 token:1 tip:2 ride:1 phrase:1 clearly:1 tipper:1 acknowledge:1 crew:1 upon:2 losing:1 decision:3 split:2 tend:1 favorite:1 substantial:2 luck:3 substitute:2 loudly:1 retrieve:1 close:1 process:1 introduce:1 inspect:1 default:1 intended:1 mention:1 care:1 furthest:1 elect:1 rude:1 late:2 longer:1 entirely:1 permissible:1 excessive:1 warning:1 discretion:2 pit:1 bos:1 disallow:1 food:1 drink:1 cigarette:1 item:1 hold:1 feel:1 retain:1 sevens:1 previous:2 ready:1 em:1 fly:1 responsibility:1 track:3 hardway:1 instruction:1 consistently:2 beat:1 pure:1 hopeful:1 believe:2 known:1 start:2 whenever:1 realize:1 net:1 equal:2 every:3 eventual:1 row:1 unable:1 dictate:1 yield:1 sequence:1 belief:1 future:1 reality:1 independent:3 event:1 exactly:1 bias:1 toward:1 describe:1 memory:1 parity:3 hedge:3 hoax:1 promulgate:1 quatloos:1 despite:1 fact:1 exists:1 indeed:1 mathematical:1 impossibility:1 web:1 site:1 retell:1 story:1 attribution:1 orientation:1 manner:1 tumble:1 randomly:1 theory:2 likely:1 mathematically:1 plausible:1 alter:2 devise:1 step:1 spin:1 difficult:1 human:1 exercise:1 precise:1 physical:1 necessitate:1 source:1 controversy:1 dedicated:1 controlled:1 record:1 claim:1 proof:1 influencing:1 condition:1 frank:2 scoblete:2 stanford:1 wong:1 jerry:1 l:1 patterson:1 author:1 book:2 feature:1 technique:1 favor:1 chris:1 pawlicki:1 mechanical:1 engineer:1 pseudonym:1 sharpshooter:1 write:1 guide:1 define:1 math:2 science:1 addition:1 people:1 teach:1 skill:1 currently:1 conclusive:1 evidence:1 apply:1 recreational:1 playing:1 outside:1 private:2 notable:1 fade:1 meaghan:1 hutton:1 law:1 illegal:1 form:1 variation:1 simple:1 agree:1 create:1 stake:1 rotation:1 comparable:1 blind:1 poker:1 car:1 slang:2 float:1 gonna:1 bone:1 guy:1 doll:1 illusion:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram farrar_strauss:1 strauss_giroux:1 dodd_mead:1 casino_casino:1 roll_dice:9 dice_roll:6 rotate_clockwise:1 crap_layout:5 yo_yo:1 odds_bet:15 hi_lo:1 la_vega:1 expected_value:1 gambler_fallacy:4 sleight_hand:1 vice_versa:1 bad_luck:3 conclusive_evidence:1 guy_doll:1 external_link:1 |
7,469 | Dianetics | Scientologists promoting Dianetics at Union Station in Washington, D.C. Dianetics is a set of ideas and practices regarding the relationship between the spirit, mind and body that were developed by science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard, and practiced by followers of Scientology. Hubbard coined Dianetics from the Greek stems dia, meaning through, and nous, meaning mind. Dianetics posits the existence of a mind with three parts: the conscious "analytical mind," the subconscious "reactive mind," and the somatic mind. Encyclopedia of Religious Freedom, Catharine Cookson, Taylor & Francis, 2003, ISBN 0415941814.(page 430/431) The goal of Dianetics is to remove the so-called "reactive mind" that scientologists believe prevents people from becoming more ethical, more aware, happier and saner. The Dianetics procedure to achieve this is called "auditing". Philosophers and Religious Leaders: An Encyclopedia of People Who Changed the World, Christian D. Von Dehsen & Scott L. Harris, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, ISBN 1573561525. (page 90). Auditing is a process whereby a series of questions are asked by the Scientology auditor, in an attempt to rid the auditee of the painful experiences of the past which scientologists believe to be the cause of the "reactive mind". Dianetics grew out of Hubbard's personal experiences and experiments and has been described as a mix of "Western technology and Oriental philosophy". James R. Lewis, "Clearing the Planet: Utopian Idealism and the Church of Scientology" in: Syzygy, Journal of Alternative Religion and Culture, Vol.6:1-2, 1997, page 287; ISSN 1059-6860 Hubbard stated that Dianetics "forms a bridge between" cybernetics and General Semantics, a set of ideas about education originated by Alfred Korzybski that was receiving much attention in the science fiction world in the 1940s. Hubbard, "Terra Incognita: The Mind," The Explorers Journal, winter 1949 / spring 1950 (on the bridge between cybernetics and general semantics) M. Kendig, editor Alfred Korzybski: Collected Writings, 1920-1950, ch. 12, Institute of General Semantics, 1990 ISBN 0910780080. (Presented at the First American Congress for General Semantics, May 1935). Hubbard claimed that Dianetics can increase intelligence, eliminate unwanted emotions and alleviate a wide range of illnesses he believed to be psychosomatic. Among the conditions purportedly treated against are arthritis, allergies, asthma, some coronary difficulties, eye trouble, ulcers, migraine headaches, and sex deviations. Organizations related to Scientology provide training in auditing to assist people in learning the rudiments of Dianetics and Scientology. Techniques are taught by forming teams to audit one another using the techniques described in the Dianetics book. Dianetics predates Hubbard's classification of Scientology as "applied religious philosophy". Early in 1951, he expanded his writings to include teachings related to the soul, or "thetan". Dianetics is also practiced by independent groups, collectively called the Free Zone. The Church disapproves of Free Zone activities and has prosecuted them in court for misappropriation of Scientology/Dianetics copyrights and trademarks. Copyright -- or wrong?, Salon.com, July 22, 1999 History Introducing Dianetics: Cover of May, 1950 edition of Astounding Science Fiction featuring "Dianetics: a new science of the mind". Hubbard always claimed that his ideas of Dianetics originated in the 1920s and 1930s. By his own account, he spent a great deal of time in the Oak Knoll Naval Hospital's library, where he would have encountered the work of Freud and other psychoanalysts. In April 1950, Hubbard and several others established the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Elizabeth, New Jersey to coordinate work related for the forthcoming publication. Hubbard first introduced Dianetics to the public in the article Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science published in the May 1950 issue of the magazine Astounding Science Fiction. Originally published by Stephen A. Kent in December, 1999. Hubbard wrote Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health at that time, allegedly completing the 180,000-word book in six weeks. "L.R.H. Biography," Sea Org Flag Information Letter 67, 31 October 1977 The success of selling Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health brought in a flood of money, which Hubbard used to establish Dianetics foundations in six major American cities. The scientific and medical communities were far less enthusiastic about Dianetics, viewing it with bemusement, concern, or outright derision. Complaints were made against local Dianetics practitioners for allegedly practicing medicine without a license. This eventually prompted Dianetics advocates to disclaim any medicinal benefits in order to avoid regulation. Hubbard explained the backlash as a response from various entities trying to co-opt Dianetics for their own use. Hubbard blamed the hostile press coverage in particular on a plot by the American Communist Party. In later years, Hubbard decided that the psychiatric profession was the origin of all of the criticism of Dianetics, as he believed it secretly controlled most of the world's governments. Hubbard, "Ron's Journal 67," taped message of 20 September 1967 By the autumn of 1950, financial problems had developed, and by November 1950, the six Foundations had spent around one million dollars and were more than $200,000 in debt. Dianetics and the Professions, A.E. van Vogt, 1953 Disagreements emerged over the direction of the Dianetic Foundation's work, and relations between the board members became strained, with several leaving, even to support causes critical of Dianetics. One example was Harvey Jackins, founder of Re-evaluation Counselling, originally a sort of discrete reworking of Dianetics, which L Ron Hubbard later declared suppressive to Scientology. In January 1951, the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners instituted proceedings against the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Elizabeth for teaching medicine without a licence. Bulletin of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, Elizabeth, NJ. January 1951 The Foundation closed its doors, causing the proceedings to be vacated, but its creditors began to demand settlement of its outstanding debts. Don Purcell, a millionaire Dianeticist from Wichita, Kansas, offered a brief respite from bankruptcy, but the Foundation's finances failed again in 1952. Because of a sale of assets resulting from the bankruptcy, Hubbard no longer owned the rights to the name "Dianetics", but its philosophical framework still provided the seed for Scientology to grow. Scientologists refer to the book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health as "Book One." In 1952, Hubbard published a new set of teachings as "Scientology, a religious philosophy." Scientology did not replace Dianetics but extended it to cover new areas. Where the goal of Dianetics is to rid the individual of his reactive mind engrams, the stated goal of Scientology is to rehabilitate the individual's spiritual nature so that he may reach his full potential. In 1978, Hubbard released New Era Dianetics (NED), a revised version supposed to produce better results in a shorter period of time. The course consists of 11 rundowns and requires a specifically trained auditor. It is run (processed) exactly like Standard Dianetics (once very widely practiced before the advent of NED) except the pre-clear (parishioner) is encouraged to find the "postulate" he made before the incident occurred. L. Ron Hubbard New Era Dianetics Series 7RA, HCOB 28 June 1978RA revised 15 September 1978, Hubbard Communications Office (HCO). ("Postulate" in Dianetics and Scientology has the meaning of "a conclusion, decision or resolution made by the individual himself; to conclude, decide or resolve a problem or to set a pattern for the future or to nullify a pattern of the past" The Official Scientology and Dianetics Glossary in contrast to its conventional meanings.) New Era Dianetics is really only a prelude to what is available at the high levels of the Bridge including the incidents: New Era Dianetics for OTs also known as NOTS. It is available after Xenu and the now well known First Wall of Fire. NOTS is also known as the Second Wall of Fire. Free Zone (Scientology) offers a version of it in the Internet. Advanced level 5 - The NOTs(New Era Dianetics for Operating Thetans)Scholars Home Page (Scientology) - Dave Touretzky's Page Basic concepts In the book, Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, Hubbard describes techniques which he suggests can rid individuals of fears and psychosomatic illnesses. One basic idea in Dianetics is that the mind consists of two parts, the "analytical mind" and the "reactive mind". The "reactive mind" is also referred to as the "unconscious mind" which is said to act as a record of shock, trauma, pain, and otherwise harmful memories. Experiences such as these, stored in the "reactive mind" are dubbed "engrams". Dianetics is a proposed method to erase these "engrams" in the "reactive mind" to achieve what is referred to in Scientology as a state of "Clear". A "Clear" is one who is thought to no longer possess his reactive Mind. James R. Lewis, "Clearing the Planet: Utopian Idealism and the Church of Scientology" in: Syzygy, Journal of Alternative Religion and Culture, Vol.6:1-2, 1997, page 287; ISSN 1059-6860 By his own admission, Hubbard made what he considered was one of the greatest mistakes of his life when he used the biological definition of engram as a "trace on a cell". Science would eventually be able to debunk the false definition in Biology. Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin The Ways and Power of Love, pp. 186-187, Templeton Foundation Press, 2002 ISBN 978-1890151867; first edition 1954: Harvard Research Center in Creative Altruism Hubbard described Dianetics as "an organized science of thought built on definite axioms: statements of natural laws on the order of those of the physical sciences". Winter, J.A. Dianetics: A Doctor's Report, p. 18 (Julian Press, 1987 reprint) These Dianetic "axioms" can be found in Hubbard books such as Scientology 0-8: The Book of Basics and Advanced Procedures and Axioms. Unlike conventional therapies, Hubbard said, Dianetics would work every time if applied properly and "will invariably cure all psychosomatic ills and human aberrations." In April 1950, before the public release of Dianetics, he wrote: "To date, over two hundred patients have been treated; of those two hundred, two hundred cures have been obtained." Hubbard, "Dianetics". Astounding Science Fiction, May 1950. In Dianetics, the unconscious or reactive mind is described as a collection of "mental image pictures," which contain the recorded experience of past moments of unconsciousness, including all sensory perceptions and feelings involved, ranging from pre-natal experiences, infancy and childhood, even the traumatic feelings associated events from past lives and alien cultures. The type of mental image picture created during a period of unconsciousness involves the exact recording of a painful experience. Hubbard called this phenomenon an engram, and defined it as "a complete recording of a moment of unconsciousness containing physical pain or painful emotion and all perceptions." Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health page 79 and Glossary Hubbard proposed that, via pain, physical or mental traumas caused "aberrations" (deviations from rational thinking) in the mind, which produced adverse physical and emotional effects. The conscious or analytical mind, out of a desire for survival, would instinctively shut down during moments of stress. The memories recorded during this period would be stored as engrams in the unconscious or reactive mind. (In Hubbard's earliest publications on the subject, engrams were variously referred to as "Norns", "Impediments," and "comanomes" before "engram" was adapted from its existing usage at the suggestion of Joseph Winter.) Some commentators noted Dianetics' blend of science fiction and occult orientations at the time. Dianetics claims that these engrams are the cause of almost all psychological and physical problems. In addition to containing the experience of physical pain, engrams can also include words or phrases overheard by the patient while he was unconscious. For instance, Winter cites the example of a patient with a persistent headache supposedly tracing the problem to a doctor saying "Take him now" during the preclear's birth. Winter, Dianetics: A Doctor's Report, p. 165 Hubbard similarly claims that the cause of leukemia is traceable to "an engram containing the phrase 'It turns my blood to water.'" Hubbard, A History of Man, p.20. American Saint Hill Organization, 1968 While it is sometimes claimed that the Church of Scientology no longer stands by Hubbard's claims that Dianetics can treat physical conditions, it still publishes them: "... when the knee injuries of the past are located and discharged, the arthritis ceases, no other injury takes its place and the person is finished with arthritis of the knee." Hubbard, L. Ron. "The Discoveries of Dianetics". Retrieved 22 April 2006. "[The reactive mind] can give a man arthritis, bursitis, asthma, allergies, sinusitis, coronary trouble, high blood pressure ... And it is the only thing in the human being which can produce these effects ... Discharge the content of [the reactive mind] and the arthritis vanishes, myopia gets better, heart illness decreases, asthma disappears, stomachs function properly and the whole catalog of ills goes away and stays away." Hubbard, L. Ron. "What is the Reactive Mind?". Retrieved 28 April 2006. Some of the psychometric ideas in Dianetics can be traced to Sigmund Freud, whom Hubbard credited as an inspiration and was said to have used as a source. Letter from John W. Campbell, cited in Winter, p. 3 - "His approach is, actually, based on some very early work of Freud" Freud had speculated 40 years previously that traumas with similar content join together in "chains," embedded in the unconscious mind, to cause irrational responses in the individual. Such a chain would be relieved by inducing the patient to remember the earliest trauma, "with an accompanying expression of emotion." Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud, "Studies in Hysteria", Vol II of the Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Hogarth Press, London (1955). L. Ron Hubbard A Critique of Psychoanalysis, PAB 92, 10 July 1956. According to Bent Corydon, Hubbard created the illusion that Dianetics was the first Psychotherapy to address traumatic experiences in their own time but others had done so as standard procedure. One from which Hubbard drew in his development of Dianetics was abreaction therapy. Abreaction is a psychiatric term defined as "the process of bringing to consciousness and, thus, to adequate expression, material that has been unconscious. It includes not only the recollection of forgotten memories and experience, but also their reliving with appropriate emotional display and discharge of effect. This process is usually facilitated by the patient's gaining awareness of the causal relationship between the previously undischarged emotion and his symptoms." Bent Corydon L. Ron Hubbard, Messiah or Madman?, pp. 283-4, Barricade Books Inc., 1992 ISBN 0-942637-57-7 According to Hubbard, before Dianetics psychotherapists may have been able to deal with very light and superficial incidents (e.g. an incident that reminds you of a moment of loss), but with Dianetic therapy, the patient can actually erase moments of pain and unconsciousness. He emphasizes: "The discovery of the engram is entirely the property of Dianetics. Methods of its erasure are also owned entirely by Dianetics..." A Critique of Psychoanalysis, ibid. Pab 92 With the use of Dianetics techniques, Hubbard claimed, the reactive mind could be processed and all stored engrams could be refiled as experience. The central technique was "auditing," a two-person question-and-answer therapy designed to isolate and dissipate engrams (or "mental masses"). An auditor addresses questions to a subject, observes and records the subject's responses, and returns repeatedly to experiences or areas under discussion that appear painful until the troubling experience has been identified and confronted. Through repeated applications of this method, the reactive mind could be "cleared" of its content having outlived its usefulness in the process of evolution; a person who has completed this process would be "Clear". The benefits of going Clear, according to Hubbard, were dramatic. A Clear would have no compulsions, repressions, psychoses or neuroses, and would enjoy a near-perfect memory as well as a rise in IQ of as much as 50 points. He also claimed that "the atheist is activated by engrams as thoroughly as the zealot". Hubbard, "Dianetics and Religion," Dianetic Auditor's Bulletin vol. 1 no. 4, October 1950 He further believed that widespread application of Dianetics would result in "A world without insanity, without criminals and without war." Hubbard, Science of Survival: Prediction of Human Behavior p. 1, Bridge Publications, 1990 (reissue). According to the Scientology journal The Auditor, the total number of "Clears" as of May 2006 stands at 50,311. "The Auditor," The Monthly Journal of Scientology, published by the American Saint Hill Organization, 1413 L. Ron Hubbard Way, Los Angeles, CA 90027, Issue 330, May 2006, page 7. The analysis of Scientology critic Kristi Wachter, however, brings the accuracy of the official figures into question. The Truth About Scientology, "Scientology's Stats are Down" Scientific evaluation and criticisms Hubbard's original book on Dianetics attracted highly critical reviews from science and medical writers and organizations. The American Psychological Association passed a resolution in 1950 calling "attention to the fact that these claims are not supported by empirical evidence of the sort required for the establishment of scientific generalizations." "Psychologists Act Against Dianetics", New York Times, 9 September 1950 Subsequently, Dianetics has achieved no general acceptance as a bona fide scientific theory. Scientists have described Dianetics as an example of pseudoscience. See e.g. Gardner, Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science; Bauer, Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method and Science Or Pseudoscience: Magnetic Healing, Psychic Phenomena, and Other Heterodoxies; Corsini et al., The Dictionary of Psychology. Few scientific investigations into the effectiveness of Dianetics have been published. Professor John A. Lee states in his 1970 evaluation of Dianetics: Objective experimental verification of Hubbard's physiological and psychological doctrines is lacking. To date, no regular scientific agency has established the validity of his theories of prenatal perception and engrams, or cellular memory, or Dianetic reverie, or the effects of Scientology auditing routines. Existing knowledge contradicts Hubbard's theory of recording of perceptions during periods of unconsciousness. Lee, John A. Sectarian Healers and Hypnotherapy, 1970, Ontario The MEDLINE database records two independent scientific studies on Dianetics, both conducted in the 1950s under the auspices of New York University. Harvey Jay Fischer tested Dianetics therapy against three claims made by proponents and found it does not effect any significant changes in intellectual functioning, mathematical ability, or the degree of personality conflicts; Fischer, Harvey Jay. "Dianetic therapy: an experimental evaluation. A statistical analysis of the effect of dianetic therapy as measured by group tests of intelligence, mathematics and personality." Abstract of Ph.D. thesis, 1953, New York University (Excerpt) Jack Fox tested Hubbard's thesis regarding recall of engrams, with the assistance of the Dianetic Research Foundation, and could not substantiate it. Fox, J.; Davis, A.E.; Lebovits, B. "An experimental investigation of Hubbard's engram hypothesis (dianetics)". Psychological Newsletter, New York University. 10 1959, 131-134 Hubbard claimed, in an interview with the New York Times in November 1950, that "he had already submitted proof of claims made in the book to a number of scientists and associations." He added that the public as well as proper organizations were entitled to such proof and that he was ready and willing to give such proof in detail. "Psychologists Act Against Dianetics", New York Times, 9 September 1950 In January 1951, the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation of Elizabeth, NJ published Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results, a booklet providing the results of psychometric tests conducted on 88 people undergoing Dianetics therapy. It presents case histories and a number of X-ray plates to support claims that Dianetics had cured "aberrations" including manic depression, asthma, arthritis, colitis and "overt homosexuality," and that after Dianetic processing, test subjects experienced significantly increased scores on a standardized IQ test. The report's subjects are not identified by name, but one of them is clearly Hubbard himself ("Case 1080A, R. L."). Benton, Peggy; Ibanex, Dalmyra.; Southon, Gordon; Southon, Peggy. Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results, Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, 1951 The authors provide no qualifications, although they are described in Hubbard's book Science of Survival (where some results of the same study were reprinted) as psychotherapists. Critics of Dianetics are skeptical of this study, both because of the bias of the source and because the researchers appear to ascribe all physical benefits to Dianetics without considering possible outside factors; in other words, the report lacks any scientific controls. J.A. Winter, M.D., originally an associate of Hubbard and an early adopter of Dianetics, had by the end of 1950 cut his ties with Hubbard and written an account of his personal experiences with Dianetics. He described Hubbard as "absolutistic and authoritarian", and criticized the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation for failing to undertake "precise scientific research into the functioning of the mind". Winter, Dianetics: A Doctor's Report, p. 40 He also recommended that auditing be done by experts only and that it was dangerous for laymen to audit each other. Hubbard writes: "Again, Dianetics is not being released to a profession, for no profession could encompass it." L. Ron Hubbard Dianetics: the Modernd Science of Mental Health, p. 204, Bridge Publications Inc., 2007 ISBN 978-1-4031-4484-3; 1st ed. 1950 Commentators from a variety of backgrounds have described Dianetics as an example of pseudoscience, that is, information which claims to be scientific but which fails to meet the basic criteria for science. For example, philosophy professor Robert Carroll points to Dianetics' lack of empirical evidence: What Hubbard touts as a science of mind lacks one key element that is expected of a science: empirical testing of claims. The key elements of Hubbard's so-called science don't seem testable, yet he repeatedly claims that he is asserting only scientific facts and data from many experiments. It isn't even clear what such "data" would look like. Most of his data is in the form of anecdotes and speculations ... Such speculation is appropriate in fiction, but not in science. Carroll, Robert T. "Dianetics", Skeptics Dictionary W. Sumner Davis similarly comments that Dianetics is nothing more than an example of pseudoscience trying to legitimize itself ... Hubbard, had he indeed been a scientist, would have known that truth is not built on axioms, and facts cannot be found from some a-priori knowledge. A true science is constructed on hypotheses, which are arrived at by the virtue of observed phenomena. Scientific knowledge is gained by observation and testing, not believing from some subconscious stipulation, as Hubbard would have us believe. Davis, W. Sumner. Just Smoke and Mirrors: Religion, Fear and Superstition in Our Modern World, Writers Club Press, 2001 (ISBN 0-595-26523-5) Procedure in practice The procedure of Dianetics therapy (known as auditing) is a two-person activity. One person, the "auditor", guides the other person, the "preclear". The preclear's job is to look at the mind and talk to the auditor. The auditor acknowledges what the preclear says and controls the process so the preclear may put his full attention on his work. The auditor and preclear sit down in chairs facing each other. The process then follows in eleven distinct steps: This description is based on "The Dianetics Procedure - 10 Simple Steps" 1. The auditor assures the preclear that he will be fully aware of everything that happens during the session. 2. The preclear is instructed to close his eyes for the session, entering a state of "dianetic reverie", signified by "a tremble of the lashes". During the session, the preclear remains in full possession of his will and retains full recall thereafter. 3. The auditor installs a "canceller", an instruction intended to absolutely cancel any form of positive suggestion that could accidentally occur. This is done by saying "In the future, when I utter the word 'cancelled,' everything I have said to you while you are in a therapy session will be cancelled and will have no force with you. Any suggestion I may have made to you will be without force when I say the word 'cancelled.' Do you understand?" 4. The auditor then asks the preclear to locate an exact record of something that happened to the preclear in his past: "Locate an incident that you feel you can comfortably face." 5. The preclear is invited by the auditor to "Go through the incident and say what is happening as you go along." 6a. The auditor instructs the preclear to recall as much as possible of the incident, going over it several times "until the preclear is cheerful about it". 6b. When the preclear is cheerful about an incident, the auditor instructs the preclear to locate another incident: "Let's find another incident that you feel you can comfortably face." The process outlined at steps 5 and 6a then repeats until the auditing session's time limit (usually two hours or so) is reached. 7. The preclear is instructed to "return to present time". 8. The auditor checks to make sure that the preclear feels himself to be in "present time", i.e. not still recalling a past incident. 9. The auditor gives the preclear the canceller word: "Very good. Cancelled." 10. The auditor tells the preclear to feel alert and return to full awareness of his surroundings: "When I count from five to one and snap my fingers you will feel alert. Five, four, three, two, one." (snaps fingers) Auditing sessions are kept confidential. This has come into question, though, that confidential information has been used to black-mail possible defectors (see Fair Game Scientology) However, a few transcripts of auditing sessions with confidential information removed have been published as demonstration examples. Some extracts can be found in Dr. J.A. Winter's book Dianetics: A Doctor's Report. Other, more comprehensive, transcripts of auditing sessions carried out by Hubbard himself can be found in volume 1 of the Research & Discovery Series (Bridge Publications, 1980). Examples of public group processing sessions can be found throughout the Congress Lecture series. According to Hubbard, auditing enables the preclear to "contact" and "release" engrams stored in the reactive mind, relieving him of the physical and mental aberrations connected with them. The preclear is asked to inspect and familiarize himself with the exact details of his own experience; the auditor may not tell him anything about his case or evaluate any of the information the preclear finds. The validity and practice of auditing have been questioned by a variety of non-Scientologist commentators. Commenting on the example cited by Winter, the science writer Martin Gardner asserts that "nothing could be clearer from the above dialogue than the fact that the dianetic explanation for the headache existed only in the mind of the therapist, and that it was with considerable difficulty that the patient was maneuvered into accepting it." Gardner, Martin. Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Dover, 1957 Other critics and medical experts have suggested that Dianetic auditing is a form of hypnosis "Never believe a hypnotist - An investigation of L. Ron Hubbard's statements about hypnosis and its relationship to his Dianetics.", Jon Atack , "Psychologist says church appeared to use hypnosis", Irish Times, 13 March 2003 "The 'Scientology Organization' (SO) as of July 2003", chapter 2, Landesamt für Verfassungsschutz Baden-Wuerttemberg, 2003 although the Church of Scientology has strongly denied that hypnosis forms any part of Dianetics. "What is auditing?", Church of Scientology International To the contrary, L. Ron Hubbard expressedly warns not to use any hypnosis or hypnosis-like methods, because a person under hypnosis would be receptive to suggestions. This would decrease his self-determinism instead of increasing it, which is one of the prime goals of Dianetics. "Science of Survival", L. Ron Hubbard, p. 461 (2007 edition). Winter [1950] comments that the leading nature of the questions asked of a preclear "encourage fantasy", a common issue also encountered with hypnosis, which can be used to form false memories. The auditor is instructed not to make any assessment of a recalled memory's reality or accuracy, but instead to treat it as if it were objectively real. Professor Richard J. Ofshe, a leading expert on false memories, suggests that the feeling of well-being reported by preclears at the end of an auditing session may be induced by post-hypnotic suggestion. "A Very Brief Overview of Scientology", Richard E. Ofshe, Ph.D. According to Hubbard: "Laughter is definitely the relief of painful emotion." Dianetics: the Modern Science of Mental Health, ibid. p. 147 Autocontrol According to Hubbard, the majority of the people interested in the subject believed they could accomplish therapy alone. "It cannot be done" and he adds: "If a patient places himself in autohypnosis and regresses himself in an effort to reach illness or birth or prenatals, the only thing he will get is ill". Dianetics: the Modern Science of Mental Health -5oth anniversary edition- pp. 443-4. A Doctor's Report on Dianetics Co-counselling Re-evaluation Counseling References Further reading Atack, Jon: A Piece of Blue Sky, Lyle Stuart, London, 1988 Benton, P; Ibanex, D.; Southon, G; Southon, P. Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results, Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, 1951 Breuer J, Freud S, "Studies in Hysteria", Vol II of the Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (Hogarth Press, London, 1955). Carroll, Robert T: 'Dianetics', Skepdics Dictionary Fischer, Harvey Jay: "Dianetic therapy: an experimental evaluation. A statistical analysis of the effect of dianetic therapy as measured by group tests of intelligence, mathematics and personality. " Abstract of Ph.D. thesis, 1953, New York University Fox, Jack et al.: An Experimental Investigation of Hubbard's Engram Hypothesis (Dianetics) in Psychological Newsletter, 1959, 10 131-134 Freeman, Lucy: "Psychologists act against Dianetics", New York Times, 9 September 1950 Gardner, Martin: Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, 1957, Chapter 22, "Dianetics" Hayakawa, S. I.: "From Science-Fiction to Fiction-Science," in ETC: A Review of General Semantics, Vol. VIII, No. 4. Summer, 1951 Lee, John A.: Sectarian Healers and Hypnotherapy, 1970, Ontario Miller, Russell: Bare-Faced Messiah, 1987 Miscavige, David: Speech to the International Association of Scientologists, 8 October 1993 O'Brien, Helen: Dianetics in Limbo. Whitmore, Philadelphia, 1966 Streissguth, Thomas: Charismatic Cult Leaders. The Oliver Press, Inc, 1995 van Vogt, A.E.: Dianetics and the Professions, 1953 Williamson, Jack: Wonder's Child: my life in science fiction. Bluejay Books, New York, 1984 Winter, J.A.: A Doctors Report on DIANETICS Theory and Therapy, 1951 External links The official web site of Dianetics -- A Church of Scientology site Founding Scientologists talk about Dianetics -- A Church of Scientology site "Dianetics: Understanding The Mind" -- A Church of Scientology site Anatomy of the Human Mind Course A free on-line 21 episode TV show adaptation of the popular course of the same name, which was developed by L. Ron Hubbard circa 1961. Websites related to Dianetics Yahoo directory on Dianetics Scientology associated deaths -- Deaths caused by Scientology Operation Clambake - The Inner Secrets of Scientology -- The Inner secrets of Scientology "The Hubbard is Bare", Jeff Jacobsen "What's up with Dianetics/Scientology?", Cecil Adams A review of the book, Laura Miller FreeZone New Era Dianetics for OTs (NOTS) | Dianetics |@lemmatized scientologists:6 promote:1 dianetics:112 union:1 station:1 washington:1 c:1 set:4 idea:5 practice:7 regard:2 relationship:3 spirit:1 mind:36 body:1 develop:3 science:37 fiction:10 writer:4 l:16 ron:14 hubbard:81 follower:1 scientology:39 coin:1 greek:1 stem:1 dia:1 mean:2 nous:1 posit:1 existence:1 three:3 part:3 conscious:2 analytical:3 subconscious:2 reactive:17 somatic:1 encyclopedia:2 religious:4 freedom:1 catharine:1 cookson:1 taylor:1 francis:1 isbn:7 page:8 goal:4 remove:2 call:6 believe:9 prevents:1 people:5 become:2 ethical:1 aware:2 happy:1 saner:1 procedure:6 achieve:3 audit:16 philosopher:1 leader:2 change:2 world:5 christian:1 von:1 dehsen:1 scott:1 harris:1 greenwood:1 publishing:1 group:5 auditing:2 process:11 whereby:1 series:4 question:7 ask:4 auditor:21 attempt:1 rid:3 auditee:1 painful:5 experience:15 past:7 cause:8 grow:2 personal:2 experiment:2 describe:8 mix:1 western:1 technology:1 oriental:1 philosophy:4 jam:1 r:4 lewis:2 clear:10 planet:2 utopian:2 idealism:2 church:10 syzygy:2 journal:6 alternative:2 religion:4 culture:3 vol:6 issn:2 state:4 form:7 bridge:6 cybernetics:2 general:6 semantics:5 education:1 originate:2 alfred:2 korzybski:2 receive:1 much:3 attention:3 terra:1 incognita:1 explorer:1 winter:12 spring:1 kendig:1 editor:1 collect:1 writing:2 ch:1 institute:2 present:4 first:5 american:6 congress:2 may:12 claim:16 increase:3 intelligence:3 eliminate:1 unwanted:1 emotion:5 alleviate:1 wide:1 range:2 illness:4 psychosomatic:3 among:1 condition:2 purportedly:1 treat:4 arthritis:6 allergy:2 asthma:4 coronary:2 difficulty:2 eye:2 trouble:3 ulcer:1 migraine:1 headache:3 sex:1 deviation:2 organization:6 relate:4 provide:4 training:1 assist:1 learn:1 rudiment:1 technique:5 teach:2 team:1 one:14 another:3 use:10 book:14 predate:1 classification:1 apply:2 early:5 expand:1 include:6 teaching:2 soul:1 thetan:1 also:10 independent:2 collectively:1 free:4 zone:3 disapprove:1 activity:2 prosecute:1 court:1 misappropriation:1 copyright:2 trademark:1 wrong:1 salon:1 com:1 july:3 history:3 introduce:2 cover:2 edition:6 astound:3 feature:1 new:20 always:1 account:2 spend:2 great:2 deal:2 time:15 oak:1 knoll:1 naval:1 hospital:1 library:1 would:15 encounter:2 work:8 freud:8 psychoanalyst:1 april:4 several:3 others:2 establish:3 dianetic:24 research:14 foundation:14 elizabeth:4 jersey:2 coordinate:1 forthcoming:1 publication:5 public:4 article:1 evolution:2 publish:8 issue:3 magazine:1 originally:3 stephen:1 kent:1 december:1 write:4 modern:8 mental:13 health:8 allegedly:2 complete:5 word:6 six:3 week:1 h:1 biography:1 sea:1 org:1 flag:1 information:5 letter:2 october:3 success:1 sell:1 bring:3 flood:1 money:1 major:1 city:1 scientific:14 medical:4 community:1 far:3 less:1 enthusiastic:1 view:1 bemusement:1 concern:1 outright:1 derision:1 complaint:1 make:9 local:1 practitioner:1 medicine:2 without:7 license:1 eventually:2 prompted:1 advocate:1 disclaim:1 medicinal:1 benefit:3 order:2 avoid:1 regulation:1 explain:1 backlash:1 response:3 various:1 entity:1 try:2 co:2 opt:1 blame:1 hostile:1 press:7 coverage:1 particular:1 plot:1 communist:1 party:1 late:1 year:2 decide:2 psychiatric:2 profession:5 origin:1 criticism:1 secretly:1 control:3 government:1 tap:1 message:1 september:5 autumn:1 financial:1 problem:4 november:2 around:1 million:1 dollar:1 debt:2 e:7 van:2 vogt:2 disagreement:1 emerge:1 direction:1 relation:1 board:2 member:1 strained:1 leave:1 even:3 support:3 critical:2 example:9 harvey:4 jackins:1 founder:1 evaluation:6 counselling:2 sort:2 discrete:1 reworking:1 later:1 declare:1 suppressive:1 january:3 examiner:1 proceeding:2 licence:1 bulletin:2 nj:2 close:2 door:1 vacate:1 creditor:1 begin:1 demand:1 settlement:1 outstanding:1 purcell:1 millionaire:1 dianeticist:1 wichita:1 kansa:1 offer:2 brief:5 respite:1 bankruptcy:2 finance:1 fail:3 sale:1 asset:1 result:8 longer:2 right:1 name:6 philosophical:1 framework:1 still:3 seed:1 refer:4 replace:1 extend:1 area:2 individual:5 engram:20 stated:1 rehabilitate:1 spiritual:1 nature:2 reach:3 full:5 potential:1 release:4 era:6 ned:2 revised:1 version:2 suppose:1 produce:3 good:3 short:1 period:4 course:3 consist:2 rundown:1 require:2 specifically:1 trained:1 run:1 exactly:1 like:3 standard:4 widely:1 advent:1 except:1 pre:2 parishioner:1 encourage:2 find:9 postulate:2 incident:11 occur:2 hcob:1 june:1 revise:1 communication:1 office:1 hco:1 meaning:2 conclusion:1 decision:1 resolution:2 conclude:1 resolve:1 pattern:2 future:2 nullify:1 official:3 glossary:2 contrast:1 conventional:2 really:1 prelude:1 available:2 high:2 level:2 ots:2 know:5 nots:4 xenu:1 well:4 wall:2 fire:2 second:1 internet:1 advance:1 operating:1 thetans:1 scholars:1 home:1 dave:1 touretzky:1 basic:4 concept:1 describes:1 suggest:3 fear:2 two:9 unconscious:6 say:10 act:4 record:5 shock:1 trauma:4 pain:5 otherwise:1 harmful:1 memory:8 store:4 dub:1 propose:2 method:5 erase:2 think:1 long:1 possess:1 james:1 admission:1 consider:2 mistake:1 life:3 biological:1 definition:2 trace:3 cell:1 able:2 debunk:1 false:3 biology:1 pitirim:1 alexandrovich:1 sorokin:1 way:2 power:1 love:1 pp:3 templeton:1 harvard:1 center:1 creative:1 altruism:1 organize:1 thought:1 build:2 definite:1 axiom:4 statement:2 natural:1 law:1 physical:9 j:7 doctor:7 report:9 p:11 julian:1 reprint:2 advanced:1 unlike:1 therapy:14 every:1 properly:2 invariably:1 cure:3 ill:3 human:4 aberration:4 date:2 hundred:3 patient:8 obtain:1 collection:1 image:2 picture:2 contain:4 recorded:1 moment:5 unconsciousness:5 sensory:1 perception:4 feeling:3 involve:2 natal:1 infancy:1 childhood:1 traumatic:2 associate:3 event:1 alien:1 type:1 create:2 exact:3 recording:3 phenomenon:3 define:2 via:1 rational:1 thinking:1 adverse:1 emotional:2 effect:7 desire:1 survival:4 instinctively:1 shut:1 stress:1 subject:6 variously:1 norns:1 impediment:1 comanomes:1 adapt:1 exist:3 usage:1 suggestion:5 joseph:2 commentator:3 note:1 blend:1 occult:1 orientation:1 almost:1 psychological:7 addition:1 phrase:2 overheard:1 instance:1 cite:3 persistent:1 supposedly:1 take:2 preclear:24 birth:2 similarly:2 leukemia:1 traceable:1 turn:1 blood:2 water:1 man:2 saint:2 hill:2 sometimes:1 stand:2 knee:2 injury:2 locate:4 discharge:3 cease:1 place:2 person:7 finish:1 discovery:3 retrieve:2 give:3 bursitis:1 sinusitis:1 pressure:1 thing:2 content:3 vanishes:1 myopia:1 get:2 heart:1 decrease:2 disappears:1 stomachs:1 function:1 whole:1 catalog:1 go:5 away:2 stay:1 psychometric:2 sigmund:4 credit:1 inspiration:1 source:2 john:4 w:3 campbell:1 approach:1 actually:2 base:2 speculate:1 previously:2 similar:1 join:1 together:1 chain:2 embed:1 irrational:1 relieve:2 induce:2 remember:1 accompany:1 expression:2 breuer:2 study:5 hysteria:2 ii:2 hogarth:2 london:3 critique:2 psychoanalysis:2 pab:2 accord:7 bent:2 corydon:2 illusion:1 psychotherapy:1 address:2 draw:1 development:1 abreaction:2 term:1 consciousness:1 thus:1 adequate:1 material:1 recollection:1 forgotten:1 reliving:1 appropriate:2 display:1 usually:2 facilitate:1 gain:2 awareness:2 causal:1 undischarged:1 symptom:1 messiah:2 madman:1 barricade:1 inc:3 psychotherapist:2 light:1 superficial:1 g:3 remind:1 loss:1 emphasize:1 entirely:2 property:1 erasure:1 ibid:2 could:8 refiled:1 central:1 answer:1 design:1 isolate:1 dissipate:1 mass:1 observes:1 return:3 repeatedly:2 discussion:1 appear:3 identify:2 confront:1 repeat:2 application:2 cleared:1 outlive:1 usefulness:1 dramatic:1 compulsion:1 repression:1 psychosis:1 neurosis:1 enjoy:1 near:1 perfect:1 rise:1 iq:2 point:2 atheist:1 activate:1 thoroughly:1 zealot:1 widespread:1 insanity:1 criminal:1 war:1 prediction:1 behavior:1 reissue:1 total:1 number:3 monthly:1 los:1 angeles:1 ca:1 analysis:3 critic:3 kristi:1 wachter:1 however:2 accuracy:2 figure:1 truth:2 stats:1 criticisms:1 original:1 attract:1 highly:1 review:3 association:3 pass:1 fact:3 empirical:3 evidence:2 establishment:1 generalization:1 psychologist:4 york:9 subsequently:1 acceptance:1 bona:1 fide:1 theory:4 scientist:3 pseudoscience:4 see:2 gardner:4 fad:3 fallacy:3 bauer:1 literacy:1 myth:1 magnetic:1 healing:1 psychic:1 heterodoxy:1 corsini:1 et:2 al:2 dictionary:3 psychology:1 investigation:4 effectiveness:1 professor:3 lee:3 objective:1 experimental:5 verification:1 physiological:1 doctrine:1 lack:4 regular:1 agency:1 validity:2 prenatal:1 cellular:1 reverie:2 routine:1 knowledge:3 contradicts:1 sectarian:2 healer:2 hypnotherapy:2 ontario:2 medline:1 database:1 conduct:2 auspex:1 university:4 jay:3 fischer:3 test:7 proponent:1 significant:1 intellectual:1 functioning:2 mathematical:1 ability:1 degree:1 personality:3 conflict:1 statistical:2 measure:2 mathematics:2 abstract:2 ph:3 thesis:3 excerpt:1 jack:3 fox:3 recall:4 assistance:1 substantiate:1 davis:3 lebovits:1 b:1 hypothesis:3 newsletter:2 interview:1 already:1 submit:1 proof:3 add:2 proper:1 entitle:1 ready:1 willing:1 detail:2 processing:4 survey:3 project:3 preliminary:3 booklet:1 undergoing:1 case:3 x:1 ray:1 plat:1 manic:1 depression:1 colitis:1 overt:1 homosexuality:1 significantly:1 score:1 standardized:1 clearly:1 benton:2 peggy:2 ibanex:2 dalmyra:1 southon:4 gordon:1 author:1 qualification:1 although:2 skeptical:1 bias:1 researcher:1 ascribe:1 possible:3 outside:1 factor:1 adopter:1 end:2 cut:1 tie:1 absolutistic:1 authoritarian:1 criticize:1 undertake:1 precise:1 recommend:1 expert:3 dangerous:1 layman:1 encompass:1 modernd:1 ed:1 variety:2 background:1 meet:1 criterion:1 robert:3 carroll:3 tout:1 key:2 element:2 expect:1 testing:2 seem:1 testable:1 yet:1 assert:2 data:3 many:1 look:2 anecdote:1 speculation:2 skeptic:1 sumner:2 comment:3 nothing:2 legitimize:1 indeed:1 facts:1 cannot:2 priori:1 true:1 construct:1 arrive:1 virtue:1 observed:1 observation:1 stipulation:1 u:1 smoke:1 mirror:1 superstition:1 club:1 guide:1 job:1 talk:2 acknowledge:1 put:1 sit:1 chair:1 face:4 follow:1 eleven:1 distinct:1 step:3 description:1 simple:1 assure:1 fully:1 everything:2 happen:3 session:10 instruct:5 enter:1 signify:1 tremble:1 lash:1 remain:1 possession:1 retain:1 thereafter:1 install:1 canceller:2 instruction:1 intend:1 absolutely:1 cancel:4 positive:1 accidentally:1 utter:1 cancelled:1 force:2 understand:2 something:1 feel:5 comfortably:2 invite:1 along:1 cheerful:2 let:1 outline:1 limit:1 hour:1 check:1 sure:1 tell:2 alert:2 surroundings:1 count:1 five:2 snap:1 finger:2 four:1 snaps:1 keep:1 confidential:3 come:1 though:1 black:1 mail:1 defector:1 fair:1 game:1 transcript:2 demonstration:1 extract:1 dr:1 comprehensive:1 carry:1 volume:1 throughout:1 lecture:1 enable:1 contact:1 connect:1 inspect:1 familiarize:1 anything:1 evaluate:1 non:1 scientologist:1 martin:3 clearer:1 dialogue:1 explanation:1 therapist:1 considerable:1 maneuver:1 accept:1 dover:1 hypnosis:8 never:1 hypnotist:1 jon:2 atack:2 irish:1 march:1 chapter:2 landesamt:1 für:1 verfassungsschutz:1 baden:1 wuerttemberg:1 strongly:1 deny:1 international:2 contrary:1 expressedly:1 warn:1 receptive:1 self:1 determinism:1 instead:2 prime:1 leading:1 fantasy:1 common:1 assessment:1 recalled:1 reality:1 objectively:1 real:1 richard:2 ofshe:2 lead:1 preclears:1 post:1 hypnotic:1 overview:1 laughter:1 definitely:1 relief:1 autocontrol:1 majority:1 interested:1 accomplish:1 alone:1 autohypnosis:1 regress:1 effort:1 prenatals:1 anniversary:1 counseling:1 reference:1 read:1 piece:1 blue:1 sky:1 lyle:1 stuart:1 skepdics:1 freeman:1 lucy:1 hayakawa:1 etc:1 viii:1 summer:1 miller:2 russell:1 bare:2 miscavige:1 david:1 speech:1 brien:1 helen:1 limbo:1 whitmore:1 philadelphia:1 streissguth:1 thomas:1 charismatic:1 cult:1 oliver:1 williamson:1 wonder:1 child:1 bluejay:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 site:4 found:1 anatomy:1 line:1 episode:1 tv:1 show:1 adaptation:1 popular:1 circa:1 website:1 yahoo:1 directory:1 death:2 operation:1 clambake:1 inner:2 secret:2 jeff:1 jacobsen:1 cecil:1 adams:1 laura:1 freezone:1 |@bigram science_fiction:8 ron_hubbard:11 scientology_hubbard:2 taylor_francis:1 greenwood_publishing:1 alfred_korzybski:2 terra_incognita:1 migraine_headache:1 dianetics_scientology:4 astound_science:3 hubbard_dianetic:7 dianetic_research:8 mental_health:8 van_vogt:2 medical_examiner:1 wichita_kansa:1 brief_respite:1 stated_goal:1 templeton_foundation:1 hubbard_dianetics:4 sensory_perception:1 infancy_childhood:1 knee_injury:1 asthma_allergy:1 sigmund_freud:4 bent_corydon:2 hubbard_messiah:1 messiah_madman:1 dianetic_therapy:5 los_angeles:1 bona_fide:1 fad_fallacy:3 et_al:2 ph_thesis:2 dianetic_processing:4 manic_depression:1 martin_gardner:1 für_verfassungsschutz:1 hypnotic_suggestion:1 external_link:1 |
7,470 | A_cappella | A cappella (Italian William C. Holmes. "A cappella." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 21 Sep. 2008 <http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/00091>. for From the chapel/choir) music is vocal music or singing without instrumental accompaniment, or a piece intended to be performed in this way. A cappella was originally intended to differentiate between Renaissance polyphony and Baroque concertato style. In the 19th century a renewed interest in Renaissance polyphony coupled with an ignorance of the fact that vocal parts were often doubled by instrumentalists led to the term coming to mean unaccompanied vocal music. In modern usage, a cappella often refers to an all-vocal performance of any style, including barbershop, doo wop, and modern pop/rock. Today, a capella also includes sample/loop "vocal only" productions by producers like Jimmy Spice Curry, Teddy Riley, Wyclef, and others. Religious traditions A cappella music originally was, and still often is, used in religious music, especially church music as well as anasheed and zemirot. Gregorian chant is an example of a cappella singing, as is the majority of sacred vocal music from the Renaissance. The madrigal, up until its development in the early Baroque into an instrumentally-accompanied form, is also usually in a cappella form. The original music in Judaism and then in early Christianity was a cappella and has continuously existed in both of these related religious communities as well as in Islam. Jewish While services in the Temple in Jerusalem included musical instruments, traditional Jewish religious services after the destruction of the Temple do not include musical instruments. The use of musical instruments is traditionally forbidden on the Sabbath out of concern that players would be tempted to repair their instruments, which is forbidden on those days. (This prohibition has been relaxed in many Reform and some Conservative congregations.) Similarly, when Jewish families and larger groups sing traditional Sabbath songs known as zemirot outside the context of formal religious services, they usually do so a cappella, and Bar and Bat Mitzvah celebrations on the Sabbath sometimes feature entertainment by a cappella ensembles. During the Three Weeks use of musical instruments is traditionally prohibited. Many Jews consider a portion of the 49-day period of the counting of the omer between Passover and Shavuot to be a time of semi-mourning and instrumental music is not allowed during that time. This has led to a tradition of a cappella singing sometimes known as sefirah music. Shircago, Jewish A Cappella and Sefirat Omer. The popularization of the Jewish chant may be found in the writings of the Jewish philosopher Philo, born 20 BCE. Weaving together Jewish and Greek thought, Philo promoted praise without instruments, and taught that "silent singing" (without even vocal chords) was better still. Everett Ferguson, A Cappella Music in the Public Worship of the Church (Revised Edition), Abilene, Texas: Biblical Research Press, 1972, pp. 39-41. So strong was his influence that the Jewish sect of the Pharisees even came to oppose the temple instruments. E. Werner, "Music", Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible (Nashville, Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 1984), pp. 466, 468. This view parted with the Jewish scriptures, where Israel offered praise with instruments by God's own command (e.g.: 2 Chronicles 29:25). The shofar or keren (horn) is the only temple instrument still being used today in the synagogue, Lee G. Olson, "Music and Musical Instruments of the Bible", Zondervan Pictoral Bible Dictionary, Merrill C. Tenney, Editor (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1967), p. 562. and it is only used from Rosh Chodesh Elul through the end of Yom Kippur. The shofar is used by itself, without any vocal accompaniment, and is limited to a very strictly defined set of sounds and specific places in the synagogue service. Christian The polyphony of Christian a cappella began to develop in Europe around the late 1400s. Such harmonies are often identified with Josquin des Prez (1455-1521). The early a cappella polyphonies may have had an accompanying instrument, although this instrument would merely double the singers' parts and was not independent. By the 1500s, a cappella polyphony had been fully developed. The works of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina are considered excellent examples. After Palestrina, the cantata began to take a cappella's place. "a cappella". (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 2, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online Palestrina, nonetheless, became a major influence on Bach, most notably in the aforementioned Mass in B Minor. Present-day Christian religious bodies known for conducting their worship services without musical accompaniment include some Presbyterian churches devoted to the regulative principle of worship, Old Regular Baptists, Primitive Baptists, Plymouth Brethren, Churches of Christ, the Old German Baptist Brethren, the Eastern Orthodox Christian Church and the Amish and Mennonite. Certain high church masses and other musical events in liturgical churches (such as Roman Catholic and Lutheran) may be a cappella, a practice remaining from apostolic times. Many Mennonites also conduct some or all of their services without instruments. Sacred Harp, a type of religious folk music, is an a cappella style of religious singing, but is more often sung at singing conventions than at church services. Opponents of instrumentation in Christian worship believe they are supported by New Testament verses such as Matthew 26:30, James 5:13, 1 Corinthians 14:15, Colossians 3:16, and particularly Ephesians 5:19. See, e.g., Marshall C. Kurfees, Instrumental music in the worship or the Greek verb psallo philologically and historically examined together with a full discussion of kindred matters relating to music in Christian worship (Nashville: McQuiddy, 1911). They believe there is no reference to instrumental music in the worship of the first-century church. The absence of instrumentation is rooted in hermeneutic principle restricting the appropriateness of worship, as contrasted to entertainment, to natural elements in the divine creation. Thus Moses was to remove his sandals when standing on holy ground (Exodus 3:5), and human-made tools were forbidden on the altar (Exodus 20:35). True, King David popularized the introduction of musical instruments into praise hymns, as evident in Psalm 149 and other psalms, but the innovation seems to have begun (like the monarchy itself) without divine approval even if with divine tolerance. See, for example, the negative statement about David with regard to instruments in Amos 6:1-5. The first recorded example of a musical instrument in Christian worship was an organ introduced by Pope Vitalian into a cathedral in Rome in 666. Thus, over time, the expression a cappella (Latin for "from/like the chapel") came to mean exclusively vocal music in contradistinction to the spreading use of the organ in cathedrals. Instrumental worship was not widely practiced until the 18th century, and it was opposed vigorously by notable Christian reformers such as John Calvin (1509–1564), John Wesley (1703–1791),, and Alexander Campbell (1788-1866). Campbell referred to the use of an instrument in Christian worship "a cow bell in a concert" (p. 414 in Everett Ferguson, "Instrumental Music", in The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement, ed. Douglas A. Foster, Paul M. Blowers, Anthony L. Dunnavant, & D. Newell Williams [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004], ISBN 0-8028-3898-7; Ferguson's entire article is on pp. 414-417). The fact that Christendom has prevailingly grafted instrumental music into worship probably obscures for contemporary adherents the long, general and conscientious preference for a cappella. In Sir Walter Scott's Heart of Midlothian, for example, the heroine, Jeanie Deans, a Scottish Presbyterian, writes to her father about the church situation she has found in England (bold added): The folk here are civil, and, like the barbarians unto the holy apostle, have shown me much kindness; and there are a sort of chosen people in the land, for they have some kirks without organs that are like ours, and are called meeting-houses, where the minister preaches without a gown. The passage is available at http://www.gutenberg.org/files/6944/6944.txt . An alternate viewpoint is that the unaccompanied chant of the early church is not commanded in scripture, and that the church in any age has been free to offer its songs with or without musical instruments: As Jesus’ ministry began, both the synagogue and non-religious Jewish settings already favored purely vocal music, Everett Ferguson, A Cappella Music in the Public Worship of the Church (Revised Edition), (Abilene, TX: Biblical Research Press, 1972), p.47 due to the influence of Jews like Philo. E. Werner, "Music," Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1984), p.466. Springing from that culture, the early church chanted, but without condemning instruments in praise. James McKinnon, Music in Early Christian Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 3; also Ferguson, p. 74. The earliest verdict on instrumental music in worship comes from the Christian Clement (200 A.D). Although he preferred the unaccompanied chant, when commenting on Colossians 3:16-17 in the New Testament, he noted that anyone who wished to "sing and play to the cithara and lyre" was free to do so, and would "imitate the just Hebrew king giving praise to God." McKinnon, pp. 34, 35. Offering this defense was fitting because third century Christians were beginning to oppose instruments in settings of immorality, though not in worship. McKinnon, pp. 2, 42 Fifth century Christians became the first to extend this opposition even to worship: Theodoret and others from the School of Antioch condemned instruments even in the hands of King David. These first authors to dictate exclusively unaccompanied praise alleged that God had only allowed instruments in the Old Covenant as a way to wean worshippers away from idolatry, as “the lesser of two evils”. McKinnon, p.7 Turning now from history to scripture, we find that the New Testament word Paul uses for Christian singing (ado) in Ephesians 5:19 and Colossians 3:16 always refers to accompanied praise in John’s Revelation (5:8-9; 14:3-4; and 15:2-3). Similarly, Paul’s word for “make music” (psallo, in Eph 5:19) always refers to instruments when used by first-century Jews (e.g. the historian Josephus, others) writing to Gentiles in common (called “Koine”) Greek, Ferguson, p.11. (though Ferguson calls the New Testament an exception to this rule). In agreement, Bible translators have answered that they intended to include instruments when translating psallo in Eph 5:19. See the compilation of their responses in Tom Burgess, Documents on Instrumental Music (College Press, 1966), pp. 81-95. Some lexicons of first century, New Testament Greek say that psallo meant to play or to sing with accompaniment, while others say it meant to sing with or without accompaniment, but none say that it meant to sing only without instruments. Burgess, p. 46. Muslim Many Muslim musicians also perform a form of a cappella music called nasheed. A cappella in the United States Peter Christian Lutkin, Dean of the Northwestern University School of Music, helped popularize a cappella music in the United States by founding the Northwestern A Cappella Choir in 1906. The A Cappella Choir was "the first permanent organization of its kind in America." Northwestern University, Guide to the Peter Christian Lutkin Papers, Biography, http://www.library.northwestern.edu/archives/findingaids/lutkin_papers.pdf Leonard Van Camp, The Formation of A Cappella Choirs at Northwestern University, St. Olaf College, and Westminster College, Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Winter, 1965), pp. 227-238. A strong and prominent a cappella tradition was begun in the midwest part of the United States in 1911 by F. Melius Christiansen, a music faculty member at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. The St. Olaf College Choir was established as an outgrowth of the local St. John's Lutheran Church, where Christiansen was organist and the choir was composed at least partially of students from the nearby St. Olaf campus. The success of the ensemble was emulated by other regional conductors, and a rich tradition of a cappella choral music was born in the region at colleges like Concordia College (Moorhead, Minnesota), Augustana College (Rock Island, Illinois), Wartburg College (Waverly, Iowa), Luther College (Decorah, Iowa), Gustavus Adolphus College (St. Peter, Minnesota), Augustana College (Sioux Falls, South Dakota), and Augsburg College (Minneapolis, Minnesota). The choirs typically range from 40 to 80 singers and are recognized for their efforts to perfect blend, intonation, phrasing and pitch in a large choral setting. Major movements in modern a cappella over the past century include Barbershop and doo wop. The Barbershop Harmony Society, Sweet Adelines International, and Harmony Inc. host educational events including Harmony University, Directors University, and the International Educational Symposium, and international contests and conventions, recognizing international champion choruses and quartets. In the 1950s several recording groups, notably The Hi-Los and the Four Freshmen, introduced complex jazz harmonies to a cappella performances. The King's Singers are credited with promoting interest in small-group a cappella performances in the 1960s. In 1983 an a cappella group known as The Flying Pickets had a Christmas 'number one' in the UK with a cover of Yazoo's (known in the US as Yaz) Only You. A cappella music attained renewed prominence from the late 1980s onward, spurred by the success of Top 40 recordings by artists such as The Manhattan Transfer, but it was The Persuasions who saved the dying art and opened the door for such artists as Bobby McFerrin, Huey Lewis and the News, All 4 One, The Nylons and Boyz II Men. In 2005, Bo Bice performed an a cappella version of "In A Dream" by Badlands when he was one of three contestants remaining on season 4 of American Idol. The show's producers warned him that it was a risky move, but his performance got great reviews from the judges and Bice advanced to the finals. Recording artists One of the 1950s R&B groups were the Nutmegs, who were also known as the "Rajahs of a cappella". They were the first of these groups to proudly showcase an a cappella format which became their trademark. Later, many other groups recorded at least one a cappella song. The Classics, singers of "Till then", scored a very popular a cappella hit, "I Apologize". Janis Joplin recorded the a cappella song "Mercedes Benz" in October 1970, just three days before she died. Later in the 1970s, The Belmonts released a seminal a cappella album entitled Cigars, Acappella, Candy, which is representative of the genre. In the 1980s the UK a cappella group The Flying Pickets had a number 1 hit. Contemporary a cappella includes many vocal bands who add vocal percussion or beatboxing to create a pop/rock sound, in some cases very similar to bands with instruments. One such group is Rockapella. There also remains a strong a cappella presence within Christian music, as some denominations purposefully do not use instruments during worship. Examples of such groups are Take 6 and Acappella. Arrangements of popular music for small a cappella ensembles typically include one voice singing the lead melody, one singing a rhythmic bass line, and the remaining voices contributing chordal or polyphonic accompaniment. A cappella can also describe the practice of using just the vocal track(s) from a multitrack, instrumental recording to be remixed or put onto vinyl records for DJs. Artists sometimes release the vocal tracks of their popular songs so that fans can remix them. One such example is the a cappella release of Jay-Z's Black Album, which Danger Mouse mixed with the Beatles' White Album to create The Grey Album. A cappella's growth is not limited to live performance, with hundreds of recorded a cappella albums produced over the past decade. As of December 2006, the Recorded A Cappella Review Board (RARB) had reviewed over 660 a cappella albums since 1994, and its popular discussion forum had over 900 users and 19,000 articles. The first a cappella song ever to reach number one on the Billboard Hot 100 was Bobby McFerrin's Don't Worry, Be Happy. The barbershop style Barbershop music is one of the few uniquely American art forms. The earliest reports of this style of a cappella music involved African Americans. The earliest documented quartets all began in barbershops. In 1938, the first formal organization was formed known as the Society for the Preservation and Encouragement of Barber Shop Quartet Singing in America (S.P.E.B.S.Q.S.A), and in 2004 rebranded itself and officially changed its public name to the Barbershop Harmony Society (BHS). Today the BHS has over 30,000 members in 800 chapters across the United States, and the barbershop style has spread around the world with organizations in many other countries. The Barbershop Harmony Society provides a highly organized competition structure for a cappella quartets and choruses singing in the barbershop style. Collegiate a cappella It is not clear exactly where collegiate a cappella began. The Rensselyrics of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (formerly known as the RPI Glee Club), established in 1873 is perhaps the oldest known collegiate a cappella group. However the longest continuously-singing group is probably The Whiffenpoofs of Yale University, which was formed in 1909 and once included Cole Porter as a member. Collegiate a cappella groups grew throughout the twentieth century. Some renowned, notable historical groups formed along the way include the Columbia Kingsmen (1949) and the University of Rochester YellowJackets (1956). Women's a cappella groups followed shortly, frequently as a parody of the men's groups: the Smiffenpoofs of Smith College (1936),The Shwiffs of Connecticut College (The She-Whiffenpoofs, 1944), and The Chattertocks of Brown University (1951). The numbers of these groups exploded beginning in the 1990s, fueled in part by a change in style popularized by the Beelzebubs of Tufts University. The new style used voices to emulate modern rock instruments, including vocal percussion/"beatboxing." Some larger universities now have a dozen groups or more and the total number of college groups grew from 250 circa 1990 to over 1,000 now. The groups often join one another in on-campus concerts, such as the Georgetown Chimes' Cherry Tree Massacre, a 3-weekend a cappella festival held each February since 1975, where over a hundred collegiate groups have appeared, as well as International Quartet Champions The Boston Common and the contemporary commercial a cappella group Rockapella. Co-ed groups have produced many up-and-coming artists including solo musician John Legend, an alumnus of the Counterparts at the University of Pennsylvania, and Siddhartha Khosla, lead singer of the band Goldspot, an alumnus of both Off the Beat and Penn Masala at the University of Pennsylvania A cappella is gaining popularity among South Asian youth with the emergence of primarily Hindi-English College groups. Examples of prominent groups include Penn Masala in the University of Pennsylvania, Chai-Town from the University of Illinois, Dil Se from UC Berkeley, and Raagapella in Stanford. All-female groups are less common, but still exist. Examples of all-female groups are Illini Chandani, from the University of Illinois, Awaaz, from Wellesley College and Kal Ki Awaaz from UC Berkeley. Ektaal, founded in 1999 within the University of Virginia, recently went co-ed in 2006, but prior to that, was an all-female group. While up and coming all-male groups are becoming a rarity among Desi a cappella groups, Carnegie Mellon University's Deewane (started in 2007) is hoping to reverse that trend. Co-ed South Asian a cappella groups are also gaining popularity like Northwestern University's Brown Sugar, Case Western's Dhamakapella, Johns Hopkins Kranti, University of Maryland Anokha, Drexel Shor, UCSD Sur Taal, GWU Geet, UCLA Naya Zamaana, Michigan's Maize Mirchi and Rutgers R.A.A.G. These groups have attained significant critical acclaim with their distinct style of mixing songs and applying a cappella to styles of different cultures. Penn Masala has songs in Hindi, Arabic, English, Punjabi and Gujarati, with lyrics from different languages in the same song. Currently the only South Asian a cappella competition takes place annually at the University of California, Berkeley, known as "Anahat." In 2009, Johns Hopkins Kranti plans to break tradition and host a Hindi A Cappella Charity Showcase with the Association for India's Development on the East Coast for all Hindi A Cappella groups on the other side of the country. This form of music has grown rapidly and is starting to make waves in Africa. The foremost group in Africa is called Navi Redd, and started making music in 2004. This professional group consists of eight male members who have been referred to as the Rebels of Acappella Music. They started singing at University, and now sing full time. Increased interest in modern a cappella (particularly collegiate a cappella) can be seen in the growth of awards such as the Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards (overseen by the Contemporary A Cappella Society) and competitions such as the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella for college groups and the Harmony Sweepstakes for all groups. Emulating instruments In addition to singing words, some a cappella singers also emulate instrumentation by reproducing the melody with their vocal cords. One of the first 20th century practitioners of this method was The Mills Brothers whose early recordings of the 1930s clearly stated on the label that all instrumentation was done vocally. More recently, "Twilight Zone" by 2 Unlimited was sung a cappella to the instrumentation on the comedy television series Tompkins Square. Another famous example of emulating instrumentation instead of singing the words is the theme song for The New Addams Family series on Fox Family Channel (now ABC Family). Groups such as Vocal Sampling and Undivided emulate Latin rhythms a cappella. In the 1960s, the Swingle Singers used their voices to emulate musical instruments to Baroque and Classical music. Vocal artist Bobby McFerrin is famous for his instrumental emulation, and Deke Sharon has taught seminars on how to sing a variety of instrumental sounds. The Swingle Singers used nonsense words to sound like instruments, but have been known to produce non-verbal versions of musical instruments. Like the other groups, examples of their music can be found on YouTube. Beatboxing is a form of a cappella music popular in the hip-hop community, where rap is often performed a cappella also. Christian rock group Relient K recorded the song "Plead the Fifth" a cappella on their album Five Score and Seven Years Ago. The group recorded lead singer Matt Thiessen making drum noises and played them with electronic drums to make the song. Even synthesizer sounds can be expressed a cappella, which is demonstrated by the Swedish vocal ensemble Visa Röster and their computer music, hymns and jazz. See also Collegiate a cappella List of collegiate a cappella groups List of professional a cappella groups Barbershop music - 4-part a cappella close harmony Notes References External links Contemporary A Cappella Society of America (CASA) The Recorded A Cappella Review Board (RARB) | A_cappella |@lemmatized cappella:88 italian:1 william:1 c:3 holmes:1 grove:2 music:49 online:3 oxford:1 sep:1 http:3 www:3 oxfordmusiconline:1 com:1 subscriber:1 article:3 chapel:2 choir:7 vocal:19 sing:19 without:13 instrumental:12 accompaniment:6 piece:1 intend:3 perform:4 way:3 originally:2 differentiate:1 renaissance:3 polyphony:5 baroque:3 concertato:1 style:11 century:10 renew:2 interest:3 couple:1 ignorance:1 fact:2 part:6 often:7 double:2 instrumentalist:1 lead:5 term:1 come:6 mean:4 unaccompanied:4 modern:5 usage:1 refer:3 performance:5 include:15 barbershop:11 doo:2 wop:2 pop:2 rock:5 today:3 capella:1 also:12 sample:1 loop:1 production:1 producer:2 like:10 jimmy:1 spice:1 curry:1 teddy:1 riley:1 wyclef:1 others:4 religious:9 tradition:5 still:4 use:15 especially:1 church:15 well:3 anasheed:1 zemirot:2 gregorian:1 chant:5 example:11 singing:5 majority:1 sacred:2 madrigal:1 development:2 early:10 instrumentally:1 accompanied:1 form:9 usually:2 original:1 judaism:1 christianity:1 continuously:2 exist:2 relate:2 community:2 islam:1 jewish:10 service:7 temple:4 jerusalem:1 musical:12 instrument:32 traditional:2 destruction:1 traditionally:2 forbid:2 sabbath:3 concern:1 player:1 would:3 tempt:1 repair:1 forbidden:1 day:4 prohibition:1 relax:1 many:8 reform:1 conservative:1 congregation:1 similarly:2 family:4 large:3 group:43 song:12 know:10 outside:1 context:1 formal:2 bar:1 bat:1 mitzvah:1 celebration:1 sometimes:3 feature:1 entertainment:2 ensemble:3 three:3 week:1 prohibit:1 jew:3 consider:2 portion:1 period:1 counting:1 omer:2 passover:1 shavuot:1 time:5 semi:1 mourning:1 allow:2 sefirah:1 shircago:1 sefirat:1 popularization:1 may:3 find:4 writing:1 philosopher:1 philo:3 born:1 bce:1 weave:1 together:2 greek:4 thought:1 promote:2 praise:7 teach:2 silent:1 even:6 chord:1 good:1 everett:3 ferguson:7 public:3 worship:17 revise:2 edition:2 abilene:2 texas:1 biblical:2 research:3 press:6 pp:7 strong:3 influence:3 sect:1 pharisee:1 oppose:3 e:6 werner:2 interpreter:2 dictionary:3 bible:5 nashville:3 tennessee:1 abingdon:2 view:1 scripture:3 israel:1 offer:3 god:3 command:2 g:5 chronicle:1 shofar:2 keren:1 horn:1 synagogue:3 lee:1 olson:1 zondervan:2 pictoral:1 merrill:1 tenney:1 editor:1 grand:2 rapid:2 publishing:1 house:2 p:10 rosh:1 chodesh:1 elul:1 end:1 yom:1 kippur:1 limit:1 strictly:1 define:1 set:1 sound:5 specific:1 place:3 christian:18 begin:9 develop:2 europe:1 around:2 late:2 harmony:9 identify:1 josquin:1 de:1 prez:1 accompany:2 although:2 merely:1 singer:9 independent:1 fully:1 work:1 giovanni:1 pierluigi:1 da:1 palestrina:3 excellent:1 cantata:1 take:3 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 retrieve:1 december:2 nonetheless:1 become:4 major:2 bach:1 notably:2 aforementioned:1 mass:2 b:3 minor:1 present:1 body:1 conduct:2 presbyterian:2 devote:1 regulative:1 principle:2 old:4 regular:1 baptist:3 primitive:1 plymouth:1 brother:3 christ:1 german:1 eastern:1 orthodox:1 amish:1 mennonite:2 certain:1 high:1 event:2 liturgical:1 roman:1 catholic:1 lutheran:2 practice:3 remain:4 apostolic:1 harp:1 type:1 folk:2 convention:2 opponent:1 instrumentation:6 believe:2 support:1 new:7 testament:5 verse:1 matthew:1 jam:1 corinthian:1 colossians:1 particularly:2 ephesian:2 see:5 marshall:1 kurfees:1 verb:1 psallo:4 philologically:1 historically:1 examine:1 full:2 discussion:2 kindred:1 matter:1 mcquiddy:1 reference:2 first:11 absence:1 root:1 hermeneutic:1 restrict:1 appropriateness:1 contrast:1 natural:1 element:1 divine:3 creation:1 thus:2 moses:1 remove:1 sandal:1 stand:1 holy:2 ground:1 exodus:2 human:1 made:1 tool:1 altar:1 true:1 king:4 david:3 popularize:3 introduction:1 hymn:2 evident:1 psalm:2 innovation:1 seem:1 monarchy:1 approval:1 tolerance:1 negative:1 statement:1 regard:1 amos:1 recorded:1 organ:3 introduce:2 pope:1 vitalian:1 cathedral:2 rome:1 expression:1 latin:2 exclusively:2 contradistinction:1 spreading:1 widely:1 vigorously:1 notable:2 reformer:1 john:7 calvin:1 wesley:1 alexander:1 campbell:3 cow:1 bell:1 concert:2 encyclopedia:1 stone:1 movement:2 ed:4 douglas:1 foster:1 paul:3 blower:1 anthony:1 l:1 dunnavant:1 newell:1 williams:1 eerdmans:1 isbn:1 entire:1 christendom:1 prevailingly:1 graft:1 probably:2 obscure:1 contemporary:6 adherent:1 long:2 general:1 conscientious:1 preference:1 sir:1 walter:1 scott:1 heart:1 midlothian:1 heroine:1 jeanie:1 dean:2 scottish:1 write:2 father:1 situation:1 england:1 bold:1 add:2 civil:1 barbarian:1 unto:1 apostle:1 show:2 much:1 kindness:1 sort:1 chosen:1 people:1 land:1 kirk:1 call:5 meeting:1 minister:1 preaches:1 gown:1 passage:1 available:1 gutenberg:1 org:1 file:1 txt:1 alternate:1 viewpoint:1 age:1 free:2 jesus:1 ministry:1 non:2 setting:3 already:1 favor:1 purely:1 tx:1 due:1 tn:1 spring:1 culture:2 condemn:2 james:1 mckinnon:4 literature:1 cambridge:2 university:22 verdict:1 clement:1 prefer:1 comment:1 colossian:2 note:2 anyone:1 wish:1 play:3 cithara:1 lyre:1 imitate:1 hebrew:1 give:1 defense:1 fit:1 third:1 immorality:1 though:2 fifth:2 extend:1 opposition:1 theodoret:1 school:2 antioch:1 hand:1 author:1 dictate:1 allege:1 covenant:1 wean:1 worshipper:1 away:1 idolatry:1 less:2 two:1 evil:1 turn:1 history:1 word:5 ado:1 always:2 refers:2 revelation:1 make:5 eph:2 historian:1 josephus:1 gentile:1 common:3 koine:1 exception:1 rule:1 agreement:1 translator:1 answer:1 translate:1 compilation:1 response:1 tom:1 burgess:2 document:1 college:19 lexicon:1 say:3 meant:1 none:1 muslim:2 musician:2 nasheed:1 united:4 state:5 peter:3 lutkin:2 northwestern:6 help:1 found:2 permanent:1 organization:3 kind:1 america:3 guide:1 paper:1 biography:1 library:1 edu:1 archive:1 findingaids:1 pdf:1 leonard:1 van:1 camp:1 formation:1 st:6 olaf:4 westminster:1 journal:1 education:1 vol:1 winter:1 prominent:2 midwest:1 f:1 melius:1 christiansen:2 faculty:1 member:4 northfield:1 minnesota:4 establish:2 outgrowth:1 local:1 organist:1 compose:1 least:2 partially:1 student:1 nearby:1 campus:2 success:2 emulate:7 regional:1 conductor:1 rich:1 choral:2 bear:1 region:1 concordia:1 moorhead:1 augustana:2 island:1 illinois:3 wartburg:1 waverly:1 iowa:2 luther:1 decorah:1 gustavus:1 adolphus:1 sioux:1 fall:1 south:4 dakota:1 augsburg:1 minneapolis:1 typically:2 range:1 recognize:2 effort:1 perfect:1 blend:1 intonation:1 phrasing:1 pitch:1 past:2 society:6 sweet:1 adelines:1 international:6 inc:1 host:2 educational:2 director:1 symposium:1 contest:1 champion:2 chorus:2 quartet:5 several:1 record:10 hi:1 los:1 four:1 freshman:1 complex:1 jazz:2 credit:1 small:2 fly:2 picket:2 christmas:1 number:5 one:13 uk:2 cover:1 yazoo:1 u:1 yaz:1 attain:2 prominence:1 onward:1 spur:1 top:1 recording:4 artist:5 manhattan:1 transfer:1 persuasion:1 save:1 die:2 art:2 open:1 door:1 bobby:3 mcferrin:3 huey:1 lewis:1 news:1 nylon:1 boyz:1 ii:1 men:2 bo:1 bice:2 version:2 dream:1 badlands:1 contestant:1 season:1 american:3 idol:1 warn:1 risky:1 move:1 get:1 great:1 review:4 judge:1 advance:1 final:1 artists:1 r:2 nutmeg:1 rajah:1 proudly:1 showcase:2 format:1 trademark:1 later:2 classic:1 till:1 score:2 popular:5 hit:2 apologize:1 janis:1 joplin:1 mercedes:1 benz:1 october:1 belmont:1 release:3 seminal:1 album:7 entitle:1 cigar:1 acappella:3 candy:1 representative:1 genre:1 band:3 percussion:2 beatboxing:3 create:2 case:2 similar:1 rockapella:2 presence:1 within:2 denomination:1 purposefully:1 arrangement:1 ensembles:1 voice:4 melody:2 rhythmic:1 bass:1 line:1 contribute:1 chordal:1 polyphonic:1 describe:1 track:2 multitrack:1 remixed:1 put:1 onto:1 vinyl:1 dj:1 fan:1 remix:1 jay:1 z:1 black:1 danger:1 mouse:1 mixed:1 beatles:1 white:1 grey:1 growth:2 limited:1 live:1 hundred:2 produce:3 decade:1 board:2 rarb:2 since:2 forum:1 user:1 ever:1 reach:1 billboard:1 hot:1 worry:1 happy:1 uniquely:1 report:1 involve:1 african:1 documented:1 preservation:1 encouragement:1 barber:1 shop:1 q:1 rebranded:1 officially:1 change:2 name:1 bhs:1 bh:1 chapter:1 across:1 spread:1 world:1 country:2 provide:1 highly:1 organize:1 competition:3 structure:1 collegiate:9 clear:1 exactly:1 rensselyrics:1 rensselaer:1 polytechnic:1 institute:1 formerly:1 rpi:1 glee:1 club:1 perhaps:1 known:1 however:1 whiffenpoofs:2 yale:1 cole:1 porter:1 grow:3 throughout:1 twentieth:1 renowned:1 historical:1 along:1 columbia:1 kingsmen:1 rochester:1 yellowjackets:1 woman:1 follow:1 shortly:1 frequently:1 parody:1 smiffenpoofs:1 smith:1 shwiffs:1 connecticut:1 chattertocks:1 brown:2 explode:1 fuel:1 beelzebub:1 tuft:1 dozen:1 total:1 circa:1 join:1 another:2 georgetown:1 chime:1 cherry:1 tree:1 massacre:1 weekend:1 festival:1 hold:1 february:1 appear:1 boston:1 commercial:1 co:3 solo:1 legend:1 alumnus:2 counterpart:1 pennsylvania:3 siddhartha:1 khosla:1 goldspot:1 beat:1 penn:3 masala:3 gain:2 popularity:2 among:2 asian:3 youth:1 emergence:1 primarily:1 hindi:4 english:2 chai:1 town:1 dil:1 se:1 uc:2 berkeley:3 raagapella:1 stanford:1 female:3 illini:1 chandani:1 awaaz:2 wellesley:1 kal:1 ki:1 ektaal:1 virginia:1 recently:2 go:1 prior:1 male:2 rarity:1 desi:1 carnegie:1 mellon:1 deewane:1 start:4 hop:2 reverse:1 trend:1 sugar:1 western:1 dhamakapella:1 hopkins:2 kranti:2 maryland:1 anokha:1 drexel:1 shor:1 ucsd:1 sur:1 taal:1 gwu:1 geet:1 ucla:1 naya:1 zamaana:1 michigan:1 maize:1 mirchi:1 rutgers:1 significant:1 critical:1 acclaim:1 distinct:1 mix:1 apply:1 different:2 arabic:1 punjabi:1 gujarati:1 lyric:1 language:1 currently:1 annually:1 california:1 anahat:1 plan:1 break:1 charity:1 association:1 india:1 east:1 coast:1 side:1 rapidly:1 wave:1 africa:2 foremost:1 navi:1 redd:1 professional:2 consist:1 eight:1 rebel:1 increase:1 award:2 overseen:1 championship:1 sweepstakes:1 addition:1 reproduce:1 cord:1 practitioner:1 method:1 mill:1 whose:1 clearly:1 label:1 vocally:1 twilight:1 zone:1 unlimited:1 comedy:1 television:1 series:2 tompkins:1 square:1 famous:2 instead:1 theme:1 addams:1 fox:1 channel:1 abc:1 sampling:1 undivided:1 rhythms:1 swingle:2 classical:1 emulation:1 deke:1 sharon:1 seminar:1 variety:1 nonsense:1 verbal:1 youtube:1 hip:1 rap:1 relient:1 k:1 plead:1 five:1 seven:1 year:1 ago:1 matt:1 thiessen:1 drum:2 noise:1 electronic:1 synthesizer:1 express:1 demonstrate:1 swedish:1 visa:1 röster:1 computer:1 list:2 close:1 external:1 link:1 casa:1 |@bigram http_www:3 instrumental_accompaniment:1 renaissance_polyphony:2 gregorian_chant:1 counting_omer:1 passover_shavuot:1 everett_ferguson:3 abilene_texas:1 nashville_tennessee:1 abingdon_press:2 rapid_zondervan:1 zondervan_publishing:1 rosh_chodesh:1 yom_kippur:1 giovanni_pierluigi:1 pierluigi_da:1 da_palestrina:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_online:1 eastern_orthodox:1 amish_mennonite:1 rapid_eerdmans:1 scottish_presbyterian:1 nashville_tn:1 koine_greek:1 cappella_choir:3 gustavus_adolphus:1 minneapolis_minnesota:1 janis_joplin:1 mercedes_benz:1 billboard_hot:1 barber_shop:1 collegiate_cappella:8 rensselaer_polytechnic:1 polytechnic_institute:1 glee_club:1 cole_porter:1 twentieth_century:1 uc_berkeley:2 carnegie_mellon:1 critical_acclaim:1 vocal_cord:1 twilight_zone:1 addams_family:1 hip_hop:1 external_link:1 |
7,471 | Lamorna_Birch | Samuel John "Lamorna" Birch, RA, RWS (1869 – 1955) was an artist in oils and watercolours. At the suggestion of fellow artist Stanhope Forbes, Birch adopted the soubriquet "Lamorna" to distinguish himself from Lionel Birch, an artist who was also working in the area at that time. Lamorna Birch was born in Egremont in Cheshire, England. He was self-taught as an artist, other than for a brief period of study at the Académie Colarossi in Paris during 1895. He is thought of as a painter of northern England, but his most important period was when he settled in Lamorna, Cornwall in 1902, and many of his most famous pictures date from this time and the beautiful Lamorna Cove is usually their subject matter. He exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1892. He held his first one man exhibition at the Fine Art Society in 1906. He is said to have produced more than 20,000 pictures. The exhibition Shades of British Impressionism Lamorna Birch and his Circle was shown at Warrington Museum & Art Gallery in the Mezzanine in October 2004. This details his links with Henry Scott Tuke and Thomas Cooper Gotch and many others who settled in the artists' colony in the 1880s and 1890s. "These painters helped to change the face of British art. Their emphasis on colour and light, truth and social realism brought about a revolution in British art." says the catalogue for the show. External links Penlee House | Lamorna_Birch |@lemmatized samuel:1 john:1 lamorna:6 birch:5 ra:1 rws:1 artist:5 oil:1 watercolour:1 suggestion:1 fellow:1 stanhope:1 forbes:1 adopt:1 soubriquet:1 distinguish:1 lionel:1 also:1 work:1 area:1 time:2 bear:1 egremont:1 cheshire:1 england:2 self:1 taught:1 brief:1 period:2 study:1 académie:1 colarossi:1 paris:1 think:1 painter:2 northern:1 important:1 settle:2 cornwall:1 many:2 famous:1 picture:2 date:1 beautiful:1 cove:1 usually:1 subject:1 matter:1 exhibit:1 royal:1 academy:1 hold:1 first:1 one:1 man:1 exhibition:2 fine:1 art:4 society:1 say:2 produce:1 shade:1 british:3 impressionism:1 circle:1 show:2 warrington:1 museum:1 gallery:1 mezzanine:1 october:1 detail:1 link:2 henry:1 scott:1 tuke:1 thomas:1 cooper:1 gotch:1 others:1 colony:1 help:1 change:1 face:1 emphasis:1 colour:1 light:1 truth:1 social:1 realism:1 bring:1 revolution:1 catalogue:1 external:1 penlee:1 house:1 |@bigram lamorna_birch:3 stanhope_forbes:1 lamorna_cove:1 external_link:1 |
7,472 | Foreign_relations_of_Burkina_Faso | Burkina Faso has good relations with the European Union, African, and Asian countries. France, the former colonial power, in particular, continues to provide significant aid and supports Compaoré's developing role as a regional powerbroker. Burkina maintains diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (usually referred to as "Taiwan") instead of the People's Republic of China. According to the U.S. State Department, "U.S. relations with Burkina Faso are good but subject to strains in the past because of the Compaoré government's past involvement in arms trading and other sanctions-breaking activity." Burkina Faso's relations with its West African neighbors have improved in recent years. Relations with Ghana, in particular, have warmed with a change in government in that country. President Compaoré has mediated a political crisis in Togo and helped to resolve the Tuareg conflict in Niger. Burkina maintains cordial relations with Libya. A territorial dispute with Mali was mediated by Ghana and Nigeria and has led to lessening of tensions between the two nations. Since the 2002 Civil War in the Ivory Coast, relations between it and Burkina Faso have been filled with accusations of Burkinabe support for rebels on one side and claims of mistreatment of Burkinabe workers on the other. Ivorian raiders "are foreigners" BBC, July 27, 2005 Blaise Campaoré:<<La crise ivoirienne inquiète le Burkina>>, Le Figaro, December 11, 2005 The Ivory Coast remains Burkina Faso's largest regional trading partner in spite of their disputes and tens of thousands of Burkinabes continue to work in the Ivory Coast. Unending Crises, Africa Today, February 25, 2006 Nineteen provinces of Burkina Faso are joined with contiguous areas of Mali and Niger under the Liptako-Gourma Authority, a regional economic organization. Burkina Faso is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98) References Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Burkina Faso | Foreign_relations_of_Burkina_Faso |@lemmatized burkina:11 faso:8 good:2 relation:7 european:1 union:1 african:2 asian:1 country:2 france:1 former:1 colonial:1 power:1 particular:2 continue:2 provide:1 significant:1 aid:1 support:2 compaoré:3 develop:1 role:1 regional:3 powerbroker:1 maintain:2 diplomatic:1 republic:2 china:2 usually:1 refer:1 taiwan:1 instead:1 people:1 accord:1 u:3 state:1 department:1 subject:1 strain:1 past:2 government:2 involvement:1 arm:1 trading:2 sanction:1 breaking:1 activity:1 west:1 neighbor:1 improve:1 recent:1 year:1 ghana:2 warm:1 change:1 president:1 mediate:2 political:1 crisis:2 togo:1 help:1 resolve:1 tuareg:1 conflict:1 niger:2 cordial:1 libya:1 territorial:1 dispute:2 mali:2 nigeria:1 lead:1 lessen:1 tension:1 two:1 nation:1 since:1 civil:1 war:1 ivory:3 coast:3 fill:1 accusation:1 burkinabe:2 rebel:1 one:1 side:1 claim:1 mistreatment:1 worker:1 ivorian:1 raider:1 foreigner:1 bbc:1 july:1 blaise:1 campaoré:1 la:1 crise:1 ivoirienne:1 inquiète:1 le:2 figaro:1 december:1 remain:1 large:1 partner:1 spite:1 ten:1 thousand:1 burkinabes:1 work:1 unending:1 africa:1 today:1 february:1 nineteen:1 province:1 join:1 contiguous:1 area:1 liptako:1 gourma:1 authority:1 economic:1 organization:1 also:1 member:1 international:1 criminal:1 court:1 bilateral:1 immunity:1 agreement:1 protection:1 military:1 cover:1 article:1 reference:1 ministry:1 foreign:1 affair:1 |@bigram burkina_faso:8 diplomatic_relation:1 cordial_relation:1 le_figaro:1 trading_partner:1 mali_niger:1 bilateral_immunity:1 foreign_affair:1 |
7,473 | EBCDIC | Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) is an 8-bit character encoding (code page) used on IBM mainframe operating systems such as z/OS, OS/390, VM and VSE, as well as IBM midrange computer operating systems such as OS/400 and i5/OS (see also Binary Coded Decimal). It is also employed on various non-IBM platforms such as Fujitsu-Siemens' BS2000/OSD, HP MPE/iX, and Unisys MCP. EBCDIC descended from the code used with punched cards and the corresponding six bit binary-coded decimal code used with most of IBM's computer peripherals of the late 1950s and early 1960s. History EBCDIC was devised in 1963 and 1964 by IBM and was announced with the release of the IBM System/360 line of mainframe computers. It was created to extend the Binary-Coded Decimal encoding that existed at the time. It is an 8-bit character encoding, in contrast to, and developed separately from, the 7-bit ASCII encoding scheme. While IBM was a chief proponent of the ASCII standardization committee, they did not have time to prepare ASCII peripherals (such as card punch machines) to ship with its System/360 computers, so the company settled on EBCDIC at the time. The System/360 became wildly successful, and thus so did EBCDIC. All IBM mainframe peripherals and operating systems (except Linux on zSeries or iSeries) use EBCDIC as their inherent encoding, but software can translate to and from other encodings. Many hardware peripherals provide translation as well and modern mainframes (such as IBM zSeries) include processor instructions, at the hardware level, to accelerate translation between character sets. At the time it was devised, EBCDIC made it relatively easy to enter data into a computer with punch cards. Since punch cards are no longer used on mainframes, EBCDIC is used in modern mainframes primarily for backwards compatibility. It has no real technical advantage over ASCII-based code pages such as the ISO-8859 series or Unicode. There are some technical niceties in each, e.g., ASCII and EBCDIC both have one bit which indicates upper or lower case. But there are some aspects of EBCDIC which make it much less pleasant to work with than ASCII (such as a non-contiguous alphabet). As with single-byte extended ASCII codepages, most EBCDIC codepages only allow up to 2 languages (English and one other language) to be used in a database or text file. Where true support for multilingual text is desired, a system supporting far more characters is needed. Generally this is done with some form of Unicode support. There is an EBCDIC Unicode Transformation Format called UTF-EBCDIC proposed by the Unicode consortium, but it is not intended to be used in open interchange environments and, even on EBCDIC-based systems, it is almost never used. IBM mainframes support UTF-16, but they do not support UTF-EBCDIC natively. Arabic EBCDIC versions are typically in presentation order, in left to right order as displayed by an older mainframe or line printer, rather than in the right to left logical order used by modern encodings such as Unicode. Codepage layout The table below is derived from CCSID 500, one of the code page variants of EBCDIC, showing only the basic (English) EBCDIC characters. Characters 00–3F and FF are controls, 40 is space, 41 is no-break space (RSP: "Required Space"), E1 is numeric space (NSP: "Numeric Space"), and CA is soft hyphen. Characters are shown with their equivalent Unicode codes. Invariant alphanumeric, punctuation, and control characters common to all EBCDIC code pages are shown in color. Unassigned codes are typically filled with international or region-specific characters in the various EBCDIC code page variants. EBCDIC —0 —1 —2 —3 —4 —5 —6 —7 —8 —9 —A —B —C —D —E —F —0—1—2—3—4—5—6—7—8—9—A—B—C—D—E—F Sorting text entered via the typical keyboard device is slightly more logical in EBCDIC versus ASCII, as the EBCDIC code order (low to high values) groups common punctuation, lowercase alpha, uppercase alpha then numbers; the ASCII code order is common punctuation, numbers, more common punctuation, uppercase letters then lowercase letters; both code systems have sort order problems with extended characters beyond the common keyboard set. Criticism and humor Open-source-software advocate and hacker Eric S. Raymond writes in his Jargon File that EBCDIC was almost universally loathed by early hackers and programmers because of its multitude of different versions, none of which resembled the other versions, and that IBM produced it in direct competition with the already-established ASCII. The Jargon file 4.4.7 gives the following definition: Another popular complaint is that the EBCDIC alphabetic characters follow an archaic punch card encoding rather than a linear ordering like ASCII. One consequence of this is that incrementing the character code for "I" does not produce the code for "J", and likewise there is a gap between the codes for "R" and "S". Thus programming a simple control loop to cycle through only the alphabetic characters is problematic. These incompatibilities were also the source of many jokes. A popular one went: Professor: "So the American government went to IBM to come up with an encryption standard, and they came up with—"Student: "EBCDIC!" A reference to the EBCDIC character set is made in the classic Infocom adventure game Zork 2. In the "Machine Room", there is a collection of ancient computers and other machines of uncertain purpose. The following is the description of the room, with EBCDIC used to imply an incomprehensible language: See also EBCDIC-codepages with Latin-1-charset codepage 037 (English, Portuguese) codepage 285 (Ireland, United Kingdom) UTF-EBCDIC Sources External links Character Data Representation Architecture (CDRA) from IBM Contains IBM's official information on codepages and charsets. Codepage 37 Codepage 1047 F.0 Appendix F. Code Pages from AS/400 International Application Development V4R2 ICU Converter Explorer Contains more information about EBCDIC derived from IBM's CDRA, including DBCS EBCDIC (Double Byte Character Set EBCDIC) ICU Charset Mapping Tables Contains computer readable Unicode mapping tables for EBCDIC and many other character sets ASCII/EBCDIC Conversion Table for HP 3000 MPE/iX Computer Systems LegacyJ- EBCDIC Table EBCDIC character list, including decimal and hex values, symbolic name, and character/function iconv.com Online tool to convert from ASCII to/from EBCDIC EBCDIC-codepages with Latin-1-charset (JavaScript) | EBCDIC |@lemmatized extend:3 binary:4 cod:4 decimal:5 interchange:2 code:17 ebcdic:39 bit:5 character:19 encoding:5 page:6 use:11 ibm:15 mainframe:8 operate:3 system:10 z:1 os:2 vm:1 vse:1 well:2 midrange:1 computer:8 see:2 also:4 employ:1 various:2 non:2 platform:1 fujitsu:1 siemens:1 osd:1 hp:2 mpe:2 ix:2 unisys:1 mcp:1 descend:1 punched:1 card:5 corresponding:1 six:1 peripheral:4 late:1 early:2 history:1 devise:2 announce:1 release:1 line:2 create:1 encode:3 exist:1 time:4 contrast:1 develop:1 separately:1 ascii:13 scheme:1 chief:1 proponent:1 standardization:1 committee:1 prepare:1 punch:4 machine:3 ship:1 company:1 settle:1 become:1 wildly:1 successful:1 thus:2 except:1 linux:1 zseries:2 iseries:1 inherent:1 software:2 translate:1 many:3 hardware:2 provide:1 translation:2 modern:3 include:3 processor:1 instruction:1 level:1 accelerate:1 set:5 make:3 relatively:1 easy:1 enter:2 data:2 since:1 longer:1 primarily:1 backwards:1 compatibility:1 real:1 technical:2 advantage:1 base:2 iso:1 series:1 unicode:7 nicety:1 e:3 g:1 one:5 indicate:1 upper:1 low:2 case:1 aspect:1 much:1 less:1 pleasant:1 work:1 contiguous:1 alphabet:1 single:1 byte:2 codepages:5 allow:1 language:3 english:3 database:1 text:3 file:3 true:1 support:5 multilingual:1 desire:1 far:1 need:1 generally:1 form:1 transformation:1 format:1 call:1 utf:4 propose:1 consortium:1 intend:1 open:2 environment:1 even:1 almost:2 never:1 natively:1 arabic:1 version:3 typically:2 presentation:1 order:6 leave:2 right:2 display:1 old:1 printer:1 rather:2 logical:2 codepage:5 layout:1 table:5 derive:2 ccsid:1 variant:2 show:3 basic:1 ff:1 control:3 space:5 break:1 rsp:1 require:1 numeric:2 nsp:1 ca:1 soft:1 hyphen:1 equivalent:1 invariant:1 alphanumeric:1 punctuation:4 common:5 color:1 unassigned:1 fill:1 international:2 region:1 specific:1 b:2 c:2 f:4 sort:2 via:1 typical:1 keyboard:2 device:1 slightly:1 versus:1 high:1 value:2 group:1 lowercase:2 alpha:2 uppercase:2 number:2 letter:2 problem:1 extended:1 beyond:1 criticism:1 humor:1 source:3 advocate:1 hacker:2 eric:1 raymond:1 write:1 jargon:2 universally:1 loathe:1 programmer:1 multitude:1 different:1 none:1 resemble:1 produce:2 direct:1 competition:1 already:1 establish:1 give:1 following:2 definition:1 another:1 popular:2 complaint:1 alphabetic:2 follow:1 archaic:1 linear:1 ordering:1 like:1 consequence:1 incrementing:1 j:1 likewise:1 gap:1 r:1 program:1 simple:1 loop:1 cycle:1 problematic:1 incompatibility:1 joke:1 go:2 professor:1 american:1 government:1 come:2 encryption:1 standard:1 student:1 reference:1 classic:1 infocom:1 adventure:1 game:1 zork:1 room:2 collection:1 ancient:1 uncertain:1 purpose:1 description:1 imply:1 incomprehensible:1 latin:2 charset:3 portuguese:1 ireland:1 united:1 kingdom:1 external:1 link:1 representation:1 architecture:1 cdra:2 contains:1 official:1 information:2 charsets:1 appendix:1 application:1 development:1 icu:2 converter:1 explorer:1 contain:2 dbcs:1 double:1 mapping:2 readable:1 conversion:1 legacyj:1 list:1 hex:1 symbolic:1 name:1 function:1 iconv:1 com:1 online:1 tool:1 convert:1 javascript:1 |@bigram cod_decimal:4 ibm_mainframe:3 punched_card:1 ibm_zseries:1 backwards_compatibility:1 ascii_ebcdic:4 unicode_consortium:1 encoding_unicode:1 uppercase_letter:1 eric_raymond:1 external_link:1 |
7,474 | General_anaesthetic | A general anaesthetic (or anesthetic, see spelling differences) drug is an anaesthetic drug that brings about a reversible loss of consciousness. These drugs are generally administered by an anesthesia provider in order to induce or maintain general anaesthesia to facilitate surgery. Mode of administration Drugs given to induce or maintain general anaesthesia are either given as: Gases or vapors (inhalational anaesthetics) Injections (intravenous anaesthetics) Most commonly these two forms are combined, with an injection given to induce anaesthesia and a gas used to maintain it, although it is possible to deliver anaesthesia solely by inhalation or injection. Inhalation Inhalational anaesthetic substances are either volatile liquids or gases and are usually delivered using an anaesthesia machine. An anaesthesia machine allows composing a mixture of oxygen, anaesthetics and ambient air, delivering it to the patient and monitoring patient and machine parameters. Liquid anaesthetics are vaporized in the machine. Many compounds have been used for inhalation anaesthesia, but only a few are still in widespread use. Desflurane, isoflurane and sevoflurane are the most widely used volatile anaesthetics today. They are often combined with nitrous oxide. Older, less popular, volatile anesthetics, include halothane, enflurane, and methoxyflurane. Researchers are also actively exploring the use of xenon as an anaesthetic. Injection Injection anaesthetics are used for induction and maintenance of a state of unconsciousness. Anaesthetists prefer to use intravenous injections as they are faster, generally less painful and more reliable than intramuscular or subcutaneous injections. Among the most widely used drugs are: Propofol Etomidate Barbiturates such as methohexital and thiopentone/thiopental Benzodiazepines such as midazolam and diazepam Ketamine is used in the UK as "field anaesthesia", for instance at a road traffic incident, and is more frequently used in the operative setting in the US. The volatile anaesthetics are a class of general anaesthetic drugs composed of gasses and liquids which evaporate easily for administration by inhalation. All of these agents share the property of being quite hydrophobic (i.e., as liquids, they are not freely miscible with in water, and as gases they dissolve in oils better than in water). Method of Action Lipid theory Overton and Meyer postulated that general anaesthetics exert their action by acting on the plasma membrane. This is supported by evidence that the potency of the drug has a direct, positive correlation with the lipid solubility of the blood. Anesthesia UK, http://www.frca.co.uk/article.aspx?articleid=100341, `15 May 08 The mechanism of action was proposed to be increased fluidity of the membrane. The interpretation of the Overton and Meyer finding has been challenged and discredited.The Window that Is Opened by Optical Isomers, I Ueda, Anesthesiology. 90(1):336, January 1999. Ion Channels General anaesthetics inhibit excitatory functions of some CNS receptors, such as glutamate or 5-HT receptors. Some general anaesthetics also excite inhibitory receptors, notably GABAA receptors and TREK. GABAA is a major target of the IV anaesthetics thiopental and propofol. General anaesthetics may decrease transmitter release pre-synaptically or decrease excitability of post-synaptic neuron. Pharmacokinetics Induction Elimination Volatile anaesthetics are eliminated in the terminal phase via the lungs. A low blood:gas coefficient is therefore necessary for quick removal of anaesthetic. When oil:water coefficient is high, there will be little anaesthetic in the blood, so elimination will be slow, giving a prolonged hangover effect: Some drugs are metabolised by the liver, and so consequently their metabolites are often toxic (e.g. chloroform) See also Local anesthesia Mechanical ventilation Intraoperative awareness Notes Pharmacology, Rang and Dale, Churchill Livingstone; 6 edition (January 25, 2007), 0443069115 | General_anaesthetic |@lemmatized general:8 anaesthetic:20 anesthetic:2 see:2 spell:1 difference:1 drug:8 bring:1 reversible:1 loss:1 consciousness:1 generally:2 administer:1 anesthesia:3 provider:1 order:1 induce:3 maintain:3 anaesthesia:8 facilitate:1 surgery:1 mode:1 administration:2 give:4 either:2 gas:6 vapor:1 inhalational:2 injection:7 intravenous:2 commonly:1 two:1 form:1 combine:2 use:11 although:1 possible:1 deliver:3 solely:1 inhalation:4 substance:1 volatile:5 liquid:4 usually:1 machine:4 allow:1 compose:2 mixture:1 oxygen:1 ambient:1 air:1 patient:2 monitoring:1 parameter:1 vaporize:1 many:1 compound:1 still:1 widespread:1 desflurane:1 isoflurane:1 sevoflurane:1 widely:2 today:1 often:2 nitrous:1 oxide:1 old:1 less:2 popular:1 include:1 halothane:1 enflurane:1 methoxyflurane:1 researcher:1 also:3 actively:1 explore:1 xenon:1 induction:2 maintenance:1 state:1 unconsciousness:1 anaesthetist:1 prefer:1 faster:1 painful:1 reliable:1 intramuscular:1 subcutaneous:1 among:1 propofol:2 etomidate:1 barbiturate:1 methohexital:1 thiopentone:1 thiopental:2 benzodiazepine:1 midazolam:1 diazepam:1 ketamine:1 uk:3 field:1 instance:1 road:1 traffic:1 incident:1 frequently:1 operative:1 setting:1 u:1 class:1 evaporate:1 easily:1 agent:1 share:1 property:1 quite:1 hydrophobic:1 e:2 freely:1 miscible:1 water:3 dissolve:1 oil:2 good:1 method:1 action:3 lipid:2 theory:1 overton:2 meyer:2 postulate:1 exert:1 act:1 plasma:1 membrane:2 support:1 evidence:1 potency:1 direct:1 positive:1 correlation:1 solubility:1 blood:3 http:1 www:1 frca:1 co:1 article:1 aspx:1 articleid:1 may:2 mechanism:1 propose:1 increase:1 fluidity:1 interpretation:1 finding:1 challenge:1 discredit:1 window:1 open:1 optical:1 isomer:1 ueda:1 anesthesiology:1 january:2 ion:1 channel:1 inhibit:1 excitatory:1 function:1 cns:1 receptor:4 glutamate:1 ht:1 excite:1 inhibitory:1 notably:1 gabaa:2 trek:1 major:1 target:1 iv:1 decrease:2 transmitter:1 release:1 pre:1 synaptically:1 excitability:1 post:1 synaptic:1 neuron:1 pharmacokinetics:1 elimination:2 eliminate:1 terminal:1 phase:1 via:1 lung:1 low:1 coefficient:2 therefore:1 necessary:1 quick:1 removal:1 high:1 little:1 slow:1 prolonged:1 hangover:1 effect:1 metabolise:1 liver:1 consequently:1 metabolite:1 toxic:1 g:1 chloroform:1 local:1 mechanical:1 ventilation:1 intraoperative:1 awareness:1 note:1 pharmacology:1 rang:1 dale:1 churchill:1 livingstone:1 edition:1 |@bigram nitrous_oxide:1 intravenous_injection:1 miscible_water:1 plasma_membrane:1 lipid_solubility:1 http_www:1 gabaa_receptor:1 mechanical_ventilation:1 |
7,475 | Michael_Hutchence | Michael Kelland John Hutchence (January 22 1960 – November 22 1997) was an Australian singer-songwriter, most famous for his work with rock band INXS. Biography Early life and career Hutchence was born in Sydney, son of Kelland ("Kell") and Patricia Hutchence, but was subsequently raised in Hong Kong. He began performing at the age of eight in a local toy store commercial. He attended King George V School and was in the house Crozier. The family eventually returned to Sydney in Hutchence's late teens, and it was there that Hutchence befriended Andrew Farriss at Davidson High School on Sydney's Northern Beaches. Shortly, Michael and Andrew joined with Andrew's brothers Tim and Jon, as well as friends Garry Gary Beers and Kirk Pengilly to form their first band, The Farriss Brothers, which would ultimately become INXS. When, in 1979, the Farriss family moved to Perth, Western Australia, the rest of the band followed, returning to Sydney soon after. In 1980, the group released their first album, INXS, and put out their first single, "Simple Simon," which was soon followed by their first moderate Australian hit, "Just Keep Walking." During the 1980s, he resided at the apartment block at the end of Kirketon Road, Darlinghurst, Sydney. Hutchence became the main spokesperson for the band and gained a reputation as an enigmatic, sensual frontman, although his close friends and family always maintained he was much more introverted than his onstage persona. A talented lyricist, he co-wrote almost all of INXS' songs with Andrew Farriss, who has attributed his own success as a songwriter to Hutchence's 'genius.' Stardom, acting career and romances In 1987, following several increasingly successful INXS albums, Hutchence appeared in the Australian movie Dogs in Space, directed by long-time INXS music video collaborator, Richard Lowenstein. In the film, some events are from Lowenstein's life when sharing a home with friend Sam Sejavka, played by Hutchence. In 1989, he released the album Max Q, a collaboration with Australian post-punk pioneer Ollie Olsen. In 1990, he played Percy Shelley in Roger Corman's Frankenstein Unbound. Hutchence's private life was often reported in the Australian and international press, with a string of love affairs with prominent actresses, models and singers, including Kym Wilson and Helena Christensen. In 1989, Hutchence began a highly publicized relationship with Kylie Minogue, helping to transform her image from girl-next-door (a hang-over of her soap opera Neighbours fame), into a sexy, edgy dance-oriented pop diva. Other brief romances included Berlin lead singer Terri Nunn, supermodels Elle MacPherson, April Ashley http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-388926/How-Prescott-woman-me.html and Go-Go's lead singer Belinda Carlisle. In 1990, INXS released X, which spawned more international hits such as "Suicide Blonde", "Disappear" and "Bitter Tears". A live album, Live Baby Live, followed in 1991. Welcome To Wherever You Are was released in 1992 to little chart success. That same year, Hutchence was involved in an altercation with a taxi driver in Denmark. He suffered a blow to the head and consequently lost his sense of smell and, partially, his sense of taste. This made him depressed and more aggressive. According to INXS band mate, Garry Gary Beers, Michael pulled a knife on him and threatened to kill him. This incident occurred during the recording of INXS' 1993 album, Full Moon Dirty Hearts. Later career INXS spent the mid-1990s trying to develop a successful new album after a series of critically acclaimed but less commercial releases. During this time, Hutchence's relationship with Kylie Minogue ended, then he dated Danish model Helena Christensen before starting a relationship with Paula Yates, whom he had met some years earlier during an interview and who was still married to Bob Geldof. Yates and Hutchence's affair was soon discovered by the English press. The pressure from the media was so intense that Hutchence once assaulted a photographer that was hounding him. Around this time, Yates' separation from husband Geldof became official, sparking an at-times bitter custody battle over their three daughters, Fifi Trixibelle, Peaches Honeyblossom and Little Pixie. In 1996, Yates gave birth to Hutchence's only child, daughter Heavenly Hiraani Tiger Lily Hutchence, whom Yates claimed in a TV interview shortly after Hutchence's death was delivered in their bathroom. Like her sisters, the child was christened with an unusual name. It was Pixie who chose the name Heavenly, Hutchence chose Hiraani, and Yates chose Tiger Lily. They had chosen to call her Tiger since her birth. Michael once described his daughter as "just what we ordered." After a period of inactivity and releases that received lukewarm critical reviews, INXS recorded the band's 10th official album in 1996, produced by Bruce Fairbairn and Andrew Farriss. Death The INXS album, Elegantly Wasted, was released in April 1997. Hutchence and INXS went on a world tour. The final leg of the tour was to be in Australia in November and December. However, on the morning of November 22, 1997, Hutchence, aged 37, was found dead in his room at the Ritz-Carlton hotel in Double Bay, Sydney (now the Stamford Plaza). A belt found at the scene suggested that he had died by hanging. The Coroner of New South Wales determined that Hutchence's death was the result of suicide, but analysis of the witness statements in the Coroner's report, the lack of a suicide note and other anecdotal evidence, such as the fact that Hutchence was found nude, has led some - including Hutchence's brother and other close relatives - to suggest that the death may have resulted from autoerotic asphyxiation. Kym Wilson and her then-boyfriend Andrew Reyment were the last people to see Michael alive. Michael Hutchence's coffin was carried out of St. Andrew's Cathedral by members of the band and his younger brother Rhett. "Never Tear Us Apart" was played in the background. The song is now known to many original fans as his anthem. Nick Cave played "Into My Arms" during Hutchence's funeral and demanded that television cameras be switched off during the performance. Bono, a good friend of Hutchence, wrote a song, "Stuck In A Moment You Can't Get Out Of", which is interpreted as an intervention with him. Later developments Paula Yates died on September 17, 2000 of what was ruled an accidental heroin overdose. She had been battling Hutchence's family for custody of Tiger Lily, but ultimately it was decided that the child would live with Bob Geldof and be raised with her sisters. The Melbourne newspaper The Age reported on 20 August 2005 about the disposition of Hutchence's estate and assets, estimated at $20 million. The remainder of Hutchence's estate was sold off and swallowed in legal fees. Millions of dollars in property and other assets, including on-going royalties from INXS, were held in "The Vocals Trust", a complex arrangement of international companies and trusts, of which Hutchence was not a beneficiary. Mr. Fisher, the man who set up this arrangement, has stated that Michael Hutchence used this structure to keep his wealth from his "thieving relatives", girlfriends and any wives. Others who have been linked with this scheme are Andrew Young, Tony Alford, Gordon Fisher, Andrew Paul, and Colin Diamond. Some of these have had their financial and personal credibility questioned. Hutchence's long-in-the-works solo album, Michael Hutchence, was finally released in 1999. He had begun working on the album in 1995 and had last worked on it three days prior to his untimely death. The last song he recorded was "Possibilities". It was co written and co produced by Hutchence and a gaggle of collaborators - Andy Gill from Gang of Four, Tim Simenon of Bomb The Bass, and Danny Saber from Black Grape. It featured a duet with U2's Bono called "Slide Away"; Bono actually recorded his vocals after Hutchence's death. The movie, Limp, was also released in 1999 and featured a cameo by Hutchence, playing a record company A & R man. (Hutchence had filmed the scene in 1996 on a day off from working on INXS' Elegantly Wasted.) Eight years after Michael's death, a television show featured the members of INXS looking for a new singer to succeed Michael. The show, which aired on CBS, was called Rock Star: INXS. The winner was Canadian singer J.D. Fortune. Fortune and the band parted ways in 2009 amidst some controversy. http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/theampersand/archive/2009/02/24/j-d-fortune-not-fired-from-inxs-says-band-rep.aspx In 2006, it was announced that a biopic focusing on the life of Michael Hutchence was planned, initially in development with Morgan Freeman's production company Revelations, and later by Australian production company Shingle, and producers Clark Westerman and Rodney Wilson. The film, Slide Away, is set for release in 2009. The project is backed by Michael's trust and his brother, Rhett.INXS film is the new sensation On November 22nd, 2007, the 10th anniversary of Michael's death, the remaining original members of INXS created a tribute page on their website, leaving testimonials to their friend and bandmate. Countless other tributes have been made throughout the world, citing Hutchence as one of Australia's finest and one of the world's last true rock stars. Ten years after Michael's death, Rhett Hutchence revealed to Woman's Day that he is going to the Supreme Court to try and overturn the verdict of suicide, as he does not want Tiger growing up thinking her father intentionally left her. The dispute between Bob Geldof and the Hutchence family over Michael's only child has continued. Geldof legally adopted Tiger, against the wishes of Hutchence's mother and sister, who disagreed with Geldof changing her surname to Geldof. Since that time Tina Hutchence was informed that her niece is now recognized as Tiger Hutchence-Geldof since the adoption. In 2009, The Sir Stamford (formerly Ritz Carlton hotel) in Sydney where Hutchence died is going to be demolished to make way for a 14-story skyscraper. Discography Albums With INXS INXS (1980) Underneath the Colours (1981) INXSlive - compilation album (1982) Shabooh Shoobah (1982) Dekadance (1983) The Swing (1984) Listen Like Thieves (1985) Kick (1987) X (1990) Live Baby Live — recorded live at Wembley Stadium (1991) Welcome to Wherever You Are (1992) Full Moon, Dirty Hearts (1993) Elegantly Wasted (1997) Other albums Max Q, self-titled album with Hutchence's short-lived band Max Q (1989) Michael Hutchence (1999) Collaborations / Soundtracks "Speed Kills" with Cold Chisel and "Forest Theme" on Freedom Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1982) "Reckless" Soundtrack (1984): To Look at You, Soul Mistake and The One Thing. "Sex Symbol" and "Jungle Boy" songs produced for Flame Fortune (1985) "Do Wot You Do" on the Pretty in Pink Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1986) "Dogs In Space", "Golf Course", "The Green Dragon", and "Rooms For The Memory" on the Dogs In Space Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1987) "Laying Down the Law" (with Jimmy Barnes) and "Good Times" on The Lost Boys Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1987) "Under My Thumb" on Symphonic Music of the Rolling Stones (1994) "Baby Let's Play House" on It's Now or Never: The Tribute The Elvis (1994) "The Passenger" on Batman Forever Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1995) "Spill the Wine" on Barb Wire Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1996) "Red Hill" on One Voice: The Songs of Chage & Aska (1996) "The King Is Gone" on The Heads - No Talking Just Head (1996) Tributes Nick Cave sang his ballad "Into My Arms" at the funeral of Michael Hutchence. The funeral was broadcast live on Australian TV, but out of respect for Hutchence, Cave refused to allow his song to be televised. U2 and Bono have made several tributes to Hutchence ever since his death: The 2000 U2 album All That You Can't Leave Behind includes a song titled "Stuck in a Moment You Can't Get Out Of", which Hutchence's friend Bono wrote about his apparent suicide. The song is written in the form of an argument about suicide in which Bono tries to convince Hutch of the act's foolishness. Bono characterized the song as a good old row between friends, which he felt guilty for never having with Hutchence while he was alive. Bono also dedicated an emotional performance of "One" to Hutchence on the live video PopMart: Live from Mexico City. During the intro to the song, Bono refers to Hutchence as "a great mate, a great singer." This track can also be heard on the album Achtung Baby. On both the PopMart and Elevation Tours, Bono frequently dedicated the song "Gone" to Hutchence by yelling "Hutch!" at the beginning of the song. On U2's Vertigo Tour on November 13, 2006 in Sydney, Bono said "Blow a kiss to Heaven to Michael Hutchence" before playing "With or Without You." On November 24 2007, U2 played a secret gig at the Little Noise Sessions in Islington, London. During their performance of "Desire", Bono changed the lyrics of a verse to include the lyrics from INXS's "Need You Tonight" on the tenth anniversary of Hutchence's death. He sang the lyrics "I've got to let you know / You're one of my kind." Singer Simon Le Bon of Duran Duran, a friend of both Hutchence and Yates (and Geldof's best man at his wedding to Yates), also wrote an eerily prophetic song for him. It was recorded in 1996 and released on the album Medazzaland only a month before Hutchence's death. "Michael, You've Got a Lot to Answer For" included these lyrics: "Trust you to get caught up in somebody's war; you'll come out of it all intact, I'm sure. Just remember what friends were put here for; Michael, you've got a lot to answer for, and I know that you're gonna call... if you need me." Duran Duran was touring to support the album when Hutchence died, and Le Bon found the song too difficult to perform anymore so it was cut from the set for the remainder of the tour. However during subsequent Duran Duran tours, it was included as a tribute. INXS has dedicated many performances to their fallen friend: On INXS' 2002 Just For Kicks tour, they dedicated "Never Tear Us Apart" to Michael and had a screen which showed pictures of him throughout his life. A song on INXS' album Switch called "God's Top Ten" pays tribute to Michael and his daughter, Tiger Lily. Another song, "Afterglow," pays tribute to Hutchence alone. The song "Private Man" on the Powderfinger album Internationalist is a tribute to Hutchence. At a 2007 show in Adelaide supporting INXS, Simple Minds dedicated "Gloria" to Michael, saying "it's about a woman, but it'd have to be with Michael." At a New Zealand show 2 months later, he also dedicated "Gloria" to the memory of Michael Hutchence. On many aftershows in London Indigo during his Earth Tour (21 nights in London), Prince played the song "What You Need" with Maceo Parker on saxophone to commemorate the 10th anniversary of Michael's loss. References External links Official Michael Hutchence Memorial Website — a tribute from his family, created by Kelland Hutchence, Michael's late father Michael Hutchence Fan Site — a site created by fans Michael Hutchence Official Site — maintained by his half sister, Tina 2007 Tribute "Calling All Nations" — World-wide tribute to the 10th year of Michael's passing INXS.PL — Polish INXS website New South Wales coroner's report on Hutchence's death Michael Hutchence at h2g2 Michael Hutchence at Find A Grave Article about the missing millions Bob is Satan Geldof to adopt Tiger Lily INXS official site | Michael_Hutchence |@lemmatized michael:33 kelland:3 john:1 hutchence:71 january:1 november:6 australian:7 singer:8 songwriter:2 famous:1 work:5 rock:3 band:10 inxs:30 biography:1 early:1 life:5 career:3 bear:1 sydney:8 son:1 kell:1 patricia:1 subsequently:1 raise:2 hong:1 kong:1 begin:3 perform:2 age:3 eight:2 local:1 toy:1 store:1 commercial:2 attend:1 king:2 george:1 v:1 school:2 house:2 crozier:1 family:6 eventually:1 return:2 late:2 teen:1 befriend:1 andrew:9 farriss:5 davidson:1 high:1 northern:1 beach:1 shortly:2 join:1 brother:5 tim:2 jon:1 well:1 friend:10 garry:2 gary:2 beer:2 kirk:1 pengilly:1 form:2 first:4 would:2 ultimately:2 become:3 move:1 perth:1 western:1 australia:3 rest:1 follow:4 soon:3 group:1 release:11 album:20 put:2 single:1 simple:2 simon:2 moderate:1 hit:2 keep:2 walk:1 reside:1 apartment:1 block:1 end:2 kirketon:1 road:1 darlinghurst:1 main:1 spokesperson:1 gain:1 reputation:1 enigmatic:1 sensual:1 frontman:1 although:1 close:2 always:1 maintain:2 much:1 introverted:1 onstage:1 persona:1 talented:1 lyricist:1 co:4 write:6 almost:1 song:19 attribute:1 success:2 genius:1 stardom:1 act:2 romance:2 several:2 increasingly:1 successful:2 appear:1 movie:2 dog:3 space:3 direct:1 long:2 time:6 music:2 video:2 collaborator:2 richard:1 lowenstein:2 film:4 event:1 share:1 home:1 sam:1 sejavka:1 play:9 max:3 q:3 collaboration:2 post:1 punk:1 pioneer:1 ollie:1 olsen:1 percy:1 shelley:1 roger:1 corman:1 frankenstein:1 unbound:1 private:2 often:1 report:4 international:3 press:2 string:1 love:1 affair:2 prominent:1 actress:1 model:2 include:8 kym:2 wilson:3 helena:2 christensen:2 highly:1 publicize:1 relationship:3 kylie:2 minogue:2 help:1 transform:1 image:1 girl:1 next:1 door:1 hang:2 soap:1 opera:1 neighbour:1 fame:1 sexy:1 edgy:1 dance:1 orient:1 pop:1 diva:1 brief:1 berlin:1 lead:3 terri:1 nunn:1 supermodel:1 elle:1 macpherson:1 april:2 ashley:1 http:2 www:1 dailymail:1 uk:1 femail:1 article:2 prescott:1 woman:3 html:1 go:8 belinda:1 carlisle:1 x:2 spawn:1 suicide:6 blonde:1 disappear:1 bitter:2 tear:3 live:11 baby:4 welcome:2 wherever:2 little:3 chart:1 year:5 involve:1 altercation:1 taxi:1 driver:1 denmark:1 suffer:1 blow:2 head:3 consequently:1 lose:2 sense:2 smell:1 partially:1 taste:1 make:4 depressed:1 aggressive:1 accord:1 mate:2 pull:1 knife:1 threaten:1 kill:2 incident:1 occur:1 recording:1 full:2 moon:2 dirty:2 heart:2 later:4 spend:1 mid:1 try:3 develop:1 new:6 series:1 critically:1 acclaim:1 less:1 date:1 danish:1 start:1 paula:2 yates:9 meet:1 earlier:1 interview:2 still:1 marry:1 bob:4 geldof:10 discover:1 english:1 pressure:1 medium:1 intense:1 assault:1 photographer:1 hound:1 around:1 separation:1 husband:1 official:5 spark:1 custody:2 battle:2 three:2 daughter:4 fifi:1 trixibelle:1 peach:1 honeyblossom:1 pixie:2 give:1 birth:2 child:4 heavenly:2 hiraani:2 tiger:9 lily:5 claim:1 tv:2 death:13 deliver:1 bathroom:1 like:2 sister:4 christen:1 unusual:1 name:2 choose:4 call:6 since:4 describe:1 order:1 period:1 inactivity:1 receive:1 lukewarm:1 critical:1 review:1 record:6 produce:3 bruce:1 fairbairn:1 elegantly:3 waste:3 world:4 tour:9 final:1 leg:1 december:1 however:2 morning:1 find:5 dead:1 room:2 ritz:2 carlton:2 hotel:2 double:1 bay:1 stamford:2 plaza:1 belt:1 scene:2 suggest:2 die:4 coroner:3 south:2 wale:2 determine:1 result:2 analysis:1 witness:1 statement:1 lack:1 note:1 anecdotal:1 evidence:1 fact:1 nude:1 relative:2 may:1 autoerotic:1 asphyxiation:1 boyfriend:1 reyment:1 last:4 people:1 see:1 alive:2 coffin:1 carry:1 st:1 cathedral:1 member:3 young:2 rhett:3 never:4 u:2 apart:2 background:1 know:3 many:3 original:8 fan:3 anthem:1 nick:2 cave:3 arm:2 funeral:3 demand:1 television:2 camera:1 switch:2 performance:4 bono:12 good:3 stick:2 moment:2 get:6 interpret:1 intervention:1 development:2 september:1 rule:1 accidental:1 heroin:1 overdose:1 decide:1 melbourne:1 newspaper:1 august:1 disposition:1 estate:2 asset:2 estimate:1 million:3 remainder:2 sell:1 swallow:1 legal:1 fee:1 dollar:1 property:1 royalty:1 hold:1 vocal:2 trust:4 complex:1 arrangement:2 company:4 beneficiary:1 mr:1 fisher:2 man:4 set:3 state:1 use:1 structure:1 wealth:1 thieve:1 girlfriend:1 wife:1 others:1 link:2 scheme:1 tony:1 alford:1 gordon:1 paul:1 colin:1 diamond:1 financial:1 personal:1 credibility:1 question:1 solo:1 finally:1 day:3 prior:1 untimely:1 possibility:1 gaggle:1 andy:1 gill:1 gang:1 four:1 simenon:1 bomb:1 bass:1 danny:1 saber:1 black:1 grape:1 feature:3 duet:1 slide:2 away:2 actually:1 limp:1 also:5 cameo:1 r:1 show:5 look:2 succeed:1 air:1 cbs:1 star:2 winner:1 canadian:1 j:2 fortune:4 part:1 way:2 amidst:1 controversy:1 network:1 nationalpost:1 com:1 np:1 blog:1 theampersand:1 archive:1 fire:1 say:3 rep:1 aspx:1 announce:1 biopic:1 focus:1 plan:1 initially:1 morgan:1 freeman:1 production:2 revelation:1 shingle:1 producer:1 clark:1 westerman:1 rodney:1 project:1 back:1 sensation:1 anniversary:3 remain:1 create:3 tribute:11 page:1 website:3 leave:3 testimonial:1 bandmate:1 countless:1 throughout:2 cite:1 one:6 fine:1 true:1 ten:2 reveal:1 supreme:1 court:1 overturn:1 verdict:1 want:1 grow:1 think:1 father:2 intentionally:1 dispute:1 continue:1 legally:1 adopt:2 wish:1 mother:1 disagree:1 change:2 surname:1 tina:2 inform:1 niece:1 recognize:1 adoption:1 sir:1 formerly:1 demolish:1 story:1 skyscraper:1 discography:1 underneath:1 colour:1 inxslive:1 compilation:1 shabooh:1 shoobah:1 dekadance:1 swing:1 listen:1 thief:1 kick:2 wembley:1 stadium:1 self:1 title:2 short:1 soundtrack:8 speed:1 cold:1 chisel:1 forest:1 theme:1 freedom:1 motion:6 picture:7 reckless:1 soul:1 mistake:1 thing:1 sex:1 symbol:1 jungle:1 boy:2 flame:1 wot:1 pretty:1 pink:1 golf:1 course:1 green:1 dragon:1 memory:2 lay:1 law:1 jimmy:1 barnes:1 thumb:1 symphonic:1 rolling:1 stone:1 let:2 elvis:1 passenger:1 batman:1 forever:1 spill:1 wine:1 barb:1 wire:1 red:1 hill:1 voice:1 chage:1 aska:1 talk:1 tributes:1 sing:2 ballad:1 broadcast:1 respect:1 refuse:1 allow:1 televise:1 ever:1 behind:1 apparent:1 argument:1 convince:1 hutch:2 foolishness:1 characterize:1 old:1 row:1 felt:1 guilty:1 dedicate:6 emotional:1 popmart:2 mexico:1 city:1 intro:1 refers:1 great:2 track:1 hear:1 achtung:1 elevation:1 frequently:1 yell:1 beginning:1 vertigo:1 kiss:1 heaven:1 without:1 secret:1 gig:1 noise:1 session:1 islington:1 london:3 desire:1 lyric:4 verse:1 need:3 tonight:1 tenth:1 kind:1 le:2 bon:2 duran:6 best:1 wedding:1 eerily:1 prophetic:1 medazzaland:1 month:2 lot:2 answer:2 catch:1 somebody:1 war:1 come:1 intact:1 sure:1 remember:1 gonna:1 support:2 difficult:1 anymore:1 cut:1 subsequent:1 fall:1 screen:1 god:1 top:1 pay:2 another:1 afterglow:1 alone:1 powderfinger:1 internationalist:1 adelaide:1 mind:1 gloria:2 zealand:1 aftershows:1 indigo:1 earth:1 night:1 prince:1 maceo:1 parker:1 saxophone:1 commemorate:1 loss:1 reference:1 external:1 memorial:1 site:4 half:1 nation:1 wide:1 passing:1 pl:1 polish:1 grave:1 miss:1 satan:1 |@bigram singer_songwriter:1 hong_kong:1 percy_shelley:1 roger_corman:1 highly_publicize:1 kylie_minogue:2 soap_opera:1 pop_diva:1 http_www:1 www_dailymail:1 dailymail_co:1 taxi_driver:1 sense_smell:1 critically_acclaim:1 bob_geldof:3 tiger_lily:5 ritz_carlton:2 anecdotal_evidence:1 michael_hutchence:13 heroin_overdose:1 untimely_death:1 morgan_freeman:1 supreme_court:1 wembley_stadium:1 cold_chisel:1 motion_picture:6 pretty_pink:1 golf_course:1 rolling_stone:1 batman_forever:1 barb_wire:1 tenth_anniversary:1 le_bon:2 duran_duran:3 pay_tribute:2 maceo_parker:1 commemorate_anniversary:1 external_link:1 |
7,476 | Morocco | Morocco ( al-Maġrib), officially the Kingdom of Morocco Conventional long form: Kingdom of Morocco - Conventional short form: Morocco - Local long form: al-Mamlakah al-Maġribiyya - Local short form: al-Maġrib - CIA World Factbook (), is a country located in North Africa with a population of nearly 32 million and an area just under 447,000 km2. The capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca. It has a coast on the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. Morocco has international borders with Algeria to the east, Spain to the north (a water border through the Strait and land borders with two small Spanish autonomous cities, Ceuta and Melilla), and Mauritania to the south via its Western Saharan territories. Pending resolution of the Western Sahara conflict. Morocco is the only country in Africa that is not currently a member of the African Union. However, it is a member of the Arab League, Arab Maghreb Union, Francophonie, Organisation of the Islamic Conference, Mediterranean Dialogue group, and Group of 77. It is also a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Name The full Arabic name al-Mamlaka al-Maġribiyya translates to "The Western Kingdom." Al-Maġrib (meaning "The West") is commonly used. For historical references, medieval Arab historians and geographers used to refer to Morocco as Al-Maghrib al Aqşá ("The Farthest West"), disambiguating it from neighboring historical regions called al-Maghrib al Awsat ("The Middle West", Algeria) and al-Maghrib al Adna ("The Nearest West", Tunisia). The Latinized name "Morocco" originates from medieval Latin "Morroch," which referred to the name of the former Almoravid and Almohad capital, Marrakech. The Persians straightforwardly call it "Marrakech" while the Turks call it "Fas" which comes from the ancient Idrisid and Marinid capital, Fès. The word "Marrakech" is presumably derived from the Berber word Mur-Akush, meaning Land of God. History Berber Morocco The area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since Neolithic times (at least since 8000 BC, as attested by signs of the Capsian culture), a period when the Maghreb was less arid than it is today. Many theorists believe the Amazigh people, commonly referred to as Berbers or by their regional ethnic identity (e.g. Chleuh), probably arrived at roughly the same time as the inception of agriculture in the region. In the classical period, Morocco was known as Mauretania, although this should not be confused with the modern-day country of Mauritania. Roman and pre-Roman Morocco A Roman mosaic in Volubilis. North Africa and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging Mediterranean world by Phoenician trading colonies and settlements in the early Classical period. The arrival of Phoenicians heralded a long engagement with the wider Mediterranean, as this strategic region formed part of the Roman Empire, as Mauretania Tingitana. In the fifth century, as the Roman Empire declined, the region fell to the Vandals, Visigoths, and then Byzantine Greeks in rapid succession. During this time, however, the high mountains of most of modern Morocco remained unsubdued, and stayed in the hands of their Berber inhabitants. Medieval Morocco By the seventh century, Islamic expansion was at its greatest. In 670 AD, the first Islamic conquest of the North African coastal plain took place under Uqba ibn Nafi, a general serving under the Umayyads of Damascus. His delegates went to what is now Morocco, which he called "Maghreb al Aqsa" or "The Far West," in the year 683. The delegates supported the assimilation process that took about a century. What became modern Morocco in the seventh century, was an area of Berbers influenced by the Arabs, who brought their customs, culture, and Islam, to which most of the Berbers converted, forming states and kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Nekor and Barghawata, sometimes after long-running series of civil wars. Under Idris ibn Abdallah who founded the Idrisid Dynasty, the country soon cut ties and broke away from the control of the distant Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad and the Umayyad rule in Al-Andalus. The Idrisids established Fes as their capital and Morocco became a centre of learning and a major regional power. High Atlas, Boumalne du Dades. After the reign of the Idrisids, Arab settlers lost political control in the region of Morocco. After adopting Islam, Berber dynasties formed governments and reigned over the country. Morocco would reach its height under these Berber dynasties that replaced the Arab Idrisids after the 11th century. The Maghrib under the Almoravids and the Almohads, Encyclopædia Britannica. The Almoravids, the Almohads, then the Marinid and finally the Saadi dynasties would see Morocco rule most of Northwest Africa, as well as large sections of Islamic Iberia, or Al-Andalus. Alaouite Dynasty 1666–1912 The last page of 1786 treaty of friendship. sealed by Mohammed III of Morocco, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. After the Saadi, the Arab Alaouite Dynasty eventually gained control. Morocco was facing aggression from Spain and the Ottoman Empire that was sweeping westward. The Alaouites succeeded in stabilizing their position, and while the kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy. In 1684, they annexed Tangier. The organization of the kingdom developed under Ismail Ibn Sharif, who, against the opposition of local tribes began to create a unified state. Morocco was the first nation to recognize the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777. In the beginning of the American Revolution, American merchant ships were subject to attack by the Barbary Pirates while sailing the Atlantic Ocean. At this time, American envoys tried to obtain protection from European powers, but to no avail. On December 20, 1777, Morocco's Sultan Mohammed III declared that the American merchant ships would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as the U.S.'s oldest non-broken friendship treaty. Negotiated by Thomas Barclay and signed by John Adams and Thomas Jefferson in 1786, it has been in continuous effect since its ratification by Congress in July 1787. Roberts, Priscilla H. and Richard S. Roberts, Thomas Barclay (1728-1793: Consul in France, Diplomat in Barbary, Lehigh University Press, 2008, pp. 206-223. Following the re-organization of the U.S. federal government upon the 1787 Constitution, President George Washington wrote a now venerated letter to the Sultan Sidi Mohamed strengthening the ties between the two countries. The United States legation (consulate) in Tangier is the first property the American government ever owned abroad. The building now houses the Tangier American Legation Museum. European influence The French artillery at Rabat in 1911 Successful Portuguese efforts to invade and control the Atlantic coast in the fifteenth century did not profoundly affect the Mediterranean heart of Morocco. After the Napoleonic Wars, Egypt and the North African maghreb became increasingly ungovernable from Istanbul, the resort of pirates under local beys, and as Europe industrialized, an increasingly prized potential for colonization. The Maghreb had far greater proven wealth than the unknown rest of Africa and a location of strategic importance affecting the exit from the Mediterranean. For the first time, Morocco became a state of some interest in itself to the European Powers. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830. Pennell, C.R. (2000). Morocco since 1830: A History. New York, New York University Press, pg. 40. Recognition by the United Kingdom in 1904 of France's sphere of influence in Morocco provoked a reaction from the German Empire; the crisis of June 1905 was resolved at the Algeciras Conference, Spain in 1906, which formalized France's "special position" and entrusted policing of Morocco to France and Spain jointly. A second Moroccan crisis provoked by Berlin, increased tensions between European powers. The Treaty of Fez (signed on March 30, 1912) made Morocco a protectorate of France. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern and southern Saharan zones on November 27 that year. Many Moroccan soldiers (Goumieres) served in the French army in both World War I and World War II, and in the Spanish Nationalist Army in the Spanish Civil War and after (Regulares). Resistance Nationalist political parties, which subsequently arose under the French protectorate, based their arguments for Moroccan independence on such World War II declarations as the Atlantic Charter (a joint U.S.-British statement that set forth, among other things, the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they live). A manifesto of the Istiqlal Party (Independence party in English) in 1944 was one of the earliest public demands for independence. That party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement. France's exile of Sultan Mohammed V in 1953 to Madagascar and his replacement by the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa, whose reign was perceived as illegitimate, sparked active opposition to the French protectorate all over the country. The most notable occurred in Oujda where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents in the streets. Operations by the newly created "Jaish al-tahrir" (Liberation Army), were launched on October 1, 1955. Jaish al-tahrir was created by "Comité de Libération du Maghreb Arabe" (Arab Maghreb Liberation Committee) in Cairo, Egypt to constitute a resistance movement against occupation. Its goal was the return of King Mohammed V and the liberation of Algeria and Tunisia as well. France allowed Mohammed V to return in 1955, and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year. All those events helped increase the degree of solidarity between the people and the newly returned king. For this reason, the revolution that Morocco knew was called "Taourat al-malik wa shaab" (The revolution of the King and the People) and it is celebrated every August 20. Modern Morocco On November 18, 2006, Morocco celebrated the 50th anniversary of its independence. Morocco recovered its political independence from France on March 2, 1956, and on April 7, France officially relinquished its protectorate. Through agreements with Spain in 1956 and 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas was restored, though attempts to claim other Spanish colonial possessions through military action were less successful. The internationalized city of Tangier was reintegrated with the signing of the Tangier Protocol on October 29, 1956 (see Tangier Crisis). Hassan II became King of Morocco on March 3, 1961. His early years of rule would be marked by political unrest. The Spanish enclave of Ifni in the south was reintegrated to the country in 1969. Morocco annexed the Western Sahara during the 1970s after demanding its reintegration from Spain since independence, but final resolution on the status of the territory remains unresolved. (See History of Western Sahara.) Political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in 1997. Morocco was granted Major non-NATO ally status by the United States in June 2004 and has signed free trade agreements with the United States and the European Union. Politics King Mohammed VI: The current King of Morocco. Morocco is a de jure constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco, with vast executive powers, can dissolve government and deploy the military, among other prerogatives. Opposition political parties are legal, and several have been formed in recent years. Human rights and reforms Morocco's history after independence and at the beginning of the reign of Hassan II was marked by a period of political tensions between the monarchy and opposition parties. Those years of tension are labeled by the opposition as the Years of Lead. Politically-motivated persecutions were common, especially when General Oufkir became responsible for home security. However, during the last decade of the rule of King Hassan II, especially under the reign of Mohammed VI and with the launch of the Equity and Reconciliation Commission (IER) to investigate abuses committed in the name of the state, Morocco is trying to reconciliate with the victims. Many new laws and codes concerning all aspects of life are being or have been passed, most notable of which was the creation of the Mudawana — a family code which represented the first unique initiative of its kind in the Arab and Muslim world. The code gives women more rights. Other issues such as the abolition of capital punishment and the reform of the Moroccan nationality law are being debated. The Moroccan parliament is due to vote on these issues in spring 2007. The 2003 Casablanca bombings and the need to fight the terrorist threat have led the government to pass a controversial anti-terrorism law that cracked down on terror suspects. Moroccan and international organizations continue to criticize the human rights situation in Morocco, mainly the arrests of suspected Islamist extremists during 2004 and 2005 in relation to the 2003 Casablanca bombings, and in Western Sahara. Human rights overview on Morocco, HRW. In mid-February 2007, a study published by the Center for Strategic and International Studies called "Arab Reform and Foreign Aid: Lessons from Morocco" concluded that Morocco provides a valuable lesson in political and economic reform, which others in the Arab world can draw on and that the Moroccan model confirms that it is possible to adopt both forms of reform simultaneously. - Center for Strategic and International Studies by Haim Malka and John Alterman Regions and prefectures Different versions of maps of Morocco. Morocco is divided into 16 regions, Regions of Morocco, statoids.com and subdivided into 62 prefectures and provinces. Regions of Morocco, statoids.com As part of a 1997 decentralization/regionalization law passed by the legislature, sixteen new regions were created. These regions are: Western Sahara status Because of the conflict over Western Sahara, the status of both regions of "Saguia el-Hamra" and "Río de Oro" is disputed. The government of Morocco has suggested that a self-governing entity, through the Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), should govern the territory with some degree of autonomy for Western Sahara. The project was presented to the United Nations Security Council in mid-April 2007. The stalemating of the Moroccan proposal options has led the UN in the recent "Report of the UN Secretary-General" to ask the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution. The autonomy is rejected by the group Polisario which fought against the Spanish colonial rule and now for the Western Sahara decolonization with the name of Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Geography See also List of cities in Morocco and Western Sahara At 172,402 sq.mi (446,550 km²), Morocco is the fifty-seventh largest country in the world (after Uzbekistan). It is comparable in size to Iraq, and is somewhat larger than the US state of California. A dune in Morocco. Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast though the border between the two countries has been closed since 1994. There are also four Spanish enclaves on the Mediterranean coast: Ceuta, Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, Peñón de Alhucemas, and the Chafarinas islands, as well as the disputed islet Perejil. Off the Atlantic coast the Canary Islands belong to Spain, whereas Madeira to the north is Portuguese. To the north, Morocco is bordered by and controls part of the Strait of Gibraltar, giving it power over the waterways in and out of the Mediterranean sea. The Rif mountains occupy the region bordering the Mediterranean from the north-west to the north-east. The Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country, from the south west to the north east. Most of the south east portion of the country is in the Sahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, while to the south is the desert. To the south, lies the Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony that was annexed by Morocco in 1975 (see Green March). Morocco claims that the Western Sahara is part of its territory and refers to that as its Southern Provinces. Morocco's capital city is Rabat; its largest city is its main port, Casablanca. Other cities include Agadir, Essaouira, Fes, Marrakech, Meknes, Mohammadia, Oujda, Ouarzazat, Safi, Salè, Tangier and Tétouan. Satellite image of a dust plume off the coast of Morocco. Climate The climate is Mediterranean, which becomes more extreme towards the interior regions where it is mountainous. The terrain is such that the coastal plains are rich and accordingly, they comprise the backbone for agriculture. Forests cover about 12% of the land while arable land accounts for 18%. 5% is irrigated. Wildlife Morocco is known for its wildlife biodiversity. Birds represent the most important fauna. The avifauna of Morocco includes a total of 454 species, of which five have been introduced by humans, and 156 are rare or accidental. Bergier, P., & Thévenot, M. (2006). Liste des oiseaux du Maroc / The List of the Birds of Morocco. Go-South Bull. 3: 51-83. Available online. Encoding Morocco is represented in the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 geographical encoding standard by the symbol MA. This code was used as the basis for Morocco's internet domain, .ma. Economy Casablanca Twin Center. Morocco's economy is considered a relatively liberal economy governed by the law of supply and demand. Since 1993, the country has followed a policy of privatization of certain economic sectors which used to be in the hands of the government. Tough government reforms and steady yearly growth in the region of 4-5% from 2000 to 2007, including 4.9% year-on-year growth in 2003-2007 the Moroccan economy is much more robust than just a few years ago. Economic growth is far more diversified, with new service and industrial poles, like Casablanca and Tangier, developing. The agriculture sector is being rehabilitated, which in combination with good rainfalls led to a growth of over 20% in 2009. The services sector accounts for just over half of GDP and industry, made up of mining, construction and manufacturing, is an additional quarter. The sectors who recorded the highest growth are the tourism, telecoms and textile sectors. Morocco , however, still depends to an inordinate degree on agriculture. The sector accounts for only around 14% of GDP but employs 40-45% of the Moroccan population. With a semi-arid climate, it is difficult to assure good rainfall and Morocco’s GDP varies depending on the weather. Fiscal prudence has allowed for consolidation, with both the budget deficit and debt falling as a percentage of GDP. The economic system of the country presents several facets. It is characterized by a large opening towards the outside world. France remains the primary trade partner (supplier and customer) of Morocco. France is also the primary creditor and foreign investor in Morocco. In the Arab world, Morocco has the second-largest non-oil GDP, behind Egypt, as of 2005. Since the early 1980s the Moroccan government has pursued an economic program toward accelerating real economy growth with the support of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the Paris Club of creditors. The country's currency, the dirham, is now fully convertible for current account transactions; reforms of the financial sector have been implemented; and state enterprises are being privatized. The major resources of the Moroccan economy are agriculture, phosphates, and tourism. Sales of fish and seafood are important as well. Industry and mining contribute about one-third of the annual GDP. Morocco is the world's third-largest producer of phosphates (after the United States and China), and the price fluctuations of phosphates on the international market greatly influence Morocco's economy. Tourism and workers' remittances have played a critical role since independence. The production of textiles and clothing is part of a growing manufacturing sector that accounted for approximately 34% of total exports in 2002, employing 40% of the industrial workforce. The government wishes to increase textile and clothing exports from $1.27 billion in 2001 to $3.29 billion in 2010. The high cost of imports, especially of petroleum imports, is a major problem. Another chronic problem is unreliable rainfall, which produces drought or sudden floods; in 1995, the country's worst drought in 30 years forced Morocco to import grain and adversely affected the economy. Another drought occurred in 1997, and one in 1999–2000. Reduced incomes due to drought caused GDP to fall by 7.6% in 1995, by 2.3% in 1997, and by 1.5% in 1999. During the years between drought, good rains brought bumper crops to market. Good rainfall in 2001 led to a 5% GDP growth rate. Morocco suffers both from unemployment (9.6% in 2008), and a large external debt estimated at around $20 billion, or half of GDP in 2002. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Morocco-ECONOMY.html Among the various free trade agreements that Morocco has ratified with its principal economic partners, are The Euro-Mediterranean free trade area agreement with the European Union with the objective of integrating the European Free Trade Association at the horizons of 2012; the Agadir Agreement, signed with Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia, within the framework of the installation of the Greater Arab Free Trade Area; the US-Morocco Free Trade Agreement with United States which came into force in January 1 2006 and lately the agreement of free exchange with Turkey.(See Economy of Morocco) Demographics Ethnolinguistic groups in Morocco. Morocco is the third most populous Arab country, after Egypt and Sudan. The CIA Fact book Most Moroccans are Sunni Muslims of Berber, Arab or mixed Arab-Berber stock. There is no significant genetic difference between Moroccan Arabs and Moroccan non-Arabs (i.e. Berbers). Thus, it is likely that Arabization was mainly a cultural process without significant genetic replacement. However, according to the European Journal of Human Genetics, North-Western Africans were genetically closer to Iberians and to other Europeans than to Sub-Saharan Africans. European Journal of Human Genetics (2000) 8, 360–366 Morocco has been inhabited by Berbers since at least 5000 years ago. The Arabs conquered the territory that would become Morocco in the 7th and 11th centuries, at the time under the rule of various late Byzantine Roman princips and indigenous Berber and Romano-Berber principalities, laying the foundation for the emergence of an Arab-Berber culture. A portion of the population is identified as Haratin and Gnaoua, black or highly mixed race Moroccans. Morocco's Jewish minority has decreased significantly and numbers about 7,000 (See History of the Jews in Morocco). Most of the 100,000 foreign residents are French or Spanish, largely professionals working for European multinationals or descendants of colonists. Prior to independence, Morocco was home to half a million Europeans, History of Morocco, historyworld.net mainly Spanish and French settlers (colons). Recent studies make clear no significant genetic differences exist between Arabic and non-Arabic speaking populations, highlighting that in common with most of the Arab World, Arabization was mainly via acculturation of indigenous populations over time. According to the European Journal of Human Genetics, Moroccans from North-Western Africa were genetically closer to Iberians than to Sub-Saharan Africans of Bantu ethnicity. European Journal of Human Genetics (2000) 8, 360–366 . Languages Morocco's official language is classical Arabic. The country's distinctive Arabic dialect is called Moroccan Arabic. Approximately 12 million (40% of the population), mostly in rural areas, speak Berber which exists in Morocco in three different dialects (Tarifit, Tashelhiyt, and Tamazight) either as a first language or bilingually with the spoken Arabic dialect. Berber (people) Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 French, which remains Morocco's unofficial second language, is taught universally and still serves as Morocco's primary language of commerce and economics. It also is widely used in education and government. About 20,000 Moroccans in the northern part of the country speak Spanish as a second language in parallel with Tarifit. English, while still far behind French and Spanish in terms of number of speakers, is rapidly becoming the second foreign language of choice among educated youth (after French). As a result of national education reforms entering into force in late 2002, English will be taught in all public schools from the fourth year on. French however, will remain the second foreign language because of Morocco's close economic and social links with other French-speaking countries and especially France. Most people live west of the Atlas Mountains, a range that insulates the country from the Sahara Desert. Casablanca is the center of commerce and industry and the leading port; Rabat is the seat of government; Tangier is the gateway to Morocco from Spain and also a major port; Fez is the cultural and religious center; and Marrakech is a major tourist center. The Kasbah of Aït Benhaddou, High Atlas. There is a European expatriate population of 100,000, mainly of French or Spanish descent; many are teachers or technicians and more and more retirees, especially in Marrakech. Culture A view of King Hassan II Mosque. Morocco is an ethnically diverse country with a rich culture and civilization. Through Moroccan history, Morocco hosted many people coming from East (Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Jews and Arabs), South (Sub-Saharan Africans) and North (Romans, Vandals, Andalusians (including Moors and Jews)). All those civilizations have had an impact on the social structure of Morocco. It conceived various forms of beliefs, from paganism, Judaism, and Christianity to Islam. The production of Moroccan literature has continued to grow and diversify. To the traditional genres—poetry, essays, and historiography—have been added forms inspired by Middle Eastern and Western literary models. French is often used in publishing research in the social and natural sciences, and in the fields of literature and literary studies, works are published in both Arabic and French. Moroccan writers, such as Mohammed Choukri, Driss Chraïbi, Abdallah Laroui, Abdelfattah Kilito, and Fatima Mernissi, publish their works in both French and English. Expatriate writers such as Pierre Loti, William S. Burroughs, and Paul Bowles have drawn attention to Moroccan writers as well as to the country itself. Since independence a veritable blossoming has taken place in painting and sculpture, popular music, amateur theatre, and filmmaking. The Moroccan National Theatre (founded 1956) offers regular productions of Moroccan and French dramatic works. Art and music festivals take place throughout the country during the summer months, among them the World Sacred Music Festival at Fès. Moroccan music, influenced by Arab, Amazigh, African, and Andalusian traditions, makes use of a number of traditional instruments, such as the flute (nāy), shawm (ghaita), zither (qanūn), and various short necked lutes (including the ʿūd and gimbrī). These are often backed by explosive percussion on the darbūkka (terra-cotta drum). Among the most popular traditional Moroccan artists internationally are the Master Musicians of Jajouka, an all-male guild trained from childhood, and Hassan Hakmoun, a master of gnāwa trance music, a popular spiritual style that traces its roots to sub-Saharan Africa. Younger Moroccans enjoy raï, a style of plain-speaking Algerian music that incorporates traditional sounds with those of Western rock, Jamaican reggae, and Egyptian and Moroccan popular music. Each region possesses its own specificities, thus contributing to the national culture and to the legacy of civilization. Morocco has set among its top priorities the protection of its diverse legacy and the preservation of its cultural heritage. Culturally speaking, Morocco has always been successful in combining its Berber, Jewish and Arabic cultural heritage with external influences such as the French and the Spanish and, during the last decades, the Anglo-American lifestyles. Cuisine Spices at central market in Agadir Moroccan cuisine has long been considered as one of the most diversified cuisines in the world. This is a result of the centuries-long interaction of Morocco with the outside world. The cuisine of Morocco is a mix of Berber, Spanish, Corsican, Portuguese, Moorish, Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, and African cuisines. The cuisine of Morocco has been influenced by the native Berber cuisine, the Arabic Andalusian cuisine brought by the Moriscos when they left Spain, the Turkish cuisine from the Turks and the Middle Eastern cuisines brought by the Arabs, as well as Jewish cuisine. Spices are used extensively in Moroccan food. While spices have been imported to Morocco for thousands of years, many ingredients, like saffron from Tiliouine, mint and olives from Meknes, and oranges and lemons from Fez, are home-grown. Chicken is the most widely eaten meat in Morocco. The most commonly eaten red meat in Morocco is beef; lamb is preferred, but is relatively expensive. Couscous is the most famous Moroccan dish along with pastilla, tajine, and harira. The most popular drink is green tea with mint. The tea is accompanied with hard sugar cones or lumps. Literature Moroccan literature is written in Arabic, Berber and French. It also contains literature produced in Al-Andalus. Under the Almohad dynasty Morocco experienced a period of prosperity and brilliance of learning. The Almohad built the Marrakech Koutoubia Mosque, which accommodated no fewer than 25,000 people, but was also famed for its books, manuscripts, libraries and book shops, which gave it its name; the first book bazaar in history. The Almohad Caliph Abu Yakub had a great love for collecting books. He founded a great library, which was eventually carried to the Casbah and turned into a public library. Modern Moroccan literature began in the 1930s. Two main factors gave Morocco a pulse toward witnessing the birth of a modern literature. Morocco, as a French and Spanish protectorate left Moroccan intellectuals the opportunity to exchange and to produce literary works freely enjoying the contact of other Arabic literature and Europe. During the 1950s and 1960s, Morocco was a refuge and artistic centre and attracted writers as Paul Bowles, Tennessee Williams and William S. Burroughs. Moroccan literature flourished with novelists such as Mohamed Zafzaf and Mohamed Choukri, who wrote in Arabic, and Driss Chraïbi and Tahar Ben Jelloun who wrote in French. Other important Moroccan authors include, Abdellatif Laabi,Abdelkarim Ghellab, Fouad Laroui, Mohammed Berrada and Leila Abouzeid. It should be noted also, that orature (oral literature) is an integral part of Moroccan culture, be it in Moroccan Arabic or Amazigh. Music Moroccan music is predominantly of Arab origins. There also exist other varieties of Berber folk music. Andalusian and other imported influences have had a major effect on the country's musical character. Rock-influenced chabbi bands are widespread, as is trance music with historical origins in Muslim music. Morocco is home to Andalusian classical music that is found throughout North Africa. It probably evolved under the Moors in Cordoba, and the Persian-born musician Ziryab is usually credited with its invention. Chaabi (popular) is a music consisting of numerous varieties which are descended from the multifarious forms of Moroccan folk music. Chaabi was originally performed in markets, but is now found at any celebration or meeting. Popular Western forms of music are becoming increasingly popular in Morocco, such as fusion, rock, country, metal and particularly hip hop. Transport Military Moroccan Navy Floreal class frigate Military service lasts for 18 months in Morocco, and the country’s reserve obligation lasts until age 50. The country’s military consists of the Royal Armed Forces—this includes the army (the largest branch) and a small navy and air force—the National Police Force, the Royal Gendarmerie (mainly responsible for rural security), and the Auxiliary Forces. Internal security is generally effective, and acts of political violence are rare (one exception, a terrorist bombing in May 2003 in Casablanca, killed scores). The UN maintains a small observer force in Western Sahara, where a large number of Morocco’s troops are stationed. The Saharawi group Polisario maintains an active militia of an estimated 5,000 fighters in Western Sahara and has engaged in intermittent warfare with Moroccan forces since the 1980s. The military of Morocco is composed of the following main divisions: Royal Armed Forces Army Navy Air Force Gendarmerie Auxiliary Forces Moroccan Royal Guard Marche Verte Education Education in Morocco is free and compulsory through primary school (age 15). Nevertheless, many children particularly girls in rural areas still do not attend school. The country's illiteracy rate has been stuck at around 50% for some years, but reaches as high as 90% among girls in rural regions. On September 2006, UNESCO awarded Morocco amongst other countries; Cuba, Pakistan, Rajasthan (India) and Turkey the "UNESCO 2006 Literacy Prize". Morocco has about 230,000 students enrolled in fourteen public universities. The Mohammed V University in Rabat and Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane (a private university) are highly regarded. Al-Akhawayn, founded in 1993 by King Hassan II and King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, is an English-language American-style university comprising about 1,000 students. The University of Al Karaouine, in Fez, is considered the oldest continuously operating university in the world and has been a center of learning for more than 1,000 years. Morocco allocates approximately one-fifth of its budget to education. Much of this is spent on building schools to accommodate the rapidly growing population. Education is mandatory for children between the ages of 7 and 13 years. In urban areas the majority of children in this age group attend school, though on a national scale the level of participation drops significantly. About three-fourths of school-age males attend school, but only about half of school-age girls; these proportions drop markedly in rural areas. Slightly more than half of the children go on to secondary education, including trade and technical schools. Of these, few seek higher education. Poor school attendance, particularly in rural areas, has meant a low rate of literacy, which is about two-fifths of the population. Universities Morocco has more than four dozen universities, institutes of higher learning, and polytechnics dispersed at urban centres throughout the country. Its leading institutions include Muḥammad V University in Rabat, the country’s largest university, with branches in Casablanca and Fès; the Hassan II Agriculture and Veterinary Institute in Rabat, which conducts leading social science research in addition to its agricultural specialties; and Al-Akhawayn University in Ifrane, the first private English-language university in North Africa, inaugurated in 1995 with contributions from Saudi Arabia and the United States. List of universities in Morocco Abdelmalek Essaâdi University , Tétouan - Tanger Al Akhawayn University, Ifrane Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech Chouaib Doukkali University , El Jadida Hassan II Ain Chok University , Casablanca Hassan II Mohammedia University , Mohammedia Hassan Premier University , Settat Ibn Tofail University , Kenitra Ibnou Zohr University , Agadir Institute of Management and Business Technology (IMBT) in Rabat Mohamed Premier University , Oujda Mohammed V University, Rabat Mohammed V University at Agdal, Rabat Mohammed V University at Souissi, Rabat Moulay Ismail University , Meknès Sidi Mohamed Benabdellah University , Fez University of Al Karaouine, Fes Université Moulay Slimane (formerly called Cadi Ayyad University until late 2007), Beni Mellal Sport Spectator sports in Morocco traditionally centred on the art of horsemanship until European sports—football (soccer), polo, swimming, and tennis—were introduced at the end of the 19th century. Football is the country’s premier sport, popular among the urban youth in particular, and in 1970 Morocco became the first African country to play in World Cup competition. At the 1984 Olympic Games, two Moroccans won gold medals in track and field events, one of whom—Nawal El Moutawakel in the 400 metre hurdles—was the first woman from an Arab or Islamic country to win an Olympic gold medal. Tennis and golf have also become popular. Several Moroccan professional players have competed in international competition, and the country fielded its first Davis Cup team in 1999. As of 2007, Moroccan society participated in many sports, including handball, football, golf, tennis, basketball, and athletics. Hicham El Guerrouj, a retired middle distance runner for Morocco, won 2 gold medals for Morocco at the Athletics at the 2004 Summer Olympics. International rankings The 2002 Reporters Without Borders' worldwide press freedom index ranked Morocco 119th out of 167 countries. The Economist''''s ranked Morocco 65th out of 111 countries. Affiliations OrganizationDates United Nations since November 12, 1956 Arab League since October 1, 1958 International Olympic Committee since 1959 Organisation of African Unity co-founder May 25, 1963; withdrew November 12, 1984 Group of 77 since June 15, 1964 Organisation of the Islamic Conference since September 22, 1969 World Trade Organization since January 1, 1995 Mediterranean Dialogue group since February 1995 Major non-NATO ally of the United States since January 19, 2004 Bilateral and multilateral agreements Council of Arab Economic Unity Middle East Free Trade Area General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Euro-Mediterranean free trade area US-Morocco Free Trade Agreement See also List of Morocco-related topics Shiite Tide, as one of the issues that led Morocco to cut diplomatic relations with Iran in 03/2009. Notes and references External links Government Kingdom of Morocco (official portal) Parliament of Morocco (official site) Public Services Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Morocco from Encyclopaedia Britannica Morocco from UCB Libraries GovPubs Morocco timeline from Worldstatesmen Morocco Web Directory from SybSearch'' News media Maghreb Arabe Presse government news agency Tourism be-x-old:Марока | Morocco |@lemmatized morocco:136 al:26 maġrib:3 officially:2 kingdom:9 conventional:2 long:6 form:14 short:3 local:4 mamlakah:1 maġribiyya:2 cia:2 world:19 factbook:1 country:38 locate:1 north:16 africa:10 population:10 nearly:1 million:3 area:13 capital:6 rabat:11 large:12 city:7 casablanca:10 coast:5 atlantic:5 ocean:2 reach:4 past:1 strait:3 gibraltar:2 mediterranean:14 sea:2 international:9 border:8 algeria:4 east:7 spain:10 water:1 land:4 two:6 small:4 spanish:17 autonomous:1 ceuta:2 melilla:2 mauritania:2 south:8 via:2 western:20 saharan:7 territory:5 pending:1 resolution:2 sahara:15 conflict:2 currently:1 member:3 african:11 union:4 however:6 arab:29 league:2 maghreb:8 francophonie:1 organisation:3 islamic:6 conference:3 dialogue:2 group:8 also:12 major:9 non:7 nato:3 ally:3 united:12 state:16 name:7 full:1 arabic:14 mamlaka:1 translate:1 mean:3 west:8 commonly:3 use:8 historical:3 reference:2 medieval:3 historian:1 geographer:1 refer:3 maghrib:4 aqşá:1 farthest:1 disambiguate:1 neighbor:1 region:18 call:8 awsat:1 middle:6 adna:1 near:1 tunisia:3 latinize:1 originate:1 latin:1 morroch:1 former:2 almoravid:3 almohad:4 marrakech:8 persian:2 straightforwardly:1 turk:2 fas:1 come:3 ancient:1 idrisid:2 marinid:2 fès:3 word:2 presumably:1 derive:1 berber:22 mur:1 akush:1 god:1 history:8 present:3 day:2 inhabit:2 since:20 neolithic:1 time:7 least:2 bc:1 attest:1 sign:5 capsian:1 culture:7 period:5 less:2 arid:2 today:1 many:8 theorist:1 believe:1 amazigh:3 people:8 regional:2 ethnic:1 identity:1 e:2 g:1 chleuh:1 probably:2 arrive:1 roughly:1 inception:1 agriculture:6 classical:4 know:2 mauretania:2 although:1 confuse:1 modern:6 roman:7 pre:1 mosaic:1 volubilis:1 slowly:1 draw:3 wider:2 emerge:1 phoenician:3 trading:1 colony:2 settlement:1 early:5 arrival:1 herald:1 engagement:1 strategic:4 part:7 empire:4 tingitana:1 fifth:3 century:9 decline:1 fell:1 vandal:2 visigoth:1 byzantine:2 greek:1 rapid:1 succession:1 high:8 mountain:3 remain:6 unsubdued:1 stay:1 hand:2 inhabitant:1 seventh:3 expansion:1 great:5 ad:1 first:11 conquest:1 coastal:2 plain:3 take:4 place:3 uqba:1 ibn:4 nafi:1 general:5 serving:1 umayyad:2 damascus:1 delegate:2 go:3 aqsa:1 far:4 year:18 support:2 assimilation:1 process:2 become:12 influence:8 bring:4 custom:1 islam:3 convert:1 nekor:1 barghawata:1 sometimes:1 run:2 series:1 civil:2 war:6 idris:1 abdallah:2 found:3 dynasty:7 soon:1 cut:2 tie:2 break:1 away:1 control:6 distant:1 abbasid:1 caliph:2 baghdad:1 rule:7 andalus:3 idrisids:3 establish:1 fes:3 centre:4 learning:2 power:7 atlas:4 boumalne:1 du:3 dades:1 reign:5 settler:2 lose:1 political:10 adopt:2 government:15 would:5 height:1 replace:1 almohads:2 encyclopædia:1 britannica:2 finally:1 saadi:2 see:8 northwest:1 well:6 section:1 iberia:1 alaouite:2 last:5 page:1 treaty:5 friendship:3 seal:1 mohammed:14 iii:2 thomas:4 jefferson:2 john:3 adam:2 eventually:2 gain:1 face:1 aggression:1 ottoman:1 sweep:1 westward:1 alaouites:1 succeed:1 stabilize:1 position:2 previous:1 one:9 quite:1 wealthy:1 annex:3 tangier:6 organization:4 develop:2 ismail:2 sharif:1 opposition:5 tribe:1 begin:3 create:4 unified:1 nation:4 recognize:1 fledgling:1 independent:1 beginning:2 american:9 revolution:3 merchant:2 ship:2 subject:1 attack:2 barbary:2 pirate:2 sail:1 envoy:1 try:2 obtain:1 protection:3 european:17 avail:1 december:1 sultan:3 declare:1 sultanate:1 could:1 thus:3 enjoy:3 safe:1 passage:1 moroccan:51 stand:1 u:6 old:3 broken:1 negotiate:1 barclay:2 continuous:1 effect:2 ratification:1 congress:1 july:1 robert:2 priscilla:1 h:1 richard:1 consul:1 france:13 diplomat:1 lehigh:1 university:33 press:3 pp:1 follow:2 federal:1 upon:1 constitution:1 president:1 george:1 washington:1 write:4 venerated:1 letter:1 sidi:2 mohamed:5 strengthen:1 legation:2 consulate:1 property:1 ever:1 abroad:1 building:2 house:1 tangy:3 museum:1 french:21 artillery:1 successful:3 portuguese:3 effort:1 invade:1 fifteenth:1 profoundly:1 affect:3 heart:1 napoleonic:1 egypt:5 increasingly:3 ungovernable:1 istanbul:1 resort:1 bey:1 europe:2 industrialize:1 prized:1 potential:1 colonization:1 proven:1 wealth:1 unknown:1 rest:1 location:1 importance:1 exit:1 interest:2 show:1 strong:1 pennell:1 c:1 r:1 new:5 york:2 pg:1 recognition:1 sphere:1 provoke:2 reaction:1 german:1 crisis:3 june:3 resolve:1 algeciras:1 formalize:1 special:1 entrust:1 policing:1 jointly:1 second:6 berlin:1 increase:3 tension:3 fez:5 march:4 make:4 protectorate:5 assume:1 role:2 protect:1 northern:2 southern:2 zone:1 november:4 soldier:1 goumieres:1 serve:2 army:5 ii:10 nationalist:3 regulares:1 resistance:2 party:7 subsequently:2 arise:1 base:1 argument:1 independence:11 declaration:1 charter:1 joint:1 british:1 statement:1 set:2 forth:1 among:9 thing:1 right:5 choose:1 live:3 manifesto:1 istiqlal:1 english:6 public:5 demand:3 provide:2 leadership:1 movement:2 exile:1 v:8 madagascar:1 replacement:2 unpopular:1 ben:2 aarafa:1 whose:1 perceive:1 illegitimate:1 spark:1 active:2 notable:2 occur:2 oujda:3 resident:2 street:1 operation:1 newly:2 jaish:2 tahrir:2 liberation:3 launch:2 october:3 comité:1 de:7 libération:1 arabe:2 committee:2 cairo:1 constitute:1 occupation:1 goal:1 return:3 king:11 allow:2 negotiation:2 lead:9 following:2 event:2 help:1 degree:3 solidarity:1 reason:1 knew:1 taourat:1 malik:1 wa:1 shaab:1 celebrate:2 every:1 august:1 anniversary:1 recover:1 april:2 relinquish:1 agreement:10 certain:2 restore:1 though:3 attempt:1 claim:2 colonial:2 possession:1 military:6 action:1 internationalized:1 reintegrate:2 signing:1 protocol:1 hassan:10 mark:2 unrest:1 enclave:2 ifni:1 reintegration:1 final:1 status:4 unresolved:1 reform:9 result:3 establishment:1 bicameral:1 legislature:2 grant:1 free:11 trade:13 politics:1 vi:2 current:2 jure:1 constitutional:1 monarchy:2 elect:1 parliament:3 vast:1 executive:1 dissolve:1 deploy:1 prerogative:1 legal:1 several:3 recent:3 human:8 label:1 politically:1 motivate:1 persecution:1 common:2 especially:5 oufkir:1 responsible:2 home:4 security:4 decade:2 equity:1 reconciliation:1 commission:1 ier:1 investigate:1 abuse:1 commit:1 reconciliate:1 victim:1 law:5 code:4 concern:1 aspect:1 life:1 pass:3 creation:1 mudawana:1 family:1 represent:3 unique:1 initiative:1 kind:1 muslim:3 give:4 woman:2 issue:3 abolition:1 punishment:1 nationality:1 debate:1 due:2 vote:1 spring:1 bombing:3 need:1 fight:1 terrorist:2 threat:1 controversial:1 anti:1 terrorism:1 crack:1 terror:1 suspect:1 continue:2 criticize:1 situation:1 mainly:6 arrest:1 suspected:1 islamist:1 extremist:1 relation:2 overview:1 hrw:1 mid:2 february:2 study:5 publish:4 center:7 foreign:5 aid:1 lesson:2 conclude:1 valuable:1 economic:8 others:1 model:2 confirm:1 possible:1 simultaneously:1 haim:1 malka:1 alterman:1 prefecture:2 different:2 version:1 map:1 divide:1 statoids:2 com:3 subdivide:1 province:2 decentralization:1 regionalization:1 sixteen:1 saguia:1 el:4 hamra:1 río:1 oro:1 dispute:1 suggest:1 self:1 govern:3 entity:1 royal:5 advisory:1 council:3 affair:1 corcas:1 autonomy:2 project:1 stalemating:1 proposal:1 option:1 un:3 report:1 secretary:1 ask:1 enter:2 direct:1 unconditional:1 mutually:1 accepted:1 solution:1 reject:1 polisario:2 fought:1 decolonization:1 sahrawi:1 democratic:1 republic:1 geography:1 list:4 sq:1 mi:1 fifty:1 uzbekistan:1 comparable:1 size:1 iraq:1 somewhat:1 california:1 dune:1 southeast:1 close:4 four:2 peñón:2 vélez:1 la:1 gomera:1 alhucemas:1 chafarinas:1 islands:1 disputed:1 islet:1 perejil:1 canary:1 island:1 belong:1 whereas:1 madeira:1 waterway:1 rif:1 mountains:2 occupy:1 backbone:2 portion:2 desert:3 generally:2 sparsely:1 populated:1 unproductive:1 economically:1 lie:1 green:2 refers:1 main:3 port:3 include:10 agadir:4 essaouira:1 meknes:2 mohammadia:1 ouarzazat:1 safi:1 salè:1 tétouan:2 satellite:1 image:1 dust:1 plume:1 climate:3 extreme:1 towards:2 interior:1 mountainous:1 terrain:1 rich:2 accordingly:1 comprise:2 forest:1 cover:1 arable:1 account:5 irrigate:1 wildlife:2 biodiversity:1 bird:2 important:3 fauna:1 avifauna:1 total:2 specie:1 five:1 introduce:2 rare:2 accidental:1 bergier:1 p:1 thévenot:1 liste:1 oiseaux:1 maroc:1 bull:1 available:1 online:2 encode:2 iso:1 alpha:1 geographical:1 standard:1 symbol:1 basis:1 internet:1 domain:1 economy:10 twin:1 consider:3 relatively:2 liberal:1 supply:1 policy:1 privatization:1 sector:8 tough:1 steady:1 yearly:1 growth:7 much:2 robust:1 ago:2 diversified:2 service:4 industrial:2 pole:1 like:2 rehabilitate:1 combination:1 good:4 rainfall:4 half:5 gdp:9 industry:3 mining:2 construction:1 manufacturing:2 additional:1 quarter:1 record:1 tourism:4 telecom:1 textile:3 still:4 depend:2 inordinate:1 around:3 employ:2 semi:1 difficult:1 assure:1 varies:1 weather:1 fiscal:1 prudence:1 consolidation:1 budget:2 deficit:1 debt:2 fall:2 percentage:1 system:1 facet:1 characterize:1 opening:1 outside:2 primary:4 partner:2 supplier:1 customer:1 creditor:2 investor:1 oil:1 behind:2 pursue:1 program:1 toward:2 accelerate:1 real:1 monetary:1 fund:1 bank:1 paris:1 club:1 currency:1 dirham:1 fully:1 convertible:1 transaction:1 financial:1 implement:1 enterprise:1 privatize:1 resource:1 phosphate:3 sale:1 fish:1 seafood:1 contribute:2 third:3 annual:1 producer:1 china:1 price:1 fluctuation:1 market:4 greatly:1 worker:1 remittance:1 play:2 critical:1 production:3 clothing:2 grow:3 approximately:3 export:2 workforce:1 wish:1 billion:3 cost:1 import:5 petroleum:1 problem:2 another:2 chronic:1 unreliable:1 produce:3 drought:5 sudden:1 flood:1 worst:1 force:12 grain:1 adversely:1 reduce:1 income:1 cause:1 rain:1 bumper:1 crop:1 rate:3 suffers:1 unemployment:1 external:3 estimate:1 http:1 www:1 nationsencyclopedia:1 html:1 various:4 ratify:1 principal:1 euro:2 objective:1 integrate:1 association:1 horizon:1 jordan:1 within:1 framework:1 installation:1 january:3 lately:1 exchange:2 turkey:2 demographic:1 ethnolinguistic:1 populous:1 sudan:1 fact:1 book:5 sunni:1 mixed:2 stock:1 significant:3 genetic:3 difference:2 likely:1 arabization:2 cultural:4 without:2 accord:2 journal:4 genetics:4 genetically:2 iberian:2 sub:4 conquer:1 late:3 princips:1 indigenous:2 romano:1 principality:1 lay:1 foundation:1 emergence:1 identify:1 haratin:1 gnaoua:1 black:1 highly:2 race:1 jewish:3 minority:1 decrease:1 significantly:2 number:4 jew:3 largely:1 professional:2 work:5 multinationals:1 descendant:1 colonist:1 prior:1 historyworld:1 net:1 colon:1 clear:1 exist:3 speaking:3 highlight:1 acculturation:1 bantu:1 ethnicity:1 language:10 official:3 distinctive:1 dialect:3 mostly:1 rural:6 speak:3 three:2 tarifit:2 tashelhiyt:1 tamazight:1 either:1 bilingually:1 spoken:1 microsoft:1 encarta:1 encyclopedia:1 unofficial:1 teach:2 universally:1 commerce:2 economics:1 widely:2 education:8 parallel:1 term:1 speaker:1 rapidly:2 choice:1 educate:1 youth:2 national:5 school:10 fourth:2 social:4 link:1 range:1 insulate:1 seat:1 gateway:1 religious:1 tourist:1 kasbah:1 aït:1 benhaddou:1 expatriate:2 descent:1 teacher:1 technician:1 retiree:1 view:1 mosque:2 ethnically:1 diverse:2 civilization:3 host:1 carthaginian:1 andalusians:1 moor:2 impact:1 structure:1 conceive:1 belief:1 paganism:1 judaism:1 christianity:1 literature:10 diversify:1 traditional:4 genre:1 poetry:1 essay:1 historiography:1 add:1 inspire:1 eastern:3 literary:3 often:2 research:2 natural:1 science:2 field:3 writer:4 choukri:2 driss:2 chraïbi:2 laroui:2 abdelfattah:1 kilito:1 fatima:1 mernissi:1 pierre:1 loti:1 william:2 burroughs:2 paul:2 bowles:2 attention:1 veritable:1 blossoming:1 painting:1 sculpture:1 popular:10 music:16 amateur:1 theatre:2 filmmaking:1 founded:1 offer:1 regular:1 dramatic:1 art:2 festival:2 throughout:3 summer:2 month:2 sacred:1 andalusian:4 tradition:1 instrument:1 flute:1 nāy:1 shawm:1 ghaita:1 zither:1 qanūn:1 neck:1 lute:1 ʿūd:1 gimbrī:1 back:1 explosive:1 percussion:1 darbūkka:1 terra:1 cotta:1 drum:1 artist:1 internationally:1 master:2 musician:2 jajouka:1 male:2 guild:1 train:1 childhood:1 hakmoun:1 gnāwa:1 trance:2 spiritual:1 style:3 trace:1 root:1 young:1 raï:1 algerian:1 incorporate:1 sound:1 rock:3 jamaican:1 reggae:1 egyptian:1 possess:1 specificity:1 legacy:2 top:1 priority:1 preservation:1 heritage:2 culturally:1 always:1 combine:1 anglo:1 lifestyle:1 cuisine:11 spice:3 central:1 interaction:1 mix:1 corsican:1 moorish:1 native:1 moriscos:1 leave:2 turkish:1 extensively:1 food:1 thousand:1 ingredient:1 saffron:1 tiliouine:1 mint:2 olive:1 orange:1 lemon:1 grown:1 chicken:1 eaten:2 meat:2 red:1 beef:1 lamb:1 prefer:1 expensive:1 couscous:1 famous:1 dish:1 along:1 pastilla:1 tajine:1 harira:1 drink:1 tea:2 accompany:1 hard:1 sugar:1 cone:1 lump:1 contain:1 experience:1 prosperity:1 brilliance:1 learn:2 build:1 koutoubia:1 accommodate:2 famed:1 manuscript:1 library:4 shop:1 bazaar:1 abu:1 yakub:1 love:1 collect:1 carry:1 casbah:1 turn:1 factor:1 pulse:1 witness:1 birth:1 intellectual:1 opportunity:1 freely:1 contact:1 refuge:1 artistic:1 attract:1 tennessee:1 williams:1 flourish:1 novelist:1 zafzaf:1 tahar:1 jelloun:1 author:1 abdellatif:1 laabi:1 abdelkarim:1 ghellab:1 fouad:1 berrada:1 leila:1 abouzeid:1 note:2 orature:1 oral:1 integral:1 predominantly:1 origin:2 variety:2 folk:2 musical:1 character:1 influenced:1 chabbi:1 band:1 widespread:1 find:2 evolve:1 cordoba:1 born:1 ziryab:1 usually:1 credit:1 invention:1 chaabi:2 consisting:1 numerous:1 descend:1 multifarious:1 originally:1 perform:1 celebration:1 meeting:1 fusion:1 metal:1 particularly:3 hip:1 hop:1 transport:1 navy:3 floreal:1 class:1 frigate:1 reserve:1 obligation:1 age:6 consists:1 arm:2 branch:2 air:2 police:1 gendarmerie:2 auxiliary:2 internal:1 effective:1 act:1 violence:1 exception:1 may:2 kill:1 score:1 maintain:2 observer:1 troop:1 station:1 saharawi:1 militia:1 estimated:1 fighter:1 engage:1 intermittent:1 warfare:1 compose:1 division:1 guard:1 marche:1 verte:1 compulsory:1 nevertheless:1 child:4 girl:3 attend:3 illiteracy:1 stick:1 september:2 unesco:2 award:1 amongst:1 cuba:1 pakistan:1 rajasthan:1 india:1 literacy:2 prize:1 student:2 enrol:1 fourteen:1 akhawayn:4 ifrane:3 private:2 regarded:1 fahd:1 saudi:2 arabia:2 karaouine:2 continuously:1 operate:1 allocate:1 spend:1 mandatory:1 urban:3 majority:1 scale:1 level:1 participation:1 drop:2 proportion:1 markedly:1 slightly:1 secondary:1 technical:1 seek:1 poor:1 attendance:1 low:1 dozen:1 institute:3 polytechnic:1 disperse:1 leading:1 institution:1 muḥammad:1 veterinary:1 conduct:1 addition:1 agricultural:1 specialty:1 inaugurate:1 contribution:1 abdelmalek:1 essaâdi:1 tanger:1 cadi:2 ayyad:2 chouaib:1 doukkali:1 jadida:1 chok:1 mohammedia:2 premier:3 settat:1 tofail:1 kenitra:1 ibnou:1 zohr:1 management:1 business:1 technology:1 imbt:1 agdal:1 souissi:1 moulay:2 meknès:1 benabdellah:1 université:1 slimane:1 formerly:1 beni:1 mellal:1 sport:5 spectator:1 traditionally:1 horsemanship:1 football:3 soccer:1 polo:1 swimming:1 tennis:3 end:1 particular:1 cup:2 competition:2 olympic:3 game:1 win:3 gold:3 medal:3 track:1 nawal:1 moutawakel:1 metre:1 hurdle:1 golf:2 player:1 compete:1 davis:1 team:1 society:1 participate:1 handball:1 basketball:1 athletics:2 hicham:1 guerrouj:1 retired:1 distance:1 runner:1 olympics:1 ranking:1 reporter:1 worldwide:1 freedom:1 index:1 rank:2 economist:1 affiliation:1 organizationdates:1 unity:2 co:1 founder:1 withdraw:1 bilateral:1 multilateral:1 tariff:1 related:1 topic:1 shiite:1 tide:1 diplomatic:1 iran:1 links:1 portal:1 site:1 chief:1 cabinet:1 information:1 encyclopaedia:1 ucb:1 govpubs:1 timeline:1 worldstatesmen:1 web:1 directory:1 sybsearch:1 news:2 medium:1 presse:1 agency:1 x:1 марока:1 |@bigram atlantic_ocean:2 strait_gibraltar:2 ceuta_melilla:2 western_sahara:13 al_maghrib:3 coastal_plain:2 al_aqsa:1 abbasid_caliph:1 caliph_baghdad:1 al_andalus:3 almoravid_almohads:2 encyclopædia_britannica:1 alaouite_dynasty:2 thomas_jefferson:2 ottoman_empire:1 barbary_pirate:1 profoundly_affect:1 de_libération:1 libération_du:1 algeria_tunisia:1 celebrate_anniversary:1 bicameral_legislature:1 mohammed_vi:2 de_jure:1 constitutional_monarchy:1 politically_motivate:1 sq_mi:1 morocco_algeria:1 la_gomera:1 canary_island:1 atlas_mountains:1 sahara_desert:2 sparsely_populated:1 mountainous_terrain:1 arable_land:1 semi_arid:1 budget_deficit:1 monetary_fund:1 enterprise_privatize:1 fish_seafood:1 worker_remittance:1 textile_clothing:2 adversely_affect:1 http_www:1 www_nationsencyclopedia:1 nationsencyclopedia_com:1 sunni_muslim:1 sub_saharan:4 microsoft_encarta:1 encarta_online:1 ethnically_diverse:1 phoenician_carthaginian:1 william_burroughs:2 saharan_africa:1 orange_lemon:1 almohad_dynasty:1 caliph_abu:1 hip_hop:1 al_akhawayn:4 highly_regarded:1 king_fahd:1 saudi_arabia:2 moulay_ismail:1 football_soccer:1 gold_medal:3 el_moutawakel:1 summer_olympics:1 bilateral_multilateral:1 diplomatic_relation:1 external_links:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 ucb_library:1 library_govpubs:1 |
7,477 | Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington | Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS (c. 29 April/1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852), was an Anglo-Irish soldier and statesman, and one of the leading military and political figures of the nineteenth century. Born in Ireland to a prominent Ascendancy family, he was commissioned an ensign in the British Army in 1787. Serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland he was also elected as Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons. A colonel by 1796, Wellesley saw action in the Netherlands and later India where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was later appointed Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore. Wellesley rose to prominence as a General during the Peninsular Campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the Allied forces to victory against the French at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a Dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the Allied army which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. An opponent of parliamentary reform, he was given the epithet the "Iron Duke" because of the iron shutters he had fixed to his windows to stop the pro-reform mob from breaking them. He was twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom under the Tory party and oversaw the passage of Catholic Relief Act 1829. He was Prime Minister from 1828-30 and served briefly in 1834. He was unable to prevent the passage of the Reform Act of 1832 and continued as one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement. He remained Commander-in-Chief of the British Army until his death. Early life The earliest mention of the Wellesley family is in 1180. It places Wellington’s ancestry among the conquering elite of the Norman invasion in 1066: the family had been granted lands to the south of Wells around a settlement still known as Wellesley Farm. As well as Wellesley ancestors, "Wesley" was inherited from the childless wealthy husband of an aunt when, in 1728, Wellington's patrilineal grandfather Garret Colley, a landlord who lived at Rahin near Carbury, County Kildare, changed his surname to Wesley. Longford E., Wellington: The Years of The Sword Harper and Row Publishers, 1969; p.7 The Colleys had lived in that part of Kildare since the Norman Invasion of Ireland in 1169–72. In 1917 the Kildare historian Lord Walter FitzGerald, stated the: "... Elizabethan Castle which since 1588 has been in the possession of the family of Cowley or Colley, from whom the Dukes of Wellington are descended in the direct male line". Journal of the Kildare Archaeological Society, Vol. X, No. 1, p. 90–94. Wellesley spent much of his early childhood at his family house in Dangan Castle, painting circa 1840 Wellington was born "The Honourable Arthur Wesley", the fourth son - third of five surviving sons - to Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington, and Anne, the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill, Viscount Dungannon. He was most likely born at 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, opposite what was then the Royal College of Science and which is now Government Buildings. Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 60; p. 170 His biographers mostly follow the contemporary newspaper evidence in saying he was born 1 May 1769, though April 29 is quoted as most likely by Sir Leslie Stephen & Sir Sidney Lee (eds.), Dictionary of National Biography the day he was baptised. Guedalla, The Duke, p.480. His baptismal font was donated to St. Nahi's Church in Dundrum, Dublin, in 1914. Other places have been put forward as the location of his birth: Mornington House, Dublin - as his father claimed; the house next door which is no longer there; the Dublin packet boat; and the family estate of Athy, as the Duke apparently put on his 1851 census return, which is now burnt. Holmes, p. 7. He spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin and the second, Dangan Castle, 5 km north of Summerhill on the Trim road in County Meath, part of the Province of Leinster. Holmes, p. 6–7. In 1781 Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom. Two of his other brothers were later raised to the peerage as Baron Maryborough and Baron Cowley. Education He went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr. Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and at Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. Holmes, p. 8. (His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said, "The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton."). A lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds from his father's death, led to a move to Brussels in Belgium with his mother in 1785. Until his early twenties, Arthur continued to show little signs of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, "I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur." Holmes, p. 9. A year later, Arthur was enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which was later to prove very useful. Holmes, p. 19–20. Upon returning to England in late 1786, he astonished his mother with his improvement. Early career Beginning in 1787, Wellesley worked at Dublin Castle (pictured) as aide-de-camp to two successive Lord Lieutenants of Ireland. Despite his new promise he had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the army. Holmes, p. 20. Soon after, on the 7 March 1787 he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot. In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as aide-de-camp, on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland Lord Buckingham. He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted to Lieutenant. Holmes, p. 21. During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham. While in Ireland, he over extended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that "I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt". Two years later, in June 1789 he transferred to the 12th Light Dragoons, still as a lieutenant and according to his biographer, Richard Holmes he also dipped a reluctant toe into politics. Holmes, p. 22. Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the "rotten borough" of Trim to speak against the granting of the title "Freeman" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish nationalist movement, Henry Grattan. Holmes, p. 23. Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament, where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of less than a hundred boroughs. Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years and in 1791 he became a Captain and was transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons. Holmes, p. 24. It was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of the Earl of Longford. She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'. Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, 10 Downing Street, Accessed 16-06-08. Seeking permission to marry her in 1793 he was turned down by her brother, the new Earl of Longford who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects. Holmes, p. 26. An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. Holmes, p. 27. Gaining further promotion (largely by purchasing his rank, which was common in the British Army at the time), he became a Major in the 33rd Regiment in 1793. Holmes, p. 25. A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant colonelcy in the 33rd. Netherlands Arthur Wellesley as Lieutenant colonel, aged 26, now in the 33rd Regiment In 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of an allied force destined for the invasion of France. In 1794 the 33rd regiment was sent to join the force and Wellesley set sail from Cork for Flanders in June, destined for his first real battle experience. Holmes, p. 28. During the campaign he rose to command a brigade and in September Wellesley's unit came under fire just east of Breda, just before the Battle of Boxtel. For the latter part of the campaign, during the winter, his unit defended the line of the Waal River, during which time he became ill for a while, owing to the damp environment. Holmes, p. 31. Though the campaign was to prove unsuccessful, with the Duke of York's force returning in 1795, Wellesley was to learn several valuable lessons, including the use of steady fire lines against advancing columns and of the merits of supporting sea-power. Holmes, p. 30. He concluded that many of the campaign's blunders were due to the faults of the leaders and the poor organisation at Headquarters. He remarked later of his time in the Netherlands that "At least I learned what not to do, and that is always a valuable lesson." Holmes, p. 32. Returning to England in March 1795 he was returned as a Member of Parliament for Trim for a second time. He hoped to be given the position of secretary of war in the new Irish government but the new lord-lieutenant, Lord Camden was only able to offer him the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance. Declining the post, he returned to his regiment, now at Southampton preparing to set sail for the West Indies. After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet back to Poole, England. Holmes, p. 33. The 33rd was given time to convalesce and a few months later, Whitehall decided to send the regiment to India. Wellesley was promoted full colonel by seniority a few weeks later and in 1796 set sail for Calcutta with his regiment. Holmes, p. 34. India Arthur's brother, Richard Wellesley (pictured), served as Governor-General of India. Arthur was to serve under him as Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in the late 1790s. Arriving in Calcutta in February 1797 he spent several months there, before being sent on a brief expedition to the Philippines, where he established a list of new hygiene precautions for his men to deal with the unfamiliar climate. Holmes, p. 40. Returning in November to India, he learnt that his elder brother Richard, now known as Lord Mornington, had been appointed as the new Governor-General of India. As part of the campaign to extend the rule of the British East India Company, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tippoo Sultan. Holmes, p. 42. Arthur's brother Richard ordered an armed force sent to capture Seringapatam and defeat Tippoo. Under the command of General Harris, some 24,000 troops were dispatched to Madras (to join an equal force being sent from Bombay in the west). Holmes, p. 49. Arthur and the 33rd sailed to join them in August. Holmes, p. 44. In 1798 he changed the spelling of his surname to "Wellesley" - up to this time he was still known as Wesley - which his oldest brother considered the ancient and proper spelling. Holmes, p. 41. Longford E. 1969; p.54. Wellington's first signature as Arthur Wellesley was on a letter dated 19 May 1798. After extensive and careful logistic preparation (that would become one of Wellesley's main attributes) the 33rd left with the main force in December and travelled across of jungle from Madras to Mysore. Holmes, p. 47. On account of his brother, during the journey, Wellesley was given an additional command, that of chief advisor to the Nizam of Hyderabad's army (sent to accompany the British force). This position was to cause friction amongst many of the senior officers (some of whom were senior to Wellesley). Holmes, p. 51. Much of this friction was put to rest after the battle of Malavelly, some from Seringapatam, in which Harris's army attacked a large part of the sultan's army. During the battle, Wellesley led his men, in a line of battle of two ranks, against the enemy to a gentle ridge and gave the order to fire. After an extensive repeat of volleys, followed by a bayonet charge, the 33rd, in conjunction with the rest of Harris's force, forced Tippoo's infantry to retreat. Holmes, p. 53. Srirangapatna and Mysore Tippu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore fought the British during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and was killed in battle. Wellesley was the first officer on the scene and confirmed his death by checking his pulse. Wellesley subsequently ruled Mysore as British governor. Immediately after their arrival at Seringapatam on the 5th, the Battle of Srirangapatna began and Wellesley was ordered to lead a night attack on the village of Sultanpettah, adjacent to the fortress to clear the way for the artillery. Because of the enemy's strong defensive preparations, and the darkness, with the resulting confusion, the attack failed with 25 casualties. Wellesley suffered a minor injury to his knee from a spent musket-ball. The Battle of Seringapatam: Chronology, Macquarie University, Accessed 17-06-08. Although they would reattack successfully the next day, after time to scout ahead the enemy's positions, the affair had an impact on Wellesley. He resolved "never to attack an enemy who is preparing and strongly posted, and whose posts have not been reconnoitred by daylight". A few weeks later, after extensive artillery bombardment, a breach was opened in the main walls of the fortress of Seringapatam. An attack led by Major-General Baird secured the fortress. Wellesley secured the rear of the advance, posting guards at the breach and then stationed his regiment at the main palace. After hearing news of the death of the Tippoo Sultan, Wellesley was the first at the scene to confirm his death, checking his pulse. Holmes, p. 59 - 60. Over the coming day, Wellesley grew increasingly concerned over the lack of discipline amongst his men, who drank and pillaged the fortress and city. Holmes, p. 62. To restore order, several soldiers were flogged and four hanged. Holmes, p. 56 - 58. After battle and the resulting end of the war, the main force under General Harris left Seringapatam and Wellesley, aged 30, stayed behind to command the area as the new Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore. He took residence within the sultan's summer palace and reformed the tax and justice systems in his province to maintain order and prevent bribery. Holmes, p. 63. He also hunted down the mercenary 'King' Dhoondiah Waugh, who had escaped from prison in Seringapatam during the battle. Wellesley, with command of four regiments, defeated Dhoondiah's larger rebel force, along with Dhoondiah himself who was killed in the battle. Holmes, p. 64–65. He paid for the future upkeep of Dhundia's orphaned son. Holmes, p. 65. Whilst in India Wellesley was ill for a considerable time, first with severe diarrhea from the water and then with a fever, followed by a serious skin infection caused by trichophyton. Holmes, p. 67. He received good news when in September 1802 he learnt he had been promoted to the rank of Major-General. Wellesley had been gazetted Major-General on the 29 April, but the news took several months to reach him by sea. He remained at Mysore until November when he was sent to command an army in the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Second Anglo-Maratha War Wellesley decided that he must act boldly to defeat the numerically larger force of the Maratha Empire (as he concluded a long defensive war would ruin his army). With the logistical assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) he gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on the 8 August 1803. Holmes, p. 69. Holmes, p. 73. The fort surrendered on the 12th after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall. With the fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari. Holmes, p. 74. Arthur Wellesley at the Battle of Assaye in a painting by J.C.Stadler. The battle was an important victory for Wellesley in his career and he later remarked that it was the best battle he ever fought. Splitting his army into two forces, to pursue and locate the main Marathas army, (the second force, commanded by Colonel Stevenson was far smaller) Wellesley was preparing to rejoin his forces on the 24 September. However his intelligence reported the location of the Marathas main army, between two rivers near Assaye. If he waited for the arrival of his second force, the Marathas would be able to mount a retreat, so Wellesley decided to launch an attack immediately. On 23 September, Wellesley led his forces over a ford in the river Kaitna and the Battle of Assaye commenced. After crossing the ford the infantry was reorganised into several lines and advanced against the Maratha infantry. Wellesley ordered his cavalry to exploit the flank of the Maratha army just near the village. During the battle Wellesley himself was under fire; two of his horses were shot from under him and he had to mount a third. At a crucial moment, Wellesley regrouped his forces and ordered Colonel Maxwell (later killed in the attack) to attack the eastern end of the Maratha position while Wellesley himself directed a renewed infantry attack against the centre. An officer in the attack wrote of the importance of Wellesley's personal leadership: "The general was in the thick of the action the whole time.... Until our troops got the order to readvance, the fate of the day seemed doubtful." Longford, p. 93 . With some 6,000 Marathas killed or wounded, the enemy routed (though Wellesley's force was in no condition to pursue), at a cost of 1,584 British killed or wounded. Wellesley was troubled by the loss of men and remarked that he hoped "I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on the 23 September, even if attended by such gain". However years later he remarked that 'Assaye' was the best battle he ever fought. Holmes, p. 75 - 81. However, despite the damage done to the Maratha army, the battle did not end the war. A few months later in November, Wellesley attacked a larger force near Argaum, leading his army to victory again, with an astonishing 5,000 enemy dead at the cost of only 361 British casualties. Holmes, p. 82. A further successful attack at the fortress at Gawilghur, combined with the victory of General Lake at Delhi forced the Maratha to a peace settlement (not concluded until a year later). Holmes, p. 83. His biographer Richard Holmes remarked that his experiences in India had an important influence on his personality and military tactics, teaching him much about military matters that would prove vital to his success in the Peninsular War. These included a strong sense of discipline through drill and order, the use of diplomacy to gain allies, and the vital necessity for a secure supply line. He also established a high regard for the acquisition of intelligence through scouts and spies. His personal tastes also developed, including dressing himself in white trousers, a dark tunic, with Hessian boots and black cocked hat (that would later become synonymous as his style). Holmes, p. 85 - 87. Return to England Recently knighted, Arthur was given permission to marry Kitty Pakenham in 1806. His early proposal was rejected in 1793 as his prospects were deemed poor. Wellesley had grown tired of his time in India remarking "I have served as long in India as any man ought who can serve anywhere else." In June 1804 he applied for permission to return home and as a reward for his service in India, in September he was made a Knight of the Bath. While in India Wellesley had amassed a fortune of £42,000 (considerable at the time), mainly consisting of prize money from his campaign. Holmes, p. 84. When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in March 1805, the brothers returned together to England - coincidently Arthur was to stop on his voyage at the little island of Saint Helena and stayed in the same building to which Napoleon I of France would later be exiled. Holmes, p. 85. After returning home, the Wellesleys were forced to defend their employment of the British forces in India. However Wellesley received good news, when, owing to his new title and status, he was given permission to marry Kitty Pakenham (from her family). She became his wife in April 1806. Holmes, p. 96. Wellesley served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe. (Roberts 2001, p.xxiii) After Austerlitz, the forces went home with nothing accomplished. Junior command in an expedition to Denmark in 1807 led to Wellesley's promotion to lieutenant general. Meanwhile, he was elected Tory member of Parliament for Rye for six months in 1806. A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, a constituency he would represent for two years. He served as Chief Secretary for Ireland for two years. In April 1807, he became a privy counsellor and in August that year defeated Danish milita forces at Køge. However his political life came to an abrupt halt when he sailed to Europe to participate in the action against French forces in Iberia. Peninsular War Reenacters of the 33rd Regiment of Foot Wellingtons Redcoats who fought in the Napoleonic Wars, 1812 – 1815, here showing the standard line 8th Company In this theatre of the Napoleonic wars, Wellesley achieved military victories and enormous renown through caution, the reverse slope defence and use of the line formation against the French columns. Napoleon had seized control of the French government in 1799, and now dominated Europe; he ordered the invasion of Portugal and his own ally Spain in 1807. The next year, Wellesley was in preparation to command an expedition to Venezuela in collaboration with Latin American patriot Francisco de Miranda, when the Spanish Dos de Mayo Uprising began the Peninsular War and he and his troops were sent to Portugal instead. Holmes, p. 102–103. Wellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808 but he was superseded in command immediately after the latter battle. General Dalrymple then signed the controversial Convention of Sintra, which stipulated that the British Royal Navy would transport the French army out of Lisbon with all their loot, and insisted on the association of the available government minister, Wellesley, with it. Dalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry. Wellesley had agreed to sign the preliminary Armistice, but had not signed the Convention, and was cleared. Holmes, p. 124. Meanwhile, Napoleon himself entered Spain with his veteran troops to put down the revolt, and the new commander of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna in January 1809. Although overall the war with France was not going well from a British perspective, the Peninsula was the one theatre where they, with the Portuguese, had provided resistance against France and her allies. This contrasted with the disastrous Walcheren expedition, which was typical of the mismanaged British operations of the time. Wellesley submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defence of Portugal; he stressed its mountainous frontiers and advocated Lisbon as the main base because the Royal Navy could help defend it. Castlereagh and the cabinet approved the memo, appointed him head of all British forces in Portugal and raised their number from 10,000 to 26,000 men. Thus reinforced, Wellesley took the offensive in April 1809. In the Second Battle of Porto, he crossed the Douro river in a daylight coup de main, and routed Marshall Soult's French troops in Porto. He then joined with a Spanish army under Cuesta in operations against Madrid. They meant to attack Marshal Victor, but Napoleon's brother, King Joseph Bonaparte, reinforced Victor first, and the French attacked and lost at the Battle of Talavera. For this, Wellesley was ennobled as "Viscount Wellington of Talavera and of Wellington". Holmes, p. 142. With Marshal Soult threatening their rear, the British were compelled to retreat to Portugal. Deprived of the supplies promised by the Spanish throughout the campaign and not told of Soult's movement, Wellington did not rely on Spanish promises or resources again. In 1810, a newly enlarged French army under Marshal André Masséna invaded Portugal. British opinion both at home and in the army was negative and there were suggestions that they must evacuate Portugal. Instead, Wellington first slowed the French down at Buçaco, then blocked them from taking the Lisbon peninsula by his massive earthworks, the Lines of Torres Vedras, which had been assembled in complete secrecy and had flanks guarded by the Royal Navy. The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. Wellington followed and, in several skirmishes and the Battle of Sabugal, drove them out of Portugal, except for a small garrison at Almeida, which was placed under siege. In 1811, Masséna returned towards Portugal to relieve Almeida; Wellington narrowly defeated the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro. Simultaneously, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought Soult's 'Army of the South' to a bloody standstill at the Battle of Albuera. In May, Wellington was promoted to general for his services. The French abandoned Almeida, but retained the twin Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 'Keys' guarding the roads through the mountain passes into Portugal. Portrait of the Duke of Wellington by Francisco Goya, 1812–14. In 1812, Wellington finally captured Ciudad Rodrigo by a rapid movement as the French went into winter quarters, storming it before they could react. He then moved south quickly, besieged the fortress of Badajoz for a month and captured it during one bloody night. On viewing the aftermath of the Storming of Badajoz, Wellington lost his composure, broke down and cried at the sight of the carnage in the breaches. Holmes, p. 162. His army now was a British force reinforced in all divisions by units of the resurgent Portuguese army. Campaigning in Spain, he routed the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of a minor French mispositioning. The victory liberated the Spanish capital of Madrid. As reward, he was created "Earl" and then "Marquess of Wellington" and given command of all Allied armies in Spain. Holmes, p. 168. He attempted to take the vital fortress of Burgos, which linked Madrid to France, but failed due to a lack of siege equipment. The French abandoned Andalusia, and combined those troops with their other armies to put the British forces into a precarious position. Wellington withdrew his army and, joined with the smaller corps commanded by Rowland Hill, began to retreat to Portugal. Marshal Soult actually held a numerical advantage over Wellington in November, but hesitated to attack, so wary had he become of the British commander. Despite the retreat, the victory at Salamanca had forced the French to withdraw from southern Spain, and the temporary loss of Madrid irreparably damaged the prestige of the pro-French puppet government. In 1813, Wellington led a new offensive, this time against the French line of communications. He struck through the hills north of Burgos, and switched his supply line from Portugal to Santander on Spain's north coast; this led to the French abandoning Madrid and Burgos. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington caught up with and smashed the army of King Joseph Bonaparte in the Battle of Vitoria, for which he was promoted to field marshal. Holmes, p. 189. . He personally led a column against the French centre, while other columns were commanded by Sir Thomas Graham, and Rowland Hill and looped around the French right and left; (This battle became the subject of Beethoven's opus 114, Wellington's Victory.) However, the British troops broke ranks to loot the abandoned French wagons instead of pursuing the beaten foe. This gross abandonment of discipline caused an enraged Wellington to write in a famous dispatch to Earl Bathurst, "We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers". Wellington to Bathurst, dispatches, p. 496. After taking the small fortresses of Pamplona and San Sebastián, and winning the battles of the Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle over Soult's reorganised French army, Wellington invaded southern France. The British won the Battle of the Nive; Wellington then isolated the fortress of Bayonne and defeated Soult at the battles of Orthez and Toulouse. Immediately after Soult evacuated the latter city, news arrived of Napoleon's defeat and abdication. Hailed as the conquering hero, Wellington was created "Duke of Wellington", a title still held by his descendants. (As he did not return to England until the Peninsular War was over, he was awarded all his patents of nobility in a unique ceremony lasting a full day.) He was appointed ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as First Plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna, where he strongly advocated allowing France to keep its place in the European balance of power. On 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order. Despite his successes in the Peninsular campaign, an alternative, minority view of his skill as a commander relative to that of his opponents is provided by A.G. Macdonell. "Probably no general in history has ever had such an easy time as Wellington had [in the Iberian peninsula]. Working on interior lines, with a mercenary army, in a country where every peasant and priest was at once an ally, a source of information, and an active assassin, with a constant flow of supplies from England, and with the complete command of the sea, the Duke of Wellington had the game in his hands, and yet it took him nearly six years to advance from Lisbon to the Pyrenees." Napoleon and His Marshals. London: PRION, 1996 (originally Macmillan and Co., 1934), p. 185. The simple fact, however, is that Wellington was never defeated by Napoleon or by any of Napoleon's generals. Battle of Waterloo The Duke of Wellington, painted in 1814, several months before the Battle of Waterloo, by the artist Sir Thomas Lawrence. On 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in Belgium to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch-Belgians, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. The French invaded Belgium, defeated the Prussians at Ligny, and fought an indecisive battle with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras. These events compelled the Anglo-Allied army to retreat to a ridge on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo. Two days later, on 18 June, the Battle of Waterloo was fought. This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon and he commanded an Anglo-German-Dutch army which consisted of only 25,000 troops trained to British standards—the rest were poorly trained soldiers taken from Dutch and Nassau forces, some of whom had fought for Napoleon before. Many of the best British troops had been sent to America, to fight in the War of 1812. Much historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield. Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery at Hal, north-west of the Mont Saint Jean. The potential benefits of this decision were not only protection against Napoleon's attempt to turn his right flank, but to provide Wellington with a reserve with which to fight again the following day, should the action on 18 June prove inconclusive. Napoleon's tactics have been criticised as lacking in the brilliance he exhibited earlier in his career. Given the forces arrayed against him including the Russians and Austrians mobilised in the east, the choices which confronted him, and his responses to them, were brutally clear. After he had defeated the Prussians at Ligny on 16 June, and compelled Wellington's forces to retreat, Napoleon's aim was to keep the Prussians and the Allies from combining in the same battle, if he was to have any chance of victory and the possibility of a peace with Austria and Russia. Napoleon could not attack Wellington's right flank, partly because of the rearguard stationed at Hal, and ultimately because his wish was to divide Wellington and Blücher rather than drive them together. His plan was to pin Wellington's right with overwhelming cannon fire and an attack on Hougoumont, to draw reinforcements away from Wellington's centre-left position, then shatter this position with an all-out infantry assault in the column formation. This tactic had been successful with other opponents earlier in Napoleon's career. But Hougoumont held out, only modestly reinforced by Wellington, and the infantry attack by the French was destroyed by Allied cavalry, in badly controlled charges which resulted in many losses to the Allies and Napoleon's Polish lancers. Napoleon's only option left was an all-out assault on the Allied centre, leaving no effective force to hold off the Prussians. Wellington's reorganisation of his line was taken as the prelude to retreat, and waves of French cavalry attacked the Allies, which drove them into scattered defensive groupings ('squares'). At this point, a combined attack by French infantry and artillery, firing point-blank into the squares, would probably have caused devastation amongst the allied forces. Napoleon is deemed to have been inferior as tactician to his skills as a strategist according to historians - coordination of the various branches of the French army at Waterloo was haphazard throughout, and at this moment decisively lacking. The squares held out, the spaces between them protected by remants of the Allied cavalry, and gradually the French cavalry assault, obliged to charge uphill through muddy terrain criss-crossed by sunken roads, petered out. The Prussians had begun driving in Napoleon's outposts, and it was now clear that the Prussians had fought their way through to the battlefield. Napoleon made a last attempt to smash Wellington's centre before his two enemies could achieve any kind of linkage. At about six in the evening, the farmhouse of La Haye Sainte, lynch-pin of the Allied front, was finally taken. Wellington redrew the remnants of his front and prepared for the final assault; he did not know the dark uniforms visible in the distance were the forces of Blücher rather than those of Grouchy. Napoleon sent forward the Imperial Guard, held in reserve to provide the decisive blow, and it branched out in a two-pronged attack to finish off what Napoleon believed to be an Allied army on the point of annihilation. But Wellington had prepared, in effect, a large-scale ambush for the possibly over-confident Guard; they ran into surprise counter-attacks and crossfire from British infantry, hidden behind slopes or in what was left of the crops on the battlefield. Unprepared, and perhaps demoralised, the Guard faltered, retreated and triggered a French panic. Wellington ordered an advance of the Allied line just as the Prussians were overrunning the French positions to the east, and what remained of the French army abandoned the field in disorder. Wellington and Blücher met at the inn of La Belle Alliance, on the north–south road which bisected the battlefield, and it was agreed that the relatively rested Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France. On 22 June, the French Emperor abdicated again, and was transported by the British to Saint Helena, an island in the Atlantic. Waterloo marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars and was canonised within a generation as one of "The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World". Wellington's army had held off the French attacks for several hours before Blücher's arrival, but there is still debate about whether the Allied victory would have been so crushing had it not been for the arrival of the Prussian Army. A third of Napoleon's army, under Marshal Grouchy, were engaged against the Prussians at Wavre some miles to the east. Considering these factors, and the fact that about a third of Wellington's army were German, one German historian in the 1990s went so far as to describe Waterloo as a "German Victory". Many later attempts, some of them made to Wellington in person, also suggested that, by his own standards, Waterloo had been chaotic. But Wellington always maintained that his strategy had been clear from the beginning. He wanted to hold his position against everything Napoleon could bring against it, and to counter-attack the positions of the French at the right time, with the aim of ending the battle, a plan which he had achieved. He had only agreed to make a stand at Mont Saint Jean on condition the Prussians would march west to link up with him, and he only received information late in the day that the Prussians were in fact making inroads on the French right. Statesman The Duke of Wellington in later life Wellington entered politics again in 1819, when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool. In 1827, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army. Prime Minister Along with Robert Peel, Wellington became an increasingly influential member of the Tory party, and in 1828 he became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. During his first seven months as Prime Minister he chose not to live in the official residence at 10 Downing Street, finding it too small. He moved in only because his own home, Apsley House, required extensive renovations. During this time he was largely instrumental in the foundation of King's College London. The Duke of Wellington and King's College London, King's College London, Accessed 08-06-08. As Prime Minister, Wellington was conservative, fearing the anarchy of the French Revolution would spread to England. The highlight of his term was Catholic Emancipation; the granting of almost full civil rights to Catholics in the UK. The change was forced by the landslide by-election win of Daniel O'Connell, an Irish Catholic proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. The Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of having "treacherously plotted the destruction of the Protestant constitution". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When it came time to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down. The Duke fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose; Wellington, noted for his poor aim, claimed he did, other reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Winchilsea did not fire, a plan he and his second almost certainly decided upon before the duel. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology. Holmes, p. 275. In the House of Lords, facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic emancipation, giving one of the best speeches of his career. He had grown up in Ireland, and later governed it, so had some understanding of the grievances of the Catholic communities there. The Catholic Relief Act 1829 was passed with a majority of 105. Many Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the Whigs. The epithet "Iron Duke" originates from his period as Prime Minister, when he experienced an extremely high degree of personal and political unpopularity. His residence at Apsley House was a target of window-smashers and iron shutters were installed to mitigate the damage. It was this, rather than his resolute attitude, that earned him the nickname "The Iron Duke". Wellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots, the Swing Riots, swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830. He was replaced as Prime Minister by Earl Grey. Wellington and the Reform Act The Whigs introduced the first Reform Bill whilst Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The bill passed in the British House of Commons, but was defeated in the House of Lords. An election followed in direct response, and the Whigs were returned with an even larger majority. A second Reform Act was introduced, and defeated in the same way, and another wave of near insurrection swept the country. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England. This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership. Eventually the bill passed the House of Lords after the King threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not. Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said "I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life." Caretaker Prime Minister and Member of Peel's Cabinet Wellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel, whilst the party evolved into the Conservatives. When the Tories were returned to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become Prime Minister and Peel was selected instead. However, Peel was in Italy at that time and for three weeks in November and December 1834, Wellington acted as a interim leader, taking the responsibilities of Prime Minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became Foreign Secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a Minister without Portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords. Retirement and death The Duke's funeral procession passing through Trafalgar Square. Wellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, and returned briefly to the spotlight in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during that year of European revolution. The Conservative Party had split over the Repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Robert Peel, but most of the MPs supporting the new leader Lord Derby. Early in 1852 Wellington gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting "Who? Who?" as the list of inexperienced Cabinet Ministers was read out in the House of Lords. Wellington died later in 1852 at Walmer Castle (his honorary residence as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, which he enjoyed and at which he hosted Queen Victoria). Although in life he hated travelling by rail, his body was then taken by train to London, where he was given a state funeral – one of only a handful of British subjects to be honoured in that way (other examples are Lord Nelson and Winston Churchill) – and the last heraldic state funeral to be held in Britain. At his funeral there was hardly any space to stand because of the number of people attending, and the effusive praise given him in Tennyson's "Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington" attests to his stature at the time of his death. He was buried in a sarcophagus of luxulyanite in St Paul's Cathedral next to Lord Nelson. Personality Traits As an adult, Wellington was a tireless worker. He rose early – he "couldn't bear to lie in" once awake – and usually slept for six hours or less. Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts. General Miguel de Álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march "at daybreak" and dine on "cold meat", that he began to dread those two phrases. While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner. During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted, to the despair of his staff who dined with him, on "cold meat and bread". He was however renowned for the quality of the wine he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner – not a great quantity by the standards of his day. He took up high-technology and mechanical innovations and was one of the first British soldiers to employ shrapnel shells and congreve rockets; he was disappointed with the latter, as they were wildly inaccurate. He employed a full time officer to decrypt intercepted French messages. Conversely, although well organised, his supply trains comprised pack mules and ox carts with ungreased axles, plus cargo boats, if rivers could be used. He rarely showed emotion in public, and often appeared condescending to those less competent or less well-born than himself (which was nearly everyone). However, Álava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca. Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army though a spyglass. He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised he could launch a successful attack there. He threw the drumstick in the air and shouted "Les français sont perdus!" ("The French are lost!"). Another time, after the Battle of Toulouse, when an aide brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, he broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers. Glover, p. 334. Despite his famous stern countenance and iron-handed discipline, Wellesley cared for his men; he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, because of the inevitable cost to his army in pursuing a broken enemy through rough terrain. The only time he ever showed grief in public was over the lives of his men: after the disastrously costly storming of Badajoz, he cried at the sight of British dead in the breaches. In this context, his famous dispatch after the Battle of Vitoria calling them the 'scum of the earth' can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger. As a soldier Wellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). But for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his troops lacked either the numbers or the training for an attack. Also, the Iberian peninsula provided excellent defensive terrain and he was never slow to take advantage of it. Much of Wellesley's tactics were dictated by politics, supply, or finance. Being merely a general in the field, he had to deal with the vagaries of an unstable government at home, the Portuguese government, various Spanish Juntas, guerrilleros, and warlords. Also, the problem of supply in the barren peninsula was a dire one. The French did not bother to deal with it, and simply looted whatever supplies they needed. Wellesley, needing the goodwill of the populace, was required to bring in his supplies from elsewhere (especially wheat from America) and transport them to his troops in the field. This supply line was his ever-present Achilles' heel, and often he was forced to either retreat or assume a defensive position when his line of supply was threatened. In his defensive battles, he showed an understanding of defensive tactics almost unmatched. He, almost alone of the Napoleonic commanders, realised the use of a reverse slope in a defensive battle, and made use of one whenever he could, to conceal his numbers and protect his men from artillery. Still, he rarely missed an opportunity to counter-attack, and many French columns found themselves cut up by musket volleys, then attacked with bayonets. Wellesley could be very aggressive. His river crossing at Oporto was a breathtaking gamble; and only the mistake of a subordinate officer allowed any of Soult's army to escape. On the attack also, he showed a clear understanding of tactics and terrain: at the Battle of Vitoria, he led a massive, well-coordinated attack in four columns from three directions, almost destroying the French army, forcing them to abandon all their baggage and supplies and all but one of their 138 guns. Still, he had to be very cautious. Besieged at the Lines of Torres Vedras, when Masséna's army was threatening Lisbon, Wellesley often stood on a parapet, surveying the French army with a telescope, muttering: "I could whip them, but it would take 10,000 men, and as this is the only army England has, it behoves me to take care of it." The total number of French troops in Spain always heavily outnumbered the available number of British and Portuguese, although most French soldiers were used for garrisoning the rebellious population. However, it was always possible for the French command to abandon some region, as they did after Salamanca, in order to concentrate a larger army than the British; Wellington was therefore always cautious during his incursions into Spain, with the great exception of 1813. In the campaign leading up to the Battle of Vitoria, he was cut off from his supply line to Lisbon, so he re-established one on the north coast of Spain, throwing the French front-line troops back upon their reserves. All his sieges were successful, with the exception of the Siege of Burgos, probably his worst defeat. Most of his sieges were in India, against Indian armies of worse training, arms, and morale than the French; he may have been overconfident at Burgos. Wellington had to retake the frontier fortresses (like Almeida) several times, because the French were equally successful in capturing them from the Allied garrisons. Also, he did not have the time for lengthy, Vauban-style sieges, because the French would have been able to gather up relieving forces. Hence, his brief and bloody, though successful, assaults on Ciudad Rodrigo and on Badajoz. He disliked his cavalry commanders. He wrote a famous letter on 18 July 1812, accusing the cavalry of being unable to manoeuvre except on Wimbledon Common, and of always charging in a body, instead of forming in two lines – one to charge and one as a reserve. Of course, until 1815, he was denied the talents of the brilliant Henry Paget because of the family feud between them. He acted as his own head of intelligence, and closely supervised both the supplying and the payment of his troops. Much of his energy was diverted to political aims: shoring up his support in the British and Spanish governments, lobbying for his choice of officers, and cultivating the cooperation of the Portuguese and Spanish populations. While the French army alienated the latter by seizing their food and shooting anyone who resisted them, Wellington imported most of his food from abroad, paid cash for what he needed locally, and exercised strict discipline over his troops, regularly hanging men for looting, rape, murder, or desecration of religious sites. The locals repaid him with obedience, enlistment and information on French movements. In particular, the guerrilleros (partisans) operated in fairly close cooperation with British troops against the French, especially in their attacks on French couriers, and the passing of the captured French dispatches to Wellington. Legacy and contemporaries As a general, Wellington is often compared to the 1st Duke of Marlborough, with whom he shared many characteristics, chiefly a transition to politics after a highly successful military career. In September 1805, the then Major-General Wellesley, newly returned from his campaigns in India and not yet particularly well-known to the public, reported to the office of the Secretary for War to request a new assignment. In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a legendary figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, and who was briefly in England after months chasing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back. Nelson began a conversation which Wellesley found "almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me". Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was, and on his return switched to a very different tone, discussing the war and British policies as between equals. http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ockham/stories/s1481479.htm This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his great victory at Trafalgar just seven weeks later. Professor Richard Holmes Wellington - the Iron Duke Arms, titles, honours and styles Wellington's coat of arms Wellington received numerous awards and honours during and after his lifetime. These include a wide range of titles as well as buildings in his name, such as Wellington's Column, and the Wellington Monument in his native Dublin. Two of his former homes are now open to the public, including Apsley House in London and Stratfield Saye House. His name has also been applied to numerous buildings and places, including Wellington, the capital of New Zealand and HMS Iron Duke, a First World War battleship. In addition he is the only person to have had the honour of having not one but two Royal Air Force bombers named for him - the Vickers Wellesley and the Vickers Wellington, and at a time when the convention was for British bombers to be named after landlocked cities. A number of monuments have been erected to Wellington's name around Great Britain and Ireland: Wellington Arch on Hyde Park Corner, London Wellington College, Berkshire, in Crowthorne, Berkshire, the UK national monument to Wellington Wellington Monument, Dublin Wellington Monument, London Wellington Monument, Somerset in the Blackdown Hills, near Wellington in Somerset Wellington Monument, Woodhall Spa, Lincolnshire Wellington Statue, Aldershot Wellington's Column in Liverpool a monument in his birthplace in Trim, County Meath, Ireland Wellington's tomb is in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, near that of Sir Christopher Wren. The casket is decorated with banners which were made for his funeral procession. Originally, there was one for Prussia, which was removed during World War I and never reinstated. From 1971 until 1990, the Duke of Wellington's picture featured on the reverse of Series D £5 banknotes issued by the Bank of England, along with a scene from the Battle of Waterloo. Nicknames He gave his name to "Wellington boots" and had several nicknames. The "Iron Duke", possibly after an incident in 1830 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at Apsley House Officers under his command called him "The Beau", as he was a fine dresser, or "The Peer" after he was made a Viscount. Regular soldiers under his command called him "Old Nosey" or "Old Hookey", on account of his prominent, aquiline nose. Spanish and Portuguese troops called him "the Eagle" and "Douro" respectively. "The Beef", a reference to the famous Beef Wellington dish. It is also his nickname in the board game, Risk. "our Atty", short for Arthur, he was called thus at Waterloo by his Peninsular veterans In fiction The Duke appears in The Regency, Volume 13 of The Morland Dynasty, a series of historical novels by author Cynthia Harrod-Eagles. This volume is set against the backdrop of the Napoleonic Wars. The Duke is portrayed in the final episode of the Blackadder the Third television series, starring Rowan Atkinson (Edmund Blackadder), Tony Robinson (S. Baldrick), and Hugh Laurie (George IV, Prince of Wales); Stephen Fry played the Duke of Wellington in Duel and Duality. As the Blackadder series is a period, situation comedy, his traits are accentuated to match the slapstick nature of the programme. The Duke makes numerous appearances and many mentions in the historical adventure Richard Sharpe novels authored by Bernard Cornwell. Wellington is a minor character in Susanna Clarke's Jonathan Strange & Mr. Norrell, in which he is aided in the Peninsular War by the magician Jonathan Strange. The latter provides him a magical road for the soldiers to walk on, changes the topography of Spain to benefit the British army, and plagues the French army with illusions, among other things. He may also have cast a protective charm over Wellington, who suffered no wounds in twenty years of battle. Wellington is one of the two main protagonists of Simon Scarrow's Reveloutionary Quartet books, the other being Napoleon. The books explore Wellington on the battlefield and also his personal life. Wellington is a minor character in Georgette Heyer's novel The Spanish Bride, based on the Peninsular Wars. The novel uses Duke of Wellington's correspondence and his known remarks substantially to recreate his character as close-to-real-life as possible. References Sources Beatson, Alexander. A collection of the Duke’s letters. A View of the Origin and Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun. Bulmer and Co., 1800. Brett-James, ed. Wellington at War 1794–1815, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1961. Glover, Michael, The Peninsular War 1807 – 1814. London: Penguin Books, 2001 ISBN 0-141-39041-7 (first published 1974). Guedalla, Phillip, The Duke. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1931. Hilbert, Charles. Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, time and conflicts in India on behalf of the British East India Company and the British crown. Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp.34 to 41), ISSN 1524-8666. Holmes, Richard. Wellington: The Iron Duke. London: Harper Collins Publishers, 2002 ISBN 0-00-713750-8. Hutchinson, Lester. European Freebooters in Mogul India. New York: Asia Publishing House, 1964. Longford, Elizabeth. Wellington: The Years of The Sword. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1969. Mill, James. The History of British India. 6 vols. 5th ed. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1968. Gurwood, John. The dispatches of Field Marshall the Duke of Wellington : during his various campaigns in India, Denmark, Portugal, Spain, the Low Countries, and France, from 1799 to 1818. Volume X. London: J. Murray, 1838. Retrieved on 14 November 2007. Coates, Berwick. "Wellington's Charge". London: Robson (Publisher), 2002 ISBN 1861055161 LCCN2002489427 External links ThePeerage.com Duke of Wellington Chronology World History Database Wellington's Military and Political Career Duke of Wellington's Regiment - West Riding Images of political cartoons featuring the Duke of Wellington Duke of Wellington At Find A Grave More about Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington on the Downing Street website A Paper about the Duke of Wellington |- |- | Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington |@lemmatized field:9 marshal:10 arthur:21 wellesley:75 duke:43 wellington:134 kg:1 kp:1 gcb:1 gch:1 pc:1 fr:1 c:2 april:6 may:8 september:9 anglo:9 irish:7 soldier:9 statesman:2 one:20 lead:15 military:9 political:8 figure:3 nineteenth:1 century:1 bear:6 ireland:13 prominent:2 ascendancy:1 family:11 commission:2 ensign:3 british:44 army:55 serve:11 aide:4 de:8 camp:5 two:22 successive:2 lord:22 lieutenant:10 also:15 elect:5 member:7 parliament:8 house:21 common:6 colonel:5 saw:3 action:4 netherlands:3 later:25 india:22 fight:12 fourth:4 mysore:12 war:30 battle:56 seringapatam:11 appoint:6 governor:7 rise:3 prominence:1 general:25 peninsular:11 campaign:14 napoleonic:6 promote:6 rank:6 allied:16 force:50 victory:13 french:66 vitoria:6 follow:6 napoleon:31 exile:2 ambassador:2 france:12 grant:2 dukedom:1 hundred:2 day:12 command:21 defeat:16 waterloo:13 opponent:3 parliamentary:2 reform:9 give:15 epithet:2 iron:10 shutter:3 fix:1 window:3 stop:2 pro:2 mob:1 break:8 twice:2 prime:11 minister:14 united:2 kingdom:3 tory:10 party:4 oversee:1 passage:3 catholic:7 relief:2 act:9 briefly:3 unable:4 prevent:4 continue:4 retirement:2 remain:4 commander:8 chief:5 death:8 early:8 life:10 mention:2 place:6 ancestry:1 among:2 conquer:1 elite:1 norman:2 invasion:5 land:1 south:5 well:8 around:4 settlement:2 still:9 know:9 farm:1 ancestor:1 wesley:5 inherit:2 childless:1 wealthy:1 husband:1 aunt:1 patrilineal:1 grandfather:1 garret:2 colley:2 landlord:1 live:3 rahin:1 near:8 carbury:1 county:3 kildare:4 change:5 surname:2 longford:6 e:2 year:17 sword:2 harper:3 row:2 publisher:5 p:61 colleys:1 part:5 since:3 historian:3 walter:1 fitzgerald:1 state:5 elizabethan:1 castle:6 possession:1 cowley:2 descend:1 direct:3 male:1 line:21 journal:1 archaeological:1 society:1 vol:2 x:2 spent:2 much:7 childhood:2 dangan:3 paint:2 circa:1 honourable:1 son:4 third:6 five:1 survive:1 earl:8 mornington:3 anne:1 eldest:2 daughter:2 hill:5 viscount:4 dungannon:1 likely:2 upper:1 merrion:1 street:4 dublin:12 opposite:1 royal:6 college:5 science:2 government:14 building:4 dictionary:2 national:3 biography:2 biographer:3 mostly:1 contemporary:2 newspaper:1 evidence:1 say:4 though:6 quote:1 sir:6 leslie:1 stephen:2 sidney:1 lee:1 eds:1 baptise:1 guedalla:2 baptismal:1 font:1 donate:1 st:4 nahi:1 church:1 dundrum:1 put:5 forward:2 location:2 birth:1 father:4 claim:2 next:5 door:1 longer:1 packet:1 boat:2 estate:1 athy:1 apparently:1 census:1 return:21 burnt:1 holmes:55 spend:2 home:8 first:19 large:8 second:10 km:1 north:7 summerhill:1 trim:6 road:6 meath:2 province:2 leinster:1 die:3 brother:14 richard:10 earldom:1 raise:2 peerage:1 baron:2 maryborough:1 education:1 go:6 diocesan:1 school:2 mr:2 whyte:1 academy:2 brown:1 chelsea:2 london:15 enrol:2 eton:3 study:1 loneliness:1 cause:5 hate:1 make:12 highly:2 unlikely:1 actually:2 win:4 playing:1 lack:6 success:3 combine:5 shortage:1 fund:1 move:3 brussels:2 belgium:3 mother:4 twenty:2 show:6 little:2 sign:4 distinction:1 grow:5 increasingly:4 concern:2 idleness:1 shall:1 awkward:1 equitation:1 anger:3 progress:1 significantly:1 become:15 good:3 horseman:1 learn:5 prove:4 useful:1 upon:5 england:12 late:4 astonish:1 improvement:1 career:8 beginning:2 work:3 picture:3 despite:6 new:19 promise:3 yet:3 find:5 job:1 short:2 money:4 advice:2 ask:1 friend:1 rutland:1 consider:4 soon:1 march:6 gazette:2 regiment:12 foot:2 october:1 assistance:1 assign:1 ten:1 shilling:1 pay:3 buckingham:2 transfer:3 forming:1 christmas:1 time:31 duty:1 mainly:2 social:1 attend:3 ball:2 entertain:1 guest:1 provide:7 extend:3 borrow:1 due:3 occasional:1 gambling:1 defence:3 often:8 want:2 never:7 get:2 helplessly:1 debt:2 june:8 light:2 dragoon:2 accord:2 dip:1 reluctant:1 toe:1 politics:4 shortly:1 election:5 rotten:1 borough:2 speak:2 granting:2 title:6 freeman:1 leader:6 nationalist:1 movement:4 henry:2 grattan:1 succeeding:1 nominate:1 duly:1 limited:1 suffrage:2 sit:2 least:2 owe:3 landowner:1 less:4 vote:3 captain:1 period:3 attract:1 kitty:3 pakenham:3 describe:2 full:5 gaiety:1 charm:2 access:3 seek:1 permission:4 marry:3 turn:2 young:2 man:2 poor:4 prospect:2 aspiring:1 amateur:1 musician:1 devastate:1 rejection:1 burn:1 violin:1 resolve:2 pursue:7 earnest:1 gain:3 promotion:2 largely:2 purchase:2 major:5 month:11 lend:1 colonelcy:1 age:2 york:6 send:11 flanders:2 contingent:1 destine:2 join:5 set:4 sail:5 cork:1 real:2 experience:3 brigade:2 unit:3 come:3 fire:9 east:6 breda:1 boxtel:1 latter:6 winter:2 defend:3 waal:1 river:7 ill:2 damp:1 environment:1 unsuccessful:1 several:10 valuable:2 lesson:2 include:7 use:7 steady:1 advance:5 column:9 merit:1 support:4 sea:4 power:4 conclude:3 many:11 blunder:1 fault:1 organisation:1 headquarters:1 remark:7 always:6 hop:2 position:11 secretary:4 camden:1 able:4 offer:1 post:5 surveyor:1 ordnance:2 decline:2 southampton:1 prepare:4 west:6 indie:2 seven:3 week:5 storm:2 fleet:2 back:4 poole:1 convalesce:1 whitehall:1 decide:4 seniority:1 calcutta:2 arrive:3 february:2 brief:2 expedition:5 philippine:1 establish:3 list:2 hygiene:1 precaution:1 men:12 deal:3 unfamiliar:1 climate:1 november:7 elder:1 rule:2 company:3 sultan:6 tippoo:5 order:14 arm:5 sent:1 capture:4 harris:4 troop:19 dispatch:6 madras:2 equal:2 bombay:1 august:4 spelling:2 old:3 ancient:1 proper:1 signature:1 letter:3 date:1 extensive:4 careful:1 logistic:1 preparation:3 would:17 main:10 attribute:1 leave:10 december:2 travel:2 across:1 jungle:1 account:3 journey:1 additional:1 advisor:1 nizam:1 hyderabad:1 accompany:1 friction:2 amongst:3 senior:2 officer:7 rest:3 malavelly:1 attack:33 enemy:8 gentle:1 ridge:2 repeat:1 volley:2 bayonet:2 charge:6 conjunction:1 infantry:9 retreat:14 srirangapatna:2 tippu:1 ruler:1 kill:7 scene:3 confirm:2 check:2 pulse:2 subsequently:1 immediately:5 arrival:4 begin:6 night:2 village:2 sultanpettah:1 adjacent:1 fortress:11 clear:6 way:4 artillery:6 strong:2 defensive:9 darkness:1 result:3 confusion:1 fail:2 casualty:2 suffer:2 minor:4 injury:1 knee:1 musket:2 chronology:2 macquarie:1 university:1 although:6 reattack:1 successfully:1 scout:2 ahead:1 affair:1 impact:1 strongly:2 whose:1 reconnoitre:1 daylight:2 bombardment:1 breach:5 open:2 wall:2 baird:1 secure:3 rear:2 guard:6 station:3 palace:2 hear:1 news:6 coming:1 discipline:5 drink:3 pillage:1 city:3 restore:2 flog:1 four:3 hanged:1 resulting:1 end:6 stay:2 behind:2 area:1 take:21 residence:4 within:2 summer:2 tax:1 justice:1 system:1 maintain:2 bribery:1 hunt:1 mercenary:2 king:8 dhoondiah:3 waugh:1 escape:3 prison:1 rebel:1 along:3 future:1 upkeep:1 dhundia:1 orphan:1 whilst:3 considerable:2 severe:1 diarrhea:1 water:1 fever:1 serious:1 skin:1 infection:1 trichophyton:1 receive:4 reach:1 maratha:13 must:2 boldly:1 numerically:1 empire:1 long:2 ruin:1 logistical:1 assembly:1 complete:3 total:2 fort:3 surrender:1 exploit:2 control:5 southward:1 godavari:1 assaye:5 painting:1 j:2 stadler:1 important:2 best:4 ever:5 split:2 locate:1 stevenson:1 far:2 small:6 rejoin:1 however:11 intelligence:3 report:4 wait:1 mount:2 launch:2 ford:2 kaitna:1 commence:1 cross:4 reorganise:2 cavalry:7 flank:5 horse:1 shoot:2 crucial:1 moment:2 regroup:1 maxwell:1 eastern:1 renew:2 centre:5 write:4 importance:1 personal:4 leadership:1 thick:1 whole:1 readvance:1 fate:1 seem:1 doubtful:1 wound:3 rout:3 condition:2 cost:3 trouble:1 loss:4 like:2 see:2 sustain:1 even:4 damage:3 argaum:2 astonishing:1 dead:2 successful:7 gawilghur:1 lake:1 delhi:1 peace:2 influence:1 personality:2 tactic:6 teach:1 matter:1 vital:3 sense:1 drill:1 diplomacy:1 ally:8 necessity:1 supply:13 high:3 regard:2 acquisition:1 spy:1 taste:1 develop:1 dress:1 white:1 trouser:1 dark:2 tunic:1 hessian:1 boot:2 black:1 cock:1 hat:3 synonymous:1 style:4 recently:1 knight:3 proposal:1 reject:1 deem:2 tire:1 ought:1 anywhere:1 else:1 apply:2 reward:2 service:3 bath:2 amass:1 fortune:1 consist:2 prize:1 term:2 together:2 coincidently:1 voyage:1 island:2 saint:4 helena:2 wellesleys:1 employment:1 status:1 wife:1 abortive:1 russian:2 germany:1 elbe:1 roberts:1 xxiii:1 austerlitz:1 nothing:1 accomplish:1 junior:1 denmark:2 meanwhile:2 rye:1 six:5 mp:2 newport:1 isle:1 wight:1 constituency:1 represent:1 privy:1 counsellor:1 danish:1 milita:1 køge:1 abrupt:1 halt:1 europe:2 participate:1 iberia:1 reenacters:1 redcoat:1 standard:4 theatre:2 achieve:3 enormous:1 renown:1 caution:1 reverse:3 slope:3 formation:2 seize:2 dominate:1 portugal:14 spain:11 venezuela:1 collaboration:1 latin:1 american:1 patriot:1 francisco:2 miranda:1 spanish:11 mayo:1 uprise:1 instead:5 roliça:1 vimeiro:1 supersede:2 dalrymple:2 controversial:1 convention:3 sintra:1 stipulate:1 navy:3 transport:3 lisbon:6 loot:3 insist:1 association:1 available:2 recall:1 britain:3 face:3 court:1 enquiry:1 agree:3 preliminary:1 armistice:1 enter:2 veteran:2 revolt:1 peninsula:6 john:2 moore:1 corunna:1 january:2 overall:1 perspective:1 portuguese:6 resistance:1 contrast:1 disastrous:1 walcheren:1 typical:1 mismanaged:1 operation:2 submit:1 memorandum:1 castlereagh:3 stress:1 mountainous:1 frontier:2 advocated:1 base:2 could:10 help:3 cabinet:5 approve:1 memo:1 head:2 number:7 thus:2 reinforce:4 offensive:3 porto:3 douro:2 coup:1 marshall:2 soult:9 cuesta:1 madrid:5 mean:1 victor:2 joseph:2 bonaparte:2 lose:4 talavera:2 ennoble:1 threaten:4 compel:3 deprive:1 throughout:2 tell:1 rely:1 resource:1 newly:3 enlarge:1 andré:1 masséna:3 invade:2 opinion:1 negative:1 suggestion:1 evacuate:2 slow:2 buçaco:1 block:1 massive:2 earthwork:1 torres:2 vedras:2 assemble:1 secrecy:1 baffled:1 starve:1 skirmish:1 sabugal:1 drive:4 except:2 garrison:3 almeida:4 siege:6 towards:1 relieve:2 narrowly:1 fuentes:1 onoro:1 simultaneously:1 subordinate:2 beresford:1 bloody:3 standstill:1 albuera:1 abandon:6 retain:1 twin:1 ciudad:3 rodrigo:3 badajoz:5 key:2 mountain:1 pass:6 portrait:1 goya:1 finally:2 rapid:1 quarter:1 react:1 quickly:1 besiege:2 view:3 aftermath:1 storming:2 composure:1 cry:2 sight:2 carnage:1 division:1 resurgent:1 campaigning:1 salamanca:6 advantage:3 mispositioning:1 liberate:1 capital:2 create:3 marquess:1 attempt:4 burgos:5 link:3 equipment:1 andalusia:1 precarious:1 withdraw:2 corp:1 rowland:2 hold:9 numerical:1 hesitate:1 wary:1 southern:2 temporary:1 irreparably:1 prestige:1 puppet:1 communication:1 strike:1 switch:2 santander:1 coast:2 abandoning:1 outflank:1 catch:1 smash:2 personally:1 thomas:2 graham:1 loop:1 right:8 subject:2 beethoven:1 opus:1 wagon:1 beaten:1 foe:1 gross:1 abandonment:1 enraged:1 famous:5 bathurst:2 scum:2 earth:2 pamplona:1 san:1 sebastián:1 pyrenees:2 bidassoa:1 nivelle:1 nive:1 isolate:1 bayonne:1 orthez:1 toulouse:3 abdication:2 hail:1 conquering:1 hero:1 descendant:1 award:2 patent:1 nobility:1 unique:1 ceremony:1 last:3 plenipotentiary:1 congress:1 vienna:2 advocate:1 allow:3 keep:3 european:3 balance:1 knighthood:1 convert:1 grand:1 expansion:2 alternative:1 minority:1 skill:2 relative:1 g:1 macdonell:1 probably:3 history:3 easy:1 iberian:2 interior:1 country:5 every:1 peasant:1 priest:1 source:2 information:3 active:1 assassin:1 constant:1 flow:1 game:2 hand:2 nearly:2 prion:1 originally:2 macmillan:1 co:2 simple:1 fact:3 artist:1 lawrence:1 elba:1 regain:1 alliance:2 german:5 dutch:3 belgian:1 alongside:1 prussian:14 gebhard:1 leberecht:1 von:1 blücher:6 invaded:1 ligny:3 indecisive:1 quatre:1 bra:1 event:1 town:1 encounter:1 train:4 poorly:1 nassau:1 america:2 historical:3 discussion:1 decision:2 grouchy:3 intercept:1 divergent:1 direction:2 strategically:1 astute:1 judgement:1 beat:1 combined:1 battlefield:5 comparable:1 strategic:1 gamble:2 hal:2 mont:2 jean:2 potential:1 benefit:2 protection:1 reserve:4 following:1 inconclusive:1 criticise:1 lacking:1 brilliance:1 exhibit:1 earlier:2 array:1 austrian:1 mobilise:1 choice:3 confront:1 response:3 brutally:1 aim:6 chance:1 possibility:1 austria:1 russia:1 partly:2 rearguard:1 ultimately:1 wish:1 divide:1 rather:3 plan:3 pin:2 overwhelm:1 cannon:1 hougoumont:2 draw:1 reinforcement:1 away:1 left:2 shatter:1 assault:5 modestly:1 destroy:2 badly:1 polish:1 lancer:1 option:1 effective:1 reorganisation:1 prelude:1 wave:3 scatter:1 grouping:1 square:4 point:3 blank:1 devastation:1 inferior:1 tactician:1 strategist:1 coordination:1 various:3 branch:2 haphazard:1 decisively:1 space:2 protect:3 remants:1 gradually:2 oblige:1 uphill:1 muddy:1 terrain:4 criss:1 sunken:1 petered:1 outpost:1 kind:1 linkage:1 evening:1 farmhouse:1 la:2 haye:1 sainte:1 lynch:1 front:3 redrew:1 remnant:1 prepared:1 final:2 uniform:1 visible:1 distance:1 imperial:1 decisive:2 blow:1 pronged:1 finish:1 believe:1 annihilation:1 effect:1 scale:1 ambush:1 possibly:2 confident:1 run:2 surprise:2 counter:3 crossfire:1 hide:1 crop:1 unprepared:1 perhaps:2 demoralise:1 falter:1 trigger:1 panic:1 overrun:1 disorder:1 meet:5 inn:1 belle:1 bisect:1 relatively:1 rested:1 emperor:1 abdicate:1 atlantic:1 mark:1 canonise:1 generation:1 fifteen:1 world:4 hour:2 debate:1 whether:2 crush:1 engage:1 wavre:1 mile:1 factor:1 person:2 suggest:1 chaotic:1 strategy:1 everything:1 bring:3 stand:3 inroad:1 master:1 liverpool:3 robert:3 peel:7 influential:1 choose:1 official:1 apsley:4 require:2 renovation:1 instrumental:1 foundation:1 conservative:3 fear:1 anarchy:1 revolution:2 spread:1 highlight:1 emancipation:3 almost:7 civil:1 uk:2 landslide:1 daniel:1 connell:1 proponent:1 legally:1 winchilsea:7 accuse:2 treacherously:1 plot:1 destruction:1 protestant:1 constitution:1 respond:1 challenge:1 duel:3 battersea:1 wide:2 differ:1 miss:2 purpose:1 note:1 sympathetic:1 claimed:1 certainly:1 honour:5 save:1 apology:1 stiff:1 opposition:1 speech:1 govern:1 understanding:3 grievance:1 community:1 majority:2 whig:6 originate:1 extremely:1 degree:1 unpopularity:1 target:1 smasher:1 instal:2 mitigate:1 resolute:1 attitude:1 earn:2 nickname:5 fell:2 autumn:1 riot:2 swing:1 sweep:2 unrest:1 stick:1 policy:2 confidence:1 replace:1 grey:2 introduce:2 bill:3 another:2 insurrection:1 greet:1 hostile:1 reaction:1 crowd:1 opening:1 manchester:1 railway:1 form:2 bank:2 william:1 iv:2 premiership:1 eventually:1 fill:1 peer:2 reconcile:1 widened:1 franchise:1 shock:1 bad:3 caretaker:1 evolve:1 select:1 italy:1 three:2 interim:1 responsibility:1 ministry:1 foreign:1 without:1 portfolio:1 funeral:5 procession:2 trafalgar:2 retire:1 spotlight:1 organise:2 repeal:1 corn:1 law:1 former:2 derby:2 shout:2 inexperienced:1 read:1 walmer:1 honorary:1 warden:1 cinque:1 port:1 enjoy:1 host:1 queen:1 victoria:1 rail:1 body:2 handful:1 example:1 nelson:6 winston:1 churchill:1 heraldic:1 hardly:1 people:1 effusive:1 praise:1 tennyson:1 ode:1 attest:1 stature:1 bury:1 sarcophagus:1 luxulyanite:1 paul:2 cathedral:2 traits:1 adult:1 tireless:1 worker:1 lie:1 awake:1 usually:1 sleep:2 civilian:1 bed:1 reflect:1 creature:1 comfort:1 miguel:1 álava:2 complain:1 daybreak:1 dine:1 cold:2 meat:2 dread:1 phrase:1 seldom:1 eat:2 anything:1 breakfast:1 dinner:2 subsist:1 despair:1 staff:1 din:1 bread:1 renowned:1 quality:1 wine:1 bottle:1 great:4 quantity:1 technology:1 mechanical:1 innovation:1 employ:2 shrapnel:1 shell:1 congreve:1 rocket:1 disappoint:1 wildly:1 inaccurate:1 decrypt:1 intercepted:1 message:1 conversely:1 comprise:1 pack:1 mule:1 ox:1 cart:1 ungreased:1 axle:1 plus:1 cargo:1 rarely:2 emotion:1 public:4 appear:2 condescend:1 competent:1 everyone:1 witness:1 incident:2 chicken:1 leg:1 observe:1 manoeuvre:2 spyglass:1 spot:1 overextension:1 realise:2 throw:2 drumstick:1 air:2 le:1 français:1 sont:1 perdus:1 impromptu:1 flamenco:1 dance:1 spin:1 heel:2 click:1 finger:1 glover:2 stern:1 countenance:1 care:2 refuse:1 inevitable:1 broken:1 rough:1 grief:1 disastrously:1 costly:1 context:1 call:5 fuel:1 disappointment:1 portray:2 oporto:2 fame:1 either:2 training:2 excellent:1 dictate:1 finance:1 merely:1 vagary:1 unstable:1 junta:1 guerrilleros:2 warlord:1 problem:1 barren:1 dire:1 bother:1 simply:1 whatever:1 need:3 goodwill:1 populace:1 elsewhere:1 especially:2 wheat:1 present:1 achilles:1 assume:1 unmatched:1 alone:1 whenever:1 conceal:1 opportunity:1 cut:2 aggressive:1 crossing:1 breathtaking:1 mistake:1 coordinate:1 baggage:1 gun:1 cautious:2 parapet:1 survey:1 telescope:1 muttering:1 whip:1 behove:1 heavily:1 outnumber:1 rebellious:1 population:2 possible:2 region:1 concentrate:1 therefore:1 incursion:1 exception:2 indian:1 morale:1 overconfident:1 retake:1 equally:1 lengthy:1 vauban:1 gather:1 hence:1 dislike:1 july:1 wimbledon:1 course:1 deny:1 talent:1 brilliant:1 paget:1 feud:1 closely:1 supervise:1 supplying:1 payment:1 energy:1 divert:1 shore:1 lobby:1 cultivate:1 cooperation:2 alienate:1 food:2 anyone:1 resist:1 import:1 abroad:1 cash:1 locally:1 exercise:1 strict:1 regularly:1 hang:1 looting:1 rape:1 murder:1 desecration:1 religious:1 site:1 local:1 repay:1 obedience:1 enlistment:1 particular:1 partisan:1 operate:1 fairly:1 close:2 courier:1 passing:1 captured:1 legacy:1 compare:1 marlborough:1 share:1 characteristic:1 chiefly:1 transition:1 particularly:1 office:1 request:1 assignment:1 waiting:1 room:2 vice:1 admiral:1 horatio:1 already:1 legendary:1 nile:1 copenhagen:1 chase:1 toulon:1 conversation:1 side:1 vain:1 silly:1 disgust:1 inquire:1 different:1 tone:1 discuss:1 http:1 www:1 abc:1 net:1 au:1 rn:1 ockham:1 story:1 htm:1 professor:1 coat:1 numerous:3 lifetime:1 range:1 name:6 monument:8 native:1 stratfield:1 saye:1 zealand:1 hm:1 battleship:1 addition:1 bomber:2 vickers:2 landlocked:1 erect:1 arch:1 hyde:1 park:1 corner:1 berkshire:2 crowthorne:1 somerset:2 blackdown:1 woodhall:1 spa:1 lincolnshire:1 statue:1 aldershot:1 birthplace:1 tomb:1 crypt:1 christopher:1 wren:1 casket:1 decorate:1 banner:1 prussia:1 remove:1 reinstate:1 feature:2 series:4 banknote:1 issue:1 metal:1 rioter:1 beau:1 fine:1 dresser:1 regular:1 nosey:1 hookey:1 aquiline:1 nose:1 eagle:2 respectively:1 beef:2 reference:2 dish:1 board:1 risk:1 atty:1 fiction:1 regency:1 volume:4 morland:1 dynasty:1 novel:4 author:2 cynthia:1 harrod:1 backdrop:1 episode:1 blackadder:3 television:1 star:1 rowan:1 atkinson:1 edmund:1 tony:1 robinson:1 baldrick:1 hugh:1 laurie:1 george:1 prince:1 wale:1 fry:1 play:1 duality:1 situation:1 comedy:1 trait:1 accentuate:1 match:1 slapstick:1 nature:1 programme:1 appearance:1 adventure:1 sharpe:1 bernard:1 cornwell:1 character:3 susanna:1 clarke:1 jonathan:2 strange:2 norrell:1 aid:1 magician:1 magical:1 walk:1 topography:1 plague:1 illusion:1 thing:1 cast:1 protective:1 protagonist:1 simon:1 scarrow:1 reveloutionary:1 quartet:1 book:3 explore:1 georgette:1 heyer:1 bride:1 us:1 correspondence:1 substantially:1 recreate:1 beatson:1 alexander:1 collection:1 origin:1 conduct:1 sultaun:1 bulmer:1 brett:1 james:2 ed:2 martin:1 press:1 michael:1 penguin:1 isbn:3 publish:1 phillip:1 hodder:1 stoughton:1 hilbert:1 charles:1 conflict:1 behalf:1 crown:1 heritage:1 pp:1 issn:1 collins:1 hutchinson:1 lester:1 freebooter:1 mogul:1 asia:1 publishing:1 elizabeth:1 mill:1 vols:1 gurwood:1 low:1 murray:1 retrieve:1 coates:1 berwick:1 robson:1 external:1 thepeerage:1 com:1 database:1 rid:1 image:1 cartoon:1 grave:1 website:1 paper:1 |@bigram arthur_wellesley:7 duke_wellington:22 nineteenth_century:1 battle_vitoria:5 prime_minister:11 commander_chief:3 county_kildare:1 harper_row:2 baptismal_font:1 county_meath:2 peerage_baron:1 brussels_belgium:1 entertain_guest:1 rotten_borough:1 lieutenant_colonel:1 west_indie:2 nizam_hyderabad:1 artillery_bombardment:1 anglo_maratha:2 anywhere_else:1 isle_wight:1 privy_counsellor:1 abrupt_halt:1 douro_river:1 francisco_goya:1 irreparably_damage:1 san_sebastián:1 iberian_peninsula:2 gebhard_leberecht:1 leberecht_von:1 von_blücher:1 quatre_bra:1 wellington_blücher:2 criss_cross:1 la_haye:1 haye_sainte:1 belle_alliance:1 apsley_house:4 daniel_connell:1 liverpool_manchester:1 caretaker_prime:1 funeral_procession:2 trafalgar_square:1 repeal_corn:1 cinque_port:1 queen_victoria:1 winston_churchill:1 le_français:1 rough_terrain:1 achilles_heel:1 heavily_outnumber:1 vice_admiral:1 horatio_nelson:1 http_www:1 coat_arm:1 monument_erect:1 hyde_park:1 christopher_wren:1 rowan_atkinson:1 edmund_blackadder:1 hugh_laurie:1 stephen_fry:1 bernard_cornwell:1 hodder_stoughton:1 harper_collins:1 external_link:1 |
7,478 | British_thermal_unit | The British thermal unit (BTU or Btu) is a unit of energy used in the power, steam generation, heating and air conditioning industries. In scientific contexts the BTU has largely been replaced by the unit of energy, the joule (J), though it may be used as a measure of agricultural energy production (BTU/kg). It is still used 'unofficially' in metric English-speaking countries (such as Canada, the United Kingdom, and sometimes in New Zealand), and remains the standard unit of classification for air conditioning units manufactured and sold in many non-English-speaking metric countries. In North America, the term "BTU" is used to describe the heat value (energy content) of fuels, and also to describe the power of heating and cooling systems, such as furnaces, stoves, barbecue grills, and air conditioners. When used as a unit of power, BTU 'per hour' (BTU/h) is understood, though this is often confusingly abbreviated to just "BTU". The unit MBTU was defined as one thousand BTU presumably from the Roman numeral system where "M" stands for one thousand (1,000). This is easily confused with the mega (M) prefix, which adds a factor of one million (1,000,000). To avoid confusion many companies and engineers use MMBTU to represent one million BTU. Alternatively a therm is used representing 100,000 or 105 BTU, and a quad as 1015 BTU. Definitions A BTU is defined as amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of liquid water by one degree from 60° to 61°Fahrenheit at a constant pressure of one atmosphere. As is the case with the calorie, several different definitions of the BTU exist, which are based on different water temperatures and therefore vary by up to 0.5%: Nominal Temperature BTU Equivalent in Joules Notes 39 °F ≈ 1059.67 Uses the calorie value of water at its maximum density (4 °C) Mean ≈ 1055.87 Uses a calorie averaged over water temperatures 0 °C to 100 °C IT ≡ 1055.05585262 The most widespread BTU, uses the International [Steam] Table (IT) calorie, which was defined by the Fifth International Conference on the Properties of Steam (London, July 1956) to be exactly 4.1868 J ISO ≡ 1055.056 International standard ISO 31-4 on Quantities and units—Part 4: Heat, Appendix A. This value uses the IT calorie and is rounded to a realistic accuracy |- 59 °F ≡ 1054.804 Chiefly American. Uses the 15 °C calorie, itself now defined as exactly 4.1855 J (Comité international 1950; PV, 1950, 22, 79–80) 60 °F ≈ 1054.68 Chiefly Canadian 63 °F ≈ 1054.6 Thermochemical ≡ 1054.35026444 Uses the "thermochemical calorie" of exactly 4.184 J Conversions One BTU is approximately: 1 054 to 1 060 J (joules) 2.931 × 10−4 kW·h (kilowatt hours) 252 to 253 cal (calories, or "little calories") 0.25 kcal (kilocalories, "large calories", or "food calories") 25 031 to 25 160 ft·pdl (foot-poundal) 778 to 782 ft·lbf (foot-pounds-force) Other conversions: In natural gas, by convention 1 MMBtu (1 million BTU, sometimes written "mmBTU") = 1.054615 GJ. Conversely, 1 gigajoule is equivalent to 26.8 m3 of natural gas at defined temperature and pressure. So, 1 MMBtu = 28.263682 m3 of natural gas at defined temperature and pressure. 1 standard cubic foot of natural gas yields ≈ 1030 BTU (between 1010 BTU and 1070 BTU, depending on quality, when burned) Associated units The BTU per hour (BTU/h) is the unit of power most commonly associated with the BTU. The term is sometimes shortened to BTU hour (BTU.h) but both have the same meaning. 1 watt is approximately 3.413 BTU/h 1000 BTU/h is approximately 293 W 1 horsepower is approximately 2,544 BTU/h 1 "ton of cooling", a common unit in North American refrigeration and air conditioning applications, is 12,000 BTU/h. It is the amount of power needed to melt one short ton of ice in 24 hours, and is approximately 3.51 kW. 1 therm is defined in the United States and European Union as 100,000 BTU—but the U.S. uses the BTU59 °F whilst the EU uses the BTUIT. 1 quad (energy) (short for quadrillion BTU) is defined as 1015 BTU, which is about one exajoule (1.055 × 1018 J). Quads are used in the United States for representing the annual energy consumption of large economies: for example, the U.S. economy used 99.75 quads/year in 2005. One quad/year is about 33.43 gigawatts. The BTU should not be confused with the Board of Trade Unit (B.O.T.U.), which is a much larger quantity of energy (1 kW·h, or about 3412 BTU). See also Conversion of units Latent heat Metrication External links The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 Natural Gas: A Primer | British_thermal_unit |@lemmatized british:1 thermal:1 unit:14 btu:35 energy:7 use:17 power:5 steam:3 generation:1 heating:2 air:4 conditioning:2 industry:1 scientific:1 context:1 largely:1 replace:1 joule:3 j:6 though:2 may:1 measure:1 agricultural:1 production:1 kg:1 still:1 unofficially:1 metric:2 english:2 speaking:1 country:2 canada:1 united:3 kingdom:1 sometimes:3 new:1 zealand:1 remain:1 standard:3 classification:1 condition:1 manufacture:1 sell:1 many:2 non:1 speak:1 north:2 america:1 term:2 describe:2 heat:4 value:3 content:1 fuel:1 also:2 cool:2 system:2 furnace:1 stove:1 barbecue:1 grill:1 conditioner:1 per:2 hour:5 h:9 understood:1 often:1 confusingly:1 abbreviate:1 mbtu:1 define:6 one:11 thousand:2 presumably:1 roman:1 numeral:1 stand:1 easily:1 confuse:2 mega:1 prefix:1 add:1 factor:1 million:3 avoid:1 confusion:1 company:1 engineer:1 mmbtu:4 represent:3 alternatively:1 therm:2 quad:5 definition:2 amount:2 require:1 raise:1 temperature:6 pound:2 liquid:1 water:4 degree:1 fahrenheit:1 constant:1 pressure:3 atmosphere:1 case:1 calorie:11 several:1 different:2 exist:1 base:1 therefore:1 vary:1 nominal:1 equivalent:2 note:1 f:5 maximum:1 density:1 c:4 mean:1 average:1 widespread:1 international:4 table:1 fifth:1 conference:1 property:1 london:1 july:1 exactly:3 iso:2 quantity:2 part:1 appendix:1 round:1 realistic:1 accuracy:1 chiefly:2 american:2 comité:1 pv:1 canadian:1 thermochemical:2 conversion:3 approximately:5 kw:3 kilowatt:1 cal:1 little:1 kcal:1 kilocalorie:1 large:3 food:1 ft:2 pdl:1 foot:3 poundal:1 lbf:1 force:1 natural:5 gas:5 convention:1 write:1 gj:1 conversely:1 gigajoule:1 defined:2 cubic:1 yield:1 depend:1 quality:1 burn:1 associate:2 commonly:1 shorten:1 meaning:1 watt:1 w:1 horsepower:1 ton:2 common:1 refrigeration:1 application:1 need:1 melt:1 short:2 ice:1 state:2 european:1 union:1 u:3 whilst:1 eu:1 btuit:1 quadrillion:1 exajoule:1 annual:1 consumption:1 economy:2 example:1 year:2 gigawatts:1 board:1 trade:1 b:1 much:1 see:1 latent:1 metrication:1 external:1 link:1 measurement:1 regulation:1 primer:1 |@bigram air_conditioning:2 air_conditioner:1 btu_h:7 avoid_confusion:1 degree_fahrenheit:1 kilowatt_hour:1 ft_lbf:1 latent_heat:1 external_link:1 |
7,479 | Bentley | Bentley's winged "B" badge and hood ornament. 1929 "Blower" Bentley from the Ralph Lauren collection. Bentley Motors Limited is a British manufacturer of automobiles founded on 18 January 1919 by Walter Owen Bentley (known as W.O. Bentley or just "W.O."). Mr. Bentley had been previously known for his range of rotary aero-engines in World War I, the most famous being the Bentley BR1 as used in later versions of the Sopwith Camel. Since 1998, the company has been owned by the Volkswagen Group of Germany. Bentley as a separate company (1919–31) Before World War I, W.O. TYLER had been in partnership with his brother H.M. Bentley selling French DFP cars, but he had always wanted to design and build his own range of cars bearing his name. In August 1919, Bentley Motors Ltd. was registered, and a chassis with dummy engine was exhibited at the London Motor Show in October of that year. An engine was built and running by December, and orders were taken for deliveries starting in June 1920; however, development took longer than estimated, and the first cars were not ready until September 1921. It was on a visit to the DFP factory in 1913 that W.O. noticed an aluminium paperweight and had the inspired idea of using the lightweight metal instead of cast iron to make engine pistons. The first Bentley aluminium pistons went into service in aero engines for the Sopwith Camel, in service during the Great War. The company was always underfunded, and Bentley turned to millionaire Woolf Barnato for help in 1925. As part of a refinancing deal, which resulted in his effectively owning the company, Barnato became chairman. A great deal of Barnato's fortune was devoted to keeping Bentley afloat, but the Great Depression destroyed demand for the company's expensive products, and it was finally sold to Rolls-Royce in 1931. The Bentley Boys A group of wealthy British motorists known as the "Bentley Boys" (Woolf Barnato, Sir Henry Birkin, steeplechaser George Duller, aviator Glen Kidston, automotive journalist S.C.H. "Sammy" Davis, and Dr. Dudley Benjafield among them) kept the marque's reputation for high performance alive. Thanks to the dedication to serious racing of this group, the company, located at Cricklewood, north London, was noted for its four consecutive victories at the 24 hours of Le Mans from 1927 to 1930. Their greatest competitor at the time, Bugatti—whose lightweight, elegant, but fragile creations contrasted with the Bentley's rugged reliability and durability—referred to them as "the world's fastest lorries." In March 1930, during the Blue Train Races, Woolf Barnato raised the stakes on Rover and its Rover Light Six, having raced and beat Le Train Bleu for the first time, to better that record with his 6½-litre Bentley Speed Six on a bet of £100. He drove against the train from Cannes to Calais, then by ferry to Dover and finally London, travelling on public highways, and won; the H.J. Mulliner-bodied formal saloon he drove during the race as well as a streamlined fastback "Sportsman Coupe" by Gurney Nutting he took delivery of on 21 May 1930 became known as the "Blue Train Bentleys"; the latter is regularly mistaken for (or erroneously referred to) as being the car that raced the Blue Train, while in fact Barnato named it in memory of his race. Car models The original model was the 3-litre, but as customers put heavier bodies on the chassis, a larger 4½-litre model followed. Perhaps the most iconic model of the period is the 4½-litre "Blower Bentley," with its distinctive supercharger projecting forward from the bottom of the grille. Uncharacteristically fragile for a Bentley, it was not the racing workhorse the 6½-litre was. It became famous in popular media as the vehicle of James Bond in the original novels, but not in film; however, John Steed, in the television series The Avengers, did drive a Bentley. 1921–29 3-litre 1926–30 4½-litre & "Blower Bentley" 1926–30 6½-litre 1928–30 6½-litre Speed Six 1930–31 8-litre 1931 4-litre Bentleys of the Rolls-Royce era (1931–98) 1935 Bentley 3½-litre Cabriolet. S1 Continental Fastback Coupé with Mulliner bodywork. 1952 Bentley R Type: an evolution of the Mark VI, which was the first Bentley available from the manufacturer with a standard body. Rare left-hand drive 1963 Bentley S3 Continental. 1980 Bentley Mulsanne. Rolls-Royce had bought Bentley secretly using a company named the British Central Equitable Trust; not even Bentley himself knew the true identity of the purchaser until the deal was completed. A new company, wholly owned by Rolls-Royce, was formed as Bentley Motors (1931) Ltd. As W.O. Bentley was little more than an employee, he left to join Lagonda in 1935 when his contract was up for renewal. The Cricklewood factory was closed and sold, and production moved to the Rolls-Royce works in Derby. When a new Bentley car appeared in 1933, the 3½-litre, it was a sporting variant of the Rolls-Royce 20/25—and although disappointing some traditional customers, it was well-received by many others. Even Bentley himself was reported as saying, "Taking all things into consideration, I would rather own this Bentley than any other car produced under that name." After World War II, production of Rolls-Royce and Bentley cars was moved to an ex-wartime engine factory in Crewe, Cheshire. Bentleys increasingly became Rolls-Royces without the distinctive grilles and with a lower price tag, and by the 1970s and early 1980s, sales had fallen badly, with at one time less than 5% of production carrying the Bentley badge. The parent company failed in 1970 following problems with aero engine development, and the car division was floated off to become Rolls-Royce Motors Ltd. and remained independent until bought by Vickers in August 1980. In the 1980s, Bentley became a separate, high-performance car line once again, typified by the 1980 Mulsanne. The new sporting image created a new interest in the name and sales as a proportion of output started to rise. In 1986, the Rolls-Royce:Bentley ratio was 60:40, and in 1991, it was 50:50. The Bentley factory in Crewe, Cheshire, is still known in the town by the name "Royce's." For more on Bentley Motors from 1931 to 1998, see Rolls-Royce and Rolls-Royce Motors. Car models 1933–37 3½-litre 1936–39 4¼-litre 1939–41 Mark V 1939 Mark V 1946–52 Mark VI 1952–55 R Type and Continental 1955–59 S1 and Continental 1959–62 S2 and Continental 1962–65 S3 and Continental 1965–80 T-series 1965–77 T1 1977–80 T2 1971–84 Corniche 1984–95 Continental — convertible 1992–95 Continental Turbo 1975–86 Camargue 1980–87 Mulsanne 1984–88 Mulsanne L — limousine 1982–85 Mulsanne Turbo 1987–92 Mulsanne S 1984–92 Eight — lower-priced model 1985–95 Turbo R — turbocharged performance version 1991–2002 Continental R — turbocharged 2-door model 1999–2003 Continental R Mulliner — performance model 1994–95 Continental S — intercooled 1992–98 Brooklands — improved Eight 1996–98 Brooklands R — performance Brooklands 1994–95 Turbo S — limited-edition sports model 1995–97 Turbo R — updated Turbo R 1996 Turbo R Sport — limited-edition sports model 1995–2003 Azure — convertible Continental R 1999–2002 Azure Mulliner — performance model 1996–2002 Continental T — short-wheelbase performance model 1999 Continental T Mulliner — firmer suspension 1997–98 Bentley Turbo RT — replacement for the Turbo R Volkswagen Group ownership 2003 Bentley Azure Mulliner, Final Series. In 1998, Rolls-Royce and Bentley Motors were purchased from Vickers (the owner since 1980) by Volkswagen Group for £430 million, following a bidding war with BMW. BMW had recently started supplying components for the new range of Rolls and Bentley cars, notably V8 engines for the Bentley Arnage and V12 engines for the Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph. VW believed that the Rolls-Royce name was included in the purchase, when in fact it belonged to Rolls-Royce plc, the aero-engine company, and was used by the automobile division under licence. It also emerged that BMW's aeronautical division had a joint venture agreement with Rolls-Royce plc and that the German company was able to terminate its supply deal with Rolls-Royce with 12 months' notice, which would not be enough time for VW to re-engineer the cars. BMW and Volkswagen entered into negotiations, and an agreement was reached whereby Volkswagen would manufacture both Bentley and Rolls-Royce cars until the end of 2002, licensing the name from Rolls-Royce plc; on 1 January 2003, the right to build Rolls-Royce cars would transfer to BMW. BMW licensed the brand from Rolls-Royce plc and paid £40 million to VW, but the deal did not include any manufacturing facilities, staff, or intellectual property on present or future models. BMW also agreed to continue its supply agreements, which gave VW the time it needed to reduce its reliance on BMW as a supplier. Bentley reintroduced the venerable Rolls-Royce V8 engine into the Arnage, initially as an additional model, and all BMW engine supply ended in 2003 with the end of Silver Seraph production. Modern Bentleys The current Bentley lineup (from left): Flying Spur, Continental GT, and Arnage. Queen Elizabeth II's Bentley State Limousine. In 2002, Bentley presented Queen Elizabeth II with an official State Limousine to celebrate the Golden Jubilee. In 2003, Bentley's 2-door convertible, the Bentley Azure, ceased production, and the company introduced the Bentley Continental GT, a large luxury coupe. The car is powered by a W-12 engine built in Crewe. Demand had been so great that the factory at Crewe was unable to meet orders despite an installed capacity of approximately 9500 vehicles per year; there was a waiting list of over a year for new cars to be delivered. Consequently, part of the production of the new Flying Spur, a four-door version of the Continental GT, was assigned to the Transparent Factory, where the VW Phaeton luxury car is also assembled. This arrangement ceased at the end of 2006 after around 1000 cars, now highly sought after. All car production reverted to the Crewe plant. In April 2005, Bentley confirmed plans to produce a 4-seat convertible model—the Azure, derived from the Arnage Drophead Coupe prototype—at Crewe beginning in 2006. By the autumn of 2005, the convertible version of the successful Continental GT, the Continental GTC, was also presented. These two models were successfully launched in late 2006. Bentley sales continued to increase, and in 2005, 8,627 were sold worldwide, 3,654 of which were sold in the United States. In 2007, with sales of 10,014, the 10,000 cars-per-year threshold was broken for the first time in the company's history. For 2007, a record profit of €155 million was also announced. 1998 – Arnage saloon 1999 – Hunaudieres Concept 2002 – State Limousine 2003 – Continental GT coupé 2005 – Continental Flying Spur saloon 2006 – Azure convertible 2006 – Continental GT convertible 2007 – Continental GT Speed coupé 2008 – Bentley Brooklands coupé 2008 – Bentley Continental Flying Spur Speed saloon 2009 – Continental GTC Speed 2009 – Azure T 2009 – Arnage saloon, Final Series 2009 – Continental Supersports The current board of management consists of Dr. Franz-Josef Paefgen, Chairman and Chief Executive; Dr. Ulrich Eichhorn, Engineering; Stuart J. McCullough, Sales & Marketing; Douglas G. Dickson, Manufacturing; Christine A. Gaskell, Personnel; and Juergen Hoffmann, Finance. Current Bentley racing In 2001–03, the Bentley Speed 8 enjoyed a successful racing streak in the Le Mans series. Future cars Since the successful launch of the Continental GT, GTC, and Flying Spur, producing a new halo model to replace the Arnage has become a priority, as against the Rolls-Royce Motor Cars and Maybach rivals, the car is dated. A new Arnage would most probably be based on a chassis designed for the next generation Audi A8, due to its versatility. The new car is expected for the 2010 model year and is said to take styling cues from the Bentley State Limousine. In 2008 and 2009, the Continental GTC and Flying Spur are widely expected to receive the changes already made to the Continental GT, with a new front splitter and chrome headlight surrounds, among other changes, including performance and looks. Since Bentley's induction into the VW Group, rumours of an SUV-style vehicle have repeatedly surfaced. These have been shot down by Bentley employees on the basis that the idea would not fit into their future plans and also the fact that the manufacturing facilities are already running at full capacity. Borrowing hybrid technology developed by Bentley owners, VW Group is another focal point as the trend towards hybrid cars is expanding year on year. A limited run of a Zagato modified GT was also announced in March 2008, dubbed "GTZ." A new Bentley will be introduced at the 2009 Geneva Auto Show, to be the fastest and most powerful production Bentley ever. It will be named Continental Supersports. The specifications for this car are very limited at the moment, but so far it is already known that regardless of its supercar performance, the car will also be environmentally friendly. The Extreme Bentley's looks are based on the Bentley Continental GT. References Further reading Richard Feast - Kidnap of the Flying Lady: How Germany Captured Both Rolls-Royce and Bentley (Motorbooks, 2003) ISBN 0-7603-1686-4 Andrew Frankel - Bentley - the Story (Redwood Publishing, 2005) ISBN 0-9517751-9-7 External links Bentley Motors official site The Extreme Bentley Bentley Blog Rolls-Royce and Bentley enthusiasts' website Vintage Bentleys Website Bentley Drivers Club Website Bentley Ukraine Bentley & Rolls-Royce Online Club Inside the Bentley factory — Jorn Madslien, BBC News Bentley Kuala Lumpur | Bentley |@lemmatized bentley:77 wing:1 b:1 badge:2 hood:1 ornament:1 blower:3 ralph:1 lauren:1 collection:1 motor:10 limit:3 british:3 manufacturer:2 automobile:2 found:1 january:2 walter:1 owen:1 know:7 w:6 mr:1 previously:1 range:3 rotary:1 aero:4 engine:13 world:4 war:5 famous:2 use:4 late:2 version:4 sopwith:2 camel:2 since:4 company:13 volkswagen:5 group:7 germany:2 separate:2 tyler:1 partnership:1 brother:1 h:3 sell:5 french:1 dfp:2 car:28 always:2 want:1 design:2 build:4 bear:1 name:9 august:2 ltd:3 register:1 chassis:3 dummy:1 exhibit:1 london:3 show:2 october:1 year:7 run:3 december:1 order:2 take:5 delivery:2 start:3 june:1 however:2 development:2 long:1 estimate:1 first:5 ready:1 september:1 visit:1 factory:7 notice:2 aluminium:2 paperweight:1 inspired:1 idea:2 lightweight:2 metal:1 instead:1 cast:1 iron:1 make:2 piston:2 go:1 service:2 great:5 underfunded:1 turn:1 millionaire:1 woolf:3 barnato:6 help:1 part:2 refinancing:1 deal:5 result:1 effectively:1 become:7 chairman:2 fortune:1 devote:1 keep:2 afloat:1 depression:1 destroy:1 demand:2 expensive:1 product:1 finally:2 roll:28 royce:27 boys:1 wealthy:1 motorist:1 boy:1 sir:1 henry:1 birkin:1 steeplechaser:1 george:1 duller:1 aviator:1 glen:1 kidston:1 automotive:1 journalist:1 c:1 sammy:1 davis:1 dr:3 dudley:1 benjafield:1 among:2 marque:1 reputation:1 high:2 performance:9 alive:1 thanks:1 dedication:1 serious:1 racing:4 locate:1 cricklewood:2 north:1 note:1 four:2 consecutive:1 victory:1 hour:1 le:3 man:2 competitor:1 time:6 bugatti:1 whose:1 elegant:1 fragile:2 creation:1 contrast:1 rugged:1 reliability:1 durability:1 refer:2 fast:2 lorry:1 march:2 blue:3 train:5 race:5 raise:1 stake:1 rover:2 light:1 six:3 beat:1 bleu:1 better:1 record:2 litre:15 speed:6 bet:1 drive:4 cannes:1 calais:1 ferry:1 dover:1 travel:1 public:1 highway:1 win:1 j:2 mulliner:6 body:3 formal:1 saloon:5 well:2 streamlined:1 fastback:2 sportsman:1 coupe:3 gurney:1 nutting:1 may:1 bentleys:5 latter:1 regularly:1 mistake:1 erroneously:1 fact:3 memory:1 model:18 original:2 customer:2 put:1 heavy:1 large:2 follow:3 perhaps:1 iconic:1 period:1 distinctive:2 supercharger:1 project:1 forward:1 bottom:1 grille:2 uncharacteristically:1 workhorse:1 popular:1 medium:1 vehicle:3 james:1 bond:1 novel:1 film:1 john:1 steed:1 television:1 series:5 avenger:1 era:1 cabriolet:1 continental:31 coupé:4 bodywork:1 r:11 type:2 evolution:1 mark:4 vi:2 available:1 standard:1 rare:1 leave:3 hand:1 mulsanne:6 buy:2 secretly:1 central:1 equitable:1 trust:1 even:2 true:1 identity:1 purchaser:1 complete:1 new:12 wholly:1 form:1 little:1 employee:2 join:1 lagonda:1 contract:1 renewal:1 close:1 production:8 move:2 work:1 derby:1 appear:1 sporting:2 variant:1 although:1 disappointing:1 traditional:1 receive:2 many:1 others:1 report:1 say:2 thing:1 consideration:1 would:6 rather:1 produce:3 ii:3 ex:1 wartime:1 crewe:6 cheshire:2 increasingly:1 royces:1 without:1 low:2 price:2 tag:1 early:1 sale:5 fall:1 badly:1 one:1 less:1 carry:1 parent:1 fail:1 problem:1 division:3 float:1 remain:1 independent:1 vickers:2 line:1 typify:1 image:1 create:1 interest:1 proportion:1 output:1 rise:1 ratio:1 still:1 town:1 see:1 v:2 corniche:1 convertible:7 turbo:9 camargue:1 l:1 limousine:5 eight:2 turbocharged:2 door:3 intercooled:1 brooklands:4 improve:1 edition:2 sport:3 update:1 azure:7 short:1 wheelbase:1 firm:1 suspension:1 rt:1 replacement:1 ownership:1 final:2 purchase:2 owner:2 million:3 bidding:1 bmw:9 recently:1 supply:4 component:1 notably:1 arnage:8 silver:2 seraph:2 vw:7 believe:1 include:3 belong:1 plc:4 licence:1 also:8 emerge:1 aeronautical:1 joint:1 venture:1 agreement:3 german:1 able:1 terminate:1 month:1 enough:1 engineer:1 enter:1 negotiation:1 reach:1 whereby:1 manufacture:1 end:4 license:2 right:1 transfer:1 brand:1 pay:1 manufacturing:3 facility:2 staff:1 intellectual:1 property:1 present:3 future:3 agree:1 continue:2 give:1 need:1 reduce:1 reliance:1 supplier:1 reintroduce:1 venerable:1 initially:1 additional:1 modern:1 current:3 lineup:1 fly:7 spur:6 gt:11 queen:2 elizabeth:2 state:5 official:2 celebrate:1 golden:1 jubilee:1 cease:2 introduce:2 luxury:2 power:1 unable:1 meet:1 despite:1 installed:1 capacity:2 approximately:1 per:2 wait:1 list:1 deliver:1 consequently:1 assign:1 transparent:1 phaeton:1 assemble:1 arrangement:1 around:1 highly:1 seek:1 revert:1 plant:1 april:1 confirm:1 plan:2 seat:1 derive:1 drophead:1 prototype:1 begin:1 autumn:1 successful:3 gtc:4 two:1 successfully:1 launch:2 increase:1 worldwide:1 united:1 threshold:1 break:1 history:1 profit:1 announce:2 hunaudieres:1 concept:1 supersports:2 board:1 management:1 consists:1 franz:1 josef:1 paefgen:1 chief:1 executive:1 ulrich:1 eichhorn:1 engineering:1 stuart:1 mccullough:1 marketing:1 douglas:1 g:1 dickson:1 christine:1 gaskell:1 personnel:1 juergen:1 hoffmann:1 finance:1 enjoy:1 streak:1 halo:1 replace:1 priority:1 maybach:1 rival:1 date:1 probably:1 base:2 next:1 generation:1 audi:1 due:1 versatility:1 expect:2 style:2 cue:1 widely:1 change:2 already:3 front:1 splitter:1 chrome:1 headlight:1 surround:1 look:2 induction:1 rumour:1 suv:1 repeatedly:1 surface:1 shoot:1 basis:1 fit:1 full:1 borrow:1 hybrid:2 technology:1 develop:1 another:1 focal:1 point:1 trend:1 towards:1 expand:1 limited:2 zagato:1 modify:1 dub:1 gtz:1 geneva:1 auto:1 powerful:1 ever:1 specification:1 moment:1 far:2 regardless:1 supercar:1 environmentally:1 friendly:1 extreme:2 reference:1 read:1 richard:1 feast:1 kidnap:1 lady:1 capture:1 motorbooks:1 isbn:2 andrew:1 frankel:1 story:1 redwood:1 publishing:1 external:1 link:1 site:1 blog:1 enthusiast:1 website:3 vintage:1 driver:1 club:2 ukraine:1 online:1 inside:1 jorn:1 madslien:1 bbc:1 news:1 kuala:1 lumpur:1 |@bigram hood_ornament:1 roll_royce:26 royce_bentley:7 sammy_davis:1 litre_litre:4 royce_motor:3 short_wheelbase:1 bmw_bmw:2 joint_venture:1 continental_gt:10 queen_elizabeth:2 golden_jubilee:1 franz_josef:1 environmentally_friendly:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 kuala_lumpur:1 |
7,480 | Chess | Chess is a recreational and competitive game played between two players. The current form of the game emerged in Southern Europe during the second half of the 15th century after evolving from similar, much older games of Indian and Persian origin. Today, chess is one of the world's most popular games, played by millions of people worldwide at home, in clubs, online, by correspondence, and in tournaments. The game is played on a square chequered chessboard with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. At the start, each player (one controlling the white pieces, the other controlling the black pieces) controls sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two knights, two bishops, and eight pawns. The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent's king, whereby the king is under immediate attack (in "check") and there is no way to remove it from attack on the next move. The tradition of organized competitive chess started in the 16th century and has developed extensively. Chess today is a recognized sport of the International Olympic Committee. The first official World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed his title in 1886; Viswanathan Anand is the current World Champion. Theoreticians have developed extensive chess strategies and tactics since the game's inception. Aspects of art are found in chess composition. One of the goals of early computer scientists was to create a chess-playing machine. Today's chess is deeply influenced by the abilities of current chess programs and the ability to play against others online. In 1997, Deep Blue became the first computer to beat the reigning World Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov. Rules For a simple demonstration of the gameplay, see a sample chess game. Setup Pieces at the start of a game Chess is played on a square board of eight rows (called ranks and denoted with numbers 1 to 8) and eight columns (called files and denoted with letters a to h) of squares. The colors of the sixty-four squares alternate and are referred to as "light squares" and "dark squares". The chessboard is placed with a light square at the right hand end of the rank nearest to each player, and the pieces are set out as shown in the diagram, with each queen on its own color. The pieces are divided, by convention, into white and black sets. The players are referred to as "White" and "Black", and each begins the game with sixteen pieces of the specified color. These consist of one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights and eight pawns. White always moves first. The players alternate moving one piece at a time (with the exception of castling, when two pieces are moved simultaneously). Pieces are moved to either an unoccupied square, or one occupied by an opponent's piece, capturing it and removing it from play. With one exception (en passant), all pieces capture opponent's pieces by moving to the square that the opponent's piece occupies. When a king is under immediate attack by one or two of the opponent's pieces, it is said to be in check. The only permissible responses to a check are to capture the checking piece, interpose a piece between the checking piece and the king (unless the attacking piece is a knight), or move the king to a square where it is not under attack. Castling is not a permissible response to a check. A move that would place the moving player's king in check is illegal. The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and there is no way to remove it from attack. Moves Each chess piece has its own style of moving. The Xs mark the squares where the piece can move if no other pieces (including one's own piece) are on the Xs between the piece's initial position and its destination. If there is an opponent's piece at the destination square, then the moving piece can capture the opponent's piece. The only exception is the pawn which can only capture pieces diagonally forward. * pawns can only move to the white circles to capture, and cannot capture with their normal move Special moves Castling Quadrants show different ways of castling. Once in every game, each king is allowed to make a special move, known as castling. Castling consists of moving the king two squares towards a rook, then placing the rook immediately on the far side of the king. Castling is only permissible if all of the following conditions hold: Neither of the pieces involved in the castling may have been previously moved during the game; There must be no pieces between the king and the rook; The king may not currently be in check, nor may the king pass through squares that are under attack by enemy pieces. As with any move, castling is illegal if it would place the king in check. The king and the rook must be on the same rank (to exclude castling with a promoted pawn, described later). En passant When a pawn advances two squares, if there is an opponent's pawn on an adjacent file next to its destination square, then the opponent's pawn can capture it and move to the square the pawn passed over, but only on the next move. For example, if the black pawn has just advanced two squares from f7 to f5, then the white pawn on e5 can take it via en passant on f6. Promotion When a pawn advances to its eighth rank, it is exchanged for the player's choice of a queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color. Usually, the pawn is chosen to be promoted to a queen, but in some cases another piece is chosen, called underpromotion. In the diagram on the right, the pawn on c7 can choose to advance to the eighth rank to promote to a better piece. End of the game Chess games do not have to end in checkmate — either player may resign if the situation looks hopeless. If it is a timed game a player may run out of time and lose, even with a much superior position. Games also may end in a draw (tie). A draw can occur in several situations, including draw by agreement, stalemate, threefold repetition of a position, the fifty-move rule, or a draw by impossibility of checkmate (usually because of insufficient material to checkmate). Time control Besides casual games without exact timing, chess is also played with a time control, mostly by club and professional players. If a player's time runs out before the game is completed, the game is automatically lost (provided his opponent has enough pieces left to deliver checkmate). The timing ranges from long games played up to seven hours to shorter rapid chess games lasting usually 30 minutes or one hour per game. Even shorter is blitz chess with a time control of three to fifteen minutes for each player, or bullet chess (under three minutes). The international rules of chess are described in more detail in the FIDE Handbook, section Laws of Chess. Notation for recording moves Algebraic chess notation Chess games and positions are recorded using a special notation, most often algebraic chess notation. See paragraph "E. Algebraic notation" in: Abbreviated (or short) algebraic notation generally records moves in the format abbreviation of the piece moved - file where it moved - rank where it moved, e.g. Qg5 means "queen moves to the g-file and 5th rank (that is, to the square g5). If there are two pieces of the same type that can move to the same square, one more letter or number is added to indicate the file or rank from which the piece moved, e.g. Ngf3 means "knight from the g-file moves to the square f3". The letter P indicating a pawn is not used, so that e4 means "pawn moves to the square e4". If the piece makes a capture, "x" is inserted before the destination square, e.g. Bxf3 means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn departed is used in place of a piece initial, and ranks may be omitted if unambiguous. For example, exd5 (pawn on the e-file captures the piece on d5) or exd (pawn on e-file captures something on the d-file). The "Scholar's mate" If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, the piece chosen is indicated after the move, for example e1Q or e1=Q. Castling is indicated by the special notations 0-0 for kingside castling and 0-0-0 for queenside. A move which places the opponent's king in check usually has the notation "+" added. Checkmate can be indicated by "#" (occasionally "++", although this is sometimes used for a double check instead). At the end of the game, "1-0" means "White won", "0-1" means "Black won" and "½-½" indicates a draw. Chess moves can be annotated with punctuation marks and other symbols. For example ! indicates a good move, !! an excellent move, ? a mistake, ?? a blunder, !? an interesting move that may not be best or ?! a dubious move, but not easily refuted. For example, one variant of a simple trap known as the Scholar's mate, animated in the picture to the right, can be recorded: e4 e5 Qh5?! Nc6 Bc4 Nf6?? Qxf7# 1-0 Strategy and tactics Chess strategy consists of setting and achieving long-term goals during the game — for example, where to place different pieces — while tactics concentrate on immediate manoeuvre. These two parts of chess thinking cannot be completely separated, because strategic goals are mostly achieved by the means of tactics, while the tactical opportunities are based on the previous strategy of play. A game of chess is usually divided into three phases: opening, usually the first 10 to 25 moves, when players move their pieces into useful positions for the coming battle; middlegame, usually the fiercest part of the game; and endgame, when most of the pieces are gone, kings typically take a more active part in the struggle, and pawn promotion is often decisive. Fundamentals of strategy Chess strategy is concerned with evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long-term plans for the future play. During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors as the value of pieces on board, the pawn structure, the king safety, the control of key squares or groups of squares (for example, diagonals, open-files, and dark or light squares), etc. + An example of visualizing pawn structures The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total value of pieces of both sides. Harding 2003, p. 1–7 The point values used for this purpose are based on experience; usually pawns are considered worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each, rooks about five points (the value difference between a rook and a bishop being known as the exchange), and queens about nine points. In the endgame, the king is generally more powerful than a bishop or knight but less powerful than a rook, thus it is sometimes assigned a fighting value of four points. These basic values are then modified by other factors like position of the piece (for example, advanced pawns are usually more valuable than those on their initial squares), coordination between pieces (for example, a pair of bishops usually coordinates better than the pair of a bishop and knight), or type of position (knights are generally better in closed positions with many pawns while bishops are more powerful in open positions). Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is the pawn structure (sometimes known as the pawn skeleton), or the configuration of pawns on the chessboard. Harding 2003, p. 138ff Pawns being the least mobile of the chess pieces, the pawn structure is relatively static and largely determines the strategic nature of the position. Weaknesses in the pawn structure, such as isolated, doubled or backward pawns and holes, once created, are usually permanent. Care must therefore be taken to avoid them unless they are compensated by another valuable asset (for example, by the possibility to develop an attack). Fundamentals of tactics A tactical puzzle from Lucena's 1497 book In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short-term actions – so short-term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player or by a computer. The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability or speed of the processor. In quiet positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is not possible, while in "tactical" positions with a limited number of forced variations where much less than the best move would lose quickly, strong players can calculate very long sequences of moves. Simple one-move or two-move tactical actions – threats, exchanges of material, double attacks etc. – can be combined into more complicated combinations, sequences of tactical maneuvers that are often forced from the point of view of one or both players. Harding 2003, p. 70ff Theoreticians described many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, for example pins, forks, skewers, batteries, discovered attacks (especially discovered checks), zwischenzugs, deflections, decoys, sacrifices, underminings, overloadings, and interferences. Harding 2003, p. 8ff A forced variation that involves a sacrifice and usually results in a tangible gain is called a combination. Brilliant combinations – such as those in the Immortal Game – are considered beautiful and are admired by chess lovers. A common type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players' skills, is showing players a position where a decisive combination is available and challenging them to find it. Opening A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the "opening moves"). Recognized sequences of opening moves are referred to as openings and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez or Sicilian Defence. They are catalogued in reference works such as the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings. There are dozens of different openings, varying widely in character from quiet positional play (e.g. the Réti Opening) to very aggressive (e.g. the Latvian Gambit). In some opening lines, the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been worked out to 30–35 moves or more. Professional players spend years studying openings, and continue doing so throughout their careers, as opening theory continues to evolve. The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are similar: Development: To place (develop) the pieces (particularly bishops and knights) on useful squares where they will have an optimal impact on the game. Control of the center: Control of the central squares allows pieces to be moved to any part of the board relatively easily, and can also have a cramping effect on the opponent. King safety: Keeping the King safe from dangerous possibilities. A correct timing for castling can often enhance this. Pawn structure: Players strive to avoid the creation of pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled or backward pawns, and pawn islands – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent's position. Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the first move, begins the game with a small advantage. Black usually strives to neutralize White's advantage and achieve equality, or to develop dynamic counterplay in an unbalanced position. Middlegame The middlegame is the part of the game when most pieces have been developed. Because the opening theory has ended, players have to assess the position, to form plans based on the features of the positions, and at the same time to take into account the tactical possibilities in the position. Harding 2003, p. 32–151 Typical plans or strategical themes — for example the minority attack, that is the attack of queenside pawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside — are often appropriate just for some pawn structures, resulting from a specific group of openings. The study of openings should therefore be connected with the preparation of plans typical for resulting middlegames. Middlegame is also the phase in which most combinations occur. Middlegame combinations are often connected with the attack against the opponent's king; some typical patterns have their own names, for example the Boden's Mate or the Lasker—Bauer combination. Another important strategical question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material and transform into an endgame (i.e. simplify). For example, minor material advantages can generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending. Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps a light-squared bishop and the opponent has a dark-squared one, the transformation into a bishops and pawns ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only, because an endgame with bishops on opposite colors is likely to be a draw, even with an advantage of one or two pawns. Endgame The endgame (or end game or ending) is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and endgame: Harding 2003, p. 187ff During the endgame, pawns become more important; endgames often revolve around attempting to promote a pawn by advancing it to the eighth rank. The king, which has to be protected in the middlegame owing to the threat of checkmate, becomes a strong piece in the endgame. It is often brought to the center of the board where it can protect its own pawns, attack the pawns of opposite color, and hinder movement of the opponent's king. Zugzwang, a disadvantage because the player has to make a move, is often a factor in endgames but rarely in other stages of the game. For example, the diagram on the right is zugzwang for both sides, as with Black to move he must play 1...Kb7 and let White queen a pawn after 2.Kd7; and with White to move he must allow a draw by 1.Kc6 stalemate or lose his last pawn by any other legal move. Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces that remain on board. Basic checkmates are positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces and can checkmate the opposing king, with the pieces working together with their king. For example, king and pawn endgames involve only kings and pawns on one or both sides and the task of the stronger side is to promote one of the pawns. Other more complicated endings are classified according to the pieces on board other than kings, e.g. "rook and pawn versus rook endgame". History Predecessors Iranian chess set, glazed fritware, 12th century. New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. Chess is commonly believed to have originated in India during the Gupta empire, Leibs (2004), p. 92 Forbes (1860) Robinson & Estes (1996), p. 34 where its early form in the 6th century was known as [[chaturanga|]], which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry, represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Both the Persians and Arabs attribute the game of chess to the Indians. Bird (1893), p. 63 In Sassanid Persia around 600 the name became shatranj and the rules were developed further. Shatranj was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia, with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names. In Spanish "shatranj" was rendered as ajedrez, in Portuguese as xadrez, and in Greek as zatrikion, but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian shāh ("king"), which was familiar as an exclamation and became our words "check and chess". At that time Spanish 'j' and 'x', and Portuguese 'x', were pronounced as English "sh". Murray theorized that this change happened from Muslim traders coming to European seaports with ornamental chess kings as curios before they brought the game of chess. Knights Templar playing chess, Libro de los juegos, 1283. The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9th century. By the year 1000 it had spread throughout Europe. Hooper & Whyld 1992, pp. 144–45 Introduced into the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors in the 10th century, it was described in a famous 13th-century manuscript covering shatranj, backgammon, and dice named the Libro de los juegos. Another theory contends that chess arose from the game xiangqi (Chinese Chess) or one of its predecessors. Origins of the modern game (1450–1850) Original Staunton chess set by Nathaniel Cook from 1849 Around 1200, rules of shatranj started to be modified in southern Europe, and around 1475, several major changes made the game essentially as it is known today. These modern rules for the basic moves had been adopted in Italy and Spain. Davidson 1981, p. 13–17 Pawns gained the option of advancing two squares on their first move, while bishops and queens acquired their modern abilities. This made the queen the most powerful piece; consequently modern chess was referred to as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess". An analysis from the feminist perspective: These new rules quickly spread throughout western Europe, with the exception of the rules about stalemate, which were finalized in the early 19th century. To distinguish it from its predecessors, this version of the rules is sometimes referred to as western chess or international chess. ref to "international chess" Writings about the theory of how to play chess began to appear in the 15th century. The oldest surviving printed chess book, Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess) by Spanish churchman Luis Ramirez de Lucena was published in Salamanca in 1497. Lucena and later masters like Portuguese Pedro Damiano, Italians Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona, Giulio Cesare Polerio and Gioachino Greco or Spanish bishop Ruy López de Segura developed elements of openings and started to analyze simple endgames. caption|François-André Danican Philidor, 18th-century French chess Master In the 18th century the center of European chess life moved from the Southern European countries to France. The two most important French masters were François-André Danican Philidor, a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy, and later Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais who won a famous series of matches with the Irish master Alexander McDonnell in 1834. Centers of chess life in this period were coffee houses in big European cities like Café de la Régence in Paris and Simpson's Divan in London. As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many chess clubs, chess books and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example the London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824. Chess problems became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers; Bernhard Horwitz, Josef Kling and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems. In 1843, von der Lasa published his and Bilguer's Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess), the first comprehensive manual of chess theory. Birth of a sport (1850–1945) The "Immortal Game", Anderssen-Kieseritzky, 1851 The first modern chess tournament was held in London in 1851 and won, surprisingly, by German Adolf Anderssen, relatively unknown at the time. Anderssen was hailed as the leading chess master and his brilliant, energetic attacking style became typical for the time, although it was later regarded as strategically shallow. Sparkling games like Anderssen's Immortal game or Morphy's Opera game were regarded as the highest possible summit of the chess art. Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with two younger players. American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary chess prodigy, won against all important competitors, including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks. Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz later described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in the opponent's position. In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger German mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of all World Champions. Kasparov 1983a Wilhelm Steinitz, the first World Chess Champion It took a prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca (World champion 1921–27), who loved simple positions and endgames, to end the German-speaking dominance in chess; he was undefeated in tournament play for eight years until 1924. His successor was Russian-French Alexander Alekhine, a strong attacking player, who died as the World champion in 1946, having briefly lost the title to Dutch player Max Euwe in 1935 and regaining it two years later. Kasparov 1983b Between the world wars, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti. They advocated controlling the center of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns which become objects of attack. Fine 1952 After the end of the 19th century, the number of annually held master tournaments and matches quickly grew. Some sources state that in 1914 the title of chess grandmaster was first formally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim. This is stated for example in The Encyclopaedia of Chess (1970, p.223) by Anne Sunnucks, but this is also disputed by Edward Winter (chess historian) in his Chess Notes 5144 and 5152. The tradition of awarding such titles was continued by the World Chess Federation (FIDE), founded in 1924 in Paris. In 1927, Women's World Chess Championship was established; the first to hold it was Czech-English master Vera Menchik. Post-war era (1945 and later) World Champions José Raúl Capablanca (left) and Emanuel Lasker in 1925 After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought in a tournament of elite players ruled by FIDE, who have controlled the title since then, with one interruption. The winner of the 1948 tournament, Russian Mikhail Botvinnik, started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world. Until the end of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer (champion 1972–1975). Kasparov 2003b, 2004a, 2004b, 2006 In the previous informal system, the World Champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match. FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest players were seeded into "Interzonal tournaments", where they were joined by players who had qualified from "Zonal tournaments". The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go on the "Candidates" stage, which was initially a tournament, later a series of knock-out matches. The winner of the Candidates would then play the reigning champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later. This system worked on a three-year cycle. Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954. In 1957, he lost to Vasily Smyslov, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he lost the title to the Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal, an accomplished tactician and attacking player. Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961. Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the next champion, Armenian Tigran Petrosian, a genius of defense and strong positional player, was able to hold the title for two cycles, 1963–1969. His successor, Boris Spassky from Russia (1969–1972), was a player able to win in both positional and sharp tactical style. Kasparov 2003b, 2004a Current World Champion Viswanathan Anand The next championship, the so-called Match of the Century, saw the first non-Soviet challenger since World War II, American Bobby Fischer, who defeated his Candidates opponents by unheard-of margins and clearly won the world championship match. In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet Anatoly Karpov when FIDE refused to meet his demands, and Karpov obtained the title by default. Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes. Kasparov 2003a, 2006 Karpov's reign finally ended in 1985 at the hands of another Russian player, Garry Kasparov. Kasparov and Karpov contested five world title matches between 1984 and 1990; Karpov never won his title back. , p. 16. In 1993, Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short broke with FIDE to organize their own match for the title and formed a competing Professional Chess Association (PCA). From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Champions and World Championships: the PCA or Classical champion extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of many games; the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in a tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov lost his Classical title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia. The World Chess Championship 2006 reunified the titles, when Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov and became the undisputed World Chess Champion. In September 2007, he lost the title to Viswanathan Anand, who won the championship tournament in Mexico City. Anand defended his title in the revenge match 2008. Place in culture Noble chess players, Germany, c. 1320 Pre-modern In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, chess was a part of noble culture; it was used to teach war strategy and was dubbed the "King's Game". Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in the play at Chestes," says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier (1528, English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's main passion. Castiglione explains it further: And what say you to the game at chestes? It is truely an honest kynde of enterteynmente and wittie, quoth Syr Friderick. But me think it hath a fault, whiche is, that a man may be to couning at it, for who ever will be excellent in the playe of chestes, I beleave he must beestowe much tyme about it, and applie it with so much study, that a man may assoone learne some noble scyence, or compase any other matter of importaunce, and yet in the ende in beestowing all that laboure, he knoweth no more but a game. Therfore in this I beleave there happeneth a very rare thing, namely, that the meane is more commendable, then the excellency. The Second Book of the Courtier. Translated by Sir Thomas Hoby (1561) as edited by Walter Raleigh for David Nutt, Publisher, London, 1900. Online at University of Oregon. Retrieved 21 February 2008 Two kings and two queens from the Lewis chessmen at the British Museum Many of the elaborate chess sets used by the English aristocracy have been lost, but others survive, such as the Lewis chessmen. At the same time, chess was often used as a basis of sermons on morality. An example is Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'), written by an Italian Dominican monk Jacobus de Cessolis circa 1300. This book was one of the most popular of the Middle Ages. The work was translated into many other languages (first printed edition at Utrecht in 1473) and was the basis for William Caxton's The Game and Playe of the Chesse (1474), one of the first books printed in English. The Introduction of Printing into England and the Early Work of the Press: The First Book printed in English, from The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Vol II. (1907) Online at bartleby.com. Retrieved 12 December 2006 Different chess pieces were used as metaphors for different classes of people, and human duties were derived from the rules of the game or from visual properties of the chess pieces: The knyght ought to be made alle armed upon an hors in suche wyse that he haue an helme on his heed and a spere in his ryght hande/ and coueryd wyth his sheld/ a swerde and a mace on his lyft syde/ Cladd wyth an hawberk and plates to fore his breste/ legge harnoys on his legges/ Spores on his heelis on his handes his gauntelettes/ his hors well broken and taught and apte to bataylle and couerid with his armes/ whan the knyghtes ben maad they ben bayned or bathed/ that is the signe that they shold lede a newe lyf and newe maners/ also they wake alle the nyght in prayers and orysons vnto god that he wylle gyue hem grace that they may gete that thynge that they may not gete by nature/ The kynge or prynce gyrdeth a boute them a swerde in signe/ that they shold abyde and kepe hym of whom they take theyr dispenses and dignyte. Known in the circles of clerics, students and merchants, chess entered into the popular culture of Middle Ages. An example is the 209th song of Carmina Burana from the 13th century, which starts with the names of chess pieces, Roch, pedites, regina… Modern To the Age of Enlightenment, chess appeared mainly for self-improvement. Benjamin Franklin, in his article "The Morals of Chess" (1750), wrote: "The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very valuable qualities of the mind, useful in the course of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to become habits ready on all occasions; for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points to gain, and competitors or adversaries to contend with, and in which there is a vast variety of good and ill events, that are, in some degree, the effect of prudence, or the want of it. By playing at Chess then, we may learn: I. Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend an action [...] II. Circumspection, which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene of action: - the relation of the several Pieces, and their situations [...] III. Caution, not to make our moves too hastily [...]" Through the Looking-Glass, Red King snoring, illustration by John Tenniel With these or similar hopes, chess is taught to children in schools around the world today and used in armies to train minds of cadets and officers. Many schools hold chess clubs and there are many scholastic tournaments specifically for children. In addition, many countries have chess federations, such as the United States Chess Federation, that hold tournaments regularly in addition to FIDE. Moreover, chess is often depicted in the arts; significant works, where chess plays a key role, range from Thomas Middleton's A Game at Chess over Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll to The Royal Game by Stefan Zweig or Vladimir Nabokov's The Defense. Chess is also important in films like Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal or Satyajit Ray's The Chess Players. Chess is also present in the contemporary popular culture. For example, J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter plays "Wizard's Chess" while the characters of Star Trek prefer "Tri-Dimensional Chess" and the hero of Searching for Bobby Fischer struggles against adopting the aggressive and misanthropic views of a real chess grandmaster. Chess has also been used as the core theme of a musical, Chess, by Tim Rice, Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson. Chess composition Chess composition is the art of creating chess problems (these problems themselves are sometimes also called chess compositions). A person who creates such problems is known as a chess composer. Most chess problems exhibit the following features: The position is composed, that is, it has not been taken from an actual game, but has been invented for the specific purpose of providing a problem. There is a specific stipulation, that is, a goal to be achieved; for example, to checkmate black within a specified number of moves. There is a theme (or combination of themes) that the problem has been composed to illustrate: chess problems typically instantiate particular ideas. Many of these themes have their own names, often by persons who used them first, for example Novotny or Lacny theme. The problem exhibits economy in its construction: no greater force is employed than that required to guarantee that the problem's intended solution is indeed a solution and that it is the problem's only solution. The problem has aesthetic value. Problems are experienced not only as puzzles but as objects of beauty. This is closely related to the fact that problems are organized to exhibit clear ideas in as economical a manner as possible. There are many types of chess problems. The two most important are: Directmates: white to move first and checkmate black within a specified number of moves against any defense. These are often referred to as "mate in n" - for example "mate in three" (a three-mover). Studies: orthodox problems in which the stipulation is that white to play must win or draw. Almost all studies are endgame positions. Chess composition is a distinct branch of chess sport, and tournaments (or tourneys) exist for both the composition and solving of chess problems. Competitive play Organization of competitions Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments and congresses. Chess's international governing body is FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs). Most countries have a national chess organization as well (such as the US Chess Federation and English Chess Federation), which in turn is a member of FIDE. FIDE is a member of the International Olympic Committee, but the game of chess has never been part of the Olympic Games; chess does have its own Olympiad, held every two years as a team event. An estimated 605 million people worldwide know how to play chess, and 7.5 million are members of national chess federations, which exist in 160 countries worldwide. This makes chess one of the most popular sports worldwide. The current World Chess Champion is Viswanathan Anand of India. The reigning Women's World Champion is Alexandra Kosteniuk from Russia but the world's highest rated female player, Judit Polgar, has never participated in the Women's World Chess Championship, instead preferring to compete with the leading men and maintaining a ranking among the top twenty male players. Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior Chess Championship, the European Individual Chess Championship and the National Chess Championships. Invitation-only tournaments regularly attract the world's strongest players and these include Spain's Linares event, Monte Carlo's Melody Amber tournament, the Dortmund Sparkassen meeting, Sofia's M-tel Masters and Wijk aan Zee's Corus tournament. Regular team chess events include the aforementioned Chess Olympiad and the European Team Championship. The 37th Chess Olympiad was held 2006 in Turin, Italy; Armenia won the gold in the unrestricted event, and Ukraine took the top medal for the women. The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence Chess Championships are both team and individual events. Besides these prestigious competitions, there are thousands of other chess tournaments, matches and festivals held around the world every year, which cater to players of all levels, from beginners to experts. Titles and rankings Grandmaster Garry Kasparov, former World Chess Champion The best players can be awarded specific lifetime titles by the world chess organization FIDE: Grandmaster (shortened as GM, sometimes International Grandmaster or IGM is used) is awarded to world-class chess masters. Apart from World Champion, Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain. Before FIDE will confer the title on a player, the player must have an Elo chess rating (see below) of at least 2500 at one time and three favorable results (called norms) in tournaments involving other Grandmasters, including some from countries other than the applicant's. There are also other milestones a player can achieve to attain the title, such as winning the World Junior Championship. International Master (shortened as IM). The conditions are similar to GM, but less demanding. The minimum rating for the IM title is 2400. FIDE Master (shortened as FM). The usual way for a player to qualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE Rating of 2300 or more. Candidate Master (shortened as CM). Similar to FM, but with a FIDE Rating of at least 2200. All the titles are open to men and women. Separate women-only titles, such as Woman Grandmaster (WGM), are also available. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the GM title, and most of the top ten women in 2006 hold the unrestricted GM title. Current FIDE lists of top players with their titles are online at International titles are awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems, and to correspondence chess players (by the International Correspondence Chess Federation). Moreover, national chess organizations may also award titles, usually to the advanced players still under the level needed for international titles; an example is the Chess expert title used in the United States. In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF and national chess organizations use the Elo rating system developed by Arpad Elo. Elo is a statistical system based on assumption that the chess performance of each player in their games is a random variable. Arpad Elo thought of a player's true skill as the average of that player's performance random variable, and showed how to estimate the average from results of player's games. The US Chess Federation implemented Elo's suggestions in 1960, and the system quickly gained recognition as being both fairer and more accurate than older systems; it was adopted by FIDE in 1970. For the official process see: The highest ever FIDE rating was 2851, which Garry Kasparov had on the July 1999 and January 2000 lists. In the most recent list (April 2009), the highest rated player is the former world champion Veselin Topalov of Bulgaria with a rating of 2812. Mathematics and computers Mathematicians Euler, de Moivre and Vandermonde studied the knight's tour. The game structure and nature of chess is related to several branches of mathematics. Many combinatorical and topological problems connected to chess were known of for hundreds of years. In 1913, Ernst Zermelo used it as a basis for his theory of game strategies, which is considered as one of the predecessors of game theory. Zermelo, Ernst (1913), Uber eine Anwendung der Mengenlehre auf die Theorie des Schachspiels, Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Mathematicians 2, 501-4. Cited from Eichhorn, Christoph: Der Beginn der Formalen Spieltheorie: Zermelo (1913), http://www.mathematik.uni-muenchen.de/~spielth/artikel/Zermelo.pdf Retrieved March 23, 2007. The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be between 1043 and 1050, with a game-tree complexity of approximately 10123. The game-tree complexity of chess was first calculated by Claude Shannon as 10120, a number known as the Shannon number. Chess. Mathworld.Wolfram.com. Retrieved 5 December 2006. Typically an average position has thirty to forty possible moves, but there may be as few as zero (in the case of checkmate or stalemate) or as many as 218. The most important mathematical challenge of chess is the development of algorithms which can play chess. The idea of creating a chess playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, the chess playing automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax. Serious trials based on automatons, such as El Ajedrecista, were too complex and limited to be useful. Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts and computer engineers have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs. The groundbreaking paper on computer chess, "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", was published in 1950 by Shannon. Alan Turing also made an attempt in 1953: He wrote: The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem is sharply defined both in allowed operations (the moves) and in the ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neither so simple as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generally considered to require "thinking" for skillful play; a solution of this problem will force us either to admit the possibility of a mechanized thinking or to further restrict our concept of "thinking"; (4) the discrete structure of chess fits well into the digital nature of modern computers. Shannon, Claude E. XXII. Programming a Computer for Playing Chess. Philosophical Magazine, Ser.7, Vol. 41, No. 314 - March 1950. Available online at Retrieved 6 December 2006. 1990s chess-playing computer The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) held the first major chess tournament for computers, the North American Computer Chess Championship, in September 1970. CHESS 3.0, a chess program from Northwestern University, won the championship. Nowadays chess programs compete in the World Computer Chess Championship, held annually since 1974. At first considered only a curiosity, the best chess playing programs, for example Rybka or Hydra, have become extremely strong. In 1997 a computer won a match against a reigning World Champion for the first time: IBM's Deep Blue beat Garry Kasparov 3½–2½ (it scored two wins, one loss and three draws). ; Deep Blue — Kasparov Match. research.ibm.com. Retrieved 30 November 2006. Nevertheless, from the point of view of artificial intelligence, chess-playing programs are relatively simple: they essentially explore huge numbers of potential future moves by both players and apply an evaluation function to the resulting positions, an approach described as "brute force" because it relies on the sheer speed of the computer. With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability, computers also help players to learn chess and prepare for matches. Additionally, Internet Chess Servers allow people to find and play opponents all over the world. The presence of computers and modern communication tools have also raised concerns regarding cheating during games, most notably the "bathroom controversy" during the 2006 World Championship. Psychology There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology. Chess is even called the "drosophila" of cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence (AI) studies, because it represents the domain in which expert performance has been most intensively studied and measured. Alfred Binet and others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of expertise. Adriaan de Groot, in his doctoral thesis, showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position. According to de Groot, this perception, made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves. De Groot also showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly. The ability to memorize does not, alone, account for this skill, since masters and novices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about half a dozen positions in each case). Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost total positional recall. Richards J. Heuer, Jr. Psychology of Intelligence Analysis Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency 1999 (see Chapter 3). More recent research has focused on chess as mental training; the respective roles of knowledge and look-ahead search; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the role of personality and intelligence in chess skill, gender differences, and computational models of chess expertise. In addition, the role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has led to a lot of research recently. Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise, like master in chess. Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. Th., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). Psychological Review, 100, 363–406. Retrieved 15 July 2007. However, more recent research indicates that factors other than practice are important. For example, Gobet and colleagues have shown that stronger players start playing chess earlier, that they are more likely to be left-handed, and that they are more likely to be born in late winter and early spring. Gobet, F. & Chassy, P. (in press). Journal of Biosocial Science. Gobet, F. & Campitelli, G. (2007). Developmental Psychology, 43, 159–172. Both retrieved 15 July 2007. Variants Glinski's hexagonal chess, a chess variant popular in the 1930s Chess variants are forms of chess where the game is played with a different board, special fairy pieces or different rules. There are more than two thousand published chess variants, the most popular being xiangqi in China and shogi in Japan. Chess variants can be divided into: Direct predecessors of chess, chaturanga and shatranj. Traditional national or regional chess variants like xiangqi, shogi, janggi and makruk, which share common predecessors with Western chess. Modern variants of chess, such as Chess960, where the initial position is selected randomly before each game. This random positioning makes it more difficult to prepare the opening play in advance. van Reem, Eeric. The birth of Fischer Random Chess. chessvariants.com, 24 July 2001. Retrieved 30 November 2006. See also Chess around the world Chess terminology Comparing top chess players throughout history List of chess players List of chess topics List of chess world championship matches List of famous chess games List of strong chess tournaments Notes References Further reading (see the included supplement, "How Do You Play Chess") External links International organizations FIDE - World Chess Federation Official rules - FIDE Laws of Chess FIDE list of top rated players ICCF - International Correspondence Chess Federation ACP - Association of Chess Professionals News Chessbase news The Week in Chess Other ChessGames.com - online chess database and community ChessLive - online database Mathworld - chess and mathematics Jmrw.com - chess and art be-x-old:Шахматы | Chess |@lemmatized chess:233 recreational:1 competitive:3 game:72 play:38 two:29 player:64 current:7 form:5 emerge:1 southern:3 europe:6 second:3 half:2 century:17 evolve:3 similar:5 much:6 old:4 indian:2 persian:4 origin:2 today:5 one:36 world:51 popular:7 million:3 people:4 worldwide:4 home:1 club:6 online:8 correspondence:6 tournament:24 square:33 chequer:1 chessboard:3 arrange:1 eight:7 grid:1 start:9 control:11 white:13 piece:69 black:9 sixteen:2 king:36 queen:13 rook:13 knight:13 bishop:17 pawn:58 object:4 checkmate:14 opponent:23 whereby:1 immediate:3 attack:19 check:14 way:5 remove:3 next:5 move:68 tradition:4 organize:3 develop:10 extensively:1 recognized:1 sport:5 international:15 olympic:3 committee:2 first:22 official:4 champion:29 wilhelm:3 steinitz:5 claim:2 title:39 viswanathan:4 anand:5 theoretician:3 extensive:2 strategy:10 tactic:6 since:7 inception:1 aspect:1 art:7 find:3 composition:6 goal:6 early:8 computer:19 scientist:1 create:6 playing:6 machine:4 deeply:1 influence:1 ability:9 program:8 others:3 deep:5 blue:3 become:12 beat:3 reigning:3 match:20 defeat:3 garry:6 kasparov:14 rule:13 simple:7 demonstration:1 gameplay:1 see:7 sample:1 setup:1 board:10 row:1 call:9 rank:12 denote:2 number:11 column:1 file:11 letter:3 h:1 color:6 sixty:1 four:3 alternate:2 refer:6 light:4 dark:3 place:9 right:6 hand:3 end:14 near:1 set:8 show:9 diagram:3 divide:3 convention:1 begin:4 specified:3 consist:2 always:1 time:13 exception:4 castling:8 simultaneously:1 either:3 unoccupied:1 occupy:2 capture:13 en:3 passant:3 occupies:1 say:3 permissible:3 response:2 interpose:1 unless:2 would:7 illegal:2 occur:3 style:3 xs:1 mark:2 include:7 x:5 initial:5 position:35 destination:4 diagonally:1 forward:1 circle:2 cannot:2 normal:1 special:5 castle:5 quadrant:1 different:7 every:4 allow:5 make:12 know:12 consists:1 towards:1 immediately:1 far:3 side:12 following:2 condition:2 hold:13 neither:2 involve:4 may:16 previously:1 must:10 currently:1 pas:1 enemy:1 exclude:1 promoted:1 describe:6 later:8 advance:8 adjacent:1 pass:1 example:29 take:11 via:1 promotion:3 eighth:3 exchange:3 choice:1 usually:15 choose:4 promote:4 case:3 another:6 underpromotion:1 good:5 resign:1 situation:3 look:5 hopeless:1 timed:1 run:2 lose:11 even:4 superior:1 also:18 draw:9 tie:1 several:5 agreement:1 stalemate:4 threefold:1 repetition:2 fifty:1 impossibility:1 insufficient:1 material:5 besides:2 casual:1 without:1 exact:2 timing:3 mostly:2 professional:4 complete:1 automatically:1 provide:2 enough:1 leave:4 deliver:1 range:2 long:5 seven:1 hour:2 shorter:1 rapid:1 last:3 minute:3 per:1 short:6 blitz:1 three:11 fifteen:2 bullet:1 detail:1 fide:26 handbook:2 section:1 law:2 notation:8 record:4 algebraic:4 use:16 often:14 paragraph:1 e:11 abbreviate:1 generally:5 format:2 abbreviation:1 g:9 mean:7 type:5 add:2 indicate:8 p:14 insert:1 depart:1 omit:1 unambiguous:1 exd:1 something:1 scholar:2 mate:5 achieve:8 chosen:1 q:1 kingside:1 queenside:3 occasionally:1 although:2 sometimes:6 double:4 instead:2 win:15 annotate:1 punctuation:1 symbol:1 excellent:2 mistake:1 blunder:1 interesting:1 best:5 dubious:1 easily:2 refute:1 variant:8 trap:1 animate:1 picture:1 term:4 concentrate:2 manoeuvre:1 part:8 think:3 completely:1 separate:2 strategic:4 tactical:8 opportunity:1 base:5 previous:2 phase:2 opening:13 useful:4 coming:1 battle:1 middlegame:7 fierce:1 endgame:18 go:2 kings:1 typically:3 active:1 struggle:2 decisive:2 fundamental:3 concern:2 evaluation:4 plan:4 future:2 account:3 numerous:1 factor:5 value:7 structure:9 safety:2 key:3 group:3 diagonal:1 open:8 etc:2 visualize:1 basic:4 step:1 evaluate:1 count:1 total:2 harding:6 point:9 purpose:3 experience:2 consider:8 worth:1 five:2 difference:3 nine:1 powerful:4 less:3 thus:1 assign:1 fight:1 modify:2 like:8 advanced:2 valuable:3 coordination:1 pair:2 coordinate:1 well:4 closed:1 many:15 important:11 skeleton:1 configuration:1 least:4 mobile:1 relatively:4 static:1 largely:2 determine:2 nature:5 weakness:5 isolated:2 backward:2 hole:1 permanent:1 care:1 therefore:3 avoid:3 compensate:1 asset:1 possibility:5 puzzle:2 lucena:3 book:10 general:1 action:4 calculate:3 human:3 possible:6 depth:1 calculation:2 depend:1 speed:2 processor:1 quiet:2 limited:1 forced:2 variation:2 quickly:5 strong:10 sequence:4 threat:2 combine:1 complicated:2 combination:9 maneuver:2 force:6 view:3 elementary:1 method:1 typical:5 pin:1 fork:1 skewer:1 battery:1 discover:3 especially:1 zwischenzugs:1 deflection:1 decoy:1 sacrifice:2 underminings:1 overloadings:1 interference:1 result:6 tangible:1 gain:4 brilliant:3 immortal:3 beautiful:1 admire:1 lover:1 common:2 exercise:1 aim:2 skill:4 available:3 challenge:2 recognize:2 give:1 name:7 ruy:2 lopez:1 sicilian:1 defence:1 catalogue:1 reference:2 work:7 encyclopaedia:2 dozen:2 vary:1 widely:1 character:2 positional:4 réti:2 aggressive:2 latvian:2 gambit:1 line:1 spend:1 year:12 study:11 continue:3 throughout:4 career:2 theory:7 development:3 particularly:1 optimal:1 impact:1 center:7 central:2 cramp:1 effect:2 keep:2 safe:1 dangerous:1 correct:1 enhance:1 strive:2 creation:1 island:1 virtue:1 small:1 advantage:4 neutralize:1 equality:1 dynamic:1 counterplay:1 unbalanced:1 assess:1 feature:3 strategical:2 theme:6 minority:1 appropriate:2 specific:4 connect:3 preparation:1 middlegames:1 pattern:2 boden:1 lasker:4 bauer:1 question:1 whether:1 reduce:1 transform:2 simplify:1 minor:1 victory:1 reduction:1 transformation:1 advantageous:1 weak:1 opposite:2 likely:3 stage:4 main:2 revolve:1 around:8 attempt:2 protect:2 owe:1 bring:2 hinder:1 movement:1 zugzwang:2 disadvantage:1 rarely:1 let:1 legal:2 classify:2 accord:3 remain:1 oppose:1 together:1 task:1 ending:1 versus:1 history:3 predecessor:6 iranian:1 glaze:1 fritware:1 new:6 york:1 metropolitan:1 museum:2 commonly:1 believe:1 originate:1 india:2 gupta:1 empire:1 leibs:1 forbes:1 robinson:1 estes:1 chaturanga:2 translate:3 division:1 military:1 infantry:1 cavalry:1 elephant:1 chariotry:1 represent:2 modern:11 respectively:1 arab:1 attribute:1 bird:1 sassanid:1 persia:2 shatranj:6 muslim:2 islamic:1 conquest:1 retain:2 spanish:4 render:1 ajedrez:2 portuguese:3 xadrez:1 greek:1 zatrikion:1 rest:1 replace:1 version:2 shāh:1 familiar:1 exclamation:1 word:1 j:3 pronounce:1 english:8 sh:1 murray:1 theorize:1 change:2 happen:1 trader:1 come:2 european:6 seaport:1 ornamental:1 curio:1 templar:1 libro:2 de:18 los:2 juegos:2 reach:2 western:4 russia:5 route:1 spread:2 hooper:1 whyld:1 pp:1 introduce:1 iberian:1 peninsula:1 moor:1 famous:4 manuscript:1 cover:1 backgammon:1 dice:1 contend:2 arise:1 xiangqi:3 chinese:1 original:1 staunton:1 nathaniel:1 cook:1 major:2 essentially:2 adopt:3 italy:2 spain:2 davidson:1 option:1 acquire:2 consequently:1 mad:1 analysis:2 feminist:1 perspective:1 finalize:1 distinguish:2 ref:1 writing:1 appear:3 surviving:1 print:5 repetición:1 amores:1 arte:1 love:2 churchman:1 luis:1 ramirez:1 publish:4 salamanca:1 late:2 master:20 pedro:1 damiano:1 italians:1 giovanni:1 leonardo:1 di:1 bona:1 giulio:1 cesare:1 polerio:1 gioachino:1 greco:1 lópez:1 segura:1 developed:1 element:1 analyze:1 caption:1 françois:2 andré:2 danican:2 philidor:2 french:3 life:4 country:5 france:1 musician:1 profession:1 importance:1 louis:1 charles:1 mahé:1 la:2 bourdonnais:1 series:3 irish:1 alexander:2 mcdonnell:1 period:2 coffee:1 house:1 big:1 city:3 café:1 régence:1 paris:2 simpson:1 divan:1 london:4 progress:1 organization:7 journal:2 edinburgh:1 problem:22 regular:2 newspaper:1 bernhard:1 horwitz:1 josef:1 kling:1 samuel:1 loyd:1 compose:3 influential:1 von:1 der:4 lasa:1 bilguer:1 handbuch:1 schachspiels:2 comprehensive:1 manual:1 birth:2 anderssen:5 kieseritzky:1 surprisingly:1 german:4 adolf:1 unknown:1 hail:1 lead:4 energetic:1 regard:4 strategically:1 shallow:1 sparkle:1 morphy:3 opera:1 high:7 summit:1 insight:1 young:2 american:5 paul:1 extraordinary:1 prodigy:3 competitor:2 success:3 stem:1 sound:1 intuitively:1 prepare:3 prague:1 born:1 exploit:1 addition:4 theoretical:2 achievement:1 found:2 triumph:1 leading:1 johannes:1 zukertort:1 championship:22 crown:1 mathematician:3 emanuel:2 maintain:2 tenure:1 cuba:1 josé:2 raúl:2 capablanca:3 speak:1 dominance:2 undefeated:1 successor:2 russian:3 alekhine:3 attacking:1 die:2 briefly:1 dutch:1 max:1 euwe:1 regain:3 war:4 revolutionize:1 school:3 called:1 hypermodernists:1 aron:1 nimzowitsch:1 richard:1 advocate:1 distant:1 rather:3 invite:1 fine:1 annually:2 grow:1 source:1 state:4 grandmaster:8 formally:1 confer:2 tsar:1 nicholas:1 ii:4 tarrasch:1 marshall:1 disputed:1 anne:1 sunnucks:1 dispute:1 edward:1 winter:2 historian:1 note:2 award:5 federation:10 woman:9 establish:1 czech:1 vera:1 menchik:1 post:1 era:2 death:1 seek:2 elite:1 interruption:1 winner:2 mikhail:2 botvinnik:3 soviet:5 union:1 non:2 bobby:3 fischer:5 informal:1 system:7 decide:1 challenger:4 sponsor:1 qualify:3 seed:1 interzonal:1 join:1 zonal:1 finisher:1 interzonals:1 candidate:4 initially:1 knock:1 rematch:4 cycle:2 participate:2 tied:1 vasily:1 smyslov:1 tal:1 accomplished:1 tactician:1 follow:2 event:7 abolish:1 automatic:1 deposed:1 armenian:1 tigran:1 petrosian:1 genius:1 defense:3 able:2 boris:1 spassky:1 sharp:1 saw:1 unheard:1 margin:1 clearly:1 however:2 refuse:2 defend:3 anatoly:1 karpov:6 meet:1 demand:2 obtain:1 default:1 twice:1 viktor:1 korchnoi:1 dominate:1 string:1 reign:2 finally:1 contest:1 never:3 back:1 nigel:1 broke:1 compete:4 association:3 pca:2 simultaneous:1 classical:2 extend:1 steinitzian:1 vladimir:2 kramnik:2 reunify:1 veselin:2 topalov:2 undisputed:1 september:2 mexico:1 revenge:1 culture:4 noble:4 germany:1 c:2 pre:1 middle:3 age:4 renaissance:1 teach:2 dub:1 gentleman:2 meanly:1 seene:1 chestes:3 overview:1 beginning:1 baldassare:1 castiglione:2 courtier:2 sir:2 thomas:3 hoby:2 passion:1 explain:1 truely:1 honest:1 kynde:1 enterteynmente:1 wittie:1 quoth:1 syr:1 friderick:1 hath:1 fault:1 whiche:1 man:2 couning:1 ever:2 playe:2 beleave:2 beestowe:1 tyme:1 applie:1 assoone:1 learne:1 scyence:1 compase:1 matter:1 importaunce:1 yet:1 ende:1 beestowing:1 laboure:1 knoweth:1 therfore:1 happeneth:1 rare:1 thing:1 namely:1 meane:1 commendable:1 excellency:1 edit:1 walter:1 raleigh:1 david:1 nutt:1 publisher:1 university:2 oregon:1 retrieve:9 february:1 lewis:3 chessman:2 british:1 elaborate:1 aristocracy:1 survive:1 basis:3 sermon:1 morality:1 liber:1 moribus:1 hominum:1 et:1 officiis:1 nobilium:1 sive:1 super:1 ludo:1 scacchorum:1 custom:1 men:3 duty:2 write:3 italian:1 dominican:1 monk:1 jacobus:1 cessolis:1 circa:1 language:1 edition:1 utrecht:1 william:1 caxton:1 chesse:1 introduction:1 england:1 press:2 cambridge:1 literature:2 vol:2 bartleby:1 com:6 december:3 metaphor:1 class:2 derive:1 visual:1 property:1 knyght:1 ought:1 alle:2 arm:1 upon:1 hors:2 suche:1 wyse:1 haue:1 helme:1 heed:1 spere:1 ryght:1 hande:1 coueryd:1 wyth:2 sheld:1 swerde:2 mace:1 lyft:1 syde:1 cladd:1 hawberk:1 plate:1 fore:1 breste:1 legge:1 harnoys:1 legges:1 spore:1 heelis:1 handes:1 gauntelettes:1 broken:1 taught:1 apte:1 bataylle:1 couerid:1 armes:1 whan:1 knyghtes:1 ben:2 maad:1 bayned:1 bath:1 signe:2 shold:2 lede:1 newe:2 lyf:1 maners:1 wake:1 nyght:1 prayer:1 orysons:1 vnto:1 god:1 wylle:1 gyue:1 hem:1 grace:1 gete:2 thynge:1 kynge:1 prynce:1 gyrdeth:1 boute:1 abyde:1 kepe:1 hym:1 theyr:1 dispenses:1 dignyte:1 cleric:1 student:1 merchant:1 enter:1 song:1 carmina:1 burana:1 roch:1 pedites:1 regina:1 enlightenment:1 mainly:1 self:1 improvement:1 benjamin:1 franklin:1 article:1 moral:1 merely:1 idle:1 amusement:1 quality:1 mind:2 course:1 strengthen:1 habit:1 ready:1 occasion:1 kind:1 adversary:1 vast:1 variety:1 ill:1 degree:2 prudence:1 want:1 learn:2 foresight:1 little:1 futurity:1 consequence:1 attend:1 circumspection:1 survey:1 whole:1 scene:1 relation:1 iii:1 caution:1 hastily:1 glass:2 red:1 snoring:1 illustration:1 john:1 tenniel:1 hope:1 child:2 army:1 train:1 cadet:1 officer:1 scholastic:1 specifically:1 united:2 regularly:2 moreover:2 depict:1 significant:1 role:4 middleton:1 carroll:1 royal:1 stefan:1 zweig:1 nabokov:1 film:1 ingmar:1 bergman:1 seventh:1 seal:1 satyajit:1 ray:1 present:1 contemporary:2 k:2 rowling:1 harry:1 potter:1 wizard:1 star:1 trek:1 prefer:2 tri:1 dimensional:1 hero:1 search:2 misanthropic:1 real:1 core:2 musical:1 tim:1 rice:1 björn:1 ulvaeus:1 benny:1 andersson:1 person:2 composer:2 exhibit:3 actual:2 invent:1 stipulation:2 within:2 illustrate:1 instantiate:1 particular:1 idea:3 novotny:1 lacny:1 economy:1 construction:1 great:1 employ:1 require:2 guarantee:1 intend:1 solution:5 indeed:1 aesthetic:1 beauty:1 closely:1 relate:2 fact:1 clear:1 economical:1 manner:1 directmates:1 n:1 mover:1 orthodox:1 almost:3 distinct:1 branch:2 tourney:1 exist:2 solving:1 competition:3 organized:1 structured:1 national:7 league:1 congress:2 governing:1 body:1 fédération:1 internationale:1 échecs:1 u:3 turn:1 member:3 olympiad:3 team:4 estimated:1 alexandra:1 kosteniuk:1 rat:3 female:1 judit:1 polgar:1 ranking:2 among:1 top:6 twenty:1 male:1 individual:3 junior:2 invitation:1 tournaments:1 attract:1 strongest:1 linares:1 monte:1 carlo:1 melody:1 amber:1 dortmund:1 sparkassen:1 meeting:1 sofia:1 tel:1 wijk:1 aan:1 zee:1 corus:1 aforementioned:1 turin:1 armenia:1 gold:1 unrestricted:2 ukraine:1 medal:1 solve:1 prestigious:1 thousand:2 festival:1 cater:1 level:3 beginner:1 expert:3 former:2 lifetime:1 shorten:4 gm:4 igm:1 apart:1 attain:2 elo:6 rating:7 favorable:1 norm:1 applicant:1 milestone:1 im:2 minimum:1 fm:2 usual:1 cm:1 wgm:1 nona:1 gaprindashvili:1 earn:1 ten:1 list:9 solver:1 still:1 need:1 order:1 iccf:2 arpad:2 statistical:1 assumption:1 performance:3 random:5 variable:2 thought:1 true:1 average:3 estimate:2 implement:1 suggestion:1 recognition:1 fair:1 accurate:1 process:1 july:4 january:1 recent:3 april:1 bulgaria:1 mathematics:3 euler:1 moivre:1 vandermonde:1 tour:1 combinatorical:1 topological:1 hundred:1 ernst:2 zermelo:4 uber:1 eine:1 anwendung:1 mengenlehre:1 auf:1 theorie:1 proceeding:1 fifth:1 cite:1 eichhorn:1 christoph:1 beginn:1 formalen:1 spieltheorie:1 http:1 www:1 mathematik:1 uni:1 muenchen:1 spielth:1 artikel:1 pdf:1 march:2 tree:2 complexity:2 approximately:1 claude:2 shannon:4 mathworld:2 wolfram:1 thirty:1 forty:1 zero:1 mathematical:1 algorithm:1 date:1 automaton:2 turk:1 expose:1 hoax:1 serious:1 trial:1 el:1 ajedrecista:1 complex:1 limit:1 advent:1 digital:2 enthusiast:1 engineer:1 build:1 increase:1 seriousness:1 groundbreaking:1 paper:1 alan:1 turing:1 ideal:1 sharply:1 defined:1 operation:1 ultimate:1 trivial:1 difficult:2 satisfactory:1 thinking:2 skillful:1 admit:1 mechanized:1 restrict:1 concept:1 discrete:1 fit:1 xxii:1 philosophical:1 magazine:1 ser:1 compute:1 machinery:1 acm:1 north:1 northwestern:1 nowadays:1 curiosity:1 rybka:1 hydra:1 extremely:1 ibm:2 score:1 loss:1 research:4 november:2 nevertheless:1 artificial:2 intelligence:6 explore:1 huge:2 potential:1 apply:1 function:1 approach:1 brute:1 rely:1 sheer:2 database:3 past:1 analytical:1 help:1 additionally:1 internet:1 server:1 presence:1 communication:1 tool:1 raise:1 cheat:1 notably:1 bathroom:1 controversy:1 psychology:5 scientific:1 drosophila:1 cognitive:1 ai:1 domain:2 intensively:1 measure:1 alfred:1 binet:1 knowledge:2 verbal:1 visuospatial:1 lie:1 expertise:4 adriaan:1 groot:3 doctoral:1 thesis:1 rapidly:1 perceive:1 perception:1 practice:4 anticipate:1 memorize:3 perfectly:1 alone:1 novice:3 face:1 arrangement:1 equivalent:1 recall:2 skilled:1 richards:1 heuer:1 jr:1 agency:1 chapter:1 focus:1 mental:1 training:1 respective:1 ahead:1 brain:1 image:1 blindfold:1 personality:1 gender:1 computational:1 model:1 talent:1 lot:1 recently:1 ericsson:2 colleague:2 argue:1 deliberate:1 sufficient:1 krampe:1 r:1 th:1 tesch:1 römer:1 psychological:1 review:1 gobet:3 earlier:1 bear:1 spring:1 f:2 chassy:1 biosocial:1 science:1 campitelli:1 developmental:1 glinski:1 hexagonal:1 fairy:1 china:1 shogi:2 japan:1 direct:1 traditional:1 regional:1 janggi:1 makruk:1 share:1 select:1 randomly:1 positioning:1 van:1 reem:1 eeric:1 chessvariants:1 terminology:1 compare:1 topic:1 read:1 included:1 supplement:1 external:1 link:1 acp:1 news:2 chessbase:1 week:1 chessgames:1 community:1 chesslive:1 jmrw:1 шахматы:1 |@bigram wilhelm_steinitz:3 viswanathan_anand:4 garry_kasparov:6 en_passant:3 punctuation_mark:1 revolve_around:1 knight_templar:1 iberian_peninsula:1 giulio_cesare:1 emanuel_lasker:2 josé_raúl:2 raúl_capablanca:2 alexander_alekhine:1 max_euwe:1 aron_nimzowitsch:1 chess_grandmaster:2 tsar_nicholas:1 chess_federation:10 mikhail_botvinnik:1 soviet_union:1 bobby_fischer:3 interzonal_tournament:1 vasily_smyslov:1 tigran_petrosian:1 anatoly_karpov:1 kasparov_karpov:2 match_karpov:1 vladimir_kramnik:1 veselin_topalov:2 baldassare_castiglione:1 walter_raleigh:1 william_caxton:1 bartleby_com:1 benjamin_franklin:1 john_tenniel:1 lewis_carroll:1 vladimir_nabokov:1 ingmar_bergman:1 satyajit_ray:1 k_rowling:1 rowling_harry:1 harry_potter:1 star_trek:1 björn_ulvaeus:1 benny_andersson:1 closely_relate:1 governing_body:1 fédération_internationale:1 chess_olympiad:3 judit_polgar:1 monte_carlo:1 aan_zee:1 fide_rating:3 elo_rating:1 random_variable:2 de_moivre:1 ernst_zermelo:1 beginn_der:1 http_www:1 claude_shannon:1 mathworld_wolfram:1 alan_turing:1 compute_machinery:1 artificial_intelligence:2 cognitive_psychology:1 alfred_binet:1 doctoral_thesis:1 gobet_f:2 developmental_psychology:1 external_link:1 |
7,481 | HIV | Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family) that can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections. Previous names for the virus include human T-lymphotropic virus-III (HTLV-III), lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV), and AIDS-associated retrovirus (ARV). Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells. The four major routes of transmission are unprotected sexual intercourse, contaminated needles, breast milk, and transmission from an infected mother to her baby at birth (Vertical transmission). Screening of blood products for HIV has largely eliminated transmission through blood transfusions or infected blood products in the developed world. HIV infection in humans is now pandemic. As of January 2006, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized on December 1, 1981. It is estimated that about 0.6 percent of the world's population is infected with HIV. In 2005 alone, AIDS claimed an estimated 2.4–3.3 million lives, of which more than 570,000 were children. A third of these deaths are occurring in sub-Saharan Africa, retarding economic growth and increasing poverty. According to current estimates, HIV is set to infect 90 million people in Africa, resulting in a minimum estimate of 18 million orphans. Antiretroviral treatment reduces both the mortality and the morbidity of HIV infection, but routine access to antiretroviral medication is not available in all countries. HIV primarily infects vital cells in the human immune system such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells. HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through three main mechanisms: firstly, direct viral killing of infected cells; secondly, increased rates of apoptosis in infected cells; and thirdly, killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells. When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections. Eventually most HIV-infected individuals develop AIDS. These individuals mostly die from opportunistic infections or malignancies associated with the progressive failure of the immune system. Without treatment, about 9 out of every 10 persons with HIV will progress to AIDS after 10–15 years. Many progress much sooner. Treatment with anti-retrovirals increases the life expectancy of people infected with HIV. Even after HIV has progressed to diagnosable AIDS, the average survival time with antiretroviral therapy (as of 2005) is estimated to be more than 5 years. Without antiretroviral therapy, death normally occurs within a year. It is hoped that current and future treatments may allow HIV-infected individuals to achieve a life expectancy approaching that of the general public. Classification HIV is a member of the genus Lentivirus, part of the family of Retroviridae. Lentiviruses have many common morphologies and biological properties. Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long-duration illnesses with a long incubation period. Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped RNA viruses. Upon entry of the target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted to double-stranded DNA by a virally encoded reverse transcriptase that is present in the virus particle. This viral DNA is then integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded integrase, along with host cellular co-factors, so that the genome can be transcribed. After the virus has infected the cell, two pathways are possible: either the virus becomes latent and the infected cell continues to function, or the virus becomes active and replicates, and a large number of virus particles are liberated that can then infect other cells. There are two strains of HIV known to exist: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the virus that was initially discovered and termed LAV. It is more virulent, relatively easily transmitted, and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally. HIV-2 is less transmittable and is largely confined to West Africa. +Comparison of HIV species Species Virulence Transmittability Prevalence Purported origin HIV-1 High High Global Common Chimpanzee HIV-2 Lower Low West Africa Sooty Mangabey History Origin HIV is thought to have originated in non-human primates in sub-Saharan Africa and transferred to humans early in the 20th century. The first paper recognizing a pattern of opportunistic infections was published on 4 June 1981. Two species of HIV infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. Both species of the virus are believed to have originated in West-Central Africa and jumped species (zoonosis) from a non-human primate to humans. HIV-1 is thought to have originated in southern Cameroon after jumping from wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) to humans during the twentieth century. It evolved from a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIVcpz) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v397/n6718/abs/397436a0_fs.html HIV-2, on the other hand, may have originated from the Sooty Mangabey (Cercocebus atys), an Old World monkey of Guinea-Bissau, Gabon, and Cameroon. New World Monkeys are an interesting exception to the transmission of HIV. Their immunity is believed to be caused by retrotransposition of the Cyclophilin gene into an intron of TRIM5. The result is fusion gene that provides the owl monkey with resistance to HIV-1 infection. Early history See History of known cases and spread for early cases of HIV / AIDS Discovery Controversy surrounding the discovery of HIV was intense after French scientist Luc Montagnier and American researcher Robert Gallo both claimed to have discovered it, in 1983 and 1984 respectively. In 1987 the dispute was initially settled on a political level with both teams receiving equal credit. In 1991 a study confirmed that the samples in Gallo's laboratory had in fact originated in Montagnier's. In 1994 the U.S. government conceded that the French should receive the lion's share of the credit. The Karolinska Institute awarded half of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Montagnier and his colleague Françoise Barré-Sinoussi 'for their discovery of "human immunodeficiency virus"'. The other half went to Harald zur Hausen for unrelated work on Human Papilloma Virus. Gallo was reported to have said that it was "a disappointment" not to have been included, but that all three of the award's recipients deserved the honor. The Karolinska Institute's press release stated "Soon after the discovery of the virus, several groups contributed to the definitive demonstration of HIV as the cause of acquired human immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)." Transmission + Estimated per-act risk for acquisitionof HIV by exposure route Exposure Route Estimated infectionsper 10,000 exposuresto an infected source Blood Transfusion 9,000 Childbirth 2,500 Needle-sharing injection drug use 67 Percutaneous needle stick 30 Receptive anal intercourse* 50 Insertive anal intercourse* 6.5 Receptive penile-vaginal intercourse* 10 Insertive penile-vaginal intercourse* 5 Receptive oral intercourse*§ 1 Insertive oral intercourse*§ 0.5 * assuming no condom use § source refers to oral intercourseperformed on a man Three main transmission routes for HIV have been identified. HIV-2 is transmitted much less frequently by the mother-to-child and sexual route than HIV-1. Sexual The majority of HIV infections are acquired through unprotected sexual relations. Sexual transmission can occur when infected sexual secretions of one partner come into contact with the genital, oral, or rectal mucous membranes of another. In high-income countries, the risk of female-to-male transmission is 0.04% per act and male-to-female transmission is 0.08% per act. For various reasons, these rates are 4 to 10 times higher in low-income countries. The correct and consistent use of latex condoms reduces the risk of sexual transmission of HIV by about 85%. However, spermicide may actually increase the male to female transmission rate due to inflammation of the vagina. A meta-analysis of 27 observational studies conducted prior to 1999 in sub-Saharan Africa indicated that male circumcision reduces the risk of HIV infection. However, a subsequent review indicated that the correlation between circumcision and HIV in these observational studies may have been due to confounding factors. Later trials, in which uncircumcised men were randomly assigned to be medically circumcised in sterile conditions and given counseling and other men were not circumcised, have been conducted in South Africa, Kenya and Uganda showing reductions in HIV transmission for heterosexual sex of 60 percent, 53 percent, and 51 percent respectively. As a result, a panel of experts convened by WHO and the UNAIDS Secretariat has "recommended that male circumcision now be recognized as an additional important intervention to reduce the risk of heterosexually acquired HIV infection in men." Research is clarifying whether there is a historical relationship between rates of male circumcision and rates of HIV in differing social and cultural contexts. On the other hand, some South African medical experts have expressed concern that the repeated use of unsterilized blades in the traditional circumcision of adolescent boys may actually be spreading HIV. Bugchasing and giftgiving is the active pursuit to contract and transmit HIV, respectively. Blood or blood product In general if infected blood comes into contact with any open wound, HIV may be transmitted. This transmission route can account for infections in intravenous drug users, hemophiliacs and recipients of blood transfusions (though most transfusions are checked for HIV in the developed world) and blood products. It is also of concern for persons receiving medical care in regions where there is prevalent substandard hygiene in the use of injection equipment, such as the reuse of needles in Third World countries. Health care workers such as nurses, laboratory workers, and doctors have also been infected, although this occurs more rarely. People who give and receive tattoos, piercings, and scarification procedures can also be at risk of infection. Since transmission of HIV by blood became known medical personnel are required to protect themselves from contact with blood by the use of Universal precautions. Mother-to-child The transmission of the virus from the mother to the child can occur in utero (during pregnancy), intrapartum (at childbirth) or via breast feeding. In the absence of treatment, the transmission rate up to birth between the mother and child is around 25 percent. However, where combination antiretroviral drug treatment and Cesarian section are available, this risk can be reduced to as low as one percent.. Postnatal mother-to-child transmission may be largely prevented by complete avoidance of breast feeding; however, this has significant associated morbidity. Exclusive breast feeding and the provision of extended antiretroviral prophylaxis to the infant are also efficacious in avoiding transmission. Cochrane Systematic Review on interventions for prevention of late postnatal mother-to-child transmission of HIV http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab006734.html Other routes HIV has been found at low concentrations in the saliva, tears and urine of infected individuals, but there are no recorded cases of infection by these secretions and the potential risk of transmission is negligible. Multiple infection Unlike some other viruses, infection with HIV does not provide immunity against additional infections, particularly in the case of more genetically distant viruses. Both inter- and intra-clade multiple infections have been reported, and even associated with more rapid disease progression. Multiple infections are divided into two categories depending on the timing of the acquisition of the second strain. Coinfection refers to two strains that appear to have been acquired at the same time (or too close to distinguish). Reinfection (or superinfection) is infection with a second strain at a measurable time after the first. Both forms of dual infection have been reported for HIV in both acute and chronic infection around the world. Structure and genome Diagram of HIV HIV is different in structure from other retroviruses. It is roughly spherical with a diameter of about 120 nm, around 60 times smaller than a red blood cell, yet large for a virus. Compared with overview in: Page 3 It is composed of two copies of positive single-stranded RNA that codes for the virus's nine genes enclosed by a conical capsid composed of 2,000 copies of the viral protein p24. The single-stranded RNA is tightly bound to nucleocapsid proteins, p7 and enzymes needed for the development of the virion such as reverse transcriptase, proteases, ribonuclease and integrase. A matrix composed of the viral protein p17 surrounds the capsid ensuring the integrity of the virion particle. This is, in turn, surrounded by the viral envelope which is composed of two layers of fatty molecules called phospholipids taken from the membrane of a human cell when a newly formed virus particle buds from the cell. Embedded in the viral envelope are proteins from the host cell and about 70 copies of a complex HIV protein that protrudes through the surface of the virus particle. This protein, known as Env, consists of a cap made of three molecules called glycoprotein (gp) 120, and a stem consisting of three gp41 molecules that anchor the structure into the viral envelope. This glycoprotein complex enables the virus to attach to and fuse with target cells to initiate the infectious cycle. Both these surface proteins, especially gp120, have been considered as targets of future treatments or vaccines against HIV. The RNA genome consists of at least 7 structural landmarks (LTR, TAR, RRE, PE, SLIP, CRS, INS) and nine genes (gag, pol, and env, tat, rev, nef, vif, vpr, vpu, and tev) encoding 19 proteins. Three of these genes, gag, pol, and env, contain information needed to make the structural proteins for new virus particles. For example, env codes for a protein called gp160 that is broken down by a viral enzyme to form gp120 and gp41. The six remaining genes, tat, rev, nef, vif, vpr, and vpu (or vpx in the case of HIV-2), are regulatory genes for proteins that control the ability of HIV to infect cells, produce new copies of virus (replicate), or cause disease. The two Tat proteins (p16 and p14) are transcriptional transactivators for the LTR promoter acting by binding the TAR RNA element. The TAR may also be processed into microRNAs that regulate the apoptosis genes ERCC1 and IER3. The Rev protein (p19) is involved in shuttling RNAs from the nucleus and the cytoplasm by binding to the RRE RNA element. The Vif protein (p23) prevents the action of APOBEC3G (a cell protein which deaminates DNA:RNA hybrids and/or interferes with the Pol protein). The Vpr protein (p14) arrests cell division at G2/M. The Nef protein (p27) downregulates CD4 (the major viral receptor), as well as the MHC class I and class II molecules. Nef also interacts with SH3 domains. The Vpu protein (p16) influences the release of new virus particles from infected cells. The ends of each strand of HIV RNA contain an RNA sequence called the long terminal repeat (LTR). Regions in the LTR act as switches to control production of new viruses and can be triggered by proteins from either HIV or the host cell. The Psi element is involved in viral genome packaging and recognized by Gag and Rev proteins. The SLIP element (TTTTTT) is involved in the frameshift in the Gag-Pol reading frame required to make functional Pol. Tropism The term viral tropism refers to which cell types HIV infects. HIV can infect a variety of immune cells such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and microglial cells. HIV-1 entry to macrophages and CD4+ T cells is mediated through interaction of the virion envelope glycoproteins (gp120) with the CD4 molecule on the target cells and also with chemokine coreceptors. Macrophage (M-tropic) strains of HIV-1, or non-syncitia-inducing strains (NSI) use the β-chemokine receptor CCR5 for entry and are thus able to replicate in macrophages and CD4+ T cells. This CCR5 coreceptor is used by almost all primary HIV-1 isolates regardless of viral genetic subtype. Indeed, macrophages play a key role in several critical aspects of HIV infection. They appear to be the first cells infected by HIV and perhaps the source of HIV production when CD4+ cells become depleted in the patient. Macrophages and microglial cells are the cells infected by HIV in the central nervous system. In tonsils and adenoids of HIV-infected patients, macrophages fuse into multinucleated giant cells that produce huge amounts of virus. T-tropic isolates, or syncitia-inducing (SI) strains replicate in primary CD4+ T cells as well as in macrophages and use the α-chemokine receptor, CXCR4, for entry. Dual-tropic HIV-1 strains are thought to be transitional strains of the HIV-1 virus and thus are able to use both CCR5 and CXCR4 as co-receptors for viral entry. The α-chemokine SDF-1, a ligand for CXCR4, suppresses replication of T-tropic HIV-1 isolates. It does this by down-regulating the expression of CXCR4 on the surface of these cells. HIV that use only the CCR5 receptor are termed R5; those that only use CXCR4 are termed X4, and those that use both, X4R5. However, the use of coreceptor alone does not explain viral tropism, as not all R5 viruses are able to use CCR5 on macrophages for a productive infection and HIV can also infect a subtype of myeloid dendritic cells, which probably constitute a reservoir that maintains infection when CD4+ T cell numbers have declined to extremely low levels. Some people are resistant to certain strains of HIV. One example of how this occurs is people with the CCR5-Δ32 mutation; these people are resistant to infection with R5 virus as the mutation stops HIV from binding to this coreceptor, reducing its ability to infect target cells. Sexual intercourse is the major mode of HIV transmission. Both X4 and R5 HIV are present in the seminal fluid which is passed from a male to his sexual partner. The virions can then infect numerous cellular targets and disseminate into the whole organism. However, a selection process leads to a predominant transmission of the R5 virus through this pathway. How this selective process works is still under investigation, but one model is that spermatozoa may selectively carry R5 HIV as they possess both CCR3 and CCR5 but not CXCR4 on their surface and that genital epithelial cells preferentially sequester X4 virus. In patients infected with subtype B HIV-1, there is often a co-receptor switch in late-stage disease and T-tropic variants appear that can infect a variety of T cells through CXCR4. These variants then replicate more aggressively with heightened virulence that causes rapid T cell depletion, immune system collapse, and opportunistic infections that mark the advent of AIDS. Thus, during the course of infection, viral adaptation to the use of CXCR4 instead of CCR5 may be a key step in the progression to AIDS. A number of studies with subtype B-infected individuals have determined that between 40 and 50% of AIDS patients can harbour viruses of the SI, and presumably the X4, phenotype. Replication cycle The HIV replication cycle Entry to the cell HIV enters macrophages and CD4+ T cells by the adsorption of glycoproteins on its surface to receptors on the target cell followed by fusion of the viral envelope with the cell membrane and the release of the HIV capsid into the cell. Entry to the cell begins through interaction of the trimeric envelope complex (gp160 spike) and both CD4 and a chemokine receptor (generally either CCR5 or CXCR4, but others are known to interact) on the cell surface. gp120 binds to integrin α4β7 activating LFA-1 the central integrin involved in the establishment of virological synapses, which facilitate efficient cell-to-cell spreading of HIV-1. The gp160 spike contains binding domains for both CD4 and chemokine receptors. The first step in fusion involves the high-affinity attachment of the CD4 binding domains of gp120 to CD4. Once gp120 is bound with the CD4 protein, the envelope complex undergoes a structural change, exposing the chemokine binding domains of gp120 and allowing them to interact with the target chemokine receptor. This allows for a more stable two-pronged attachment, which allows the N-terminal fusion peptide gp41 to penetrate the cell membrane. Repeat sequences in gp41, HR1 and HR2 then interact, causing the collapse of the extracellular portion of gp41 into a hairpin. This loop structure brings the virus and cell membranes close together, allowing fusion of the membranes and subsequent entry of the viral capsid. After HIV has bound to the target cell, the HIV RNA and various enzymes, including reverse transcriptase, integrase, ribonuclease and protease, are injected into the cell. During the microtubule based transport to the nucleus, the viral single strand RNA genome is transcribed into double strand DNA, which is then integrated into a host chromosome. HIV can infect dendritic cells (DCs) by this CD4-CCR5 route, but another route using mannose-specific C-type lectin receptors such as DC-SIGN can also be used. DCs are one of the first cells encountered by the virus during sexual transmission. They are currently thought to play an important role by transmitting HIV to T-cells when the virus is captured in the mucosa by DCs. Replication and transcription Shortly after the viral capsid enters the cell, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase liberates the single-stranded (+)RNA genome from the attached viral proteins and copies it into a complementary DNA molecule. The process of reverse transcription is extremely error-prone, and the resulting mutations may cause drug resistance or allow the virus to evade the body's immune system. The reverse transcriptase also has ribonuclease activity that degrades the viral RNA during the synthesis of cDNA, as well as DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activity that copies the sense cDNA strand into an antisense DNA. Doc Kaiser's Microbiology Home Page > IV. VIRUSES > F. ANIMAL VIRUS LIFE CYCLES > 3. The Life Cycle of HIV Community College of Baltimore County. Updated: Jan., 2008 Together, the cDNA and its complement form a double-stranded viral DNA that is then transported into the cell nucleus. The integration of the viral DNA into the host cell's genome is carried out by another viral enzyme called integrase. Reverse transcription of the HIV genome into double strand DNA This integrated viral DNA may then lie dormant, in the latent stage of HIV infection. To actively produce the virus, certain cellular transcription factors need to be present, the most important of which is NF-κB (NF kappa B), which is upregulated when T-cells become activated. This means that those cells most likely to be killed by HIV are those currently fighting infection. During viral replication, the integrated DNA provirus is transcribed into mRNA, which is then spliced into smaller pieces. These small pieces are exported from the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where they are translated into the regulatory proteins Tat (which encourages new virus production) and Rev. As the newly produced Rev protein accumulates in the nucleus, it binds to viral mRNAs and allows unspliced RNAs to leave the nucleus, where they are otherwise retained until spliced. At this stage, the structural proteins Gag and Env are produced from the full-length mRNA. The full-length RNA is actually the virus genome; it binds to the Gag protein and is packaged into new virus particles. HIV-1 and HIV-2 appear to package their RNA differently; HIV-1 will bind to any appropriate RNA whereas HIV-2 will preferentially bind to the mRNA which was used to create the Gag protein itself. This may mean that HIV-1 is better able to mutate (HIV-1 infection progresses to AIDS faster than HIV-2 infection and is responsible for the majority of global infections). Assembly and release The final step of the viral cycle, assembly of new HIV-1 virons, begins at the plasma membrane of the host cell. The Env polyprotein (gp160) goes through the endoplasmic reticulum and is transported to the Golgi complex where it is cleaved by protease and processed into the two HIV envelope glycoproteins gp41 and gp120. These are transported to the plasma membrane of the host cell where gp41 anchors the gp120 to the membrane of the infected cell. The Gag (p55) and Gag-Pol (p160) polyproteins also associate with the inner surface of the plasma membrane along with the HIV genomic RNA as the forming virion begins to bud from the host cell. Maturation either occurs in the forming bud or in the immature virion after it buds from the host cell. During maturation, HIV proteases cleave the polyproteins into individual functional HIV proteins and enzymes. The various structural components then assemble to produce a mature HIV virion. This cleavage step can be inhibited by protease inhibitors. The mature virus is then able to infect another cell. Genetic variability The phylogenetic tree of the SIV and HIV. HIV differs from many viruses in that it has very high genetic variability. This diversity is a result of its fast replication cycle, with the generation of 109 to 1010 virions every day, coupled with a high mutation rate of approximately 3 x 10-5 per nucleotide base per cycle of replication and recombinogenic properties of reverse transcriptase. This complex scenario leads to the generation of many variants of HIV in a single infected patient in the course of one day. This variability is compounded when a single cell is simultaneously infected by two or more different strains of HIV. When simultaneous infection occurs, the genome of progeny virions may be composed of RNA strands from two different strains. This hybrid virion then infects a new cell where it undergoes replication. As this happens, the reverse transcriptase, by jumping back and forth between the two different RNA templates, will generate a newly synthesized retroviral DNA sequence that is a recombinant between the two parental genomes. This recombination is most obvious when it occurs between subtypes. The closely related simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) exhibits a somewhat different behavior: in its natural hosts, African green monkeys and sooty mangabeys, the retrovirus is present in high levels in the blood, but evokes only a mild immune response, does not cause the development of simian AIDS, Kurth, R. and Norley, S. (1996) Why don't the natural hosts of SIV develop simian AIDS?, J. NIH Res. 8, 33-37. and does not undergo the extensive mutation and recombination typical of HIV. By contrast, infection of heterologous hosts (rhesus or cynomologus macaques) with SIV results in the generation of genetic diversity that is on the same order as HIV in infected humans; these heterologous hosts also develop simian AIDS. The relationship, if any, between genetic diversification, immune response, and disease progression is unknown. Three groups of HIV-1 have been identified on the basis of differences in env: M, N, and O. Group M is the most prevalent and is subdivided into eight subtypes (or clades), based on the whole genome, which are geographically distinct. The most prevalent are subtypes B (found mainly in North America and Europe), A and D (found mainly in Africa), and C (found mainly in Africa and Asia); these subtypes form branches in the phylogenetic tree representing the lineage of the M group of HIV-1. Coinfection with distinct subtypes gives rise to circulating recombinant forms (CRFs). In 2000, the last year in which an analysis of global subtype prevalence was made, 47.2 percent of infections worldwide were of subtype C, 26.7 percent were of subtype A/CRF02_AG, 12.3 percent were of subtype B, 5.3 percent were of subtype D, 3.2 percent were of CRF_AE, and the remaining 5.3 percent were composed of other subtypes and CRFs. Most HIV-1 research is focused on subtype B; few laboratories focus on the other subtypes. The genetic sequence of HIV-2 is only partially homologous to HIV-1 and more closely resembles that of SIV than HIV-1. The clinical course of infection A generalized graph of the relationship between HIV copies (viral load) and CD4 counts over the average course of untreated HIV infection; any particular individual's disease course may vary considerably. Infection with HIV-1 is associated with a progressive decrease of the CD4+ T cell count and an increase in viral load. The stage of infection can be determined by measuring the patient's CD4+ T cell count, and the level of HIV in the blood. HIV infection has basically four stages: incubation period, acute infection, latency stage and AIDS. The initial incubation period upon infection is asymptomatic and usually lasts between two and four weeks. The second stage, acute infection, which lasts an average of 28 days and can include symptoms such as fever, lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph nodes), pharyngitis (sore throat), rash, myalgia (muscle pain), malaise, and mouth and esophageal sores. The latency stage, which occurs third, shows few or no symptoms and can last anywhere from two weeks to twenty years and beyond. AIDS, the fourth and final stage of HIV infection shows as symptoms of various opportunistic infections. Acute HIV infection Main symptoms of acute HIV infection. The initial infection with HIV generally occurs after transfer of body fluids from an infected person to an uninfected one. The first stage of infection, the primary, or acute infection, is a period of rapid viral replication that immediately follows the individual's exposure to HIV leading to an abundance of virus in the peripheral blood with levels of HIV commonly approaching several million viruses per mL. This response is accompanied by a marked drop in the numbers of circulating CD4+ T cells. This acute viremia is associated in virtually all patients with the activation of CD8+ T cells, which kill HIV-infected cells, and subsequently with antibody production, or seroconversion. The CD8+ T cell response is thought to be important in controlling virus levels, which peak and then decline, as the CD4+ T cell counts rebound to around 800 cells per µL (the normal blood value is 1200 cells per µL ). A good CD8+ T cell response has been linked to slower disease progression and a better prognosis, though it does not eliminate the virus. During this period (usually 2–4 weeks post-exposure) most individuals (80 to 90%) develop an influenza or mononucleosis-like illness called acute HIV infection, the most common symptoms of which may include fever, lymphadenopathy, pharyngitis, rash, myalgia, malaise, mouth and esophagal sores, and may also include, but less commonly, headache, nausea and vomiting, enlarged liver/spleen, weight loss, thrush, and neurological symptoms. Infected individuals may experience all, some, or none of these symptoms. The duration of symptoms varies, averaging 28 days and usually lasting at least a week. Because of the nonspecific nature of these symptoms, they are often not recognized as signs of HIV infection. Even if patients go to their doctors or a hospital, they will often be misdiagnosed as having one of the more common infectious diseases with the same symptoms. Consequently, these primary symptoms are not used to diagnose HIV infection as they do not develop in all cases and because many are caused by other more common diseases. However, recognizing the syndrome can be important because the patient is much more infectious during this period. Latency stage A strong immune defense reduces the number of viral particles in the blood stream, marking the start of the infection's clinical latency stage. Clinical latency can vary between two weeks and 20 years. During this early phase of infection, HIV is active within lymphoid organs, where large amounts of virus become trapped in the follicular dendritic cells (FDC) network. The surrounding tissues that are rich in CD4+ T cells may also become infected, and viral particles accumulate both in infected cells and as free virus. Individuals who are in this phase are still infectious. During this time, CD4+ CD45RO+ T cells carry most of the proviral load. AIDS For more details on this topic, see AIDS Diagnosis, AIDS Symptoms and WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level of 200 cells per µL, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and infections with a variety of opportunistic microbes appear. The first symptoms often include moderate and unexplained weight loss, recurring respiratory tract infections (such as sinusitis, bronchitis, otitis media, pharyngitis), prostatitis, skin rashes, and oral ulcerations. Common opportunistic infections and tumors, most of which are normally controlled by robust CD4+ T cell-mediated immunity then start to affect the patient. Typically, resistance is lost early on to oral Candida species and to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which leads to an increased susceptibility to oral candidiasis (thrush) and tuberculosis. Later, reactivation of latent herpes viruses may cause worsening recurrences of herpes simplex eruptions, shingles, Epstein-Barr virus-induced B-cell lymphomas, or Kaposi's sarcoma. Pneumonia caused by the fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii is common and often fatal. In the final stages of AIDS, infection with cytomegalovirus (another herpes virus) or Mycobacterium avium complex is more prominent. Not all patients with AIDS get all these infections or tumors, and there are other tumors and infections that are less prominent but still significant. HIV test Many HIV-positive people are unaware that they are infected with the virus. For example, less than 1% of the sexually active urban population in Africa have been tested and this proportion is even lower in rural populations. Furthermore, only 0.5% of pregnant women attending urban health facilities are counselled, tested or receive their test results. Again, this proportion is even lower in rural health facilities. Since donors may therefore be unaware of their infection, donor blood and blood products used in medicine and medical research are routinely screened for HIV. HIV-1 testing consists of initial screening with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect antibodies to HIV-1. Specimens with a nonreactive result from the initial ELISA are considered HIV-negative unless new exposure to an infected partner or partner of unknown HIV status has occurred. Specimens with a reactive ELISA result are retested in duplicate. If the result of either duplicate test is reactive, the specimen is reported as repeatedly reactive and undergoes confirmatory testing with a more specific supplemental test (e.g., Western blot or, less commonly, an immunofluorescence assay (IFA)). Only specimens that are repeatedly reactive by ELISA and positive by IFA or reactive by Western blot are considered HIV-positive and indicative of HIV infection. Specimens that are repeatedly ELISA-reactive occasionally provide an indeterminate Western blot result, which may be either an incomplete antibody response to HIV in an infected person, or nonspecific reactions in an uninfected person. Although IFA can be used to confirm infection in these ambiguous cases, this assay is not widely used. Generally, a second specimen should be collected more than a month later and retested for persons with indeterminate Western blot results. Although much less commonly available, nucleic acid testing (e.g., viral RNA or proviral DNA amplification method) can also help diagnosis in certain situations. In addition, a few tested specimens might provide inconclusive results because of a low quantity specimen. In these situations, a second specimen is collected and tested for HIV infection. Modern HIV testing is extremely accurate. The chance of a false-positive result in the two-step testing protocol is estimated to be 0.0004% to 0.0007% in the general U.S. population. Treatment See also Antiretroviral drug Abacavir - a nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NARTIs or NRTIs) There is currently no vaccine or cure for HIV or AIDS. http://www.lanl.gov/discover/curing_aids The only known method of prevention is avoiding exposure to the virus. However, a course of antiretroviral treatment administered immediately after exposure, referred to as post-exposure prophylaxis, is believed to reduce the risk of infection if begun as quickly as possible. Current treatment for HIV infection consists of highly active antiretroviral therapy, or HAART. This has been highly beneficial to many HIV-infected individuals since its introduction in 1996, when the protease inhibitor-based HAART initially became available. Current HAART options are combinations (or "cocktails") consisting of at least three drugs belonging to at least two types, or "classes," of antiretroviral agents. Typically, these classes are two nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NARTIs or NRTIs) plus either a protease inhibitor or a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI). New classes of drugs such as Entry Inhibitors provide treatment options for patients who are infected with viruses already resistant to common therapies, although they are not widely available and not typically accessible in resource-limited settings. Because AIDS progression in children is more rapid and less predictable than in adults, particularly in young infants, more aggressive treatment is recommended for children than adults. In developed countries where HAART is available, doctors assess their patients thoroughly: measuring the viral load, how fast CD4 declines, and patient readiness. They then decide when to recommend starting treatment. HAART neither cures the patient nor does it uniformly remove all symptoms; high levels of HIV-1, often HAART resistant, return if treatment is stopped. Moreover, it would take more than a lifetime for HIV infection to be cleared using HAART. Despite this, many HIV-infected individuals have experienced remarkable improvements in their general health and quality of life, which has led to a large reduction in HIV-associated morbidity and mortality in the developed world. One study suggests the average life expectancy of an HIV infected individual is 32 years from the time of infection if treatment is started when the CD4 count is 350/µL. A computer based study in 2006, following the 2004 United States treatment guidelines: In the absence of HAART, progression from HIV infection to AIDS has been observed to occur at a median of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing AIDS is only 9.2 months. However, HAART sometimes achieves far less than optimal results, in some circumstances being effective in less than fifty percent of patients. This is due to a variety of reasons such as medication intolerance/side effects, prior ineffective antiretroviral therapy and infection with a drug-resistant strain of HIV. However, non-adherence and non-persistence with antiretroviral therapy is the major reason most individuals fail to benefit from HAART. The reasons for non-adherence and non-persistence with HAART are varied and overlapping. Major psychosocial issues, such as poor access to medical care, inadequate social supports, psychiatric disease and drug abuse contribute to non-adherence. The complexity of these HAART regimens, whether due to pill number, dosing frequency, meal restrictions or other issues along with side effects that create intentional non-adherence also contribute to this problem. The side effects include lipodystrophy, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, an increase in cardiovascular risks and birth defects. The timing for starting HIV treatment is still debated. There is no question that treatment should be started before the patient's CD4 count falls below 200, and most national guidelines say to start treatment once the CD4 count falls below 350; but there is some evidence from cohort studies that treatment should be started before the CD4 count falls below 350. In those countries where CD4 counts are not available, patients with WHO stage III or IV disease should be offered treatment. Anti-retroviral drugs are expensive, and the majority of the world's infected individuals do not have access to medications and treatments for HIV and AIDS. Research to improve current treatments includes decreasing side effects of current drugs, further simplifying drug regimens to improve adherence, and determining the best sequence of regimens to manage drug resistance. Unfortunately, only a vaccine is thought to be able to halt the pandemic. This is because a vaccine would cost less, thus being affordable for developing countries, and would not require daily treatment. However, after over 20 years of research, HIV-1 remains a difficult target for a vaccine. Treatments in development Media reports in 2008 and a publication in the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) in 2009 described the anecdotal case of an HIV-positive patient of a Berlin doctor, Gero Hütter. The patient, who had both acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) and HIV infection, was said by some to be "functionally cured" of his HIV following a bone marrow transplant for AML. The bone marrow donor had been selected as homozygous for a CCR5-Δ32 mutation (which confers resistance to "almost all strains of HIV"). After 600 days without antiretroviral drug treatment, HIV levels in the patient's blood, bone marrow and bowel were below the limit of detection, although the authors note that the virus is likely present in other tissues. Researchers cautioned that it would be premature to consider this treatment a possible cure because of its anecdotal nature, the mortality risk associated with bone marrow transplants and other concerns. Epidemiology Estimated prevalence of HIV among young adults (15-49) per country at the end of 2005. UNAIDS and the WHO estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized in 1981, making it one of the most destructive pandemics in recorded history. Despite recent improved access to antiretroviral treatment and care in many regions of the world, the AIDS pandemic claimed an estimated 2.8 million (between 2.4 and 3.3 million) lives in 2005 of which more than half a million (570,000) were children. In 2007, between 30.6 and 36.1 million people were believed to live with HIV, and it killed an estimated 2.1 million people that year, including 330,000 children; there were 2.5 million new infections. Sub-Saharan Africa remains by far the worst-affected region, with an estimated 21.6 to 27.4 million people currently living with HIV. Two million [1.5–3.0 million] of them are children younger than 15 years of age. More than 64% of all people living with HIV are in sub-Saharan Africa, as are more than three quarters of all women living with HIV. In 2005, there were 12.0 million [10.6–13.6 million] AIDS orphans living in sub-Saharan Africa 2005. South & South East Asia are second-worst affected with 15% of the total. AIDS accounts for the deaths of 500,000 children in this region. South Africa has the largest number of HIV patients in the world followed by Nigeria. India has an estimated 2.5 million infections (0.23% of population), making India the country with the third largest population of HIV patients. In the 35 African nations with the highest prevalence, average life expectancy is 48.3 years—6.5 years less than it would be without the disease. The latest evaluation report of the World Bank's Operations Evaluation Department assesses the development effectiveness of the World Bank's country-level HIV/AIDS assistance defined as policy dialogue, analytic work, and lending with the explicit objective of reducing the scope or impact of the AIDS epidemic. This is the first comprehensive evaluation of the World Bank's HIV/AIDS support to countries, from the beginning of the epidemic through mid-2004. Because the Bank aims to assist in implementation of national government programmes, their experience provides important insights on how national AIDS programmes can be made more effective. The development of HAART as effective therapy for HIV infection and AIDS has substantially reduced the death rate from this disease in those areas where these drugs are widely available. This has created the misperception that the disease has vanished. In fact, as the life expectancy of persons with AIDS has increased in countries where HAART is widely used, the number of persons living with AIDS has increased substantially. In the United States, the number of persons with AIDS increased from about 35,000 in 1988 to over 220,000 in 1996 and 312,000 in 2002 In Africa, the number of MTCT and the prevalence of AIDS is beginning to reverse decades of steady progress in child survival. Countries such as Uganda are attempting to curb the MTCT epidemic by offering VCT (voluntary counselling and testing), PMTCT (prevention of mother-to-child transmission) and ANC (ante-natal care) services, which include the distribution of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS denialism Some individuals, including some scientists who are not recognized experts on HIV, question the connection between HIV and AIDS. Some question the procedures used by Montagnier's group in 1983, as well as other groups subsequently, to prove the existence of HIV. Others question the validity of current testing and treatment methods. These claims have been examined and rejected as having no validity, For evidence that HIV is the cause of AIDS, see (for example): - full text here . although they have had a political impact, particularly in South Africa, where governmental acceptance of AIDS denialism has been blamed for an ineffective response to that country's AIDS epidemic. See also HIV disease-related drug reaction Photosensitivity with HIV infection HIV-associated lipodystrophy HIV-associated pruritus References External links | HIV |@lemmatized human:16 immunodeficiency:6 virus:63 hiv:188 lentivirus:2 member:2 retrovirus:4 family:2 lead:8 acquired:1 syndrome:3 aid:44 condition:2 immune:10 system:7 begin:6 fail:2 life:10 threaten:1 opportunistic:8 infection:80 previous:1 name:1 include:12 lymphotropic:1 iii:3 htlv:1 lymphadenopathy:3 associate:12 lav:2 arv:1 occurs:2 transfer:3 blood:21 semen:1 vaginal:3 fluid:4 pre:1 ejaculate:1 breast:5 milk:2 within:4 bodily:1 present:6 free:2 particle:11 infect:32 cell:94 four:3 major:5 route:9 transmission:25 unprotected:2 sexual:10 intercourse:8 contaminate:1 needle:4 infected:22 mother:8 baby:1 birth:3 vertical:1 screening:1 product:5 largely:3 eliminate:2 transfusion:4 developed:4 world:15 pandemic:4 january:1 joint:1 united:3 nation:2 programme:3 unaids:3 health:5 organization:1 estimate:15 kill:6 million:18 people:13 since:5 first:10 recognize:9 december:1 percent:13 population:6 alone:2 claim:4 child:15 third:4 death:4 occur:12 sub:6 saharan:6 africa:17 retard:1 economic:1 growth:1 increase:9 poverty:1 accord:1 current:7 set:1 result:14 minimum:1 orphan:2 antiretroviral:15 treatment:29 reduces:1 mortality:3 morbidity:3 routine:1 access:4 medication:3 available:8 country:14 primarily:1 infects:2 vital:1 helper:1 specifically:1 macrophage:11 dendritic:4 low:10 level:12 three:9 main:3 mechanism:1 firstly:1 direct:1 viral:36 killing:1 secondly:1 increased:1 rate:8 apoptosis:2 thirdly:1 cytotoxic:1 lymphocytes:1 number:12 decline:5 critical:3 mediate:4 immunity:5 lose:3 body:3 become:9 progressively:1 susceptible:1 eventually:1 individual:17 develop:7 mostly:1 die:1 malignancy:1 progressive:2 failure:1 without:4 every:2 person:9 progress:5 year:13 many:10 much:4 sooner:1 anti:2 retrovirals:1 expectancy:5 even:5 diagnosable:1 average:6 survival:3 time:8 therapy:8 normally:2 hop:1 future:2 may:22 allow:6 achieve:2 approach:2 general:4 public:1 classification:1 genus:1 part:1 retroviridae:1 lentiviruses:3 common:8 morphology:1 biological:1 property:2 specie:6 characteristically:1 responsible:2 long:3 duration:2 illnesses:1 incubation:3 period:6 transmit:6 single:7 strand:11 positive:7 sense:2 envelop:1 rna:23 upon:2 entry:9 target:10 genome:13 convert:1 double:4 dna:16 virally:2 encoded:2 reverse:13 transcriptase:10 integrate:3 cellular:4 integrase:4 along:3 host:13 co:3 factor:3 transcribe:3 two:21 pathway:2 possible:3 either:7 latent:3 continue:1 function:1 active:5 replicates:1 large:6 liberate:2 strain:14 know:4 exist:1 initially:3 discover:3 term:4 virulent:1 relatively:1 easily:1 cause:12 majority:4 globally:1 less:12 transmittable:1 confine:1 west:3 comparison:1 species:1 virulence:2 transmittability:1 prevalence:5 purport:1 origin:2 high:9 global:3 chimpanzee:2 sooty:3 mangabey:3 history:4 think:6 originate:5 non:10 primate:2 early:5 century:2 paper:1 pattern:1 publish:1 june:1 believe:4 central:3 jump:3 zoonosis:1 southern:1 cameroon:2 wild:1 pan:1 troglodytes:1 troglodyte:1 twentieth:1 evolve:1 simian:5 sivcpz:1 http:3 www:3 nature:4 com:1 journal:2 abs:1 html:2 hand:2 cercocebus:1 atys:1 old:1 monkey:4 guinea:1 bissau:1 gabon:1 new:13 interesting:1 exception:1 retrotransposition:1 cyclophilin:1 gene:8 intron:1 fusion:5 provide:6 owl:1 resistance:6 see:5 case:8 spread:2 discovery:4 controversy:1 surround:4 intense:1 french:2 scientist:2 luc:1 montagnier:4 american:1 researcher:2 robert:1 gallo:3 respectively:3 dispute:1 settle:1 political:2 team:1 receive:5 equal:1 credit:2 study:7 confirm:2 sample:1 laboratory:3 fact:2 u:2 government:2 concede:1 lion:1 share:2 karolinska:2 institute:2 award:2 half:3 nobel:1 prize:1 physiology:1 medicine:3 colleague:1 françoise:1 barré:1 sinoussi:1 go:3 harald:1 zur:1 hausen:1 unrelated:1 work:3 papilloma:1 report:6 say:3 disappointment:1 recipient:2 deserve:1 honor:1 press:1 release:4 state:3 soon:1 several:3 group:6 contribute:3 definitive:1 demonstration:1 acquire:4 aids:3 per:10 act:5 risk:11 acquisitionof:1 exposure:8 infectionsper:1 exposuresto:1 source:3 childbirth:2 injection:2 drug:16 use:26 percutaneous:1 stick:1 receptive:3 anal:2 insertive:3 penile:2 oral:7 assume:1 condom:2 refers:3 intercourseperformed:1 man:1 identify:2 frequently:1 relation:1 secretion:2 one:10 partner:4 come:2 contact:3 genital:2 rectal:1 mucous:1 membrane:10 another:5 income:2 female:3 male:7 various:4 reason:4 higher:1 correct:1 consistent:1 latex:1 reduce:9 however:11 spermicide:1 actually:3 due:4 inflammation:1 vagina:1 meta:1 analysis:2 observational:2 conduct:2 prior:2 indicate:2 circumcision:5 subsequent:2 review:3 correlation:1 confound:1 late:4 trial:1 uncircumcised:1 men:3 randomly:1 assign:1 medically:1 circumcise:2 sterile:1 give:3 counseling:1 south:6 kenya:1 uganda:2 showing:1 reduction:2 heterosexual:1 sex:1 panel:1 expert:3 convene:1 secretariat:1 recommend:3 additional:2 important:6 intervention:2 heterosexually:1 research:5 clarify:1 whether:2 historical:1 relationship:3 differ:1 social:2 cultural:1 context:1 african:3 medical:5 express:1 concern:3 repeat:3 unsterilized:1 blade:1 traditional:1 adolescent:1 boy:1 bugchasing:1 giftgiving:1 pursuit:1 contract:1 open:1 wound:1 account:2 intravenous:1 user:1 hemophiliac:1 though:2 check:1 also:18 care:5 region:5 prevalent:3 substandard:1 hygiene:1 equipment:1 reuse:1 worker:2 nurse:1 doctor:4 although:6 rarely:1 tattoo:1 piercings:1 scarification:1 procedure:2 known:2 personnel:1 require:3 protect:1 universal:1 precaution:1 utero:1 pregnancy:1 intrapartum:1 via:1 feeding:3 absence:2 around:4 combination:2 cesarian:1 section:1 postnatal:2 prevent:2 complete:1 avoidance:1 significant:2 exclusive:1 provision:1 extended:1 prophylaxis:2 infant:2 efficacious:1 avoid:2 cochrane:2 systematic:1 prevention:3 org:1 en:1 find:4 concentration:1 saliva:1 tear:1 urine:1 recorded:2 potential:1 negligible:1 multiple:3 unlike:1 particularly:3 genetically:1 distant:1 inter:1 intra:1 clade:1 rapid:4 disease:16 progression:6 divide:1 category:1 depend:1 timing:2 acquisition:1 second:6 coinfection:2 appear:5 close:2 distinguish:1 reinfection:1 superinfection:1 measurable:1 form:6 dual:2 acute:9 chronic:1 structure:4 diagram:1 different:5 roughly:1 spherical:1 diameter:1 nm:1 small:3 red:1 yet:1 compare:1 overview:1 page:2 compose:6 copy:7 cod:1 nine:3 enclose:1 conical:1 capsid:5 protein:29 stranded:1 tightly:1 bind:13 nucleocapsid:1 enzyme:7 need:3 development:5 virion:10 protease:7 ribonuclease:3 matrix:1 ensure:1 integrity:1 turn:1 envelope:8 layer:1 fatty:1 molecule:6 call:7 phospholipid:1 take:2 newly:3 bud:4 embed:1 complex:7 protrude:1 surface:7 env:7 consist:4 cap:1 make:7 glycoprotein:5 gp:1 stem:1 anchor:2 enable:1 attach:1 fuse:2 initiate:1 infectious:4 cycle:8 especially:1 consider:4 vaccine:5 least:4 structural:5 landmark:1 ltr:4 tar:3 rre:2 pe:1 slip:2 cr:1 gag:9 pol:6 tat:4 rev:6 nef:4 vif:3 vpr:3 vpu:3 tev:1 encode:1 contain:3 information:1 example:4 code:1 break:1 six:1 remain:4 vpx:1 regulatory:2 control:4 ability:2 produce:6 replicate:4 transcriptional:1 transactivators:1 promoter:1 element:4 process:5 micrornas:1 regulate:2 involve:5 shuttle:1 nucleus:6 cytoplasm:2 action:1 deaminate:1 hybrid:2 interfere:1 arrest:1 division:1 downregulates:1 receptor:11 well:5 mhc:1 class:5 ii:1 interact:4 domain:4 influence:1 end:2 sequence:5 terminal:2 switch:2 production:4 trigger:1 psi:1 packaging:1 tttttt:1 frameshift:1 reading:1 frame:1 functional:2 tropism:3 type:3 variety:4 microglial:2 interaction:2 chemokine:8 coreceptors:1 tropic:5 syncitia:2 inducing:2 nsi:1 β:1 thus:4 able:6 coreceptor:3 almost:2 primary:4 isolates:3 regardless:1 genetic:6 subtype:10 indeed:1 play:2 key:2 role:2 aspect:1 perhaps:1 deplete:1 patient:23 nervous:1 tonsil:1 adenoid:1 multinucleated:1 giant:1 huge:1 amount:2 si:2 α:2 transitional:1 sdf:1 ligand:1 suppress:1 replication:9 expression:1 explain:1 productive:1 myeloid:1 probably:1 constitute:1 reservoir:1 maintain:1 extremely:3 resistant:5 certain:3 mutation:6 stop:2 mode:1 seminal:1 pass:1 numerous:1 disseminate:1 whole:2 organism:1 selection:1 predominant:1 selective:1 still:4 investigation:1 model:1 spermatozoon:1 selectively:1 carry:3 possess:1 epithelial:1 preferentially:2 sequester:1 b:7 often:6 stage:14 variant:3 aggressively:1 heighten:1 depletion:1 collapse:2 mark:2 advent:1 course:6 adaptation:1 instead:1 step:5 determine:3 harbour:1 presumably:1 phenotype:1 enters:1 adsorption:1 follow:5 trimeric:1 spike:2 generally:3 others:2 integrin:2 activate:2 lfa:1 establishment:1 virological:1 synapsis:1 facilitate:1 efficient:1 spreading:1 affinity:1 attachment:2 undergo:3 change:1 expose:1 binding:1 stable:1 pronged:1 n:2 peptide:1 penetrate:1 extracellular:1 portion:1 hairpin:1 loop:1 bring:1 together:2 inject:1 microtubule:1 base:5 transport:4 chromosome:1 dc:4 mannose:1 specific:2 c:3 lectin:1 sign:2 encounter:1 currently:4 capture:1 mucosa:1 transcription:4 shortly:1 enter:1 attached:1 complementary:1 error:1 prone:1 resulting:1 evade:1 activity:2 degrade:1 synthesis:1 cdna:3 dependent:1 polymerase:1 antisense:1 doc:1 kaiser:1 microbiology:1 home:1 iv:2 f:1 animal:1 community:1 college:1 baltimore:1 county:1 update:1 jan:1 complement:1 integration:1 integrated:1 lie:1 dormant:1 actively:1 nf:2 κb:1 kappa:1 upregulated:1 mean:2 likely:2 fight:1 provirus:1 mrna:4 splice:2 piece:2 export:1 translate:1 encourage:1 accumulate:2 allows:1 unspliced:1 leave:1 otherwise:1 retain:1 full:3 length:2 package:2 differently:1 appropriate:1 whereas:1 create:3 mutate:1 faster:1 assembly:2 final:3 virons:1 plasma:3 polyprotein:1 endoplasmic:1 reticulum:1 golgi:1 cleave:2 polyproteins:2 inner:1 genomic:1 forming:2 maturation:2 immature:1 component:1 assemble:1 mature:2 cleavage:1 inhibit:1 inhibitor:7 variability:3 phylogenetic:2 tree:2 siv:5 differs:1 diversity:2 fast:2 generation:3 day:5 couple:1 approximately:1 x:1 nucleotide:1 recombinogenic:1 scenario:1 compound:1 simultaneously:1 simultaneous:1 progeny:1 happen:1 back:1 forth:1 template:1 generate:1 synthesize:1 retroviral:2 recombinant:2 parental:1 recombination:2 obvious:1 subtypes:7 closely:2 related:1 exhibit:1 somewhat:1 behavior:1 natural:2 green:1 evoke:1 mild:1 response:7 kurth:1 r:1 norley:1 j:1 nih:1 extensive:1 typical:1 contrast:1 heterologous:2 rhesus:1 cynomologus:1 macaque:1 order:1 diversification:1 unknown:2 basis:1 difference:1 subdivide:1 eight:1 clades:1 geographically:1 distinct:2 mainly:3 north:1 america:1 europe:1 asia:2 branch:1 represent:1 lineage:1 rise:1 circulate:2 crfs:2 last:5 worldwide:1 focus:2 partially:1 homologous:1 resemble:1 clinical:3 generalized:1 graph:1 load:4 count:9 untreated:1 particular:1 vary:3 considerably:1 decrease:1 measure:2 basically:1 latency:5 initial:4 asymptomatic:1 usually:3 week:5 symptom:14 fever:2 swollen:1 lymph:1 node:1 pharyngitis:3 sore:3 throat:1 rash:3 myalgia:2 muscle:1 pain:1 malaise:2 mouth:2 esophageal:1 show:2 anywhere:1 twenty:1 beyond:1 fourth:1 uninfected:2 immediately:2 abundance:1 peripheral:1 commonly:4 ml:1 accompany:1 marked:1 drop:1 viremia:1 virtually:1 activation:1 subsequently:2 antibody:3 seroconversion:1 peak:1 rebound:1 µl:4 normal:1 value:1 good:2 link:3 slower:1 prognosis:1 post:2 influenza:1 mononucleosis:1 like:1 illness:1 esophagal:1 headache:1 nausea:1 vomiting:1 enlarge:1 liver:1 spleen:1 weight:2 loss:2 thrush:2 neurological:1 experience:3 none:1 varies:1 nonspecific:2 hospital:1 misdiagnosed:1 consequently:1 diagnose:1 strong:1 defense:1 stream:1 start:8 phase:2 lymphoid:1 organ:1 trap:1 follicular:1 fdc:1 network:1 tissue:2 rich:1 proviral:2 detail:1 topic:1 diagnosis:2 stag:1 microbe:1 moderate:1 unexplained:1 recur:1 respiratory:1 tract:1 sinusitis:1 bronchitis:1 otitis:1 medium:2 prostatitis:1 skin:1 ulceration:1 tumor:3 robust:1 affect:2 typically:3 candida:1 mycobacterium:2 tuberculosis:2 susceptibility:1 candidiasis:1 later:2 reactivation:1 herpes:3 worsen:1 recurrence:1 simplex:1 eruption:1 shingle:1 epstein:1 barr:1 induce:1 lymphoma:1 kaposi:1 sarcoma:1 pneumonia:1 fungus:1 pneumocystis:1 jirovecii:1 fatal:1 cytomegalovirus:1 avium:1 prominent:2 get:1 test:11 unaware:2 sexually:1 urban:2 proportion:2 rural:2 furthermore:1 pregnant:1 woman:2 attend:1 facility:2 counsel:1 donor:3 therefore:1 routinely:1 screen:2 consists:1 immunosorbent:1 assay:3 elisa:5 detect:1 specimen:8 nonreactive:1 negative:1 unless:1 status:1 reactive:6 retested:2 duplicate:2 repeatedly:3 undergoes:1 confirmatory:1 supplemental:1 e:2 g:2 western:4 blot:4 immunofluorescence:1 ifa:3 specimens:1 indicative:1 occasionally:1 indeterminate:2 incomplete:1 reaction:2 ambiguous:1 widely:4 collect:2 month:2 nucleic:1 acid:1 testing:3 amplification:1 method:3 help:1 situation:2 addition:1 tested:1 might:1 inconclusive:1 quantity:1 modern:1 accurate:1 chance:1 false:1 protocol:1 abacavir:1 nucleoside:3 analog:1 nartis:2 nrti:2 cure:3 lanl:1 gov:1 administer:1 refer:1 quickly:1 highly:2 haart:14 beneficial:1 introduction:1 option:2 cocktail:1 consisting:1 belong:1 agent:1 analogue:1 plus:1 nnrti:1 already:1 accessible:1 resource:1 limited:1 setting:1 predictable:1 adult:3 young:3 aggressive:1 assess:2 thoroughly:1 readiness:1 decide:1 neither:1 uniformly:1 remove:1 return:1 moreover:1 would:5 lifetime:1 clear:1 despite:2 remarkable:1 improvement:1 quality:1 suggest:1 computer:1 guideline:2 observe:1 median:2 ten:1 sometimes:1 far:3 optimal:1 circumstance:1 effective:3 fifty:1 intolerance:1 side:4 effect:4 ineffective:2 adherence:5 persistence:2 benefit:1 overlap:1 psychosocial:1 issue:2 poor:1 inadequate:1 support:2 psychiatric:1 abuse:1 complexity:1 regimens:1 pill:1 dose:1 frequency:1 meal:1 restriction:1 intentional:1 problem:1 lipodystrophy:2 dyslipidemia:1 insulin:1 cardiovascular:1 defect:1 debate:1 question:4 fall:3 national:3 evidence:2 cohort:1 offer:2 expensive:1 improve:2 decreasing:1 simplify:1 regimen:2 best:1 manage:1 unfortunately:1 halt:1 cost:1 affordable:1 daily:1 difficult:1 publication:1 england:1 nejm:1 describe:1 anecdotal:2 berlin:1 gero:1 hütter:1 myelogenous:1 leukemia:1 aml:2 functionally:1 cured:1 bone:4 marrow:4 transplant:2 select:1 homozygous:1 confer:1 bowel:1 limit:1 detection:1 author:1 note:1 caution:1 premature:1 epidemiology:1 among:1 destructive:1 recent:1 improved:1 live:7 bad:2 affected:1 age:1 quarter:1 east:1 total:1 nigeria:1 india:2 evaluation:3 bank:4 operation:1 department:1 effectiveness:1 assistance:1 define:1 policy:1 dialogue:1 analytic:1 lend:1 explicit:1 objective:1 scope:1 impact:2 epidemic:4 comprehensive:1 beginning:1 mid:1 aim:1 assist:1 implementation:1 insight:1 substantially:2 area:1 misperception:1 vanish:1 mtct:2 decade:1 steady:1 attempt:1 curb:1 vct:1 voluntary:1 counselling:1 pmtct:1 anc:1 ante:1 natal:1 service:1 distribution:1 denialism:2 connection:1 prove:1 existence:1 validity:2 examine:1 reject:1 text:1 governmental:1 acceptance:1 blame:1 relate:1 photosensitivity:1 pruritus:1 reference:1 external:1 |@bigram immunodeficiency_virus:4 immunodeficiency_syndrome:2 opportunistic_infection:7 breast_milk:2 bodily_fluid:1 sexual_intercourse:2 blood_transfusion:3 hiv_infection:29 hiv_aid:7 infect_hiv:4 sub_saharan:6 saharan_africa:6 helper_cell:1 dendritic_cell:4 mediate_immunity:3 hiv_infected:6 life_expectancy:5 antiretroviral_therapy:6 incubation_period:3 viral_rna:3 strand_dna:3 reverse_transcriptase:10 virus_infect:1 hiv_infect:7 chimpanzee_pan:1 twentieth_century:1 simian_immunodeficiency:2 http_www:3 guinea_bissau:1 nobel_prize:1 prize_physiology:1 physiology_medicine:1 human_papilloma:1 papilloma_virus:1 anal_intercourse:2 vaginal_intercourse:2 mucous_membrane:1 male_female:2 latex_condom:1 meta_analysis:1 randomly_assign:1 kenya_uganda:1 health_care:1 breast_feeding:3 antiretroviral_drug:3 cochrane_systematic:1 acute_chronic:1 strand_rna:3 tightly_bind:1 viral_envelope:4 nucleus_cytoplasm:2 dna_rna:1 mhc_class:1 viral_genome:1 chemokine_receptor:5 epithelial_cell:1 hairpin_loop:1 replication_transcription:1 dna_polymerase:1 nf_κb:1 viral_replication:2 transcribe_mrna:1 plasma_membrane:3 endoplasmic_reticulum:1 protease_inhibitor:3 phylogenetic_tree:2 closely_related:1 immune_response:2 closely_resemble:1 lymph_node:1 sore_throat:1 headache_nausea:1 nausea_vomiting:1 infectious_disease:1 respiratory_tract:1 tract_infection:1 otitis_medium:1 mycobacterium_tuberculosis:1 herpes_virus:2 herpes_simplex:1 epstein_barr:1 barr_virus:1 nucleic_acid:1 morbidity_mortality:1 resistant_strain:1 anti_retroviral:1 bone_marrow:4 aid_pandemic:1 aid_denialism:2 external_link:1 |
7,482 | Dying_Earth | The Dying Earth is a series of fantasy fixups (novels created from older short stories) by American author Jack Vance. Works The series consists of the following works: The Dying Earth (collection of linked stories, 1950) The Eyes of the Overworld (novel, 1966) Cugel's Saga (novel, 1983) -- not a fixup; written as a complete novel. Rhialto the Marvellous (collection of linked stories, 1984) Tales of the Dying Earth collects the entire series. Author Michael Shea has also written a book set in the same fictional world: A Quest of Simbilis (novel, 1974), and is actually an authorised sequel to Eyes of the Overworld. Interestingly, this book was published nine years before Vance's own sequel. Nifft the Lean by Shea, also owes much debt to Vance's creation, since the protagonist of the story is a petty thief (not unlike Cugel the Clever), who travels and struggles in an exotic world. Gene Wolfe's The Book of the New Sun is set in a somewhat similar world and has been written under Vance's influence. (Wolfe suggested in The Castle of the Otter, a collection of essays, that he inserted "The Dying Earth" into his fictional world under the title The Book of Gold.) Three of the Dying Earth books had their titles changed by editors or publishers. In the Vance Integral Edition of Vance's complete oeuvre, these books have had Vance's original titles restored. They are as follows: The Dying Earth is retitled as Mazirian the Magician. The Eyes of the Overworld is retitled as Cugel the Clever. Cugel's Saga is retitled as Cugel: the Skybreak Spatterlight. Setting The stories of the Dying Earth series are set in the distant future, at a point when the sun is almost exhausted and magic has reasserted itself as a dominant force. The various civilizations of the Earth have collapsed for the large part into decadence. The Earth itself is mostly barren and cold, and has become infested with various predatory monsters (possibly created by a magician in a former age). The Moon has disappeared and the Sun is in danger of burning out at any time. A certain fatalism characterizes many of the inhabitants as a consequence. Almery is the center of the region where most of the series characters originate. Although the city is just the pale shadow of its once great self, suffering from marginal desolation, it plays a determinative role in the life of the southern areas. The series shows the influence of the picaresque tale, applied to a science fiction/fantasy setting. Influence The series has lent its name to a whole sub-genre of science fiction that using an entropically dying earth as the setting. The magic system used in Dungeons & Dragons (in which a wizard is limited in the number of spells that can be simultaneously remembered and forgets them once they are cast) was based on the magic of Dying Earth. Some of the spells from D&D are based on spells mentioned in the Dying Earth series, notably the prismatic spray. One of the deities of magic in Dungeons & Dragons is named Vecna (an anagram of Vance). Many other role-playing settings pay homage to Vance's series by including fantasy elements he invented such as the (in)famous darkness-dwelling Grues, in addition there is an official Dying Earth role-playing game, published by Pelgrane Press which places players into Vance's ancient world populated by desperately extravagant people. See also The Excellent Prismatic Spray - magazine devoted to the Dying Earth role-playing game and Jack Vance External links Pelgrane Press Vance Integral Edition | Dying_Earth |@lemmatized die:12 earth:14 series:9 fantasy:3 fixups:1 novel:5 create:2 old:1 short:1 story:5 american:1 author:2 jack:2 vance:12 work:2 consist:1 following:1 collection:3 link:3 eye:3 overworld:3 cugel:5 saga:2 fixup:1 write:3 complete:2 rhialto:1 marvellous:1 tale:2 collect:1 entire:1 michael:1 shea:2 also:3 book:6 set:5 fictional:2 world:5 quest:1 simbilis:1 actually:1 authorised:1 sequel:2 interestingly:1 publish:2 nine:1 year:1 nifft:1 lean:1 owe:1 much:1 debt:1 creation:1 since:1 protagonist:1 petty:1 thief:1 unlike:1 clever:2 travel:1 struggle:1 exotic:1 gene:1 wolfe:2 new:1 sun:3 somewhat:1 similar:1 influence:3 suggest:1 castle:1 otter:1 essay:1 insert:1 title:3 gold:1 three:1 change:1 editor:1 publisher:1 integral:2 edition:2 oeuvre:1 original:1 restore:1 follow:1 retitled:3 mazirian:1 magician:2 skybreak:1 spatterlight:1 distant:1 future:1 point:1 almost:1 exhausted:1 magic:4 reassert:1 dominant:1 force:1 various:2 civilization:1 collapse:1 large:1 part:1 decadence:1 mostly:1 barren:1 cold:1 become:1 infest:1 predatory:1 monster:1 possibly:1 former:1 age:1 moon:1 disappear:1 danger:1 burn:1 time:1 certain:1 fatalism:1 characterize:1 many:2 inhabitant:1 consequence:1 almery:1 center:1 region:1 character:1 originate:1 although:1 city:1 pale:1 shadow:1 great:1 self:1 suffer:1 marginal:1 desolation:1 play:2 determinative:1 role:4 life:1 southern:1 area:1 show:1 picaresque:1 apply:1 science:2 fiction:2 lend:1 name:2 whole:1 sub:1 genre:1 use:2 entropically:1 setting:2 system:1 dungeon:2 dragon:2 wizard:1 limit:1 number:1 spell:3 simultaneously:1 remember:1 forget:1 cast:1 base:2 mention:1 notably:1 prismatic:2 spray:2 one:1 deity:1 vecna:1 anagram:1 pay:1 homage:1 include:1 element:1 invent:1 famous:1 darkness:1 dwelling:1 grues:1 addition:1 official:1 playing:2 game:2 pelgrane:2 press:2 place:1 player:1 ancient:1 populate:1 desperately:1 extravagant:1 people:1 see:1 excellent:1 magazine:1 devote:1 external:1 |@bigram jack_vance:2 petty_thief:1 science_fiction:2 dungeon_dragon:2 pay_homage:1 external_link:1 |
7,483 | Grímnismál | Grímnismál (Sayings of Grímnir) is one of the mythological poems of the Poetic Edda. It is preserved in the Codex Regius manuscript and the AM 748 I 4to fragment. It is spoken through the voice of Grímnir, one of the many guises of the god Odin, who is (through an error) tortured by King Geirröth. This was to prove a fatal mistake since Odin caused him to fall upon his own sword. The work starts out with a lengthy prose section describing the circumstances leading up to Grímnir's monologue, which comprises 54 stanzas of poetic verse. The last bit of the poem is also prose, a brief description of Geirröth's demise, his son's ascension, and Odin's disappearance. The prose sections were most likely not part of the original oral versions of Grímnismál. Synopsis "No one gave him a thought of pity save little Agnar" by George Wright. Agnar offering Grímnir something to drink. The narrative commences at a point when Odin and his wife, Frigg, were sitting in Hlidskjalf, looking out on the worlds. They turned their eyes towards King Geirröth, who was reigning in the stead of his late father, King Hrauthung. Geirröth and his older brother Agnarr had been raised by Odin and Frigg, respectively. The god and goddess disguised themselves as a peasant and his wife, and taught the children wisdom. Geirröth returned to his father's kingdom where he became king upon his father's death, while Agnarr dwelt in company with a giantess in a cave. In Hliðskjálf, Odin remarked to Frigg that his foster-child Geirröth seemed to be prospering more so than her Agnarr. Frigg retorted that Geirröth was so parsimonious and inhospitable that he would torture his guests if he thought there were too many of them. Odin disputed this, and the couple entered into a wager in this respect. Frigg then sent her maid Fulla to Geirröth, advising him that a magician would soon enter his court to bewitch him, and saying that he could be recognised by the fact that no dog was fierce enough to leap up at him. Geirröth heeded Fulla's false warning. He ordered his men to capture the man the dogs wouldn't attack, which they did. Odin-as-Grímnir, dressed in a dark blue cloak, allowed himself to be captured. He stated that his name was Grímnir, but he would say nothing further of himself. Geirröth then had him tortured to force him to speak, putting him between two fires for eight nights. After this time, Geirröth's son, Agnarr, named after his brother, came to Grímnir and gave him a full horn from which to drink, saying that his father, the king, was not right to torture him. Grímnir then spoke, saying that he had suffered eight days and nights, without succour from any save, Agnarr, Geirröth's son, whom he prophesied would be Lord of the Goths. He then revealed himself for who he was, as the Highest One, promising him reward for the drink which he brought him. In the body of the poem, Odin describes at great length the cosmogony of the worlds, the dwelling places of its inhabitants, and talks about himself and his many guises. Eventually, he turns to Geirröth and promises him misfortune, revealing his true identity. Geirröth then realized the magnitude of his mistake. Having learned that he is undone, he rose quickly to pull Odin from the fire, but the sword which he had lain upon his knee slipped, fell hilt down, the king stumbled and impaled himself upon it. Odin then vanished, and Agnarr, his son, ruled in his stead. External links Grimnismol Translation and commentary by Henry A. Bellows Grimnismál Translation by Benjamin Thorpe Grimnismál Translation by W. H. Auden and P. B. Taylor The Lay of Grimnir Translation by Lee M. Hollander Song of Grimner Translation by A. S. Cottle Grímnismál Sophus Bugge's edition of the manuscript text Grímnismál Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling "When is a fish a bridge? An investigation of Grímnismál 21." Article by Eysteinn Björnsson (2000 | Grímnismál |@lemmatized grímnismál:5 saying:1 grímnir:8 one:4 mythological:1 poem:3 poetic:2 edda:1 preserve:1 codex:1 regius:1 manuscript:2 fragment:1 speak:3 voice:1 many:3 guise:2 god:2 odin:11 error:1 torture:4 king:6 geirröth:14 prove:1 fatal:1 mistake:2 since:1 cause:1 fall:1 upon:4 sword:2 work:1 start:1 lengthy:1 prose:3 section:2 describe:1 circumstance:1 lead:1 monologue:1 comprise:1 stanza:1 verse:1 last:1 bit:1 also:1 brief:1 description:1 demise:1 son:4 ascension:1 disappearance:1 likely:1 part:1 original:1 oral:1 version:1 synopsis:1 give:2 thought:1 pity:1 save:2 little:1 agnar:2 george:1 wright:1 offer:1 something:1 drink:3 narrative:1 commences:1 point:1 wife:2 frigg:5 sit:1 hlidskjalf:1 look:1 world:2 turn:2 eye:1 towards:1 reign:1 stead:2 late:1 father:4 hrauthung:1 old:1 brother:2 agnarr:6 raise:1 respectively:1 goddess:1 disguise:1 peasant:1 teach:1 child:2 wisdom:1 return:1 kingdom:1 become:1 death:1 dwelt:1 company:1 giantess:1 cave:1 hliðskjálf:1 remark:1 foster:1 seem:1 prosper:1 retort:1 parsimonious:1 inhospitable:1 would:4 guest:1 think:1 dispute:1 couple:1 enter:2 wager:1 respect:1 send:1 maid:1 fulla:2 advise:1 magician:1 soon:1 court:1 bewitch:1 say:4 could:1 recognise:1 fact:1 dog:2 fierce:1 enough:1 leap:1 heed:1 false:1 warning:1 order:1 men:1 capture:2 man:1 attack:1 dress:1 dark:1 blue:1 cloak:1 allow:1 state:1 name:2 nothing:1 far:1 force:1 put:1 two:1 fire:2 eight:2 night:2 time:1 come:1 full:1 horn:1 right:1 suffer:1 day:1 without:1 succour:1 prophesy:1 lord:1 goth:1 reveal:2 high:1 promise:2 reward:1 bring:1 body:1 describes:1 great:1 length:1 cosmogony:1 dwell:1 place:1 inhabitant:1 talk:1 eventually:1 misfortune:1 true:1 identity:1 realize:1 magnitude:1 learn:1 undone:1 rise:1 quickly:1 pull:1 lie:1 knee:1 slip:1 fell:1 hilt:1 stumble:1 impale:1 vanish:1 rule:1 external:1 link:1 grimnismol:1 translation:5 commentary:1 henry:1 bellow:1 grimnismál:2 benjamin:1 thorpe:1 w:1 h:1 auden:1 p:1 b:1 taylor:1 lay:1 grimnir:1 lee:1 hollander:1 song:1 grimner:1 cottle:1 sophus:1 bugge:1 edition:2 text:2 guðni:1 jónsson:1 normalized:1 spell:1 fish:1 bridge:1 investigation:1 article:1 eysteinn:1 björnsson:1 |@bigram poetic_edda:1 codex_regius:1 external_link:1 benjamin_thorpe:1 h_auden:1 lee_hollander:1 guðni_jónsson:1 jónsson_edition:1 eysteinn_björnsson:1 |
7,484 | Holden | GM Holden Ltd is an Australian automaker based in Port Melbourne, Victoria. The company was originally independent, but since 1931 has been a subsidiary of General Motors (GM). Holden has taken charge of vehicle operations for GM in Australasia and, on behalf of GM, holds partial ownership of GM Daewoo in South Korea. Over the years, Holden has offered a broad range of locally produced vehicles, supplemented by imported GM models. In the past, Holden has offered badge engineered Chevrolet, Isuzu, Nissan, Suzuki and Toyota models in sharing arrangements, with Daewoo, Opel and Isuzu-sourced models sold currently. Holden bodyworks are manufactured at Elizabeth, South Australia, and engines are produced at the Fishermens Bend plant in Port Melbourne, Victoria. Historically, production or assembly plants were operated in all mainland states of Australia: Acacia Ridge, Queensland; Dandenong, Victoria; Mosman Park, Western Australia; Pagewood, New South Wales; and Woodville, South Australia. Until 1990, GM's New Zealand subsidiary Holden New Zealand operated a plant based in Trentham, with a plant in Petone running until 1984. The consolidation of car production at Elizabeth was completed in 1988, but some assembly operations continued at Dandenong until 1996. Although Holden's involvement in exports has fluctuated since the 1950s, the declining sales of large cars in Australia has led the company to look to international markets to increase profitability; in 2006, exports alone accounted for almost AU$1.3 billion in earnings. History of the company Early history In 1852, James Alexander Holden emigrated to South Australia from England and in 1856 established J.A. Holden & Co, a saddlery business in Adelaide. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 16. Edward Holden, James' son, joined the firm in 1905 with an interest in automobiles. From there, the firm evolved through various partnerships and, in 1908, Holden and Frost moved into the business of minor repairs to car upholstery. The company began to produce complete motorcycle sidecar bodies in 1913, and Edward experimented with fitting bodies to different types of carriages. After 1917, wartime trade restrictions led the company to start full-scale production of vehicle body shells. J.A. Holden founded a new company in 1919, Holden's Motor Body Builders Ltd (HMBB) specialising in car bodies. By 1923, HMBB were producing 12,000 units per year. During this time, HMBB was the first company to assemble bodies for Ford Australia until their Geelong, Victoria, plant was completed. From 1924, HMBB became the exclusive supplier of car bodies for GM in Australia, with manufacturing taking place at the new Woodville, South Australia plant. These bodies were made to suit a number of chassis imported from manufacturers such as Chevrolet and Dodge. The Great Depression era led to a substantial downturn in production, from 34,000 units annually in 1930 to just 1,651 units one year later. In 1931, GM purchased the business and formed General Motors–Holden's Ltd. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 6. Since then, two name changes have occurred: the first, in 1998, changed the name to Holden Ltd, and the second, in May 2005, to GM Holden Ltd. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 9. 1940s Holden's first full-scale car factory, located in Fishermens Bend (Port Melbourne), was completed in 1936, with construction beginning in 1939 on a new plant in Pagewood, New South Wales. However, World War II delayed car production with efforts shifted to the construction of vehicle bodies, field guns, aircraft and engines. Before the war ended, the Australian Government took steps to encourage an Australian automotive industry. Both GM and Ford provided studies to the Australian Government outlining the production of the first Australian designed car. Ford's proposal was the government's first choice, but required substantial financial assistance. GM's study was ultimately chosen because of its low level of government intervention. After the war, Holden returned to producing vehicle bodies, this time for Buick, Chevrolet, Pontiac and Vauxhall. From here, Holden continued to pursue the goal of producing an Australian car. This involved compromise with GM, as Holden's managing director, Laurence Hartnett, favoured development of a local design, while GM preferred to see an American design as the basis for "Australia's Own Car". Loffler (2006), p. 5–7. In the end, the design was based on a previously rejected post-war Chevrolet proposal. Loffler (2000), p. 5. The Holden was launched in 1948, creating long waiting lists extending through 1949 and beyond. Although officially designated "48-215", the car was marketed simply as the "Holden". The unofficial usage of the name "FX" originated within Holden, referring to the updated suspension 48-215 of 1953. Loffler (2002), p. 4. 1950s During the 1950s, Holden dominated the Australian car market. GM invested heavily in production capacity, which allowed the company to meet increased post-war demand for motor cars. Less expensive four-cylinder cars did not offer Holden's ability to deal with rugged rural areas. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 38. 48-215 sedans were produced in parallel with the 50-2106 coupé utility from 1951; the latter was known colloquially as the "ute" and became ubiquitous in Australian rural areas as the workhorse of choice. Production of both the utility and sedan continued with minor changes until 1953, when they were replaced by the facelifted FJ model, introducing a third panel van body style. The FJ was the first major change to the Holden since its 1948 introduction. Over time it gained iconic status and remains one of Australia's most recognisable automotive symbols. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 40. A new horizontally-slatted grille dominated the front-end of the FJ, which received various other trim and minor mechanical revisions. Bebbington (1998), p. 14. "...the FJ was easily identified by its bold new, Buick-style grille, new hubcaps and new torpedo-style tail-lights." Loffler (2002), p. 5. Although little changed from the 48-215, marketing campaigns and price cuts kept FJ sales steady until a completely redesigned model was launched. At the 2005 Australian International Motor Show in Sydney, Holden paid homage to the FJ with the Efijy concept car. Carey (2005), p. 16. Holden's next model, the FE, launched in 1956; offered in a new station wagon body style dubbed "Station Sedan" in the company's sales literature. Strong sales continued in Australia, and Holden achieved a market share of more than 50 percent in 1958 with the revised FC model. Wright (1998), p. 117. This was the first Holden to be tested on the new Holden Proving Ground based in Lang Lang, Victoria. The opening of the Dandenong, Victoria, production facility in 1956 brought further jobs; by 1959 Holden employed 19,000 workers country-wide. 1960s In 1960, Holden introduced its third major new model, the FB. The car's style was inspired by 1950s’ Chevrolets, with tailfins and a wrap-around windshield with "dog leg" A-pillars. By the time it was introduced, many considered the appearance dated. Much of the motoring industry at the time noted that the adopted style did not translate well to the more compact Holden. Wright (1998), p. 122. The FB became the first Holden that was adapted for left-hand-drive markets, enhancing its export potential. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 46. In 1960, Ford unveiled the new Falcon in Australia, only months after its introduction in the United States. To Holden's advantage, the Falcon was not durable, particularly in the front suspension, making it ill-suited for Australian conditions. Wright (1998), p. 133–134. In response to the Falcon, Holden introduced the facelifted EK in 1961; the new model featured two-tone paintwork and optional Hydramatic automatic transmission. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 48. An all-new EJ model came in 1962, debuting the new luxury oriented Premier model. Wright (1998), p. 135. The EH update came a year later bringing the new Red motor, providing better performance than the previous Grey motor. The HD series of 1965 saw the introduction of the Powerglide automatic transmission. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 54. At the same time, an "X2" performance option with a more powerful version of the six-cylinder engine was made available. 1966 saw the introduction of the HR, with changes in the form of new front and rear styling and higher-capacity engines. More significantly, the HR fitted standard front seat belts; Holden thus became the first Australian automaker to provide the safety device as standard equipment across all models. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part Two, p. 57. This coincided with the completion of the production plant in Acacia Ridge, Queensland. Holden began assembling the compact HA series Vauxhall Viva in 1964. This was superseded by the Holden Torana in 1967, a development of the Viva ending Vauxhall production in Australia. Holden offered the LC, a Torana with new styling, in 1969 with the availability of Holden's six-cylinder engine. In the development days, the six-cylinder Torana was reserved for motor racing, but research had shown that there was a business case for such a model. Wright (1998), p. 191–192. The LC Torana was the first application of Holden's new three-speed Tri-Matic automatic transmission. Bebbington (1998), p. 103. "Also introduced on the LC was the Tri-matic automatic transmission. This was GM-H's own three-speed unit." This was the result of Holden's AU$16.5 million transformation of the Woodville, South Australia factory for its production. Holden's association with the manufacture of Chevrolets and Pontiacs ended in 1968, coinciding with the year of Holden's next major new model, the HK . Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 5, 31. This included Holden's first V8 engine, a Chevrolet engine imported from Canada. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part Two, p. 59. Models based on the HK series included an extended-length prestige model, the Brougham, and a two-door coupé, the Monaro. Davis (1987), p. 102. The mainstream Holden Special was rebranded the Kingswood, and the basic fleet model, the Standard, became the Belmont. Wright (1998), p. 171. On 3 March 1969 Alexander Rhea, managing director of General Motors-Holden's at the time, was joined by press photographers and the Federal Minister of Shipping and Transport, Ian Sinclair as the two men drove the two millionth Holden, Autocar (1969), p. 62. an HK Brougham off the production line. This came just over half a decade since the one millionth car, an EJ Premier sedan rolled off the Dandenong line on 25 October 1962. Wright (1998), p. 137. "The millionth Holden, a Eura Gold EJ Premier sedan, passing down the Dandenong production line on 25 October 1962." Following the Chevrolet V8 fitted to the HK, the first Australian-designed and mass-produced V8, the Holden V8 engine debuted in the Hurricane concept of 1969 before fitment to facelifted HT model. This was available in two capacities: and . Late in HT production, use of the new Tri-Matic automatic transmission, first seen in the LC Torana was phased in as Powerglide stock was exhausted, but Holden's official line was that the HG of 1971 was the first full-size Holden to receive it. Bebbington (1998), p. 36. "Tri-matic automatic transmission replaced Powerglide late in the [HT] model run (May '70) (except [Monaro GTS] 350)." Bebbington (1998), p. 38. "[The HG signified] the official introduction of the Tri-matic three-speed automatic transmission to the full-size car range." Despite the arrival of serious competitors—namely, the Ford Falcon, Chrysler Valiant, and Japanese cars—in the 1960s, Holden's locally produced large six- and eight-cylinder cars remained Australia's top-selling vehicles. Sales were boosted by exporting the Kingswood sedan, station wagon, and utility body styles to Indonesia, Trinidad and Tobago, Pakistan, the Philippines and South Africa in complete knock down form. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 31. 1970s Holden launched the new HQ series in 1971. Strauss (1998), p. 11. At this time, the company was producing all of its passenger cars in Australia, and every model was of Australian design; however, by the end of the decade, Holden was producing cars based on overseas designs. The HQ was thoroughly re-engineered, featuring a perimeter frame and semi-monocoque (unibody) construction. Other firsts included an all-coil suspension and an extended wheelbase for station wagons, while the utilities and panel vans retained the traditional coil/leaf suspension configuration. The series included the new prestige Statesman brand, which also had a longer wheelbase replacing the Brougham. The Statesman remains noteworthy because it was not marketed as a "Holden", but rather a "Statesman". Luck (1971), p. 62. The HQ framework led to a new generation of two-door Monaros, and, despite the introduction of the similar sized competitors, the HQ range became the top-selling Holden of all time, with 485,650 units sold in three years. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part Two, p. 67–68. The HQ series was facelifted in 1974 with the introduction of the HJ, heralding new front panel styling and a revised rear fascia. Wright (1998), p. 226. This new bodywork was to remain, albeit with minor upgrades through the HX and HZ series. Wright (1998), p. 340–341. Detuned engines adhering to government emission standards were brought in with the HX series, whilst the HZ brought considerably improved road handling and comfort with the introduction of "Radial Tuned Suspension" (RTS). Wright (1998), p. 239–241. As a result of GM's toying with the Wankel rotary engine, as used by Mazda of Japan, an export agreement was initiated in 1975. This involved Holden exporting with powertrains, HJ, and later, HX series Premiers as the Mazda Roadpacer AP. Mazda then fitted these cars with the 13B rotary engine and three-speed automatic transmission. Production ended in 1977, after just 840 units sold. McCarthy (2007), p. 142. "...a faction within General Motors had a serious case of the hots for Dr Wankel's rotary engine. [...] The Premier, in all its glory (except drivetrain), was shipped to Hiroshima where Mazda partially fitted the empty engine bay with a 13B rotor motor, backed by a three-speed auto. [...] Production lasted just two years and 840 units...". During the 1970s, Holden ran an advertising jingle "Football, Meat Pies, Kangaroos and Holden cars", based on the "Baseball, Hot Dogs, Apple Pies and Chevrolet" jingle used by Chevrolet in the United States. Also, development of the Torana continued in with the larger mid-sized LH series released in 1974, offered only as a four-door sedan. Wright (1998), p. 340. The LH Torana was one of the few cars worldwide engineered to occupy four-, six-and eight-cylinder engines. Wright (1998), p. 198. This trend continued until Holden introduced the Sunbird in 1976; essentially the four-cylinder Torana with a new name. Designated LX, both the Sunbird and Torana introduced a three-door hatchback variant. Wright (1998), p. 244. A final UC update appeared in 1978. Bebbington (1998), p. 115. During its production run, the Torana achieved legendary racing success in Australia, achieving victories at the Mount Panorama Circuit in Bathurst, New South Wales. In 1975, Holden introduced the compact Gemini, the Australian version of the "T-car", based on the Opel Kadett C. The Gemini was an overseas design developed jointly with Isuzu, GM's Japanese affiliate; and was powered by a 1.6 litre four-cylinder engine. Fast becoming a popular car, the Gemini rapidly attained sales leadership in its class, and the nameplate lived on until 1987. Holden's most popular car to date, the Commodore, was introduced in 1978 as the VB. Tuckey (1999), p. 27. The new family car was loosely based on the Opel Rekord E body shell, but with the front from the Opel Senator grafted to accommodate the larger Holden six-cylinder and V8 engines. Initially, the Commodore maintained Holden's sales leadership in Australia. Tuckey (1999), p. 33. However, some of the compromises resulting from the adoption of a design intended for another market hampered the car's acceptance. In particular, it was narrower than its predecessor and its Falcon rival, making it less comfortable for three rear-seat passengers. Robinson (2006), p. 23, 26–27. Holden discontinued the Torana in 1979 and the Sunbird in 1980. After the 1978 introduction of the Commodore, the Torana became the "in-between" car, surrounded by the smaller and more economical Gemini and the larger, more sophisticated Commodore. The closest successor to the Torana was the Camira, released in 1982 as Australia's version of GM's medium-sized "J-car". Robinson (2006), p. 24. 1980s The 1980s were challenging for Holden and the Australian automotive industry. The Australian Government tried to revive the industry with the Button car plan, which encouraged car makers to focus on producing fewer models at higher, more economical volumes, and to export cars. Wright (1998), p. 277. The decade opened with the shut-down of the Pagewood, New South Wales production plant and introduction of the light commercial Rodeo, sourced from Isuzu in Japan. The Rodeo was available in both two- and four-wheel drive chassis cab models with a choice of petrol and diesel powerplants. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part Two, p. 82. The range was updated in 1988 with the TF series, based on the Isuzu TF. Other cars sourced from Isuzu during the 1980s were the four-wheel drive Jackaroo (1981), the Shuttle (1982) van and the Piazza (1986) three-door sports hatchback. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part Two, p. 87, 95. The second generation Holden Gemini from 1985 was also based on an Isuzu design, although, its manufacture was undertaken in Australia. "Reborn!" (1985), p. 19. "We have been waiting a long time for this front wheel drive replacement for the original Gemini. The Isuzu people have not exactly been speedy signing off the development for the RB, or what has been known as the R-car...". The new Holden WB series utilities and panel vans and the Statesman WB limousines were introduced in 1980. However, the designs, based on the HQ and updated HJ, HX and HZ models from the 1970s were less competitive than similar models in Ford's lineup. Thus, Holden abandoned those vehicle classes all together in 1984. Sales of the Commodore also fell, with the effects of the 1979 energy crisis lessening, and for the first time the Commodore lost ground to the Ford Falcon. Sales in other segments also suffered when competition from Ford intensified, and other Australian manufacturers: Mitsubishi, Nissan and Toyota gained market share. When released in 1982, the Camira initially generated good sales, which later declined because buyers considered the 1.6 litre engine underpowered, and the car's build and ride quality below-average. The Camira lasted just seven years, and contributed to Holden's accumulated losses of over AU$500 million by the mid-1980s. Robinson (2006), p. 26. In 1984 Holden introduced the VK Commodore, with significant styling changes from the previous VH. The Commodore was next updated in 1986 as the VL, which had new front and rear styling. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part Two, p. 89–94. Controversially, the VL was powered by the 3.0 litre Nissan RB30 six-cylinder engine and had an electronically controlled four-speed automatic transmission. The engine change was necessitated by the legal requirement that all new cars sold in Australia after 1986 had to consume unleaded petrol. Because it was unfeasible to convert the existing six-cylinder engine to run on unleaded fuel, the Nissan engine was chosen as the best engine available. However, changing exchange rates doubled the cost of the engine and transmission over the life of the VL. Robinson (2006), p. 25. The decision to opt for a Japanese-made transmission led to the closure of the Woodville, South Australia assembly plant. Confident by the apparent sign of turnaround, GM paid off Holden's mounted losses of AU$780 million on 19 December 1986. At GM headquarters’ request, Holden was then reorganised and recapitalised, separating the engine and car manufacturing divisions in the process. Robinson (2006), p. 27. "...on 19 December 1986 GM paid off Holden's accumulated losses of around A$780m, leaving the company free of debt. This was a new beginning, but GM insisted the company be split in two..." This involved the splitting of Holden into Holden's Motor Company (HMC) and Holden's Engine Company (HEC). Davis, Davis (1988), p. 91. "In December 1986, GM-H announced a major restructure of its activities replacing the existing General Motors-Holden's Ltd with two sister firms, Holden's Motor Company (HMC) and Holden's Engine Company (HEC)." For the most part, car bodies were now manufactured at Elizabeth, South Australia, with engines as before, confined to the Fishermens Bend plant in Port Melbourne, Victoria. The engine manufacturing business was successful, building four-cylinder Family II engines for use in cars built overseas. The final phase of the Commodore's recovery strategy involved the 1988 VN, a significantly wider model powered by the American-designed, Australian-assembled 3.8 litre Buick V6 engine. Holden began to sell the subcompact Suzuki Swift-based Barina in 1985. The Barina was launched concurrently with the Suzuki-sourced Holden Drover, and by the Scurry later on in 1985. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part Two, p. 91. In the previous year, Nissan Pulsar hatchbacks were rebadged as the Holden Astra, as a result of a deal with Nissan. Earl (2002), p. 29. This arrangement ceased in 1989 when Holden entered a new alliance with Toyota, forming a new company: United Australian Automobile Industries (UAAI). UAAI resulted in Holden selling rebadged versions of Toyota's Corolla and Camry, as the Holden Nova and Apollo respectively, with Toyota re-branding the Commodore as the Lexcen. Earl (2002), p. 27–28. 1990s The company changed throughout the 1990s, increasing its Australian market share from 21 percent in 1991 to 28.2 percent in 1999. Besides manufacturing Australia's bestselling car, which was exported in significant numbers, Holden continued to export many locally produced engines to power cars made elsewhere. In this decade, Holden adopted a strategy of importing cars it needed to offer a full range of competitive vehicles. On 26 April 1990 GM's New Zealand subsidiary, Holden New Zealand, announced that production at the assembly plant based in Trentham would be phased out and that vehicles would be imported duty-free. This came after the 1984 closure of the Petone assembly line due to low output volumes. During the 1990s Holden, other Australian automakers and trade unionists pressured the Australian Government to halt the lowering of car import tariffs. By 1997, the federal government had already cut tariffs to 22.5 percent from 57.5 percent ten years earlier, and by 2000 were planning to reduce this even further down to 15 percent. Holden was critical, saying that Australia's population was not large enough, and that the changes could tarnish the local industry. Holden re-introduced its defunct Statesman name in 1990, this time under the Holden marque, as the Statesman and Caprice. For 1991, Holden updated the Statesman and Caprice with a range of improvements, including the introduction of four-wheel anti-lock brakes (ABS), Wright (1998), p. 343. although a rear-wheel system had been standard on the Statesman Caprice from March 1976. ABS was added to short-wheelbase Commodore range in 1992. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part Two, p. 103–104. Another returning variant was the full-size utility, this time based on the Commodore. Robinson (2006), p. 26–27. The VN Commodore received a major facelift in 1993 with the VR. Compared to the VN, approximately 80 percent of car was new. Exterior changes brought an overall smoother body and a "twin-kidney" grille—a Commodore styling trait which remained until the 2002 VY model. Holden introduced the all-new VT Commodore in 1997, the outcome of an AU$600 million development programme that spanned more than half a decade. The new model sported a rounded exterior body shell, improved dynamics, and many firsts for an Australian-built car. A stronger body structure increased crash safety. McCarthy, McKay, Newton, Robinson (2006), p. 158. A revived Monaro, based on the VT Commodore, attracted worldwide attention after being shown as a concept car at Australian auto shows, and it drew a large waiting list after production began. The revived Monaro was released to the Australian market in 2001 and ceased production in 2005. The Buick-sourced V6 engine, produced locally, powered the Commodore range, as did the V8 engine, replaced in 1999 by the GM LS unit. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part Three, p. 11. The UAAI badge-engineered cars first introduced in 1989 sold in far fewer numbers than anticipated, but the Holden Commodore, Toyota Camry, and Corolla were all successful when sold under their original nameplates. UAAI was dissolved in 1996, and Holden returned to selling only GM products. This signalled the closure of the Dandenong, Victoria facility, the sole plant for Corolla and Nova production. Wright (1998), p. 294. The Holden Astra and Vectra, both designed by Opel in Germany, replaced the Toyota-sourced Holden Nova and Apollo. This came after the 1994 introduction of the Opel Corsa replacing the already available Suzuki Swift as the source for the Holden Barina. Sales of the full-size Holden Suburban SUV sourced from Chevrolet commenced in 1998—lasting until 2001. Also in 1998, local assembly of the Vectra began at Elizabeth, South Australia. These cars were exported to Japan and Southeast Asia with Opel badges. Davis, Kennedy, Kennedy (2007): Part One, p. 34. However, the Vectra did not achieve sufficient sales in Australia to justify local assembly, and reverted to being fully imported in 2000. 2000s Holden's market surge from the 1990s reversed in the 2000s. In Australia, Holden's market share dropped from 27.5 percent in 2000 to 15.2 percent in 2006. From March 2003, Holden no longer held the number one sales position in Australia, losing ground to Toyota. "Number Crunching" (2003), p. 181. This overall downturn affected Holden's profits; the company recorded a combined gain of AU$842.9 million between 2002 and 2004, and a combined loss of AU$290 million between 2005 and 2006. Factors contributing to the loss included the development of an all-new model, the strong Australian dollar and the cost of reducing the workforce at the Elizabeth plant, including the loss of 1,400 jobs after the closure of the third-shift assembly line in 2005, after just two years in operation. Holden fared better in 2007, posting an AU$6 million loss. Holden caused controversy in 2005 with their Holden Employee Pricing television advertisement, which ran between October and December 2005. The campaign publicised, "for the first time ever, all Australians can enjoy the financial benefit of Holden Employee Pricing". However, this did not include a discounted dealer delivery fee and savings on factory fitted options and accessories that employees received. At the same time, employees were given a further discount between 25 and 29 percent on selected models. The VT Commodore received its first major update in 2002 with the VY series. A mildly facelifted VZ model launched in 2004, introducing the High Feature engine. McCarthy, McKay, Newton, Robinson (2006), p. 159. This was built at the Fishermens Bend facility completed in 2003, with a maximum output of 900 engines per day. This has reportedly added AU$5.2 billion to the Australian economy; exports account for about AU$450 million alone. After the VZ, the High Feature engine powered the all-new VE Commodore. In contrast to previous models, the VE no longer utilises an Opel-sourced platform adapted both mechanically and in size. Robinson (2006), p. 34–35, 55–56. Throughout the 1990s, Opel had also been the source of many Holden models. To increase profitability, Holden looked to the South Korean Daewoo brand for replacements after acquiring a 44.6 percent stake in the company in 2002. The first of such models, the Barina was replaced by the Daewoo Kalos in 2005, although still under the Barina nameplate. Carey (2005), p. 131. In the same year, the Viva, based on the Daewoo Lacetti, replaced the entry-level Holden Astra Classic, although the new-generation Astra introduced in 2004 continued on. Carey (2005), p. 128–129. The Captiva crossover SUV came next in 2006. After discontinuing the Frontera and Jackaroo models in 2003, Holden was only left with one all-wheel drive model: the Adventra, a Commodore-based station wagon. Ponchard (2006), p. 106–112. The fourth model to be replaced with a South Korean alternative was the Vectra by the mid-size Epica in 2007. Newton (2007), p. 104–108. As a result of the split between GM and Isuzu, Holden in lost of the naming rights to the "Rodeo" nameplate. Consequently, the Holden Rodeo was facelifted and relaunched as the Colorado during 2008. Following Holden's successful application for a AU$149 million government grant to build a localised version of the Chevrolet Cruze in Australia from 2010, Holden in 2009 announced that it would initially import the small car unchanged from South Korea as the Holden Cruze. Following the grant announcement, Kevin Rudd, the Australian Prime Minister stated that production would support 600 new jobs at the Elizabeth facility. However, this failed to take into account the 600 jobs that Holden previously announced would be shed when production of the Family II engine is set to wrap up in late 2009. Vehicle lineup Corporate affairs and identity + 2007 sales and production Vehicle sales Units Passenger vehicles 108,848 Light commercial vehicles 30,741 Sport utility vehicles 11,091 Total 146,680 Vehicle production Units Total 107,795 Engine production Units Family II 136,699 High Feature 132,722 Total 269,421 Exports Units Engines 173,463 Vehicles 36,534 Total 209,997 As of April 2009, chairman and managing director Mark Reuss heads operations at Holden. Executives of secondary departments include: Alan Batey (Sales, Marketing and Aftersales), Mark Bernhard (Finance), Stephen Coletta (Information Systems and Services), Greg Tyus (Engineering), Dave Gibbons (Manufacturing), Richard Miziewicz (Customer Satisfaction and Quality), Pete Keley (Planning and Program Management), Sean Liang (Global Purchasing and Supply Chain), Mark Polglaze (Human Resources), Jason Laird (Corporate Affairs). Vehicles are sold countrywide through the Holden Dealer Network (310 authorised stores and 12 service centres), which employs more than 13,500 people. Since the 1960s, Holden models have been a staple of domestic touring car racing, and the quasi-factory Holden Racing Team (HRT) has successfully participated in V8 Supercar racing. In 1987, Holden Special Vehicles (HSV) was formed in partnership with Tom Walkinshaw, who primarily manufactures modified, high-performance Commodore variants. To further reinforce the brand, HSV introduced the HSV Dealer Team into the V8 Supercar fold in 2005 under the naming rights of HSV Toll Racing. The logo, or "Holden lion and stone" as it is known, has played a vital role in establishing Holden's identity. In 1928, Holden's Motor Body Builders appointed Rayner Hoff to design the emblem. The logo refers to a prehistoric fable, in which observations of lions rolling stones led to the invention of the wheel. With the 1948 launch of the 48-215, Holden revised its logo and commissioned another redesign in 1972 to better represent the company. Wright (2004), p. 152. The emblem was reworked once more in 1994. Exports Holden began to export vehicles in 1954, sending the FJ to New Zealand. Tuckey (2003), p. 120. Exports to New Zealand have continued ever since, but to broaden their export potential, Holden began to cater their Commodore, Monaro and Statesman models for both right- and left-hand drive markets. The Middle East is now Holden's largest export market, with the Commodore sold as the Chevrolet Lumina since 1998, and the Statesman since 1999 as the Chevrolet Caprice. Commodores are also sold as the Chevrolet Lumina in Brunei, Fiji and South Africa, to Brazil as the Chevrolet Omega, and since 2008 to North America as the Pontiac G8. The G8 is lightly modified, with a unique front fascia and rear decklid to better integrate with Pontiac's own design language. Sales of the Monaro began in 2003 to the Middle East as the Chevrolet Lumina Coupe. Later on in the year, a modified version of the Monaro began selling in North America as the Pontiac GTO, and under the Monaro name through Vauxhall dealerships in the United Kingdom. This arrangement continued through to 2005 when the car was discontinued. The long-wheelbase Statesman sales in the Chinese market as the Buick Royaum began in 2005, before being replaced in 2007 by the Statesman-based Buick Park Avenue. Statesman exports to South Korea also began in 2005. These Korean models were sold as the Daewoo Statesman, and later as the Daewoo Veritas from 2008. Holden's move into international markets has been profitable; export revenue increased from AU$973 million in 1999 to just under $1.3 billion in 2006. Notes References Books Internet Part One, Part Two, Part Three (PDF). Journals | Holden |@lemmatized gm:28 holden:135 ltd:6 australian:29 automaker:3 base:19 port:4 melbourne:4 victoria:8 company:21 originally:1 independent:1 since:10 subsidiary:3 general:5 motor:15 take:4 charge:1 vehicle:19 operation:4 australasia:1 behalf:1 hold:2 partial:1 ownership:1 daewoo:7 south:19 korea:3 year:13 offer:7 broad:1 range:8 locally:4 produce:14 supplement:1 import:8 model:39 past:1 badge:3 engineer:3 chevrolet:15 isuzu:9 nissan:6 suzuki:4 toyota:8 share:5 arrangement:3 opel:9 sourced:2 sell:13 currently:1 bodywork:2 manufacture:7 elizabeth:6 australia:31 engine:39 fisherman:4 bend:4 plant:14 historically:1 production:28 assembly:8 operate:2 mainland:1 state:4 acacia:2 ridge:2 queensland:2 dandenong:6 mosman:1 park:2 western:1 pagewood:3 new:50 wale:4 woodville:4 zealand:6 trentham:2 petone:2 run:6 consolidation:1 car:54 complete:6 continue:10 although:7 involvement:1 export:19 fluctuate:1 decline:2 sale:18 large:8 lead:6 look:2 international:3 market:16 increase:5 profitability:2 alone:2 account:3 almost:1 au:12 billion:3 earnings:1 history:2 early:1 james:2 alexander:2 emigrate:1 england:1 establish:2 j:3 co:1 saddlery:1 business:5 adelaide:1 davis:23 kennedy:40 part:24 one:18 p:73 edward:2 son:1 join:2 firm:3 interest:1 automobile:2 evolve:1 various:2 partnership:2 frost:1 move:2 minor:4 repair:1 upholstery:1 begin:11 motorcycle:1 sidecar:1 body:19 experiment:1 fit:6 different:1 type:1 carriage:1 wartime:1 trade:2 restriction:1 start:1 full:7 scale:2 shell:3 found:1 builder:2 hmbb:4 specialising:1 unit:12 per:2 time:15 first:21 assemble:3 ford:8 geelong:1 become:8 exclusive:1 supplier:1 manufacturing:3 place:1 make:6 suit:2 number:5 chassis:2 manufacturer:2 dodge:1 great:1 depression:1 era:1 substantial:2 downturn:2 annually:1 later:7 purchase:1 form:5 two:21 name:7 change:12 occur:1 second:2 may:2 factory:4 locate:1 construction:3 beginning:2 however:8 world:1 war:5 ii:4 delay:1 effort:1 shift:2 field:1 gun:1 aircraft:1 end:7 government:9 step:1 encourage:2 automotive:3 industry:6 provide:3 study:2 outline:1 design:15 proposal:2 choice:3 require:1 financial:2 assistance:1 ultimately:1 choose:2 low:2 level:2 intervention:1 return:3 buick:6 pontiac:5 vauxhall:4 pursue:1 goal:1 involved:2 compromise:2 manage:3 director:3 laurence:1 hartnett:1 favour:1 development:7 local:4 prefer:1 see:2 american:2 basis:1 loffler:4 previously:2 reject:1 post:3 launch:7 create:1 long:3 waiting:1 list:2 extend:1 beyond:1 officially:1 designate:2 simply:1 unofficial:1 usage:1 fx:1 originate:1 within:2 refer:1 update:7 suspension:5 dominate:2 invest:1 heavily:1 capacity:3 allow:1 meet:1 increased:1 demand:1 less:3 expensive:1 four:10 cylinder:12 ability:1 deal:2 rugged:1 rural:2 area:2 sedan:7 parallel:1 coupé:2 utility:7 latter:1 know:3 colloquially:1 ute:1 ubiquitous:1 workhorse:1 replace:11 facelifted:6 fj:7 introduce:17 third:3 panel:4 van:4 style:9 major:6 introduction:12 gain:3 iconic:1 status:1 remain:5 recognisable:1 symbol:1 horizontally:1 slat:1 grille:3 front:9 receive:5 trim:1 mechanical:1 revision:1 bebbington:5 easily:1 identify:1 bold:1 hubcap:1 torpedo:1 tail:1 light:3 little:1 marketing:2 campaign:2 price:1 cut:2 keep:1 steady:1 completely:1 redesigned:1 show:4 sydney:1 pay:3 homage:1 efijy:1 concept:3 carey:3 next:4 fe:1 station:5 wagon:4 dub:1 literature:1 strong:3 achieve:4 percent:11 revise:3 fc:1 wright:17 test:1 proving:1 ground:3 lang:2 opening:1 facility:4 bring:5 far:3 job:4 employ:2 worker:1 country:1 wide:2 fb:2 inspire:1 chevrolets:2 tailfin:1 wrap:2 around:2 windshield:1 dog:2 leg:1 pillar:1 many:4 consider:2 appearance:1 date:2 much:1 motoring:1 note:2 adopted:1 translate:1 well:3 compact:3 adapt:2 left:2 hand:2 drive:7 enhance:1 potential:2 unveil:1 falcon:6 month:1 united:4 advantage:1 durable:1 particularly:1 ill:1 condition:1 response:1 ek:1 feature:5 tone:1 paintwork:1 optional:1 hydramatic:1 automatic:9 transmission:11 ej:3 come:6 debut:2 luxury:1 orient:1 premier:5 eh:1 red:1 good:3 performance:3 previous:4 grey:1 hd:1 series:13 saw:2 powerglide:3 option:2 powerful:1 version:6 six:8 available:5 hr:2 rear:6 styling:4 high:6 significantly:2 standard:5 seat:2 belt:1 thus:2 safety:2 device:1 equipment:1 across:1 coincide:2 completion:1 ha:1 viva:3 supersede:1 torana:13 lc:4 availability:1 day:2 reserve:1 racing:5 research:1 case:2 application:2 three:11 speed:6 tri:5 matic:5 also:10 h:2 result:6 million:10 transformation:1 association:1 hk:4 include:9 canada:1 extended:2 length:1 prestige:2 brougham:3 door:5 monaro:8 mainstream:1 special:2 rebranded:1 kingswood:2 basic:1 fleet:1 belmont:1 march:3 rhea:1 press:1 photographer:1 federal:2 minister:2 shipping:1 transport:1 ian:1 sinclair:1 men:1 millionth:3 autocar:1 line:6 half:2 decade:5 roll:2 october:3 eura:1 gold:1 pass:1 follow:3 mass:1 hurricane:1 fitment:1 ht:3 late:3 use:4 phase:3 stock:1 exhaust:1 official:2 hg:2 size:8 except:2 gts:1 signify:1 despite:2 arrival:1 serious:2 competitor:2 namely:1 chrysler:1 valiant:1 japanese:3 eight:2 top:2 selling:2 boost:1 indonesia:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 pakistan:1 philippine:1 africa:2 knock:1 hq:6 strauss:1 passenger:3 every:1 overseas:3 thoroughly:1 perimeter:1 frame:1 semi:1 monocoque:1 unibody:1 coil:2 wheelbase:4 retain:1 traditional:1 leaf:1 configuration:1 statesman:14 brand:4 longer:3 noteworthy:1 rather:1 luck:1 framework:1 generation:3 monaros:1 similar:2 sized:1 hj:3 herald:1 fascia:2 albeit:1 upgrade:1 hx:4 hz:3 detuned:1 adhere:1 emission:1 whilst:1 considerably:1 improve:2 road:1 handling:1 comfort:1 radial:1 tune:1 rts:1 toy:1 wankel:2 rotary:3 mazda:4 japan:3 agreement:1 initiate:1 powertrains:1 roadpacer:1 ap:1 mccarthy:3 faction:1 hots:1 dr:1 glory:1 drivetrain:1 ship:1 hiroshima:1 partially:1 empty:1 bay:1 rotor:1 back:1 auto:2 last:3 advertising:1 jingle:2 football:1 meat:1 pie:2 kangaroo:1 baseball:1 hot:1 apple:1 mid:3 lh:2 release:4 worldwide:2 occupy:1 trend:1 sunbird:3 essentially:1 lx:1 hatchback:3 variant:3 final:2 uc:1 appear:1 legendary:1 success:1 victory:1 mount:1 panorama:1 circuit:1 bathurst:1 gemini:6 kadett:1 c:1 develop:1 jointly:1 affiliate:1 power:6 litre:4 fast:1 popular:2 rapidly:1 attain:1 leadership:2 class:2 nameplate:4 live:1 commodore:25 vb:1 tuckey:3 family:4 loosely:1 rekord:1 e:1 senator:1 graft:1 accommodate:1 initially:3 maintain:1 adoption:1 intend:1 another:3 hamper:1 acceptance:1 particular:1 narrow:1 predecessor:1 rival:1 comfortable:1 robinson:9 discontinue:3 surround:1 small:2 economical:2 sophisticated:1 close:1 successor:1 camira:3 medium:1 challenge:1 try:1 revive:1 button:1 plan:2 maker:1 focus:1 volume:2 open:1 shut:1 commercial:2 rodeo:4 source:8 wheel:7 cab:1 petrol:2 diesel:1 powerplants:1 tf:2 jackaroo:2 shuttle:1 piazza:1 sport:3 undertake:1 reborn:1 wait:2 replacement:2 original:2 people:2 exactly:1 speedy:1 sign:2 rb:1 r:1 wb:2 limousine:1 updated:1 competitive:2 lineup:2 abandon:1 together:1 fell:1 effect:1 energy:1 crisis:1 lessening:1 lose:2 segment:1 suffer:1 competition:1 intensify:1 mitsubishi:1 generate:1 buyer:1 underpowered:1 build:5 ride:1 quality:2 average:1 seven:1 contribute:2 accumulated:2 loss:7 vk:1 significant:2 vh:1 vl:3 controversially:1 electronically:1 control:1 necessitate:1 legal:1 requirement:1 consume:1 unleaded:2 unfeasible:1 convert:1 exist:2 fuel:1 best:1 exchange:1 rate:1 double:1 cost:2 life:1 decision:1 opt:1 closure:4 confident:1 apparent:1 turnaround:1 mounted:1 december:4 headquarters:1 request:1 reorganise:1 recapitalised:1 separate:1 division:1 process:1 leave:2 free:2 debt:1 insist:1 split:2 involve:2 splitting:1 hmc:2 hec:2 announce:4 restructure:1 activity:1 sister:1 confine:1 successful:3 recovery:1 strategy:2 vn:3 subcompact:1 swift:2 barina:5 concurrently:1 drover:1 scurry:1 pulsar:1 rebadged:2 astra:4 earl:2 cease:2 enter:1 alliance:1 uaai:4 corolla:3 camry:2 nova:3 apollo:2 respectively:1 lexcen:1 throughout:2 besides:1 bestselling:1 elsewhere:1 adopt:1 need:1 april:2 would:5 duty:1 due:1 output:2 unionist:1 pressure:1 halt:1 lowering:1 tariff:2 already:2 ten:1 earlier:1 reduce:2 even:1 critical:1 say:1 population:1 enough:1 could:1 tarnish:1 defunct:1 marque:1 caprice:4 improvement:1 anti:1 lock:1 brake:1 abs:1 system:2 ab:1 add:2 short:1 facelift:1 vr:1 compare:1 approximately:1 exterior:2 overall:2 smoother:1 twin:1 kidney:1 trait:1 vy:2 vt:3 outcome:1 programme:1 span:1 rounded:1 dynamic:1 built:1 structure:1 crash:1 mckay:2 newton:3 revived:2 attract:1 attention:1 draw:1 ls:1 engineered:1 sold:1 anticipated:1 dissolve:1 product:1 signal:1 sole:1 vectra:4 germany:1 corsa:1 suburban:1 suv:2 commence:1 southeast:1 asia:1 sufficient:1 justify:1 revert:1 fully:1 surge:1 reverse:1 drop:1 position:1 crunch:1 affect:1 profit:1 record:1 combined:2 factor:1 dollar:1 workforce:1 fare:1 cause:1 controversy:1 employee:4 pricing:2 television:1 advertisement:1 publicise:1 ever:2 enjoy:1 benefit:1 discounted:1 dealer:3 delivery:1 fee:1 saving:1 accessory:1 give:1 discount:1 select:1 mildly:1 vz:2 maximum:1 reportedly:1 economy:1 contrast:1 utilise:1 platform:1 mechanically:1 korean:3 acquire:1 stake:1 kalos:1 still:1 lacetti:1 entry:1 classic:1 captiva:1 crossover:1 frontera:1 adventra:1 ponchard:1 fourth:1 alternative:1 epica:1 lost:1 right:3 consequently:1 relaunched:1 colorado:1 grant:2 localised:1 cruze:2 unchanged:1 announcement:1 kevin:1 rudd:1 prime:1 support:1 fail:1 shed:1 set:1 corporate:2 affair:2 identity:2 total:4 chairman:1 mark:3 reuss:1 head:1 executive:1 secondary:1 department:1 alan:1 batey:1 aftersales:1 bernhard:1 finance:1 stephen:1 coletta:1 information:1 service:2 greg:1 tyus:1 engineering:1 dave:1 gibbon:1 richard:1 miziewicz:1 customer:1 satisfaction:1 pete:1 keley:1 planning:1 program:1 management:1 sean:1 liang:1 global:1 purchasing:1 supply:1 chain:1 polglaze:1 human:1 resource:1 jason:1 laird:1 countrywide:1 network:1 authorise:1 store:1 centre:1 staple:1 domestic:1 touring:1 quasi:1 race:1 team:2 hrt:1 successfully:1 participate:1 supercar:2 hsv:4 tom:1 walkinshaw:1 primarily:1 modify:2 reinforce:1 fold:1 naming:1 toll:1 logo:3 lion:2 stone:2 play:1 vital:1 role:1 appoint:1 rayner:1 hoff:1 emblem:2 refers:1 prehistoric:1 fable:1 observation:1 invention:1 commission:1 redesign:1 represent:1 rework:1 send:1 broaden:1 cater:1 middle:2 east:2 lumen:3 brunei:1 fiji:1 brazil:1 omega:1 north:2 america:2 lightly:1 unique:1 decklid:1 integrate:1 language:1 coupe:1 modified:1 gto:1 dealership:1 kingdom:1 chinese:1 royaum:1 avenue:1 veritas:1 profitable:1 revenue:1 reference:1 book:1 internet:1 pdf:1 journal:1 |@bigram gm_holden:4 pay_homage:1 tri_matic:5 ian_sinclair:1 trinidad_tobago:1 wankel_rotary:2 petrol_diesel:1 toyota_corolla:1 lock_brake:1 rear_wheel:1 short_wheelbase:1 toyota_camry:1 southeast_asia:1 crossover_suv:1 kevin_rudd:1 prime_minister:1 customer_satisfaction:1 roll_stone:1 chevrolet_lumen:3 |
7,485 | Lockheed_AC-130 | The Lockheed AC-130 gunship is a heavily-armed ground-attack aircraft. The basic airframe is manufactured by Lockheed, and Boeing is responsible for the conversion into a gunship and for aircraft support. Boeing AC-130U Gunship page It is a variant of the C-130 Hercules transport plane. The AC-130A Gunship II superseded the AC-47 Gunship I in Vietnam. The gunship's sole user is the United States Air Force, which uses AC-130H Spectre and AC-130U Spooky variants. AC-130H/U Gunship fact sheet. US Air Force, October 2007. (Article was originally based on this.) The AC-130 is powered by four turboprops and has an armament ranging from 20 mm Gatling guns to 105 mm howitzers. It has a standard crew of twelve or thirteen airmen, including five officers (two pilots, a navigator, an electronic warfare officer and a fire control officer) and enlisted personnel (flight engineer, electronics operators and aerial gunners). The US Air Force uses the AC-130 gunships for close air support, air interdiction, and force protection. Close air support roles include supporting ground troops, escorting convoys, and flying urban operations. Air interdiction missions are conducted against planned targets and targets of opportunity. Force protection missions include defending air bases and other facilities. Stationed at Hurlburt Field in Northwest Florida, the gunship squadrons are part of the Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC), a component of United States Special Operations Command (SOCOM). Development The C-130 Hercules was selected to replace the AC-47 Spooky Gunship I used during the Vietnam War, to improve gunship endurance capabilities and increase capacity to carry munitions. USAF National Museum AC-130A fact sheet AC-130H Spectre near Hurlburt Field, Florida In 1967, JC-130A USAF 54-1626 was selected for conversion into the prototype AC-130A gunship. The modifications were done that year at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, by the Aeronautical Systems Division. A direct view night vision telescope was installed in the forward door, an early forward looking infrared (FLIR) in the forward part of the left wheel well, and Gatling guns fixed mounted facing down and aft along the left side. The analog fire control computer prototype was handcrafted by RAF Wing Commander Tom Pinkerton at the USAF Avionics Laboratory. Flight testing of the prototype was subsequently performed primarily at Eglin Air Force Base, followed by further testing and modifications. By September 1967, the aircraft was certified ready for combat testing and was flown to Nha Trang Air Base, South Vietnam for a 90 day test program. The AC-130 was later supplemented by the AC-119 Shadow Gunship III, which later proved underpowered. Seven more aircraft were converted to the "Plain Jane" configuration like the AC-130 prototype in 1968, Lockheed AC-130A "Plain Jane". USAF National Museum. Accessed on 5 April 2009. and one aircraft received the "Surprise Package" equipment the next year. Lockheed AC-130A "Surprise Package". USAF National Museum. Accessed on 5 April 2009. In 1970, an additional 10 AC-130As were acquired under the "Pave Pronto" project. Lockheed AC-130A "PAVE Pronto". USAF National Museum. Accessed on 5 April 2009. Conversion of C-130Es into AC-130Es for the "PAVE Spectre" project followed. Lockheed AC-130E "PAVE Spectre". USAF National Museum. Accessed on 5 April 2009. Lockheed AC-130E "PAVE Aegis". USAF National Museum. Accessed on 5 April 2009. Regardless of their project names, the aircraft were more commonly referred to by the Squadron's call sign: Spectre. An AC-130U firing flares Recent and planned upgrades In 2007, AFSOC initiated a program to upgrade the armament of existing AC-130s still in service. The test program planned for the 25 mm GAU-12/U and 40 mm Bofors cannon on the AC-130U gunships to be replaced with two 30 mm Mk 44 Bushmaster II cannons. In 2007, the Air Force modified four AC-130U gunships as test platforms for the Bushmasters. However, AFSOC canceled its plans to install the new cannons on its fleet of AC-130Us. It has since removed the guns and re-installed the original 40 mm cannons and returned the planes to combat duties. Brig. Gen. Bradley A. Heithold, AFSOC's director of plans, programs, requirements and assessments, said on 11 August 2008 that the effort was canceled due to problems with the Bushmaster's accuracy "at the altitude we were employing it" in tests. There were also schedule considerations that drove the decision, he said. "Spooky Gun Swap Canceled", Air Force Magazine, October 2008, Volume 91, Number 10, page 24. There are also plans to possibly replace the M102 howitzer with a breech-loading 120 mm mortar, and to give the AC-130 a standoff capability using either the AGM-114 Hellfire missile, the Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System (based on the Hydra 70 rocket), or the Viper Strike glide bomb. As a result of the demand for AC-130s, Air Force Special Operations Command will increase the gunship force by converting an unknown number of MC-130W Combat Spears. The decision to stick with the C-130s to fill the need came after funding to acquire 16 C-27s had been stripped from the fiscal 2010 budget. Specifics were not given on what weapons the new gunships would be armed with. LaGrone, Sam "AFSOC fills gunship gap with C-130s". Air Force Times, 14 May 2009. On 19 May 2009, USAF Chief of Staff Gen. Norton Schwartz stated that the new gunships are most likely going to feature a lighter weapons load than the AC-130H and U-models. The General stated that the new gunships will probably look a little bit more like what they were working on with the AC-27, but it will be on a C-130 platform. [ "SCHWARTZ: AFSOC WILL LIKELY CONVERT MORE C-130s INTO ‘GUNSHIP-LITES’"]. Inside the Air Force, 22 May 2009. Design AC-130H Spectre AC-130H of the 16th SOS These heavily-armed aircraft incorporate side-firing weapons integrated with sophisticated sensors, navigation and fire control systems to provide precision firepower or area-saturation fire with its varied armament. The AC-130 can spend long periods flying over their target area at night and in adverse weather. The sensor suite consists of a television sensor, infrared sensor, and radar. These sensors allow the gunship to visually or electronically identify friendly ground forces and targets in most weather conditions. The AC-130U is equipped with the AN/APQ-180, a synthetic aperture radar for long-range target detection and identification. The gunship's navigational devices include inertial navigation systems and a Global Positioning System. The AC-130U employs technologies developed in the 1990s and can attack two targets simultaneously. It also has twice the munitions capacity of the AC-130H. Although the AC-130U conducts some operations in daylight, majority of its combat missions are conducted at night. Naylor, Sean (2005). Not a Good Day to Die: The Untold Story of Operation Anaconda. Berkley Books. pp. 425. ISBN 0425196097. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jz4zjLuvZsUC&printsec=frontcover#PPP1,M1. Retrieved on 2009-04-06. During the Vietnam era the various AC-130 versions following the Pave Pronto modifications were equipped with a magnetic anomaly detector (MAD) system called the Black Crow (AN/ASD-5), a highly sensitive passive device with a phased-array antenna located in the left-front nose radome that could pick up localized deviations in earth's magnetic field and is normally used to detect submerged submarines. The Black Crow system on the AC-130A/E/H could accurately detect the unshielded ignition coils of Soviet trucks driven by the North Vietnamese that were hidden under the dense foliage of the jungle canopy along the Ho Chi Minh trail. It could also detect the signal from a hand-held transmitter that was used by air controllers on the ground to identify and locate specific target types. The system was slaved into the targeting computer. AC-130U sensor suite PGM-38/U 25 mm ammunition for AC-130U The PGM-38/U Enhanced 25 mm High Explosive Incendiary (HEI) round was created to expand the AC-130U gunships' mission in standoff range and survivability for its 25 mm GAU-12/U gun system. This round a combination of the existing PGU-25 HEI and a M758 fuse designated as FMU-151/B to meet the MIL-STD-1316. The FMU-151 has an improved arming delay with multi-sensitive range. "PGU-38/U 25mm Ammunition", August 1993, Alliant Techsystems, Public Release, Case No. 93-S3040, E10630 8/93. Operational history The AC-130 Gunship first arrived in South Vietnam on 21 September 1967 under the Gunship II program, and began combat operations over Laos and South Vietnam that year. By 30 October 1968, enough AC-130 Gunship IIs arrived to form a squadron, the 16th Special Operations Squadron (SOS) of the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing (TFW), at Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand. By December 1968 most AC-130s were flown under F-4 Phantom II escort from the 479th Tactical Fighter Squadron, normally three Phantoms per Gunship. In late 1969, under the code name of "Surprise Package", 56-0490 arrived with solid state laser illuminated low light level TV with a companion YAG laser designator, an improved forward looking infrared (FLIR) sensor, video recording for TV and FLIR, an inertial navigation system, and a prototype digital fire control computer. Surprise Package was equipped with the latest 20 mm Gatling guns and 40 mm Bofors cannon, but no 7.62 mm close support armament. Surprise Package was refitted with upgraded similar equipment in the summer of 1970, and then redeployed to Ubon RTAFB. Surprise Package served as a test bed for the avionic systems and armament for the AC-130E. In the summer of 1971, Surprise Package was converted to the Pave Pronto configuration, and assumed its new nickname, Thor. AC-130A performs a left-hand orbit In Vietnam, gunships destroyed more than 10,000 trucks and participated in many crucial close air support missions. During the Invasion of Grenada (Operation Urgent Fury) in 1983, AC-130s suppressed enemy air defense systems and attacked ground forces enabling the successful assault of the Point Salines Airfield via airdrop and air land of friendly forces. The AC-130 aircrew earned the Lieutenant General William H. Tunner Award for the mission. Smoke visible from Gatling gun during twilight operations in 1988 AC-130s also had a primary role during the United States invasion of Panama (Operation Just Cause) in 1989 when they destroyed Panama Defense Force headquarters and numerous command and control facilities. Aircrews earned the Mackay Trophy for the most meritorious flight of the year and the Tunner Award for their efforts. During Operation Desert Storm, AC-130s provided close air support and force protection (air base defense) for ground forces, and battlefield interdiction. The primary interdiction targets were early warning/ground control intercept (EW/GCI) sites along the southern border of Iraq. The first gunship to enter the Battle of Khafji helped stop a southbound Iraqi armored column on 29 January 1991. One day later, three more gunships provided further aid to Marines participating in the operation. The gunships attacked Iraqi positions and columns moving south to reinforce their positions north of the city. Despite the threat of surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and increasing visibility during the early morning hours of 31 January 1991, one AC-130H, AF Serial No. 69-6567, call sign Spirit 03, opted to stay to continue to protect the Marines. A SAM subsequently shot down Spirit 03, and all fourteen crew members perished. Spirit 03 and the Battle for Khafji Weapons fire during a night mission The military has used AC-130 gunships during Operations Restore Hope and United Shield in Somalia, in the NATO mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina, and in the 1997 evacuation of American noncombatants in Albania. The AC-130 gunship has the distinction of holding the record for the longest sustained flight by a C-130. From 22nd through the 24th of October 1997, two AC-130U gunships flew 36.0 hours nonstop from Hurlburt Field, Florida to Taegu Air Base (Daegu), South Korea while being refueled seven times in the air by KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft. This record flight shattered the previous record longest flight by over 10 hours while the two gunships took on 410,000 lb (186,000 kg) of fuel. Gunships also were part of the buildup of U.S. forces in 1998 to convince Iraq to comply with UN weapons inspections. The United States later used gunships during the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, and the Iraq War. In 2007 US Special Operations forces used the AC-130 in attacks on suspected al-Qaeda militants in Somalia. "Pentagon official: U.S. attacks al Qaeda suspects in Somalia" "US plane 'bombed Somalia targets'" The AC-130 has the distinction of never having a base under its protection lost to the enemy. Current aircraft The AC-130H has a unit cost of US$132.4 million, and the AC-130U a unit cost of US$190 million (fiscal 2001 constant dollars). Currently there are eight AC-130H and seventeen AC-130U aircraft in active duty service. Operators AC-130U over Hurlburt Field United States Air Force Air Force Special Operations Command 1st Special Operations Wing 4th Special Operations Squadron 16th Special Operations Squadron 19th Special Operations Squadron Aircraft on display One of the first seven AC-130A aircraft deployed was AF Serial No. 53-3129, named First Lady in November 1970. In addition to being the first AC-130, this aircraft was a conversion of the first production C-130. On 25 March 1971, it took an anti-aircraft artillery hit in the nose over the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos. The 37 mm shell destroyed everything below the crew deck. In 1975, after the conclusion of US involvement in the Vietnam war, it was transferred to the Air Force Reserve, where it served with the 711th Special Operations Squadron of the 919th Special Operations Wing. In 1980 the aircraft was upgraded from the original three-bladed propellers to the quieter four-bladed propellers and was eventually retired in late 1995. The retirement also marked an end to the Air Force Reserve Command flying the AC-130A. The aircraft now sits on display in the final Air Force Reserve Command configuration with grey paint, black markings, the four-bladed Hamilton Standard props at the Air Force Armament Museum at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida USA. List of AC-130 Gunships "First Lady" retires, era ends A second AC-130A, AF Serial No. 56-0509, named the Ultimate End, was accepted by the Air Force on 28 February 1957, and modified to the AC-130A configuration on 27 July 1970. The aircraft participated in the Vietnam war and the rescue of the USS Mayaguez. Ultimate End demonstrated the durability of the C-130 after surviving hits in five places by 37 mm anti-aircraft artillery on 12 December 1970, extensive left wing leading edge damage on 12 April 1971 and a 57 mm round damaging the belly and injuring one crew member on 4 March 1972. "Ultimate End" was reassigned to the Air Force Reserve's 919th Special Operations Wing at Duke Field on 17 June 1975, where it continued in service until retired in the fall 1994 and transferred to Air Force Special Operations Command's Heritage Air Park at Hurlburt Field, FL. While assigned to the 711th Special Operations Squadron, Ultimate End served in Operations JUST CAUSE in Panama, DESERT STORM in Kuwait and Iraq, and UPHOLD DEMOCRACY in Haiti. After 36 years and seven months of service, 24 years as a gunship, Ultimate End retired from active service on 1 October 1994. It made its last flight from Duke Field to Hurlburt Field on 20 October 1994. The Spectre Association dedicated "Ultimate End" (which served with the 16 SOS in Vietnam) on 4 May 1995. Lt Col Michael Byers, then 16 SOS commander, represented the active-duty gunship force and Clyde Gowdy of the Spectre Association represented all Spectre personnel past and present for the unveiling of a monument at the aircraft and the dedication as a whole. http://www.hurlburt.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=3423 A third AC-130A, AF Serial No. 54-1626, is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. Named Azrael (Azrael, in the Koran, is the angel of death who severs the soul from the body) this aircraft figured prominently in the closing hours of Operation Desert Storm. On 26 February 1991, Coalition ground forces were driving the Iraqi Army out of Kuwait. With an Air Force Reserve crew called to active duty, Azrael was sent to the Al Jahra highway (Highway 80) between Kuwait City and Basra, Iraq, to intercept the convoys of tanks, trucks, buses, and cars fleeing the battle. Facing SA-6 and SA-8 surface-to-air missiles and 37 mm and 57 mm radar-guided anti-aircraft artillery the crew attacked and destroyed or disabled most of the convoys. Azrael was also assigned to the 919th Special Operations Wing and retired to the museum in October 1995. http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=412 Specifications AC-130U Spooky Armament Gunners loading 40 mm cannon (background) and 105 mm howitzer (foreground) AC-130H Spectre AC-130A Project Gunship II 4× 7.62 mm GAU-2/A miniguns 4× 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon AC-130A Surprise Package, Pave Pronto, AC-130E Pave Spectre 4× 7.62 mm GAU-2/A miniguns 2× 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon 2× 40 mm (1.58 in) L/60 Bofors cannon AC-130E Pave Aegis 2× 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon 1× 40 mm L60 Bofors cannon 1× 105 mm (4.13 in) M102 howitzer AC-130H Pave Spectre II 1× 40 mm L60 Bofors cannon 1× 105 mm (4.13 in) M102 howitzer AC-130U "Spooky" gunship 1× 25 mm (0.984 in) 5-Barrel GAU-12/U Equalizer Gatling gun 1× 40 mm L60 Bofors cannon 1× 105 mm (4.13 in) M102 howitzer See also References Hobson, Chris. Vietnam Air Losses - United States Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia, 1961-1973. Hinckley, England: Midland Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1-85780-115-6. Further reading (AC-130 refs loaded throughout book) (AC-130 refs starting at p. 426) (AC-130 refs starting at p. 28) (AC-130 refs starting at p. 211) (AC-130 refs starting at p. 128) (AC-130 refs starting at p. 58) (AC-130 refs starting at p. 75) External links AC-130H/U Gunship fact sheet. US Air Force, October 2007. (Article was originally based on this.) "Gunship History" from the Spectre Association site List of AC-130 Gunships on Gunships.org AC-130 on GlobalSecurity.org "Powerful Gunships Prowl Iraq, and Limits Show" on NPR.org from All Things Considered | Lockheed_AC-130 |@lemmatized lockheed:7 ac:89 gunship:29 heavily:2 arm:3 ground:8 attack:7 aircraft:22 basic:1 airframe:1 manufacture:1 boeing:2 responsible:1 conversion:4 support:7 page:2 variant:2 c:11 hercules:2 transport:1 plane:3 ii:7 supersede:1 vietnam:11 sole:1 user:1 united:8 state:10 air:44 force:39 use:9 spectre:13 spooky:5 u:19 fact:3 sheet:3 october:8 article:2 originally:2 base:12 power:1 four:4 turboprop:1 armament:7 ranging:1 mm:33 gatling:5 gun:8 howitzer:6 standard:2 crew:6 twelve:1 thirteen:1 airman:1 include:4 five:2 officer:3 two:5 pilot:1 navigator:1 electronic:1 warfare:1 fire:6 control:6 enlist:1 personnel:2 flight:7 engineer:1 electronics:1 operator:2 aerial:1 gunner:2 gunships:19 close:5 interdiction:4 protection:4 role:2 troop:1 escort:2 convoy:3 fly:6 urban:1 operation:28 mission:8 conduct:3 plan:6 target:10 opportunity:1 defend:1 facility:2 station:1 hurlburt:7 field:9 northwest:1 florida:4 squadron:10 part:3 special:16 command:8 afsoc:6 component:1 socom:1 development:1 select:2 replace:3 war:4 improve:2 endurance:1 capability:2 increase:3 capacity:2 carry:1 munition:2 usaf:9 national:7 museum:9 near:1 jc:1 prototype:5 modification:3 year:6 wright:2 patterson:2 aeronautical:1 system:12 division:1 direct:1 view:1 night:4 vision:1 telescope:1 instal:2 forward:4 door:1 early:3 look:3 infrared:3 flir:3 left:4 wheel:1 well:1 fix:2 mount:1 face:2 aft:1 along:3 side:2 analog:1 computer:3 handcraft:1 raf:1 wing:8 commander:2 tom:1 pinkerton:1 avionics:1 laboratory:1 testing:3 subsequently:2 perform:1 primarily:1 eglin:2 follow:3 september:2 certify:1 ready:1 combat:5 nha:1 trang:1 south:5 day:3 test:5 program:5 later:4 supplement:1 shadow:1 iii:1 prove:1 underpowered:1 seven:4 convert:4 plain:2 jane:2 configuration:4 like:2 access:5 april:6 one:5 receive:1 surprise:8 package:8 equipment:2 next:1 additional:1 acquire:2 pave:11 pronto:5 project:4 aegis:2 regardless:1 name:5 commonly:1 refer:1 call:4 sign:2 firing:2 flare:1 recent:1 upgrade:3 initiate:1 exist:2 still:1 service:5 gau:5 bofors:6 cannon:13 mk:1 bushmaster:2 modify:2 platform:2 bushmasters:1 however:1 cancel:3 install:1 new:5 fleet:1 since:1 remove:1 original:2 return:1 duty:4 brig:1 gen:2 bradley:1 heithold:1 director:1 requirement:1 assessment:1 say:2 august:2 effort:2 due:1 problem:1 accuracy:1 altitude:1 employ:2 also:9 schedule:1 consideration:1 drive:3 decision:2 swap:1 magazine:1 volume:1 number:2 possibly:1 breech:1 load:4 mortar:1 give:2 standoff:2 either:1 agm:1 hellfire:1 missile:3 advanced:1 precision:2 kill:1 weapon:6 hydra:1 rocket:1 viper:1 strike:1 glide:1 bomb:2 result:1 demand:1 unknown:1 mc:1 spear:1 stick:1 fill:2 need:1 come:1 fund:1 strip:1 fiscal:2 budget:1 specific:2 would:1 lagrone:1 sam:3 gap:1 time:2 may:4 chief:1 staff:1 norton:1 schwartz:2 likely:2 go:1 feature:1 light:2 model:1 general:2 probably:1 little:1 bit:1 work:1 lites:1 inside:1 design:1 incorporate:1 integrate:1 sophisticated:1 sensor:7 navigation:3 provide:3 firepower:1 area:2 saturation:1 varied:1 spend:1 long:4 period:1 adverse:1 weather:2 suite:2 consist:1 television:1 radar:3 allow:1 visually:1 electronically:1 identify:2 friendly:2 condition:1 equip:3 apq:1 synthetic:1 aperture:1 range:3 detection:1 identification:1 navigational:1 device:2 inertial:2 global:1 positioning:1 technology:1 develop:1 simultaneously:1 twice:1 although:1 daylight:1 majority:1 naylor:1 sean:1 good:1 die:1 untold:1 story:1 anaconda:1 berkley:1 book:4 pp:1 isbn:2 http:3 google:1 com:1 id:3 printsec:1 frontcover:1 retrieve:1 era:2 various:1 version:1 magnetic:2 anomaly:1 detector:1 mad:1 black:3 crow:2 asd:1 highly:1 sensitive:2 passive:1 phased:1 array:1 antenna:1 locate:2 front:1 nose:2 radome:1 could:3 pick:1 localized:1 deviation:1 earth:1 normally:2 detect:3 submerged:1 submarine:1 e:1 h:2 accurately:1 unshielded:1 ignition:1 coil:1 soviet:1 truck:3 north:2 vietnamese:1 hide:1 dense:1 foliage:1 jungle:1 canopy:1 ho:2 chi:2 minh:2 trail:2 signal:1 hand:2 held:1 transmitter:1 controller:1 type:1 slave:1 pgm:2 ammunition:2 enhance:1 high:1 explosive:1 incendiary:1 hei:2 round:3 create:1 expand:1 survivability:1 combination:1 pgu:2 fuse:1 designate:1 fmu:2 b:1 meet:1 mil:3 std:1 arming:1 delay:1 multi:1 alliant:1 techsystems:1 public:1 release:1 case:1 operational:1 history:2 first:7 arrive:3 begin:1 lao:2 enough:1 form:1 sos:2 tactical:2 fighter:2 tfw:1 ubon:2 royal:1 thai:1 thailand:1 december:2 f:1 phantom:2 three:3 per:1 late:3 code:1 solid:1 laser:2 illuminate:1 low:1 level:1 tv:2 companion:1 yag:1 designator:1 improved:1 video:1 record:4 digital:1 refit:1 upgraded:1 similar:1 summer:2 redeploy:1 rtafb:1 serve:4 bed:1 avionic:1 assume:1 nickname:1 thor:1 performs:1 orbit:1 destroy:4 participate:3 many:1 crucial:1 invasion:3 grenada:1 urgent:1 fury:1 suppress:1 enemy:2 defense:3 enable:1 successful:1 assault:1 point:1 saline:1 airfield:1 via:1 airdrop:1 land:1 aircrew:2 earn:2 lieutenant:1 william:1 tunner:2 award:2 smoke:1 visible:1 twilight:1 primary:2 panama:3 cause:2 headquarters:1 numerous:1 mackay:1 trophy:1 meritorious:1 desert:3 storm:3 battlefield:1 warning:1 intercept:2 ew:1 gci:1 sit:2 southern:1 border:1 iraq:6 enter:1 battle:3 khafji:2 help:1 stop:1 southbound:1 iraqi:3 armor:1 column:2 january:2 aid:1 marine:3 position:2 move:1 reinforce:1 city:2 despite:1 threat:1 surface:2 visibility:1 morning:1 hour:4 af:6 serial:4 spirit:3 opt:1 stay:1 continue:2 protect:1 shoot:1 fourteen:1 member:2 perish:1 military:1 restore:1 hope:1 shield:1 somalia:4 nato:1 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 evacuation:1 american:1 noncombatant:1 albania:1 distinction:2 hold:1 sustained:1 nonstop:1 taegu:1 daegu:1 korea:1 refuel:1 kc:1 stratotanker:1 shatter:1 previous:1 take:2 lb:1 kg:1 fuel:1 buildup:1 convince:1 comply:1 un:1 inspection:1 afghanistan:1 suspect:2 al:3 qaeda:2 militant:1 pentagon:1 official:1 never:1 lose:1 current:1 unit:2 cost:2 million:2 constant:1 dollar:1 currently:1 eight:1 seventeen:1 active:4 display:3 deployed:1 lady:2 november:1 addition:1 production:1 march:2 anti:3 artillery:3 hit:2 shell:1 everything:1 deck:1 conclusion:1 involvement:1 transfer:2 reserve:5 bladed:3 propeller:2 quieter:1 eventually:1 retire:4 retirement:1 mark:1 end:8 final:1 grey:1 paint:1 marking:1 hamilton:1 prop:1 usa:1 list:2 retires:1 second:1 ultimate:6 accept:1 february:2 july:1 rescue:1 uss:1 mayaguez:1 demonstrate:1 durability:1 survive:1 place:1 extensive:1 leave:1 lead:1 edge:1 damage:2 belly:1 injure:1 reassign:1 duke:2 june:1 fall:1 heritage:1 park:1 fl:1 assign:2 kuwait:3 uphold:1 democracy:1 haiti:1 month:1 make:1 last:1 association:3 dedicate:1 lt:1 col:1 michael:1 byers:1 represent:2 clyde:1 gowdy:1 past:1 present:1 unveiling:1 monument:1 dedication:1 whole:1 www:2 library:1 factsheets:2 factsheet:2 asp:2 third:1 afb:1 ohio:1 azrael:4 koran:1 angel:1 death:1 sever:1 soul:1 body:1 figure:1 prominently:1 closing:1 coalition:1 army:1 send:1 jahra:1 highway:2 basra:1 tank:1 bus:1 car:1 flee:1 sa:2 guide:1 disable:1 nationalmuseum:1 specification:1 background:1 foreground:1 miniguns:2 vulcan:3 l:1 barrel:1 equalizer:1 see:1 reference:1 hobson:1 chris:1 loss:2 navy:1 corp:1 southeast:1 asia:1 hinckley:1 england:1 midland:1 publishing:1 reading:1 ref:7 throughout:1 start:6 p:6 external:1 link:1 site:1 org:3 globalsecurity:1 powerful:1 prowl:1 limit:1 show:1 npr:1 thing:1 consider:1 |@bigram lockheed_ac:6 ac_gunship:8 ac_spectre:4 gatling_gun:5 mm_howitzer:5 ac_gunships:8 escort_convoy:1 hurlburt_field:6 wright_patterson:2 infrared_flir:2 eglin_air:2 pave_pronto:5 mm_bofors:5 bofors_cannon:6 brig_gen:1 breech_load:1 mm_mortar:1 chief_staff:1 infrared_sensor:1 synthetic_aperture:1 aperture_radar:1 inertial_navigation:2 global_positioning:1 untold_story:1 id_printsec:1 printsec_frontcover:1 phased_array:1 magnetic_field:1 ho_chi:2 chi_minh:2 mil_std:1 tactical_fighter:2 yag_laser:1 af_serial:4 bosnia_herzegovina:1 lb_kg:1 al_qaeda:2 bladed_propeller:2 museum_eglin:1 lt_col:1 http_www:2 af_mil:2 asp_id:2 patterson_afb:1 sa_sa:1 mm_mm:1 mm_vulcan:3 vulcan_cannon:3 marine_corp:1 southeast_asia:1 external_link:1 globalsecurity_org:1 npr_org:1 |
7,486 | Georg_Philipp_Telemann | Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767), hand-colored aquatint by Valentin Daniel Preisler, after a lost painting by Louis Michael Schneider, 1750. Georg Philipp Telemann (March 14, 1681 – June 25, 1767) was a German Baroque music composer and multi-instrumentalist, born in Magdeburg. Self-taught in music, he studied law at the University of Leipzig. Often described as the most prolific composer in history The Guinness Book of World Records 1998, Bantam Books, p. Page 402. ISBN 0553578952. (at least in terms of surviving oeuvre), See Phillip Huscher, Program Notes - Telemann Tafelmusik III, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, 2007. he was a contemporary of Johann Sebastian Bach, Antonio Vivaldi and a lifelong friend of George Frideric Handel. While in the present day Bach is generally thought of as the greater composer, Telemann was more widely renowned for his musical abilities during his lifetime. Telemann traveled widely, absorbing various musical styles and incorporating them into his own compositions. He is known for writing concertos for unusual combinations of instruments, such as multiple violas, trumpets, oboes, or harpsichords. He held a series of important musical positions, culminating in that of music director of the five largest churches in Hamburg, from 1720 until his death in 1767. Life Telemann was born in Magdeburg, the capital of the Duchy of Magdeburg, in 1681. Telemann’s family was not particularly musical; his great-grandfather had served as Cantor at Halberstadt, but no one else in his direct family had been involved in music. Telemann’s father died in 1685, leaving his mother to raise and oversee the education of the children. They were an upper-middle-class family, and many worked in the church. Telemann began to discover music at age 10, and quickly showed talent, composing his first opera by age 12. But this talent was not approved of by his family. Fearing that her son would pursue a career in music, Telemann’s mother confiscated all of his musical instruments and in 1693 sent him to a new school in Zellerfeld (1694-1698), hoping that this change would put the boy on a more lucrative career path. However, the superintendent of this school approved of his talents, and Telemann continued to compose and expand his knowledge of music on his own. By the time he completed his studies at the Gymnasium Andreanum in Hildesheim, Telemann was a multi-instrumentalist who had learned to play the recorder, organ, violin, viola da gamba, flute, oboe, chalumeau, double bass and bass trombone, almost entirely by himself. His travels had also exposed him to newer musical styles, and the music of Johann Rosenmüller and Arcangelo Corelli became early influences. Georg Philipp Telemann. Engraving by Georg Lichtensteger, c. 1745. In 1701, Telemann entered Leipzig University intending to study law, perhaps at the request of his mother. It was not long before his musical talent was discovered, however, and he was commissioned to write music for two of the city’s main churches. Soon thereafter, he founded a 40-member Collegium Musicum to give concerts of his music. The next year, Telemann became the director of Leipzig’s opera house and cantor of one of its churches. His growing prominence began to anger elder composer Johann Kuhnau, whose position as director of music for the city had been encroached upon by Telemann’s appointment as a cantor. Telemann was also using many students in his opera productions, leaving them less time to devote to participation in church music for Kuhnau. Kuhnau denounced Telemann as an “opera musician”. Even after Telemann’s departure, Kuhnau could not regain the performers he had lost to the opera. Telemann's signature (1714 and 1757). Telemann left Leipzig in 1705 to become Kapellmeister for the court of Count Erdmann II in Sorau (now Zary, Poland). Here he acquainted himself with the French style of Lully and Campra, composing many overtures and suites in his two years at the post. An invasion of Germany by Sweden forced Count Erdmann's court to evacuate the castle. Telemann apparently visited Paris in 1707; and was later appointed as a leader of the singers at the court in Eisenach, where he met Johann Sebastian Bach. The major position of Telemann's life was his appointment in 1721 as musical director of the five main churches in Hamburg, a position he would hold for the rest of his life. Here Telemann wrote two cantatas for each Sunday, as well as other sacred music for special occasions, all while teaching singing and music theory and directing another collegium musicum, which gave weekly or bi-weekly performances. Telemann also directed the local opera house for a few years, but this proved a financial failure. When the position Kuhnau had once held in Leipzig became vacant, Telemann applied for the position. Of the six musicians who applied, he was the favored candidate, even winning the approval of the city’s council. Telemann declined the position, but only after using the offer as leverage to secure a pay raise for his position in Hamburg. When Telemann declined the job, it was offered to Christoph Graupner, who also declined it, paving the way for J.S. Bach. Telemann augmented his Hamburg pay with a few small positions in other courts and through publishing volumes of his own music. Starting around 1740, Telemann’s output decreased as he began to focus more on writing theoretical treatises. During this time he corresponded with some younger composers, including Franz Benda and his godson, C.P.E. Bach. Following the death of his eldest son Andreas in 1755, Telemann assumed the responsibility of raising his grandson Georg Michael Telemann, and beginning the future composer’s education in music. Many of his sacred oratorios date from this period. In his later years, Telemann’s eyesight began to deteriorate, and this led to a decline in his output around 1762, but the composer continued to write until his death on June 25, 1767. Works and reputation The Guinness Book of World Records lists Telemann as the most prolific composer of all time with more than 800 credited works. More recent studies, for example the thematic catalogues of his works published in the 1980s and 1990s, have shown that Telemann actually wrote over 3,000 compositions, many of which are now lost. Some of his pieces, thought lost, were recently uncovered by the musicologist Jason Grant. Many of the manuscripts were destroyed during World War II. (Another composer, Simon Sechter, could be considered more prolific, since he is thought to have written over 8000 pieces, but 5000 of these were short fugues.) Friedrich Blume, Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Bärenreiter-Verlag, 1949, p. 450. Telemann was highly regarded during his lifetime, and for several decades afterwards; however, by the first decades of the 19th century his works were performed less frequently. The last performance of a substantial work by Telemann, Der Tod Jesu, until the 20th century, was in 1832. Indeed, the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, which includes large articles on both J. S. Bach and Handel, does not contain an entry on Telemann. The revival of interest in Telemann began in the first decades of the 20th century and culminated in the Bärenreiter critical edition of the 1950s. Early music ensembles now commonly perform Telemann's works and numerous recordings of his music are available. TWV numbers Today each of Telemann's works is usually given a TWV number. TWV stands for Telemann-Werke-Verzeichnis (Telemann Work Catalogue). TWV is followed by a number, a colon, a letter and a number. The first number after TWV indicates the general type of medium, the letter after the colon is the key of the particular work, and the following number is the numbering within that type of work. For example, Telemann's Concerto polonois in B flat major for strings and basso continuo is TWV 43:B3. His Suite in D major is TWV 55:D18. Telemann's vocal works are identified by TVWV numbers. Partial list of works Operas See List of operas by Telemann Passions Georg Philipp Telemann's Passions Cantatas Cantata Cycle 1716-1717 Der Schulmeister ("The Schoolmaster") most probably spurious Der Tod Jesu ("The Death of Jesus") TWV 5:5-6 Die Donner-Ode ("The Ode of Thunder") TWV 6:3a-b Die Tageszeiten ("The Times of the Day") (1764) Der Tag des Gerichts ("The Day of Judgement") Oratorios Hamburger Admiralitätsmusik TWV 24:1 Hamburgische Kapitänsmusik (various) Orchestral suites Ouvertüre Wassermusik (Hamburger Ebb und Fluth) TWV 55:C3 Ouvertüre des nations anciens et modernes in G TWV 55:G4 Ouvertüre g-moll in G minor TWV 55:g4 Grillen-symphonie TWV 50:1 Chamber Music Sinfonia Spirituosa in D Major (2 violins, viola & continuo, trumpet ad libitum) TWV 44:1 Tafelmusik (1733) ('Tafelmusik' refers to music meant to accompany a meal) Der getreue Musikmeister (1728), a musical journal containing 70 small vocal and instrumental compositions 6 Paris Quartets, each of which has five to six instruments. TWV 43 Harmonischer Gottes-Dienst The Twelve Fantasias for Transverse Flute without Bass TWV 40:2-13 The Twelve Fantasias for Violin without Bass TWV 40:14-25 Concertos Viola Concerto in G Major for Viola and String Orchestra, TWV 51:G9; the first known concerto for viola, still regularly performed today Concerto in G Major for Two Violas and String Orchestra, TWV 52:G3 Horn "Concerto for Two Horns in D Major TWV 52:D2" "Horn Concerto in B" Chalumeaux (Clarinet) Concerto for Two Chalumeaux and Orchestra Media References External links Further information on Telemann and his works Detailed biography at baroquemusic.org Partial list of Telemann publications and TWV numbers, Robert Poliquin, Université du Québec. (French) Telemann as opera composer from 1708-61, OperaGlass, Stanford University. An index to the Bärenreiter edition Provides some TWV number for cataloging use, and some information for further filling-out of a worklist. Modern Editions Prima la musica! Commercially available performing editions of Telemann's music, as well as other baroque composers. Habsburger Verlag Modern performing editions of Telemann's cantatas edited by Eric Fiedler. Edition Musiklandschaften Modern performing editions of Telemann's yearly Passions from 1757 to 1767 edited by Johannes Pausch Free sheet music Free scores, Cantatas, Archiv der kreuznacher-diakonie-kantorei. | Georg_Philipp_Telemann |@lemmatized georg:6 philipp:4 telemann:53 hand:1 color:1 aquatint:1 valentin:1 daniel:1 preisler:1 lost:1 painting:1 louis:1 michael:2 schneider:1 march:1 june:2 german:1 baroque:2 music:22 composer:11 multi:2 instrumentalist:2 bear:2 magdeburg:3 self:1 taught:1 study:4 law:2 university:3 leipzig:5 often:1 describe:1 prolific:3 history:1 guinness:2 book:3 world:3 record:2 bantam:1 p:3 page:1 isbn:1 least:1 term:1 survive:1 oeuvre:1 see:2 phillip:1 huscher:1 program:1 note:1 tafelmusik:3 iii:1 chicago:1 symphony:1 orchestra:4 contemporary:1 johann:4 sebastian:2 bach:6 antonio:1 vivaldi:1 lifelong:1 friend:1 george:1 frideric:1 handel:2 present:1 day:3 generally:1 think:3 great:2 widely:2 renowned:1 musical:9 ability:1 lifetime:2 travel:2 absorb:1 various:2 style:3 incorporate:1 composition:3 know:2 write:7 concerto:9 unusual:1 combination:1 instrument:3 multiple:1 viola:7 trumpet:2 oboe:2 harpsichord:1 hold:3 series:1 important:1 position:9 culminate:2 director:4 five:3 large:2 church:6 hamburg:4 death:4 life:3 capital:1 duchy:1 family:4 particularly:1 grandfather:1 serve:1 cantor:3 halberstadt:1 one:2 else:1 direct:3 involve:1 father:1 die:4 leave:3 mother:3 raise:3 oversee:1 education:2 child:1 upper:1 middle:1 class:1 many:6 work:14 begin:6 discover:2 age:2 quickly:1 show:2 talent:4 compose:3 first:5 opera:9 approve:2 fearing:1 son:2 would:3 pursue:1 career:2 confiscate:1 send:1 new:1 school:2 zellerfeld:1 hop:1 change:1 put:1 boy:1 lucrative:1 path:1 however:3 superintendent:1 continue:2 expand:1 knowledge:1 time:5 complete:1 gymnasium:1 andreanum:1 hildesheim:1 learn:1 play:1 recorder:1 organ:1 violin:3 da:1 gamba:1 flute:2 chalumeau:1 double:1 bass:4 trombone:1 almost:1 entirely:1 also:4 expose:1 newer:1 rosenmüller:1 arcangelo:1 corelli:1 become:4 early:2 influence:1 engrave:1 lichtensteger:1 c:2 enter:1 intend:1 perhaps:1 request:1 long:1 commission:1 two:6 city:3 main:2 soon:1 thereafter:1 found:1 member:1 collegium:2 musicum:2 give:3 concert:1 next:1 year:4 house:2 grow:1 prominence:1 anger:1 elder:1 kuhnau:5 whose:1 encroach:1 upon:1 appointment:2 use:3 student:1 production:1 less:2 devote:1 participation:1 denounce:1 musician:2 even:2 departure:1 could:2 regain:1 performer:1 lose:3 signature:1 kapellmeister:1 court:4 count:2 erdmann:2 ii:2 sorau:1 zary:1 poland:1 acquaint:1 french:2 lully:1 campra:1 overture:1 suite:3 post:1 invasion:1 germany:1 sweden:1 force:1 evacuate:1 castle:1 apparently:1 visit:1 paris:2 later:1 appoint:1 leader:1 singer:1 eisenach:1 meet:1 major:7 rest:1 cantata:4 sunday:1 well:2 sacred:2 special:1 occasion:1 teach:1 singing:1 theory:1 another:2 weekly:2 bi:1 performance:2 local:1 prove:1 financial:1 failure:1 vacant:1 apply:2 six:2 favored:1 candidate:1 win:1 approval:1 council:1 decline:4 offer:2 leverage:1 secure:1 pay:2 job:1 christoph:1 graupner:1 pave:1 way:1 j:2 augment:1 small:2 publish:2 volume:1 start:1 around:2 output:2 decrease:1 focus:1 theoretical:1 treatise:1 correspond:1 young:1 include:2 franz:1 benda:1 godson:1 e:1 follow:2 eldest:1 andreas:1 assume:1 responsibility:1 grandson:1 future:1 oratorio:1 date:1 period:1 late:1 eyesight:1 deteriorate:1 lead:1 reputation:1 list:4 credited:1 recent:1 example:2 thematic:1 catalogue:2 actually:1 piece:2 recently:1 uncover:1 musicologist:1 jason:1 grant:1 manuscript:1 destroy:1 war:1 simon:1 sechter:1 consider:1 since:1 short:1 fugue:1 friedrich:1 blume:1 musik:1 geschichte:1 und:2 gegenwart:1 bärenreiter:3 verlag:2 highly:1 regarded:1 several:1 decade:3 afterwards:1 century:3 perform:6 frequently:1 last:1 substantial:1 der:6 tod:2 jesu:2 indeed:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 article:1 contain:2 entry:1 revival:1 interest:1 critical:1 edition:7 ensemble:1 commonly:1 numerous:1 recording:1 available:2 twv:23 number:10 today:2 usually:1 stand:1 werke:1 verzeichnis:1 colon:2 letter:2 indicate:1 general:1 type:2 medium:2 key:1 particular:1 following:1 within:1 polonois:1 b:3 flat:1 string:3 basso:1 continuo:2 vocal:2 identify:1 tvwv:1 partial:2 passion:3 cantatas:1 cycle:1 schulmeister:1 schoolmaster:1 probably:1 spurious:1 jesus:1 donner:1 ode:2 thunder:1 tageszeiten:1 tag:1 des:1 gerichts:1 judgement:1 oratorios:1 hamburger:2 admiralitätsmusik:1 hamburgische:1 kapitänsmusik:1 orchestral:1 ouvertüre:3 wassermusik:1 ebb:1 fluth:1 de:1 nation:1 anciens:1 et:1 modernes:1 g:5 moll:1 minor:1 grillen:1 symphonie:1 chamber:1 sinfonia:1 spirituosa:1 ad:1 libitum:1 refers:1 meant:1 accompany:1 meal:1 getreue:1 musikmeister:1 journal:1 instrumental:1 quartet:1 harmonischer:1 gottes:1 dienst:1 twelve:2 fantasia:2 transverse:1 without:2 still:1 regularly:1 horn:3 chalumeaux:2 clarinet:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 information:2 detail:1 biography:1 baroquemusic:1 org:1 publication:1 robert:1 poliquin:1 université:1 du:1 québec:1 operaglass:1 stanford:1 index:1 provide:1 catalog:1 fill:1 worklist:1 modern:3 prima:1 la:1 musica:1 commercially:1 habsburger:1 edit:2 eric:1 fiedler:1 musiklandschaften:1 yearly:1 johannes:1 pausch:1 free:2 sheet:1 score:1 archiv:1 kreuznacher:1 diakonie:1 kantorei:1 |@bigram georg_philipp:4 philipp_telemann:4 multi_instrumentalist:2 symphony_orchestra:1 johann_sebastian:2 sebastian_bach:2 antonio_vivaldi:1 george_frideric:1 frideric_handel:1 violin_viola:2 viola_da:1 da_gamba:1 flute_oboe:1 double_bass:1 bass_trombone:1 eldest_son:1 geschichte_und:1 highly_regarded:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 bach_handel:1 basso_continuo:1 orchestral_suite:1 ad_libitum:1 viola_concerto:1 external_link:1 université_du:1 du_québec:1 |
7,487 | Delaware | Delaware Random House Dictionary (officially The State of Delaware) is a state located on the Atlantic Coast in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. While the U.S. Census Bureau designates Delaware as one of the South Atlantic States, many consider it to be a part of the Mid-Atlantic States and/or Northeastern United States. Examples include other U.S. government agencies (such as the Library of Congress, Geological Survey, Environmental Protection Agency, National Park Service, and Department of Energy), and public service organizations (such as Alcoholics Anonymous and Amtrak). Google's categorization scheme includes it in both the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions. The state takes its name from Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, a British nobleman and Virginia's first colonial governor, after whom (what is now called) Cape Henlopen was originally named. Delaware is located in the eastern section of the Delmarva Peninsula, between Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay, and is the second smallest state (after Rhode Island). 2007 estimates place the population of Delaware ranking 45th in the nation, but 6th in population density, with more than 60% of the population in New Castle County http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/voting/011400.html . Delaware is divided into three counties: New Castle, Kent, and Sussex. While the southern two counties have historically been predominantly agricultural, the northernmost county has helped lead the state to rank second in civilian scientists and engineers as a percentage of the workforce and number of patents issued to companies or individuals per 1,000 workers. The history of the state's economic and industrial development is closely tied to the impact of the Du Pont family, founder of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, one of the world’s largest chemical companies. Before its coastline was first explored by Europeans in the 16th century, Delaware was inhabited by several groups of Native Americans, including the Lenape toward the north and Nanticoke toward the south. It was initially colonized by Dutch traders at Zwaanendael, located near the present town of Lewes, in 1631. Delaware was one of the 13 original states participating in the American Revolution and on December 7, 1787, became the first to ratify the Constitution of the United States. Geography Map of Delaware The Twelve-Mile Circle Diagram of the Twelve-Mile Circle, the Mason-Dixon Line and "The Wedge." All blue and white areas are inside Delaware. Delaware is long and ranges from 9 to across, totaling and making it the second-smallest state in the United States after Rhode Island. Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania; to the east by the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean; and to the west and south by Maryland. Small portions of Delaware are also situated on the far, or eastern, side of the Delaware River estuary, sharing land boundaries with New Jersey. The state of Delaware, together with the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and two counties of Virginia, form the Delmarva Peninsula, which stretches south down the Mid-Atlantic Coast. The definition of the northern boundary of the state is highly unusual. Most of the boundary between Delaware and Pennsylvania is defined by an arc extending 12 miles (19 km) from the cupola of the courthouse in New Castle. It is referred to as the Twelve-Mile Circle. This is the only true-arc political boundary in the United States. This border extends all the way east to the low-tide mark on the New Jersey shore, then continues south along the shoreline until it again reaches the twelve-mile (19 km) arc in the south; then the boundary continues in a more conventional way in the middle of the main channel (thalweg) of the Delaware River Estuary. To the west, a portion of the arc extends past the easternmost edge of Maryland. The remaining western border runs slightly east of due south from its intersection with the arc. The Wedge of land between the northwest part of the arc and the Maryland border was claimed by both Delaware and Pennsylvania until 1921, when Delaware's claim was confirmed. Delaware is subdivided into three counties: from north to south, New Castle, Kent County and Sussex. Main articles: Twelve-Mile Circle, The Wedge, Mason-Dixon line, Transpeninsular Line Topography Delaware is on a level plain, with the lowest mean elevation of any state in the nation. Its highest elevation, located at Ebright Azimuth, near Concord High School, Wilmington, does not rise fully above sea level. The northern part is associated with the Appalachian Piedmont and is full of hills with rolling surfaces. South of Newark and Wilmington, the state follows the Atlantic Coastal Plain with flat, sandy, and, in some parts, swampy ground. A ridge about 75 to in altitude extends along the western boundary of the state and is the drainage divide between the two major water bodies of the Delaware River and several streams flowing into Chesapeake Bay in the west. Climate Since almost all of Delaware is a part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, the climate is moderated by the effects of the ocean. The state is somewhat of a transitional zone between a humid subtropical climate and a continental climate. Despite its small size (roughly from its northernmost to southernmost points), there is significant variation in mean temperature and amount of snowfall between Sussex County and New Castle County. The southern portion of the state has a somewhat milder climate and a longer growing season than the northern portion of the State. The transitional climate of Delaware supports a surprising variety of vegetation. At Trap Pond State Park in Sussex County, bald cypress grow—this is thought to be one of the northernmost stands of such trees. The vegetation in New Castle County, on the other hand, is more typical of that of the northeastern United States. All parts of Delaware have relatively hot, humid summers. While Sussex and Kent Counties are considered to fall in the humid subtropical climate zone, there is some debate about whether northern New Castle County falls in the humid subtropical climate zone or warm continental climate. History Native Americans Before Delaware was settled by European colonists, the area was home to the Eastern Algonquian tribes known as the Unami Lenape or Delaware throughout the Delaware valley, and the Nanticoke along the rivers leading into the Chesapeake Bay. The Unami Lenape in the Delaware Valley were closely related to Munsee Lenape tribes along the Hudson River. They had a settled hunting and agricultural society, and they rapidly became middlemen in an increasingly frantic fur trade with their ancient enemy, the Minqua or Susquehannock. With the loss of their lands on the Delaware River and the destruction of the Minqua by the Iroquois of the Five Nations in the 1670s, the remnants of the Lenape left the region and moved over the Alleghany Mountains by the mid-18th century. Colonial Delaware The Dutch were the first Europeans to settle in present-day Delaware by establishing a trading post at Zwaanendael, near the site of Lewes in 1631. Within a year all the settlers were killed in a dispute with area Indian tribes. In 1638 New Sweden, a Swedish trading post and colony, was established at Fort Christina (now in Wilmington) by Peter Minuit at the head of a group of Swedes, Finns and Dutch. Thirteen years later, the Dutch, reinvigorated by the leadership of Peter Stuyvesant, established a new fort in 1651 at present-day New Castle, and in 1655 they took over the New Sweden colony, incorporating it into the Dutch New Netherland. Only nine years later, in 1664, the Dutch were themselves forcibly removed by a British expedition under the direction of James, the Duke of York. Fighting off a prior claim by Cæcilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, Proprietor of Maryland, the Duke passed his somewhat dubious ownership on to William Penn in 1682. Penn strongly desired access to the sea for his Pennsylvania province and leased what then came to be known as the "Lower Counties on the Delaware" from the Duke. Penn established representative government and briefly combined his two possessions under one General Assembly in 1682. However, by 1704 the Province of Pennsylvania had grown so large that their representatives wanted to make decisions without the assent of the Lower Counties and the two groups of representatives began meeting on their own, one at Philadelphia, and the other at New Castle. Penn and his heirs remained proprietors of both and always appointed the same person Governor for their Province of Pennsylvania and their territory of the Lower Counties. The fact that Delaware and Pennsylvania shared the same governor was not unique. During much of the colonial period, New York and New Jersey shared a governor, as did Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Dependent in early years on indentured labor, Delaware imported more slaves as the number of English immigrants decreased with better economic conditions in England. The colony became a slave society and cultivated tobacco as a cash crop. Before the Revolution, it had begun to shift to mixed agriculture. American Revolution Like the other middle colonies, the Lower Counties on the Delaware initially showed little enthusiasm for a break with Britain. The citizenry had a good relationship with the Proprietary government, and generally were allowed more independence of action in their Colonial Assembly than in other colonies. Merchants at the port of Wilmington had trading ties with British. Nevertheless, there was strong objection to the seemingly arbitrary measures of Parliament, and leaders understood that the territory's existence as a separate entity depended upon its keeping step with its powerful neighbors, especially Pennsylvania. So it was that New Castle lawyer Thomas McKean denounced the Stamp Act in the strongest terms, and Kent County native John Dickinson became the "Penman of the Revolution." Anticipating the Declaration of Independence, Patriot leaders Thomas McKean and Caesar Rodney convinced the Colonial Assembly to declare itself separated from British and Pennsylvania rule on June 15, 1776. The person best representing Delaware's majority, George Read, could not bring himself to vote for a Declaration of Independence. Only the dramatic overnight ride of Caesar Rodney gave the delegation the votes needed to cast Delaware's vote for independence. Once the Declaration was adopted, however, Read signed the document. Initially led by John Haslet, Delaware provided one of the premier regiments in the Continental Army, known as the "Delaware Blues" and nicknamed the "Blue Hen Chickens." In August 1777, General Sir William Howe led a British army through Delaware on his way to a victory at the Battle of Brandywine and capture of the city of Philadelphia. The only real engagement on Delaware soil was the Battle of Cooch's Bridge, fought on September 3, 1777, at Cooch's Bridge in New Castle County. It is believed to be the first time that the Stars and Stripes was flown in battle. Following the Battle of Brandywine, Wilmington was occupied by the British, and State President John McKinly was taken prisoner. The British remained in control of the Delaware River for much of the rest of the war, disrupting commerce and providing encouragement to an active Loyalist portion of the population, particularly in Sussex County. Because the British promised slaves of rebels freedom for fighting with them, escaped slaves flocked north to join their lines. Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: Britain, The Slaves, and the American Revolution, New York, HarperCollins, 2006 Only the repeated military actions of State President Caesar Rodney were able to harass the British. Following the American Revolution, statesmen from Delaware were among the leading proponents of a strong central United States with equal representation for each state. Once the Connecticut Compromise was reached—creating a U.S. Senate and U.S. House of Representatives—the leaders in Delaware were able to easily secure ratification of the U.S. Constitution on December 7, 1787, making Delaware the first state to do so. Slavery and race Many colonial settlers came to Delaware from Maryland and Virginia, which had been experiencing a population boom. The economies of these colonies were chiefly based on tobacco culture and were increasingly dependent on slave labor for its intensive cultivation. Most of the English colonists arrived as indentured servants, hiring themselves out as laborers for a fixed period to pay for their passage. In the early years the line between indentured servants and African slaves or laborers was fluid. Most of the free African-American families in Delaware before the Revolution had migrated from Maryland to find more affordable land. They were descendants chiefly of relationships or marriages between servant white women and enslaved, servant or free African or African-American men. Paul Heinegg. Free African Americans in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware Accessed 15 Feb 2008 As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in England, more slaves were imported for labor. At the end of the colonial period, the number of enslaved people in Delaware began to decline. Shifts in the agriculture economy from tobacco to mixed farming created less need for slaves' labor. Local Methodists and Quakers encouraged slaveholders to free their slaves following the American Revolution, and many did so in a surge of individual manumissions for idealistic reasons. By 1810 three-quarters of all blacks in Delaware were free. When John Dickinson freed his slaves in 1777, he was Delaware's largest slave owner with 37 slaves. By 1860 the largest slaveholder owned only 16 slaves. Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1994, pp.78, 81-82 Although attempts to abolish slavery failed by narrow margins in the legislature, in practical terms, the state had mostly ended the practice. By the 1860 census on the verge of the Civil War, 91.7 percent of the black population, or nearly 20,000 people, was free. Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1994, pp.81-82 Historical Census Browser, 1860 Federal Census, University of Virginia Library, accessed 15 Mar 2008 The first independent black denomination was chartered by freed slave Peter Spencer in 1813 as the "Union Church of Africans." This followed the 1793 establishment of the African Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, which had ties to the Methodist Episcopal Church until 1816. Spencer built a church in Wilmington for the new denomination. This was renamed the African Union First Colored Methodist Protestant Church and Connection, more commonly known as the A.U.M.P. Church. Begun by Spencer in 1814, the annual gathering of the Big August Quarterly still draws people together in a religious and cultural festival, the oldest such cultural festival in the nation. At the onset of the American Civil War, Delaware was only nominally a slave state, and it remained in the Union. Delaware voted against secession on January 3, 1861. As the governor said, Delaware had been the first state to embrace the Union by ratifying the Constitution and would be the last to leave it. While most Delaware citizens who fought in the war served in the regiments of the state, some served in companies on the Confederate side in Maryland and Virginia Regiments. Delaware is notable for being the only slave state from which no Confederate regiments or militia groups were assembled. Demographics Delaware Population Density Map The five largest ancestries in Delaware are: African American (19.2%), Irish (16.6%), German (14.3%), English (12.1%), Italian (9.3%). Delaware has the highest proportion of African-American residents of any state north of Maryland, and had the largest percentage of free blacks (17% of the state's total population) prior to the Civil War. Delaware is the sixth most densely populated state, with a population density of 442.6 people per square mile, 356.4 per square mile more than the national average, and ranking 45th in population. Only the states of Delaware, West Virginia, Vermont, Maine, and Wyoming do not have a single city with a population over 100,000 as of the 2007 census. The center of population of Delaware is located in New Castle County, in the town of Townsend. Languages As of 2000, 90.5% of Delaware residents age 5 and older speak only English at home; 4.7% speak Spanish. French is the third most spoken language at 0.7%, followed by Chinese at 0.5% and German at 0.5%. Legislation has been proposed by both the House and the Senate in Delaware to designate English as the official language. SB 129, assigned 2007-06-13 to Senate Education Committee. HB 436, stricken 2006-06-15 Religion The religious affiliations of the people of Delaware are: Methodist – 20% Baptist – 19% No Religion – 17% Roman Catholic – 9% Lutheran – 4% Presbyterian – 3% Pentecostal – 3% Episcopalian/Anglican - 2% Seventh-day Adventist - 2% Churches of Christ - 1% Other Christian – 3% Muslim - 2% Jewish - 1% Other – 5% Refused - 9% (source: American Religious Identification Survey, City University of New York) The Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington and the Episcopal Diocese of Delaware oversee the parishes within their denominations. The A.U.M.P. Church, the oldest African-American denomination in the nation, was founded in Wilmington. It still has a substantial presence in the state. Reflecting new immigrant populations, an Islamic mosque has been built in the Ogletown area, and a Hindu temple in Hockessin. Delaware's population includes approximately 20,000 Jewish Americans, who are served by the Jewish Community Center in Brandywine (near Wilmington) and by a number of educational, social and cultural agencies supported by the Jewish Federation of Delaware. Synagogues include Congregation Beth Emeth (Reform) in Wilmington, Congregation Beth El (Reconstructionist) in Newark, Congregation Beth Shalom (Conservative) in Wilmington, Congregation Beth Sholom (Conservative) in Dover, and Adas Kodesh Shel Emeth (Traditional) in Wilmington. Seaside Jewish Community in Rehoboth Beach (unaffiliated) There is also a Lubavitcher community center and synagogue in Brandywine Hundred. Economy "Picking Peaches in Delaware" from an 1878 issue of Harper's Weekly The gross state product of Delaware in 2003 was $49 billion. The per capita personal income was $34,199, ranking 9th in the nation. In 2005, the average weekly wage was $937, ranking 7th in the nation. Note: value of $937 per week was for the 4th quarter of 2005. Delaware's agricultural output consists of poultry, nursery stock, soybeans, dairy products and corn. Its industrial outputs include chemical products, automobiles, processed foods, paper products, and rubber and plastic products. Delaware's economy generally outperforms the national economy of the United States. The state's largest employers are: government (State of Delaware, New Castle County) education (University of Delaware) chemical and pharmaceutical companies (E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Syngenta, AstraZeneca, and Hercules, Inc.) banking (Bank of America, Wilmington Trust, First USA / Bank One / JPMorgan Chase, AIG, Citigroup, Deutsche Bank, Barclays plc) automotive manufacturing (General Motors, Chrysler) farming, specifically chicken farming in Sussex County (Perdue Farms, Mountaire Farms) The Dover Air Force Base, located next to the state capital of Dover, is one of the largest Air Force bases in the country and is a major employer in Delaware. In addition to its other responsibilities in the USAF Air Mobility Command, this air base serves as the entry point and mortuary for American military personnel, and some U.S. government civilians, who die overseas. Delaware has six different income tax brackets, ranging from 2.2% to 5.95%. The state does not assess sales tax on consumers. The state does, however, impose a tax on the gross receipts of most businesses. Business and occupational license tax rates range from 0.096% to 1.92%, depending on the category of business activity. Delaware does not assess a state-level tax on real or personal property. Real estate is subject to county property taxes, school district property taxes, vocational school district taxes, and, if located within an incorporated area, municipal property taxes. Over 50% of US publicly-traded corporations and 60% of the Fortune 500 companies are incorporated in Delaware; Delaware Division of Corporations the state's attractiveness as a corporate haven is largely due to its business-friendly corporation law. Franchise taxes on Delaware corporations supply about one-fifth of its state revenue. Delaware 2007 Fiscal Notebook - State General Fund Revenues by Category (F.Y. 2002 - F.Y. 2005) Although Delaware is considered to be a tax haven, it is not listed on the OECD's 2009 "Black List", despite objections of Luxembourg´s and Switzerland's authorities. Title 4, chapter 7 of the Delaware Code stipulates that alcoholic liquor only be sold in specifically licensed establishments, and only between 9:00 AM and 1:00 AM. Transportation Delaware Route 1, a toll road linking Dover and Wilmington. The transportation system in Delaware is under the governance and supervision of the Delaware Department of Transportation, also known as "DelDOT". DelDOT manages programs such as a Delaware Adopt-a-Highway program, major road route snow removal, traffic control infrastructure (signs and signals), toll road management, Delaware Division of Motor Vehicles, the Delaware Transit Corporation (branded as "DART First State", the state government public transportation organization), among others. Almost ninety percent of the state's public roadway miles are under the direct maintenance of DelDOT which far exceeds the United States national average of twenty percent for state department of transportation maintenance responsibility; the remaining public road miles are under the supervision of individual municipalities. Roads One major branch of the U.S. Interstate Highway System, Interstate 95, crosses Delaware southwest-to-northeast across New Castle County. In addition to I-95, there are six U.S. highways that serve Delaware: U.S. Route 9, U.S. Route 13, U.S. Route 40, U.S. Route 113, U.S. Route 202, and U.S. Route 301. There are also several state highways that cross the state of Delaware; a few of them include Delaware Route 1, Delaware Route 9, and Delaware Route 404. U.S. 13 and DE Rt 1 are primary north-south highways connecting Wilmington and Pennsylvania with Maryland, with DE 1 serving as the main route between Wilmington and the Delaware beaches. DE Rt. 9 is a north-south highway connecting Dover and Wilmington via a scenic route along the Delaware Bay. U.S. 40, is a primary east-west route, connecting Maryland with New Jersey. DE Rt. 404 is another primary east-west highway connecting the Chesapeake Bay Bridge in Maryland with the Delaware beaches. The state also operates two toll highways, the Delaware Turnpike, which is Interstate 95, between Maryland and New Castle and the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway, which is DE Rt. 1, between Wilmington and Dover. A bicycle route, Delaware Bicycle Route 1, spans the north-south length of the state from the Maryland border in Fenwick Island to the Pennsylvania border north of Montchanin. It is the first of several signed bike routes planned in Delaware. Delaware Bicycle Facility Master Plan Delaware has around 1,450 bridges, ninety-five percent of which are under the supervision of DelDOT. About thirty percent of all Delaware bridges were built prior to 1950 and about sixty percent of the number are included in the National Bridge Inventory. Some bridges not under DelDOT supervision includes the four bridges on the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, which are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Delaware Memorial Bridge, which is under the bi-state Delaware River and Bay Authority. Ferries There are three ferries that operate in the state of Delaware: Cape May-Lewes Ferry crosses the mouth of the Delaware Bay between Lewes, Delaware and Cape May, New Jersey. Woodland Ferry is a cable ferry that crosses the Nanticoke River southwest of Seaford. Three Forts Ferry Crossing connects Delaware City with Fort Delaware and Fort Mott in New Jersey Rail and bus A Norfolk Southern locomotive in Dover.Amtrak has two stations in Delaware along the Northeast Corridor; the relatively quiet Newark Rail Station in Newark, and the busier Wilmington Rail Station in Wilmington. The Northeast Corridor is also served by SEPTA's R2 Regional Rail line, which serves Claymont, Wilmington, Churchmans Crossing, and Newark. The major freight railroad in Delaware is the Class 1 Norfolk Southern, which provides service to most of Delaware. It connects with two shortline railroads, the Delaware Coast Line Railway and the Maryland & Delaware Railroad. These two shortlines serve local customers in Sussex County. Another Class 1 railroad, CSX, passes through northern New Castle County parallel to the Amtrak Northeast Corridor. The public transportation system, DART First State, was named "Most Outstanding Public Transportation System" in 2003 by the American Public Transportation Association. Coverage of the system is broad within northern New Castle County with close association to major highways in Kent and Sussex Counties. The system includes bus, subsidized passenger rail operated by Philadelphia transit agency SEPTA, and subsidized taxi and paratransit modes, the latter consisting of a state-wide door-to-door bus service for the elderly and disabled. Air Delaware is the only state in the Union without commercial air service. New Castle Airport near Wilmington has been served by commercial airlines in the past, the last being Skybus Airlines, which provided service to Columbus, Ohio and Greensboro, North Carolina from March 7, 2008 until its bankruptcy on April 5, 2008. Delaware is centrally situated in the Northeast Corridor region of cities along US Interstate 95 I-95. Therefore, Delaware commercial airline passengers most frequently use Philadelphia International Airport (PHL) and Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport(BWI) for domestic and international transit. Newark Liberty International Airport(EWR) and Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport(DCA)are also within a 100 mile radius of New Castle County. The large Dover Air Force Base of the USAF Air Mobility Command is located in the central part of the state, and it is the home of the 436th Airlift Wing and the 512th Airlift Wing. Other general aviation airports in Delaware include Summit Airport near Middletown, Delaware Airpark near Cheswold, and Sussex County Airport near Georgetown. Law and government Delaware's fourth and current constitution, adopted in 1897, provides for executive, judicial and legislative branches. Legislative branch The Delaware General Assembly consists of a House of Representatives with 41 members and a Senate with 21 members. It sits in Dover, the state capital. Representatives are elected to two-year terms, while senators are elected to four-year terms. The Senate confirms judicial and other nominees appointed by the governor. Delaware's U.S. Senators are Edward Kaufman (Democrat) and Thomas R. Carper (Democrat). Delaware's single U.S. Representative is Michael N. Castle (Republican). Judicial branch The Delaware Constitution establishes a number of courts: The Delaware Supreme Court is the state's highest court. The Superior Court of Delaware is the state's trial court of general jurisdiction. The Delaware Court of Chancery deals primarily in corporate disputes. The Family Court handles domestic and custody matters. The Court of Common Pleas has jurisdiction over a limited class of civil and criminal matters. Minor non-constitutional courts include the Justice of the Peace Courts and Aldermen's Courts. Significantly, Delaware has one of the few remaining Courts of Chancery in the nation, which has jurisdiction over equity cases, the vast majority of which are corporate disputes, many relating to mergers and acquisitions. The Court of Chancery and the Supreme Court have developed a worldwide reputation for rendering concise opinions concerning corporate law which generally (but not always) grant broad discretion to corporate boards of directors and officers. In addition, the Delaware General Corporation Law, which forms the basis of the Courts' opinions, is widely regarded as giving great flexibility to corporations to manage their affairs. For these reasons, Delaware is considered to have the most business-friendly legal system in the United States; therefore a great number of companies are incorporated in Delaware, including 60% of the companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Note: replacement current URL (2008-07-23) is http://www.corp.delaware.gov/aboutagency.shtml . Delaware was the last US state to use judicial corporal punishment, in 1952. Red Hannah: Delaware's Whipping Post. Executive branch The executive branch is headed by the Governor of Delaware. The present governor is Jack A. Markell (Democrat), who took office January 20, 2009. The lieutenant governor is Matthew P. Denn Counties Delaware has three counties: Kent County, New Castle County, and Sussex County. Each county elects its own legislative body (known in New Castle and Sussex counties as County Council, and in Kent County as Levy Court), which deal primarily in zoning and development issues. Most functions which are handled on a county-by-county basis in other states — such as court and law enforcement — have been centralized in Delaware, leading to a significant concentration of power in the Delaware state government. The counties were historically divided into hundreds, which were used as tax reporting and voting districts until the 1960s, but now serve no administrative role, their only current official legal use being in real-estate title descriptions. The Hundreds of Delaware: 1700–1800, Delaware Department of State:Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs website Politics + Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic200837.37% 152,356 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|62.63% 255,394200445.75% 171,660 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|53.35% 200,152200041.90% 137,288 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|54.96% 180,068199636.58% 99,062 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|51.82% 140,955199235.33% 102,313 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|43.52% 126,054198855.88% 139,639 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|43.48% 108,647198459.78% 152,190 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|39.93% 101,656198047.21% 111,252 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|44.87% 105,754197646.57% 109,831 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|51.98% 122,596197259.60% 140,357 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|39.18% 92,283196845.12% 96,714 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|41.61% 89,194196438.78% 78,078 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|60.95% 122,704196049.00% 96,373 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|50.63% 99,590 The Democratic Party holds a plurality of registrations in Delaware. Until the 2000 Presidential election, the state tended to be a Presidential bellwether, sending its three electoral votes to the winning candidate for almost 50 years in a row. Bucking that trend, however, in 2000 and again in 2004 Delaware voted for the Democratic candidate. In the 2000 election Delaware voted with the winner of the popular vote, Al Gore, who subsequently lost the Electoral Vote to George W. Bush (see United States Presidential Election, 2000 for more information). John Kerry won Delaware by eight percentage points with 53.5% of the vote in 2004. In 2008, Democrat Barack Obama defeated Republican John McCain in Delaware 62.63% to 37.37%. Obama's running mate was Joe Biden, who had represented Delaware in the United States Senate since 1973. Historically, the Republican Party had an immense influence on Delaware politics, due in large part to the wealthy du Pont family. Ralph Nader assembled a working group to investigate ties between Delaware's politicians and industrialists, resulting in a book published in 1968 entitled The Company State. As DuPont's political influence has declined, so has that of the Delaware Republican Party. The Democrats have won the past four gubernatorial elections and currently hold seven of the nine statewide elected offices (Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Treasurer, Insurance Commissioner, Attorney General, and two U.S. Senators), while the Republicans hold the remaining two (the state's at-large House seat and the office of Auditor). However, this belies the fact that the Democratic Party gains most of its votes from heavily-developed New Castle County, whereas the lesser-populated Kent and Sussex Counties vote Republican. Municipalities Wilmington is the state's largest city and its economic hub. It is located within commuting distance of both Philadelphia and Baltimore. All regions of Delaware are enjoying phenomenal growth, with Dover and the beach resorts expanding at a rapid rate. Counties Kent New Castle Sussex Cities Delaware City Dover Harrington Lewes Milford New Castle Newark Rehoboth Beach Seaford Wilmington Towns Bellefonte Bethany Beach Bethel Blades Bowers Bridgeville Camden Cheswold Dagsboro Delmar Dewey Beach Ellendale Elsmere Towns (cont.) Farmington Felton Fenwick Island Frankford Frederica Georgetown Greenwood Hartly Henlopen Acres Houston Kenton Laurel Leipsic Little Creek Magnolia Middletown Millsboro Millville Milton Newport Ocean View Odessa Selbyville Slaughter Beach Smyrna South Bethany Townsend Viola Woodside Wyoming Villages Arden Ardencroft Ardentown Unincorporated places Bear Brookside Clarksville Claymont Dover Base Housing Edgemoor Glasgow Greenville Gumboro Harbeson Highland Acres Hockessin Kent Acres Lincoln City Long Neck Marshallton North Star Omar Pike Creek Rising Sun-Lebanon Riverview Rodney village Roxana Saint Georges Wilmington Manor Woodside East Yorklyn Dover Newark Seaford Wilmington Top 10 richest places in Delaware Ranked by per capita income Greenville: $83,223 Henlopen Acres: $82,091 South Bethany: $53,624 Dewey Beach: $51,958 Fenwick Island: $44,415 Bethany Beach: $41,306 Hockessin: $40,516 North Star: $39,677 Rehoboth Beach: $38,494 Ardentown: $35,577 Education Delaware was the origin of Belton v. Gebhart, one of the four cases which was combined into Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the United States decision that led to the end of segregated public schools. Significantly, Belton was the only case in which the state court found for the plaintiffs, thereby ruling that segregation was unconstitutional. Unlike many states, Delaware's educational system is centralized in a state Superintendent of Education, with local school boards retaining control over taxation and some curriculum decisions. A "three-tiered diploma" system fostered by Governor Ruth Ann Minner, which awarded "basic," "standard," and "distinguished" high-school diplomas based on a student's performance in the Delaware Student Testing Program, was discontinued by the General Assembly after many Delawareans questioned its fairness. Colleges and universities Delaware College of Art and Design Delaware State University Delaware Technical & Community College Drexel University at Wilmington Goldey-Beacom CollegeUniversity of Delaware Wesley College Widener University School of Law Wilmington University Miscellaneous topics Media There are no network broadcast-television stations operating solely in Delaware. A local PBS station from Philadelphia (but licensed to Wilmington), WHYY-TV, maintains a studio and broadcasting facility in Wilmington and Dover, while ION Television affiliate WPPX is licensed to Wilmington, but for all intents and purposes, maintains their offices in Philadelphia and their digital transmitter outside of that city and an analog tower in New Jersey. Philadelphia's ABC affiliate, WPVI-TV, maintains a news bureau in downtown Wilmington. The northern part of the state is served by network stations in Philadelphia and the southern part by network stations in Baltimore and Salisbury, Maryland. Salisbury's CBS affiliate, WBOC-TV, maintains bureaus in Dover and Milton. Tourism While Delaware has no places designated as national parks, national seashores, national battlefields, national memorials, or national monuments, it does have several museums, wildlife refuges, parks, houses, lighthouses, and other historic places. Delaware is home to the second longest twin span suspension bridge in the world, the Delaware Memorial Bridge. Rehoboth Beach, together with the towns of Lewes, Dewey Beach, Bethany Beach, South Bethany, and Fenwick Island, comprise Delaware's beach resorts. Rehoboth Beach often bills itself as "The Nation's Summer Capital" due to the fact that it is a frequent summer vacation destination for Washington, D.C., residents as well as visitors from Maryland, Virginia, and in lesser numbers, Pennsylvania. Vacationers are drawn for many reasons, including the town's charm, artistic appeal, nightlife, and tax free shopping. Delaware is home to several festivals, fairs, and events. Some of the more notable festivals are the Riverfest held in Seaford, the World Championship Punkin Chunkin held at various locations throughout the county since 1986, the Rehoboth Beach Chocolate Festival, the Bethany Beach Jazz Funeral to mark the end of summer, the Apple Scrapple Festival held in Bridgeville, the Rehoboth Beach Jazz Festival, the Sea Witch Halloween Festival and Parade in Rehoboth Beach, the Rehoboth Beach Independent Film Festival the Nanticoke Indian Pow Wow in Oak Orchard, and the Return Day Parade held after every election in Georgetown. The state was playfully mocked for its lack of renown as a vacation destination in the movie Wayne's World and the TV show The Simpsons. Popular culture Delaware sometimes called "What did Delaware?" is a popular hit (some say novelty song) performed by Perry Como making clever use of U.S. state names. In Wayne's World, Wayne mentions visiting Delaware (joking that there is basically nothing interesting to say about it). Festivals Sports ClubSportLeagueWilmington Blue RocksBaseballMinor League BaseballDelaware GriffinsFootballWomen's Professional Football LeagueDelaware SmashTennisWorld Team TennisCentral Delaware SA FutureSoccerWomen's Premier Soccer LeagueDelaware DynastySoccerUSL Premier Development LeagueWilmington City Ruff RollersRoller DerbyWomen's Flat Track Derby AssociationDelaware DestroyersBasketballEastern Basketball Alliance In place of in-state professional sports teams, many Delawareans follow either Philadelphia or Baltimore teams, depending on their location within the state, with Philadelphia teams receiving the largest fan following, though before the Baltimore Ravens entered the NFL, the Washington Redskins had a significant fan base in Sussex County and the Baltimore Colts had a significant fan base in northern counties. In addition, the University of Delaware's football team has a loyal following throughout the state, with Delaware State University's team enjoying popularity on a much lesser scale. Delaware is home to Dover International Speedway and Dover Downs. DIS, also known as the Monster Mile, hosts two NASCAR races each year. Dover Downs is a popular harness racing facility. In what may be the only co-located horse and car-racing facility in the nation, the Dover Downs track is located inside the DIS track. Delaware has been home to professional wrestling outfit CZW, particularly the annual Tournament of Death, and ECWA, particularly the annual Super 8 Tournament. Delaware is home to the Diamond State Games, an amateur Olympic-style sports festival. The event is open to athletes of all ages and is also open to residents beyond the borders of Delaware. The Diamond State Games were created in 2001 and participation levels average roughly 2500 per year in 12 contested sports. Delaware Native Americans Delaware is also the name of a Native American group (called in their own language Lenni Lenape) that was influential in the colonial period of the United States. A band of the Nanticoke tribe of American Indians resides in Sussex County. Namesakes Several ships have been named USS Delaware in honor of this state. Notable Delawareans See also Index of Delaware-related articles References External links State of Delaware official website Delaware State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Delaware state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. Delaware Tourism homepage Delaware Map Data Delaware Population Projections The Kalmar Nyckel Foundation & Tall Ship Kalmar Nyckel. U.S. Senate site with the full U.S. Constitution and the Thirteenth Amendment "Slavery and Involuntary Servitude" Energy & Environmental Data for Delaware USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Delaware U.S. Census Bureau Delaware Newspapers Delaware State Facts Delaware Academy of Medicine HealthyDE.org be-x-old:Дэлавэр | Delaware |@lemmatized delaware:197 random:1 house:6 dictionary:1 officially:1 state:100 locate:11 atlantic:9 coast:3 mid:5 region:5 united:14 u:29 census:7 bureau:4 designate:3 one:13 south:16 many:8 consider:4 part:10 northeastern:3 example:1 include:14 government:9 agency:5 library:3 congress:1 geological:1 survey:2 environmental:2 protection:1 national:11 park:4 service:6 department:4 energy:2 public:8 organization:2 alcoholic:2 anonymous:1 amtrak:3 google:1 categorization:1 scheme:1 take:4 name:6 thomas:4 west:7 baron:2 de:8 la:1 warr:1 british:9 nobleman:1 virginia:8 first:13 colonial:8 governor:12 call:3 cape:3 henlopen:3 originally:1 eastern:4 section:1 delmarva:2 peninsula:2 bay:9 chesapeake:5 second:4 smallest:1 rhode:2 island:6 estimate:1 place:6 population:15 rank:6 nation:10 density:3 new:45 castle:25 county:51 http:2 www:3 gov:2 press:1 release:2 archive:1 vote:13 html:1 divide:3 three:8 kent:10 sussex:16 southern:5 two:13 historically:3 predominantly:1 agricultural:3 northernmost:3 help:1 lead:7 civilian:2 scientist:1 engineer:2 percentage:3 workforce:1 number:8 patent:1 issue:3 company:9 individual:3 per:7 worker:1 history:2 economic:4 industrial:2 development:3 closely:2 tie:4 impact:1 du:4 pont:4 family:4 founder:1 e:2 nemours:2 world:5 large:13 chemical:3 coastline:1 explore:1 european:3 century:2 inhabit:1 several:7 group:6 native:5 american:24 lenape:6 toward:2 north:13 nanticoke:5 initially:3 colonize:1 dutch:6 trader:1 zwaanendael:2 near:8 present:4 town:6 lewes:6 original:1 participate:1 revolution:8 december:2 become:4 ratify:2 constitution:6 geography:1 map:3 twelve:5 mile:12 circle:4 diagram:1 mason:2 dixon:2 line:7 wedge:3 blue:4 white:2 area:5 inside:2 long:3 range:3 across:2 total:2 make:4 small:3 bound:1 pennsylvania:12 east:6 river:10 jersey:8 ocean:3 maryland:18 portion:5 also:11 situate:2 far:2 side:2 estuary:2 share:3 land:4 boundary:6 together:3 shore:2 form:2 stretch:1 definition:1 northern:8 highly:1 unusual:1 define:1 arc:6 extend:3 km:2 cupola:1 courthouse:1 refer:1 true:1 political:2 border:6 way:3 low:6 tide:1 mark:2 continue:2 along:7 shoreline:1 reach:2 conventional:1 middle:2 main:3 channel:1 thalweg:1 past:3 easternmost:1 edge:1 remain:7 western:2 run:2 slightly:1 due:4 intersection:1 northwest:1 claim:3 confirm:2 subdivide:1 article:2 transpeninsular:1 topography:1 level:4 plain:3 mean:2 elevation:2 high:5 ebright:1 azimuth:1 concord:1 school:7 wilmington:32 rise:2 fully:1 sea:3 associate:1 appalachian:1 piedmont:1 full:2 hill:3 rolling:1 surface:1 newark:8 follow:9 coastal:2 flat:2 sandy:1 swampy:1 ground:1 ridge:1 altitude:1 extends:1 drainage:1 major:6 water:1 body:2 stream:1 flow:2 climate:9 since:3 almost:3 moderate:1 effect:1 somewhat:3 transitional:2 zone:4 humid:4 subtropical:3 continental:3 despite:2 size:1 roughly:2 southernmost:1 point:3 significant:4 variation:1 temperature:1 amount:1 snowfall:1 mild:1 longer:1 grow:3 season:1 support:2 surprising:1 variety:1 vegetation:2 trap:1 pond:1 bald:1 cypress:1 think:1 stand:1 tree:1 hand:1 typical:1 relatively:2 hot:1 summer:4 fall:2 debate:1 whether:1 warm:1 settle:3 colonist:2 home:8 algonquian:1 tribe:4 know:7 unami:2 throughout:3 valley:2 relate:2 munsee:1 hudson:1 hunting:1 society:2 rapidly:1 middleman:1 increasingly:2 frantic:1 fur:1 trade:2 ancient:1 enemy:1 minqua:2 susquehannock:1 loss:1 destruction:1 iroquois:1 five:3 remnant:1 leave:2 move:1 alleghany:1 mountain:1 day:4 establish:5 trading:3 post:3 site:2 within:7 year:11 settler:2 kill:1 dispute:3 indian:3 sweden:2 swedish:1 colony:7 fort:5 christina:1 peter:5 minuit:1 head:2 swede:1 finn:1 thirteen:1 later:2 reinvigorate:1 leadership:1 stuyvesant:1 incorporate:3 netherland:1 nine:2 forcibly:1 remove:1 expedition:1 direction:1 james:1 duke:3 york:7 fight:4 prior:3 cæcilius:1 calvert:1 baltimore:7 proprietor:2 pass:2 dubious:1 ownership:1 william:2 penn:4 strongly:1 desired:1 access:3 province:3 lease:1 come:2 representative:7 briefly:1 combine:2 possession:1 general:10 assembly:5 however:5 want:1 decision:3 without:2 assent:1 begin:4 meet:1 philadelphia:12 heir:1 always:2 appoint:2 person:2 territory:2 fact:4 unique:1 much:3 period:4 massachusetts:1 hampshire:1 dependent:2 early:2 indentured:4 labor:4 import:2 slave:17 english:5 immigrant:2 decrease:2 good:2 condition:2 england:2 cultivate:1 tobacco:3 cash:1 crop:1 shift:2 mixed:1 agriculture:2 like:1 show:2 little:2 enthusiasm:1 break:1 britain:2 citizenry:1 relationship:2 proprietary:1 generally:3 allow:1 independence:4 action:2 merchant:1 port:1 nevertheless:1 strong:3 objection:2 seemingly:1 arbitrary:1 measure:1 parliament:1 leader:3 understand:1 existence:1 separate:2 entity:1 depend:3 upon:1 keep:1 step:1 powerful:1 neighbor:1 especially:1 lawyer:1 mckean:2 denounce:1 stamp:1 act:1 term:4 john:6 dickinson:2 penman:1 anticipate:1 declaration:3 patriot:1 caesar:3 rodney:4 convince:1 declare:1 rule:2 june:1 best:1 represent:2 majority:2 george:3 read:2 could:1 bring:1 dramatic:1 overnight:1 ride:1 give:2 delegation:1 need:2 cast:1 adopt:3 sign:3 document:2 haslet:1 provide:5 premier:3 regiment:4 army:3 nickname:1 hen:1 chickens:1 august:2 sir:1 howe:1 victory:1 battle:4 brandywine:4 capture:1 city:11 real:5 engagement:1 soil:1 cooch:2 bridge:11 september:1 believe:1 time:2 star:3 stripe:1 fly:1 occupy:1 president:2 mckinly:1 prisoner:1 control:3 rest:1 war:6 disrupt:1 commerce:1 encouragement:1 active:1 loyalist:1 particularly:3 promised:1 rebel:1 freedom:1 escape:1 flock:1 join:1 simon:1 schama:1 rough:1 crossing:1 harpercollins:1 repeated:1 military:2 able:2 harass:1 statesman:1 among:2 proponent:1 central:2 equal:1 representation:1 connecticut:1 compromise:1 create:3 senate:7 easily:1 secure:1 ratification:1 slavery:5 race:3 experience:1 boom:1 economy:5 chiefly:2 base:9 culture:2 intensive:1 cultivation:1 arrive:1 servant:4 hire:1 laborer:3 fixed:1 pay:1 passage:1 african:11 fluid:1 free:9 migrate:1 find:2 affordable:1 descendant:1 marriage:1 woman:1 enslave:1 men:1 paul:1 heinegg:1 carolina:3 feb:1 improve:1 end:4 enslaved:1 people:5 decline:2 mix:1 farm:3 less:4 local:4 methodist:5 quaker:1 encourage:1 slaveholder:2 surge:1 manumission:1 idealistic:1 reason:3 quarter:2 black:5 owner:1 kolchin:2 wang:2 pp:2 although:2 attempt:1 abolish:1 fail:1 narrow:1 margin:1 legislature:1 practical:1 mostly:1 practice:1 verge:1 civil:4 percent:6 nearly:1 historical:2 browser:1 federal:1 university:10 mar:1 independent:2 denomination:4 charter:1 freed:1 spencer:3 union:5 church:8 establishment:2 episcopal:3 build:3 rename:1 color:1 protestant:1 connection:1 commonly:1 p:3 annual:3 gathering:1 big:1 quarterly:1 still:2 draw:2 religious:3 cultural:4 festival:11 old:4 onset:1 nominally:1 secession:1 january:2 say:3 embrace:1 would:1 last:3 citizen:1 serve:12 confederate:2 notable:3 militia:1 assemble:2 demographic:1 ancestry:1 irish:1 german:2 italian:1 proportion:1 resident:4 sixth:1 densely:1 populated:1 square:2 average:4 vermont:1 maine:1 wyoming:2 single:2 center:16 townsend:2 languages:1 age:2 speak:2 spanish:1 french:1 third:1 spoken:1 language:3 chinese:1 legislation:1 propose:1 official:3 sb:1 assign:1 education:5 committee:1 hb:1 stricken:1 religion:2 affiliation:1 baptist:1 roman:2 catholic:2 lutheran:1 presbyterian:1 pentecostal:1 episcopalian:1 anglican:1 seventh:1 adventist:1 christ:1 christian:1 muslim:1 jewish:5 refuse:1 source:1 identification:1 diocese:2 oversee:1 parish:1 found:1 substantial:1 presence:1 reflect:1 islamic:1 mosque:1 ogletown:1 hindu:1 temple:1 hockessin:3 approximately:1 community:4 educational:2 social:1 federation:1 synagogue:2 congregation:4 beth:4 emeth:2 reform:1 el:1 reconstructionist:1 shalom:1 conservative:2 sholom:1 dover:19 adas:1 kodesh:1 shel:1 traditional:1 seaside:1 rehoboth:9 beach:21 unaffiliated:1 lubavitcher:1 hundred:3 pick:1 peach:1 harper:1 weekly:2 gross:2 product:5 billion:1 capita:2 personal:2 income:3 wage:1 note:2 value:1 week:1 output:2 consists:1 poultry:1 nursery:1 stock:2 soybean:1 dairy:1 corn:1 automobile:1 process:1 food:1 paper:1 rubber:1 plastic:1 outperform:1 employer:2 pharmaceutical:1 co:2 syngenta:1 astrazeneca:1 hercules:1 inc:1 banking:1 bank:3 america:1 trust:1 usa:1 jpmorgan:1 chase:1 aig:1 citigroup:1 deutsche:1 barclays:1 plc:1 automotive:1 manufacturing:1 motor:2 chrysler:1 farming:2 specifically:2 chicken:1 perdue:1 mountaire:1 air:8 force:3 next:1 capital:3 country:1 addition:4 responsibility:2 usaf:2 mobility:2 command:2 entry:1 mortuary:1 personnel:1 die:1 overseas:1 six:2 different:1 tax:13 bracket:1 assess:2 sale:1 consumer:1 impose:1 receipt:1 business:5 occupational:1 license:3 rate:2 category:2 activity:1 property:4 estate:2 subject:1 district:3 vocational:1 incorporated:1 municipal:1 publicly:1 corporation:7 fortune:1 division:3 attractiveness:1 corporate:5 largely:1 friendly:2 law:6 franchise:1 supply:1 fifth:1 revenue:2 fiscal:1 notebook:1 fund:1 f:2 list:4 oecd:1 luxembourg:1 switzerland:1 authority:2 title:2 chapter:1 code:1 stipulate:1 liquor:1 sell:1 licensed:1 transportation:8 route:17 toll:3 road:4 link:2 system:9 governance:1 supervision:4 deldot:5 manages:1 program:3 highway:10 snow:1 removal:1 traffic:1 infrastructure:1 signal:1 management:1 vehicle:1 transit:3 brand:1 dart:2 others:1 ninety:2 roadway:1 direct:1 maintenance:2 exceed:1 twenty:1 municipality:2 roads:1 branch:6 interstate:4 cross:6 southwest:2 northeast:5 rt:4 primary:3 connect:5 via:1 scenic:1 another:2 operate:4 turnpike:1 korean:1 veteran:1 memorial:4 bicycle:3 span:2 length:1 fenwick:4 montchanin:1 bike:1 plan:2 facility:4 master:1 around:1 thirty:1 sixty:1 inventory:1 four:4 canal:1 jurisdiction:4 corp:2 bi:1 ferry:6 may:3 mouth:1 woodland:1 cable:1 seaford:4 connects:1 mott:1 rail:5 bus:3 norfolk:2 locomotive:1 station:7 corridor:4 quiet:1 busy:1 septum:2 regional:1 claymont:2 churchman:1 freight:1 railroad:4 class:3 shortline:1 railway:1 shortlines:1 customer:1 csx:1 parallel:1 outstanding:1 association:3 coverage:1 broad:2 close:1 subsidized:1 passenger:2 subsidize:1 taxi:1 paratransit:1 mode:1 latter:1 consisting:1 wide:1 door:2 elderly:1 disabled:1 commercial:3 airport:8 airline:3 skybus:1 columbus:1 ohio:1 greensboro:1 march:1 bankruptcy:1 april:1 centrally:1 therefore:2 frequently:1 use:5 international:5 phl:1 washington:4 thurgood:1 marshall:1 bwi:1 domestic:2 liberty:1 ewr:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 dca:1 radius:1 airlift:2 wing:2 aviation:1 summit:1 middletown:2 airpark:1 cheswold:2 georgetown:3 fourth:1 current:3 executive:3 judicial:4 legislative:3 consist:1 member:2 sit:1 elect:4 senator:3 nominee:1 edward:1 kaufman:1 democrat:5 r:1 carper:1 michael:1 n:1 republican:7 court:19 supreme:3 superior:1 trial:1 chancery:3 deal:2 primarily:2 handle:2 custody:1 matter:2 common:1 plea:1 limited:1 criminal:1 minor:1 non:1 constitutional:1 justice:1 peace:1 alderman:1 significantly:2 equity:1 case:3 vast:1 merger:1 acquisition:1 develop:2 worldwide:1 reputation:1 render:1 concise:1 opinion:2 concern:1 grant:1 discretion:1 board:3 director:1 officer:1 basis:2 widely:1 regard:1 great:2 flexibility:1 manage:1 affair:2 legal:2 exchange:1 replacement:1 url:1 aboutagency:1 shtml:1 corporal:1 punishment:1 red:1 hannah:1 whip:1 jack:1 markell:1 office:4 lieutenant:2 matthew:1 denn:1 council:1 levy:1 function:1 enforcement:1 centralize:2 concentration:1 power:1 reporting:1 voting:1 administrative:1 role:1 description:1 website:2 politics:2 presidential:4 election:6 result:2 align:13 bgcolor:13 democratic:3 party:4 hold:6 plurality:1 registration:1 tend:1 bellwether:1 send:1 electoral:2 win:3 candidate:2 row:1 buck:1 trend:1 winner:1 popular:4 al:1 gore:1 subsequently:1 lose:1 w:1 bush:1 see:2 information:1 kerry:1 eight:1 barack:1 obama:2 defeat:1 mccain:1 mate:1 joe:1 biden:1 immense:1 influence:2 wealthy:1 ralph:1 nader:1 work:1 investigate:1 politician:1 industrialist:1 book:1 publish:1 entitle:1 dupont:1 gubernatorial:1 currently:1 seven:1 statewide:1 treasurer:1 insurance:1 commissioner:1 attorney:1 seat:1 auditor:1 belie:1 gain:1 heavily:1 whereas:1 populate:1 hub:1 commute:1 distance:1 enjoy:2 phenomenal:1 growth:1 resort:2 expand:1 rapid:1 harrington:1 milford:1 bellefonte:1 bethany:7 bethel:1 blades:1 bower:1 bridgeville:2 camden:1 dagsboro:1 delmar:1 dewey:3 ellendale:1 elsmere:1 cont:1 farmington:1 felton:1 frankford:1 frederica:1 greenwood:1 hartly:1 acre:3 houston:1 kenton:1 laurel:1 leipsic:1 creek:2 magnolia:1 millsboro:1 millville:1 milton:2 newport:1 view:1 odessa:1 selbyville:1 slaughter:1 smyrna:1 viola:1 woodside:2 village:2 arden:1 ardencroft:1 ardentown:2 unincorporated:1 bear:1 brookside:1 clarksville:1 housing:1 edgemoor:1 glasgow:1 greenville:2 gumboro:1 harbeson:1 highland:1 acres:1 lincoln:1 neck:1 marshallton:1 omar:1 pike:1 sun:1 lebanon:1 riverview:1 roxana:1 saint:1 manor:1 yorklyn:1 top:1 rich:1 origin:1 belton:2 v:2 gebhart:1 brown:1 segregated:1 plaintiff:1 thereby:1 segregation:1 unconstitutional:1 unlike:1 superintendent:1 retain:1 taxation:1 curriculum:1 tiered:1 diploma:2 foster:1 ruth:1 ann:1 minner:1 award:1 basic:1 standard:1 distinguish:1 student:2 performance:1 test:1 discontinue:1 delawarean:3 question:1 fairness:1 college:4 art:1 design:1 technical:1 drexel:1 goldey:1 beacom:1 collegeuniversity:1 wesley:1 widener:1 miscellaneous:1 topic:1 medium:1 network:3 broadcast:1 television:2 solely:1 pb:1 whyy:1 tv:4 maintain:4 studio:1 broadcasting:1 ion:1 affiliate:3 wppx:1 intent:1 purpose:1 digital:1 transmitter:1 outside:1 analog:1 tower:1 abc:1 wpvi:1 news:1 downtown:1 salisbury:2 cbs:1 wboc:1 tourism:2 seashore:1 battlefield:1 monument:1 museum:1 wildlife:1 refuge:1 lighthouse:1 historic:1 twin:1 suspension:1 comprise:1 often:1 bill:1 frequent:1 vacation:2 destination:2 c:1 well:1 visitor:1 vacationer:1 charm:1 artistic:1 appeal:1 nightlife:1 shopping:1 fair:1 event:2 riverfest:1 held:1 championship:1 punkin:1 chunkin:1 various:1 location:2 chocolate:1 jazz:2 funeral:1 apple:1 scrapple:1 witch:1 halloween:1 parade:2 film:1 pow:1 wow:1 oak:1 orchard:1 return:1 every:1 playfully:1 mock:1 lack:1 renown:1 movie:1 wayne:3 simpson:1 sometimes:1 hit:1 novelty:1 song:1 perform:1 perry:1 como:1 clever:1 mention:1 visit:1 joke:1 basically:1 nothing:1 interest:1 sport:4 clubsportleaguewilmington:1 rocksbaseballminor:1 league:1 baseballdelaware:1 griffinsfootballwomen:1 professional:3 football:2 leaguedelaware:2 smashtennisworld:1 team:6 tenniscentral:1 sa:1 futuresoccerwomen:1 soccer:1 dynastysoccerusl:1 leaguewilmington:1 ruff:1 rollersroller:1 derbywomen:1 track:3 derby:1 associationdelaware:1 destroyersbasketballeastern:1 basketball:1 alliance:1 either:1 receive:1 fan:3 though:1 raven:1 enter:1 nfl:1 redskins:1 colt:1 loyal:1 popularity:1 scale:1 speedway:1 dis:2 monster:1 host:1 nascar:1 harness:1 horse:1 car:1 racing:1 wrestling:1 outfit:1 czw:1 tournament:2 death:1 ecwa:1 super:1 diamond:2 game:2 amateur:1 olympic:1 style:1 open:2 athlete:1 beyond:1 participation:1 contested:1 lenni:1 influential:1 band:1 resides:1 namesake:1 ship:2 uss:1 honor:1 index:1 related:1 reference:1 external:1 databases:1 annotated:1 searchable:1 database:1 produce:1 compile:1 roundtable:1 homepage:1 data:2 projections:1 kalmar:2 nyckel:2 foundation:1 tall:1 thirteenth:1 amendment:1 involuntary:1 servitude:1 usgs:1 geographic:1 scientific:1 resource:1 newspaper:1 academy:1 medicine:1 healthyde:1 org:1 x:1 дэлавэр:1 |@bigram census_bureau:2 geological_survey:1 alcoholic_anonymous:1 delmarva_peninsula:2 chesapeake_bay:4 rhode_island:2 http_www:2 kent_sussex:3 du_pont:4 de_nemours:2 mason_dixon:2 atlantic_ocean:1 mile_km:2 coastal_plain:2 humid_subtropical:3 subtropical_climate:3 hot_humid:1 closely_relate:1 peter_minuit:1 cash_crop:1 declaration_independence:2 simon_schama:1 labor_intensive:1 intensive_cultivation:1 indentured_servant:2 paul_heinegg:1 north_carolina:2 maryland_delaware:3 hill_wang:2 abolish_slavery:1 narrow_margin:1 freed_slave:1 methodist_episcopal:2 densely_populated:1 religious_affiliation:1 day_adventist:1 episcopal_diocese:1 rehoboth_beach:9 harper_weekly:1 per_capita:2 dairy_product:1 income_tax:1 real_estate:2 toll_road:2 interstate_highway:1 wilmington_delaware:1 northeast_corridor:4 skybus_airline:1 thurgood_marshall:1 ronald_reagan:1 airlift_wing:2 wing_airlift:1 legislative_branch:2 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:3 vast_majority:1 merger_acquisition:1 stock_exchange:1 corporal_punishment:1 lieutenant_governor:2 presidential_election:3 align_center:13 center_bgcolor:13 bgcolor_align:12 w_bush:1 democrat_barack:1 barack_obama:1 joe_biden:1 ralph_nader:1 gubernatorial_election:1 capita_income:1 cbs_affiliate:1 wildlife_refuge:1 suspension_bridge:1 pow_wow:1 perry_como:1 baltimore_raven:1 washington_redskins:1 baltimore_colt:1 external_link:1 databases_annotated:1 searchable_database:1 document_roundtable:1 thirteenth_amendment:1 involuntary_servitude:1 |
7,488 | Franz_Boas | Franz Boas (July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942 Norman F. Boas, 2004, p. 291 (photo of the graveyard marker of Franz and Marie Boas, Dale Cemetery, Ossining, N.Y.) ) was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology". Holloway, M. (1997) The Paradoxical Legacy of Franz Boas - father of American anthropology. Natural History. November 1997. Like many such pioneers, he trained in other disciplines; he received his doctorate in physics, and did post-doctoral work in geography. He is famed for applying the scientific method to the study of human cultures and societies, a field which was previously based on the formulation of grand theories around anecdotal knowledge. Franz Boas Early life and education Franz Boas was born in Minden, Westphalia. Although his grandparents were observant Jews, his parents, like most German Jews, embraced Enlightenment values, including their assimilation into modern German society. Boas was sensitive about his Jewish ancestry, and while he vocally opposed anti-Semitism and refused to convert to Christianity, he did not identify himself as a Jew; indeed, according to his biographer, "He was an 'ethnic' German, preserving and promoting German culture and values in America." Douglas Cole 1999 Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858-1906 p. 280. Washington: Douglas and MacIntyre. In an autobiographical sketch, Boas wrote: The background of my early thinking was a German home in which the ideals of the revolution of 1848 were a living force. My father, liberal, but not active in public affairs; my mother, idealistic, with a lively interest in public matters; the founder about 1854 of the kindergarten in my home town, devoted to science. My parents had broken through the shackles of dogma. My father had retained an emotional affection for the ceremonial of his parental home, without allowing it to influence his intellectual freedom. From his early experience at the Fröbel kindergarten in Minden, to his studies at Gymnasium, Boas was exposed to, and interested in, natural history. Of his work at Gymnasium, he was most excited by and proud of his research on the geographic distribution of plants. Nevertheless, when Boas attended university — first at Heidelberg, then Bonn, where he joined the fraternity Burschenschaft Alemannia zu Bonn, in which he stayed for his whole life, — he focused on mathematics and physics (although he also attended a few courses in geography, including one taught by Theobald Fischer). He intended then to study physics at Berlin, but chose to attend the university at Kiel, in order to be closer to his family. There he studied physics with Gustav Karsten. Boas wished to conduct research concerning Gauss's law of the normal distribution of errors, but Karsten instructed him to research the optical properties of water instead. That research became the basis of his doctoral dissertation. Boas received his doctorate in physics from the university at Kiel in 1881. He was unhappy with his dissertation, but intrigued by the problems of perception that plagued his research. Boas had developed an interest in Kantian thought when he took a course on aesthetics with Kuno Fischer at Heidelberg, and at Bonn took courses with Benno Erdmann, leading Kantian philosophers. This interest led him to "psychophysics," which addressed psychological and epistemological problems in physics. He again considered moving to Berlin to study psychophysics with Hermann von Helmholtz, but psychophysics was of dubious status, and Boas had no training in psychology. Post-graduate studies Coincidentally, Theobald Fischer had moved to Kiel, and Boas took up geography as a way to explore his growing interest in the relationship between subjective experience and the objective world. At the time, German geographers were divided over the causes of cultural variation. Many argued that the physical environment was the principal determining factor, but others (notably Friedrich Ratzel) argued that the diffusion of ideas through human migration is more important. In 1883 Boas went to Baffin Island to conduct geographic research on the impact of the physical environment on native Inuit migrations. The first of many ethnographic field trips, Boas culled his notes to write his first monograph titled The Central Eskimo (1888). Boas lived and worked closely with the Inuit peoples on Baffin Island, and he developed an abiding interest in the way people lived. In the perpetual darkness of the Arctic winter, Boas reported, he and his traveling companion became lost and were forced to keep sledding for twenty-six hours through ice, soft snow, and temperatures that dropped below -46 °C. Eventually, they secured shelter to rest and recuperate from being “half frozen and half starved.” The following day, Boas penciled in his letter diary: I often ask myself what advantages our 'good society possesses over that of the 'savages' and find, the more I see of their customs, that we have no right to look down upon them. . . We have no right to blame them for their forms and superstitions which may seem ridiculous to us. We 'highly educated people' are much worse, relatively speaking. . . Franz Boas to Marie Krackowizer, December 23, 1883. Franz Boas’ Baffin Island Letter-Diary, 1883-1884, edited by Herbert Cole (1983:33). Boas went on to explain in the same entry that “all service, therefore, which a man can perform for humanity must serve to promote truth.” Boas was forced to depend on various Inuit groups for everything from directions and food to shelter and companionship. It was a difficult year filled with tremendous hardships that included frequent bouts with disease, mistrust, pestilence, and danger. Boas successfully searched for areas not yet surveyed and found unique ethnographic objects, but the long winter and the lonely treks across perilous terrain forced him to search his soul to find a direction for his life as a scientist and a citizen. Boas's interest in indigenous communities grew as he worked at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin where he was introduced to members of the Nuxálk Nation of British Columbia, which sparked a lifelong relationship with the First Nations of the Pacific Northwest. He returned to Berlin to finish his studies, and in 1886 (with Helmholtz' support) he successfully defended his habilitation thesis, Baffin Land, and was named privatdozent in geography. While on Baffin Island he began to develop his interest in studying non-Western cultures (in 1888 he published a book, The Central Eskimo). Moreover, in 1885 Boas went to work with physical anthropologist Rudolf Virchow and ethnologist Adolf Bastian at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin. Boas had studied anatomy with Virchow two years earlier, while preparing for the Baffin Island expedition. At the time, Virchow was involved in a vociferous debate with his former student, Ernst Haeckel, over evolution. Haeckel had abandoned his medical practice to study comparative anatomy after reading Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species, and vigorously promoted Darwin's ideas in Germany. However, like most other natural scientists prior to the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics in 1900 and the development of the modern synthesis, Virchow felt that Darwin's theories were weak because they lacked a theory of cellular mutability. Accordingly, Virchow favored Lamarckian models of evolution. This debate resonated with debates among geographers. Lamarckians believed that environmental forces could precipitate rapid and enduring changes in organisms that had no inherited source; thus, Lamarckians and environmental determinists often found themselves on the same side of debates. But Boas worked more closely with Bastian, who was noted for his antipathy to environmental determinism. Instead, he argued for the "psychic unity of mankind;" a belief that all humans had the same intellectual capacity, and that all cultures were based on the same basic mental principles. Variations in custom and belief, he argued, were the products of historical accidents. This view resonated with Boas's experiences on Baffin Island, and drew him towards anthropology. While at the Royal Ethnological Museum Boas became interested in the Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest, and after defending his habilitation thesis, he left for a three month trip to British Columbia via New York. In January, 1887, he was offered a job as assistant editor of the journal Science, in New York. Alienated by growing anti-Semitism and nationalism, as well as the very limited academic opportunities for a geographer, in Germany, Boas decided to stay in the United States. Aside from his editorial work at Science, Boas secured an appointment as dozent in anthropology at Clark University, in 1888. Boas's opportunities at Clark were limited, however, because the university did not have (and still does not have) an anthropology department. Moreover, Boas was concerned about university president G. Stanley Hall's interference in his research. In 1892 Boas joined a number of other Clark faculty in resigning, to protest Hall's infringement on academic freedom. Boas was then appointed chief assistant in anthropology at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Fin de Siècle debates Science versus history Some scholars, like Boas's student Alfred Kroeber, believed that Boas used his research in physics as a model for his work in anthropology. Many others, however — including Boas's student Alexander Lesser, and later researchers such as Marian W. Smith, Herbert S. Lewis, and Matti Bunzl — have pointed out that Boas explicitly rejected physics in favor of history as a model for his anthropological research. This distinction between science and history has its origins in 19th century German academe, which distinguished between Naturwissenschaften (the sciences) and Geisteswissenschaften (the humanities), or between Gesetzwissenschaften (the law-giving sciences) and Geschichtswissenschaften (history). Generally, the first term in either binary refers to the study of phenomena that are governed by objective natural laws; the second term refers to those phenomena that have meaning only in terms of human perception or experience. In 1884 Kantian philosopher Wilhelm Windelband coined the terms nomothetic and idiographic to describe these two divergent approaches. He observed that most scientists employ some mix of both, but in differing proportions; he considered physics a perfect example of a nomothetic science, and history, an idiographic science. Moreover, he argued that each approach has its origin in one of the two "interests" of reason Kant had identified in the Critique of Judgement — one "generalizing," the other "specifying." (Winkelband's student Heinrich Rickert elaborated on this distinction in The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science : A Logical Introduction to the Historical Sciences; Boas's students Alfred Kroeber and Edward Sapir relied extensively on this work in defining their own approach to anthropology.) Although Kant considered these two interests of reason to be objective and universal, the distinction between the natural and human sciences was institutionalized in Germany, through the organization of scholarly research and teaching, following the Enlightenment. In Germany the Enlightenment was dominated by Kant himself, who sought to establish principles based on universal rationality. In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. In 1795 the great linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. Humboldt founded the University of Berlin in 1809, and his work in geography, history, and psychology provided the milieu in which Boas's intellectual orientation matured. Historians working in the Humboldtian tradition developed ideas that would become central in Boasian anthropology. Leopold von Ranke defined the task of the historian as "merely to show as it actually was," which is a cornerstone of Boas's empiricism. Wilhelm Dilthey emphasized the centrality of "understanding" to human knowledge, and that the lived experience of an historian could provide a basis for an empathic understanding of the situation of an historical actor. For Boas, both values were well-expressed in a quote from Goethe: "A single action or event is interesting, not because it is explainable, but because it is true." The influence of these ideas on Boas is apparent in his 1887 essay, "The Study of Geography," in which he distinguished between physical science, which seeks to discover the laws governing phenomena, and historical science, which seeks a thorough understanding of phenomena on their own terms. Boas argued that geography is and must be historical in this sense. In 1887, after his Baffin Island expedition, Boas wrote "The Principles of Ethnological Classification," in which he developed this argument in application to anthropology: Ethnological phenomena are the result of the physical and psychical character of men, and of its development under the influence of the surroundings...'Surroundings' are the physical conditions of the country, and the sociological phenomena, i.e., the relation of man to man. Furthermore, the study of the present surroundings is insufficient: the history of the people, the influence of the regions through which it has passed on its migrations, and the people with whom it came into contact, must be considered. This formulation echoes Ratzel's focus on historical processes of human migration and culture contact, and Bastian's rejection of environmental determinism. It also emphasizes culture as a context ("surroundings"), and the importance of history. These are the hallmarks of Boasian anthropology (which Marvin Harris would later call "historical-particularism"), would guide Boas's research over the next decade, as well as his instructions to future students. (see Lewis 2001b for an alternative view to Harris'.) Although context and history were essential elements to Boas's understanding of anthropology as Geisteswissenschaften and Geschichtswissenschaften, there is one essential element that Boasian anthropology shares with Naturwissenschaften: empiricism. In 1949 Boas's student, Alfred Kroeber summed up the principles of empiricism that define Boasian anthropology as a science: The method of science is to begin with questions, not with answers, least of all with value judgements. Science is dispassionate inquiry and therefore cannot take over outright any ideologies "already formulated in everyday life," since these are themselves inevitably traditional and normally tinged with emotional prejudice. Sweeping all-or-none, black-and-white judgements are characteristic of totalitarian attitudes and have no place in science, whose very nature is inferential and judicial. Orthogenetic versus Darwinian evolution One of the greatest accomplishments of Boas and his students was their critique of theories of physical, social, and cultural evolution current at that time. This critique is central to Boas's work in museums, as well as his work in all four fields of anthropology. For this reason, some people have argued that Boasian anthropology is at odds with Darwin's theory of Evolution. This argument is unfounded, and mistakenly assumes that people using the word "evolution" always mean the same thing. In fact, Boas supported Darwinian theory, although he did not assume that it automatically applied to cultural and historical phenomena. Alexander Lesser, 1981 "Franz Boas" p. 25 in Sydel Silverman, ed. From Totems to Teachers New Yortk: Columbia University Press The notion of evolution that the Boasians ridiculed and rejected was the then dominant belief in orthogenesis – a determinate or teleological process of evolution in which change occurs progressively regardless of natural selection. Boas rejected the prevalent theories of social evolution developed by Edward Burnett Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, and Herbert Spencer not because he rejected the notion of "evolution" per se, but because he rejected orthogenetic notions of evolution in favor of Darwinian evolution. The difference between these prevailing theories of cultural evolution and Darwinian theory cannot be overstated: these theorists argued that all societies progress through the same stages in the same sequence. Thus, although the Inuit with whom Boas worked at Baffin Island, and the Germans with whom he studied as a graduate student, were contemporaries of one another, evolutionists argued that the Inuit were at an earlier stage in their evolution, and Germans at a later stage. This echoed a popular misreading of Darwin that suggested that human beings are descended from chimpanzees. In fact, Darwin argued that chimpanzees and humans are equally evolved. What characterizes Darwinian theory is its attention to the processes by which one species transforms into another; "adaptation" as a key principle in explaining the relationship between a species and its environment; and "natural selection" as a mechanism of change. In contrast, Morgan, Spencer, and Tylor had little to say about the process and mechanics of change. Furthermore, Darwin built up his theory through a careful examination of considerable empirical data. Boasian research revealed that virtually every claim made by cultural evolutionists was contradicted by the data, or reflected a profound misinterpretation of the data. As Boas's student Robert Lowie remarked, "Contrary to some misleading statements on the subject, there have been no responsible opponents of evolution as scientifically proved, though there has been determined hostility to an evolutionary metaphysics that falsifies the established facts." In an unpublished lecture, Boas characterized his debt to Darwin thus: Although the idea does not appear quite definitely expressed in Darwin's discussion of the development of mental powers, it seems quite clear that his main object has been to express his conviction that the mental faculties developed essentially without a purposive end, but they originated as variations, and were continued by natural selection. This idea was also brought out very clearly by Wallace, who emphasized that apparently reasonable activities of man might very well have developed without an actual application of reasoning Thus, Boas suggested that what appear to be patterns or structures in a culture were not a product of conscious design, but rather the outcome of diverse mechanisms that produce cultural variation (such as diffusion and independent invention), shaped by the social environment in which people live and act. Boas concluded his lecture by acknowledging the importance of Darwin's work: I hope I may have succeeded in presenting to you, however imperfectly, the currents of thought due to the work of the immortal Darwin which have helped to make anthropology what it is at the present time. (Boas, 1909 lecture; see Lewis 2001b.) Early career: museum studies In the late 1800s anthropology in the United States was dominated by the Bureau of American Ethnology, directed by John Wesley Powell, a geologist who favored Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. The BAE was housed at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, and the Smithsonian's curator for ethnology, Otis T. Mason, shared Powell's commitment to cultural evolution. (The Peabody Museum at Harvard University was an important, though lesser, center of anthropological research). "Franz Boas posing for figure in US Natural History Museum exhibit entitled "Hamats'a coming out of secret room" 1895 or before. Courtesy of National Antropology Archives. (Kwakiutl culture) It was while working on museum collections and exhibitions that Boas formulated his basic approach to culture, which led him to break with museums and seek to establish anthropology as an academic discipline. During this period Boas made five more trips to the Pacific Northwest. His continuing field research led him to think of culture as a local context for human action. His emphasis on local context and history led him to oppose the dominant model at the time, Cultural evolution. Boas initially broke with evolutionary theory over the issue of kinship. Lewis Henry Morgan had argued that all human societies move from an initial form of matrilineal organization to patrilineal organization. First Nations groups on the northern coast of British Columbia, like the Tsimshian and Tlingit, were organized into matrilineal clans. First Nations on the southern coast, like the Nootka and the Salish, however, were organized into patrilineal groups. Boas focused on the Kwakiutl, who lived between the two clusters. The Kwakiutl seemed to have a mix of features. Prior to marriage, a man would assume his wife's father's name and crest. His children took on these names and crests as well, although his sons would lose them when they got married. Names and crests thus stayed in the mother's line. At first, Boas — like Morgan before him — suggested that the Kwakiutl had been matrilineal like their neighbors to the north, but that they were beginning to evolve patrilineal groups. In 1897, however, he repudiated himself, and argued that the Kwakiutl were changing from a prior patrilineal organization to a matrilineal one, as they learned about matrilineal principles from their northern neighbors. Boas's rejection of Morgan's theories led him, in an 1887 article, to challenge Mason's principles of museum display. At stake, however, were more basic issues of causality and classification. The evolutionary approach to material culture led museum curators to organize objects on display according to function or level of technological development. Curators assumed that changes in the forms of artefacts reflect some natural process of progressive evolution. Boas, however, felt that the form an artefact took reflected the circumstances under which it was produced and used. Arguing that "[t]hough like causes have like effects, like effects have not like causes," Boas realized that even artefacts that were similar in form might have developed in very different contexts, for different reasons. Mason's museum displays, organized along evolutionary lines, mistakenly juxtapose like effects; those organized along contextual lines would reveal like causes. Boas had a chance to apply his approach to exhibits when he was hired to assist Frederic Ward Putnam, director and curator of the Peabody Museum at Harvard University, who had been appointed as head of the Department of Ethnology and Archeology for the Chicago Fair in 1892. Boas arranged for fourteen Kwakiutl aboriginals from British Columbia to come and reside in a mock Kwakiutl village, where they could perform their daily tasks in context. After the Exposition Boas worked at the newly-created Field Museum in Chicago until 1894, when he was replaced (against his will) by BAE archeologist William Henry Holmes. In 1896 Boas was appointed Assistant Curator of Ethnology and Somatology of the American Museum of Natural History. In 1897 he organized the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, a five-year long field-study of the natives of the Pacific Northwest, whose ancestors had migrated across the Bering Strait from Siberia. He attempted to organize exhibits along contextual, rather than evolutionary, lines. He also developed a research program in line with his curatorial goals: describing his instructions to his students in terms of widening contexts of interpretation within a society, he explained that "...they get the specimens; they get explanations of the specimens; they get connected texts that partly refer to the specimens and partly to abstract things concerning the people; and they get grammatical information." These widening contexts of interpretation were abstracted into one context, the context in which the specimens, or assemblages of specimens, would be displayed: "...we want a collection arranged according to tribes, in order to teach the particular style of each group." His approach, however, brought him into conflict with the President of the Museum, Morris Jesup, and its Director, Hermon Bumpus. He resigned in 1905, never to work for a museum again. Later career: academic anthropology Boas was appointed lecturer in physical anthropology at Columbia University in 1896, and promoted to professor of anthropology in 1899. However, the various anthropologists teaching at Columbia had been assigned to different departments. When Boas left the Museum of Natural History, he negotiated with Columbia University to consolidate the various professors into one department, of which Boas would take charge. Boas's program at Columbia became the first Ph.D. program in anthropology in America. During this time Boas played a key role in organizing the American Anthropological Association as an umbrella organization for the emerging field. Boas originally wanted the AAA to be limited to professional anthropologists, but W.J. McGee (another geologist who had joined the BAE under Powell's leadership) argued that the organization should have an open membership. McGee's position prevailed and he was elected the organization's first president in 1902; Boas was elected a vice-president, along with Putnam, Powell, and Holmes. At both Columbia and the AAA, Boas encouraged the "four field" concept of anthropology; he personally contributed to physical anthropology, linguistics, archaeology, as well as cultural anthropology. His work in these fields was pioneering: in physical anthropology he led scholars away from static taxonomical classifications of race, to an emphasis on human biology and evolution; in linguistics he broke through the limitations of classic philology and established some of the central problems in modern linguistics and cognitive anthropology; in cultural anthropology he (along with Polish-English anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski) established the contextualist approach to culture, cultural relativism, and the participant-observation method of fieldwork. The four-field approach understood not merely as bringing together different kinds of anthropologists into one department, but as reconceiving anthropology through the integration of different objects of anthropological research into one over-arching object, was one of Boas's fundamental contributions to the discipline, and came to characterize American anthropology against that of England, France, or Germany. This approach defines as its object the human species as a totality. This focus did not lead Boas to seek to reduce all forms of humanity and human activity to some lowest common denominator; rather, he understood the essence of the human species to be the tremendous variation in human form and activity (an approach that parallels Charles Darwin's approach to species in general). In his 1907 essay, "Anthropology," Boas identified two basic questions for anthropologists: "Why are the tribes and nations of the world different, and how have the present differences developed?" Amplifying these questions, he explained the object of anthropological study thus: We do not discuss the anatomical, physiological, and mental characteristics of man considered as an individual; but we are interested in the diversity of these traits in groups of men found in different geographical areas and in different social classes. It is our task to inquire into the causes that have brought about the observed differentiation, and to investigate the sequence of events that have led to the establishment of the multifarious forms of human life. In other words, we are interested in the anatomical and mental characteristics of men living under the same biological, geographical, and social environment, and as determined by their past. These questions signal a marked break from then-current ideas about human diversity, which assumed that some people have a history, evident in a historical (or written) record, while other people, lacking writing, also lack history. For some, this distinction between two different kinds of societies explained the difference between history, sociology, economics and other disciplines that focus on people with writing, and anthropology, which was supposed to focus on people without writing. Boas rejected this distinction between kinds of societies, and this division of labor in the academy. He understood all societies to have a history, and all societies to be proper objects of anthropological society. In order to approach literate and non-literate societies the same way, he emphasized the importance on studying human history through the analysis of other things besides written texts. Thus, in his 1904 article, "The History of Anthropology", Boas wrote that The historical development of the work of anthropologists seems to single out clearly a domain of knowledge that heretofore has not been treated by any other science. It is the biological history of mankind in all its varieties; linguistics applied to people without written languages; the ethnology of people without historic records; and prehistoric archeology. Historians and social theorists in the 18th and 19th centuries had speculated as to the causes of this differentiation, but Boas dismissed these theories, especially the dominant theories of social evolution and cultural evolution as speculative. He endeavored to establish a discipline that would base its claims on rigorous empirical study. One of his most important books, The Mind of Primitive Man (published in 1911), he integrated these various concerns and established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next fifteen years. In this study he established that in any given population, biology, language, material and symbolic culture, are autonomous; that each is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that no one of these dimensions is reducible to another. In other words, he established that culture does not depend on any independent variables. He emphasized that the biological, linguistic, and cultural traits of any group of people are the product of historical developments involving both cultural and non-cultural forces. He established that cultural plurality is a fundamental feature of humankind, and that the specific cultural environment structures much individual behavior. Boas also presented himself as a role-model for the citizen-scientist, who understand that even were the truth pursued as its own end, all knowledge has moral consequences. The Mind of Primitive Man ends with an appeal to humanism: I hope the discussions outlined in these pages have shown that the data of anthropology teach us a greater tolerance of forms of civilization different from our own, that we should learn to look on foreign races with greater sympathy and with a conviction that, as all races have contributed in the past to cultural progress in one way or another, so they will be capable of advancing the interests of mankind if we are only willing to give them a fair opportunity. Physical anthropology Boas's work in physical anthropology brought together his interest in Darwinian evolution with his interest in migration as a cause of change. His most important research in this field was his study of changes in body form among children of immigrants in New York. Other researchers had already noted differences in height, cranial measurements, and other physical features between Americans and people from different parts of Europe. Many used these differences to argue that there is an innate biological difference between races. Boas's primary interest — in symbolic and material culture and in language — was the study of processes of change; he therefore set out to determine whether bodily forms are also subject to processes of change. Boas studied 17,821 people, divided into seven ethno-national groups. Boas found that average measures of cranial size of immigrants were significantly different from members of these groups who were born in the United States. Moreover, he discovered that average measures of cranial size of children born within ten years of their mothers' arrival were significantly different from those of children born more than ten years after their mothers' arrival. Boas did not deny that physical features such as height or cranial size were inherited; he did, however, argue that the environment has an influence on these features, which is expressed through change over time. This work was central to his influential argument that differences between races were not immutable. These findings were radical at the time and continue to be debated. In 2002 the anthropologists Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz claimed that differences between children born to the same parents in Europe and America were very small and insignificant, and that there was no detectable effect of exposure to the American environment on the cranial index in children. They argued that their results contradicted Boas's original findings and demonstrated that they may no longer be used to support arguments of plasticity in cranial morphology. A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited by Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz. However Jonathan Marks — a well-known physical anthropologist and former president of the General Anthropology section of the American Anthropological Association – has remarked that this revisionist study of Boas's work "has the ring of desperation to it (if not obfuscation), and has been quickly rebutted by more mainstream biological anthropology." Marks, Jonathan What it Means to be 98% Chimpanzee: Apes, People, and Their Genes, University of California Press, 2003 ISBN 0520240642 p. xviii In 2003 anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that most of Boas's original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity. New Answers to Old Questions: Did Boas Get It Right? Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form: A Reanalysis of Boas’s Immigrant Data. In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks and Jantz' analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims, and that Sparks' and Jantz's data actually support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor. Did Boas Get It Right or Wrong? Although some sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists have suggested that Boas was opposed to Darwinian evolution, Boas in fact was a committed proponent of Darwinian evolutionary thought. In 1888 he declared that "the development of ethnology is largely due to the general recognition of the principle of biological evolution;" since Boas's times, physical anthropologists have established that the human capacity for culture is a product of human evolution. In fact, Boas's research on changes in body form played an important role in the rise of Darwinian theory. It is crucial to remember that Boas was trained at a time when biologists had no understanding of genetics; Mendelian genetics became widely known only after 1900. Prior to that time biologists relied on the measurement of physical traits as empirical data for any theory of evolution. Boas's biometric studies, however, led him to question the use of this method and kind of data. In a speech to anthropologists in Berlin in 1912, Boas argued that at best such statistics could only raise biological questions, and not answer them. It was in this context that anthropologists began turning to genetics as a basis for any understanding of biological variation. Linguistics Although Boas published descriptive studies of Native American languages, and wrote on theoretical difficulties in classifying languages, he left it to colleagues and students such as Edward Sapir to research the relationship between culture and language. His 1889 article "On Alternating Sounds," however, made a singular contribution to the methodology of both linguistics and cultural anthropology. It is a response to a paper presented in 1888 by Daniel Garrison Brinton, at the time a professor of American linguistics and archeology at the University of Pennsylvania. Brinton observed that in the spoken languages of many Native Americans, certain sounds regularly alternated. This is clearly not a function of individual accents; Brinton was not suggesting that some individuals pronounced certain words differently from others. He was arguing that there were many words that, even when repeated by the same speaker, varied considerably in their vocalization. Using evolutionary theory, Brinton argued that this pervasive inconsistency was a sign of linguistic inferiority, and evidence that Native Americans were at a low stage in their evolution. Boas was familiar with what Brinton was talking about; he had experienced something similar during his research in Baffin Island and in the Pacific Northwest. Nevertheless, he argued that "alternating sounds" is not at all a feature of Native American languages — indeed, he argued, they do not really exist. Rather than take alternating sounds as objective proof of different stages in cultural evolution, Boas considered them in terms of his longstanding interest in the subjective perception of objective physical phenomena. He also considered his earlier critique of evolutionary museum displays. There, he pointed out that two things (artefacts of material culture) that appear to be similar may in fact be quite different. In this article he raises the possibility that two things (sounds) that appear to be different may in fact be the same. In short, he shifted attention to the perception of different sounds. Boas begins by raising an empirical question: when people describe one sound in different ways, is it because they cannot perceive the difference, or might there be another reason? He immediately establishes that he is not concerned with cases involving perceptual deficit — the aural equivalent of color-blindness. He points out that the question of people who describe one sound in different ways is comparable to that of people who describe different sounds in one way. This is crucial for research in descriptive linguistics: when studying a new language, how are we to note the pronunciation of different words? (in this point, Boas anticipates and lays the groundwork for the distinction between phonemics and phonetics.) People may pronounce a word in a variety of ways and still recognize that they are using the same word. The issue, then, is not "that such sensations are not recognized in their individuality" (in other words, people recognize differences in pronunciations); rather, it is that sounds "are classified according to their similarity" (in other words, that people classify a variety of perceived sounds into one category). A comparable visual example would involve words for colors. The English word "green" can be used to refer to a variety of shades, hues, and tints. But there are some languages that have no word for "green." In such cases, people might classify what we would call "green" as either "yellow" or "blue." This is not an example of color-blindness — people can perceive differences in color, but they categorize similar colors in a different way than English speakers. Boas applies these principles to studies of British Columbian Inuit languages. Researchers have reported a variety of spellings for a given word. In the past, researchers have interpreted this data in a number of ways — it could indicate local variations in the pronunciation of a word, or it could indicate different dialects. Boas argues an alternative explanation: that the difference is not in how Inuit pronounce the word, but rather in how English-speaking scholars perceive the pronunciation of the word. It is not that English speakers are physically incapable of perceiving the sound in question; rather, the phonetic system of English cannot accommodate the perceived sound. Although Boas was making a very specific contribution to the methods of descriptive linguistics, his ultimate point is far reaching: observer bias need not be personal, it can be cultural. In other words, the perceptual categories of Western researchers may systematically cause a Westerner to misperceive or to fail to perceive entirely a meaningful element in another culture. As in his critique of Otis Mason's museum displays, Boas demonstrated that what appeared to be evidence of cultural evolution was really the consequence of unscientific methods, and a reflection of Westerners' beliefs about their own cultural superiority. This point provides the methodological foundation for Boas's cultural relativism: elements of a culture are meaningful in that culture's terms, even if they may be meaningless (or take on a radically different meaning) in another culture. Cultural anthropology Drawing of a Kwakiutl mask from Boas's The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians (1897). Wooden skulls hang from below the mask, which represents one of the cannibal bird helpers of Bakbakwalinooksiwey. The essence of Boas's approach to ethnography is found in his early essay on "The Study of Geography." There he argued for an approach that ... considers every phenomena as worthy of being studied for its own sake. Its mere existence entitles it to a full share of our attention; and the knowledge of its existence and evolution in space and time fully satisfies the student. When Boas's student Ruth Benedict gave her presidential address to the American Anthropological Association in 1947, she reminded anthropologists of the importance of this idiographic stance by quoting literary critic A.C. Bradley: "We watch what is, seeing that so it happened and must have happened." This orientation led Boas to promote a cultural anthropology characterized by a strong commitment to empiricism (with a resulting skepticism of attempts to formulate "scientific laws" of culture) a notion of culture as fluid and dynamic ethnographic fieldwork, in which the anthropologist resides for an extended period among the people being researched, conducts research in the native language, and collaborates with native researchers, as a method of collecting data, and cultural relativism as a methodological tool while conducting fieldwork, and as heuristic tool while analyzing data. Boas argued that in order to understand "what is" — in cultural anthropology, the specific cultural traits (behaviors, beliefs, and symbols) – one had to examine them in their local context. He also understood that as people migrate from one place to another, and as the cultural context changes over time, the elements of a culture, and their meanings, will change, which led him to emphasize the importance of local histories for an analysis of cultures. Although other anthropologists at the time, such as Bronisław Malinowski and Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown focused on the study of societies, which they understood to be clearly bounded, Boas's attention to history, which reveals the extent to which traits diffuse from one place to another, led him to view cultural boundaries as multiple and overlapping, and as highly permeable. Thus, Boas's student Robert Lowie once described culture as a thing of "shreds and patches." Boas and his students understood that as people try to make sense of their world they seek to integrate its disparate elements, with the result that different cultures could be characterized as having different configurations or patterns. But Boasians also understood that such integration was always in tensions with diffusion, and any appearance of a stable configuration is contingent (see Bashkow 2004: 445). During Boas's lifetime, as today, many Westerners saw a fundamental difference between modern societies, which are characterized by dynamism and individualism, and traditional societies which are stable and homogeneous. Boas's empirical field research, however, led him to argue against this comparison. For example, his 1903 essay, "Decorative Designs of Alaskan Needlecases: A History of Conventional Designs, Based on Materials in a U.S. Museum," provides another example of how Boas made broad theoretical claims based on a detailed analysis of empirical data. After establishing formal similarities among the needlecases, Boas shows how certain formal features provide a vocabulary out of which individual artisans could create variations in design. Thus, his emphasis on culture as a context for meaningful action made him sensitive to individual variation within a society (William Henry Holmes suggested a similar point in an 1886 paper, "Origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art," although unlike Boas he did not develop the ethnographic and theoretical implications). In a programmatic essay in 1920, "The Methods of Ethnology," Boas argued that instead of "the systematic enumeration of standardized beliefs and customs of a tribe," anthropology needs to document "the way in which the individual reacts to his whole social environment, and to the difference of opinion and of mode of action that occur in primitive society and which are the causes of far-reaching changes." Boas argued that attention to individual agency reveals that "the activities of the individual are determined to a great extent by his social environment, but in turn his own activities influence the society in which he lives, and may bring about modifications in form." Consequently, Boas thought of culture as fundamentally dynamic: "As soon as these methods are applied, primitive society loses the appearance of absolute stability.... All cultural forms rather appear in a constant state of flux...." (see Lewis 2001b) Having argued against the relevance of the distinction between literate and non-literate societies as a way of defining anthropology's object of study, Boas argued that non-literate and literate societies should be analyzed in the same way. Nineteenth century historians had been applying the techniques of philology to reconstruct the histories of, and relationships between, literate societies. In order to apply these methods to non-literate societies, Boas argued that the task of fieldworkers is to produce and collect texts in non-literate societies. This took the form not only of compiling lexicons and grammars of the local language, but of recording myths, folktales, beliefs about social relationships and institutions, and even recipes for local cuisine. In order to do this, Boas relied heavily on the collaboration of literate native ethnographers (among the Kwakiutl, most often George Hunt), and he urged his students to consider such people valuable partners, inferior in their standing in Western society, but superior in their understanding of their own culture. (see Bunzl 2004: 438-439) Using these methods, Boas published another article in 1920, in which he revisited his earlier research on Kwakiutl kinship. in the late 1890s Boas had tried to reconstruct transformation in the organization of Kwakiutl clans, by comparing them to the organization of clans in other societies neighboring the Kwakiutl to the north and south. Now, however, he argued against translating the Kwakiutl principle of kin groups into any English word. Instead of trying to fit the Kwakiutl into some larger model, he tried to understand their beliefs and practices in their own terms. For example, whereas he had earlier translated the Kwakiutl word numaym as "clan," he now argued that the word is best understood as referring to a bundle of privileges, for which there is no English word. Men secured claims to these privileges through their parents or wives, and there were a variety of ways these privileges could be acquired, used, and transmitted from one generation to the next. As in his work on alternating sounds, Boas had come to realize that different ethnological interpretations of Kwakiutl kinship were the result of the limitations of Western categories. As in his work on Alaskan needlecases, he now saw variation among Kwakiutl practices as the result of the play between social norms and individual creativity. Scientist as activist There are two things to which I am devoted: absolute academic and spiritual freedom, and the subordination of the state to the interests of the individual; expressed in other forms, the furthering of conditions in which the individual can develop to the best of his ability — as far as it is possible with a full understanding of the fetters imposed upon us by tradition; and the fight against all forms of power policy of states or private organizations. This means a devotion to principles of true democracy. I object to teaching of slogans intended to befog the mind, of whatever kind they may be. (letter from Boas to John Dewey, 11/6/39) Many social scientists in other disciplines often agonize over the legitimacy of their work as "science," and consequently emphasize the importance of detachment, objectivity, abstraction, and quantifiability in their work. Perhaps because Boas, like other early anthropologists, was originally trained in the natural sciences, he and his students never expressed such anxiety. Moreover, he did not believe that detachment, objectivity, and quantifiability were required to make anthropology scientific. Since the object of study of anthropologists is different from the object of study of physicists, he assumed that anthropologists would have to employ different methods and different criteria for evaluating their research. Thus, Boas used statistical studies to demonstrate the extent to which variation in data is context-dependent, and argued that the context-dependent nature of human variation rendered many abstractions and generalizations that had been passing as scientific understandings of humankind (especially theories of social evolution popular at the time) in fact unscientific. His understanding of ethnographic fieldwork began with the fact that the objects of ethnographic study (for example, the Inuit of Baffin Island) were not just objects, but subjects, and his research called attention to their creativity and agency. More importantly, he viewed the Inuit as his teachers, thus reversing the typical hierarchical relationship between scientist and object of study. This emphasis on the relationship between anthropologists and those they study -- the point that, while astronomers and stars; chemists and elements; botanists and plants are fundamentally different, anthropologists and those they study are equally human -- implied that anthropologists themselves could be objects of anthropological study. Although Boas did not pursue this reversal systematically, his article on alternating sounds illustrates his awareness that scientists should not be confident about their objectivity, because they too see the world through the prism of their culture. This emphasis also led Boas to conclude that anthropologists have an obligation to speak out on social issues. Boas was especially concerned with racial inequality, which he had demonstrated was not biological in origin, but rather social. An early example of this concern is evident in his 1906 commencement address to Atlanta University, at the invitation of W. E. B. Du Bois. Boas began by remarking that "If you did accept the view that the present weakness of the American Negro, his uncontrollable emotions, his lack of energy, are racially inherent, your work would still be noble one." He then went on, however, to argue against this view. To the claim that European and Asian civilizations are, at the time, more advanced than African societies, Boas objected that against the total history of humankind, the past two thousand years is but a brief span. Moreover, although the technological advances of our early ancestors (such as taming fire and inventing stone tools) might seem insignificant when compared to the invention of the steam engine or control over electricity, we should consider that they might actually be even greater accomplishments. Boas then went on to catalogue advances in Africa, such as smelting iron, cultivating millet, and domesticating chickens and cattle, occurred in Africa well before they spread to Europe and Asia (evidence now suggests that chickens were first domesticated in Asia; the original domestication of cattle is under debate). He then described the activities of African kings, diplomats, merchants, and artists as evidence of cultural achievement. From this, he concluded, any social inferiority of Negroes in the United States cannot be explained by their African origins: If, therefore, it is claimed that your race is doomed to economic inferiority, you may confidently look to the home of your ancestors and say, that you have set out to recover for the colored people the strength that was their own before they set foot on the shores of this continent. You may say that you go to work with bright hopes, and that you will not be discouraged by the slowness of your progress; for you have to recover not only what has been lost in transplanting the Negro race from its native soil to this continent, but you must reach higher levels than your ancestors ever had attained. Boas proceeds to discuss the arguments for the inferiority of the Negro race, and calls attention to the fact that they were brought to the Americas through force. For Boas, this is just one example of the many times conquest or colonialism has brought different peoples into an unequal relation, and he mentions "the conquest of England by the Normans, the Teutonic invasion of Italy, [and] the Manchoo conquest of China" as resulting in similar conditions. But the best example, for Boas, of this phenomenon is that of the Jews in Europe: Even now there lingers in the consciousness of the old, sharper divisions which the ages had not been able to efface, and which is strong enough to find -- not only here and there -- expression as antipathy to the Jewish type. In France, that let down the barriers more than a hundred years ago, the feeling of antipathy is still strong enough to sustain an anti-Jewish political party. Boas's closing advice is that Negroes should not look to Whites for approval or encouragement, because people in power usually take a very long time to learn to sympathize with people out of power. "Remember that in every single case in history the process of adaptation has been one of exceeding slowness. Do not look for the impossible, but do not let your path deviate from the quiet and steadfast insistence on full opportunities for your powers." Despite Boas's caveat about the intractability of White prejudice, he also considered it the scientist's responsibility to argue against White myths of racial purity and racial superiority, and to use the evidence of his research to fight racism. Boas was also critical of one nation imposing its power over others. In 1916 Boas wrote a letter to The New York Times which was published under the headline, "Why German-Americans Blame America." Although Boas did begin the letter by protesting bitter attacks against German-Americans at the time of the war in Europe, most of his letter was a critique of American nationalism. "In my youth I had been taught in school and at home not only to love the good of my own country, but also to seek to understand and to respect the individualities of other nations. For this reason one-sided nationalism, that is so often found nowadays, is to me unendurable." He writes of his love for American ideals of freedom, and of his growing discomfort with American beliefs about its own superiority over others. I have always been of the opinion that we have no right to impose our ideals upon other nations, no matter how strange it may seem to us that they enjoy the kind of life they lead, how slow they may be in utilizing the resources of their countries, or how much opposed their ideals may be to ours .... Our intolerant attitude is most pronounced in regard to what we like to call "our free institutions." Modern democracy was no doubt the most wholesome and needed reaction against the abuses of absolutism and of a selfish, often corrupt, bureaucracy. That the wishes and thoughts of the people should find expression, and that the form of government should conform to these wishis is an axiom that has pervaded the whole Western world, and that is even taking root in the Far East. It is a quite different question, however, in how far the particular machinery of democratic government is identical with democratic institutions .... To claim as we often do, that our solution is the only democratic and the ideal one is a one-sided expression of Americanism. I see no reason why we should not allow the Germans, Austrians, and Russians, or whoever else it may be, to solve their problems in their own ways, instead of demanding that they bestow upon themselves the benefactions of our régime. Although Boas felt that scientists have a responsibility to speak out on social and political problems, he was appalled that they might involve themselves in disingenuous and deceitful ways. Thus, in 1919, when he discovered that four anthropologists, in the course of their research in other countries, were serving as spies for the American government, he wrote an angry letter to The Nation. It is perhaps in this letter that he most clearly expresses his understanding of his commitment to science: A soldier whose business is murder as a fine art, a diplomat whose calling is based on deception and secretiveness, a politician whose very life consists in compromises with his conscience, a business man whose aim is personal profit within the limits allowed by a lenient law -- such may be excused if they set patriotic deception above common everyday decency and perform services as spies. They merely accept the code of morality to which modern society still conforms. Not so the scientist. The very essence of his life is the service of truth. We all know scientists who in private life do not come up to the standard of truthfulness, but who, nevertheless, would not consciously falsify the results of their researches. It is bad enough if we have to put up with these, because they reveal a lack of strength of character that is liable to distort the results of their work. A person, however, who uses science as a cover for political spying, who demeans himself to pose before a foreign government as an investigator and asks for assistance in his alleged researches in order to carry on, under this cloak, his political machinations, prostitutes science in an unpardonable way and forfeits the right to be classed as a scientist. Although Boas did not name the spies in question, he was referring to a ring led by Sylvanus G. Morley, who was affiliated with Harvard University's Peabody Museum. While conducting research in Mexico, Morley and his confederates looked for evidence of German submarine bases, and collected intelligence on Mexican political figures and German immigrants in Mexico. Boas's stance against spying took place in the context of his struggle to establish a new model for academic anthropology at Columbia University. Previously, American anthropology was based at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the Peabody Museum at Harvard, and these anthropologists competed with Boas's students for control over the American Anthropological Association (and its flagship publication American Anthropologist). When the National Academy of Sciences established the National Research Council in 1916 as a means by which scientists could assist the United States government prepare for entry into the war in Europe, competition between the two groups intensified. Boas's rival, W.H. Holmes (who had gotten the job of Director at the Field Museum for which Boas had been passed over 26 years earlier), was appointed to head the NRC; Morley was a protegé of Holmes. When Boas's letter was published, Holmes wrote to a friend complaining about "the Prussian control of anthropology in this country" and the need to end Boas's "Hun regime." Adam Kuper, 1988 The Invention of Primitive Society p. 149. London: Routledge Opinion was influenced by anti-German and probably also by anti-Jewish sentiment. The Anthropological Society of Washington passed a resolution condemning Boas's letter for unjustly criticizing President Wilson; attacking the principles of American democracy; and endangering anthropologists abroad, who would now be suspected of being spies (a charge that was especially insulting, given that his concerns about this very issue were what had prompted Boas to write his letter in the first place). This resolution was passed on to the American Anthropological Association and the National Research Council. Members of the American Anthropological Association (among whom Boas was a founding member in 1902), meeting at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard (with which Morley, Lothrop, and Spinden were affiliated), voted by 20 to 10 to censure Boas. As a result, Boas resigned as the AAA's representative to the NRC, although Boas remained an active member of the AAA. The AAA's censure of Boas was not rescinded until 2005. Boas continued to speak out against racism and for intellectual freedom. When the Nazi Party in Germany denounced "Jewish Science" (which included not only Boasian Anthropology but Freudian psychoanalysis and Einsteinian physics), Boas responded with a public statement signed by over 8,000 other scientists, declaring that there is only one science, to which race and religion are irrelevant. (In his 1998 book The Culture Of Critique, Kevin B. MacDonald resurrected the notion of a "Jewish Science" to critique Boas's work; this book has been criticized for shoddy scholarship and anti-Semitism). Students and influence Between 1901 and 1911, Columbia University produced only 7 PhD.s in anthropology. Although by today's standards this is a very small number, at the time it was sufficient to establish Boas's Anthropology Department at Columbia as the preeminent anthropology program in the country. Moreover, many of Boas's students went on to establish anthropology programs at other major universities. Boas's first doctoral student was Alfred L. Kroeber (1901), who, along with fellow Boas student Robert Lowie (1908), started the anthropology program at the University of California, Berkeley. He also trained William Jones (1904), one of the first Native American Indian anthropologists (the Fox nation) who was killed while conducting research in the Philippines in 1909, and Albert B. Lewis (1907). Boas also trained a number of other students who were influential in the development of academic anthropology: Frank Speck (1908) who trained with Boas but received his PhD. from the University of Pennsylvania and immediately proceeded to found the anthropology department there; Edward Sapir (1909) and Fay-Cooper Cole (1914) who developed the anthropology program at the University of Chicago; Alexander Goldenweiser (1910), who, with Elsie Clews Parsons (who received her doctorate in sociology from Columbia in 1899, but then studied ethnology with Boas), started the anthropology program at the New School for Social Research; Leslie Spier (1920) who started the anthropology program at the University of Washington together with his wife Erna Gunther, also one of Boas´ students, and Melville Herskovits (1923) who started the anthropology program at Northwestern University. He also trained John R. Swanton (who studied with Boas at Columbia for two years before receiving his doctorate from Harvard in 1900), Paul Radin (1911), Ruth Benedict (1923), Gladys Reichard (1925) who had begun teaching at Barnard College in 1921 and was later promoted to the rank of professor, Ruth Bunzel (1929), Alexander Lesser (1929), Margaret Mead (1929), and Gene Weltfish (who defended her dissertation in 1929, although she did not officially graduate until 1950 when Columbia reduced the expenses required to graduate), E. Adamson Hoebel (1934), Jules Henry (1935), Ashley Montagu (1938). His students at Columbia also included Mexican anthropologist Manuel Gamio, who earned his M.A. after studying with Boas from 1909-1911, and became the founding director of Mexico's Bureau of Anthropology in 1917; Clark Wissler, who received his doctorate in psychology from Columbia University in 1901, but proceeded to study anthropology with Boas before turning to research Native Americans; Esther Goldfrank, who travelled with Boas to New Mexico in 1919 to conduct research among the Pueblo Indians; Gilberto Freyre, who shaped the concept of "racial democracy" in Brazil; Viola Garfield, who carried forth Boas's Tsimshian work; Frederica de Laguna, who worked on the Inuit and the Tlingit; and anthropologist, folklorist and novelist Zora Neale Hurston, who graduated from Barnard College, the women's college associated with Columbia, in 1928. He was also an influence on Claude Lévi-Strauss, whom he met during the latter's stay in New York in the 1940s (and in whose arms Boas expired in 1942). Several of Boas's students went on to serve as editors of the American Anthropological Association's flagship journal, American Anthropologist: John R. Swanton (1911, 1921-1923), Robert Lowie (1924-1933), Leslie Spier (1934-1938), and Melville Herskovits (1950-1952). Edward Sapir's student John Alden Mason was editor from 1945-1949, and Alfred Kroeber and Robert Lowie's student, Walter Goldschmidt, was editor from 1956-1959. Most of Boas's students shared his concern for careful, historical reconstruction, and his antipathy towards speculative, evolutionary models. Moreover, Boas encouraged his students, by example, to criticize themselves as much as others. For example, Boas originally defended the cephalic index (systematic variations in head form) as a method for describing hereditary traits, but came to reject his earlier research after further study; he similarly came to criticize his own early work in Kwakiutl (Pacific Northwest) language and mythology. Encouraged by this drive to self-criticism, as well as the Boasian commitment to learn from one's informants and to let the findings of one's research shape one's agenda, Boas's students quickly diverged from his own research agenda. Several of his students soon attempted to develop theories of the grand sort that Boas typically rejected. Kroeber called his colleagues' attention to Sigmund Freud and the potential of a union between cultural anthropology and psychoanalysis. Ruth Benedict developed theories of "culture and personality" and "national cultures", and Kroeber's student, Julian Steward developed theories of "cultural ecology" and "multilineal evolution." Nevertheless, Boas has had an enduring influence on anthropology. Virtually all anthropologists today accept Boas's commitment to empiricism and his methodological cultural relativism. Moreover, virtually all cultural anthropologists today share Boas's commitment to field research involving extended residence, learning the local language, and developing social relationships with informants. Finally, anthropologists continue to honor his critique of racial ideologies. In his 1963 book, Race: The History of an Idea in America, Thomas Gossett wrote that "It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history." Sources/further reading Writings by Boas Boas n.d. "The relation of Darwin to anthropology," notes for a lecture; Boas papers (B/B61.5) American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Published on line with Herbert Lewis 2001b. Boas, Franz (1911). The Mind of Primitive Man. ISBN 0-313-24004-3 (Online version of the 1938 revised edition at the Internet Archive) Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). Boas, Franz (1912). Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants. American Anthropologist, Vol. 14, No. 3, July-Sept, 1912. Boas, Franz (1912). The History of the American Race. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. XXI, pp. 177-183. Boas, Franz (1914). "Mythology and folk-tales of the North American Indians." Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 27, No. 106, Oct.-Dec. pp. 374-410. Boas, Franz (1922). Report on an Anthropometric Investigation of the Population of the United States. Journal of the American Statistical Association, June 1922. Boas, Franz (1906). The Measurement of Differences Between Variable Quantities. New York: The Science Press. (Online version at the Internet Archive) Boas, Franz (1927). The Eruption of Deciduous Teeth Among Hebrew Infants. The Journal of Dental Research, Vol. vii, No. 3, September, 1927. Boas, Franz (1927). Primitive Art. ISBN 0-486-20025-6 Boas, Franz (1935). The Tempo of Growth of Fraternities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 413-418, July, 1935. Boas, Franz (1940). Race, Language, and Culture ISBN 0-226-06241-4 Stocking, George W., Jr., ed. 1974 A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883-1911 ISBN 0-226-06243-0 Boas, Franz (1928). "Anthropology and Modern Life" (2004 ed.) ISBN 0-7658-0535-9 Writings on Boas and Boasian anthropology Baker, Lee D. 1994 "The Location of Franz Boas Within the African American Struggle." Critique of Anthropology Vol 14(2):199-217. Baker, Lee D. 2004 "Franz Boas Out of the Ivory Tower." Anthropological Theory 4(1):29-51. Bashkow, Ira 2004 "A Neo-Boasian Conception of Cultural Boundaries" in American Anthropologist 106(3): 443-458 Boas, Norman F. 2004 "Franz Boas 1858-1942: An Illustrated Biography" ISBN 0-9672626-2-3 Bunzl, Matti 2004 "Boas, Foucault, and the 'Native Anthropologist,'" in American Anthropologist 106(3): 435-442 Cole, Douglas 1999 Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858-1906 ISBN 1-55054-746-1 Darnell, Regna 1998. “And Along Came Boas: Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology.” ISBN 1-55619-623-7 Kuper, Adam 1988 The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion ISBN 0-415-00903-0 Kroeber, Alfred 1949 "An Authoritarian Panacea" in American Anthropologist 51(2) 318-320 Lesser, Alexander 1981 "Franz Boas" in Sydel Silverman, ed. Totems and Teachers: Perspectives on the History of Anthropology ISBN 0-231-05087-9 Lewis, Herbert 2001a "The Passion of Franz Boas" in American Anthropologist 103(2): 447-467 Lewis, Herbert 2001b "Boas, Darwin, Science and Anthropology" in Current Anthropology 42(3): 381-406 (On line version contains transcription of Boas's 1909 lecture on Darwin.) Price, David 2000 Anthropologists as Spies The Nation Vol. 271, Number 16, 24-27, November 20, 2000. Price, David 2001 ‘The Shameful Business’: Leslie Spier On The Censure Of Franz Boas History of Anthropology Newsletter Vol. XXVII(2):9-12. Stocking, George W., Jr. 1968 "Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology" ISBN 0-226-77494-5 Stocking, George W., Jr., ed. 1996 Volksgeist as Method and Ethic: Essays on Boasian Ethnography and the German Anthropological Tradition ISBN 0-299-14554-9\ Williams, Vernon J. Jr. 1996 Rethinking Race: Franz Boas and His Contemporaries. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. Boas, anthropology, and Jewish identity Glick, Leonard B. 1982 "Types Distinct from Our Own: Franz Boas on Jewish Identity and Assimilation" in American Anthropologist 84(3) pp. 545-565. Frank, Gelya 1997 "Jews, Multiculturalism, and Boasian Anthropology" in American Anthropologist 99(4), pp. 731-745. Mitchell Hart 2003 "Franz Boas as German, American, Jew." In German-Jewish Identities in America, eds. C. Mauch and J. Salomon (Madison: Max Kade Institute), pp. 88-105. Kevin B. MacDonald 1998 The Culture of Critique: An Evolutionary Analysis of Jewish Involvement in Twentieth-Century Intellectual and Political Movements — chapter 2 provides a critique of Boas by discussing Boas's theories as attempts to advance Jewish ethnic group interests. Notes External links A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited — summary of paper by Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz critical of Boas's findings. Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form — article confirming Boas's research, by Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard Franz Boas Out of the Ivory Tower — essay criticizing Boasian politics and the relationship between the academy and politics Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History - Objects and Photographs from Jesup North Pacific Expedition 1897-1902 (section Collections Online, option Collections Highlights). Franz Boas at Minden, Westphalia Bibliography in Spanish Claudia Roth Pierpont, Annals of Culture, “The Measure of America,” The New Yorker, March 8, 2004, p. 48 | Franz_Boas |@lemmatized franz:35 boa:220 july:3 december:2 norman:3 f:2 p:6 photo:1 graveyard:1 marker:1 marie:2 dale:1 cemetery:1 ossining:1 n:2 german:20 american:54 anthropologist:42 pioneer:3 modern:8 anthropology:82 call:9 father:5 holloway:1 paradoxical:1 legacy:1 natural:15 history:35 november:2 like:16 many:12 train:7 discipline:6 receive:6 doctorate:5 physic:10 post:2 doctoral:3 work:35 geography:8 famed:1 apply:9 scientific:4 method:16 study:45 human:28 culture:39 society:32 field:14 previously:2 base:9 formulation:2 grand:2 theory:25 around:1 anecdotal:1 knowledge:5 early:15 life:10 education:1 bear:5 minden:3 westphalia:2 although:21 grandparent:1 observant:1 jew:6 parent:4 embrace:1 enlightenment:3 value:4 include:6 assimilation:2 sensitive:2 jewish:11 ancestry:1 vocally:1 oppose:4 anti:6 semitism:3 refuse:1 convert:1 christianity:1 identify:3 indeed:2 accord:4 biographer:1 ethnic:2 preserve:1 promoting:1 america:8 douglas:3 cole:4 year:12 washington:6 macintyre:1 autobiographical:1 sketch:1 boas:27 write:15 background:1 thinking:1 home:5 ideal:5 revolution:2 living:1 force:7 liberal:1 active:2 public:3 affair:1 mother:5 idealistic:1 lively:1 interest:18 matter:2 founder:1 kindergarten:2 town:1 devote:2 science:32 break:5 shackle:1 dogma:1 retain:1 emotional:2 affection:1 ceremonial:1 parental:1 without:6 allow:3 influence:11 intellectual:5 freedom:5 experience:6 fröbel:1 gymnasium:2 expose:1 interested:4 excite:1 proud:1 research:44 geographic:2 distribution:2 plant:2 nevertheless:4 attend:3 university:26 first:14 heidelberg:2 bonn:3 join:3 fraternity:2 burschenschaft:1 alemannia:1 zu:1 stay:4 whole:3 focus:7 mathematics:1 also:21 course:4 one:38 taught:1 theobald:2 fischer:3 intend:2 berlin:7 choose:1 kiel:3 order:8 close:1 family:1 gustav:1 karsten:2 wish:2 conduct:7 concern:9 gauss:1 law:6 normal:1 error:1 instruct:1 optical:1 property:1 water:1 instead:5 become:7 basis:3 dissertation:3 unhappy:1 intrigue:1 problem:5 perception:4 plague:1 develop:17 kantian:3 thought:5 take:14 aesthetic:1 kuno:1 benno:1 erdmann:1 lead:18 philosopher:3 psychophysics:3 address:3 psychological:1 epistemological:1 consider:11 move:3 hermann:1 von:3 helmholtz:2 dubious:1 status:1 training:1 psychology:3 graduate:5 coincidentally:1 way:17 explore:1 grow:4 relationship:10 subjective:2 objective:5 world:6 time:22 geographer:3 divide:2 cause:9 cultural:39 variation:13 argue:39 physical:18 environment:14 principal:1 determining:1 factor:2 others:6 notably:1 friedrich:1 ratzel:2 diffusion:3 idea:8 migration:5 important:7 go:8 baffin:11 island:10 impact:1 native:14 inuit:10 ethnographic:6 trip:3 cull:1 note:6 monograph:1 title:1 central:6 eskimo:2 live:6 closely:2 people:36 abide:1 perpetual:1 darkness:1 arctic:1 winter:2 report:3 travel:2 companion:1 lose:4 keep:1 sledding:1 twenty:1 six:1 hour:1 ice:1 soft:1 snow:1 temperature:1 drop:1 c:5 eventually:1 secure:3 shelter:2 rest:1 recuperate:1 half:2 frozen:1 starve:1 following:1 day:1 pencil:1 letter:11 diary:2 often:7 ask:2 advantage:1 good:2 posse:1 savage:1 find:11 see:9 custom:3 right:6 look:8 upon:4 blame:2 form:24 superstition:1 may:17 seem:6 ridiculous:1 u:6 highly:3 educate:1 much:4 bad:2 relatively:1 speak:4 krackowizer:1 edit:1 herbert:6 explain:6 entry:2 service:3 therefore:4 man:10 perform:3 humanity:3 must:5 serve:3 promote:5 truth:3 depend:2 various:4 group:12 everything:1 direction:2 food:1 companionship:1 difficult:1 fill:1 tremendous:2 hardship:1 frequent:1 bout:1 disease:1 mistrust:1 pestilence:1 danger:1 successfully:2 search:2 area:2 yet:1 survey:1 unique:1 object:18 long:5 lonely:1 trek:1 across:2 perilous:1 terrain:1 soul:1 scientist:15 citizen:2 indigenous:1 community:1 royal:3 ethnological:6 museum:26 introduce:1 member:5 nuxálk:1 nation:11 british:5 columbia:19 spark:8 lifelong:1 pacific:8 northwest:6 return:1 finish:1 support:4 defend:4 habilitation:2 thesis:2 land:1 name:5 privatdozent:1 begin:9 non:7 western:5 publish:7 book:5 moreover:10 rudolf:1 virchow:5 ethnologist:1 adolf:1 bastian:3 anatomy:2 two:13 earlier:3 prepare:2 expedition:4 involve:6 vociferous:1 debate:7 former:2 student:34 ernst:1 haeckel:2 evolution:34 abandon:1 medical:1 practice:3 comparative:1 read:1 charles:2 darwin:15 origin:6 specie:5 vigorously:1 germany:6 however:20 prior:4 rediscovery:1 mendelian:2 genetics:4 development:9 synthesis:1 felt:3 weak:1 lack:5 cellular:1 mutability:1 accordingly:1 favor:4 lamarckian:3 model:8 resonate:2 among:9 believe:3 environmental:4 could:11 precipitate:1 rapid:1 endure:2 change:18 organism:1 inherit:2 source:2 thus:12 determinist:1 side:3 antipathy:4 determinism:2 psychic:1 unity:1 mankind:3 belief:9 capacity:2 basic:4 mental:5 principle:12 product:4 historical:12 accident:1 view:6 draw:1 towards:2 leave:3 three:1 month:1 via:1 new:15 york:7 january:1 offer:1 job:2 assistant:3 editor:4 journal:5 alienate:1 nationalism:3 well:10 limited:1 academic:7 opportunity:4 decide:1 united:8 state:11 aside:1 editorial:1 appointment:1 dozent:1 clark:4 limit:4 still:5 department:7 president:6 g:2 stanley:1 hall:2 interference:1 number:5 faculty:2 resign:3 protest:2 infringement:1 appoint:5 chief:1 columbian:2 exposition:2 chicago:4 fin:1 de:2 siècle:1 versus:2 scholar:4 alfred:7 kroeber:8 use:14 alexander:5 lesser:4 later:4 researcher:6 marian:1 w:7 smith:1 lewis:11 matti:2 bunzl:3 point:9 explicitly:1 reject:8 anthropological:16 distinction:7 century:4 academe:1 distinguish:2 naturwissenschaften:2 geisteswissenschaften:2 gesetzwissenschaften:1 give:6 geschichtswissenschaften:2 generally:1 term:9 either:2 binary:1 refers:2 phenomenon:10 govern:2 second:1 mean:5 wilhelm:3 windelband:1 coin:1 nomothetic:2 idiographic:3 describe:7 divergent:1 approach:15 observe:2 employ:2 mix:2 differ:1 proportion:1 perfect:1 example:13 reason:8 kant:5 critique:12 judgement:3 generalize:1 specify:1 winkelband:1 heinrich:1 rickert:1 elaborate:1 concept:3 formation:1 logical:1 introduction:1 edward:5 sapir:4 rely:3 extensively:1 define:5 universal:2 institutionalize:1 organization:11 scholarly:1 teaching:2 follow:1 dominate:3 seek:7 establish:16 rationality:2 reaction:2 johann:1 gottfried:1 herder:2 creativity:3 necessarily:1 unpredictable:1 diverse:2 great:6 linguist:1 humboldt:2 would:17 synthesize:1 found:2 provide:6 milieu:1 orientation:2 mature:1 historian:5 humboldtian:1 tradition:3 boasian:13 leopold:1 ranke:1 task:4 merely:3 show:3 actually:3 cornerstone:1 empiricism:5 dilthey:1 emphasize:7 centrality:1 understand:12 lived:1 empathic:1 understanding:10 situation:1 actor:1 express:7 quote:2 goethe:1 single:3 action:4 event:2 explainable:1 true:2 apparent:1 essay:8 discover:4 thorough:1 sense:2 classification:3 argument:5 application:2 result:10 psychical:1 character:2 men:4 surroundings:4 condition:3 country:6 sociological:1 e:3 relation:5 furthermore:2 present:7 insufficient:1 region:1 pass:5 come:9 contact:2 echo:2 process:8 rejection:2 context:17 importance:6 hallmark:1 marvin:1 harris:2 particularism:1 guide:1 next:3 decade:1 instruction:2 future:1 alternative:2 essential:2 element:7 share:5 sum:1 question:12 answer:3 least:1 dispassionate:1 inquiry:1 cannot:5 outright:1 ideology:2 already:2 formulate:3 everyday:2 since:3 inevitably:1 traditional:2 normally:1 ting:1 prejudice:3 sweep:1 none:1 black:1 white:4 characteristic:3 totalitarian:1 attitude:2 place:5 whose:7 nature:3 inferential:1 judicial:1 orthogenetic:2 darwinian:9 accomplishment:2 social:20 current:4 four:4 odds:1 unfounded:1 mistakenly:2 assume:6 word:22 always:3 thing:7 fact:10 automatically:1 sydel:2 silverman:2 ed:6 totem:2 teacher:3 yortk:1 press:4 notion:5 boasians:2 ridicule:1 dominant:3 orthogenesis:1 determinate:1 teleological:1 occur:3 progressively:1 regardless:1 selection:3 prevalent:1 burnett:1 tylor:2 henry:6 morgan:6 spencer:2 per:1 se:1 difference:14 prevail:2 overstate:1 theorist:2 progress:3 stage:5 sequence:2 contemporary:2 another:12 evolutionists:1 late:4 popular:2 misreading:1 suggest:7 descend:1 chimpanzee:3 equally:3 evolve:2 characterize:6 attention:8 species:1 transform:1 adaptation:2 key:2 mechanism:2 contrast:1 little:1 say:3 mechanic:1 build:1 careful:2 examination:1 considerable:1 empirical:6 data:15 reveal:4 virtually:3 every:3 claim:9 make:9 evolutionist:1 contradict:2 reflect:3 profound:1 misinterpretation:1 robert:5 lowie:5 remark:3 contrary:1 misleading:1 statement:2 subject:3 responsible:1 opponent:1 scientifically:1 prove:1 though:2 determine:4 hostility:1 evolutionary:11 metaphysics:1 falsify:2 established:1 unpublished:1 lecture:5 debt:1 appear:6 quite:4 definitely:1 discussion:2 power:6 clear:1 main:1 conviction:2 essentially:1 purposive:1 end:4 originate:1 continue:5 bring:8 clearly:5 wallace:1 apparently:1 reasonable:1 activity:6 might:7 actual:1 pattern:2 structure:2 conscious:1 design:4 rather:9 outcome:1 produce:4 independent:2 invention:4 shape:3 act:1 conclude:4 acknowledge:1 hope:3 succeed:1 imperfectly:1 due:2 immortal:1 help:1 career:2 bureau:4 ethnology:11 direct:1 john:5 wesley:1 powell:4 geologist:2 bae:3 house:1 smithsonian:4 institution:6 curator:5 otis:2 mason:5 commitment:6 peabody:5 harvard:6 less:1 center:1 pose:2 figure:2 exhibit:3 entitle:2 hamats:1 secret:2 room:1 courtesy:1 national:7 antropology:1 archive:3 kwakiutl:19 collection:4 exhibition:1 period:2 five:2 think:1 local:8 emphasis:5 initially:1 issue:5 kinship:3 initial:1 matrilineal:5 patrilineal:4 northern:2 coast:2 tsimshian:2 tlingit:2 organize:8 clan:4 southern:1 nootka:1 salish:1 cluster:1 feature:7 marriage:1 wife:3 crest:3 child:6 son:1 get:8 marry:1 line:7 neighbor:3 north:5 repudiate:1 learn:5 article:7 challenge:1 display:6 stake:1 causality:1 material:5 function:2 level:2 technological:2 artefact:4 progressive:1 circumstance:1 hough:1 effect:4 realize:2 even:8 similar:6 different:33 along:7 juxtapose:1 contextual:2 chance:1 hire:1 assist:3 frederic:1 ward:1 putnam:2 director:4 head:3 archeology:3 fair:2 arrange:2 fourteen:1 aboriginal:1 reside:1 mock:1 village:1 daily:1 newly:1 create:2 replace:1 archeologist:1 william:5 holmes:6 somatology:1 jesup:3 ancestor:4 migrate:2 bering:1 strait:1 siberia:1 attempt:4 program:11 curatorial:1 goal:1 widen:2 interpretation:3 within:5 specimen:5 explanation:2 connect:1 text:3 partly:2 refer:4 abstract:2 grammatical:1 information:1 assemblage:1 want:2 tribe:3 teach:5 particular:2 style:1 conflict:1 morris:1 hermon:1 bumpus:1 never:2 lecturer:1 professor:4 assign:1 negotiate:1 consolidate:1 charge:2 ph:1 play:3 role:3 association:8 umbrella:1 emerge:1 originally:3 aaa:5 professional:1 j:3 mcgee:2 leadership:1 open:1 membership:1 position:1 elect:2 vice:1 encourage:3 personally:1 contribute:2 linguistics:9 archaeology:2 away:1 static:1 taxonomical:1 race:15 biology:2 limitation:2 classic:1 philology:2 cognitive:1 polish:1 english:8 bronisław:2 malinowski:2 contextualist:1 relativism:4 participant:1 observation:1 fieldwork:4 together:3 kind:6 reconceiving:1 integration:2 arch:1 fundamental:3 contribution:3 england:2 france:2 totality:1 reduce:2 low:2 common:2 denominator:1 essence:3 parallel:1 general:3 amplify:1 discuss:3 anatomical:2 physiological:1 individual:13 diversity:2 trait:6 geographical:2 class:2 inquire:1 observed:1 differentiation:2 investigate:1 establishment:1 multifarious:1 biological:9 past:4 signal:1 marked:1 evident:2 record:3 writing:4 sociology:2 economics:1 suppose:1 division:3 labor:1 academy:5 proper:1 literate:10 societies:1 analysis:5 besides:1 domain:1 heretofore:1 treat:1 variety:6 language:17 historic:1 prehistoric:1 speculate:1 dismiss:1 especially:4 speculative:2 endeavor:1 rigorous:1 mind:4 primitive:8 integrate:2 fifteen:1 population:2 symbolic:2 autonomous:1 dimension:2 reducible:1 variable:2 linguistic:2 plurality:1 humankind:3 specific:3 behavior:2 pursue:2 moral:1 consequence:2 appeal:1 humanism:1 outline:1 page:1 tolerance:1 civilization:2 foreign:2 sympathy:1 capable:1 advance:4 willing:1 body:2 immigrant:5 height:2 cranial:13 measurement:3 part:1 europe:6 innate:1 primary:1 set:4 whether:1 bodily:2 seven:1 ethno:1 average:2 measure:3 size:5 significantly:2 ten:2 arrival:2 deny:1 influential:2 differences:1 immutable:1 finding:5 radical:1 corey:3 richard:3 l:4 jantz:7 small:2 insignificant:2 detectable:1 exposure:1 index:2 original:3 demonstrate:4 longer:1 plasticity:4 morphology:1 reassessment:2 revisit:3 jonathan:2 mark:2 know:3 section:2 revisionist:1 ring:2 desperation:1 obfuscation:1 quickly:2 rebut:1 mainstream:1 ape:1 gene:2 california:2 isbn:13 xviii:1 clarence:2 gravlee:3 h:3 russell:2 bernard:3 r:4 leonard:4 reanalyzed:1 correct:1 statistical:3 computer:1 evidence:7 old:2 heredity:2 reanalysis:1 publication:2 review:1 misrepresent:1 test:1 useful:1 prenatal:1 crucial:3 developmental:1 wrong:1 sociobiologist:1 psychologist:1 committed:1 proponent:1 declare:2 largely:1 recognition:1 rise:1 remember:2 biologist:1 widely:1 biologists:1 biometric:1 speech:1 best:4 statistic:1 raise:3 anthropologists:2 turn:3 descriptive:3 theoretical:3 difficulty:1 classify:4 colleague:2 alternate:6 sound:15 singular:1 methodology:1 response:1 paper:4 daniel:1 garrison:1 brinton:5 pennsylvania:2 spoken:1 certain:3 regularly:1 accent:1 pronounce:3 differently:1 repeat:1 speaker:3 vary:1 considerably:1 vocalization:1 pervasive:1 inconsistency:1 sign:2 inferiority:4 familiar:1 talk:1 something:1 really:2 exist:1 proof:1 longstanding:1 possibility:1 short:1 shift:1 perceive:5 immediately:2 case:3 perceptual:2 deficit:1 aural:1 equivalent:1 color:5 blindness:2 comparable:2 pronunciation:4 anticipates:1 lay:1 groundwork:1 phonemics:1 phonetics:1 recognize:3 sensation:1 individuality:2 similarity:2 perceived:2 category:3 visual:1 green:3 shade:1 hue:1 tint:1 yellow:1 blue:1 categorize:1 spelling:1 interpret:1 indicate:2 dialect:1 speaking:1 physically:1 incapable:1 phonetic:1 system:1 accommodate:1 ultimate:1 far:5 reach:3 observer:1 bias:1 need:3 personal:2 systematically:2 westerner:3 misperceive:1 fail:1 entirely:1 meaningful:3 unscientific:2 reflection:1 superiority:3 methodological:3 foundation:1 meaningless:1 radically:1 meaning:2 drawing:1 mask:2 indian:4 wooden:1 skull:1 hang:1 represent:1 cannibal:1 bird:1 helper:1 bakbakwalinooksiwey:1 ethnography:2 worthy:1 sake:1 mere:1 existence:2 full:3 space:1 fully:1 satisfy:1 ruth:4 benedict:3 presidential:1 remind:1 stance:2 literary:1 critic:1 bradley:1 watch:1 happen:2 strong:3 skepticism:1 fluid:1 dynamic:2 resides:1 extended:1 collaborates:1 collect:3 tool:3 heuristic:1 analyze:2 symbol:1 examine:1 reginald:1 radcliffe:1 brown:1 bound:1 extent:3 diffuse:1 boundary:2 multiple:1 overlapping:1 permeable:1 described:1 shred:1 patch:1 try:4 disparate:1 configuration:2 tension:1 appearance:2 stable:2 contingent:1 bashkow:2 lifetime:1 today:4 saw:2 dynamism:1 individualism:1 homogeneous:1 comparison:1 decorative:1 alaskan:2 needlecases:3 conventional:1 broad:1 detailed:1 formal:2 vocabulary:1 artisan:1 ornament:1 ceramic:1 art:3 unlike:1 implication:1 programmatic:1 systematic:2 enumeration:1 standardized:1 document:1 react:1 opinion:3 mode:1 agency:2 reveals:1 modification:1 consequently:2 fundamentally:2 soon:2 absolute:2 stability:1 constant:1 flux:1 relevance:1 nineteenth:1 technique:1 reconstruct:2 fieldworker:1 compile:1 lexicon:1 grammar:1 myth:2 folktale:1 recipe:1 cuisine:1 heavily:1 collaboration:1 ethnographer:1 george:4 hunt:1 urge:1 valuable:1 partner:1 inferior:1 standing:1 superior:1 transformation:2 compare:2 south:1 translate:2 kin:1 fit:1 large:1 whereas:1 numaym:1 understood:1 bundle:1 privilege:3 acquire:1 transmit:1 generation:1 norm:1 activist:1 spiritual:1 subordination:1 furthering:1 ability:1 possible:2 fetter:1 impose:3 fight:2 policy:1 private:2 devotion:1 democracy:4 slogan:1 befog:1 whatever:1 dewey:1 agonize:1 legitimacy:1 detachment:2 objectivity:3 abstraction:2 quantifiability:2 perhaps:2 anxiety:1 require:2 physicist:1 criterion:1 evaluate:1 dependent:2 render:1 generalization:1 importantly:1 reverse:1 typical:1 hierarchical:1 astronomer:1 star:1 chemist:1 botanist:1 imply:1 reversal:1 illustrate:1 awareness:1 confident:1 prism:1 obligation:1 racial:5 inequality:1 commencement:1 atlanta:1 invitation:1 b:6 du:1 bois:1 accept:3 weakness:1 negro:5 uncontrollable:1 emotion:1 energy:1 racially:1 inherent:1 noble:1 european:1 asian:1 advanced:1 african:4 total:1 thousand:1 brief:1 span:1 tame:1 fire:1 invent:1 stone:1 steam:1 engine:1 control:3 electricity:1 catalogue:1 africa:2 smelt:1 iron:1 cultivate:1 millet:1 domesticate:2 chicken:2 cattle:2 spread:1 asia:2 domestication:1 king:1 diplomat:2 merchant:1 artist:1 achievement:1 doom:1 economic:1 confidently:1 recover:2 colored:1 strength:2 foot:1 shore:1 continent:2 bright:1 discourage:1 slowness:2 transplant:1 soil:1 high:1 ever:1 attain:1 proceeds:1 conquest:3 colonialism:1 unequal:1 mention:1 teutonic:1 invasion:1 italy:1 manchoo:1 china:1 lingers:1 consciousness:1 sharp:1 age:1 able:1 efface:1 enough:3 expression:3 type:2 let:3 barrier:1 hundred:1 ago:1 feeling:1 sustain:1 political:6 party:2 closing:1 advice:1 approval:1 encouragement:1 usually:1 sympathize:1 exceed:1 impossible:1 path:1 deviate:1 quiet:1 steadfast:1 insistence:1 despite:1 caveat:1 intractability:1 responsibility:2 purity:1 racism:2 critical:2 headline:1 bitter:1 attack:2 war:2 youth:1 school:2 love:2 respect:1 nowadays:1 unendurable:1 discomfort:1 strange:1 enjoy:1 slow:1 utilize:1 resource:1 intolerant:1 pronounced:1 regard:1 free:1 doubt:1 wholesome:1 needed:1 abuse:1 absolutism:1 selfish:1 corrupt:1 bureaucracy:1 government:6 conform:1 wishis:1 axiom:1 pervade:1 root:1 east:1 machinery:1 democratic:3 identical:1 solution:1 americanism:1 austrian:1 russian:1 whoever:1 else:1 solve:1 demand:1 bestow:1 benefaction:1 régime:1 appal:1 disingenuous:1 deceitful:1 spy:6 angry:1 soldier:1 business:3 murder:1 fine:1 deception:2 secretiveness:1 politician:1 consist:1 compromise:1 conscience:1 aim:1 profit:1 lenient:1 excuse:1 patriotic:1 decency:1 code:1 morality:1 conforms:1 standard:2 truthfulness:1 consciously:1 put:1 liable:1 distort:1 person:2 cover:1 spying:1 demean:1 investigator:1 assistance:1 alleged:1 carry:2 cloak:1 machination:1 prostitute:1 unpardonable:1 forfeit:1 sylvanus:1 morley:4 affiliate:2 mexico:4 confederate:1 submarine:1 intelligence:1 mexican:2 struggle:2 compete:1 flagship:2 council:2 competition:1 intensify:1 rival:1 nrc:2 protegé:1 friend:1 complain:1 prussian:1 hun:1 regime:1 adam:2 kuper:2 london:1 routledge:1 probably:1 sentiment:1 resolution:2 condemn:1 unjustly:1 criticize:5 wilson:1 endanger:1 abroad:1 suspect:1 insulting:1 prompt:1 founding:1 meeting:1 lothrop:1 spinden:1 vote:1 censure:3 representative:1 remain:1 rescind:1 nazi:1 denounce:1 freudian:1 psychoanalysis:2 einsteinian:1 respond:1 religion:1 irrelevant:1 kevin:2 macdonald:2 resurrect:1 shoddy:1 scholarship:1 phd:2 sufficient:1 preeminent:1 major:1 fellow:1 start:4 berkeley:1 jones:1 fox:1 kill:1 philippine:1 albert:1 frank:2 speck:1 proceed:2 fay:1 cooper:1 goldenweiser:1 elsie:1 clew:1 parson:1 leslie:3 spier:3 erna:1 gunther:1 melville:2 herskovits:2 northwestern:1 swanton:2 paul:1 radin:1 gladys:1 reichard:1 barnard:2 college:3 rank:1 bunzel:1 margaret:1 mead:1 weltfish:1 officially:1 expense:1 adamson:1 hoebel:1 jules:1 ashley:1 montagu:1 manuel:1 gamio:1 earn:1 wissler:1 esther:1 goldfrank:1 pueblo:1 indians:1 gilberto:1 freyre:1 brazil:1 viola:1 garfield:1 forth:1 frederica:1 laguna:1 folklorist:1 novelist:1 zora:1 neale:1 hurston:1 woman:1 associate:1 claude:1 lévi:1 strauss:1 meet:1 latter:1 arm:1 expire:1 several:2 alden:1 walter:1 goldschmidt:1 reconstruction:1 cephalic:1 hereditary:1 similarly:1 mythology:2 drive:1 self:1 criticism:1 informant:2 agenda:2 diverge:1 sort:1 typically:1 sigmund:1 freud:1 potential:1 union:1 developed:1 personality:1 julian:1 steward:1 ecology:1 multilineal:1 extend:1 residence:1 finally:1 honor:1 thomas:1 gossett:1 combat:1 reading:1 philosophical:1 philadelphia:1 online:3 version:3 revise:1 edition:1 internet:2 handbook:1 vol:9 bulletin:1 print:1 office:1 descendant:1 sept:1 annals:2 xxi:1 pp:6 folk:1 tale:1 folklore:1 oct:1 dec:1 anthropometric:1 investigation:1 june:1 quantity:1 eruption:1 deciduous:1 teeth:1 hebrew:1 infant:1 dental:1 vii:1 september:1 tempo:1 growth:1 proceeding:1 stocking:3 jr:4 reader:1 shaping:1 baker:2 lee:2 location:1 ivory:2 tower:2 ira:1 neo:1 conception:1 illustrated:1 biography:1 foucault:1 darnell:1 regna:1 continuity:1 americanist:1 illusion:1 authoritarian:1 panacea:1 perspective:1 passion:1 contain:1 transcription:1 price:2 david:2 shameful:1 newsletter:1 xxvii:1 volksgeist:1 ethic:1 williams:1 vernon:1 rethink:1 lexington:1 kentucky:1 identity:3 glick:1 distinct:1 gelya:1 multiculturalism:1 mitchell:1 hart:1 mauch:1 salomon:1 madison:1 max:1 kade:1 institute:1 involvement:1 twentieth:1 movement:1 chapter:1 external:1 link:1 summary:1 confirm:1 politics:2 photograph:1 option:1 highlight:1 bibliography:1 spanish:1 claudia:1 roth:1 pierpont:1 yorker:1 march:1 |@bigram franz_boa:17 observant_jew:1 anti_semitism:3 autobiographical_sketch:1 doctoral_dissertation:1 kantian_philosopher:2 von_helmholtz:1 baffin_island:10 franz_boas:5 rudolf_virchow:1 ernst_haeckel:1 comparative_anatomy:1 charles_darwin:2 mendelian_genetics:2 columbian_exposition:1 alfred_kroeber:4 edward_sapir:4 johann_gottfried:1 gottfried_herder:1 von_humboldt:1 boasian_anthropology:8 wilhelm_dilthey:1 marvin_harris:1 darwinian_evolution:4 herbert_spencer:1 per_se:1 careful_examination:1 robert_lowie:5 smithsonian_institution:3 bering_strait:1 vice_president:1 bronisław_malinowski:2 cultural_relativism:4 evolutionary_psychologist:1 color_blindness:2 descriptive_linguistics:2 lay_groundwork:1 ruth_benedict:3 ethnology_boa:3 nineteenth_century:1 rely_heavily:1 du_bois:1 racial_purity:1 corrupt_bureaucracy:1 pervade_whole:1 margaret_mead:1 zora_neale:1 neale_hurston:1 claude_lévi:1 lévi_strauss:1 antipathy_towards:1 sigmund_freud:1 boa_franz:12 oct_dec:1 twentieth_century:1 external_link:1 claudia_roth:1 |
7,489 | Man_Booker_Prize | P.H. Newby was the first winner of the Booker Prize The Man Booker Prize for Fiction, also known in short as the Booker Prize, is a literary prize awarded each year for the best original full-length novel, written in the English language, by a citizen of either the Commonwealth of Nations or Ireland. The winner of the Booker Prize is generally assured of international renown and success and, for this reason, the prize is of great significance for the book trade. "The Booker's Big Bang", New Statesman, 9 October 2008 It is also a mark of distinction for authors to be nominated for the Booker longlist or selected for inclusion in the shortlist. In 1993, the Booker of Bookers Prize was awarded to Salman Rushdie for Midnight's Children (the 1981 winner), as the best novel to win the award in the first 25 years of its existence. A similar prize known as The Best of the Booker was awarded in 2008 to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the prize - this was also won by Midnight's Children. 'Best of the Booker' pits Rushdie against 40 pretenders | News | guardian.co.uk Books "Rushdie wins Best of Booker prize", BBC News, 10 July 2008 The most recent recipient of the Booker Prize is Indian author Aravind Adiga, for his debut novel The White Tiger; the winner was announced on 14 October 2008. http://www.themanbookerprize.com/prize/thisyear For a complete list of winning and shortlisted authors, see List of winners and shortlisted authors of the Booker Prize for Fiction. History The prize was originally known as the Booker-McConnell Prize after the company Booker-McConnell began sponsoring the event in 1968, and became commonly known as the "Booker Prize" or simply "the Booker". When administration of the prize was transferred to the Booker Prize Foundation in 2002, the title sponsor became the investment company Man Group, which opted to retain "Booker" as part of the official title of the prize. The prize money awarded with the Booker Prize was originally £21,000, and was subsequently raised to £50,000 in 2002 under the sponsorship of the Man Group. Judging The selection process for the winner of the prize commences with the formation of an advisory committee which includes an author, two publishers, a literary agent, a bookseller, a librarian, and a chairperson appointed by the Booker Prize Foundation. The advisory committee then selects the judging panel, the membership of which changes each year, although on rare occasions a judge may be selected a second time. Judges are selected from amongst leading literary critics, writers, academics and notable public figures. The winner is usually announced at a ceremony in London's Guildhall. Booker Prize winners Year Author Country Title 1969 P. H. Newby United Kingdom Something to Answer For 1970 Bernice Rubens United Kingdom The Elected Member 1971 V. S. Naipaul Trinidad and Tobago/United Kingdom In a Free State 1972 John Berger United Kingdom G. 1973 J. G. Farrell United Kingdom The Siege of Krishnapur 1974 Nadine GordimerStanley Middleton South AfricaUnited Kingdom The ConservationistHoliday 1975 Ruth Prawer Jhabvala United Kingdom/Germany Heat and Dust 1976 David Storey United Kingdom Saville 1977 Paul Scott United Kingdom Staying On 1978 Iris Murdoch Ireland/United Kingdom The Sea, the Sea 1979 Penelope Fitzgerald United Kingdom Offshore 1980 William Golding United Kingdom Rites of Passage 1981 Salman Rushdie United Kingdom/India Midnight's Children 1982 Thomas Keneally Australia Schindler's Ark 1983 J. M. Coetzee South Africa Life & Times of Michael K 1984 Anita Brookner United Kingdom Hotel du Lac 1985 Keri Hulme New Zealand The Bone People 1986 Kingsley Amis United Kingdom The Old Devils 1987 Penelope Lively United Kingdom Moon Tiger 1988 Peter Carey Australia Oscar and Lucinda 1989 Kazuo Ishiguro United Kingdom/Japan The Remains of the Day 1990 A. S. Byatt United Kingdom Possession: A Romance 1991 Ben Okri Nigeria The Famished Road 1992 Michael OndaatjeBarry Unsworth Sri Lanka/CanadaUnited Kingdom The English PatientSacred Hunger 1993 Roddy Doyle Ireland Paddy Clarke Ha Ha Ha 1994 James Kelman United Kingdom How Late It Was, How Late 1995 Pat Barker United Kingdom The Ghost Road 1996 Graham Swift United Kingdom Last Orders 1997 Arundhati Roy India The God of Small Things 1998 Ian McEwan United Kingdom Amsterdam 1999 J. M. Coetzee South Africa Disgrace 2000 Margaret Atwood Canada The Blind Assassin 2001 Peter Carey Australia True History of the Kelly Gang 2002 Yann Martel Canada Life of Pi 2003 DBC Pierre Australia/Mexico Vernon God Little 2004 Alan Hollinghurst United Kingdom The Line of Beauty 2005 John Banville Ireland The Sea 2006 Kiran Desai India The Inheritance of Loss 2007 Anne Enright Ireland The Gathering 2008 Aravind Adiga India The White Tiger Booker facts and statistics Each publisher's imprint may submit two titles. In addition, previous winners of the prize and those who have been shortlisted in the previous ten years are automatically considered. Books may also be called in: publishers can make written representations to the judges to consider titles in addition to those already entered. In the 21st century the average number of books considered by the judges has been approximately 130. The list of books making the longlist was first released in 2001. In 2003 there were 23 books on the longlist, in 2002 there were 20 and in 2001 there were 24. For the first 35 years of the Booker, there were only five years when fewer than six books were on the shortlist, and two years (1980 and 1981) when there were seven on the shortlist. As of (2003): Over the first 35 years there were a total of 201 novels from 135 authors on the shortlists. Of the 97 novelists nominated once, there were 13 winners and three joint winners. Of the 19 novelists nominated twice, there were seven winners and one two-time winner (J. M. Coetzee). Of the 10 novelists nominated three times, there were four winners, one joint winner and one two-time winner (Peter Carey). Of the six four-time nominees, all but William Trevor have won once. The other four-time nominees are Kazuo Ishiguro, Ian McEwan, Salman Rushdie, Thomas Keneally and Penelope Fitzgerald. There have only been two five-time nominees, Margaret Atwood (first nominated in 1986 and won in 2000) and Beryl Bainbridge (nominated twice in the 1970s and three times in the 1990s, but she has never won). There has been only one six-time nominee, Iris Murdoch, who won on her fourth nomination in 1978 and was nominated twice more in the 1980s. The prize is only open to authors from countries within the Commonwealth. The only exception to this is Ireland. Irish authors have always been considered for the prize even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth. Including authors with dual citizenship, the United Kingdom has the most winners of the prize at 24. Second is Australia with six winners (counting both Coetzee Coetzee was born and raised in South Africa and won both of his Bookers prior to his emigration to Australia in 2003. and Carey twice); Ireland and India each have four winners. Related awards A separate prize for which any living author in the world may qualify, the Man Booker International Prize, was inaugurated in 2005 and is awarded biennially. A Russian version of the Booker Prize was created in 1992. In 2007, Man Group plc and the Hong Kong Literary Festival Ltd established the Man Asian Literary Prize, the award will seek entries from Asian writers for works that are yet to be published in English. Cheltenham Booker Prize As part of the Times' Literature Festival in Cheltenham, a 'Booker' event is held on the last Saturday. Four guest speakers/judges debate a 'shortlist' of four books from a given year from before the introduction of the Booker prize, and a winner is chosen. Unlike the real Man Booker, foreign authors are allowed. In 2008, the winner for 1948 was Alan Paton's 'Cry, the Beloved Country', beating Norman Mailer's 'The Naked and the Dead', Graham Greene's 'The Heart of the Matter' and Evelyn Waugh's 'The Loved One'. See also List of winners and shortlisted authors of the Booker Prize for Fiction The Commonwealth Writers Prize The National Book Award The Prix Goncourt The Costa Book Awards The Governor General's Award The Scotiabank Giller Prize The Miles Franklin Award List of British literary awards List of literary awards References External links The official website of the Man Booker Prize Awardees of Booker Prize per year A primer on the Man Booker Prize and critical review of literature. The most honoured Booker shortlisted books The Booker Prize: Matters of judgment": Hermione Lee on judging the Booker when Salman Rushdie won, from TLS, 22 October 2008. | Man_Booker_Prize |@lemmatized p:2 h:2 newby:2 first:6 winner:22 booker:38 prize:41 man:9 fiction:3 also:5 know:4 short:1 literary:7 award:14 year:11 best:5 original:1 full:1 length:1 novel:4 write:2 english:3 language:1 citizen:1 either:1 commonwealth:4 nation:1 ireland:8 generally:1 assure:1 international:2 renown:1 success:1 reason:1 great:1 significance:1 book:11 trade:1 big:1 bang:1 new:2 statesman:1 october:3 mark:1 distinction:1 author:13 nominate:6 longlist:3 select:4 inclusion:1 shortlist:9 salman:4 rushdie:6 midnight:3 child:3 win:10 existence:1 similar:1 celebrate:1 anniversary:1 pit:1 pretender:1 news:2 guardian:1 co:1 uk:1 bbc:1 july:1 recent:1 recipient:1 indian:1 aravind:2 adiga:2 debut:1 white:2 tiger:3 announce:2 http:1 www:1 themanbookerprize:1 com:1 thisyear:1 complete:1 list:6 shortlisted:1 see:2 history:2 originally:2 mcconnell:2 company:2 begin:1 sponsor:2 event:2 become:2 commonly:1 simply:1 administration:1 transfer:1 foundation:2 title:5 investment:1 group:3 opt:1 retain:1 part:2 official:2 money:1 subsequently:1 raise:2 sponsorship:1 judge:7 selection:1 process:1 commences:1 formation:1 advisory:2 committee:2 include:2 two:6 publisher:3 agent:1 bookseller:1 librarian:1 chairperson:1 appoint:1 judging:1 panel:1 membership:1 change:1 although:1 rare:1 occasion:1 may:4 second:2 time:11 amongst:1 lead:1 critic:1 writer:3 academic:1 notable:1 public:1 figure:1 usually:1 ceremony:1 london:1 guildhall:1 country:3 united:20 kingdom:25 something:1 answer:1 bernice:1 rubens:1 elect:1 member:2 v:1 naipaul:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 free:1 state:1 john:2 berger:1 g:2 j:4 farrell:1 siege:1 krishnapur:1 nadine:1 gordimerstanley:1 middleton:1 south:4 africaunited:1 conservationistholiday:1 ruth:1 prawer:1 jhabvala:1 germany:1 heat:1 dust:1 david:1 storey:1 saville:1 paul:1 scott:1 stay:1 iris:2 murdoch:2 unite:3 sea:3 penelope:3 fitzgerald:2 offshore:1 william:2 golding:1 rite:1 passage:1 india:5 thomas:2 keneally:2 australia:6 schindler:1 ark:1 coetzee:5 africa:3 life:2 michael:2 k:1 anita:1 brookner:1 hotel:1 du:1 lac:1 keri:1 hulme:1 zealand:1 bone:1 people:1 kingsley:1 amis:1 old:1 devil:1 lively:1 moon:1 peter:3 carey:4 oscar:1 lucinda:1 kazuo:2 ishiguro:2 japan:1 remains:1 day:1 byatt:1 possession:1 romance:1 ben:1 okri:1 nigeria:1 famish:1 road:2 ondaatjebarry:1 unsworth:1 sri:1 lanka:1 canadaunited:1 patientsacred:1 hunger:1 roddy:1 doyle:1 paddy:1 clarke:1 ha:3 james:1 kelman:1 late:2 pat:1 barker:1 ghost:1 graham:2 swift:1 last:2 order:1 arundhati:1 roy:1 god:2 small:1 thing:1 ian:2 mcewan:2 amsterdam:1 disgrace:1 margaret:2 atwood:2 canada:2 blind:1 assassin:1 true:1 kelly:1 gang:1 yann:1 martel:1 pi:1 dbc:1 pierre:1 mexico:1 vernon:1 little:1 alan:2 hollinghurst:1 line:1 beauty:1 banville:1 kiran:1 desai:1 inheritance:1 loss:1 anne:1 enright:1 gathering:1 fact:1 statistic:1 imprint:1 submit:1 addition:2 previous:2 ten:1 automatically:1 consider:4 call:1 make:2 representation:1 already:1 enter:1 century:1 average:1 number:1 approximately:1 release:1 five:2 six:4 seven:2 total:1 novelist:3 three:3 joint:2 twice:4 one:5 four:6 nominee:4 trevor:1 beryl:1 bainbridge:1 nominated:1 never:1 fourth:1 nomination:1 open:1 within:1 exception:1 irish:1 always:1 even:1 though:1 dual:1 citizenship:1 count:1 bear:1 prior:1 emigration:1 relate:1 separate:1 living:1 world:1 qualify:1 inaugurate:1 biennially:1 russian:1 version:1 create:1 plc:1 hong:1 kong:1 festival:2 ltd:1 establish:1 asian:2 seek:1 entry:1 work:1 yet:1 publish:1 cheltenham:2 literature:2 hold:1 saturday:1 guest:1 speaker:1 debate:1 give:1 introduction:1 choose:1 unlike:1 real:1 foreign:1 allow:1 paton:1 cry:1 beloved:1 beat:1 norman:1 mailer:1 naked:1 dead:1 greene:1 heart:1 matter:2 evelyn:1 waugh:1 loved:1 national:1 prix:1 goncourt:1 costa:1 governor:1 general:1 scotiabank:1 giller:1 mile:1 franklin:1 british:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 awardees:1 per:1 primer:1 critical:1 review:1 honoured:1 judgment:1 hermione:1 lee:1 tl:1 |@bigram booker_prize:21 big_bang:1 salman_rushdie:4 celebrate_anniversary:1 bbc_news:1 http_www:1 advisory_committee:2 v_naipaul:1 trinidad_tobago:1 iris_murdoch:2 william_golding:1 j_coetzee:3 du_lac:1 kingsley_amis:1 sri_lanka:1 ha_ha:2 ian_mcewan:2 margaret_atwood:2 john_banville:1 hong_kong:1 norman_mailer:1 graham_greene:1 evelyn_waugh:1 external_link:1 |
7,490 | Modified_Newtonian_dynamics | In physics, Modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) is a theory that proposes a modification of Newton's Second Law of Dynamics () to explain the galaxy rotation problem. When the uniform velocity of rotation of galaxies was first observed, it was unexpected because Newtonian theory of gravity predicts that objects that are farther out will have lower velocities. For example, planets in the Solar System orbit with velocities that decrease as their distance from the Sun increases. MOND theory posits that acceleration is not linearly proportional to force at low values. The galaxy rotation problem may be understood without MOND if a halo of dark matter provides an overall mass distribution different from the observed distribution of normal matter. MOND was proposed by Mordehai Milgrom in 1981 to model the observed uniform velocity data without the dark matter assumption. He noted that Newton's Second Law for gravitational force has only been verified when gravitational acceleration is large. Overview: Galaxy dynamics Observations of the rotation rates of spiral galaxies began in 1978. By the early 1980s it was clear that galaxies did not exhibit the same pattern of decreasing orbital velocity with increasing distance from the center of mass observed in the Solar System. A spiral galaxy consists of a bulge of stars at the centre with a vast disc of stars orbiting around the central group. If the orbits of the stars were governed solely by gravitational force and the observed distribution of normal matter, it was expected that stars at the outer edge of the disc would have a much lower orbital velocity than those near the middle. In the observed galaxies this pattern is not apparent. Stars near the outer edge orbit at the same speed as stars closer to the middle. Figure 1 - Expected (A) and observed (B) star velocities as a function of distance from the galactic center. The dotted curve A in Figure 1 at left shows the predicted orbital velocity as a function of distance from the galactic center assuming neither MOND nor dark matter. The solid curve B shows the observed distribution. Instead of decreasing asymptotically to zero as the effect of gravity wanes, this curve remains flat, showing the same velocity at increasing distances from the bulge. Astronomers call this phenomenon the "flattening of galaxies' rotation curves". Scientists hypothesized that the flatness of the rotation of galaxies is caused by matter outside the galaxy's visible disc. Since all large galaxies show the same characteristic, large galaxies must, according to this line of reasoning, be embedded in a halo of invisible "dark" matter as shown in Figure 2. The MOND Theory In 1983, Mordehai Milgrom, a physicist at the Weizmann Institute in Israel, published two papers in Astrophysical Journal to propose a modification of Newton's second law of motion. This law states that an object of mass m, subject to a force F undergoes an acceleration a satisfying the simple equation F=ma. This law is well known to students, and has been verified in a variety of situations. However, it has never been verified in the case where the acceleration a is extremely small. And that is exactly what's happening at the scale of galaxies, where the distances between stars are so large that the gravitational acceleration is extremely small. The change The modification proposed by Milgrom is the following: instead of F=ma, the equation should be F=mµ(a/a0)a, where µ(x) is a function that for a given variable x gives 1 if x is much larger than 1 ( x≫1 ) and gives x if x is much smaller than 1 ( 0 <x≪1 ). The term a0 is a proposed new constant, in the same sense that c (the speed of light) is a constant, except that a0 is acceleration whereas c is speed. Here is the simple set of equations for the Modified Newtonian Dynamics: The exact form of µ is unspecified, only its behavior when the argument x is small or large. As Milgrom proved in his original paper, the form of µ does not change most of the consequences of the theory, such as the flattening of the rotation curve. In the everyday world, a is much greater than a0 for all physical effects, therefore µ(a/a0)=1 and F=ma as usual. Consequently, the change in Newton's second law is negligible and Newton could not have seen it. Since MOND was inspired by the desire to solve the flat rotation curve problem, it is not a surprise that using the MOND theory with observations reconciled this problem. This can be shown by a calculation of the new rotation curve. Predicted rotation curve Far away from the center of a galaxy, the gravitational force a star undergoes is, with good approximation: with G the gravitation constant, M the mass of the galaxy, m the mass of the star and r the distance between the center and the star. Using the new law of dynamics gives: Eliminating m gives: Assuming that, at this large distance r, a is smaller than a0 and thus , which gives: Therefore: Since the equation that relates the velocity to the acceleration for a circular orbit is one has: and therefore: Consequently, the velocity of stars on a circular orbit far from the center is a constant, and does not depend on the distance r: the rotation curve is flat. The proportion between the "flat" rotation velocity to the observed mass derived here is matching the observed relation between "flat" velocity to luminosity known as the Tully-Fisher relation. At the same time, there is a clear relationship between the velocity and the constant a0. The equation v=(GMa0)1/4 allows one to calculate a0 from the observed v and M. Milgrom found a0=1.2×10−10 ms−2. Milgrom has noted that this value is also "... the acceleration you get by dividing the speed of light by the lifetime of the universe. If you start from zero velocity, with this acceleration you will reach the speed of light roughly in the lifetime of the universe." The actual result is within an order of magnitude of the lifetime of the universe. It would take 79.2 billion years, about 5.8 times the current age of the universe, to reach the speed of light with an acceleration of a0. Conversely, starting from zero velocity with an acceleration of a0, one would reach about 17.3% of the speed of light at the current age of the universe. Retrospectively, the impact of assumed value of a>>a0 for physical effects on Earth remains valid. Had a0 been larger, its consequences would have been visible on Earth and, since it is not the case, the new theory would have been inconsistent. Consistency with the observations According to the Modified Newtonian Dynamics theory, every physical process that involves small accelerations will have an outcome different from that predicted by the simple law F=ma. Therefore, astronomers need to look for all such processes and verify that MOND remains compatible with observations, that is, within the limit of the uncertainties on the data. There is, however, a complication overlooked up to this point but that strongly affects the compatibility between MOND and the observed world: in a system considered as isolated, for example a single satellite orbiting a planet, the effect of MOND results in an increased velocity beyond a given range (actually, below a given acceleration, but for circular orbits it is the same thing), that depends on the mass of both the planet and the satellite. However, if the same system is actually orbiting a star, the planet and the satellite will be accelerated in the star's gravitational field. For the satellite, the sum of the two fields could yield acceleration greater than a0, and the orbit would not be the same as that in an isolated system. For this reason, the typical acceleration of any physical process is not the only parameter astronomers must consider. Also critical is the process's environment, which is all external forces that are usually neglected. In his paper, Milgrom arranged the typical acceleration of various physical processes in a two-dimensional diagram. One parameter is the acceleration of the process itself, the other parameter is the acceleration induced by the environment. This affects MOND's application to experimental observation and empirical data because all experiments done on Earth or its neighborhood are subject to the Sun's gravitational field, and this field is so strong that all objects in the Solar system undergo an acceleration greater than a0. This explains why the flattening of galaxies' rotation curve, or the MOND effect, had not been detected until the early 1980s, when astronomers first gathered empirical data on the rotation of galaxies. Therefore, only galaxies and other large systems are expected to exhibit the dynamics that will allow astronomers to verify that MOND agrees with observation. Since Milgrom's theory first appeared in 1983, the most accurate data has come from observations of distant galaxies and neighbors of the Milky Way. Within the uncertainties of the data, MOND has remained valid. The Milky Way itself is scattered with clouds of gas and interstellar dust, and until now it has not been possible to draw a rotation curve for the galaxy. Finally, the uncertainties on the velocity of galaxies within clusters and larger systems have been too large to conclude in favor of or against MOND. Indeed, conditions for conducting an experiment that could confirm or disprove MOND can only be performed outside the Solar system — farther even than the positions that the Pioneer and Voyager space probes have reached. In search of observations that would validate his theory, Milgrom noticed that a special class of objects, the low surface brightness galaxies (LSB), is of particular interest: the radius of an LSB is large compared to its mass, and thus almost all stars are within the flat part of the rotation curve. Also, other theories predict that the velocity at the edge depends on the average surface brightness in addition to the LSB mass. Finally, no data on the rotation curve of these galaxies was available at the time. Milgrom thus could make the prediction that LSBs would have a rotation curve which is essentially flat, and with a relation between the flat velocity and the mass of the LSB identical to that of brighter galaxies. Since then, many such LSBs have been observed, and some astronomers have claimed their data invalidated MOND. There is evidence that a contradiction exists. An exception to MOND other than LSB is prediction of the speeds of galaxies that gyrate around the center of a galaxy cluster. Our galaxy is part of the Virgo supercluster. MOND predicts a rate of rotation of these galaxies about their center, and temperature distributions, that are contrary to observation. One experiment that might test MOND would be to observe the particles proposed to contribute to the majority of the Universe’s mass; several experiments are endeavoring to do this under the assumption that the particles have weak interactions. Another approach to test MOND is to apply it to the evolution of cosmic structure or to the dynamics and evolution of observed galaxies.. Lee Smolin and co-workers have tried unsuccessfully to obtain a theoretical basis for MOND from quantum gravity. His conclusion is "MOND is a tantalizing mystery, but not one that can be resolved now." The mathematics of MOND In non-relativistic Modified Newtonian Dynamics, Poisson's equation, (where is the gravitational potential and is the density distribution) is modified as where is the MOND potential. The equation is to be solved with boundary condition for . The exact form of is not constrained by observations, but must have the behaviour for (Newtonian regime), for (Deep-MOND regime). In the deep-MOND regime, the modified Poisson equation may be rewritten as and that simplifies to The vector field is unknown, but is null whenever the density distribution is spherical, cylindrical or planar. In that case, MOND acceleration field is given by the simple formula where is the normal Newtonian field. Discussion and criticisms An empirical criticism of MOND, released in August 2006, involves the Bullet cluster (Milgrom's comments) , a system of two colliding galaxy clusters. In most instances where phenomena associated with either MOND or dark matter are present, they appear to flow from physical locations with similar centers of gravity. But, the dark matter-like effects in this colliding galactic cluster system appears to emanate from different points in space than the center of mass of the visible matter in the system, which is unusually easy to discern due to the high energy collisions of the gas in the vicinity of the colliding galactic clusters.. MOND proponents admit that a purely baryonic MOND is not able to explain this observation. Therefore a “marriage” of MOND with ordinary hot neutrinos of 2eV has been proposed to save the hypothesis . Beside MOND, three other notable theories try to explain the mystery of the rotational curves and/or the apparent missing dark matter, these are Nonsymmetric Gravitational Theory proposed by John Moffat, Weyl's conformal gravity by Philip Mannheim, and the more recently published Dynamic Newtonian Advanced gravitation (DNAg). A.Worsley (2008). An advanced dynamic adaptation of Newtonian equations of gravity. Physics Essays 21: 3, 222-228 (2008). Tensor-vector-scalar gravity Tensor-Vector-Scalar gravity (TeVeS) is a proposed relativistic theory that is equivalent to Modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) in the non-relativistic limit, which purports to explain the galaxy rotation problem without invoking dark matter. Originated by Jacob Bekenstein in 2004, it incorporates various dynamical and non-dynamical tensor fields, vector fields and scalar fields. The break-through of TeVeS over MOND is that it can explain the phenomenon of gravitational lensing, a cosmic phenomenon in which nearby matter bends light, which has been confirmed many times. A recent preliminary finding is that it can explain structure formation without cold dark matter (CDM), but requiring ~2eV massive neutrinos. and . However, other authors (see Slosar, Melchiorri and Silk ) claim that TeVeS can't explain cosmic microwave background anisotropies and structure formation at the same time, i.e. ruling out those models at high significance. In-line references See also Dark matter Cold dark matter Lambda-CDM model Tensor-vector-scalar gravity Scalar-tensor-vector gravity Nonsymmetric gravitational theory Pioneer anomaly References Mordehai Milgrom: Does Dark Matter Really Exist?, Scientific American, August 2002 Slosar, Melchiorri, & Silk: Did Boomerang hit MOND?, Physical Review D, November 2005 Mordehai Milgrom: Do Modified Newtonian Dynamics Follow from the Cold Dark Matter Paradigm?, Astrophysical Journal, May 2002 David Lindley: Messing around with gravity, Nature, 15 October 1992 Bekenstein, Jacob D.: Modified Gravity vs Dark Matter: Relativistc theory for MOND, JHEP Conference Proceedings, 2005 Massey et al., Dark matter maps reveal cosmic scaffolding, Nature, 445, 286–290, 2007 A. Yu. Ignatiev, Is Violation of Newton's Second Law Possible?, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 101101 (2007). Modified Newtonian dynamics om arxiv.org(I)Authority Modified Newtonian dynamics om arxiv.org(II)Review External links Preprints related to MOND MOND - A Pedagogical Review The MOND Pages: A great resource for MOND related information Literature relating to the Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy Alternatives to Dark Matter Vacuum Modified Gravity as an explanation for flat galaxy rotation curves Another MOND is possible TeVeS J.D. Bekenstein, Phys. Rev. D70, 083509 (2004), Erratum-ibid. D71, 069901 (2005) (arXiv:astro-ph/0403694), original paper on TeVeS by Jacob D. Bekenstein J.D. Bekenstein and R.H. Sanders, A Primer to Relativistic MOND Theory, arXiv:astro-ph/0509519 STVG Gravity theory dispenses with dark matter (New Scientist) Scalar-tensor-vector gravity theory JW Moffat (Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics) 6 March 2006 Scalar-Tensor Gravity Theory For Dynamical Light Velocity M. A. Clayton, J. W. Moffat (arXiv) Sun, 31 Oct 1999 22:09:24 GMT Relativistic MOND Einstein's Theory 'Improved'? (PPARC) Original paper by Jacob D. Bekenstein (arXiv) Refining the MOND Interpolating Function and TeVeS Lagrangian (Journal of Astrophysics Letters) Refining MOND interpolating function and TeVeS Lagrangian (arXiv) | Modified_Newtonian_dynamics |@lemmatized physic:3 modify:10 newtonian:14 dynamic:16 mond:49 theory:21 propose:8 modification:3 newton:6 second:5 law:9 explain:8 galaxy:33 rotation:21 problem:5 uniform:2 velocity:21 first:3 observe:5 unexpected:1 gravity:16 predicts:1 object:4 farther:1 low:4 example:2 planet:4 solar:4 system:12 orbit:10 decrease:3 distance:9 sun:3 increase:3 posit:1 acceleration:20 linearly:1 proportional:1 force:6 value:3 may:3 understand:1 without:4 halo:2 dark:19 matter:23 provide:1 overall:1 mass:12 distribution:7 different:3 observed:10 normal:3 mordehai:4 milgrom:13 model:3 data:8 assumption:2 note:2 gravitational:11 verify:5 large:12 overview:1 observation:11 rate:2 spiral:2 begin:1 early:2 clear:2 exhibit:2 pattern:2 orbital:3 center:10 consist:1 bulge:2 star:15 centre:1 vast:1 disc:3 around:3 central:1 group:1 govern:1 solely:1 expect:3 outer:2 edge:3 would:9 much:4 near:2 middle:2 apparent:2 speed:8 closer:1 figure:3 b:2 function:5 galactic:4 dotted:1 curve:16 left:1 show:6 predicted:1 assume:1 neither:1 solid:1 instead:2 asymptotically:1 zero:3 effect:6 wane:1 remain:4 flat:9 astronomer:6 call:1 phenomenon:4 flattening:3 scientist:2 hypothesize:1 flatness:1 cause:1 outside:2 visible:3 since:6 characteristic:1 must:3 accord:2 line:2 reasoning:1 embed:1 invisible:1 physicist:1 weizmann:1 institute:1 israel:1 publish:2 two:4 paper:5 astrophysical:2 journal:4 motion:1 state:1 subject:2 f:6 undergo:2 satisfy:1 simple:4 equation:9 well:1 know:2 student:1 variety:1 situation:1 however:4 never:1 case:3 extremely:2 small:6 exactly:1 happen:1 scale:1 change:3 following:1 mµ:1 µ:4 x:8 give:9 variable:1 term:1 proposed:1 new:5 constant:5 sense:1 c:2 light:7 except:1 whereas:1 set:1 modified:3 exact:2 form:3 unspecified:1 behavior:1 argument:1 prove:1 original:3 consequence:2 everyday:1 world:2 great:4 physical:7 therefore:6 usual:1 consequently:2 negligible:1 could:4 see:3 inspire:1 desire:1 solve:2 surprise:1 use:2 reconcile:1 calculation:1 predict:4 far:3 away:1 undergoes:1 good:1 approximation:1 g:1 gravitation:2 r:4 eliminate:1 assuming:1 thus:3 relate:4 circular:3 one:6 depend:3 proportion:1 derive:1 match:1 relation:3 luminosity:1 tully:1 fisher:1 time:5 relationship:1 v:3 allow:2 calculate:1 find:1 also:4 get:1 divide:1 lifetime:3 universe:6 start:2 reach:4 roughly:1 actual:1 result:2 within:5 order:1 magnitude:1 take:1 billion:1 year:1 current:2 age:2 conversely:1 retrospectively:1 impact:1 assumed:1 earth:3 valid:2 inconsistent:1 consistency:1 every:1 process:6 involve:2 outcome:1 need:1 look:1 compatible:1 limit:2 uncertainty:3 complication:1 overlook:1 point:2 strongly:1 affect:2 compatibility:1 consider:2 isolated:2 single:1 satellite:4 increased:1 beyond:1 range:1 actually:2 thing:1 accelerate:1 field:10 sum:1 yield:1 reason:1 typical:2 parameter:3 critical:1 environment:2 external:2 usually:1 neglect:1 arrange:1 various:2 dimensional:1 diagram:1 induce:1 application:1 experimental:1 empirical:3 experiment:4 neighborhood:1 strong:1 detect:1 gather:1 agree:1 appear:3 accurate:1 come:1 distant:1 neighbor:1 milky:2 way:2 scatter:1 cloud:1 gas:2 interstellar:1 dust:1 possible:3 draw:1 finally:2 cluster:6 conclude:1 favor:1 indeed:1 condition:2 conduct:1 confirm:2 disprove:1 perform:1 even:1 position:1 pioneer:2 voyager:1 space:2 probe:1 search:1 validate:1 notice:1 special:1 class:1 surface:2 brightness:2 lsb:5 particular:1 interest:1 radius:1 compare:1 almost:1 part:2 average:1 addition:1 available:1 make:1 prediction:2 lsbs:2 essentially:1 identical:1 brighter:1 many:2 claim:2 invalidate:1 evidence:1 contradiction:1 exist:2 exception:1 gyrate:1 virgo:1 supercluster:1 temperature:1 contrary:1 might:1 test:2 particle:2 contribute:1 majority:1 several:1 endeavor:1 weak:1 interaction:1 another:2 approach:1 apply:1 evolution:2 cosmic:4 structure:3 lee:1 smolin:1 co:1 worker:1 try:2 unsuccessfully:1 obtain:1 theoretical:1 basis:1 quantum:1 conclusion:1 tantalizing:1 mystery:2 resolve:1 mathematics:1 non:3 relativistic:5 poisson:2 potential:2 density:2 boundary:1 constrain:1 behaviour:1 regime:3 deep:2 rewrite:1 simplifies:1 vector:7 unknown:1 null:1 whenever:1 spherical:1 cylindrical:1 planar:1 formula:1 discussion:1 criticisms:1 criticism:1 release:1 august:2 bullet:1 comment:1 collide:2 instance:1 associate:1 either:1 present:1 flow:1 location:1 similar:1 like:1 colliding:1 emanate:1 unusually:1 easy:1 discern:1 due:1 high:2 energy:2 collision:1 vicinity:1 proponent:1 admit:1 purely:1 baryonic:1 able:1 marriage:1 ordinary:1 hot:1 neutrino:2 save:1 hypothesis:1 beside:1 three:1 notable:1 rotational:1 miss:1 nonsymmetric:2 john:1 moffat:3 weyl:1 conformal:1 philip:1 mannheim:1 recently:1 advance:1 dnag:1 worsley:1 advanced:1 adaptation:1 essay:1 tensor:7 scalar:7 teves:7 equivalent:1 purport:1 invoke:1 originate:1 jacob:4 bekenstein:6 incorporate:1 dynamical:3 break:1 lensing:1 nearby:1 bend:1 recent:1 preliminary:1 finding:1 formation:2 cold:3 cdm:2 require:1 massive:1 author:1 slosar:2 melchiorri:2 silk:2 microwave:1 background:1 anisotropy:1 e:1 rule:1 significance:1 reference:2 lambda:1 anomaly:1 really:1 scientific:1 american:1 boomerang:1 hit:1 review:3 november:1 follow:1 paradigm:1 david:1 lindley:1 messing:1 nature:2 october:1 relativistc:1 jhep:1 conference:1 proceeding:1 massey:1 et:1 al:1 map:1 reveal:1 scaffolding:1 yu:1 ignatiev:1 violation:1 phys:2 rev:2 lett:1 om:2 arxiv:7 org:2 authority:1 ii:1 link:1 preprints:1 pedagogical:1 page:1 resource:1 information:1 literature:1 alternative:2 vacuum:1 explanation:1 j:3 erratum:1 ibid:1 astro:2 ph:2 h:1 sander:1 primer:1 stvg:1 dispenses:1 jw:1 cosmology:1 astroparticle:1 march:1 clayton:1 w:1 oct:1 gmt:1 einstein:1 improve:1 pparc:1 refine:2 interpolate:1 lagrangian:2 astrophysics:1 letter:1 interpolating:1 |@bigram modify_newtonian:7 newtonian_dynamic:9 spiral_galaxy:2 astrophysical_journal:2 milky_way:2 interstellar_dust:1 lee_smolin:1 quantum_gravity:1 galactic_cluster:2 jacob_bekenstein:3 gravitational_lensing:1 cosmic_microwave:1 microwave_background:1 lambda_cdm:1 cdm_model:1 et_al:1 phys_rev:2 rev_lett:1 arxiv_org:2 external_link:1 arxiv_astro:2 astro_ph:2 |
7,491 | Bloody_Sunday_(1972) | Banner and Crosses carried by the families of the Bloody Sunday victims on the annual commemoration march. Bloody Sunday () CAIN: Posters - Examples of Bloody Sunday Posters is the term used to describe an incident in Derry, Derry-Londonderry name dispute Northern Ireland, on 30 January 1972 in which 27 civil rights protesters were shot by members of the 1st Battalion of the British Parachute Regiment during a Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association march in the Bogside area of the city. Thirteen people, seven of whom were teenagers, died immediately, while the death of another person 4½ months later has been attributed to the injuries he received on the day. Two protesters were injured when they were run down by army vehicles. 'Bloody Sunday', Derry 30 January 1972 - Names of the Dead and Injured CAIN Web Service, 23 March 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2006. Many witnesses, including bystanders and journalists, testify that all those shot were unarmed. Five of those wounded were shot in the back. Extracts from 'The Road to Bloody Sunday' by Dr. Raymond McClean Retrieved 2007-02-16. Two investigations have been held by the British Government. The Widgery Tribunal, held in the immediate aftermath of the event, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame, he described the soldiers shooting as "bordering on the reckless" but was criticised by many as a "whitewash" including former chief of staff to Tony Blair, Jonathan Powell. The Saville Inquiry, established in 1998 to look at the events again (chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate), is expected to report in late 2009. The Provisional Irish Republican Army's (IRA) campaign against Northern Ireland being a part of the United Kingdom had begun in the two years prior to Bloody Sunday, but perceptions of the day boosted the status of and recruitment into the organisation enormously. P. 293: "Youngsters who had seen their friends die that day flocked to join the IRA..." Bloody Sunday remains among the most significant events in the Troubles of Northern Ireland, chiefly due to the fact that it was carried out by the army and not paramilitaries, and in full public and press view. P. 4-6 Background The Bogside area viewed from the city walls. At the time of the incident the houses in the foreground had not yet been built. Factional violence had become commonplace in Northern Ireland in an era that would be known as The Troubles. The root of the strife was the controversial Partition of Ireland in 1923, after which the primarily Protestant area of Northern Ireland remained a part of the United Kingdom while the rest of the island eventually became an independent republic. By the late 1960s, elements of the primarily Roman Catholic nationalist population of Northern Ireland and the primarily Protestant unionists were openly fighting one another, the chief agents being the Provisional Irish Republican Army and the Ulster Volunteer Force. Derry (whose very name was in contention, being referred to as Londonderry by unionists), situated near the border and having a Catholic majority, saw some of the greatest violence of this period. On 8 July 1971 in Derry's Bogside two rioters, Seamus Cusack and Desmond Beattie, were shot dead by soldiers in disputed circumstances. Soldiers claimed the pair were armed which was denied by local people, and moderate nationalists including John Hume and Gerry Fitt walked out of the Parliament of Northern Ireland in protest. A British Army memorandum states as a result of this the situation "changed overnight", with the Provisional IRA's campaign in the city beginning at that time after previously being regarded as "quiescent". In response to escalating levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971. In a quid pro quo gesture to nationalists, all marches and parades were banned, including the flashpoint march by the Protestant Apprentice Boys of Derry which was due to take place on 12 August. The Irish War: The Hidden Conflict Between the IRA and British Intelligence, p. 46. There was disorder across Northern Ireland following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of rioting. On 10 August Bombardier Paul Challenor became the first soldier to be killed by the Provisional IRA in Derry, when he was shot by a sniper on the Creggan estate. A further six soldiers had been killed in Derry by mid-December 1971. Brits, p. 84. 1,932 rounds were fired at the British Army, who also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs and who fired 364 rounds in return. Provisional IRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year. Both the Official IRA and Provisional IRA had established "no-go" areas for the British Army and RUC in Derry through the use of barricades. Brits, p. 82. By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, 16 of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles. IRA members openly mounted roadblocks in front of the media, and daily clashes took place between nationalist youths and the British Army at a spot known as "aggro corner". Due to rioting and damage to shops caused by incendiary devices, an estimated total of £4 million worth of damage had been done to local businesses. Events of the day "Free Derry" mural in the Bogside Westland Road in the Bogside viewed from the city wall (31 July 2007). Many details of the day's events are in dispute, with no agreement even on the number of marchers present that day. The organisers, "Insight", claimed that there were 30,000 marchers; Lord Widgery, in his tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000. In The Road To Bloody Sunday, local GP Dr. Raymond McClean estimated the crowd as 15,000, which is the figure used by Bernadette Devlin McAliskey in Parliament. A wealth of material has been produced relating to the day, including numerous books and articles, as well as documentary films made on the subject. 'Bloody Sunday', Derry 30 January 1972 - Details of Source Material CAIN Web Service, 23 March 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2006. Narrative of events The march's planned route had taken it to the Guildhall, but because of army barricades designed to reroute the march it was redirected to Free Derry Corner. A small group of teenagers broke off from the main march and persisted in pushing the barricade and marching on the Guildhall. They attacked the British army barricade with stones and shouted insults at the troops. At this point, a water cannon, tear gas and rubber bullets were used to disperse the rioters. Such confrontations between soldiers and youths were common, though observers reported that the rioting was not intense. P. 100: "... the level of rioting was no greater than usual - and no petrol bombs or nail bombs were being thrown." Two civilians, Damien Donaghy and John Johnston, were shot and wounded by soldiers on William Street who claimed the former was carrying a black cylindrical object. P 116: "Seconds after the corporal fired, he would say that he spotted the same man with a black cylindrical object in one hand strike what appeared to be a match against the wall. Johnston was standing a few feet from Donaghy. One of the bullets sliced through his right thigh." At a certain point, reports of an IRA sniper operating in the area were allegedly given to the Army command centre. At 4:07 pm Brigade gave British Parachute Regiment permission to go in to the Bogside. The order to fire live rounds was given, and one young man was shot and killed when he ran down Chamberlain Street away from the advancing troops. This first fatality, Jackie Duddy, was among a crowd who were running away. He was running alongside a priest, Father Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back. Continuing violence by and against British troops escalated, and eventually the order was given to mobilise the troops in an arrest operation, chasing the tail of the main group of marchers to the edge of the field by Free Derry Corner. Despite a cease-fire order from the army HQ, over a hundred rounds were fired directly into the fleeing crowds by troops under the command of Major Ted Loden. Twelve more were killed CAIN: Events: Bloody Sunday: Menu Page , many of them as they attempted to aid the fallen. Fourteen others were wounded, twelve by shots from the soldiers and two knocked down by armoured personnel carriers. The deceased John (Jackie) Duddy (17). Shot in the chest in the car park of Rossville flats. Four witnesses stated Duddy was unarmed and running away from the paratroopers when he was killed. Three of them saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran. Uncle of Irish boxer John Duddy. Belt worn by Patrick Doherty, the notch was made by the bullet that killed him. Superb new look for Museum of Free Derrya Mural by Bogside Artists depicting all who were killed by the British Army on the day. Patrick Joseph Doherty (31). Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety in the forecourt of Rossville flats. Doherty was the subject of a series of photographs, taken before and after he died by French journalist Gilles Peress. Despite testimony from "Soldier F" that he had fired at a man holding and firing a pistol, Widgery acknowledged that the photographs showed Doherty was unarmed, and that forensic tests on his hands for gunshot residue proved negative. Bernard McGuigan (41). Shot in the back of the head when he went to help Patrick Doherty. He had been waving a white handkerchief at the soldiers to indicate his peaceful intentions. Hugh Pious Gilmour (17). Shot through his right elbow, the bullet then entering his chest as he ran from the paratroopers on Rossville Street. Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed, and that tests for gunshot residue were negative. Kevin McElhinney (17). Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety at the front entrance of the Rossville Flats. Two witnesses stated McElhinney was unarmed. Michael G. Kelly (17). Shot in the stomach while standing near the rubble barricade in front of Rossville Flats. Widgery accepted that Kelly was unarmed. John Pius Young (17). Shot in the head while standing at the rubble barricade. Two witnesses stated Young was unarmed. William Noel Nash (19). Shot in the chest near the barricade. Witnesses stated Nash was unarmed and going to the aid of another when killed. Michael M. McDaid (20). Shot in the face at the barricade as he was walking away from the paratroopers. The trajectory of the bullet indicated he could have been killed by soldiers positioned on the Derry Walls. James Joseph Wray (22). Wounded then shot again at close range while lying on the ground. Witnesses who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal stated that Wray was calling out to say that he could not move his legs before he was shot the second time. Gerald Donaghy (17). Shot in the stomach while attempting to run to safety between Glenfada Park and Abbey Park. Donaghy was brought to a nearby house by bystanders where he was examined by a doctor. His pockets were turned out in an effort to identify him. A later police photograph of Donaghy's corpse showed nail bombs in his pockets. Neither those who searched his pockets in the house nor the British army medical officer (Soldier 138) who pronounced his death shortly afterwards say they saw any bombs. Donaghy had been a member of Fianna Éireann, an IRA-linked Republican youth movement. Paddy Ward, who gave evidence at the Saville Inquiry, claimed that he had given two nail bombs to Donaghy several hours before he was shot dead. Gerald (James) McKinney (34). Shot just after Gerald Donaghy. Witnesses stated that McKinney had been running behind Donaghy, and he stopped and held up his arms, shouting "Don't shoot! Don't shoot!", when he saw Donaghy fall. He was then shot in the chest. William A. McKinney (27). Shot from behind as he attempted to aid Gerald McKinney (no relation). He had left cover to try to help the older man. John Johnston (59). Shot in the leg and left shoulder on William Street 15 minutes before the rest of the shooting started. Brits, p. 96. Johnston was not actually on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park. He died of his wounds 4½ months later. He was the only one not to die immediately or soon after being shot. The perspectives and analyses on the day Mural by Bogside Artists depicting Father Daly waving a white handkerchief while trying to escort the mortally wounded Jackie Duddy to safety. Thirteen people were shot and killed, with another man later dying of his wounds. The official army position, backed by the British Home Secretary the next day in the House of Commons, was that the paratroopers had reacted to the threat of gunmen and nail bombs from suspected IRA members. However, all eyewitnesses (apart from the soldiers), including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present, maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those tending the wounded, whereas the soldiers themselves were not fired upon. No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or reported any injuries, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims. In the events that followed, irate crowds burned down the British embassy in Dublin. 1972: British embassy in Dublin destroyed BBC News Online. Retrieved 2009-02-01. Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs, with Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going specially to the United Nations in New York to demand UN involvement in the Northern Ireland "Troubles". Although there were many IRA men—both Official and Provisional—present at the protest, it is claimed they were all unarmed, apparently because it was anticipated that the paratroopers would attempt to "draw them out". March organizer and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA men would be near the march. One paratrooper who gave evidence at the Tribunal testified that they were told by an officer to expect a gunfight and "We want some kills". The Irish War: The Hidden Conflict Between the IRA and British Intelligence, p. 65. In the event, one man was witnessed by Father Edward Daly and others haphazardly firing a revolver in the direction of the paratroopers. Later identified as a member of the Official IRA, this man was also photographed in the act of drawing his weapon, but was apparently not seen or targeted by the soldiers. Various other claims have been made to the Saville Inquiry about gunmen on the day. The city's coroner, retired British Army Major Hubert O'Neill, issued a statement on 21 August 1973, at the completion of the inquest into the people killed. 'Bloody Sunday', 30 January 1972 - A Chronology of Events CAIN Web Service, 23 March 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2006. He declared: Two days after Bloody Sunday, the Westminster Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the events of the day, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery to undertake it. Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but were eventually persuaded to take part. Widgery's quickly produced report — completed within ten weeks (10 April) and published within eleven (19 April) — supported the Army's account of the events of the day. Among the evidence presented to the tribunal were the results of paraffin tests, used to identify lead residues from firing weapons, and that nail bombs had been found on the body of one of those killed. Tests for traces of explosives on the clothes of eleven of the dead proved negative, while those of the remaining man could not be tested as they had already been washed. Most Irish people and witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash. It is now widely accepted that the nail bombs photographed on Gerard Donaghy were planted there after his death, and firearms residue on some deceased came from contact with the soldiers who themselves moved some of the bodies, or that the presence of lead on the hands of one (James Wray) was easily explained by the fact that his occupation involved the use of lead-based solder. In fact, in 1992, John Major, writing to John Hume stated: Following the events of Bloody Sunday Bernadette Devlin, an Independent Socialist nationalist MP from Northern Ireland expressed anger at what she perceived as government attempts to stifle accounts being reported about the day. Having witnessed the events firsthand, she was later infuriated that she was consistently denied the chance to speak in Parliament about the day, although parliamentary convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be granted an opportunity to speak about it in the House. Devlin punched Reginald Maudling, the Secretary of State for the Home Department in the Conservative government, when he made a statement to Parliament on the events of Bloody Sunday stating that the British Army had fired only in self-defence. She was temporarily suspended from Parliament as a result of the incident. In January 1997, the United Kingdom television station Channel 4 carried a news report that suggested that members of the Royal Anglian Regiment had also opened fire on the protesters and could have been responsible for 3 of the 14 deaths. On 29 May 2007 it was reported that General Sir Mike Jackson, second-in-command of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: "I have no doubt that innocent people were shot". This was in sharp contrast to his insistence, for more than 30 years, that those killed on the day had not been innocent. "Bloody Sunday victims innocent says Jackson", Irish News (Belfast newspaper), 29 May 2007, pp 1 and 11 Following the Freedom of Information Act 2000, it was disclosed that weapons used by the paratroopers that day ended up in the hands of the army in Sierra Leone, paramilitary police in Beirut and in an Arkansas gun shop. " 59 things that would have stayed secret", The Times, 5 March 2007. Retrieved on 10 February 2009. The Saville Inquiry The city Guildhall, home to the Inquiry. Although British Prime Minister John Major rejected John Hume's requests for a public inquiry into the killings, his successor, Tony Blair, decided to start one. A second commission of inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in January 1998 to re-examine 'Bloody Sunday'. The other Judges were John Toohey QC, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia with an excellent reputation for his work on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers QC, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and Mr Justice William Hoyt QC, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and a member of the Canadian Judicial Council. The hearings were concluded in November 2004, and the report is currently being written. The Saville Inquiry is a more comprehensive study than the Widgery Tribunal, interviewing a wide range of witnesses, including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians. Lord Saville has declined to comment on the Widgery report and has made the point that the Saville Inquiry is a judicial inquiry into 'Bloody Sunday', not the Widgery Tribunal. Evidence given by Martin McGuiness, the deputy leader of Sinn Féin, to the inquiry stated that he was second-in-command of the Derry City battalion of the Provisional IRA and was present at the march. He did not answer questions about where he had been staying because he said it would compromise the safety of the individuals involved. A claim was made at the Saville Inquiry that McGuinness was responsible for supplying detonators for nail bombs on Bloody Sunday. Paddy Ward claimed he was the leader of the Fianna Éireann, the youth wing of the IRA in January 1972. He claimed McGuinness, the second-in-command of the IRA in the city at the time, and another anonymous IRA member gave him bomb parts on the morning of 30 January, the date planned for the civil rights march. He said his organisation intended to attack city-centre premises in Derry on the day when civilians were shot dead by British soldiers. In response McGuinness rejected the claims as "fantasy", while Gerry O’Hara, a Sinn Féin councillor in Derry stated that he and not Ward was the Fianna leader at the time. Many observers allege that the Ministry of Defence acted in a way to impede the inquiry. Over 1,000 army photographs and original army helicopter video footage were never made available. Additionally, guns used on the day by the soldiers that could have been evidence in the inquiry were lost by the MoD. The MoD claimed that all the guns had been destroyed, but some were subsequently recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone, Beirut, and Little Rock, Arkansas) despite the obstruction. By the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history. The cost of this process has drawn criticism. In June 2003, the cost incurred so far in pursuit of the inquiry was given as £113.2 million. One year later in June 2004 the cost was given as £130 million. The total cost is expected to be around £200 million. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/northernireland/3453352/Cost-of-Lord-Savilles-Bloody-Sunday-Inquiry-reaches-182m.html In mid-2005, the play Bloody Sunday: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry, a dramatisation based on the Saville Inquiry, opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin. The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance by Tricycle Theatre. The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including The Times: "The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating"; The Daily Telegraph: "I can't praise this enthralling production too highly... exceptionally gripping courtroom drama"; and The Independent: "A necessary triumph". On 7 November 2008 it was announced that the final report would not be available until late 2009. BBC News Long wait for Bloody Sunday report 7 November 2008 Impact on Northern Ireland divisions Bloody Sunday memorial in the Bogside. Despite the controversy, all sides agree that 'Bloody Sunday' marked a major negative turning point in the fortunes of Northern Ireland. Harold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles. William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland. When it arrived in Northern Ireland, the British Army was welcomed by Roman Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant mobs, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and the B-Specials. This "Honeymoon period", as it has come to be known, ended around the time of the Falls Road Curfew on 3 July 1970. See CAIN for details here. The 'B-Specials' were disbanded and replaced by the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) on 1 April 1970. After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy. Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to violent republican groups. With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish nationalism/republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected young people. In the following twenty years, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) mounted an armed campaign against the British, by which they meant the RUC, the British Army, the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) of the British Army (and, according to their critics, the Protestant and unionist establishment). With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the nationalist/republican and Irish unionist/Ulster loyalist communities (the Ulster Defence Association, Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people. Incidents included the killing of three members of a pop band, the Miami Showband, by a gang including members of the UVF who were also members of the local army regiment, the UDR, and in uniform at the time, 1976: UDR men jailed for Showband killings and the killing by the Provisionals of eighteen members of the Parachute Regiment in the Warrenpoint Ambush-seen by some as revenge for Bloody Sunday. With the official cessation of violence by some of the major paramilitary organisations and the creation of the power-sharing executive at Stormont in Belfast under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, the Saville Tribunal's re-examination of the events of that day is widely hoped to provide a thorough account of the events of Bloody Sunday. Artistic reaction RIGHT|Bloody Sunday mural in Derry The incident has been commemorated by U2 in their 1983 protest song "Sunday Bloody Sunday". The John Lennon album Some Time In New York City features a song entitled "Sunday Bloody Sunday", inspired by the incident, as well as the song "The Luck of the Irish", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general. Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday. Irish Genealogy John Lennon at New York protest Paul McCartney (also of Irish descent Experience Festival McCartney bio ) issued a single shortly after Bloody Sunday titled "Give Ireland Back to the Irish", expressing his views on the matter. It was one of few McCartney solo songs to be banned by the BBC. The seven ages of Paul McCartney BBC News Entertainment, 17 June 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2006. Christy Moore's song "Minds Locked Shut" on the album "Graffiti Tongue" is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians. The Celtic metal band Cruachan addressed the incident in a song "Bloody Sunday" from their 2004 album Folk-Lore. The events of the day have been dramatised in the two 2002 television dramas, Bloody Sunday (starring James Nesbitt) and Sunday by Jimmy McGovern. Brian Friel's 1973 play The Freedom of the City deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians. Willie Doherty, a Derry-born artist has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland. "30 January 1972" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday. The Wolfe Tones, an Irish rebel music band, wrote a song also called "Sunday Bloody Sunday" about the event. Seamus Heaney, an Irish poet and Nobel Prize recipient wrote a poem entitled "Casualty", about one of the 13 victims from Bloody Sunday. The elegy tracks the victim's life routine up to when the event happened and then continued to describe the reaction of the Irish people. The victim remains unnamed in the poem. References in popular music References Further reading (extracts available online) External links Remembering Bloody Sunday The Bloody Sunday Trust Madden & Finucane Bloody Sunday index CAIN Web Service Bloody Sunday index Guardian Coverage Dáil debate on Bloody Sunday The Widgery Report (from Cain website) The Saville Inquiry official website BBC Coverage of the Saville Inquiry Programme of events commemorating Bloody Sunday - 2008 The events of the day BBC Interactive Guide Guardian Interactive Guide History – Bloody Sunday – Events of the Day Museum of Free Derry Contemporary newspaper coverage "13 killed as paratroops break riot" from The Guardian, Monday 31 January 1972 "Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first" from The Guardian, Tuesday 1 February 1972 Importance and impact "Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'" | Bloody_Sunday_(1972) |@lemmatized banner:1 cross:1 carry:4 family:2 bloody:44 sunday:48 victim:6 annual:1 commemoration:1 march:16 cain:8 poster:2 example:1 term:1 use:8 describe:3 incident:9 derry:23 londonderry:2 name:4 dispute:3 northern:18 ireland:22 january:10 civil:3 right:6 protester:3 shoot:19 member:12 battalion:2 british:32 parachute:3 regiment:7 association:2 bogside:9 area:5 city:11 thirteen:2 people:11 seven:3 teenager:2 die:5 immediately:2 death:4 another:5 person:1 month:3 later:6 attribute:1 injury:2 receive:2 day:26 two:12 injure:1 run:9 army:29 vehicle:2 dead:6 injured:1 web:4 service:4 retrieve:6 august:8 many:8 witness:15 include:10 bystander:2 journalist:5 testify:2 shot:15 unarm:4 five:1 wound:7 back:6 extract:2 road:4 dr:2 raymond:2 mcclean:2 investigation:2 hold:4 government:3 widgery:13 tribunal:10 immediate:1 aftermath:1 event:26 largely:1 clear:1 soldier:26 authority:1 blame:1 bordering:1 reckless:1 criticise:1 whitewash:2 former:4 chief:4 staff:1 tony:2 blair:2 jonathan:1 powell:1 saville:15 inquiry:23 establish:3 look:2 chair:2 lord:7 newdigate:1 expect:3 report:15 late:5 provisional:10 irish:23 republican:7 ira:22 campaign:3 part:4 united:5 kingdom:3 begin:2 year:7 prior:1 perception:1 boost:1 status:1 recruitment:1 organisation:4 enormously:1 p:9 youngster:1 see:5 friend:2 flock:1 join:1 remain:5 among:3 significant:1 trouble:6 chiefly:1 due:3 fact:3 paramilitary:4 full:1 public:2 press:1 view:4 background:1 wall:4 time:11 house:5 foreground:1 yet:1 build:1 factional:1 violence:6 become:4 commonplace:1 era:1 would:8 know:4 root:1 strife:1 controversial:1 partition:1 primarily:3 protestant:5 rest:2 island:1 eventually:3 independent:3 republic:2 element:1 roman:2 catholic:4 nationalist:7 population:1 unionist:4 openly:2 fight:1 one:15 agent:1 ulster:7 volunteer:2 force:3 whose:1 contention:1 refer:1 situate:1 near:4 border:1 majority:1 saw:4 great:2 period:3 july:3 rioter:2 seamus:2 cusack:1 desmond:1 beattie:1 disputed:1 circumstance:1 claim:12 pair:1 arm:3 deny:2 local:6 moderate:1 john:13 hume:3 gerry:2 fitt:1 walk:2 parliament:6 protest:5 memorandum:1 state:12 result:4 situation:1 change:1 overnight:1 beginning:1 previously:1 regard:2 quiescent:1 response:2 escalate:2 level:2 across:3 internment:3 without:1 trial:1 introduce:1 quid:1 pro:1 quo:1 gesture:1 parade:1 ban:2 flashpoint:1 apprentice:1 boy:1 take:7 place:3 war:2 hidden:2 conflict:3 intelligence:2 disorder:1 follow:4 introduction:1 kill:18 three:4 rioting:3 bombardier:1 paul:3 challenor:1 first:3 sniper:2 creggan:1 estate:1 six:1 mid:2 december:1 brit:3 round:4 fire:13 also:8 face:2 explosion:1 nail:9 bomb:12 return:1 activity:1 increase:1 thirty:1 contrast:2 ten:2 pre:1 official:8 go:5 ruc:3 barricade:9 end:3 prevent:1 access:1 free:6 impassable:1 even:2 ton:1 armour:1 mount:2 roadblock:1 front:3 medium:1 daily:2 clash:1 youth:5 spot:2 aggro:1 corner:3 riot:2 damage:2 shop:2 cause:1 incendiary:1 device:1 estimated:1 total:2 million:4 worth:1 business:1 mural:4 westland:1 detail:3 agreement:2 number:1 marcher:4 present:5 organiser:1 insight:1 say:8 gp:1 estimate:1 crowd:5 figure:1 bernadette:2 devlin:3 mcaliskey:1 wealth:1 material:2 produce:2 relate:1 numerous:1 book:1 article:1 well:2 documentary:1 film:1 make:8 subject:2 source:1 narrative:1 plan:2 route:1 guildhall:3 design:1 reroute:1 redirect:1 small:2 group:4 break:2 main:2 persist:1 push:1 marching:1 attack:2 stone:1 shout:2 insult:1 troop:5 point:4 water:1 cannon:1 tear:1 gas:1 rubber:1 bullet:6 disperse:1 confrontation:1 common:3 though:1 observer:2 intense:1 usual:1 petrol:1 throw:1 civilian:4 damien:1 donaghy:11 johnston:4 william:6 street:4 black:2 cylindrical:2 object:2 second:7 corporal:1 fired:1 man:8 hand:4 strike:1 appear:2 match:1 stand:3 foot:1 slice:1 thigh:1 certain:1 operating:1 allegedly:1 give:12 command:5 centre:2 pm:1 brigade:1 permission:1 order:3 live:1 young:5 chamberlain:1 away:5 advance:1 fatality:1 jackie:3 duddy:5 alongside:1 priest:1 father:3 edward:4 daly:3 continue:2 mobilise:1 arrest:1 operation:1 chase:1 tail:1 edge:1 field:1 despite:4 cease:1 hq:1 hundred:1 directly:1 flee:2 major:7 ted:1 loden:1 twelve:2 menu:1 page:1 attempt:7 aid:3 fallen:1 fourteen:1 others:2 knock:1 armoured:1 personnel:1 carrier:1 deceased:1 chest:4 car:1 park:4 rossville:5 flat:4 four:2 unarmed:6 paratrooper:8 deliberate:1 aim:2 uncle:1 boxer:1 belt:1 wear:1 patrick:4 doherty:6 notch:1 superb:1 new:7 museum:2 derrya:1 artist:3 depict:2 joseph:2 behind:4 crawl:2 safety:5 forecourt:1 series:1 photograph:7 french:1 gilles:1 peress:1 testimony:1 f:1 pistol:1 acknowledge:2 show:2 forensic:1 test:5 gunshot:2 residue:4 prove:2 negative:4 bernard:1 mcguigan:1 head:2 help:2 wave:2 white:2 handkerchief:2 indicate:2 peaceful:1 intention:1 hugh:1 pious:1 gilmour:2 elbow:1 enter:1 hit:2 corroborated:1 kevin:1 mcelhinney:2 entrance:1 michael:2 g:1 kelly:2 stomach:2 rubble:2 accept:2 pius:1 noel:1 nash:2 mcdaid:1 trajectory:1 could:5 position:2 james:4 wray:3 close:1 range:2 lie:1 ground:1 call:3 move:3 leg:2 gerald:4 glenfada:2 abbey:1 bring:1 nearby:1 examine:2 doctor:1 pocket:3 turn:3 effort:1 identify:3 police:2 corpse:1 neither:1 search:1 medical:1 officer:2 pronounce:1 shortly:2 afterwards:1 fianna:3 éireann:2 link:2 movement:1 paddy:2 ward:3 evidence:6 several:1 hour:2 mckinney:4 stop:1 fall:2 relation:2 leave:2 cover:1 try:2 old:1 shoulder:1 minute:1 shooting:2 start:2 actually:1 way:2 visit:1 soon:1 perspective:1 analysis:1 escort:1 mortally:1 wounded:2 dying:1 home:4 secretary:2 next:1 react:1 threat:1 gunman:2 suspect:1 however:1 eyewitness:1 apart:1 resident:2 maintain:1 tend:1 whereas:1 upon:1 gunfire:1 recover:2 irate:1 burn:1 embassy:2 dublin:3 destroy:2 bbc:6 news:6 online:2 retrieved:1 anglo:1 low:1 ebb:1 minister:4 foreign:1 affair:2 hillery:1 specially:1 nation:1 york:4 demand:1 un:1 involvement:1 although:3 men:3 apparently:2 anticipate:1 draw:3 organizer:1 mp:3 ivan:1 cooper:1 promise:1 beforehand:1 armed:1 tell:1 gunfight:1 want:1 haphazardly:1 revolver:1 direction:1 act:3 weapon:3 target:1 various:2 coroner:1 retire:3 hubert:1 neill:1 issue:3 statement:2 completion:1 inquest:1 chronology:1 declare:1 westminster:1 adopt:1 resolution:1 prime:2 heath:1 commission:2 justice:4 undertake:1 intend:2 boycott:1 lack:1 faith:1 impartiality:1 persuade:1 quickly:1 complete:1 within:2 week:1 april:3 publish:1 eleven:2 support:3 account:3 paraffin:1 lead:3 find:1 body:3 trace:1 explosive:1 clothes:1 already:1 wash:1 conclusion:1 widely:2 gerard:1 plant:1 firearm:1 decease:1 come:2 contact:1 presence:1 easily:1 explain:1 occupation:1 involve:2 base:2 solder:1 write:5 socialist:1 express:2 anger:1 perceive:1 stifle:1 firsthand:1 infuriate:1 consistently:1 chance:1 speak:3 parliamentary:1 convention:1 decree:1 discussion:1 grant:1 opportunity:1 punch:1 reginald:1 maudling:1 department:1 conservative:1 self:1 defence:5 temporarily:1 suspend:1 television:2 station:1 channel:1 suggest:2 royal:2 anglian:1 open:2 responsible:2 may:2 general:2 sir:2 mike:1 jackson:2 para:1 doubt:1 innocent:3 sharp:1 insistence:1 belfast:2 newspaper:2 pp:1 freedom:2 information:1 disclose:1 sierra:2 leone:2 beirut:2 arkansas:2 gun:3 thing:1 stay:2 secret:1 february:2 reject:2 request:1 killing:4 successor:1 decide:1 judge:1 toohey:1 qc:3 high:1 court:1 australia:1 excellent:1 reputation:1 work:2 aboriginal:1 replace:2 zealander:1 somers:1 personal:1 reason:1 mr:1 hoyt:1 brunswick:1 canadian:1 judicial:2 council:1 hearing:1 conclude:1 november:3 currently:1 comprehensive:1 study:1 interview:2 wide:1 politician:1 decline:1 comment:1 martin:1 mcguiness:1 deputy:1 leader:4 sinn:3 féin:3 answer:1 question:1 compromise:1 individual:1 mcguinness:3 supply:1 detonator:1 wing:1 anonymous:1 morning:1 date:1 premise:1 fantasy:1 hara:1 councillor:1 allege:1 ministry:1 impede:1 original:1 helicopter:1 video:1 footage:1 never:1 available:3 additionally:1 lose:1 mod:2 subsequently:2 location:1 little:1 rock:1 obstruction:1 finding:1 big:1 legal:1 history:2 cost:6 process:1 criticism:1 june:3 incur:1 far:2 pursuit:1 around:2 http:1 www:1 telegraph:2 co:1 uk:1 uknews:1 northernireland:1 savilles:1 reach:1 html:1 play:3 scene:1 dramatisation:1 london:1 travel:1 writer:1 richard:1 norton:1 taylor:1 distil:1 stage:1 performance:1 tricycle:2 theatre:1 glowing:1 review:1 broadsheet:1 recreation:1 devastating:1 praise:1 enthral:1 production:1 highly:1 exceptionally:1 grip:1 courtroom:1 drama:2 necessary:1 triumph:1 announce:1 final:1 long:1 wait:1 impact:2 division:1 memorial:1 controversy:1 side:2 agree:1 mark:1 fortune:1 harold:1 wilson:1 opposition:1 reiterate:1 belief:1 possible:1 solution:1 craig:1 stormont:2 west:1 bank:1 cede:1 arrive:1 welcome:1 neutral:1 protect:1 mob:1 constabulary:1 b:2 special:2 honeymoon:1 curfew:1 disband:1 udr:4 longer:1 protector:1 enemy:1 increasingly:1 attract:1 violent:1 mainstream:1 nationalism:1 republicanism:1 towards:1 marxism:1 win:1 newly:1 radicalised:1 disaffect:1 following:1 twenty:1 national:1 liberation:1 inla:1 mean:1 accord:1 critic:1 establishment:1 rival:1 loyalist:2 community:1 uvf:2 etc:1 life:2 thousand:1 pop:1 band:3 miami:1 showband:2 gang:1 uniform:1 jail:1 provisionals:1 eighteen:1 warrenpoint:1 ambush:1 revenge:1 cessation:1 creation:1 power:1 sharing:1 executive:1 good:1 friday:1 examination:1 hop:1 provide:1 thorough:1 artistic:1 reaction:2 commemorate:2 song:7 lennon:3 album:3 feature:1 entitle:2 inspire:1 luck:1 deal:3 descent:2 genealogy:1 mccartney:4 experience:1 festival:1 bio:1 single:1 title:1 matter:1 solo:1 age:1 entertainment:1 christy:1 moore:1 mind:1 lock:1 shut:1 graffiti:1 tongue:1 celtic:1 metal:1 cruachan:1 address:2 folk:1 lore:1 dramatise:1 star:1 nesbitt:1 jimmy:1 mcgovern:1 brian:1 friel:1 viewpoint:1 willie:1 born:1 amass:1 large:1 specifically:1 wolfe:1 tone:1 rebel:1 music:2 heaney:1 poet:1 nobel:1 prize:1 recipient:1 poem:2 casualty:1 elegy:1 track:1 routine:1 happen:1 unnamed:1 reference:2 popular:1 reading:1 external:1 remember:1 trust:1 madden:1 finucane:1 index:2 guardian:4 coverage:3 dáil:1 debate:1 website:2 programme:1 interactive:2 guide:2 contemporary:1 paratroops:1 monday:1 bogsiders:1 insist:1 tuesday:1 importance:1 trigger:1 decade:1 |@bigram bloody_sunday:44 derry_londonderry:1 parachute_regiment:3 widgery_tribunal:5 immediate_aftermath:1 chief_staff:1 tony_blair:2 saville_inquiry:11 provisional_ira:6 quid_pro:1 pro_quo:1 mural_bogside:3 armoured_personnel:1 shortly_afterwards:1 mortally_wounded:1 bbc_news:3 foreign_affair:1 prime_minister:2 temporarily_suspend:1 sierra_leone:2 sinn_féin:3 mod_mod:1 http_www:1 daily_telegraph:1 courtroom_drama:1 ulster_constabulary:1 regiment_udr:3 paul_mccartney:2 seamus_heaney:1 nobel_prize:1 external_link:1 |
7,492 | Matthew_F._Hale | Matthew F. Hale (born July 27, 1971), more commonly called Matt Hale, was the second leader of the white separatist group formerly known as the World Church of the Creator and now known as the Creativity Movement. The organizations headquarters were based in East Peoria, Illinois. In 1998, Hale made headlines when his application for an Illinois law license was denied due to his belief in White Separatism (described as a "gross deficiency in moral character"). Committee on Character and Fitness On April 6, 2005, Hale was sentenced to a 40-year prison term for soliciting an undercover FBI informant to kill federal judge Joan Lefkow. Wilgoren, Jodi (January 9, 2003). White Supremacist Is Held in Ordering Judge's Death. The New York Times. He is currently incarcerated in the Administrative Maximum facility in Florence, Colorado as Inmate number 15177-424. Early life Hale was raised in East Peoria, a community on the Illinois River. According to Hale, by the age of 12, he was reading books about National Socialism such as Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf, and had formed a group at school. In August 1989, Hale entered Bradley University, studying political science. In September 1989, Hale began writing editorials in the college newspaper, the Bradley Scout, espousing his views of White Separatism. A student at Bradley, Robert Bingham, also a political science major, began a debate in the college newspaper editorial about civil rights and the Ku Klux Klan. Upon coming out to give his surname, Matt Hale invited the KKK to the campus of Bradley in the spring of 1990; the same year, he was expelled from Bradley. At the age of 19, Hale burned an Israeli flag at a demonstration and was found guilty of violating an East Peoria ordinance against open burning. The next year, he passed out racist pamphlets to patrons at a shopping mall and was fined for littering. In May 1991, Hale and his brother allegedly threatened three African-Americans with a gun, and he was arrested for mob action. Since he refused to tell police where his brother was, Hale was also charged with felony obstruction of justice; he was convicted of obstruction, but won a reversal on appeal. In 1992, Hale attacked a security guard at a mall and was charged with criminal trespass, resisting arrest, aggravated battery and carrying a concealed weapon. For this attack, Hale was sentenced to 30 months probation and six months house arrest. In 1993, Hale graduated from Bradley University and received a degree in political science. In 1996, Hale took over the Church of the Creator, a religious group that worships the white race as the creators of western civilization. The church believes that a "racial holy war" is necessary to attain a "white world" without Jews and non-whites and to this end it encourages its members to "populate the lands of this earth with white people exclusively". After Hale was appointed "Pontifex Maximus" (supreme leader), he changed the name of the organization to the World Church of the Creator. The name was again changed to the Creativity Movement when a religious group in Oregon (the Church of the Creator) sued Hale's group for trademark infringement. Hale ran the church from an upstairs bedroom at his father's two-story house in East Peoria. Controversy over law license Hale graduated from Southern Illinois University School of Law in May 1998 and passed the bar in July of that same year. On December 16, 1998, the Illinois Bar Committee on Character and Fitness rejected Hale's application for a license to practice law. Hale appealed, and a hearing was held on April 10, 1999. On June 30, 1999, a Hearing Panel of the Committee refused to certify that Hale had the requisite moral character and fitness to practice law in Illinois. (October 29, 1999). Supreme Court of Illinois Press release Two days after Hale was denied a license to practice law, a World Church of the Creator member named Benjamin Smith went on a three-day shooting spree in which he randomly targeted members of racial and ethnic minority groups in Illinois and Indiana. Beginning on July 2, 1999, Smith shot nine Orthodox Jews walking to and from their synagogues in Chicago's West Rogers Park neighborhood, killed two people, including former Northwestern University basketball coach Ricky Byrdsong, in Evanston, Illinois, and a 26-year-old Korean graduate student named Won-Joon Yoon who was shot as he was on his way to church in Bloomington, Indiana. Smith wounded nine others before committing suicide on July 4. Mark Potok, director of intelligence for the Southern Poverty Law Center, believes that Smith may have acted in retaliation after Hale's application to practice law was rejected. Wilgoren, Jodi (March 2, 2005). Haunted by Threats, U.S. Judge Finds New Horror. The New York Times. After Smith's shooting spree, Hale appeared on television and in newspapers saying, "We do urge hatred. If you love something, you must be willing to hate that which threatens it." He also referred to non-whites as "mud races." According to Hale, America should only be occupied by whites. During a television interview that summer, Hale stated that his church didn't condone violent or illegal activities. Meanwhile, Hale was distributing thousands of copies of the "White Man's Bible," a book which encouraged a war against Jews and "inferior, colored races". In public, Hale claimed to be against violence, but his church's bibles expressed the opposite sentiment: "You have no alibi, no other way out, white man! It's fight or die!" Scharnberg, Kirsten (April 27, 2004). Double talk disguises call to arms. Chicago Tribune. Hale's reactions to Smith's shooting spree were also recorded by a police informant, and on the tapes Hale supposedly laughs about the murders and imitates the sound of gunfire. Federal convictions On January 8, 2003, Hale was arrested, charged with soliciting an undercover FBI informant to kill Judge Joan Lefkow, the United States district court judge presiding over his trademark case. Hale had previously filed a class action lawsuit against Lefkow in late 2002, around which time threats against her life appeared on the white nationalist forum Stormfront.org and other websites. Prior to his arrest, Hale denounced Lefkow in a news conference, claiming that she was biased against him (in his trademark case) because she was married to a Jewish man and had grandchildren who were biracial. On February 28, 2005, Lefkow's mother and husband were murdered at her home on Chicago's North Side. Chicago Police revealed on March 10 that Bart Ross, a plaintiff in a medical malpractice case that Lefkow had dismissed, admitted to the murders in a suicide note written before shooting himself during a routine traffic stop in Wisconsin the previous evening. (March 10, 2005) Police: Wisconsin death has Lefkow tie Chicago Tribune On April 6, 2005, Hale was sentenced to a 40-year prison term for his conviction for attempting to solicit the murder of Lefkow. Hale's projected release date is December 6, 2037. Federal Bureau of Prisons References External links "The Creativity Movement" Rick A. Ross Institute | Matthew_F._Hale |@lemmatized matthew:1 f:1 hale:37 bear:1 july:4 commonly:1 call:2 matt:2 second:1 leader:2 white:13 separatist:1 group:6 formerly:1 know:2 world:4 church:10 creator:6 creativity:3 movement:3 organization:2 headquarters:1 base:1 east:4 peoria:4 illinois:9 make:1 headline:1 application:3 law:8 license:4 deny:2 due:1 belief:1 separatism:2 describe:1 gross:1 deficiency:1 moral:2 character:4 committee:3 fitness:3 april:4 sentence:3 year:6 prison:3 term:2 solicit:3 undercover:2 fbi:2 informant:3 kill:3 federal:3 judge:5 joan:2 lefkow:8 wilgoren:2 jodi:2 january:2 supremacist:1 hold:2 order:1 death:2 new:3 york:2 time:3 currently:1 incarcerate:1 administrative:1 maximum:1 facility:1 florence:1 colorado:1 inmate:1 number:1 early:1 life:2 raise:1 community:1 river:1 accord:2 age:2 read:1 book:2 national:1 socialism:1 adolf:1 hitler:1 mein:1 kampf:1 form:1 school:2 august:1 enter:1 bradley:6 university:4 study:1 political:3 science:3 september:1 begin:3 write:2 editorial:2 college:2 newspaper:3 scout:1 espouse:1 view:1 student:2 robert:1 bingham:1 also:4 major:1 debate:1 civil:1 right:1 ku:1 klux:1 klan:1 upon:1 come:1 give:1 surname:1 invite:1 kkk:1 campus:1 spring:1 expel:1 burn:1 israeli:1 flag:1 demonstration:1 find:2 guilty:1 violate:1 ordinance:1 open:1 burning:1 next:1 pass:2 racist:1 pamphlet:1 patron:1 shopping:1 mall:2 fin:1 litter:1 may:3 brother:2 allegedly:1 threaten:2 three:2 african:1 american:1 gun:1 arrest:5 mob:1 action:2 since:1 refuse:2 tell:1 police:4 charge:3 felony:1 obstruction:2 justice:1 convict:1 win:2 reversal:1 appeal:2 attack:2 security:1 guard:1 criminal:1 trespass:1 resist:1 aggravate:1 battery:1 carry:1 concealed:1 weapon:1 month:2 probation:1 six:1 house:2 graduate:3 receive:1 degree:1 take:1 religious:2 worship:1 race:3 western:1 civilization:1 believe:2 racial:2 holy:1 war:2 necessary:1 attain:1 without:1 jew:3 non:2 end:1 encourage:2 member:3 populate:1 land:1 earth:1 people:2 exclusively:1 appoint:1 pontifex:1 maximus:1 supreme:2 change:2 name:4 oregon:1 sue:1 trademark:3 infringement:1 run:1 upstairs:1 bedroom:1 father:1 two:3 story:1 controversy:1 southern:2 bar:2 december:2 reject:2 practice:4 hearing:2 june:1 panel:1 certify:1 requisite:1 october:1 court:2 press:1 release:2 day:2 benjamin:1 smith:6 go:1 shoot:5 spree:3 randomly:1 target:1 ethnic:1 minority:1 indiana:2 shot:1 nine:2 orthodox:1 walk:1 synagogue:1 chicago:5 west:1 rogers:1 park:1 neighborhood:1 include:1 former:1 northwestern:1 basketball:1 coach:1 ricky:1 byrdsong:1 evanston:1 old:1 korean:1 joon:1 yoon:1 way:2 bloomington:1 wound:1 others:1 commit:1 suicide:2 mark:1 potok:1 director:1 intelligence:1 poverty:1 center:1 act:1 retaliation:1 march:3 haunt:1 threat:2 u:1 horror:1 appear:2 television:2 say:1 urge:1 hatred:1 love:1 something:1 must:1 willing:1 hate:1 refer:1 mud:1 america:1 occupy:1 interview:1 summer:1 state:2 condone:1 violent:1 illegal:1 activity:1 meanwhile:1 distribute:1 thousand:1 copy:1 man:3 bible:2 inferior:1 color:1 public:1 claim:2 violence:1 express:1 opposite:1 sentiment:1 alibi:1 fight:1 die:1 scharnberg:1 kirsten:1 double:1 talk:1 disguise:1 arm:1 tribune:2 reaction:1 record:1 tape:1 supposedly:1 laugh:1 murder:4 imitate:1 sound:1 gunfire:1 conviction:2 united:1 district:1 preside:1 case:3 previously:1 file:1 class:1 lawsuit:1 late:1 around:1 nationalist:1 forum:1 stormfront:1 org:1 website:1 prior:1 denounce:1 news:1 conference:1 bias:1 marry:1 jewish:1 grandchild:1 biracial:1 february:1 mother:1 husband:1 home:1 north:1 side:1 reveal:1 bart:1 ross:2 plaintiff:1 medical:1 malpractice:1 dismiss:1 admit:1 note:1 routine:1 traffic:1 stop:1 wisconsin:2 previous:1 evening:1 tie:1 attempt:1 project:1 date:1 bureau:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 rick:1 institute:1 |@bigram peoria_illinois:1 fbi_informant:2 white_supremacist:1 adolf_hitler:1 hitler_mein:1 mein_kampf:1 ku_klux:1 klux_klan:1 shopping_mall:1 obstruction_justice:1 carry_concealed:1 concealed_weapon:1 pontifex_maximus:1 trademark_infringement:1 supreme_court:1 shoot_spree:3 evanston_illinois:1 bloomington_indiana:1 commit_suicide:1 chicago_tribune:2 medical_malpractice:1 external_link:1 |
7,493 | Cardiff_Arms_Park | Cardiff Arms Park (), also known as The Arms Park, is a rugby union stadium situated in the centre of Cardiff, Wales. The history of the rugby ground starts with the first stands appearing for spectators in the ground in 1881–1882, although the Arms Park had cricket played on the site since 1848. Until the end of the 2008-09 season, the stadium was the home to the Cardiff Blues rugby union team, with the region moving to the new Cardiff City Stadium from the start of the 2009-10 season. It is now the home of Cardiff Rugby Football Club. Until 1966, the site had a cricket ground to the north and a rugby ground to the south. The cricket ground was home to the only Welsh first-class cricket club, Glamorgan County Cricket Club. The rugby ground was host to the British Empire and Commonwealth Games in 1958 and home to Cardiff RFC and the Wales national rugby union team. From 1970, the site had two rugby union stadiums: the Cardiff Rugby Ground, which had replaced the cricket ground, and the National Stadium. The National Stadium was home to the Wales national rugby union team and it was officially opened on 7 April 1984, however by 1999 the Millennium Stadium had replaced it as the national stadium of Wales. The Cardiff Rugby Ground has remained the home of Cardiff RFC, yet the future of the rugby stadium is in doubt, with the announcement in 2007 that the Cardiff Blues will be moving to Cardiff City Stadium in August 2009. The site has been host to many sports, apart from rugby union and cricket; they include athletics, association football, greyhound racing, tennis, British baseball and boxing. The site also has a bowling green to the north of Cardiff Rugby Ground, which is used by Cardiff Athletic Bowls Club, this is the bowls section of the Cardiff Athletic Club. The National Stadium also hosted many music concerts including The Rolling Stones, U2, Bryan Adams and Michael Jackson. History The Cardiff Arms Park site was originally called the Great Park, a swampy meadow behind the Cardiff Arms Hotel. Cardiff Arms Park was named after this hotel/pub, however by 1878, the building had been demolished. From 1803, the Cardiff Arms Hotel and the Park had become the property of the Bute family. The Arms Park soon became a popular place for sporting events, and by 1848, Cardiff Cricket Club was using the site for its cricket matches. The 3rd Marquess of Bute stipulated that the ground could only be used for "recreational purposes". At that time Cardiff Arms Park had a cricket ground to the north and a rugby union ground to the south. Plans of the cricket ground (north) and rugby ground (south) in 1927. (Glamorgan Record Office) 1881–2 saw the first stands for spectators; they held 300 spectators and cost GB£50. The architect was Archibald Leitch, famous for designing Ibrox Stadium and Old Trafford, amongst others. In 1890, new standing areas were constructed along the entire length of the ground, with additional stands erected in 1896. Redevelopment of 1912 By 1912 the Cardiff Football Ground, as it was then known, had a new south stand and temporary stands on the north, east and west ends of the ground. The south stand was covered, while the north terrace was initially without a roof. The improvements were partly funded by the WRU. The opening ceremony took place on 5 October 1912, with a match between Newport RFC and Cardiff RFC. The new ground was opened by Lord Ninian Crichton-Stuart. This new development increased the ground capacity to 43,000 and much improved the facilities at the ground compared to the earlier stands. In 1922 John Crichton-Stuart, 4th Marquess of Bute, had sold the entire site and it was bought by the Cardiff Arms Park Company Limited for GB£30,000, it was then leased to the Cardiff Athletic Club (cricket and rugby sections) for 99 years at a cost of £200 per annum. New North Stand and South Stand redevelopments During 1934 the cricket pavilion had been demolished to make way for the new North Stand, which was built on the rugby union ground, costing around £20,000. However in 1941 the new North Stand and part of the west terracing had been badly damaged in the Blitz by the Luftwaffe during the Second World War. At a general meeting of the Welsh Rugby Union (WRU) in June 1953, they made a decision, "That until such time as the facilities at Swansea were improved, all international matches be played at Cardiff". At the same time, plans were made for a new South Stand, which was estimated to cost £60,000, however the tender price came out at GB£90,000, a compromise was made, and it was decided to build a new upper South Stand costing £64,000 instead, with the Cardiff Athletic Club contributing £15,000 and the remainder coming from the WRU. The new South Stand opened in 1956, in time for the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games. This brought the overall capacity of the Arms Park up to 60,000, of which 12,800 spectators were seated and the remained standing. The new North Stand, rugby ground, Cardiff Arms Park The Arms Park hosted the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games, which was used for the athletics events, but this event caused damage to the drainage system, so much so, that other rugby unions (England, Scotland and Ireland) complained after the Games about the state of the pitch. The Development Committee was set up to resolve this issue on a permanent basis. They looked at various sites in Cardiff, but they all proved to be unsatisfactory. They also could not agree a solution with the Cardiff Athletic Club, so they purchased about of land at Island Farm in Bridgend, which was previously used as a prisoner-of-war camp. It is best known for the being the camp where the biggest escape attempt was made by German prisoners of war in Great Britain during the Second World War. Due to problems including transport issues Glamorgan County Council never gave outline planning permission for the proposals and by June 1964 the scheme was abandoned. At that stage, the cricket ground to the north was still being used by Glamorgan County Cricket Club, and the rugby union ground to the south was used by the national Wales team and Cardiff RFC. By 7 October 1966, the first floodlit game was held at Cardiff Arms Park, a game in which Cardiff RFC beat the Barbarians by 12 points to 8. The National Stadium The National Stadium, which was also known as the Welsh National Rugby Ground, was designed by Osborne V Webb & Partners and built by G A Williamson & Associates of Porthcawl and Andrew Scott & Company of Port Talbot. After agreement from the Cardiff Athletic Club, the freehold of the south ground was transferred solely to the WRU in July 1968. Work could then begin on the new National Stadium. Glamorgan County Cricket Club would move to Sophia Gardens and the cricket ground to the north would be demolished and a new rugby union stadium built for Cardiff RFC, who would move out of the south ground, allowing the National Stadium to be built, for the sole use of the national rugby union team. The National Stadium (left) and Cardiff Rugby Ground (right) both on an east-west alignment On 17 October 1970, the new North Stand and the Cardiff RFC ground was completed, the North Stand cost just over GB£1 million. The West Stand was opened in 1977 and the new East Terrace was completed by March 1980. By the time the final South Stand had been completed and the Stadium officially opened on 7 April 1984, the South Stand had cost £4.5M. At the start of the project, the total cost was estimated at £2.25M, although by time it was finished in 1984, it had risen by nearly four times that amount. The two stadiums on the site both had approximately east-west alignment; the Cardiff Rugby Ground to the north (Castle Street) end, and the National Stadium to the south (Wood Street) end. The original capacity was 65,000 but this had to be reduced in later years to 53,000 for safety reasons. 11,000 of these were on the East Terrace and the conversion to all-seater stadium would have reduced the stadium capacity still further to 47,500. This capacity would have been much less than Twickenham and the other major rugby venues and also less than the demand for tickets to major events. The first evening game to be played under floodlights was held on 4 September 1991 at 8.00pm, between Wales and France. The last international match to be held at the National Stadium was between Wales and England on 15 March 1997, and the last ever match that was held at the National Stadium was on 26 April 1997 between Cardiff and Swansea, Cardiff won the WRU Challenge Cup by 33 points to 26 points. The Millennium Stadium Just thirteen years later in 1997, the National Stadium was considered too small and did not have the facilities required of the time and it was demolished and a new stadium, the Millennium Stadium, was built in its place (completed to a north-south alignment and opened in June 1999). This would become the fourth redevelopment of the Cardiff Arms Park site. Although the Millennium Stadium is on roughly two thirds of the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park site, it is not considered to be part of the Arms Park. The official website states that "The Millennium Stadium is located on Westgate Street in Cardiff; next to the Cardiff Arms Park". Cardiff Rugby Ground Only the Cardiff Rugby Ground now use the name Cardiff Arms Park. Cardiff Rugby Ground has two main stands, the North Stand, which was renamed the Bmibaby.com Stand in August 2002, and the South Stand. Both the Bmibaby.com Stand and the South Stand have terracing below seating. The other ends of the ground are the Westgate Street end (east), which has rows of seating below executive boxes, plus the club shop, and the River Taff end (west), which has 26 executive boxes. Cardiff Rugby Ground has two main entrances, the south entrance, and the Gwyn Nicholls Memorial Gates (north entrance), which was unveiled on 26 December 1949 in honour of the Welsh international rugby player Gwyn Nicholls. The Cardiff Athletic Clubhouse is situated in the corner of the ground between the South Stand and the Westgate Street end. The South Stand of the Cardiff Rugby Ground formed a complete unit with the North Stand of the National Stadium. Now the same structure of the South Stand of the Cardiff Rugby Ground is also physically attached to the North Stand of the Millennium Stadium. This section is known colloquially as Glanmor's Gap, after Glanmor Griffiths, former chair and President of the WRU. This came about because the WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the Millennium Stadium, and the National Lottery Commission would not provide any additional funds to be used for the construction of a new ground for Cardiff RFC. The Millennium Stadium was therefore built with the old reinforced concrete structure of the National Stadium (North Stand) and the new steel Millennium Stadium structure built around it. Glanmor's GapNorth Stand, Millennium Stadium There is doubt about the future of Cardiff Arms Park after 2010. It was announced on 19 September 2007, that the Cardiff Blues team were to move from Cardiff Arms Park for the season 2009–2010 to the Cardiff City Stadium as part of the Leckwith Development and become tenants of Cardiff City FC. Cardiff RFC Ltd, the company which runs Cardiff Blues and Cardiff RFC, still has a 15 year lease on the Arms Park, but it is not known if the small crowds, in the region of 1,000 spectators, who regularly support Cardiff RFC, would not be enough to justify remaining at the Ground. The Ground is still owned by Cardiff Athletic Club, and it is believed that Cardiff Blues pay owners Cardiff Athletic Club rent in the region of £100,000 per annum. However, it still has the original requirement on the lease, that the land will only be used for "recreational purposes", as stipulated by the Bute family. But the Cardiff Arms Park site is a prime piece of real estate in the centre of Cardiff, which means that it may be difficult to sell the land to property developers. The estimated value of the whole Arms Park site could be at least GB£15 million, although with the "recreational use" requirement, its actual value could be a lot less than that figure. A decision by Cardiff Athletic Club on the future of Cardiff Arms Park could be made during 2008. The move to the new stadium is expected to improve the facilities for both players and supporters. In addition, Cardiff Blues chairman, Peter Thomas, said "A Blues move away from their traditional Cardiff Arms Park home could enable the WRU to complete the Millennium Stadium with an extra 8,000-plus fans able to see games in the (redeveloped) North Stand (Glanmor's Gap)" and "From a rugby point of view, we might attract more fans from the Valleys if we moved away from the Arms Park", Cardiff Blues currently attract an average home gate attendance of 12,203 supporters. (9,171 if games played at the Millennium Stadium are excluded) (2008/09 season) Cardiff Athletic Bowls Club Cardiff Arms Park is best known as a rugby union stadium, however Cardiff Athletic Bowls Club (CABC) was established in 1923, and ever since then the club has used the Arms Park as its bowling club. The bowls club is a section of the Cardiff Athletic Club and shares many of the facilities of the Cardiff Arms Park athletics centre. The Club has produced two Welsh international bowlers; Mr. C Standfast in 1937 and Mr. B Hawkins who represented Wales in the 1982 World Pairs and captained Wales in 1982 and 1984. Usage Association football Football Association of Wales programme cover of the first international football match held at the National Stadium in 1989 The Riverside Football Club, founded in 1899, played some matches at the Arms Park until 1910, when they moved to Ninian Park, and later became Cardiff City Football Club. On 31 May 1989, Wales played its first international game against West Germany at the National Stadium. It was also the first ever international football match held in Great Britain that was watched by all-seater spectators. Athletics (track and field) In 1958, the British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Cardiff. The event has been the biggest sporting event ever held in Wales, however it would not have been possible without the financial support given by the WRU and the Cardiff Athletic Club. Both the opening and closing ceremonies took place at Cardiff Arms Park, plus all the track and field events, on what had been the greyhound track. It would turn out to be the last time that South Africa would participate in the Games until 1994. South Africa withdrew from the Commonwealth Games in 1961. Baseball & British baseball Baseball was established early on in Cardiff, and one of the earliest of games to be held at the Arms Park was on 18 May 1918. It was a charity match in aid of the Prisoner of War Fund between Welsh and American teams of the U.S. Beaufort & U.S. Jupiter. British baseball matches have also regularly taken place at the Arms Park and hosted the annual England versus Wales international game every four years. The games are now usually held at Roath Park. Boxing Around 25,000 spectators watched international boxing on 1 October 1993, at the National Stadium with a World Boxing Council (WBC) Heavyweight title bout between Lennox Lewis and Frank Bruno. Lewis beat Bruno by a technical knockout in the 7th round, in what was called the "Battle of Britain". On 30 September 1995, Steve Robinson the World Boxing Organization (WBO) World Featherweight Champion, lost against Prince Naseem Hamed at the Cardiff Rugby Ground in 8 rounds. Cricket In 1845 Cardiff Cricket Club was formed, by 1848 they had moved to their new home at the Arms Park. Glamorgan Cricket Club, at the time not a first-class county, played their first match at Cardiff Arms Park in June 1869, against Monmouthshire. They played their first-ever County Championship match there in 1921, competing there every season (except while first-class cricket was suspended during the Second World War), their last match being against Somerset in August 1966. Glamorgan then moved to a new ground Sophia Gardens on the opposite bank of the River Taff to the Arms Park, following work on the creation of a national rugby stadium, later named the National Stadium. The first first-class cricket match actually to be held on the ground was between West of England and East of England, on 20 June 1910. In all more than 240 first-class cricket matches were played at Cardiff Arms Park. Only one List A game was ever played at the ground, and this was only the second match of its type: Glamorgan's Gillette Cup fixture against Somerset on 22 May 1963. Except for the aforementioned 1910 game, the only major match not to involve Glamorgan was a Test Trial in July 1932, which was badly affected by the weather and saw play on only one of the scheduled three days. Greyhound racing To help pay for the upkeep of the site, a greyhound track was opened in 1927. The Arms Park (Cardiff) Greyhound Racing Company Limited signed a 50-year lease in 1937, with Cardiff Athletic Club, the owners of the Arms Park, having no rights to break the agreement or to review the rental until the 50 years were up. However the last greyhound race was actually held at the National Stadium was on 30 July 1977. Rugby union Welsh Rugby Union programme cover of the north stand of the National Stadium in 1970 In 1876, the Cardiff RFC was formed and soon after they also used the park. On 12 April 1884, the first international match was played at the ground between Wales and Ireland, when 5,000 people watched Wales beat Ireland by 2 tries and a drop goal to nil. The Arms Park rugby ground became the permanent home of the Wales national rugby union team in 1964. Later, the National Stadium was also home to the WRU Challenge Cup from 1972 until the last ever match held at the Stadium on 26 April 1997, at a much reduced capacity, between Cardiff RFC and Swansea RFC. Cardiff RFC won the match by 33 point to 26, with the last try scored by Nigel Walker. The National Stadium hosted four games in the 1991 Rugby World Cup, including the 3rd / 4th place play-off. The National Stadium was also host to the inaugural Heineken Cup final of 1995-6 when Toulouse beat Cardiff RFC by 21 to 18 after extra time, in front of 21,800 spectators. The following final in 1996-7 was also held at the National Stadium, this time it was between Brive and Leicester Tigers. Brive won the match 28 points to 9, in front of a crowd of 41,664. The Heineken Cup is Europe's premier Rugby Union club competition. In 2008, the Cardiff Rugby Ground hosted all the games in Pool A of the 2008 IRB Junior World Championship and also the semi-final on 18 June 2008, in which England beat South Africa 26–18. "The greatest match...the greatest try" The stadium is best known as the venue for what some say was the "the greatest try ever scored" by Gareth Edwards for the Barbarians against the New Zealand All Blacks in what is also called "the greatest match ever played" on 27 January 1973. The final score was 23 points to 11 to the Barbarians (this translates to 27 points to 13, in today's scoring system). The game is one I will never forget and those of us who played in it will never be allowed to forget. It is a match that will live with me forever. People tend only to remember the first four minutes of the game because of the try, but what they forgot is the great deal of good rugby played afterwards, much of which came from the All Blacks. After the success of the 1971 Lions tour, which captured the imagination of the whole country, it was an opportunity to bring a lot of that side together again. —Gareth Edwards The scorers were: Barbarians: Tries: Gareth Edwards, Fergus Slattery, John Bevan, J P R Williams; Conversions: Phil Bennett (2); Penalty: Phil Bennett. All Blacks: Tries: Grant Batty (2); Penalty: Joseph Karam. Concerts and conventions Major music concerts were also held at the National Stadium: David Bowie: Glass Spider Tour 21 June 1987. U2: Joshua Tree Tour 25 July 1987. Michael Jackson: Bad World Tour 26 July 1988. Simple Minds: Street Fighting Years Tour 5 August 1989. The Rolling Stones: Urban Jungle Tour 16 July 1990. Status Quo: 8 June 1991. 10,000 Voices World Choir, with Tom Jones and Dennis O'Neill: 23 May 1992. Dire Straits: European Tour 11 June 1992. Bryan Adams: Waking Up The World Tour 19 July 1992. Michael Jackson: Dangerous World Tour 5 August 1992. 10,000 Voices World Choir with Shirley Bassey: 29 May 1993. U2: Zoo TV Tour 18 August 1993. Jose Carreras: 30 July 1994. Bon Jovi: These Days Tour 21 June 1995, supported by Van Halen: The Balance Tour. R.E.M.: Monster Tour 23 July 1995. Tina Turner: Wildest Dreams Tour 14 July 1996. Jehovah's Witnesses have held their annual conventions at the National Stadium for many years and continue to do so at the Millennium Stadium. Singing tradition The National Stadium was known primarily as the venue for massed voices singing such hymns as "Cwm Rhondda", "Calon Lân", "Men of Harlech" and "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" ("Land of my Fathers" - the national anthem of Wales). The legendary atmosphere including singing of the crowd was said to be worth at least a try or a goal to the home nation. This tradition of singing has now passed onto the Millennium Stadium. The Arms Park has its own choir, called the Cardiff Arms Park Male Choir. It was formed in 1966 as the Cardiff Athletic Club Male Voice Choir, and today performs internationally with a schedule of concerts and tours. In 2000, the choir changed their name to become the Cardiff Arms Park Male Choir. See also Sport in Cardiff Notes References Harris, K. M. The Story of the Development of the National Rugby Ground, 7 April 1984. Cover of the booklet on www.rugbyrelics.com External links Photographs of the National Stadium in April 1997, prior to demolition Gareth Edwards try for the Barbarians Vs All Blacks, 27 January 1973, at the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park Cardiff Arms Park Male Choir website The opening ceremony of the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games, Cardiff Arms Park wikimapia.org image of Cardiff Arms Park | Cardiff_Arms_Park |@lemmatized cardiff:100 arm:48 park:51 also:17 know:9 rugby:48 union:18 stadium:64 situate:2 centre:3 wale:15 history:2 ground:51 start:3 first:17 stand:37 appear:1 spectator:8 although:4 cricket:23 play:16 site:15 since:2 end:8 season:5 home:12 blue:8 team:8 region:3 move:11 new:23 city:5 football:9 club:31 north:24 south:25 welsh:7 class:5 glamorgan:9 county:6 host:8 british:8 empire:5 commonwealth:6 game:23 rfc:17 national:41 two:6 replace:2 officially:2 open:7 april:7 however:8 millennium:14 remain:2 yet:1 future:3 doubt:2 announcement:1 august:6 many:4 sport:3 apart:1 include:6 athletics:4 association:3 greyhound:6 racing:1 tennis:1 baseball:5 boxing:2 bowling:2 green:1 use:14 athletic:16 bowl:4 bowls:1 section:4 music:2 concert:4 rolling:2 stone:2 bryan:2 adam:2 michael:3 jackson:3 originally:1 call:4 great:8 swampy:1 meadow:1 behind:1 hotel:3 name:4 pub:1 building:1 demolish:4 become:7 property:2 bute:4 family:2 soon:2 popular:1 place:6 event:7 match:24 marquess:2 stipulate:2 could:7 recreational:3 purpose:2 time:12 plan:2 record:1 office:1 saw:2 hold:17 cost:8 gb:5 architect:1 archibald:1 leitch:1 famous:1 design:2 ibrox:1 old:2 trafford:1 amongst:1 others:1 area:1 construct:1 along:1 entire:2 length:1 additional:2 erect:1 redevelopment:3 temporary:1 east:7 west:8 cover:4 terrace:4 initially:1 without:2 roof:1 improvement:1 partly:1 fund:3 wru:10 opening:3 ceremony:3 take:3 october:4 newport:1 lord:1 ninian:2 crichton:2 stuart:2 development:4 increase:1 capacity:6 much:5 improve:3 facility:5 compare:1 early:3 john:2 sell:2 buy:1 company:4 limit:2 lease:4 year:9 per:2 annum:2 pavilion:1 make:6 way:1 build:8 around:3 part:3 terracing:1 badly:2 damage:2 blitz:1 luftwaffe:1 second:4 world:14 war:6 general:1 meeting:1 june:10 decision:2 swansea:3 international:10 estimate:2 tender:1 price:1 come:4 compromise:1 decide:1 upper:1 instead:1 contribute:1 remainder:1 bring:2 overall:1 seat:3 remained:1 standing:1 cause:1 drainage:1 system:2 england:6 scotland:1 ireland:3 complain:1 state:2 pitch:1 committee:1 set:1 resolve:1 issue:2 permanent:2 basis:1 look:1 various:1 prove:1 unsatisfactory:1 agree:1 solution:1 purchase:1 land:4 island:1 farm:1 bridgend:1 previously:1 prisoner:3 camp:2 best:3 big:2 escape:1 attempt:1 german:1 britain:3 due:1 problem:1 transport:1 council:2 never:3 give:2 outline:1 planning:1 permission:1 proposal:1 scheme:1 abandon:1 stage:1 still:5 floodlit:1 beat:5 barbarian:5 point:8 osborne:1 v:1 webb:1 partner:1 g:1 williamson:1 associate:1 porthcawl:1 andrew:1 scott:1 port:1 talbot:1 agreement:2 freehold:1 transfer:1 solely:1 july:10 work:2 begin:1 would:11 sophia:2 garden:2 allow:2 sole:1 leave:1 right:2 alignment:3 complete:6 million:2 march:2 final:5 project:1 total:1 finish:1 rise:1 nearly:1 four:4 amount:1 approximately:1 castle:1 street:6 wood:1 original:2 reduce:3 later:5 safety:1 reason:1 conversion:2 seater:2 far:1 less:3 twickenham:1 major:4 venue:3 demand:1 ticket:1 evening:1 floodlight:1 september:3 france:1 last:7 ever:9 win:3 challenge:2 cup:6 thirteen:1 consider:2 small:2 require:1 fourth:1 roughly:1 third:1 official:1 website:2 locate:1 westgate:3 next:1 main:2 rename:1 bmibaby:2 com:3 row:1 executive:2 box:5 plus:3 shop:1 river:2 taff:2 entrance:3 gwyn:2 nicholls:2 memorial:1 gate:2 unveil:1 december:1 honour:1 player:2 clubhouse:1 corner:1 form:4 unit:1 structure:3 physically:1 attach:1 colloquially:1 glanmor:4 gap:2 griffith:1 former:1 chair:1 president:1 unable:1 secure:1 enough:2 funding:1 lottery:1 commission:1 provide:1 construction:1 therefore:1 reinforced:1 concrete:1 steel:1 gapnorth:1 announce:1 leckwith:1 tenant:1 fc:1 ltd:1 run:1 crowd:3 regularly:2 support:3 justify:1 believe:1 pay:2 owner:2 rent:1 requirement:2 prime:1 piece:1 real:1 estate:1 mean:1 may:6 difficult:1 developer:1 estimated:1 value:2 whole:2 least:2 actual:1 lot:2 figure:1 expect:1 supporter:2 addition:1 chairman:1 peter:1 thomas:1 say:3 away:2 traditional:1 enable:1 extra:2 fan:2 able:1 see:2 redevelop:1 view:1 might:1 attract:2 valley:1 currently:1 average:1 attendance:1 exclude:1 cabc:1 establish:2 share:1 produce:1 bowler:1 mr:2 c:1 standfast:1 b:1 hawkins:1 represent:1 pair:1 captain:1 usage:1 programme:2 riverside:1 found:1 wales:2 germany:1 watch:3 track:4 field:2 sporting:1 possible:1 financial:1 closing:1 turn:1 africa:3 participate:1 withdrew:1 one:4 charity:1 aid:1 american:1 u:3 beaufort:1 jupiter:1 annual:2 versus:1 every:2 usually:1 roath:1 wbc:1 heavyweight:1 title:1 bout:1 lennox:1 lewis:2 frank:1 bruno:2 technical:1 knockout:1 round:2 battle:1 steve:1 robinson:1 organization:1 wbo:1 featherweight:1 champion:1 lose:1 prince:1 naseem:1 ham:1 monmouthshire:1 championship:2 compete:1 except:2 suspend:1 somerset:2 opposite:1 bank:1 follow:1 creation:1 actually:2 list:1 type:1 gillette:1 fixture:1 aforementioned:1 involve:1 test:1 trial:1 affect:1 weather:1 scheduled:1 three:1 day:2 race:3 help:1 upkeep:1 sign:1 break:1 review:1 rental:1 people:2 try:9 drop:1 goal:2 nil:1 score:4 nigel:1 walker:1 inaugural:1 heineken:2 toulouse:1 front:2 following:1 brive:2 leicester:1 tiger:1 europe:1 premier:1 competition:1 pool:1 irb:1 junior:1 semi:1 gareth:4 edward:4 zealand:1 black:4 january:2 translate:1 today:2 forget:3 live:1 forever:1 tend:1 remember:1 minute:1 deal:1 good:1 afterwards:1 success:1 lion:1 tour:15 capture:1 imagination:1 country:1 opportunity:1 side:1 together:1 scorer:1 fergus:1 slattery:1 bevan:1 j:1 p:1 r:2 williams:1 phil:2 bennett:2 penalty:2 grant:1 batty:1 joseph:1 karam:1 convention:2 david:1 bowie:1 glass:1 spider:1 joshua:1 tree:1 bad:1 simple:1 mind:1 fight:1 urban:1 jungle:1 status:1 quo:1 voice:4 choir:8 tom:1 jones:1 dennis:1 neill:1 dire:1 strait:1 european:1 wake:1 dangerous:1 shirley:1 bassey:1 zoo:1 tv:1 jose:1 carreras:1 bon:1 jovi:1 van:1 halen:1 balance:1 e:1 monster:1 tina:1 turner:1 wild:1 dream:1 jehovah:1 witness:1 continue:1 sing:3 tradition:2 primarily:1 massed:1 hymn:1 cwm:1 rhondda:1 calon:1 lân:1 men:1 harlech:1 hen:1 wlad:1 fy:1 nhadau:1 father:1 anthem:1 legendary:1 atmosphere:1 singing:1 worth:1 nation:1 pass:1 onto:1 male:4 performs:1 internationally:1 schedule:1 change:1 note:1 reference:1 harris:1 k:1 story:1 booklet:1 www:1 rugbyrelics:1 external:1 link:1 photograph:1 prior:1 demolition:1 vs:1 wikimapia:1 org:1 image:1 |@bigram rugby_union:18 cardiff_rugby:14 cardiff_rfc:15 cardiff_athletic:16 rolling_stone:2 marquess_bute:2 architect_archibald:1 archibald_leitch:1 old_trafford:1 per_annum:2 badly_damage:1 seater_stadium:1 river_taff:2 reinforced_concrete:1 real_estate:1 sporting_event:1 opening_closing:1 closing_ceremony:1 roath_park:1 technical_knockout:1 david_bowie:1 status_quo:1 dire_strait:1 bon_jovi:1 van_halen:1 tina_turner:1 jehovah_witness:1 hen_wlad:1 wlad_fy:1 fy_nhadau:1 external_link:1 |
7,494 | Maasai_Mara | The Masai Mara (also spelled Maasai Mara) is a large park reserve in south-western Kenya, which is effectively the northern continuation of the Serengeti National Park game reserve in Tanzania. Named for the Maasai people (the traditional inhabitants of the area) and the Mara River, which divides it, it is famous for its exceptional population of game and the annual migration of zebra, thomson's gazelle and the wildebeest from the Serengeti every year from July to October, a migration so immense it is called the Great Migration. Geography The MMNR covers some 1530km² in south-western Kenya. It is the northern-most section of the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem, covering some 25,000 km². It is bounded by the Serengeti Park to the south, the Siria escarpment to the west and Maasai pastoral ranches to the north, east and west. Rainfall in the ecosystem increases markedly along a south-east-north-west gradient, varies in space and time, and is markedly bimodal. The Sand, Talek and Mara are the major rivers draining the reserve. Shrubs and trees fringe most drainage lines and cover hillslopes and hilltops. The terrain of the reserve is primarily open grassland, with seasonal riverlets. In the south-east region are clumps of the distinctive acacia tree. The western border is the Esoit Oloololo Escarpment of the Rift Valley, and wildlife tends to be most concentrated here, as the swampy ground means that access to water is always good and tourist disruption is minimal. The easternmost border is 224 km from Nairobi, and hence it is the eastern regions which are most visited by tourists. Masai Mara Wildlife Wildebeest, zebra and Thomson's gazelle migrate into and occupy the Mara reserve from the Serengeti plains to the south and Loita plains in the pastoral ranches to the north-east from July to October or later. Herds of all three species are also resident in the reserve. All members of the "Big Five" are to be found in the Masai Mara, although the population of black rhinoceros is severely threatened, with a population of only 37 recorded in 2000. Hippopotami are found in large groups in the Masai Mara and Talek Rivers. Cheetah are also to be found, although their numbers are also threatened, chiefly due to tourist disruption of their day-time hunting. As mentioned above, the plains between the Mara river and the Esoit Oloololo Escarpment are probably the best area for game viewing, in particular regarding lion and cheetah. As in the Serengeti, the wildebeest are the dominant inhabitant of the Masai Mara, and their numbers are estimated in the millions. Around July of each year these ungainly animals migrate in a vast ensemble north from the Serengeti plains in search of fresh pasture, and return to the south around October. The Great Migration is one of the most impressive natural events worldwide, involving an immensity of herbivores some 1,300,000 Wildebeest, 360,000 Thomson's Gazelle, and 191,000 Zebra. These numerous migrants are followed along their annual, circular route by a block of hungry predators, most notably lions and hyena. Numerous other antelope can be found, including Thomson's and Grant's gazelle, impala, topi and Coke's hartebeest. Large herds of zebra are found through the reserve. The plains are also home to the distinctive Masai Giraffe as well as the common giraffe. The large Roan antelope and the nocturnal bat-eared fox, rarely present elsewhere in Kenya, can be seen within the reserve borders. The Masai Mara is a major research centre for the spotted hyena. Additionally, over 450 species of birdlife have been identified in the park, including vultures, marabou stork, secretary bird, hornbill, crowned crane, ostrich, long-crested Eagle, and african pygmy-falcon. Useful Information The Masai Mara Reserve area is administered by Narok County Council and the Mara Conservancy (under contract by the Trans-Mara county council) a local non profit organization formed by the local Maasai, and contains a number of anti-poaching units. The Masai Mara Conservation area is administered by the Group Ranch Trusts of the Maasai community who also have their own rangers for patrolling the park area. The wildlife roam freely across both the Reserve and Conservation areas which are a continuous wildlife ecosystem. Game parks are a major source of hard currency for Kenya, and entry fees (as of April 2006) for adult non-Kenyans is US$40 ($10 for children). There are a number of lodges and tented camps for tourists inside the Reserve and the Conservation area borders. The tourists/visitors cater for their own expenses unless previously arranged by their agencies. Lodges and camps inside the Reserve include Mara Serena, Governor's camp, Keekorok, and Sarova Mara. In the Conservation area are Royal Mara Safari Lodge, Siana Springs tented camp, Mara Sopa, Elephant Pepper, Mara Simba, and Sekenani camp. Mara Serena Airport, Musiara Airport and Keekorok Airport are located in the Reserve area of the Masai Mara. Mara Shikar Airport, Kichwa Tembo Airport and Ngerende Airport are located in the Conservation area of the Masai Mara. The BBC Television show Big Cat Diary is filmed in both the Reserve and Conservation areas of the Masai Mara and highlights scenes from the Reserve's Musiara marsh area and the Leopard Gorge and Fig Tree Ridge areas of the Conservation area. The Mara now has a destination website dedicated to providing detailed information on fauna and flora, maps, Maasai culture and history, the wildebeest migration, latest news and events, park entry fees,accommodation facilities. This is an unbiased independent travel resource that has been set up to promote the Maasai Mara as a destination. Images See also Julie Ward, wildlife photographer who was murdered in Masai Mara in 1988 Footnotes External links World Database on Protected Areas: Masai Mara Ministry of Tourism Kenya - Maasai Mara National Reserve The Mara Triangle – Official website for The Mara Conservancy; includes research papers on Masai Mara | Maasai_Mara |@lemmatized masai:15 mara:34 also:7 spell:1 maasai:8 large:4 park:7 reserve:16 south:7 western:3 kenya:5 effectively:1 northern:2 continuation:1 serengeti:7 national:2 game:4 tanzania:1 name:1 people:1 traditional:1 inhabitant:2 area:15 river:4 divide:1 famous:1 exceptional:1 population:3 annual:2 migration:5 zebra:4 thomson:4 gazelle:4 wildebeest:5 every:1 year:2 july:3 october:3 immense:1 call:1 great:2 geography:1 mmnr:1 cover:3 section:1 ecosystem:3 bound:1 siria:1 escarpment:3 west:3 pastoral:2 ranch:3 north:4 east:4 rainfall:1 increase:1 markedly:2 along:2 gradient:1 varies:1 space:1 time:2 bimodal:1 sand:1 talek:2 major:3 drain:1 shrub:1 tree:3 fringe:1 drainage:1 line:1 hillslopes:1 hilltop:1 terrain:1 primarily:1 open:1 grassland:1 seasonal:1 riverlets:1 region:2 clump:1 distinctive:2 acacia:1 border:4 esoit:2 oloololo:2 rift:1 valley:1 wildlife:5 tends:1 concentrate:1 swampy:1 ground:1 mean:1 access:1 water:1 always:1 good:1 tourist:5 disruption:2 minimal:1 easternmost:1 km:1 nairobi:1 hence:1 eastern:1 visit:1 migrate:2 occupy:1 plain:5 loita:1 later:1 herd:2 three:1 specie:2 resident:1 member:1 big:2 five:1 find:5 although:2 black:1 rhinoceros:1 severely:1 threaten:2 record:1 hippopotamus:1 group:2 cheetah:2 number:4 chiefly:1 due:1 day:1 hunt:1 mention:1 probably:1 best:1 viewing:1 particular:1 regard:1 lion:2 dominant:1 estimate:1 million:1 around:2 ungainly:1 animal:1 vast:1 ensemble:1 search:1 fresh:1 pasture:1 return:1 one:1 impressive:1 natural:1 event:2 worldwide:1 involve:1 immensity:1 herbivore:1 numerous:2 migrant:1 follow:1 circular:1 route:1 block:1 hungry:1 predator:1 notably:1 hyena:2 antelope:2 include:4 grant:1 impala:1 topi:1 coke:1 hartebeest:1 home:1 giraffe:2 well:1 common:1 roan:1 nocturnal:1 bat:1 eared:1 fox:1 rarely:1 present:1 elsewhere:1 see:2 within:1 research:2 centre:1 spotted:1 additionally:1 birdlife:1 identify:1 vulture:1 marabou:1 stork:1 secretary:1 bird:1 hornbill:1 crown:1 crane:1 ostrich:1 long:1 crest:1 eagle:1 african:1 pygmy:1 falcon:1 useful:1 information:2 administer:2 narok:1 county:2 council:2 conservancy:2 contract:1 trans:1 local:2 non:2 profit:1 organization:1 form:1 contain:1 anti:1 poach:1 unit:1 conservation:7 trust:1 community:1 ranger:1 patrol:1 roam:1 freely:1 across:1 continuous:1 source:1 hard:1 currency:1 entry:2 fee:2 april:1 adult:1 kenyan:1 u:1 child:1 lodge:3 tent:2 camp:5 inside:2 visitor:1 cater:1 expense:1 unless:1 previously:1 arrange:1 agency:1 serena:2 governor:1 keekorok:2 sarova:1 royal:1 safari:1 siana:1 spring:1 sopa:1 elephant:1 pepper:1 simba:1 sekenani:1 airport:6 musiara:2 locate:2 shikar:1 kichwa:1 tembo:1 ngerende:1 bbc:1 television:1 show:1 cat:1 diary:1 film:1 highlight:1 scene:1 marsh:1 leopard:1 gorge:1 fig:1 ridge:1 destination:2 website:2 dedicate:1 provide:1 detailed:1 fauna:1 flora:1 map:1 culture:1 history:1 late:1 news:1 accommodation:1 facility:1 unbiased:1 independent:1 travel:1 resource:1 set:1 promote:1 image:1 julie:1 ward:1 photographer:1 murder:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 world:1 database:1 protected:1 ministry:1 tourism:1 triangle:1 official:1 paper:1 |@bigram masai_mara:14 rift_valley:1 spotted_hyena:1 marabou_stork:1 fauna_flora:1 external_link:1 |
7,495 | MS-DOS | MS-DOS (, ; short for Microsoft Disk Operating System) is an operating system commercialized by Microsoft. It was the most commonly used member of the DOS family of operating systems and was the main operating system for personal computers during the 1980s. It was preceded by M-DOS (also call MIDAS), designed and copyrighted by Microsoft in 1979. MSDOS was based on the Intel 8086 family of microprocessors, particularly the IBM PC and compatibles. It was gradually replaced on consumer desktop computers by operating systems offering a graphical user interface (GUI), in particular by various generations of the Microsoft Windows operating system and Linux. MS-DOS was known before as QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System) and 86-DOS. A Short History of MS-DOS MS-DOS development originally started in 1981, and was first released in 1982 as MS-DOS 1.0. Several versions were released under different names for different hardware. MS-DOS had eight major versions released before Microsoft stopped development in 2000. It was the key product in Microsoft's growth from a programming languages company to a diverse software development firm, providing the company with essential revenue and marketing resources. It was also the underlying basic operating system on which early versions of Windows ran as a GUI. History MS-DOS was a renamed form of 86-DOS (informally known as the Quick-and-Dirty Operating System or Q-DOS) owned by Seattle Computer Products, written by Tim Paterson. Microsoft needed an operating system for the then-new Intel 8086 but it had none available, so it licensed 86-DOS and released a version of it as MS-DOS 1.0. Development started in 1981, and MS-DOS 1.0 was released with the IBM PC in 1982. Tim Paterson is considered the original author of DOS and he is called "The Father of DOS". Notice that he is called the author of Dos and not the author of MS-DOS Worried by possible legal problems, in June 1981 Microsoft made an offer to Rod Brock, the owner of Seattle Computer, to buy the rights for 86-DOS. An agreement to release all rights to the software was signed in June 1981. The total cost was $75,000. 25,000$ for the original licensing fee + 50,000$ for the June 1981 agreement Originally MS-DOS was designed to be an operating system that could run on any 8086-family computer. Each computer would have its own distinct hardware and its own version of MS-DOS. The greater speed attainable by direct control of hardware was of particular importance when running computer games. IBM-compatible architecture then became the goal. Soon all 8086-family computers closely emulated IBM's hardware, and a single version of MS-DOS was all that was needed for the market. While MS-DOS appeared on PC clones, true IBM computers used PC DOS, a rebranded form of MS-DOS. Incidentally, the dependence on IBM-compatible hardware caused major problems for the computer industry when the original design had to be changed. For example, the original design could support no more than 640 kilobytes of memory. Manufacturers had to develop complicated schemes to access additional memory. This would not have been a limitation if the original idea of interfacing with hardware through MS-DOS had endured. Versions Microsoft licensed or released versions of MS-DOS under different names like SB-DOS or Z-DOS. Competitors released unlicensed clones such as DR-DOS and PTS-DOS. Competition The original MS-DOS advertisement in 1981. On microcomputers based on the Intel 8086 and 8088 processors, including the IBM PC and clones, the initial competition to the PC DOS/MS-DOS line came from Digital Research, whose CP/M operating system had inspired MS-DOS. Digital Research released CP/M-86 a few months after MS-DOS, and it was offered as an alternative to MS-DOS and Microsoft's licensing requirements, but at a higher price. Executable programs for CP/M-86 and MS-DOS were not interchangeable with each other; much applications software was sold in both MS-DOS and CP/M-86 versions until MS-DOS became preponderant (later Digital Research operating systems could run both MS-DOS and CP/M-86 software). MS-DOS supported the simple .COM and the more advanced relocatable .EXE executable file formats; CP/M-86 a relocatable format using the file extension .CMD. Most of the machines in the early days of MS DOS had differing system architectures and there was a certain degree of incompatibility, and subsequently vendor lock-in. Users who began using MS-DOS with their machines were compelled to continue using the version customized for their hardware, or face trying to get all of their proprietary hardware and software to work with the new system. In the business world the 808x-based machines that MS-DOS was tied to faced competition from the Unix operating system which ran on many different hardware architectures. Microsoft itself sold a version of Unix for the PC called Xenix. In the emerging world of home users, a variety of other computers based on various other processors were in serious competition with the IBM PC: the Apple II, early Apple Macintosh, the Commodore 64 and others did not use the 808x processor; many 808x machines of different architectures used custom versions of MS-DOS. At first all these machines were in competition. In time the IBM PC hardware configuration became dominant in the 808x market as software written to communicate directly with the PC hardware without using standard operating system calls ran much faster, but on true PC-compatibles only. Non-PC-compatible 808x machines were too small a market to have fast software written for them alone, and the market remained open only for IBM PCs and machines that closely imitated their architecture, all running either a single version of MS-DOS compatible only with PCs, or the equivalent IBM PC DOS. Most clones cost much less than IBM-branded machines of similar performance, and became widely used by home users, while IBM PCs had a large share of the business computer market. Microsoft and IBM together began what was intended as the follow-on to MS/PC DOS, called OS/2. When OS/2 was released in 1987, Microsoft began an advertising campaign announcing that "DOS is Dead" and stating that version 4 was the last full release. MS-DOS had grown in spurts, with many significant features being taken (or duplicated) from other products and operating systems, as well as incorporating the functionality of tools and utilities developed by independent companies to improve the functionality of MS-DOS, including Norton Utilities, PC Tools (Microsoft Anti-Virus), QEMM expanded memory manager, DOS/4GW (a 32-bit DOS extender), Stacker disk compression, and others. OS/2 was designed for efficient multitasking—an IBM speciality derived from deep experience with mainframe operating systems—and offered a number of advanced features that had been designed together with similar look and feel; it was seen as the legitimate heir to the "kludgy" DOS platform. During the period when Digital Research was competing in the operating system market some computers, like Amstrad PC-1512, were sold with floppy disks for two operating systems (only one of which could be used at a time), MS-DOS and CP-M86 or a derivative of it. Digital Research produced DOS Plus, which was compatible with MS-DOS 2.11, supported CP/M-86 programs, had additional features including multi-tasking, and could read and write disks in CP/M and MS-DOS format. While OS/2 was under protracted development, Digital Research released the MS-DOS compatible DR-DOS 5, which included features only available as third-party add-ons for MS-DOS (and still maintained considerable internal CP/M-86 compatibility). Unwilling to lose any portion of the market, Microsoft responded by announcing the "pending" release of MS-DOS 5.0 in May 1990. This effectively killed most DR-DOS sales until the actual release of MS-DOS 5.0 in June 1991. Digital Research brought out DR-DOS 6, which sold well until the "pre-announcement" of MS-DOS 6.0 again stifled the sales of DR-DOS. Microsoft has been accused of carefully orchestrating leaks about future versions of MS-DOS in an attempt to create what in the industry is called FUD (fear, uncertainty, and doubt) regarding DR-DOS. For example, in October 1990, shortly after the release of DR-DOS 5.0, and long before the eventual June 1991 release of MS-DOS 5.0, stories on feature enhancements in MS-DOS started to appear in InfoWorld and PC Week. Brad Silverberg, Vice President of Systems Software at Microsoft and General Manager of its Windows and MS-DOS Business Unit, wrote a forceful letter to PC Week (November 5, 1990), denying that Microsoft was engaged in FUD tactics ("to serve our customers better, we decided to be more forthcoming about version 5.0") and denying that Microsoft copied features from DR-DOS: "The feature enhancements of MS-DOS version 5.0 were decided and development was begun long before we heard about DR-DOS 5.0. There will be some similar features. With 50 million MS-DOS users, it shouldn't be surprising that DRI has heard some of the same requests from customers that we have." – (Schulman et al. 1994). The pact between Microsoft and IBM to promote OS/2 began to fall apart in 1990 when Windows 3.0 became a marketplace success. Much of Microsoft's further contributions to OS/2 also went in to creating a third GUI replacement for DOS, Windows NT. IBM, which had already been developing the next version of OS/2, carried on development of the platform without Microsoft and sold it as the alternative to DOS and Windows. End of MS-DOS MS-DOS lingers in Windows Vista. MS-DOS has effectively ceased to exist as a platform for desktop computing. Since the releases of Windows 9x, it was integrated as a full product mostly used for bootstrapping, and no longer officially released as a standalone DOS, although at first DOS 7 (which was the DOS part included in Windows 95) had been developed as a standalone OS. It was still available, but became increasingly irrelevant as development shifted to the Windows API. Windows XP contains a copy of the core MS-DOS 8 files from Windows Millennium, accessible only by formatting a floppy as an "MS-DOS startup disk". Attempting to run COMMAND.COM from such a disk under the NTVDM results in the message "Incorrect MS-DOS version". (Note that the DOS boot disk created by Windows XP is even more stripped-down than that created in Windows 98, as it does not include CD-ROM support.) With Windows Vista the files on the startup disk are dated 18th April 2005 but are otherwise unchanged, including the string "MS-DOS Version 8 (C) Copyright 1981-1999 Microsoft Corp" inside COMMAND.COM. However the only versions of DOS currently recognized as stand-alone OSs, and supported as such by the Microsoft Corporation are DOS 6.0 and 6.22, both of which remain available for download via their MSDN, volume license, and OEM license partner websites, for customers with valid login credentials. Today, DOS is still used in embedded x86 systems due to its simple architecture, and minimal memory and processor requirements. The command line interpreter of NT-based versions of Windows, cmd.exe, maintains most of the same commands and some compatibility with DOS batch files. Legal issues As a response to Digital Research's DR-DOS 6.0, which bundled SuperStor disk compression, Microsoft opened negotiations with Stac Electronics, vendor of the most popular DOS disk compression tool, Stacker. In the due diligence process, Stac engineers had shown Microsoft part of the Stacker source code. Stac was unwilling to meet Microsoft's terms for licensing Stacker and withdrew from the negotiations. Microsoft chose to license Vertisoft's DoubleDisk, using it as the core for its DoubleSpace disk compression. BYTE Magazine, How Safe is Disk Compression?, February, 1994. MS-DOS 6.0 and 6.20 were released in 1993, both including the Microsoft DoubleSpace disk compression utility program. Stac successfully sued Microsoft for patent infringement regarding the compression algorithm used in DoubleSpace. This resulted in the 1994 release of MS-DOS 6.21, which had disk-compression removed. Shortly afterwards came version 6.22, with a new version of the disk compression system, DriveSpace, which had a different compression algorithm to avoid the infringing code. Prior to 1995, Microsoft licensed MS-DOS (and Windows) to computer manufacturers under three types of agreement: per-processor (a fee for each system the company sold), per-system (a fee for each system of a particular model), or per-copy (a fee for each copy of MS-DOS installed). The largest manufacturers used the per-processor arrangement, which had the lowest fee. This arrangement made it expensive for the large manufacturers to migrate to any other operating system, such as DR-DOS. In 1991 the U.S. government Federal Trade Commission began investigating Microsoft's licensing procedures, resulting in a 1994 settlement agreement limiting Microsoft to per-copy licensing. Digital Research did not gain by this settlement, and years later its successor in interest, Caldera, sued Microsoft for damages. This lawsuit was settled with a monetary payment of $150 million. Microsoft also used a variety of tactics in MS-DOS and several of their applications and development tools that, while operating perfectly when running on genuine MS-DOS (and PC DOS), would break when run on another vendor's implementation of DOS. Notable examples of this practice included: Microsoft QuickC v2.5, a.k.a. Programmer's Workbench and Microsoft C v6.0, modified the program's Program Segment Prefix using undocumented DOS functions, and then checked whether or not the associated value changed in a fixed position within the DOS data segment (also undocumented). The (once infamous) AARD code, a block of code in the Windows 3.1 beta installer. It was XOR encrypted, self-modifying, and deliberately obfuscated, using various undocumented DOS structures and functions to determine whether or not Windows really was running on MS-DOS. Interrupt routines called by Windows to inform MS-DOS that Windows is starting/exiting, information that MS-DOS retained in an IN_WINDOWS flag, in spite of the fact that MS-DOS and Windows were supposed to be two separate products. The Windows command-line interface All versions of Microsoft Windows have had an MS-DOS like command-line interface (CLI). Versions of Windows (up to 3.11) ran as a Graphical User Interface(GUI) running under MS-DOS. Windows 95 and 98 had an MS-DOS prompt which behaved very much like MS-DOS, with added facilities for such features as long file names. The true 32-bit versions of Windows, from Windows NT, are not based on DOS but provide a command-line interface similar to MS-DOS's character-mode interface known as the console. This is provided by a native executable, cmd.exe. Many Windows console applications are incorrectly referred to as DOS applications. However, in reality they are Windows applications, using Windows system calls, using the text console for input and output rather than a graphical interface. Both true MS-DOS programs and Windows console programs can be run from the command line in the same console window. 32-bit Windows can run MS-DOS programs through the use of the NTVDM (NT Virtual DOS Machine), and the 16-bit command.com interpreter which is still included to maintain application compatibility with programs that require it. Recent versions of Windows for x64 architectures, including Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, Windows Server 2003 x64 and Windows Vista x64, no longer include the NTVDM and can therefore no longer natively run MS-DOS or 16-bit Windows applications. For MS-DOS and Windows 3.11 or earlier programs, however, there exist alternatives in the form of emulators such as Microsoft's own Virtual PC, Bochs, DOSBox, etc. Legacy compatibility From 1983 onwards, various companies have worked on graphical user interfaces (GUIs) capable of running on PC hardware. With DOS being the dominant operating system several companies released alternate shells, e.g. Microsoft Word for DOS, XTree, and the Norton Shell. However, this required duplication of effort and did not provide much consistency in interface design (even between products from the same company). Later, in 1985, Microsoft Windows was released as Microsoft's first attempt at providing a consistent user interface (for applications). The early versions of Windows ran on top of MS-DOS and its clones. At first Windows met with little success, but this was also true for most other companies' efforts as well, for example GEM. After version 3.0 (1990), Windows gained market acceptance. Later versions (Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me) used the DOS boot process to launch itself into protected mode. Basic features related to the file system, such as long file names, were only available to DOS when running as a subsystem of Windows. Windows NT ran independently of DOS but included a DOS subsystem so applications could run in a virtual machine under the new OS. With the latest Windows releases, even dual-booting MS-DOS is problematic as DOS may not be able to read the basic file system. Related systems Single-user Several similar products were produced by other companies. In the case of PC DOS and DR-DOS, it is common but incorrect to call these "clones". Given that Microsoft manufactured PC DOS for IBM, PC DOS and MS-DOS were (to continue the genetic analogy) "identical twins" that diverged only in adulthood and eventually became quite different products. Although DR-DOS is regarded as a clone of MS-DOS, the DR-DOS versions appeared months and years before Microsoft's products. (For example, MS-DOS 4, released in July 1988, was followed by DR-DOS 5 in May 1990. MS-DOS 5 came in April 1991, with DR-DOS 6 being released the following June. MS-DOS 6 did not arrive until April 1993, with Novell DOS 7, DR-DOS' successor, following the next month. Timeline 1980-1993 ) What made the difference in the end was Microsoft's desire to make DOS a better platform for running Windows. Both IBM (DOS 5.02) and DRI (DOS 6 update) had to release interim releases for new undocumented Windows functionality. PC DOS, DR-DOS, Novell DOS , OpenDOS, FreeDOS, FreeDOS 32, GNU/DOS, and PTS-DOS. These products are collectively referred to as DOS. However, MS-DOS can be a generic reference to DOS on IBM-PC compatible computers. Multiuser Several multiuser operating systems capable of running MS-DOS software, and also purpose-written software with multiuser enhancements such as record locking for multiuser databases, have been produced. Concurrent DOS, derived from Concurrent CP/M-86, later Multiuser DOS PC-MOS See also Bad command or file name Comparison of x86 DOS operating systems DOSKey, MS-DOS utility History of Microsoft Windows List of DOS commands List of Microsoft Windows versions Microsoft Windows MS-DOS API Timeline of x86 DOS operating systems Win32 console - a text-rendering system akin to MS-DOS Quotes Remarks Notes References Microsoft. MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference External links Current License Agreement Policies for MS-DOS and Windows Tim Paterson on DOS - Paterson wrote the QDOS OS MS-DOS: A Brief Introduction Richard Bonner's DOS website Batfiles - the DOS batch file programming handbook and tutorial Arachne graphical browser for DOS MS-DOS Reference DOS version timeline Linux/dosemu Ralf Brown's Interrupt List DOS command overview DOSBox, a multiplatform DOS emulator Garbo - An MS-DOS program distribution library at the University of Vaasa, Finland MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference at Microsoft TechNet Promotional video for MS-DOS 5 | MS-DOS |@lemmatized short:2 microsoft:50 disk:15 operate:16 system:37 operating:9 commercialize:1 commonly:1 used:1 member:1 dos:25 family:4 main:1 personal:1 computer:15 precede:1 also:8 call:10 midas:1 design:7 copyright:2 msdos:1 base:6 intel:3 microprocessor:1 particularly:1 ibm:20 pc:30 compatibles:2 gradually:1 replace:1 consumer:1 desktop:2 offer:4 graphical:5 user:9 interface:10 gui:5 particular:3 various:4 generation:1 window:44 linux:2 know:3 qdos:2 quick:2 dirty:2 history:3 development:9 originally:2 start:4 first:5 release:27 ms:34 several:5 version:34 different:7 name:5 hardware:12 eight:1 major:2 stop:1 key:1 product:10 growth:1 programming:1 languages:1 company:9 diverse:1 software:10 firm:1 provide:5 essential:1 revenue:1 marketing:1 resource:1 underlie:1 basic:3 early:5 run:22 renamed:1 form:3 informally:1 q:1 seattle:2 write:7 tim:3 paterson:4 need:2 new:5 none:1 available:5 license:7 consider:1 original:6 author:3 father:1 notice:1 worry:1 possible:1 legal:2 problem:2 june:6 make:4 rod:1 brock:1 owner:1 buy:1 right:2 agreement:5 sign:1 total:1 cost:2 licensing:5 fee:5 could:6 would:3 distinct:1 great:1 speed:1 attainable:1 direct:1 control:1 importance:1 game:1 compatible:7 architecture:7 become:7 goal:1 soon:1 closely:2 emulated:1 single:3 market:8 appear:3 clone:7 true:5 use:21 rebranded:1 incidentally:1 dependence:1 cause:1 industry:2 change:2 example:5 support:5 kilobyte:1 memory:4 manufacturer:4 develop:4 complicate:1 scheme:1 access:1 additional:2 limitation:1 idea:1 interfacing:1 endure:1 like:4 sb:1 z:1 competitor:1 unlicensed:1 dr:18 pt:2 competition:5 advertisement:1 microcomputer:1 processor:6 include:13 initial:1 line:6 come:3 digital:9 research:9 whose:1 cp:11 inspire:1 month:3 alternative:3 requirement:2 high:1 price:1 executable:3 program:12 interchangeable:1 much:6 application:9 sell:6 preponderant:1 late:3 simple:2 com:4 advanced:2 relocatable:2 exe:3 file:11 format:4 extension:1 cmd:3 machine:10 day:1 differ:1 certain:1 degree:1 incompatibility:1 subsequently:1 vendor:3 lock:1 begin:6 compel:1 continue:2 customize:1 face:2 try:1 get:1 proprietary:1 work:2 business:3 world:2 tie:1 unix:2 many:4 xenix:1 emerge:1 home:2 variety:2 serious:1 apple:2 ii:1 macintosh:1 commodore:1 others:2 custom:1 time:2 configuration:1 dominant:2 communicate:1 directly:1 without:2 standard:1 ran:1 faster:1 non:1 small:1 fast:1 alone:2 remain:2 open:2 imitate:1 either:1 equivalent:1 less:1 brand:1 similar:5 performance:1 widely:1 large:3 share:1 together:2 intend:1 follow:3 os:7 advertising:1 campaign:1 announce:2 dead:1 state:1 last:1 full:2 grow:1 spurt:1 significant:1 feature:10 take:1 duplicate:1 well:4 incorporate:1 functionality:3 tool:4 utility:4 independent:1 improve:1 norton:2 anti:1 virus:1 qemm:1 expand:1 manager:2 bit:5 extender:1 stacker:4 compression:10 efficient:1 multitasking:1 speciality:1 derive:2 deep:1 experience:1 mainframe:1 number:1 look:1 feel:1 see:2 legitimate:1 heir:1 kludgy:1 platform:4 period:1 compete:1 amstrad:1 floppy:2 two:2 one:1 derivative:1 produce:3 plus:1 multi:1 tasking:1 read:2 protract:1 third:2 party:1 add:1 ons:1 still:4 maintain:3 considerable:1 internal:1 compatibility:4 unwilling:2 lose:1 portion:1 respond:1 pending:1 may:3 effectively:2 kill:1 sale:2 actual:1 bring:1 pre:1 announcement:1 stifle:1 accuse:1 carefully:1 orchestrate:1 leak:1 future:1 attempt:3 create:4 fud:2 fear:1 uncertainty:1 doubt:1 regard:3 october:1 shortly:2 long:4 eventual:1 story:1 enhancement:3 infoworld:1 week:2 brad:1 silverberg:1 vice:1 president:1 general:1 unit:1 forceful:1 letter:1 november:1 deny:2 engage:1 tactic:2 serve:1 customer:3 decide:2 forthcoming:1 copy:5 hear:2 million:2 surprising:1 dri:2 request:1 schulman:1 et:1 al:1 pact:1 promote:1 fall:1 apart:1 windows:12 marketplace:1 success:2 far:1 contribution:1 go:1 replacement:1 nt:5 already:1 next:2 carry:1 end:2 lingers:1 vista:3 cease:1 exist:2 computing:1 since:1 integrate:1 mostly:1 bootstrapping:1 longer:3 officially:1 standalone:2 although:2 part:2 increasingly:1 irrelevant:1 shift:1 api:2 xp:3 contain:1 core:2 millennium:1 accessible:1 startup:2 command:12 ntvdm:3 result:3 message:1 incorrect:2 note:2 boot:2 even:3 stripped:1 cd:1 rom:1 date:1 april:3 otherwise:1 unchanged:1 string:1 c:2 corp:1 inside:1 however:5 currently:1 recognize:1 stand:1 corporation:1 download:1 via:1 msdn:1 volume:1 oem:1 partner:1 website:2 valid:1 login:1 credential:1 today:1 embedded:1 due:2 minimal:1 interpreter:2 batch:2 issue:1 response:1 bundle:1 superstor:1 negotiation:2 stac:4 electronics:1 popular:1 diligence:1 process:2 engineer:1 show:1 source:1 code:4 meet:2 term:1 withdrew:1 choose:1 vertisoft:1 doubledisk:1 doublespace:3 byte:1 magazine:1 safe:1 february:1 successfully:1 sue:2 patent:1 infringement:1 algorithm:2 remove:1 afterwards:1 drivespace:1 avoid:1 infringing:1 prior:1 three:1 type:1 per:5 model:1 instal:1 arrangement:2 low:1 expensive:1 migrate:1 u:1 government:1 federal:1 trade:1 commission:1 investigate:1 procedure:1 settlement:2 limit:1 gain:2 year:2 later:3 successor:2 interest:1 caldera:1 damage:1 lawsuit:1 settle:1 monetary:1 payment:1 perfectly:1 genuine:1 break:1 another:1 implementation:1 notable:1 practice:1 quickc:1 k:1 programmer:1 workbench:1 modify:1 segment:2 prefix:1 undocumented:4 function:2 check:1 whether:2 associate:1 value:1 fixed:1 position:1 within:1 data:1 infamous:1 aard:1 block:1 beta:1 installer:1 xor:1 encrypt:1 self:1 modifying:1 deliberately:1 obfuscate:1 structure:1 determine:1 really:1 interrupt:2 routine:1 inform:1 exiting:1 information:1 retain:1 flag:1 spite:1 fact:1 suppose:1 separate:1 cli:1 prompt:1 behave:1 added:1 facility:1 character:1 mode:2 console:6 native:1 incorrectly:1 refer:2 reality:1 text:2 input:1 output:1 rather:1 virtual:3 require:1 recent:1 professional:1 edition:1 server:1 therefore:1 natively:1 emulator:2 bochs:1 dosbox:2 etc:1 legacy:1 onwards:1 capable:2 alternate:1 shell:2 e:1 g:1 word:1 xtree:1 required:1 duplication:1 effort:2 consistency:1 consistent:1 top:1 little:1 gem:1 acceptance:1 launch:1 protect:1 relate:1 subsystem:2 independently:1 dual:1 booting:1 problematic:1 able:1 related:1 case:1 common:1 give:1 manufacture:1 genetic:1 analogy:1 identical:1 twin:1 diverge:1 adulthood:1 eventually:1 quite:1 july:1 following:1 arrive:1 novell:2 timeline:3 difference:1 desire:1 good:1 update:1 interim:1 opendos:1 freedos:2 gnu:1 collectively:1 generic:1 reference:5 multiuser:5 purpose:1 record:1 locking:1 database:1 concurrent:2 mo:1 bad:1 comparison:1 doskey:1 list:3 rendering:1 akin:1 quote:1 remark:1 technical:2 external:1 link:1 current:1 policy:1 brief:1 introduction:1 richard:1 bonner:1 batfiles:1 handbook:1 tutorial:1 arachne:1 browser:1 dosemu:1 ralf:1 brown:1 overview:1 multiplatform:1 garbo:1 distribution:1 library:1 university:1 vaasa:1 finland:1 technet:1 promotional:1 video:1 |@bigram commonly_used:1 ibm_pc:10 pc_compatibles:2 graphical_user:3 user_interface:4 interface_gui:3 microsoft_window:6 quick_dirty:2 tim_paterson:3 licensing_fee:1 apple_macintosh:1 pc_compatible:2 legitimate_heir:1 floppy_disk:1 multi_tasking:1 add_ons:1 vice_president:1 et_al:1 windows_nt:1 window_vista:3 window_xp:3 cd_rom:1 cmd_exe:2 due_diligence:1 patent_infringement:1 shortly_afterwards:1 window_nt:2 input_output:1 windows_server:1 windows_windows:1 external_link:1 |
7,496 | Geography_of_Libya | Map Of Libya Topography of Libya Libya's cities and main towns With an area of 1,760,000 square kilometers and a Mediterranean coastline of nearly 1,800 kilometers, Libya is fourth in size among the countries of Africa and seventeenth among the countries of the world. Its coastline lies between Egypt and Tunisia. Although the oil discoveries of the 1960s have brought it immense petroleum wealth, at the time of its independence it was an extremely poor desert state whose only important physical asset appeared to be its strategic location at the midpoint of Africa's northern rim. It lay within easy reach of the major European nations and linked the Arab countries of North Africa with those of the Middle East, facts that throughout history had made its urban centers bustling crossroads rather than isolated backwaters without external social influences. Consequently, an immense social gap developed between the cities, cosmopolitan and peopled largely by foreigners, and the desert hinterland, where tribal chieftains ruled in isolation and where social change was minimal. Geographical summary The Mediterranean coast and the Sahara Desert are the country's most prominent natural features. There are several highlands but no true mountain ranges except in the largely empty southern desert near the Chadian border, where the Tibesti Massif rises to over 2,200 meters. A relatively narrow coastal strip and highland steppes immediately south of it are the most productive agricultural regions. Still farther south a pastoral zone of sparse grassland gives way to the vast Sahara Desert, a barren wasteland of rocky plateaus and sand. It supports minimal human habitation, and agriculture is possible only in a few scattered oases. Between the productive lowland agricultural zones lies the Gulf of Sidra, where along the coast a stretch of 500 kilometers of wasteland desert extends northward to the sea. This barren zone, known as the Sirtica, has great historical significance. To its west, the area known as Tripolitania has characteristics and a history similar to those of nearby Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. It is considered with these states to constitute a supranational region called the Maghrib. To the east, the area known historically as Cyrenaica has been closely associated with the Arab states of the Middle East. In this sense, the Sirtica marks the dividing point between the Maghrib and the Mashriq. Along the shore of Tripolitania for more than 300 kilometers, coastal oases alternate with sandy areas and lagoons. Inland from these lies the Jifarah Plain, a triangular area of some 15,000 square kilometers. About 120 kilometers inland the plain terminates in an escarpment that rises to form the Nafusa Mountains, with elevations of up to 1,000 meters, which is the northern edge of the Tripolitanian Plateau. Barich, B. E.; Garcea, E. A.A. and Giraudi, C. (2006) "Between the Mediterranean and the Sahara: Geoarchaeological reconnaissance in the Jebel Gharbi, Libya" Antiquity 80(309): pp. 567–582 In Cyrenaica there are fewer coastal oases, and the Marj Plain – the lowland area corresponding to the Jifarah Plain of Tripolitania – covers a much smaller area. The lowlands form a crescent about 210 kilometers long between Benghazi and Darnah and extend inland a maximum of 50 kilometers. Elsewhere along the Cyrenaican coast, the precipice of an arid plateau reaches to the sea. Behind the Marj Plain, the terrain rises abruptly to form Jabal al Akhdar (Green Mountain), so called because of its leafy cover of pine, juniper, cypress, and wild olive. It is a limestone plateau with maximum altitudes of about 900 meters. From Jabal al Akhdar, Cyrenaica extends southward across a barren grazing belt that gives way to the Sahara Desert, which extends still farther southwest across the Chadian frontier. Unlike Cyrenaica, Tripolitania does not extend southward into the desert. The southwestern desert, known as Fezzan, was administered separately during both the Italian regime and the federal period of the Libyan monarchy. In 1969 the revolutionary government officially changed the regional designation of Tripolitania to Western Libya, of Cyrenaica to Eastern Libya, and of Fezzan to Southern Libya; however, the old names were intimately associated with the history of the area, and during the 1970s they continued to be used frequently. Cyrenaica comprises 51%, Fezzan 33%, and Tripolitania 16% of the country's area. Before Libya achieved independence, its name was seldom used other than as a somewhat imprecise geographical expression. The people preferred to be referred to as natives of one of the three constituent regions. The separateness of the regions is much more than simply geographical and political, for they have evolved largely as different socioeconomic entities – each with a culture, social structure, and values different from the others. Cyrenaica became Arabized at a somewhat earlier date than Tripolitania, and Beduin tribes dominated it. The residual strain of the indigenous Berber inhabitants, however, still remains in Tripolitania. Fezzan has remained a kind of North African outback, its oases peopled largely by minority ethnic groups. The border between Tripolitania and Tunisia is subject to countless crossings by legal and illegal migrants. No natural frontier marks the border, and the ethnic composition, language, value systems, and traditions of the two peoples are nearly identical. The Cyrenaica region is contiguous with Egypt, and here, too, the border is not naturally defined; illegal as well as legal crossings are frequent. In contrast, Fezzan's borders with Algeria, Niger, and Chad are seldom crossed because of the almost total emptiness of the desert countryside. Other factors, too, such as the traditional forms of land tenure, have varied in the different regions. In the 1980s their degrees of separateness was still sufficiently pronounced to represent a significant obstacle to efforts toward achieving a fully unified Libya. Geographic coordinates: Area and boundaries Area: total: 1 759 540 km² land: 1 759 540 km² water: 0 km² Area - comparative: slightly larger than Alaska Land boundaries: total: 4 383 km border countries: Algeria 982 km, Chad 1 055 km, Egypt 1 150 km, Niger 354 km, Sudan 383 km, Tunisia 459 km Coastline: 1 770 km Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nautical miles note: Gulf of Sidra closing line – 32 degrees 30 minutes north. Climate and Hydrology Dust storm over Libya Within Libya as many as five different climatic zones have been recognized, but the dominant climatic influences are Mediterranean and Saharan. In most of the coastal lowland, the climate is Mediterranean, with warm summers and mild winters. Rainfall is scanty. The weather is cooler in the highlands, and frosts occur at maximum elevations. In the desert interior the climate has very hot summers and extreme diurnal temperature ranges. The highest official temperature ever recorded was on September 13th, 1922 at Al 'Aziziyah, Libya. Less than 2% of the national territory receives enough rainfall for settled agriculture, the heaviest precipitation occurring in the Jabal al Akhdar zone of Cyrenaica, where annual rainfall of 400 to 600 millimeters is recorded. All other areas of the country receive less than 400 millimeters, and in the Sahara 50 millimeters or less occurs. Rainfall is often erratic, and a pronounced drought may extend over two seasons. For example, epic floods in 1945 left Tripoli underwater for several days, but two years later an unprecedentedly severe drought caused the loss of thousands of head of cattle. Deficiency in rainfall is reflected in an absence of permanent rivers or streams, and the approximately twenty perennial lakes are brackish or salty. In 1987 these circumstances severely limited the country's agricultural potential as a basis for the sound and varied economy Qadhafi sought to establish. The allocation of limited water is considered of sufficient importance to warrant the existence of the Secretariat of Dams and Water Resources, and damaging a source of water can be punished by a heavy fine or imprisonment. The government has constructed a network of dams in wadis, dry watercourses that become torrents after heavy rains. These dams are used both as water reservoirs and for flood and erosion control. The wadis are heavily settled because soil in their bottoms is often suitable for agriculture, and the high water table in their vicinity makes them logical locations for digging wells. In many wadis, however, the water table is declining at an alarming rate, particularly in areas of intensive agriculture and near urban centers. The government has expressed concern over this problem and because of it has diverted water development projects, particularly around Tripoli, to localities where the demand on underground water resources is less intense. It has also undertaken extensive reforestation projects. There are also numerous springs, those best suited for future development occurring along the scarp faces of the Jabal Nafusah and the Jabal al Akhdar. The most talked-about of the water resources, however, are the great subterranean aquifers of the desert. The best known of these lies beneath Al Kufrah Oasis in southeastern Cyrenaica, but an aquifer with even greater reputed capacity is located near the oasis community of Sabha in the southwestern desert. In the late 1970s, wells were drilled at Al Kufrah and at Sabha as part of a major agricultural development effort. An even larger undertaking is the so-called Great Manmade River, initiated in 1984. It is intended to tap the tremendous aquifers of the Al Kufrah, Sarir, and Sabha oases and to carry the resulting water to the Mediterranean coast for use in irrigation and industrial projects. Terrain and land use Terrain: mostly barren, flat to undulating plains, plateaus, depressions Elevation extremes: lowest point: Sabkhat Ghuzayyil -47 m highest point: Bikku Bitti 2 267 m Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, gypsum Land use: arable land: 1% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 8% forests and woodland: 0% other: 91% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 4 700 km² (1993 est.) Environmental concerns Natural hazards: hot, dry, dust-laden ghibli is a southern wind lasting one to four days in spring and fall; dust storms, sandstorms Environment - current issues: desertification; very limited natural fresh water resources; the Great Manmade River Project, the largest water development scheme in the world, is being built to bring water from large aquifers under the Sahara to coastal cities Environment - international agreements: party to: Climate Change, Desertification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Law of the Sea Notes References External links About Libya | Libya Connected | Geography_of_Libya |@lemmatized map:1 libya:15 topography:1 city:3 main:1 town:1 area:14 square:2 kilometer:8 mediterranean:6 coastline:3 nearly:2 fourth:1 size:1 among:2 country:8 africa:3 seventeenth:1 world:2 lie:4 egypt:3 tunisia:4 although:1 oil:1 discovery:1 bring:2 immense:2 petroleum:2 wealth:1 time:1 independence:2 extremely:1 poor:1 desert:13 state:3 whose:1 important:1 physical:1 asset:1 appear:1 strategic:1 location:2 midpoint:1 northern:2 rim:1 lay:1 within:2 easy:1 reach:2 major:2 european:1 nation:1 link:2 arab:2 north:3 middle:2 east:3 facts:1 throughout:1 history:3 make:2 urban:2 center:2 bustle:1 crossroad:1 rather:1 isolated:1 backwater:1 without:1 external:2 social:4 influence:2 consequently:1 gap:1 develop:1 cosmopolitan:1 people:4 largely:4 foreigner:1 hinterland:1 tribal:1 chieftain:1 rule:1 isolation:1 change:3 minimal:2 geographical:3 summary:1 coast:4 sahara:6 prominent:1 natural:6 feature:1 several:2 highland:3 true:1 mountain:3 range:2 except:1 empty:1 southern:3 near:3 chadian:2 border:6 tibesti:1 massif:1 rise:3 meter:3 relatively:1 narrow:1 coastal:5 strip:1 steppe:1 immediately:1 south:2 productive:2 agricultural:4 region:6 still:4 farther:2 pastoral:1 zone:5 sparse:1 grassland:1 give:2 way:2 vast:1 barren:4 wasteland:2 rocky:1 plateau:5 sand:1 support:1 human:1 habitation:1 agriculture:4 possible:1 scattered:1 oasis:7 lowland:4 gulf:2 sidra:2 along:4 stretch:1 extend:6 northward:1 sea:4 know:4 sirtica:2 great:5 historical:1 significance:1 west:1 tripolitania:9 characteristic:1 similar:1 nearby:1 algeria:3 morocco:1 consider:2 constitute:1 supranational:1 call:3 maghrib:2 historically:1 cyrenaica:10 closely:1 associate:2 sense:1 mark:2 divide:1 point:3 mashriq:1 shore:1 alternate:1 sandy:1 lagoon:1 inland:3 jifarah:2 plain:6 triangular:1 terminates:1 escarpment:1 form:4 nafusa:1 elevation:3 edge:1 tripolitanian:1 barich:1 b:1 e:2 garcea:1 giraudi:1 c:1 geoarchaeological:1 reconnaissance:1 jebel:1 gharbi:1 antiquity:1 pp:1 marj:2 correspond:1 cover:2 much:2 small:1 crescent:1 long:1 benghazi:1 darnah:1 maximum:3 elsewhere:1 cyrenaican:1 precipice:1 arid:1 behind:1 terrain:3 abruptly:1 jabal:5 al:8 akhdar:4 green:1 leafy:1 pine:1 juniper:1 cypress:1 wild:1 olive:1 limestone:1 altitude:1 southward:2 across:2 graze:1 belt:1 southwest:1 frontier:2 unlike:1 southwestern:2 fezzan:5 administer:1 separately:1 italian:1 regime:1 federal:1 period:1 libyan:1 monarchy:1 revolutionary:1 government:3 officially:1 regional:1 designation:1 western:1 eastern:1 however:4 old:1 name:2 intimately:1 continue:1 use:6 frequently:1 comprise:1 achieve:2 seldom:2 somewhat:2 imprecise:1 expression:1 prefer:1 refer:1 native:1 one:2 three:1 constituent:1 separateness:2 simply:1 political:1 evolve:1 different:4 socioeconomic:1 entity:1 culture:1 structure:1 value:2 others:1 become:2 arabized:1 early:1 date:1 beduin:1 tribe:1 dominate:1 residual:1 strain:1 indigenous:1 berber:1 inhabitant:1 remain:2 kind:1 african:1 outback:1 minority:1 ethnic:2 group:1 subject:1 countless:1 crossing:2 legal:2 illegal:2 migrant:1 composition:1 language:1 system:1 tradition:1 two:3 identical:1 contiguous:1 naturally:1 define:1 well:3 frequent:1 contrast:1 niger:2 chad:2 cross:1 almost:1 total:3 emptiness:1 countryside:1 factor:1 traditional:1 land:7 tenure:1 vary:1 degree:2 sufficiently:1 pronounce:1 represent:1 significant:1 obstacle:1 effort:2 toward:1 fully:1 unify:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 boundary:2 water:14 comparative:1 slightly:1 large:4 alaska:1 km:8 sudan:1 maritime:1 claim:1 territorial:1 nautical:1 mile:1 note:2 closing:1 line:1 minute:1 climate:4 hydrology:1 dust:3 storm:2 many:2 five:1 climatic:2 recognize:1 dominant:1 saharan:1 warm:1 summer:2 mild:1 winter:1 rainfall:5 scanty:1 weather:1 cooler:1 frost:1 occur:3 interior:1 hot:2 extreme:2 diurnal:1 temperature:2 high:3 official:1 ever:1 record:2 september:1 aziziyah:1 less:4 national:1 territory:1 receives:1 enough:1 settled:1 heavy:3 precipitation:1 annual:1 millimeter:3 receive:1 occurs:1 often:2 erratic:1 pronounced:1 drought:2 may:1 season:1 example:1 epic:1 flood:2 leave:1 tripoli:2 underwater:1 day:2 year:1 later:1 unprecedentedly:1 severe:1 cause:1 loss:1 thousand:1 head:1 cattle:1 deficiency:1 reflect:1 absence:1 permanent:3 river:3 stream:1 approximately:1 twenty:1 perennial:1 lake:1 brackish:1 salty:1 circumstance:1 severely:1 limit:1 potential:1 basis:1 sound:1 varied:1 economy:1 qadhafi:1 seek:1 establish:1 allocation:1 limited:2 sufficient:1 importance:1 warrant:1 existence:1 secretariat:1 dam:3 resource:5 damage:1 source:1 punish:1 fine:1 imprisonment:1 construct:1 network:1 wadi:3 dry:2 watercourse:1 torrent:1 rain:1 reservoir:1 erosion:1 control:1 heavily:1 settle:1 soil:1 bottom:1 suitable:1 table:2 vicinity:1 logical:1 dig:1 decline:1 alarm:1 rate:1 particularly:2 intensive:1 express:1 concern:2 problem:1 divert:1 development:4 project:4 around:1 locality:1 demand:1 underground:1 intense:1 also:2 undertake:1 extensive:1 reforestation:1 numerous:1 spring:2 best:2 suit:1 future:1 scarp:1 face:1 nafusah:1 talked:1 subterranean:1 aquifer:4 known:1 beneath:1 kufrah:3 southeastern:1 even:2 repute:1 capacity:1 locate:1 community:1 sabha:3 late:1 drill:1 part:1 undertaking:1 manmade:2 initiate:1 intend:1 tap:1 tremendous:1 sarir:1 carry:1 resulting:1 irrigation:1 industrial:1 mostly:1 flat:1 undulating:1 depression:1 low:1 sabkhat:1 ghuzayyil:1 bikku:1 bitti:1 gas:1 gypsum:1 arable:1 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:2 irrigated:1 environmental:1 hazard:1 laden:1 ghibli:1 wind:1 last:1 four:1 fall:1 sandstorm:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 desertification:2 fresh:1 scheme:1 build:1 international:1 agreement:1 party:1 marine:1 dumping:1 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 sign:1 ratify:1 biodiversity:1 law:1 reference:1 connect:1 |@bigram square_kilometer:2 tribal_chieftain:1 sahara_desert:3 gulf_sidra:2 elevation_meter:1 arid_plateau:1 jabal_al:4 al_akhdar:4 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 nautical_mile:1 dust_storm:2 climatic_zone:1 coastal_lowland:1 annual_rainfall:1 rainfall_millimeter:1 severe_drought:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 marine_dumping:1 dumping_nuclear:1 ozone_layer:1 external_link:1 |
7,497 | Geometric_series | The sum of the areas of the purple squares is one third of the area of the large square. In mathematics, a geometric series is a series with a constant ratio between successive terms. For example, the series is geometric, because each term is equal to half of the previous term. The sum of this series is 1, as illustrated in the following picture: Geometric series are one of the simplest examples of infinite series with finite sums. Historically, geometric series played an important role in the early development of calculus, and they continue to be central in the study of convergence of series. Geometric series are used throughout mathematics, and they have important applications in physics, engineering, biology, economics, computer science, and finance. Common ratio The terms of a geometric series form a geometric progression, meaning that the ratio of successive terms in the series is constant. The following table shows several geometric series with different common ratios: Common ratio Example 10 4 + 40 + 400 + 4000 + 40,000 + ··· 1/3 9 + 3 + 1 + 1/3 + 1/9 + ··· 1/10 7 + 0.7 + 0.07 + 0.007 + 0.0007 + ··· 1 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + ··· −1/2 1 − 1/2 + 1/4 − 1/8 + 1/16 − 1/32 + ··· –1 3 − 3 + 3 − 3 + 3 − ··· The behavior of the terms depends on the common ratio r: When r is greater than one, the terms of the series become larger and larger. When r is less than one (and greater than zero), the terms of the series become smaller and smaller, approaching zero in the limit. When r is equal to one, all of the terms of the series are the same. The common ratio can also be negative, which causes the sign of the terms to alternate. Sum The sum of a geometric series is finite as long as the terms approach zero. The sum can be computed using the self-similarity of the series. Example A self-similar illustration of the sum s. Removing the largest circle results in a similar figure of 2/3 the original size. Consider the sum of the following geometric series: This series has common ratio 2/3. If we multiply through by this common ratio, then the initial 1 becomes a 2/3, the 2/3 becomes a 4/9, and so on: This new series is the same as the original, except that the first term is missing. Subtracting the two series cancels every term but the first: A similar technique can be used to evaluate any self-similar expression. Formula For r ≠ 1, the sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is: where a is the first term of the series, and r is the common ratio. We can derive this formula as follows: The formula follows by multiplying through by a. As n goes to infinity, the absolute value of r must be less than one for the series to converge. The sum then becomes When , this simplifies to: the left-hand side being a geometric series with common ratio r. We can derive this formula: The general formula follows if we multiply through by a. This formula is only valid for convergent series (i.e., when the magnitude of r is less than one). For example, the sum is undefined when , even though the formula gives . This reasoning is also valid, with the same restrictions, for the complex case. Proof of convergence We can prove that the geometric series converges using the sum formula for a geometric progression: Since for | r | < 1, the limit is . Applications Repeating decimals A repeating decimal can be thought of as a geometric series whose common ratio is a power of 1/10. For example: You can use the formula for the sum of a geometric series to convert the decimal to a fraction: As you see you can use the formula not only for a single repeating decimal, but for a series of repeating consecutive decimals. For example: Note that every series of repeating consecutive decimals can be conveniently simplified with the following: Archimedes' quadrature of the parabola |The area enclosed by a parabola and a line is the union of infinitely many triangles. Archimedes used the sum of a geometric series to compute the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line. His method was to dissect the area into an infinite number of triangles, as shown in the figure to the right. Archimedes' Theorem The total area under the parabola is 4/3 of the area of the blue triangle. Proof: Using his extensive knowledge of geometry, Archimedes determined that each yellow triangle has 1/8 the area of the blue triangle, each green triangle has 1/8 the area of a yellow triangle, and so forth. Assuming that the blue triangle has area 1, the total area is an infinite sum: The first term represents the area of the blue triangle, the second term the areas of the two yellow triangles, the third term the areas of the four green triangles, and so on. Simplifying the fractions gives This is a geometric series with common ratio and the fractional part is equal to The sum is Q.E.D. This computation uses the method of exhaustion, an early version of integration. In modern calculus, the same area could be found using a definite integral. Fractal geometry The interior of the Koch snowflake is the union of infinitely many triangles. In the study of fractals, geometric series often arise as the perimeter, area, or volume of a self-similar figure. For example, the area inside the Koch snowflake can be described as the union of infinitely many equilateral triangles (see figure). Each side of the green triangle is exactly 1/3 the size of a side of the large blue triangle, and therefore has exactly 1/9 the area. Similarly, each yellow triangle has 1/9 the area of a green triangle, and so forth. Taking the blue triangle as a unit of area, the total area of the snowflake is The first term of this series represents the area of the blue triangle, the second term the total area of the three green triangles, the third term the total area of the twelve yellow triangles, and so forth. Excluding the initial 1, this series is geometric with constant ratio r = 4/9. The first term of the geometric series is a = 3(1/9) = 1/3, so the sum is Thus the Koch snowflake has 8/5 of the area of the base triangle. Zeno's paradoxes Understanding the convergence of a geometric series allows to resolve many of Zeno's paradoxes as it reveals that a sum of an infinite set can remain finite for | r | < 1. For example, Zeno's dichotomy paradox maintains that movement is impossible, as one can divide any path into steps of one half of the distance remaining, thus an infinite number of steps is needed to cross any finite distance. The hidden assumption is that a sum of infinite number of finite steps can not be finite. This is of course not true as evident by the convergence of the geometrical series with r=1/2 illustrated at the picture at the introduction section of this article. Euclid Book IX, Proposition 35 of Euclid's Elements expresses the partial sum of a geometric series in terms of members of the series. It is equivalent to the modern formula. Economics In economics, geometric series are used to represent the present value of an annuity (a sum of money to be paid in regular intervals). For example, suppose that you expect to receive a payment of $100 once per year in perpetuity. Receiving $100 a year from now is worth less to you than an immediate $100, because you cannot invest the money until you receive it. In particular, the present value of a $100 one year in the future is $100 / (1 + i), where i is the yearly interest rate. Similarly, a payment of $100 two years in the future has a present value of $100 / (1 + i)2 (squared because it would have received the yearly interest twice). Therefore, the present value of receiving $100 per year in perpetuity can be expressed as an infinite series: This is a geometric series with common ratio 1 / (1 + i). The sum is For example, if the yearly interest rate is 10% (i = 0.10), then the entire annuity has a present value of $1000. This sort of calculation is used to compute the APR of a loan (such as a mortgage). It can also be used to estimate the present value of expected stock dividends, or the terminal value of a security. Geometric power series See also series (mathematics) geometric progression ratio test root test divergent geometric series Neumann series Specific geometric series Grandi's series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + · · · 1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + · · · 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + · · · 1/2 − 1/4 + 1/8 − 1/16 + · · · 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/256 + · · · References James Stewart (2002). Calculus, 5th ed., Brooks Cole. ISBN 978-0534393397 Larson, Hostetler, and Edwards (2005). Calculus with Analytic Geometry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 978-0618502981 Roger B. Nelson (1997). Proofs without Words: Exercises in Visual Thinking, The Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 978-0883857007 History and philosophy C. H. Edwards, Jr. (1994). The Historical Development of the Calculus, 3rd ed., Springer. ISBN 978-0387943138. Eli Maor (1991). To Infinity and Beyond: A Cultural History of the Infinite, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691025117 Morr Lazerowitz (2000). The Structure of Metaphysics (International Library of Philosophy), Routledge. ISBN 978-0415225267 Economics Carl P. Simon and Lawrence Blume (1994). Mathematics for Economists, W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393957334 Mike Rosser (2003). Basic Mathematics for Economists, 2nd ed., Routledge. ISBN 978-0415267847 Biology Edward Batschelet (1992). Introduction to Mathematics for Life Scientists, 3rd ed., Springer. ISBN 978-0387096483 Richard F. Burton (1998). Biology by Numbers: An Encouragement to Quantitative Thinking, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521576987 Computer science John Rast Hubbard (2000). Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Data Structures With Java, McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0071378703 External links "Geometric Series" by Michael Schreiber, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007. | Geometric_series |@lemmatized sum:22 area:25 purple:1 square:3 one:10 third:3 large:5 mathematics:6 geometric:30 series:51 constant:3 ratio:16 successive:2 term:23 example:11 equal:3 half:2 previous:1 illustrate:2 following:2 picture:2 simple:1 infinite:8 finite:6 historically:1 play:1 important:2 role:1 early:2 development:2 calculus:5 continue:1 central:1 study:2 convergence:4 use:13 throughout:1 application:2 physic:1 engineering:1 biology:3 economics:4 computer:2 science:2 finance:1 common:12 form:1 progression:3 mean:1 follow:5 table:1 show:2 several:1 different:1 behavior:1 depend:1 r:13 great:2 become:5 less:4 zero:3 small:2 approach:2 limit:2 also:4 negative:1 cause:1 sign:1 alternate:1 long:1 compute:3 self:4 similarity:1 similar:5 illustration:1 remove:1 circle:1 result:1 figure:4 original:2 size:2 consider:1 multiply:3 initial:2 new:1 except:1 first:7 miss:1 subtract:1 two:3 cancel:1 every:2 technique:1 evaluate:1 expression:1 formula:11 n:2 derive:2 go:1 infinity:2 absolute:1 value:8 must:1 converge:1 simplifies:1 left:1 hand:1 side:3 general:1 valid:2 convergent:1 e:2 magnitude:1 undefined:1 even:1 though:1 give:2 reasoning:1 restriction:1 complex:1 case:1 proof:3 prove:1 converges:1 since:1 repeat:4 decimal:6 think:1 whose:1 power:2 convert:1 fraction:2 see:3 single:1 repeating:1 consecutive:2 note:1 conveniently:1 simplify:2 archimedes:4 quadrature:1 parabola:4 enclose:2 line:2 union:3 infinitely:3 many:4 triangle:22 straight:1 method:2 dissect:1 number:4 right:1 theorem:1 total:5 blue:7 extensive:1 knowledge:1 geometry:3 determine:1 yellow:5 green:5 forth:3 assume:1 represent:3 second:2 four:1 fractional:1 part:1 q:1 computation:1 exhaustion:1 version:1 integration:1 modern:2 could:1 find:1 definite:1 integral:1 fractal:2 interior:1 koch:3 snowflake:4 often:1 arise:1 perimeter:1 volume:1 inside:1 describe:1 equilateral:1 exactly:2 therefore:2 similarly:2 take:1 unit:1 three:1 twelve:1 exclude:1 thus:2 base:1 zeno:3 paradox:3 understand:1 allow:1 resolve:1 reveal:1 set:1 remain:2 dichotomy:1 maintain:1 movement:1 impossible:1 divide:1 path:1 step:3 distance:2 need:1 cross:1 hidden:1 assumption:1 course:1 true:1 evident:1 geometrical:1 introduction:2 section:1 article:1 euclid:2 book:1 ix:1 proposition:1 element:1 express:2 partial:1 member:1 equivalent:1 present:6 annuity:2 money:2 pay:1 regular:1 interval:1 suppose:1 expect:2 receive:5 payment:2 per:2 year:5 perpetuity:2 worth:1 immediate:1 cannot:1 invest:1 particular:1 future:2 yearly:3 interest:3 rate:2 would:1 twice:1 entire:1 sort:1 calculation:1 apr:1 loan:1 mortgage:1 estimate:1 stock:1 dividend:1 terminal:1 security:1 test:2 root:1 divergent:1 neumann:1 specific:1 grandi:1 reference:1 james:1 stewart:1 ed:5 brook:1 cole:1 isbn:11 larson:1 hostetler:1 edward:3 analytic:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 company:2 roger:1 b:1 nelson:1 without:1 word:1 exercise:1 visual:1 thinking:2 mathematical:1 association:1 america:1 history:2 philosophy:2 c:1 h:1 jr:1 historical:1 springer:2 eli:1 maor:1 beyond:1 cultural:1 princeton:1 university:2 press:2 morr:1 lazerowitz:1 structure:2 metaphysics:1 international:1 library:1 routledge:2 carl:1 p:1 simon:1 lawrence:1 blume:1 economist:2 w:2 norton:1 mike:1 rosser:1 basic:1 batschelet:1 life:1 scientist:1 richard:1 f:1 burton:1 encouragement:1 quantitative:1 cambridge:1 john:1 rast:1 hubbard:1 schaum:1 outline:1 theory:1 problem:1 data:1 java:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 external:1 link:1 michael:1 schreiber:1 wolfram:1 demonstration:1 project:1 |@bigram geometric_progression:3 decimal_fraction:1 definite_integral:1 fractal_geometry:1 koch_snowflake:3 equilateral_triangle:1 zeno_paradox:2 brook_cole:1 analytic_geometry:1 houghton_mifflin:1 w_norton:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1 wolfram_demonstration:1 |
7,498 | A_Fire_Upon_the_Deep | A Fire Upon the Deep is a science fiction novel written by Vernor Vinge, an award-winning space opera involving superhuman intelligences, aliens, variable physics, space battles, genocide, love, and betrayal. A Fire Upon the Deep won the Hugo Award in 1993 (tied with Doomsday Book by Connie Willis). Besides the normal print book editions, the novel was also included on a CD-ROM sold by ClariNet Communications along with the other nominees for the 1993 Hugo awards. The CD-ROM edition included numerous annotations by Vinge on his thoughts and intentions about different parts of the book. Plot summary A human colony high in the Beyond (see below for an explanation of the Zones of Thought) had dispatched an expedition to the low Transcend, having learned of a massive 5-billion year old archive of data which had been off the Known Net for all that time. It offers the possibility of unthinkable riches for the ambitious young civilization of Straumli Realm, and an expedition of archaeologist programmers is dispatched to open the archive and discover its secrets. The expedition's precautions are insufficient, however, and their facility, known as High Lab, is compromised by a dormant super-intelligent entity similar to the Powers that develop in the Transcend, yet far more stable and able to exert influence in the Beyond. The entity, initially called the "Straumli Perversion" by the civilizations of the Beyond but later referred to as "the Blight," persuades the team to create machines and activate programs they do not understand nor can guard against. Slowly, the Blight awakens and takes over the expedition. This intelligence is able to infiltrate and control computer systems and biological beings, quickly infecting and taking over whole civilizations in the High Beyond. Hidden from the newborn Blight, two programs, copies of the minds of two expedition members, have Transcended and lurk in the facility's local network. Unable to stop the Blight, they settle instead for devising a risky scheme to activate the countermeasure against the Blight that is included in the archive. With some understanding of what they have unleashed, a few humans escape from the research colony before the Blight regains its full capabilities and absorbs it; of the two vessels, only one successfully escapes. That vessel travels to the edge of the Slow Zone, where the Blight would have difficulty operating. They take with them some semi-living information about their enemy (later labeled Countermeasure) from the archive, though they do not know what to do with it. They land their sleeper ship, with a cargo of children in suspended animation, on a planet with a medieval-level civilization of dog-like creatures (the Tines) who exist as small packs of individuals. Each individual consciousness is generated by the "marriage" or enlistment of several Tines, who coordinate their thoughts via high-frequency sound. A single Tine is about as smart as a clever dog; two to three can think as well as a young human child; four to six is the standard and possess human or greater intelligence and self-awareness and personalities; under normal circumstances packs that are much larger degrade into barely-coherent mobs, though a rational pack of eight is not unheard of and one such pack plays a large role. Other configurations are possible for specialized roles. Examples include long strung-out sentry lines and garrisoned slave teams. The cargo ship carried most of the High Lab's children in "coldsleep boxes" - boxes which induce suspended animation. The boxes are rapidly failing, and so the surviving adults begin unloading them onto the hospitable near-Earth world they had landed on. However, they are quickly ambushed and fall victim to a long-lived conflict between two Tine nations who fight over the ship. The group that initially contacts the humans, the Flenserists, led by a Tine named Steel (the protégé of the charming but sinister genius Flenser, so named for his cruel research on other Tines), ambushes and kills the human adults and destroys many of the coldsleep boxes, intending to gain an advantage. The other group is led by the Woodcarver, so named for the artistic talent that first made her famous. Flenser had developed a small but powerful kingdom that specialized in subverting and taking over neighboring countries. To escape assassination by a mob after a failed attempt to take over such a country, Flenser's component bodies had been dispersed into two or more packs, one of which is Tyrathect, whose other members had previously been part of a naive Flenserist school teacher; it is later learned that Flenser's other members had not escaped. Tyrathect makes her roundabout way back to Flenser's stronghold, traveling in the company of the packs Peregrine Wrickwrackrum and Scriber Jaqueramaphan. They observe the ambush of the humans. The pilgrim and the spy resolve to steal the only survivor they see: Johanna Olsndot, a girl about 12 years old. Because of the return of Flenser, the troops are distracted, and the two manage to escape with Johanna aboard a Flenserist boat. Unbeknownst to them, Johanna's younger brother Jefri also survived, but remains in the hands of the Flenserists. The two groups begin frantically attempting to gain their respective human's trust, and exploit them to develop cannon and other technology. The Woodcarvers begin with the assistance of an educational databank. Lord Steel's group begins developing radio and superior cannon with the help of Jefri and his communications with the outside world through the ship, as well as a well-placed spy in Woodcarver's camp. Each sibling is unaware of the other's survival and alliance with opposing groups. The ship had been transmitting through its FTL ultrawave apparatus ever since it landed, and its message eventually reaches Relay, thanks to Ravna Bergsndot and the Old One. Ravna Bergsndot was working as the only human intern at the Vrinimi Organization, a vast, ancient, and wealthy communication and information provider (conceptualized as much like an ISP of the late 1980s or early 1990s) based in the system of Relay. Relay is so named because it is offset from the galactic plane in the Middle Beyond and so has a clear line of sight on many different and far-flung systems; it serves as a relay for a vast amount of Known Net traffic - somewhere around 2%. "But in the current era there was one instance of "Relay" known above all others. That instance appeared in the routing list of two percent of all traffic across the Known Net. Twenty thousand light-years off the galactic plane, Relay had an unobstructed line of sight on thirty percent of the Beyond, including many star systems right at the bottom, where starships can make only one light-year per day." pg 63 A benign Power called "Old One" (because it is known to be over 10 years old; Powers rarely maintain contact with the Beyond for more than a few years) makes contact, seeking information about the Blight and especially about humans in general who had released the Blight. It asks for Ravna to accompany its vessel back to the Transcend, but Ravna refuses, wary of the Power's intentions. The Vrinimi Organization supports her, even though the Old One was offering to set up an oracle for them. So instead it reconstructs a seemingly human man, Pham Nuwen, from a frozen body collected by a Slow Zone probe and stockpiled at Relay by Vrinimi Organization (along with parts from other bodies) and infuses him with some memory of his former life, to act as its remote agent. The Old One helps in the search for escapees from the High Lab, eventually finding Jefri's signal. It designs a ship, the Out of Band II, designed to travel to the bottom of the Beyond and even handle limited travel in the Slow Zone, to reach Jefri and investigate what the ship carried with it from the High Lab. Relay and Old One fall victim to a double surprise attack by the Blight; Relay is attacked by a vast armada. The Blight is forced to engage Old One in a very personal way, and Old One steals information about the Blight, and apparently discovers its weakness. Before dying, Old One downloads as much of itself as can fit into Pham, providing him with subconscious instructions to activate Countermeasure. During the attack, Pham and Ravna are in the company of Blueshell and Greenstalk, intelligent plants of an eons-old trading race known as Skroderiders, who use sophisticated personal vehicles ("skrodes") to enhance both their mobility and cognitive capabilities (Skroderiders have an almost complete lack of short-term memory). All four escape Relay's destruction in the Skroderiders' ship Out of Band II, which had previously been chartered and equipped to rescue the human refugees. They then follow Jefri's signal to the Tines' planet. While en route, they narrowly escape an alliance of anti-human military fleets, the "Alliance for the Defense," which not only knows that humans are responsible for the Blight's reanimation, but also accuse them of acting as its agents. After docking at the world of Harmonious Repose for necessary repairs to the Out of Band II, the group learns that the core human civilization of Sjandra Kei has been annihilated by the Alliance. Shortly afterwards, it is discovered that Skroderiders are the Blight's true puppets; skrodes had been designed by the Blight billions of years previously to create a race of sleeper agents. After finally arriving at Tines' world and allying with Woodcarver to defeat Steel, Pham initiates the "Countermeasure," a nanotechnological fungus-like substance/device of Transcend capabilities and design. Countermeasure drastically alters the boundaries of the zones of thought in that sector of the galaxy, causing the Slow Zone to surge and penetrate into part of the Transcend. The massive shift envelops and destroys the Blight; however, this also kills Pham and strands the other humans on the Tines' world, now in the depths of the Slow Zone. An included Known Net message estimates that this event thrusts thousands of uninvolved civilizations into an environment where much of their technology no longer functions (a situation analogous to an Earth where electricity ceases to exist), causing trillions of deaths. Notable elements Zones of thought Vinge has often expressed an opinion that realistic fiction set after the development of superhuman intelligence — an event that he calls the Singularity and considers all but inevitable — would necessarily be too strange for a human reader to enjoy, if not impossible for a human writer to create. To sidestep the issue, he turns the Singularity sideways from time into space, postulating that the galaxy has been divided into "zones of thought": The Unthinking Depths are the lowest level, containing the galactic core. Even the simplest organic or machine intelligences function poorly, if at all. Space travel is nearly impossible, requiring big, dumb vessels with neolithic automation and massive redundancy. These properties make exploration of this zone problematic. The Slow Zone is the next layer. FTL travel and communications do not function, dependent as they are on some physical property of the universe which changes at the boundary between the Beyond and the Slow Zone. Intelligence above the level of human-equivalent is not possible. Molecular nanotechnology also doesn't function well, if at all. Earth is deep within the Slow Zone. The Beyond is where the majority of the action takes place in A Fire Upon the Deep. It is loosely divided into three sub-zones: the Bottom of the Beyond (where Tines' World is located) near the Slow Zone, the Middle of the Beyond (where Relay and Sjandra Kei were located), and the Top of the Beyond (where Straumli Realm was located) near the Transcend. FTL travel and communication are possible, though the latter can be prohibitively expensive, often requiring planet-sized transceiver arrays. Antigravity and mind-machine interfaces, along with many other technological advances, work in the Beyond. The limits to organic and machine intelligence vary smoothly from the boundary of the Slow Zone to that of the Transcend. The Transcend is where super-intelligences known as Powers reside. Here there are no limits on nanotechnology, FTL travel is very fast (relative to the Beyond), FTL communications bandwidth is cheap, and there are no limits to organic or machine intelligences or meldings between the two. Indeed, many of the Powers are a single consciousness created from an entire civilization. The Powers have passed through the technological singularity and their behavior is usually beyond human comprehension. They routinely create intelligent species from scratch, perform near-miraculous feats of engineering on scales both atomic and cosmic, and have been known to employ technologies that warp the very nature of reality - the Countermeasure to the Blight is the obvious example, and it has been proposed that that the Zones themselves are the product of a similar technology. They regard involvement in the affairs of races in the Beyond in much the same way that humans would care about the competition for alpha male status amongst a pack of wild animals. Powers rarely maintain contact with the Beyond for more than a few years; it is not known whether they merely lose interest, die, go elsewhere, or transcend again to an even more incomprehensible level of being. Scandinavian influences The name of the starship Lynsnar literally means "very fast" in Norwegian and Danish. Many other names have a Scandinavian sound to them. Arne is a common male name in Scandinavia. Most of the humans' surnames have the suffix -sndot, suggestive of a blending of the common Scandinavian -son (or -sen) and -dottir; this form may have developed during the "Age of Princesses" on Nyjora , the Slow Zone world from which humans reached the Beyond. Nyjora resembles the Norwegian pronunciation of the phrase "Nyjorda", which translates into "The New Earth". "Samnorsk", the language of the Straumli Realm and its Perversion, was the name of a constructed language that attempted to unite the two different Norwegian national languages, Nynorsk and Bokmål between 1917 and 1966. In the foreword, Vinge mentions his 1988 trip to Oslo, the capital of Norway, and Tromsø, an Arctic Norwegian university town that hosted a computer conference that year. Another Scandinavian reference is the story of the Aniara, referring to Harry Martinson's poem Aniara, also referenced in the foreword as the Aniara Society, the Oslo-based science fiction-fandom club that hosted his visit to the capital. Related works A prequel to this book was subsequently written, A Deepness in the Sky, set twenty thousand years earlier in the "Slow Zone" near Earth, detailing the earlier adventures of Pham Nuwen. Vinge's short story "The Blabber" takes place hundreds (perhaps thousands) of years after Fire though it was written first and contains several contradictions with the books. As of early 2009, Vinge is working on a sequel to A Fire Upon the Deep, set approximately ten years after the events of the original novel. http://www.sffaudio.com/?cat=607 Awards and nominations Hugo Award Winner of Best Novel 1993 (tied with Doomsday Book by Connie Willis) Nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1992. Title translations Chinese (simplified):"深渊上的火" 四川科学技术出版社(Sichuan Science and Technology Press), 2005: ISBN 9787536454583 Croatian: "Vatra nad dubinom" Algoritam, 2002: ISBN 953-220-066-5 Dutch: "Dagen des Oordeels" Meulenhoff, 1993: ISBN 90-290-4169-2 Finnish: "Linnunradan ääret" Like, 2008: ISBN 978-952-01-0089-6 French: "Un feu sur l'abîme" Robert Laffont, (31 octobre 1994): ISBN 2221076761 / ISBN 978-2221076767 Livre de Poche, (1998): ISBN 2253072087 / ISBN 978-2253072089 German: "Ein Feuer auf der Tiefe" Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, 1995: ISBN 3-453-07986-8. Hebrew: "אש על פני תהום" Keter Publishing 2007: דאנאקוד 692-48 Italian: "Universo incostante" Editrice Nord, 1993: ISBN 88-429-0738-3 Editrice Nord, Collana Cosmo Biblioteca, 2007: ISBN 9788842915102 Polish: "Ogień nad otchłanią" Wydawnictwo Prószyński i s-ka, 1998: ISBN: 83-7180-678-7 Romanian: "Foc în adânc" Editura Nemira, 2008: ISBN 978-973-143-149-9 Russian: "" AST, 2001: ISBN 5-17-005186-7; 2003: ISBN 5-237-03425-X/ISBN 5-17-002594-7 AST, Yermak, 2003 (two editions): ISBN 5-17-020474-4/ISBN 5-9577-0665-5, ISBN 5-17-019900-7/ISBN 5-9577-0663-9. Serbian: "Plamen nad ponorom" Laguna, 2007: ISBN 978-86-7436-572-4 Vernor Vindž: Plamen nad ponorom; Prevela (Translation by): Bojana Ilić; Naslov originala (Title of original): Vernor Vinge: A Fire upon the Deep; Translation copyright 2007 za srpsko izdanje, Laguna (- for the Serbian edition, Laguna); Ilustracija na koricama (Cover art): Boris Vallejo; Beograd, Laguna 2007; ISBN: 978-86-7436-572-4 Spanish: "Un fuego sobre el abismo" Ediciones B, 1994: ISBN 84-406-4469-8. References External links Prologue and first nine chapters at Webscriptions | A_Fire_Upon_the_Deep |@lemmatized fire:6 upon:5 deep:6 science:3 fiction:3 novel:5 write:3 vernor:3 vinge:7 award:6 win:2 space:4 opera:1 involve:1 superhuman:2 intelligence:9 alien:1 variable:1 physic:1 battle:1 genocide:1 love:1 betrayal:1 hugo:3 tie:2 doomsday:2 book:6 connie:2 willis:2 besides:1 normal:2 print:1 edition:4 also:6 include:5 cd:2 rom:2 sell:1 clarinet:1 communication:6 along:3 nominee:1 numerous:1 annotation:1 thought:6 intention:2 different:3 part:4 plot:1 summary:1 human:23 colony:2 high:7 beyond:19 see:2 explanation:1 zone:19 dispatch:2 expedition:5 low:2 transcend:10 learn:3 massive:3 billion:2 year:12 old:12 archive:4 data:1 known:4 net:4 time:2 offer:2 possibility:1 unthinkable:1 rich:1 ambitious:1 young:3 civilization:7 straumli:4 realm:3 archaeologist:1 programmer:1 open:1 discover:3 secret:1 precaution:1 insufficient:1 however:3 facility:2 know:9 lab:4 compromise:1 dormant:1 super:2 intelligent:3 entity:2 similar:2 power:8 develop:5 yet:1 far:2 stable:1 able:2 exert:1 influence:2 initially:2 call:3 perversion:2 later:3 refer:2 blight:17 persuade:1 team:2 create:5 machine:5 activate:3 program:2 understand:1 guard:1 slowly:1 awakens:1 take:7 infiltrate:1 control:1 computer:2 system:4 biological:1 quickly:2 infect:1 whole:1 hidden:1 newborn:1 two:12 copy:1 mind:2 member:3 lurk:1 local:1 network:1 unable:1 stop:1 settle:1 instead:2 devise:1 risky:1 scheme:1 countermeasure:6 understanding:1 unleash:1 escape:7 research:2 regain:1 full:1 capability:3 absorb:1 vessel:4 one:13 successfully:1 travel:8 edge:1 slow:12 would:3 difficulty:1 operate:1 semi:1 living:1 information:4 enemy:1 label:1 though:5 land:3 sleeper:2 ship:8 cargo:2 child:3 suspended:1 animation:2 planet:3 medieval:1 level:4 dog:2 like:4 creature:1 tine:10 exist:2 small:2 pack:7 individual:2 consciousness:2 generate:1 marriage:1 enlistment:1 several:2 coordinate:1 via:1 frequency:1 sound:2 single:2 smart:1 clever:1 three:2 think:1 well:4 four:2 six:1 standard:1 possess:1 great:1 self:1 awareness:1 personality:1 circumstance:1 much:5 large:2 degrade:1 barely:1 coherent:1 mob:2 rational:1 eight:1 unheard:1 play:1 role:2 configuration:1 possible:3 specialized:1 example:2 long:2 strung:1 sentry:1 line:3 garrison:1 slave:1 carry:2 coldsleep:2 box:4 induce:1 suspend:1 rapidly:1 fail:1 surviving:1 adult:2 begin:4 unload:1 onto:1 hospitable:1 near:5 earth:5 world:7 ambush:3 fall:2 victim:2 live:1 conflict:1 nation:1 fight:1 group:6 contact:4 flenserists:2 lead:2 name:8 steel:3 protégé:1 charming:1 sinister:1 genius:1 flenser:6 cruel:1 kill:2 destroy:2 many:6 intend:1 gain:2 advantage:1 woodcarver:4 artistic:1 talent:1 first:3 make:5 famous:1 powerful:1 kingdom:1 specialize:1 subverting:1 neighboring:1 country:2 assassination:1 failed:1 attempt:3 component:1 body:3 disperse:1 tyrathect:2 whose:1 previously:3 naive:1 flenserist:2 school:1 teacher:1 roundabout:1 way:3 back:2 stronghold:1 company:2 peregrine:1 wrickwrackrum:1 scriber:1 jaqueramaphan:1 observe:1 pilgrim:1 spy:2 resolve:1 steal:2 survivor:1 johanna:3 olsndot:1 girl:1 return:1 troop:1 distract:1 manage:1 aboard:1 boat:1 unbeknownst:1 brother:1 jefri:5 survive:1 remain:1 hand:1 frantically:1 respective:1 trust:1 exploit:1 cannon:2 technology:5 assistance:1 educational:1 databank:1 lord:1 radio:1 superior:1 help:2 outside:1 place:3 camp:1 sibling:1 unaware:1 survival:1 alliance:4 oppose:1 transmit:1 ftl:5 ultrawave:1 apparatus:1 ever:1 since:1 message:2 eventually:2 reach:3 relay:11 thanks:1 ravna:5 bergsndot:2 work:4 intern:1 vrinimi:3 organization:3 vast:3 ancient:1 wealthy:1 provider:1 conceptualize:1 isp:1 late:1 early:3 base:2 offset:1 galactic:3 plane:2 middle:2 clear:1 sight:2 flung:1 serve:1 amount:1 traffic:2 somewhere:1 around:1 current:1 era:1 instance:2 others:1 appear:1 routing:1 list:1 percent:2 across:1 twenty:2 thousand:4 light:2 unobstructed:1 thirty:1 star:1 right:1 bottom:3 starship:2 per:1 day:1 pg:1 benign:1 rarely:2 maintain:2 seek:1 especially:1 general:1 release:1 ask:1 accompany:1 refuse:1 wary:1 support:1 even:4 set:4 oracle:1 reconstruct:1 seemingly:1 man:1 pham:6 nuwen:2 frozen:1 collect:1 probe:1 stockpile:1 infuse:1 memory:2 former:1 life:1 act:2 remote:1 agent:3 search:1 escapee:1 find:1 signal:2 design:4 band:3 ii:3 handle:1 limited:1 investigate:1 double:1 surprise:1 attack:3 armada:1 force:1 engage:1 personal:2 apparently:1 weakness:1 die:2 download:1 fit:1 provide:1 subconscious:1 instruction:1 blueshell:1 greenstalk:1 plant:1 eon:1 trading:1 race:3 skroderiders:4 use:1 sophisticated:1 vehicle:1 skrodes:2 enhance:1 mobility:1 cognitive:1 almost:1 complete:1 lack:1 short:2 term:1 destruction:1 charter:1 equip:1 rescue:1 refugee:1 follow:1 en:1 route:1 narrowly:1 anti:1 military:1 fleet:1 defense:1 responsible:1 reanimation:1 accuse:1 dock:1 harmonious:1 repose:1 necessary:1 repair:1 core:2 sjandra:2 kei:2 annihilate:1 shortly:1 afterwards:1 true:1 puppet:1 finally:1 arrive:1 ally:1 defeat:1 initiate:1 nanotechnological:1 fungus:1 substance:1 device:1 drastically:1 alter:1 boundary:3 sector:1 galaxy:2 cause:2 surge:1 penetrate:1 shift:1 envelops:1 strand:1 depth:2 included:1 estimate:1 event:3 thrust:1 uninvolved:1 environment:1 longer:1 function:4 situation:1 analogous:1 electricity:1 cease:1 trillion:1 death:1 notable:1 element:1 often:2 express:1 opinion:1 realistic:1 development:1 singularity:3 considers:1 inevitable:1 necessarily:1 strange:1 reader:1 enjoy:1 impossible:2 writer:1 sidestep:1 issue:1 turn:1 sideways:1 postulate:1 divide:2 unthinking:1 contain:2 simple:1 organic:3 poorly:1 nearly:1 require:2 big:1 dumb:1 neolithic:1 automation:1 redundancy:1 property:2 exploration:1 problematic:1 next:1 layer:1 dependent:1 physical:1 universe:1 change:1 equivalent:1 molecular:1 nanotechnology:2 within:1 majority:1 action:1 loosely:1 sub:1 locate:3 top:1 latter:1 prohibitively:1 expensive:1 size:1 transceiver:1 array:1 antigravity:1 interface:1 technological:2 advance:1 limit:3 vary:1 smoothly:1 reside:1 fast:2 relative:1 bandwidth:1 cheap:1 meldings:1 indeed:1 entire:1 pass:1 behavior:1 usually:1 comprehension:1 routinely:1 specie:1 scratch:1 perform:1 miraculous:1 feat:1 engineering:1 scale:1 atomic:1 cosmic:1 employ:1 warp:1 nature:1 reality:1 obvious:1 propose:1 product:1 regard:1 involvement:1 affair:1 care:1 competition:1 alpha:1 male:2 status:1 amongst:1 wild:1 animal:1 whether:1 merely:1 lose:1 interest:1 go:1 elsewhere:1 incomprehensible:1 scandinavian:4 lynsnar:1 literally:1 mean:1 norwegian:4 danish:1 arne:1 common:2 scandinavia:1 surname:1 suffix:1 sndot:1 suggestive:1 blending:1 son:1 sen:1 dottir:1 form:1 may:1 age:1 princess:1 nyjora:2 resemble:1 pronunciation:1 phrase:1 nyjorda:1 translate:1 new:1 samnorsk:1 language:3 constructed:1 unite:1 national:1 nynorsk:1 bokmål:1 foreword:2 mention:1 trip:1 oslo:2 capital:2 norway:1 tromsø:1 arctic:1 university:1 town:1 host:2 conference:1 another:1 reference:3 story:2 aniara:3 harry:1 martinson:1 poem:1 society:1 fandom:1 club:1 visit:1 relate:1 prequel:1 subsequently:1 deepness:1 sky:1 earlier:1 detail:1 adventure:1 blabber:1 hundred:1 perhaps:1 contradiction:1 sequel:1 approximately:1 ten:1 original:2 http:1 www:1 sffaudio:1 com:1 cat:1 nomination:1 winner:1 best:2 nominate:1 nebula:1 title:2 translation:3 chinese:1 simplified:1 深渊上的火:1 四川科学技术出版社:1 sichuan:1 press:1 isbn:23 croatian:1 vatra:1 nad:4 dubinom:1 algoritam:1 dutch:1 dagen:1 de:2 oordeels:1 meulenhoff:1 finnish:1 linnunradan:1 ääret:1 french:1 un:2 feu:1 sur:1 l:1 abîme:1 robert:1 laffont:1 octobre:1 livre:1 poche:1 german:1 ein:1 feuer:1 auf:1 der:1 tiefe:1 wilhelm:1 heyne:1 verlag:1 hebrew:1 אש:1 על:1 פני:1 תהום:1 keter:1 publishing:1 דאנאקוד:1 italian:1 universo:1 incostante:1 editrice:2 nord:2 collana:1 cosmo:1 biblioteca:1 polish:1 ogień:1 otchłanią:1 wydawnictwo:1 prószyński:1 ka:1 romanian:1 foc:1 în:1 adânc:1 editura:1 nemira:1 russian:1 ast:2 x:1 yermak:1 serbian:2 plamen:2 ponorom:2 laguna:4 vindž:1 prevela:1 bojana:1 ilić:1 naslov:1 originala:1 copyright:1 za:1 srpsko:1 izdanje:1 ilustracija:1 na:1 koricama:1 cover:1 art:1 boris:1 vallejo:1 beograd:1 spanish:1 fuego:1 sobre:1 el:1 abismo:1 ediciones:1 b:1 external:1 link:1 prologue:1 nine:1 chapter:1 webscriptions:1 |@bigram science_fiction:2 vernor_vinge:2 connie_willis:2 cd_rom:2 suspended_animation:1 far_flung:1 en_route:1 narrowly_escape:1 shortly_afterwards:1 galactic_core:1 ftl_travel:3 molecular_nanotechnology:1 prohibitively_expensive:1 technological_singularity:1 fiction_fandom:1 http_www:1 award_nomination:1 auf_der:1 keter_publishing:1 sobre_el:1 external_link:1 |
7,499 | Linguistics | Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language. Linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is between the study of language structure (grammar) and the study of meaning (semantics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the rules that determine how words combine into phrases and sentences) and phonology (the study of sound systems and abstract sound units). Phonetics is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived. Other sub-disciplines of linguistics include the following: evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language; historical linguistics, which explores language change; sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures; psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and functioning of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at the representation of language in the brain; language acquisition, which considers how children acquire their first language and how children and adults acquire and learn their second and subsequent languages; and discourse analysis, which is concerned with the structure of texts and conversations, and pragmatics with how meaning is transmitted based on a combination of linguistic competence, non-linguistic knowledge, and the context of the speech act. Linguistics is narrowly defined as the scientific approach to the study of language, but language can, of course, be approached from a variety of directions, and a number of other intellectual disciplines are relevant to it and influence its study. Semiotics, for example, is a related field concerned with the general study of signs and symbols both in language and outside of it. Literary theorists study the use of language in artistic literature. Linguistics additionally draws on work from such diverse fields as psychology, speech-language pathology, informatics, computer science, philosophy, biology, human anatomy, neuroscience, sociology, anthropology, and acoustics. Someone who engages in linguistics is called a linguist, although this term is also commonly used, outside linguistics, to refer to people who speak many languages. Names for the discipline Before the twentieth century, the term "philology", first attested in 1716, Online Etymological Dictionary: philology was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus. Since Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis, however, this focus has shifted and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history and literary tradition," especially in the United States, A. Morpurgo Davies Hist. Linguistics (1998) 4 I. 22. where it was never as popular as elsewhere in the sense of "science of language". Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641, the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847. Online Etymological Dictionary: linguist It is now the usual academic term in English for the scientific study of language. Fundamental concerns and divisions Linguistics concerns itself with describing and explaining the nature of human language. Relevant to this are the questions of what is universal to language, how language can vary, and how human beings come to know languages. All humans (setting aside extremely pathological cases) achieve competence in whatever language is spoken (or signed, in the case of signed languages) around them when growing up, with apparently little need for explicit conscious instruction. While non-humans acquire their own communication systems, they do not acquire human language in this way (although many non-human animals can learn to respond to language, or can even be trained to use it to a degree). "Animal Language Article" Therefore, linguists assume, the ability to acquire and use language is an innate, biologically-based potential of modern human beings, similar to the ability to walk. There is no consensus, however, as to the extent of this innate potential, or its domain-specificity (the degree to which such innate abilities are specific to language), with some theorists claiming that there is a very large set of highly abstract and specific binary settings coded into the human brain, while others claim that the ability to learn language is a product of general human cognition. It is, however, generally agreed that there are no strong genetic differences underlying the differences between languages: an individual will acquire whatever language(s) he or she is exposed to as a child, regardless of parentage or ethnic origin. Nevertheless, recent research suggests that even weak genetic biases in speakers may, over a number of generations, influence the evolution of particular languages, leading to a non-random distribution of certain linguistic features across the world. (Dediu, D. & Ladd, D.R. (2007). Linguistic tone is related to the population frequency of the adaptive haplogroups of two brain size genes, ASPM and Microcephalin, PNAS 104:10944-10949; summary available here) Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form; such pairings are known as Saussurean signs. In this sense, form may consist of sound patterns, movements of the hands, written symbols, and so on. There are many sub-fields concerned with particular aspects of linguistic structure, ranging from those focused primarily on form to those focused primarily on meaning: Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of speech (or signed) production and perception Phonology, the study of sounds (or signs) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning Morphology, the study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and non-linguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed) Many linguists would agree that these divisions overlap considerably, and the independent significance of each of these areas is not universally acknowledged. Regardless of any particular linguist's position, each area has core concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry and research. Alongside these structurally-motivated domains of study are other fields of linguistics, distinguished by the kinds of non-linguistic factors that they consider: Applied linguistics, the study of language-related issues applied in everyday life, notably language policies, planning, and education. (Constructed language fits under Applied linguistics.) Biolinguistics, the study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems in animals, compared to human language. Clinical linguistics, the application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language Pathology. Computational linguistics, the study of computational implementations of linguistic structures. Developmental linguistics, the study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood. Evolutionary linguistics, the study of the origin and subsequent development of language by the human species. Historical linguistics or diachronic linguistics, the study of language change over time. Language geography, the study of the geographical distribution of languages and linguistic features. Linguistic typology, the study of the common properties of diverse unrelated languages, properties that may, given sufficient attestation, be assumed to be innate to human language capacity. Neurolinguistics, the study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication. Psycholinguistics, the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use. Sociolinguistics, the study of variation in language and its relationship with social factors. Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context. The related discipline of semiotics investigates the relationship between signs and what they signify. From the perspective of semiotics, language can be seen as a sign or symbol, with the world as its representation. Variation and universality Much modern linguistic research, particularly within the paradigm of generative grammar, has concerned itself with trying to account for differences between languages of the world. This has worked on the assumption that if human linguistic ability is narrowly constrained by human biology, then all languages must share certain fundamental properties. In generativist theory, the collection of fundamental properties all languages share are referred to as universal grammar (UG). The specific characteristics of this universal grammar are a much debated topic. Typologists and non-generativist linguists usually refer simply to language universals, or universals of language. Similarities between languages can have a number of different origins. In the simplest case, universal properties may be due to universal aspects of human experience. For example, all humans experience water, and all human languages have a word for water. Other similarities may be due to common descent: the Latin language spoken by the Ancient Romans developed into Spanish in Spain and Italian in Italy; similarities between Spanish and Italian are thus in many cases due to both being descended from Latin. In other cases, contact between languages — particularly where many speakers are bilingual — can lead to much borrowing of structures, as well as words. Similarity may also, of course, be due to coincidence. English much and Spanish are not descended from the same form or borrowed from one language to the other; Much is from Middle English muchel, which is from Proto-Germanic *mekilaz, while is from Latin . nor is the similarity due to innate linguistic knowledge (see False cognate). Arguments in favor of language universals have also come from documented cases of sign languages (such as Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language) developing in communities of congenitally deaf people, independently of spoken language. The properties of these sign languages conform generally to many of the properties of spoken languages. Other known and suspected sign language isolates include Kata Kolok, Nicaraguan Sign Language, and Providence Island Sign Language. Structures Ferdinand de Saussure It has been perceived that languages tend to be organized around grammatical categories such as noun and verb, nominative and accusative, or present and past, though, importantly, not exclusively so. The grammar of a language is organized around such fundamental categories, though many languages express the relationships between words and syntax in other discrete ways (cf. some Bantu languages for noun/verb relations, ergative-absolutive systems for case relations, several Native American languages for tense/aspect relations). In addition to making substantial use of discrete categories, language has the important property that it organizes elements into recursive structures; this allows, for example, a noun phrase to contain another noun phrase (as in "the chimpanzee's lips") or a clause to contain a clause (as in "I think that it's raining"). Though recursion in grammar was implicitly recognized much earlier (for example by Jespersen), the importance of this aspect of language became more popular after the 1957 publication of Noam Chomsky's book Syntactic Structures, Chomsky, Noam. 1957. "Syntactic Structures". Mouton, The Hague which presented a formal grammar of a fragment of English. Prior to this, the most detailed descriptions of linguistic systems were of phonological or morphological systems. Chomsky used a context-free grammar augmented with transformations. Since then, following the trend of Chomskyan linguistics, context-free grammars have been written for substantial fragments of various languages (for example GPSG, for English). It has been demonstrated, however, that human languages (most notably Dutch and Swiss German) include cross-serial dependencies, which cannot be handled adequately by context-free grammars. Carl Vogel, Ulrike Hahn, Holly Branigan 1996, "Cross serial dependencies are not hard to process", Proceedings of the 16th conference on Computational linguistics - Volume 1 Some selected sub-fields Historical linguistics Historical linguistics studies the history and evolution of languages through the comparative method. Often the aim of historical linguistics is to classify languages in language families descending from a common ancestor. This evolves comparison of elements in different languages to detect possible cognates in order to be able to reconstruct how different languages have changed over time. This also involves the study of etymology, the study of the history of single words. Historical linguistics is also called "diachronic linguistics" and is opposed to "synchronic linguistics" that study languages in a given moment in time without regarding its previous stages.In universities in the United States, the historic perspective is often out of fashion. Historical linguistics was among the first linguistic disciplines to emerge and was the most widely practiced form of linguistics in the late 19th century. The shift in focus to a synchronic perspective started with Saussure and became predominant in western linguistics with Noam Chomskys emphasis on the study of the synchronic and universal aspects of language. Semiotics Semiotics is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems, including the study of how meaning is constructed and understood. Semioticians often do not restrict themselves to linguistic communication when studying the use of signs but extend the meaning of "sign" to cover all kinds of cultural symbols. Nonetheless semiotic disciplines closely related to linguistics are literary studies, discourse analysis, text linguistics, and philosophy of language. Descriptive linguistics and language documentation Since the inception of the discipline of linguistics linguists have been concerned with describing and documenting languages previously unknown to science. Starting with Franz Boas in the early 1900's descriptive linguistics became the main strand within American linguistics until the rise of formal structural linguistics in the mid 20th century. The rise of American descriptive linguistics was caused by the concern with describing the languages of indigenous peoples that were (and are) rapidly moving towards extinction. The ethnographic focus of the original Boasian type of descriptive linguistics occasioned the development of disciplines such as Sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology, disciplines that investigate the relations between language, culture and society. The emphasis on linguistic description and documentation has since become more important outside of North America as well, as the documentation of rapidly dying indigenous languages has become a primary focus in many of the worlds' linguistics programs. Language description is a work intensive endeavour usually requiring years of field work for the linguist to learn a language sufficiently well to write a reference grammar of it. The further task of language documentation requires the linguist to collect a preferably large corpus of texts and recordings of sound and video in the language, and to arrange for its storage in accesible formats in open repositories where it may be of the best use for further research by other reseachers. Himmelman, Nikolaus Language documentation: What is it and what is it good for? in P. Gippert, Jost, Nikolaus P Himmelmann & Ulrike Mosel. (2006) Essentials of Language documentation. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin & New York. Applied linguistics Linguists are largely concerned with finding and describing the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all language. Applied linguistics takes the result of those findings and "applies" them to other areas. The term "applied linguistics" is often used to refer to the use of linguistic research in language teaching only, but results of linguistic research are used in many other areas as well, such as lexicography and translation. "Applied linguistics" has been argued to be something of a misnomer, since applied linguists focus on making sense of and engineering solutions for real-world linguistic problems, not simply "applying" existing technical knowledge from linguistics; moreover, they commonly apply technical knowledge from multiple sources, such as sociology (e.g. conversation analysis) and anthropology. Today, computers are widely used in many areas of applied linguistics. Speech synthesis and speech recognition use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers. Applications of computational linguistics in machine translation, computer-assisted translation, and natural language processing are areas of applied linguistics which have come to the forefront. Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modeling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints. Linguistic analysis is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics used by many governments to verify the claimed nationality of people seeking asylum who do not hold the necessary documentation to prove their claim. This often takes the form of an interview by personnel in an immigration department. Depending on the country, this interview is conducted in either the asylum seeker's native language through an interpreter, or in an international lingua franca like English. Australia uses the former method, while Germany employs the latter; the Netherlands uses either method depending on the languages involved. Tape recordings of the interview then undergo language analysis, which can be done by either private contractors or within a department of the government. In this analysis, linguistic features of the asylum seeker are used by analysts to make a determination about the speaker's nationality. The reported findings of the linguistic analysis can play a critical role in the government's decision on the refugee status of the asylum seeker. Description and prescription Main articles: Descriptive linguistics, Linguistic prescription Linguistics is descriptive; linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature is "right" or "wrong". This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a zoologist studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular animal is better or worse than another. Prescription, on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favouring a particular dialect or "acrolect". This may have the aim of establishing a linguistic standard, which can aid communication over large geographical areas. It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see Linguistic imperialism). An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among censors, who attempt to eradicate words and structures which they consider to be destructive to society. Speech and writing Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken (or signed) language is more fundamental than written language. This is because: Speech appears to be universal to all human beings capable of producing and hearing it, while there have been many cultures and speech communities that lack written communication; Speech evolved before human beings invented writing; People learn to speak and process spoken languages more easily and much earlier than writing; Linguists nonetheless agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For research that relies on corpus linguistics and computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically transcribed and written. Additionally, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of computer-mediated communication as a viable site for linguistic inquiry. The study of writing systems themselves is in any case considered a branch of linguistics. History Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be recalled from Iron Age India with the analysis of Sanskrit. The Pratishakhyas (from ca. the 8th century BC) constitute as it were a proto-linguistic ad hoc collection of observations about mutations to a given corpus particular to a given Vedic school. Systematic study of these texts gives rise to the Vedanga discipline of Vyakarana, the earliest surviving account of which is the work of (c. 520 – 460 BC), who, however, looks back on what are probably several generations of grammarians, whose opinions he occasionally refers to. formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact generative grammar of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root. Due to its focus on brevity, his grammar has a highly unintuitive structure, reminiscent of contemporary "machine language" (as opposed to "human readable" programming languages). Indian linguistics maintained a high level for several centuries; Patanjali in the 2nd century BC still actively criticizes Panini. In the later centuries BC, however, Panini's grammar came to be seen as prescriptive, and commentators came to be fully dependent on it. Bhartrihari (c. 450 – 510) theorized the act of speech as being made up of four stages: first, conceptualization of an idea, second, its verbalization and sequencing (articulation) and third, delivery of speech into atmospheric air, the interpretation of speech by the listener, the interpreter. Western linguistics begins in Classical Antiquity with grammatical speculation such as Plato's Cratylus. The first important advancement of the Greeks was the creation of the alphabet. As a result of the introduction of writing, poetry such as the Homeric poems became written and several editions were created and commented, forming the basis of philology and critic. The sophists and Socrates introduced dialectics as a new text genre. Aristotle defined the logic of speech and the argument. Furthermore Aristotle works on rhetoric and poetics were of utmost importance for the understating of tragedy, poetry, public discussions etc. as text genres. One of the greatest of the Greek grammarians was Apollonius Dyscolus. Apollonius Dyscolus Apollonius wrote more than thirty treatises on questions of syntax, semantics, morphology, prosody, orthography, dialectology, and more. In the 4th c., Aelius Donatus compiled the Latin grammar Ars Grammatica that was to be the defining school text through the Middle Ages. linguistics : Greek and Roman antiquity -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia In De vulgari eloquentia ("On the Eloquence of Vernacular"), Dante Alighieri expanded the scope of linguistic enquiry from the traditional languages of antiquity to include the language of the day. In the Middle East, the Persian linguist Sibawayh made a detailed and professional description of Arabic in 760, in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw (الكتاب في النحو, The Book on Grammar), bringing many linguistic aspects of language to light. In his book he distinguished phonetics from phonology. Sir William Jones noted that Sanskrit shared many common features with classical Latin and Greek, notably verb roots and grammatical structures, such as the case system. This led to the theory that all languages sprung from a common source and to the discovery of the Indo-European language family. He began the study of comparative linguistics, which would uncover more language families and branches. In 19th century Europe the study of linguistics was largely from the perspective of philology (or historical linguistics). Some early-19th-century linguists were Jakob Grimm, who devised a principle of consonantal shifts in pronunciation – known as Grimm's Law – in 1822; Karl Verner, who formulated Verner's Law; August Schleicher, who created the "Stammbaumtheorie" ("family tree"); and Johannes Schmidt, who developed the "Wellentheorie" ("wave model") in 1872. Ferdinand de Saussure was the founder of modern structural linguistics, with an emphasis on synchronic (i.e. non-historical) explanations for language form. In North America, the structuralist tradition grew out of a combination of missionary linguistics (whose goal was to translate the bible) and Anthropology. While originally regarded as a sub-field of anthropology in the United States The "four fields" in American anthropology are cultural anthropology, physical anthropology, archeology and linguistics. , linguistics is now considered a separate scientific discipline in the US, Australia and much of Europe. Edward Sapir, a leader in American structural linguistics, was one of the first who explored the relations between language studies and anthropology. His methodology had strong influence on all his successors. Noam Chomsky's formal model of language, transformational-generative grammar, developed under the influence of his teacher Zellig Harris, who was in turn strongly influenced by Leonard Bloomfield, has been the dominant model since the 1960s. The structural linguistics period was largely superseded in North America by generative grammar in the 1950s and 60s. This paradigm views language as a mental object, and emphasizes the role of the formal modeling of universal and language specific rules. Noam Chomsky remains an important but controversial linguistic figure. Generative grammar gave rise to such frameworks such as Transformational grammar, Generative Semantics, Relational Grammar, Generalized Phrase-structure Grammar, Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) and Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG). Other linguists working in Optimality Theory state generalizations in terms of violable constraints that interact with each other, and abandon the traditional rule-based formalism first pioneered by early work in generativist linguistics. Functionalist linguists working in functional grammar and Cognitive Linguistics tend to stress the non-autonomy of linguistic knowledge and the non-universality of linguistic structures, thus differing significantly from the formal approaches. Schools of study There are a wide variety of approaches to linguistic study. These can be loosely divided (although not without controversy) into formalist and functionalist approaches. Formalist approaches stress the importance of linguistic forms, and seek explanations for the structure of language from within the linguistic system itself. For example, the fact that language shows recursion might be attributed to recursive rules. Functionalist linguists by contrast view the structure of language as being driven by its function. For example, the fact that languages often put topical information first in the sentence, may be due to a communicative need to pair old information with new information in discourse. Generative grammar During the last half of the twentieth century, following the work of Noam Chomsky, linguistics was dominated by the generativist school. While formulated by Chomsky in part as a way to explain how human beings acquire language and the biological constraints on this acquisition, in practice it has largely been concerned with giving formal accounts of specific phenomena in natural languages. Generative theory is modularist and formalist in character. Formal linguistics remains the dominant paradigm for studying linguistics, , though Chomsky's writings have also gathered much criticism. Cognitive linguistics In the 1970s and 1980s, a new school of thought known as cognitive linguistics emerged as a reaction to generativist theory. Led by theorists such as Ronald Langacker and George Lakoff, linguists working within the realm of cognitive linguistics posit that language is an emergent property of basic, general-purpose cognitive processes, though cognitive linguistics has also been the subject of much criticism See Newmeyer 1998, Language Form and Language Function (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), and Culicover and Jackendoff 2005, Simpler Syntax (OUP) . In contrast to the generativist school of linguistics, cognitive linguistics is non-modularist and functionalist in character. Important developments in cognitive linguistics include cognitive grammar, frame semantics, and conceptual metaphor, all of which are based on the idea that form-function correspondences based on representations derived from embodied experience constitute the basic units of language. References See also Cognitive science Speech-Language Pathology History of linguistics International Linguistics Olympiad Linguistics Departments at Universities Summer schools for linguistics List of linguists Branches and fields Anthropological linguistics, Semiotics, Philology, Discourse, Structuralism, Post-structuralism, Cognitive linguistics, Cognitive science, Comparative linguistics, Sociolinguistics, Varieties, Developmental linguistics, Discourse Analysis, Descriptive linguistics, Ecolinguistics, Embodied cognition, Endangered languages. History of linguistics, Historical linguistics, Intercultural competence, Lexicography/Lexicology, Linguistic typology, Evolutionary linguistics. Articulatory phonology, Biolinguistics, Computational linguistics, Biosemiotics, Articulatory synthesis, Machine translation, Natural language processing, Speaker recognition (authentication), Speech processing, Speech recognition, Speech synthesis, Concept Mining, Corpus linguistics, Critical discourse analysis, Cryptanalysis, Decipherment, Asemic writing, Grammar Writing. Forensic linguistics, Global language system, Glottometrics, Integrational linguistics, International Linguistic Olympiad, Language acquisition, Language attrition, Language engineering, Language geography, Metacommunicative competence, Natural Language Processing, Neurolinguistics, Orthography, Reading, Second language acquisition, Sociocultural linguistics, Stratificational linguistics, Text linguistics, Writing systems, Xenolinguistics. External links An Academic Linguistics Forum Glossary of linguistic terms Glottopedia, MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction Linguistic sub-fields - according to the Linguistic Society of America Linguistics and language-related wiki articles on Scholarpedia and Citizendium "Linguistics" section - A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J. A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) The Linguist List, a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily. The Virtual Linguistics Campus be-x-old:Мовазнаўства | Linguistics |@lemmatized linguistics:107 scientific:4 study:48 natural:6 language:144 encompass:1 number:4 sub:6 field:12 important:6 topical:2 division:3 structure:21 grammar:31 meaning:9 semantics:7 encompasses:1 morphology:3 formation:1 composition:1 word:11 syntax:6 rule:5 determine:1 combine:3 phrase:5 sentence:4 phonology:4 sound:7 system:12 abstract:3 unit:2 phonetics:3 related:5 branch:4 concern:11 actual:1 property:11 speech:20 phone:1 non:12 produce:2 perceive:2 discipline:11 include:6 following:1 evolutionary:3 consider:6 origin:4 historical:11 explore:3 change:3 sociolinguistics:4 look:3 relation:6 linguistic:50 variation:3 social:2 psycholinguistics:2 representation:5 functioning:1 mind:2 neurolinguistics:3 brain:4 acquisition:5 child:3 acquire:7 first:9 adult:1 learn:5 second:3 subsequent:2 discourse:9 analysis:13 text:10 conversation:2 pragmatic:2 transmit:1 base:7 combination:3 competence:4 knowledge:7 context:6 act:3 narrowly:2 define:2 approach:7 course:2 variety:4 direction:1 intellectual:1 relevant:2 influence:7 semiotics:6 example:7 general:3 sign:21 symbol:5 outside:3 literary:4 theorist:3 use:22 artistic:1 literature:1 additionally:2 draw:1 work:13 diverse:2 psychology:1 pathology:3 informatics:1 computer:6 science:7 philosophy:2 biology:2 human:25 anatomy:1 neuroscience:1 sociology:2 anthropology:9 acoustic:1 someone:1 engage:1 call:2 linguist:20 although:4 term:9 also:9 commonly:3 refer:6 people:5 speak:5 many:15 name:1 twentieth:2 century:10 philology:7 attest:2 online:4 etymological:2 dictionary:2 predominantly:1 focus:9 since:6 ferdinand:3 de:5 saussure:4 insistence:1 importance:4 synchronic:5 however:7 shift:3 generally:3 history:6 tradition:2 especially:1 united:3 state:4 morpurgo:1 davy:1 hist:1 never:1 popular:2 elsewhere:1 sense:4 student:1 date:1 usual:1 academic:2 english:6 fundamental:5 describe:4 explain:3 nature:1 question:2 universal:11 vary:1 come:5 know:5 set:2 aside:1 extremely:1 pathological:1 case:9 achieve:1 whatever:2 around:3 grow:2 apparently:1 little:1 need:2 explicit:1 conscious:1 instruction:1 communication:8 way:3 animal:5 respond:1 even:2 train:1 degree:2 article:3 therefore:1 linguists:4 assume:2 ability:6 innate:5 biologically:1 potential:2 modern:3 similar:1 walk:1 consensus:1 extent:1 domain:2 specificity:1 specific:5 claim:3 large:5 highly:2 binary:1 setting:1 cod:1 others:2 product:1 cognition:2 agree:3 strong:2 genetic:2 difference:3 underlie:3 individual:2 expose:1 regardless:2 parentage:1 ethnic:1 nevertheless:1 recent:1 research:7 suggest:1 weak:1 bias:1 speaker:7 may:10 generation:2 evolution:2 particular:9 lead:4 random:1 distribution:2 certain:2 feature:6 across:1 world:5 dediu:1 ladd:1 r:1 tone:1 relate:2 population:1 frequency:1 adaptive:1 haplogroups:1 two:1 size:1 gene:1 aspm:1 microcephalin:1 pnas:1 summary:1 available:1 pairing:2 form:14 saussurean:1 consist:1 pattern:1 movement:1 hand:2 write:15 aspect:6 range:1 primarily:2 physical:2 production:1 perception:1 discrete:3 element:3 distinguish:3 internal:1 modify:1 grammatical:4 lexical:2 fix:1 phraseology:1 utterance:1 communicative:2 role:3 play:2 transmission:1 mean:1 would:2 overlap:1 considerably:1 independent:1 significance:1 area:7 universally:1 acknowledge:1 position:1 core:1 concept:3 foster:1 significant:1 scholarly:1 inquiry:2 alongside:1 structurally:1 motivate:1 kind:2 factor:3 apply:7 issue:1 everyday:1 life:1 notably:3 policy:1 planning:1 education:1 constructed:1 fit:1 applied:6 biolinguistics:2 well:6 taught:1 compare:1 clinical:1 application:2 theory:9 computational:6 implementation:1 developmental:2 development:4 particularly:3 childhood:1 specie:1 diachronic:2 time:3 geography:2 geographical:2 typology:2 common:5 unrelated:1 give:7 sufficient:1 attestation:1 capacity:1 cognitive:13 process:6 relationship:3 stylistics:1 place:1 investigate:2 signify:1 perspective:4 see:6 universality:2 much:11 within:6 paradigm:3 generative:8 try:1 account:3 assumption:2 constrain:1 must:1 share:3 generativist:6 collection:2 ug:1 characteristic:1 debate:1 topic:1 typologists:1 usually:2 simply:2 similarity:5 different:3 simple:2 due:7 experience:3 water:2 descent:1 latin:5 ancient:1 romans:1 develop:4 spanish:3 spain:2 italian:2 italy:1 thus:2 descend:3 contact:1 bilingual:1 borrowing:1 coincidence:1 borrow:1 one:4 middle:3 muchel:1 proto:2 germanic:1 mekilaz:1 false:1 cognate:2 argument:2 favor:1 documented:1 al:3 sayyid:1 bedouin:1 community:3 congenitally:1 deaf:1 independently:1 spoken:5 languages:4 conform:1 suspect:1 isolates:1 kata:1 kolok:1 nicaraguan:1 providence:1 island:1 tend:2 organize:3 category:3 noun:4 verb:3 nominative:1 accusative:1 present:2 past:1 though:5 importantly:1 exclusively:1 express:1 cf:1 bantu:1 ergative:1 absolutive:1 several:4 native:2 american:5 tense:1 addition:1 make:7 substantial:2 recursive:2 allow:1 contain:2 another:2 chimpanzee:1 lip:1 clause:2 think:1 rain:1 recursion:2 implicitly:1 recognize:1 earlier:1 jespersen:1 become:6 publication:1 noam:6 chomsky:8 book:3 syntactic:3 mouton:2 hague:1 formal:7 fragment:2 prior:1 detailed:2 description:5 phonological:1 morphological:1 free:3 augment:1 transformation:1 follow:2 trend:1 chomskyan:1 various:2 gpsg:1 demonstrate:1 dutch:1 swiss:1 german:1 cross:2 serial:2 dependency:2 cannot:1 handle:1 adequately:1 carl:1 vogel:1 ulrike:2 hahn:1 holly:1 branigan:1 hard:2 proceeding:1 conference:1 volume:1 select:1 comparative:3 method:3 often:8 aim:2 classify:1 family:4 ancestor:1 evolve:2 comparison:1 detect:1 possible:1 order:1 able:1 reconstruct:1 involve:2 etymology:1 single:1 oppose:2 moment:1 without:4 regard:2 previous:1 stage:2 university:3 historic:1 fashion:1 among:3 emerge:2 widely:2 practiced:1 late:2 start:2 predominant:1 western:2 chomskys:1 emphasis:3 semiosis:1 signification:1 individually:1 group:1 construct:1 understood:1 semiotician:1 restrict:1 extend:1 cover:1 cultural:2 nonetheless:2 semiotic:1 closely:1 descriptive:7 documentation:7 inception:1 describing:1 documenting:1 previously:1 unknown:1 franz:1 boa:1 early:6 main:2 strand:1 rise:4 structural:4 mid:1 cause:1 indigenous:2 rapidly:2 move:1 towards:1 extinction:1 ethnographic:1 original:1 boasian:1 type:1 occasion:1 anthropological:2 culture:2 society:3 north:3 america:4 die:1 primary:1 program:1 intensive:1 endeavour:1 require:2 year:1 sufficiently:1 reference:2 task:1 collect:1 preferably:1 corpus:5 recording:2 video:1 arrange:1 storage:1 accesible:1 format:2 open:1 repository:1 best:1 reseachers:1 himmelman:1 nikolaus:2 good:1 p:2 gippert:1 jost:1 himmelmann:1 mosel:1 essential:1 gruyter:1 berlin:1 new:4 york:1 largely:4 finding:3 generality:1 take:2 result:3 applies:1 teach:1 lexicography:2 translation:4 argue:1 something:1 misnomer:1 engineering:2 solution:1 real:1 problem:1 exist:1 technical:2 moreover:1 multiple:1 source:2 e:2 g:1 today:1 synthesis:3 recognition:3 phonetic:1 phonemic:1 provide:1 voice:1 interface:1 machine:3 assisted:1 processing:4 forefront:1 effect:1 model:4 semantic:1 constraint:3 subdiscipline:1 government:3 verify:1 claimed:1 nationality:2 seek:2 asylum:4 hold:1 necessary:1 prove:1 interview:3 personnel:1 immigration:1 department:3 depend:1 country:1 conduct:1 either:3 seeker:3 interpreter:2 international:3 lingua:1 franca:1 like:1 australia:2 former:1 germany:1 employ:1 latter:1 netherlands:1 depending:1 tape:1 undergo:1 private:1 contractor:1 analyst:1 determination:1 reported:1 critical:2 decision:1 refugee:1 status:1 prescription:3 subjective:2 judgment:2 whether:2 right:1 wrong:1 analogous:1 practice:2 zoologist:1 kingdom:1 bad:1 attempt:3 promote:1 usage:1 favour:1 dialect:3 acrolect:1 establish:1 standard:1 aid:1 exert:1 imperialism:1 extreme:1 version:1 prescriptivism:1 find:2 censor:1 eradicate:1 destructive:1 contemporary:2 appear:1 capable:1 hear:1 lack:1 invent:1 easily:1 writing:5 worthwhile:1 valuable:1 rely:1 convenient:1 amount:1 data:1 difficult:1 create:3 typically:1 transcribed:1 turn:2 occur:1 mediated:1 viable:1 site:1 activity:1 recall:1 iron:1 age:2 india:1 sanskrit:3 pratishakhyas:1 ca:1 bc:4 constitute:2 ad:1 hoc:1 observation:1 mutation:1 vedic:1 school:7 systematic:1 vedanga:1 vyakarana:1 survive:1 c:3 back:1 probably:1 grammarian:2 whose:2 opinion:1 occasionally:1 formulates:1 close:1 together:1 compact:1 inherent:1 analytic:1 phoneme:1 morpheme:1 root:2 brevity:1 unintuitive:1 reminiscent:1 readable:1 programming:1 indian:1 maintain:1 high:1 level:1 patanjali:1 still:1 actively:1 criticizes:1 panini:2 prescriptive:1 commentator:1 fully:1 dependent:1 bhartrihari:1 theorize:1 four:2 conceptualization:1 idea:2 verbalization:1 sequencing:1 articulation:1 third:1 delivery:1 atmospheric:1 air:1 interpretation:1 listener:1 begin:2 classical:2 antiquity:3 speculation:1 plato:1 cratylus:1 advancement:1 greek:4 creation:1 alphabet:1 introduction:1 poetry:2 homeric:1 poem:1 edition:1 comment:1 basis:1 critic:1 sophist:1 socrates:1 introduce:1 dialectic:1 genre:2 aristotle:2 logic:1 furthermore:1 rhetoric:1 poetics:1 utmost:1 understating:1 tragedy:1 public:1 discussion:1 etc:1 great:1 apollonius:3 dyscolus:2 thirty:1 treatise:1 prosody:1 orthography:2 dialectology:1 aelius:1 donatus:1 compile:1 ar:1 grammatica:1 defining:1 roman:1 britannica:1 encyclopedia:2 vulgari:1 eloquentia:1 eloquence:1 vernacular:1 dante:1 alighieri:1 expand:1 scope:1 enquiry:1 traditional:2 day:1 east:1 persian:1 sibawayh:1 professional:1 arabic:1 monumental:1 kitab:1 fi:1 nahw:1 الكتاب:1 في:1 النحو:1 bring:1 light:1 sir:1 william:1 jones:1 note:1 spring:1 discovery:1 indo:1 european:1 uncover:1 europe:2 jakob:1 grimm:2 devise:1 principle:1 consonantal:1 pronunciation:1 law:2 karl:1 verner:2 formulate:2 august:1 schleicher:1 stammbaumtheorie:1 tree:1 johannes:1 schmidt:1 wellentheorie:1 wave:1 founder:1 explanation:2 structuralist:1 missionary:1 goal:1 translate:1 bible:1 originally:1 archeology:1 separate:1 u:1 edward:1 sapir:1 leader:1 methodology:1 successor:1 transformational:2 teacher:1 zellig:1 harris:1 strongly:1 leonard:1 bloomfield:1 dominant:2 period:1 supersede:1 view:2 mental:1 object:1 emphasize:1 modeling:1 remain:2 controversial:1 figure:1 framework:1 relational:1 generalize:1 head:1 driven:1 hpsg:1 functional:2 lfg:1 optimality:1 generalization:1 violable:1 interact:1 abandon:1 formalism:1 pioneer:1 functionalist:4 stress:2 autonomy:1 differ:1 significantly:1 wide:1 loosely:1 divide:1 controversy:1 formalist:3 fact:2 show:1 might:1 attribute:1 contrast:2 drive:1 function:3 put:1 information:4 pair:1 old:2 last:1 half:1 dominate:1 part:1 biological:1 phenomenon:1 modularist:2 character:2 gather:1 criticism:3 thought:1 reaction:1 ronald:1 langacker:1 george:1 lakoff:1 realm:1 posit:1 emergent:1 basic:2 purpose:1 subject:1 newmeyer:1 cambridge:1 mit:1 press:1 culicover:1 jackendoff:1 oup:1 frame:1 conceptual:1 metaphor:1 correspondence:1 derive:1 embodied:1 olympiad:2 summer:1 list:2 structuralism:2 post:1 ecolinguistics:1 embody:1 endanger:1 intercultural:1 lexicology:1 articulatory:2 biosemiotics:1 authentication:1 mining:1 cryptanalysis:1 decipherment:1 asemic:1 forensic:1 global:2 glottometrics:1 integrational:1 attrition:1 metacommunicative:1 reading:1 sociocultural:1 stratificational:1 xenolinguistics:1 external:1 link:1 forum:1 glossary:1 glottopedia:1 mediawiki:1 construction:1 accord:1 wiki:1 scholarpedia:1 citizendium:1 section:1 bibliography:1 ed:1 j:1 garcía:1 landa:1 zaragoza:1 news:1 update:1 daily:1 virtual:1 campus:1 x:1 мовазнаўства:1 |@bigram twentieth_century:2 etymological_dictionary:2 applied_linguistics:6 computational_linguistics:5 linguistic_typology:2 generative_grammar:6 proto_germanic:1 false_cognate:1 nominative_accusative:1 ergative_absolutive:1 noam_chomsky:4 chomsky_noam:1 phonological_morphological:1 closely_relate:1 descriptive_linguistics:6 franz_boa:1 anthropological_linguistics:2 de_gruyter:1 gruyter_berlin:1 computer_assisted:1 syntax_semantics:2 syntactic_semantic:1 asylum_seeker:3 lingua_franca:1 ad_hoc:1 plato_cratylus:1 homeric_poem:1 utmost_importance:1 britannica_online:1 de_vulgari:1 dante_alighieri:1 phonetics_phonology:1 indo_european:1 comparative_linguistics:2 august_schleicher:1 edward_sapir:1 leonard_bloomfield:1 george_lakoff:1 conceptual_metaphor:1 post_structuralism:1 external_link:1 zaragoza_spain:1 |
Subsets and Splits