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7,500 | Inter_Milan | Football Club Internazionale Milano, commonly referred to as Internazionale and as just Inter in Italy, is an Italian professional football club based in Milan, Lombardy, founded in 1908. Inter are the champions of Italy, having retained their crown on May 16, 2009, their fourth successive title. Inter are the only side in Italian football to have spent their entire history in Serie A, making them the only club that has spent all the seasons in this top tier from its foundation in 1929-30. Playing in black and blue striped shirts with black shorts, they have 17 Serie A titles to their name. Including the Coppa Italia and the Italian Super Cup, Inter have a total of 26 trophies won in Italy. Outside of their homeland, the club have also had success in European and World tournaments; they won the European Cup in two successive finals in 1964 and 1965. They have also won the UEFA Cup three times and the Intercontinental Cup twice also in 1964 and in 1965. Inter play their home games at the Stadio Giuseppe Meazza, also known as San Siro. The ground, which they share with rivals A.C. Milan, is the largest in Italian football, with a total capacity of 80,018. Inter train at the fields of sports center "Angelo Moratti" (better known as La Pinetina) in Appiano Gentile, near Como. The term "Inter Milan" is sometimes used in the English-speaking world to differentiate Internazionale from A.C. Milan but is not used within Italy. History Early times First Inter side to win the scudetto, in 1909–10. The club was founded on 9 March 1908 as Football Club Internazionale Milano, following a "schism" from the Milan Cricket and Football Club (43 members). A group of Italians and Swiss (Giorgio Muggiani, a painter who also designed the club's logo, Bossard, Lana, Bertoloni, De Olma, Enrico Hintermann, Arturo Hintermann, Carlo Hintermann, Pietro Dell'Oro, Hugo and Hans Rietmann, Voelkel, Maner, Wipf, and Carlo Ardussi) were unhappy about the domination of Italians in the AC Milan team, and broke away from them, leading to the creation of Internazionale. From the beginning, the club was open to foreign players and thus lived up to its founding name. The club won its very first Scudetto (championship) in 1910 and its second in 1920. The captain and coach of the first Scudetto was Virgilio Fossati, who was killed in World War I. In 1922 Inter were in Group B of the Serie A and came in last place after picking up only 11 points in the season. The last place team of each group was to be automatically relegated. The second last place teams were placed in a pre-relegation 'salvation' tournament. Inter and La Gazzetta dello Sport's editor (Colombo) petitioned the FIGC to allow Inter to participate in Serie A the following year as a year in Serie B would have been financially detrimental. The FIGC saved Inter some weeks prior to the season starting by allowing them to remain in Serie A in 1923. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Football_Championship_1921-22_%28C.C.I.%29 Venezia, who had come in 3rd last in Group B ahead of Inter, were relegated in Inter's place. In 1928, during the Fascist era, the club was forced to merge with the Milanese Unione Sportiva and was renamed Ambrosiana SS Milano. They wore white shirts around this time with a red cross emblazoned on it. This shirt design was inspired by the flag and coat of arms of the city of Milan, which in turn is derived from the flag of the patron saint of Milan, St. Ambrose and dates back to the 4th century AD. The new upcoming President Oreste Simonotti decided to change name to A.S. Ambrosiana in 1929. However, supporters continued to call the team "Inter," and in 1931 new president Pozzani caved to shareholder pressure and changed the name to AS Ambrosiania-Inter. Their first Coppa Italia (Italian Cup) was won in 1938-39, led by the great legend Giuseppe Meazza, after whom the San Siro stadium is officially named, and a fifth league championship followed in 1940, despite an injury to Meazza. After the end of World War II the club re-emerged under a name close to their original one, Internazionale FC Milano, which they have kept ever since. La Grande Inter Following the war, Internazionale won their sixth championship in 1953 and the seventh in 1954. Following these titles, Inter were to embark upon the best years of their history, affectionately known as the era of La Grande Inter (The Great Inter). During this period with Helenio Herrera as head coach, the club won 3 league championships in 1963, 1965 and 1966. The most famous moments during this decade also include Inter's 2 back-to-back European Cup wins. In 1964, Inter won the first of those tournaments, playing against the famous Spanish club Real Madrid. The next season, playing in their home stadium, the San Siro, they defeated two-time former champions Benfica. Following the golden era of the 1960s, Inter managed to win their eleventh league title in 1971 and their twelfth in 1980. Inter were defeated for the second time in five years in the final of the European Cup, going down 0-2 to Johan Cruijff's Ajax in 1972. During the 1970s and the 1980s, Inter also added two Coppa Italias to their tally in 1977-78 and 1981-82. Led by the German duo of Andreas Brehme and Lothar Matthäus, and Argentine Ramón Díaz, Inter captured the 1989 Serie A championship under coach Giovanni Trapattoni. Fellow German Jürgen Klinsmann and the Italian Supercup were added the following season but to little avail as Inter did not manage to defend their title. Hard times (1990–2004) The 1990s were a period of disappointment for the club. Whilst their great rivals AC Milan and Juventus were achieving success both domestically and in Europe, Inter were left behind, with some mediocre positions in the standings, their worst finishes being in 1993-94 when they were just 1 point from relegation. Nevertheless, they achieved some European success in that decade with 3 UEFA Cup victories in 1991, 1994 and 1998. With Massimo Moratti's takeover from Ernesto Pellegrini in 1995, Inter were promised more success with many high profile signings such as Ronaldo, Christian Vieri and Hernán Crespo, with Inter twice breaking the world record transfer fee in this period. €19.5 million for Ronaldo from Barcelona in 1997 and €31 million for Christian Vieri from Lazio in 1999. However the 1990s remained a decade of disappointment and is the only decade in Inter's history in which they failed to win a single Serie A championship. For Inter fans it was difficult to identify who in particular might be to blame for these troubled times and this led to some icy relations between president, managers and even some individual players. Inter chairman Massimo Moratti later became a target for the fans, especially when he sacked much-loved coach Luigi Simoni after only a few games into the 1998/99 season, after having just received the Italian Manager of the Year award for 1998 the day before, Massimo Moratti decided to end his contract. In the 1998/99 season Inter failed to qualify for any European competition for the first time in almost 10 years, finishing in a poor eighth place. In the 1999/00 season, Massimo Moratti made some major changes, once again with some high-profile signings. A major coup for Inter was the appointment of former Juventus manager Marcello Lippi. Inter were seen by the majority of the fans and press to have finally put together a winning formula. Other signings included Italian and French legends Angelo Peruzzi and Laurent Blanc together with other former Juventus players Christian Vieri and Vladimir Jugović. Inter were also seen to have an advantage in this season as they had no European "distraction". Once again they failed to win the elusive Scudetto. However they did manage to come close to their first domestic success since 1989 when they reached the Coppa Italia final only to be defeated by Lazio allowing them to win the Scudetto and domestic cup double. The following season more disaster struck. Inter impressed in the Supercoppa Italia match against Lazio and took the lead through new signing Robbie Keane – however, they lost 4-3. Overall, though, they were looking good for the season that was about to start. What followed was another embarrassment, as they were eliminated in the preliminary round of the Champions League by Swedish club Helsingborg. Alvaro Recoba was given the opportunity to draw the sides level with a last-minute penalty, yet he missed, hitting the post, and Inter found themselves back at square one as Marcello Lippi, the manager at the time, was sacked after only a single game of the new season following Inter's first ever Serie A defeat to Reggina. Throughout this period, Inter suffered mockery from their neighbours Milan; Milan were having a period of success both domestically and in Europe. They also seemed to be suffering from a series of non-ending defeats at the hands of their city rivals, including an unfortunate 0-6 defeat in the 2000/01 season -- their worst "home" result in history. Marco Tardelli, chosen to replace Lippi, failed to improve results, and is remembered by Inter fans as the manager that lost this match. Other members of the Inter squad during this period that suffered were the likes of Christian Vieri and Fabio Cannavaro, both of whom had their restaurants in Milan vandalised after defeats against Milan. Inter fans' protests throughout this period ranged from vandalism to banners being unfurled in the stadium to protest against certain players. In some cases fans arranged for the Curva Nord, a section of the stadium to be empty for entire matches. Inter were in this period often deemed to be one of the favourites for the championship. This led to a popular AC Milan chant against Inter – "Luglio Agosto" (July and August); this was because during the summer months according to the press Inter had won the championship before it had even begun, only for them not to realise their promise. In 2002, not only did Inter manage to make it to the UEFA cup semi-finals, they were also only 45 minutes away from capturing the Scudetto, when they needed to maintain a one-goal advantage over Lazio at Rome's Olimpico stadium in the final match of the season, and Inter were top of the Serie A table at kick-off. However, a defeat would see Juventus, who were second, or even Roma, in third place, take the title from them, should these sides win. As a result, some Lazio fans were actually openly supporting Inter during this match, as an Inter victory would prevent their bitter rivals Roma from winning the championship. Inter were 2-1 up after only 24 minutes. Lazio equalised during first half injury time and then scored two more goals in the second half to clinch victory that eventually saw Juventus win the championship after their 2-0 victory away to Udinese. The date of this match -- 5 May 2002 -- still haunts Inter. 2002/03 saw Inter take a respectable second place and also managed to make it to the 2003 Champions League semi finals against Milan. Although they drew on aggregate 1-1 with Milan, Inter lost on the away goals rule, even though both matches were played in the same stadium. It was another disappointment but they were finally on the right track. However, once again Massimo Moratti's impatience got the better of him, Hernán Crespo was sold after just one season, and Hector Cuper was fired after only a few games. Alberto Zaccheroni stepped in, a life-long Inter fan but also the man who had been in charge of Lazio's 4-2 win over Inter in 2002 - the fans were sceptical. Zaccheroni brought nothing new to the side, apart from two fantastic wins over Juventus 3-1 in Turin and 3-2 at the San Siro and the season was again nothing special. They were eliminated from the UEFA Champions League in the first round after finishing 3rd in the group. Furthermore, they only just managed to qualify for the Champions League by finishing in 4th place, only a point ahead of Parma. Inter's only saving grace in 2003/04 was the arrival of Dejan Stanković and Adriano in January 2004, both solid players that filled the gap left by the departures of Hernán Crespo and Clarence Seedorf. Resurrection and Italian leadership (2004–current) On 15 June 2005, Internazionale won the Coppa Italia, defeating Roma in the two-legged final 3-0 on aggregate (1-0 win in Milan and 2-0 win in Rome) and followed that up on 20 August 2005, by winning the Supercoppa Italiana after an extra-time 1-0 victory against original 04-05 Serie A champions Juventus (before being stripped of this title). This Super Cup win was Inter's first since 1989, coincidentally the same year since Inter last won the Scudetto before 2006. On 11 May 2006, Inter retained their Coppa Italia trophy by once again, defeating AS Roma with a 4-1 aggregate victory (A 1-1 scoreline in Rome and a 3-1 win at the Giuseppe Meazza, San Siro). Inter were awarded the 2005-06 Serie A championship as they were the highest placed side in the season's final league table after points were stripped from Juventus and Milan - both sides being involved in the match fixing scandal that year. On 14 July 2006, The Italian Federal Appeal Commission found Serie A clubs Juventus, Lazio, Fiorentina, Reggina and Milan guilty of match-fixing and punished the 5 clubs involved. As a result, with the relegation of Juventus Turin to Serie B (for the first ever time in their history) and the 8-point deduction for city rivals Milan, Inter became favorites to retain their Serie A title for the upcoming 2006-07 Serie A season. During the season, Inter went on a record-breaking run of 17 consecutive victories in Serie A, starting on 25 September 2006 with a 4-1 home win over Livorno, and ending on 28 February 2007, after a 1-1 draw at home to Udinese. The 5-2 away win at Catania on 25 February 2007 broke the original record of 15 matches held by both Bayern Munich and Real Madrid from the "Big 5" (the top flight leagues in England, Italy, Spain, France & Germany). The run lasted for almost 5 months and is among the best in European league football, with just Benfica (29 wins), Celtic (25 wins) and PSV (22 wins) bettering it. Inter's form dipped a little as they recorded 0-0 and 2-2 draws against relegation-battlers Reggina and slumping to Palermo (respectively), the latter game featuring a second-half comeback after Palermo went up 2-0 at halftime. They could not keep their invincible form up near the end of the season as well, as they lost their first game of the domestic season to Roma in the San Siro 3-1 thanks to two late Roma goals. Inter had enjoyed an unbeaten Serie A run for just under a year. On 22 April 2007 Inter were crowned Serie A champions for the second consecutive season after defeating Siena 2-1 at Stadio Artemio Franchi. Italian World Cup winning defender Marco Materazzi scored both goals in the 18th and 60th minute, with the latter being a penalty. Inter started the 2007–08 season with the goal of winning both Serie A and UEFA Champions League. The team started well in the league, topping the table from the first round of matches, and also managed to qualify for the Champions League knockout stage; however, a late collapse leading to a 2-0 defeat with 10 men away to Liverpool on February 19 in the Champions League threw into question Mancini's future at Inter, and domestic form took a sharp turn of fortune with the team failing to win in the three following Serie A games (drawing with Sampdoria and major league opponents Roma, before losing away to Napoli their first domestic defeat of the season. After being eliminated by Liverpool in the Champions League, Mancini then announced his intention to leave his job, only to change his mind the following day. An improvement in results then gave Inter the chance to wrap up their scudetto race twice, but a defeat to city rivals Milan and a home draw against Siena catapulted Roma to within just 1 point of Inter going into the final round of the Championship. Inter then managed to win at Parma thanks to two goals by Swedish striker Zlatan Ibrahimović, who was still recovering from a knee injury and came off the bench to score for his team. Following this win, the club however decided to sack Mancini on 29 May, citing his declarations following the Champions League defeat to Liverpool as the reason. On June 2 Inter announced on their official website that they had appointed former Porto and Chelsea boss José Mourinho as new head coach, with Giuseppe Baresi as his assistant. This made Mourinho the only foreign coach in Italy in the 2008–09 season kick-off. Mourinho made only three additions to the squad during the summer transfer window of 2008 in the form of Alessandro Faiolhe Amantino, Sulley Ali Muntari and Ricardo Quaresma. Under Mourinho's first season as Inter head coach, the nerazzurri won a Italian Super Cup and a fourth consecutive title, being however also eliminated from the UEFA Champions League in the first knockout round for a third consecutive time. In winning the league title for the fourth consecutive time, Inter join Torino and Juventus as the only teams to do this and the first to accomplish this feat in over 50 years. Other historical information Internazionale have never been relegated from the Italian top flight in their entire history, which dates back all the way to 1908; a fact Nerazzurri fans hold in high regard. By comparison, Milan have been relegated twice. As of 2007, following Juventus' relegation to Serie B for the 2006-07 season following the "Calciopoli" scandal Inter is the only Italian club that holds this honour, and its century in the top flight (counting the upcoming season) is one of the longest unbroken runs of any club in the world. The current president and owner of Internazionale is Massimo Moratti. His father, Angelo Moratti, was the president of Inter during the club's golden era of the 1960s. Current squad Players As of May 17, 2009. Out on loan Non-playing staff Retired numbers 3 – Giacinto Facchetti, left fullback, 1960–1978 (posthumous honour) Noted players Presidential history Inter have had numerous presidents over the course of their history, some of which have been the owners of the club, others have been honorary presidents, here is a complete list of them. NameYears Giovanni Paramithiotti1908–1909Ettore Strauss1909–1910Carlo de Medici1910–1912 Emilio Hirzel1912–1914Luigi Ansbacher1914Giuseppe Visconti di Modrone1914–1919Giorgio Hulss1919–1920 NameYears Francesco Mauro1920–1923Enrico Olivetti1923–1926Senatore Borletti1926–1929Ernesto Torrusio1929–1930 Oreste Simonotti1930–1932Ferdinando Pozzani1932–1942Carlo Masseroni1942–1955 NameYearsAngelo Moratti1955–1968Ivanoe Fraizzoli1968–1984Ernesto Pellegrini1984–1995Massimo Moratti1995–2004Giacinto Facchetti2004–2006Massimo Moratti2006–present Managerial history In Internazionale's history, 55 coaches have coached the club. The first manager was Virgilio Fossati and the current manager is José Mourinho, who was appointed on 2 June 2008. Helenio Herrera had the longest reign as Internazionale coach, with 9 years (8 consecutive) in charge, and is the most successful coach in Inter history with 3 Scudetto, 2 European Cup and 2 Intercontinental Cup wins. NameNationalityYears Virgilio Fossati 1909–1915Nino Resegotti Francesco Mauro 1919–1920Bob Spotishwood 1922–1924Paolo Schiedler 1924–1926Árpád Weisz 1926–1928József Viola 1928–1929Árpád Weisz 1929–1931István Tóth 1931–1932Árpád Weisz 1932–1934Gyula Feldmann 1934–1936Albino Carraro 1936Armando Castellazzi 1936–1938Tony Cargnelli 1938–1940Giuseppe Peruchetti 1940Italo Zamberletti 1941Ivo Fiorentini 1941–1942Giovanni Ferrari 1942–1945Carlo Carcano 1945–1946Nino Nutrizio 1946Giuseppe Meazza 1947–1948Carlo Carcano 1948Dai Astley 1948Giulio Cappelli 1949–1950Aldo Olivieri 1950–1952Alfredo Foni 1952–1955Aldo Campatelli 1955Giuseppe Meazza 1955–1956Annibale Frossi 1956Luigi Ferrero 1957Giuseppe Meazza 1957Jesse Carver 1957–1958Giuseppe Bigogno 1958Aldo Campatelli 1959–1960Camillo Achilli 1960 NameNationalityYears Giulio Cappelli 1960Helenio Herrera 1960–1968Alfredo Foni 1968–1969Heriberto Herrera 1969–1971Giovanni Invernizzi 1971–1973Enea Masiero 1973Helenio Herrera 1973Enea Masiero 1974Luis Suárez1974–1975Giuseppe Chiappella 1976–1977Eugenio Bersellini 1977–1982Rino Marchesi 1982–1983Luigi Radice 1983–1984Ilario Castagner 1984–1986Mario Corso 1986Giovanni Trapattoni 1986–1991Corrado Orrico 1991Luis Suárez1992Osvaldo Bagnoli 1992–1994Giampiero Marini 1994Ottavio Bianchi 1994–1995Luis Suárez1995Roy Hodgson 1995–1997Luciano Castellini 1997Luigi Simoni 1997–1998Mircea Lucescu 1999Luciano Castellini 1999Roy Hodgson 1999Marcello Lippi 1999–2000Marco Tardelli 2000–2001Héctor Raul Cúper 2001–2003Corrado Verdelli 2003Alberto Zaccheroni 2003–2004Roberto Mancini 2004–2008José Mourinho 2008– Colours, badge and nicknames Previous badge. For the majority of their history Inter have worn black and blue stripes. When the club was first founded in 1908, black was chosen to represent night and blue was chosen to represent the sky. After a merger in 1928 with Unione Sportiva Milanese, Inter changed its name to Ambrosiana SS Milano and its colours to a white shirt with a red cross on top of it, the new colours represented the flag of Milan. After World War II the club changed their name and their colours back to the original incarnation, Inter continue on with the black and blue stripes to this day, leading to the nickname nerazzurri. The Milanese flag kit has been revived occasionally as an away kit however. One of the nicknames of Inter is I biscione which means "the big grass snake". It was chosen because in Milanese heraldry the snake is historically important; it features on the coat of arms of the House of Sforza (who ruled over Italy from Milan during the Renaissance period), the city of Milan, the historical Duchy of Milan (a four hundred year state of the Holy Roman Empire) and Insubria (a historical regional area which the city of Milan falls within). Supporters and rivalries Inter created display in their curva at the Stadio Giuseppe Meazza. Inter is one of the most supported clubs in Italy according to an August 2007 research by Italian newspaper La Repubblica, . Historically the largest section of Inter fans from the city of Milan, have been the middle-class bourgeoisie Milanese, while Milan fans are typically working-class and a significant portion are migrants from Southern Italy. The traditional ultras group of Inter is Boys San, they hold a significant place in the history of the ultras scene in general due to the fact that they are one of the oldest; founded in 1969. Politically the ultras of Inter are usually considered right-wing, as thus they have good relationships with Verona and Lazio. As well as the main group Boys San, there are four more significant groups; Viking, Irriducibili, Ultras, and Brianza Alcoolica. Inter fans celebrating in 2007. Inter have several rivalries, two of which are highly significant in Italian football; firstly they participate in the inter-city Derby della Madonnina with Milan, the rivalry has existed ever since Inter splintered off from Milan in 1908. The name of the derby refers to the Blessed Virgin Mary, whose statue atop the Milan Cathedral is one of the city's main attractions. The match usually creates a lively atmosphere, with numerous (often humorous or offensive) banners unfolded before the match. Flares are commonly present, but they also led to the abandonment of the second leg of the 2005 Champions League quarter-final matchup between Milan and Inter on 12 April, after a flare thrown from the crowd by an Inter supporter struck Milan keeper Dida on the shoulder. The other most significant rivalry is with Juventus, the two participate in the Derby d'Italia. Up until the 2006 Serie A match-fixing scandal, which saw Juventus relegated, the two were the only Italian clubs to have never played below Serie A. Clubs such as Bologna, Atalanta and Roma are also considered to be amongst their rivals. Honours National titles Serie A: Champions (17): 1909–10; 1919–20; 1929–30; 1937–38; 1939–40; 1952–53; 1953–54; 1962–63; 1964–65; 1965–66; 1970–71; 1979–80; 1988–89; 2005-06; 2006-07; 2007-08; 2008-09 Runners-up (13): 1932–33; 1933–34; 1934–35; 1940–41; 1948–49; 1950–51; 1961–62; 1963–64; 1966–67; 1969–70; 1992–93; 1997–98; 2002–03 Coppa Italia: Champions (5): 1938–39; 1977–78; 1981–82; 2004–05; 2005–06; Runners-up (6): 1958–59; 1964–65; 1976–77; 1999–00; 2006–07; 2007–08 Supercoppa Italiana: Champions (4): 1989; 2005; 2006; 2008 Runners-up (2): 2000; 2007 International titles The following titles include only those which are recognised by UEFA and FIFA. European titles UEFA Champions League (former European Cup): Champions (2): 1963–64; 1964–65 Runners-up (2): 1966–67; 1971–72 UEFA Cup: Champions (3): 1990–91; 1993–94; 1997–98 Runners-up (1): 1996–97 Mitropa Cup: Runners-up (1): 1932–33 World-wide titles Intercontinental Cup: Up until 2004, the main tournament to determine football's World Champions was the Intercontinental Champions Club' Cup (so called European / South American Cup); since then, it has been the FIFA Club World Cup. Champions (2): 1964; 1965 Regional titles Italy Serie De Martino: Champions (6): 1958-59; 1960-61; 1961-62; 1962-63; 1965-66 Trofeo Tim: Champions (5): 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007 Birra Moretti Cup: Champions (3): 2001; 2002; 2007 Pirelli Cup: Winners: 2001 versus AS Roma Youth Team Honours Trofeo Giacinto Facchetti: Champions (6):1964; 1966; 1969; 1989; 2002; 2007 Primavera Italian Cup: Champions (5):1973; 1976; 1977; 1978; 2006 Campionato Under 23: Champions (1):1975 Viareggio World Club Tournament, Carnevale Cup: Champions (5):1962; 1971; 1986; 2002; 2008 Under 14 Championship: Champions (4):1988; 1997; 2003; 2006 Under 16 Championship: Champions (4):1985; 1987; 1998; 2008 Under 18 Championship: Champions (3):1980; 1984; 1991 Under 20 Championship: Champions (5):1975; 1983; 1989; 1990; 1991 Filippo De Cecco Tournament: Champions (2):2006; 2008 Individual Honours FIFA World Player of the Year The following players have won the FIFA World Player of the Year award whilst playing for FC Internazionale Milano: 2002 - Ronaldo 1997 - Ronaldo 1991 - Lothar Matthäus Ballon d'Or/European Footballer of the Year The following players have won the Ballon d'Or award whilst playing for FC Internazionale Milano: 1997 - Ronaldo 1990 - Lothar Matthäus World Soccer Player of the Year The following players have won the World Player of the Year award whilst playing for FC Internazionale Milano: 2002 - Ronaldo 1997 - Ronaldo 1990 - Lothar Matthäus UEFA Club Footballer of the Year The following players have won the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year award whilst playing for FC Internazionale Milano: 1997/98 - Ronaldo FC Internazionale Milano as a company According to The Football Money League published by consultants Deloitte, in season 2005-06 Inter were the 7th highest earning football club in the world with an estimated revenue of €206.6 million Kit providers and sponsors Years Sponsors1981–1982Inno-Hit1982–1991 Misura 1991–1992 FitGar 1992–1995 Fiorucci 1995–present Pirelli Years Kit providers 1979–1982Puma1982–1986Mec Sport1986–1988 Le Coq Sportif1988–1991 Uhlsport1991–1998 Umbro1998–present Nike References External links Official Website | Inter_Milan |@lemmatized football:11 club:35 internazionale:17 milano:10 commonly:2 refer:1 inter:95 italy:10 italian:20 professional:1 base:1 milan:34 lombardy:1 found:4 champion:36 retain:3 crown:2 may:5 fourth:3 successive:2 title:16 side:7 spend:2 entire:3 history:14 serie:26 make:6 season:29 top:7 tier:1 foundation:1 playing:1 black:5 blue:4 strip:3 shirt:4 short:1 name:9 include:5 coppa:7 italia:9 super:3 cup:26 total:2 trophy:2 win:44 outside:1 homeland:1 also:16 success:6 european:13 world:17 tournament:6 two:11 final:10 uefa:11 three:3 time:14 intercontinental:4 twice:4 play:10 home:6 game:7 stadio:3 giuseppe:5 meazza:8 know:3 san:8 siro:6 ground:1 share:1 rival:7 c:3 large:2 capacity:1 train:1 field:1 sport:2 center:1 angelo:3 moratti:8 good:4 la:5 pinetina:1 appiano:1 gentile:1 near:2 como:1 term:1 sometimes:1 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7,501 | Group_velocity | Frequency dispersion in bichromatic groups of gravity waves on the surface of deep water. The red dot moves with the phase velocity, and the green dots propagate with the group velocity. In this deep-water case, the phase velocity is twice the group velocity. The red dot overtakes two green dots, when moving from the left to the right of the figure.New waves seem to emerge at the back of a wave group, grow in amplitude until they are at the center of the group, and vanish at the wave group front.For surface gravity waves, the water particle velocities are much smaller than the phase velocity, in most cases. The group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the overall shape of the wave's amplitudes — known as the modulation or envelope of the wave — propagates through space. For example, imagine what happens if a stone is thrown into the middle of a very still pond. When the stone hits the surface of the water, a circular pattern of waves appears. It soon turns into a circular ring of waves with a quiescent center. The ever expanding ring of waves is the wave group, within which one can discern individual wavelets of differing wavelengths traveling at different speeds. The longer waves travel faster than the group as a whole, but they die out as they approach the leading edge. The shorter waves travel slower and they die out as they emerge from the trailing boundary of the group. Definition and interpretation Definition The group velocity vg is defined by the equation where: ω is the wave's angular frequency; k is the wave number. The function ω(k), which gives ω as a function of k, is known as the dispersion relation. If ω is directly proportional to k, then the group velocity is exactly equal to the phase velocity. Otherwise, the envelope of the wave will become distorted as it propagates. This "group velocity dispersion" is an important effect in the propagation of signals through optical fibers and in the design of high-power, short-pulse lasers. Note: The above definition of group velocity is only useful for wavepackets, which is a pulse that is localized in both real space and frequency space. Because waves at different frequencies propagate at differing phase velocities in dispersive media, for a large frequency range (a narrow envelope in space) the observed pulse would change shape while traveling, making group velocity an unclear or useless quantity. Physical interpretation The group velocity is often thought of as the velocity at which energy or information is conveyed along a wave. In most cases this is accurate, and the group velocity can be thought of as the signal velocity of the waveform. However, if the wave is travelling through an absorptive medium, this does not always hold. Since the 1980s, various experiments have verified that it is possible for the group velocity of laser light pulses sent through specially prepared materials to significantly exceed the speed of light in vacuum. However, superluminal communication is not possible in this case, since the signal velocity remains less than the speed of light. It is also possible to reduce the group velocity to zero, stopping the pulse, or have negative group velocity, making the pulse appear to propagate backwards. However, in all these cases, photons continue to propagate at the expected speed of light in the medium. George M. Gehring, Aaron Schweinsberg, Christopher Barsi, Natalie Kostinski, Robert W. Boyd, “Observation of a Backward Pulse Propagation Through a Medium with a Negative Group Velocity”, Science. 312, 895-897 (2006). Gunnar Dolling, Christian Enkrich, Martin Wegener, Costas M. Soukoulis, Stefan Linden, “Simultaneous Negative Phase and Group Velocity of Light in a Metamaterial”, Science. 312, 892-894 (2006). A. Schweinsberg, N. N. Lepeshkin, M.S. Bigelow, R.W. Boyd, S. Jarabo, “Observation of superluminal and slow light propagation in erbium-doped optical fiber”, Europhysics Letters. 73, 218-224 (2005). Matthew S Bigelow, Nick N Lepeshkin, Heedeuk Shin, Robert W Boyd, “Propagation of a smooth and discontinuous pulses through materials with very large or very small group velocities”, Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter. 18, 3117-3126 (2006) Anomalous dispersion happens in areas of rapid spectral variation with respect to the refractive index. Therefore, negative values of the group velocity will occur in these areas. Anomalous dispersion plays a fundamental role in achieving backward propagating and superluminal light. Anomalous dispersion can also be used to produce group and phase velocities that are in different directions. Materials that exhibit large anomalous dispersion allow the group velocity of the light to exceed c and/or become negative. History The idea of a group velocity distinct from a wave's phase velocity was first proposed by W.R. Hamilton in 1839, and the first full treatment was by Rayleigh in his "Theory of Sound" in 1877 Brillouin, Léon. Wave Propagation and Group Velocity. Academic Press Inc., New York (1960) . Matter wave group-velocity Albert Einstein first explained the wave-particle duality of light in 1905. Louis de Broglie hypothesized that any particle should also exhibit such a duality. The velocity of a particle, he concluded then (but may be questioned today, see above), should always equal the group velocity of the corresponding wave. De Broglie deduced that if the duality equations already known for light were the same for any particle, then his hypothesis would hold. This means that where E is the total energy of the particle, p is its momentum, is the reduced Planck constant. For a free non-relativistic particle it follows that where is the mass of the particle and and its velocity. Also in special relativity we find that where is the rest mass of the particle, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, is the Lorentz factor. and v is the velocity of the particle regardless of wave behavior. Group velocity (equal to an electron's speed) should not be confused with phase velocity (equal to the product of the electron's frequency multiplied by its wavelength). Both in relativistic and non-relativistic quantum physics, we can identify the group velocity of a particle's wave function with the particle velocity. Quantum mechanics has very accurately demonstrated this hypothesis, and the relation has been shown explicitly for particles as large as molecules. See also Dispersion (optics) for a full discussion of wave velocities Slow light References Tipler, Paul A. and Ralph A. Llewellyn (2003). Modern Physics. 4th ed. New York; W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0. 223 p. External links Greg Egan has an excellent Java applet on his web site that illustrates the apparent difference in group velocity from phase velocity. Group and Phase Velocity - Java applet with configurable group velocity and frequency. Maarten Ambaum has a webpage with movie demonstrating the importance of group velocity to downstream development of weather systems. | Group_velocity |@lemmatized frequency:7 dispersion:8 bichromatic:1 group:36 gravity:2 wave:28 surface:3 deep:2 water:4 red:2 dot:4 move:2 phase:11 velocity:47 green:2 propagate:6 case:5 twice:1 overtakes:1 two:1 left:1 right:1 figure:1 new:3 seem:1 emerge:2 back:1 grow:1 amplitude:2 center:2 vanish:1 front:1 particle:13 much:1 small:2 overall:1 shape:2 know:3 modulation:1 envelope:3 space:4 example:1 imagine:1 happen:2 stone:2 throw:1 middle:1 still:1 pond:1 hit:1 circular:2 pattern:1 appear:2 soon:1 turn:1 ring:2 quiescent:1 ever:1 expand:1 within:1 one:1 discern:1 individual:1 wavelet:1 differ:2 wavelength:2 travel:5 different:3 speed:6 long:1 fast:1 whole:1 die:2 approach:1 lead:1 edge:1 shorter:1 slow:3 trail:1 boundary:1 definition:3 interpretation:2 vg:1 define:1 equation:2 ω:4 angular:1 k:4 number:1 function:3 give:1 relation:2 directly:1 proportional:1 exactly:1 equal:4 otherwise:1 become:2 distorted:1 important:1 effect:1 propagation:5 signal:3 optical:2 fiber:2 design:1 high:1 power:1 short:1 pulse:8 laser:2 note:1 useful:1 wavepackets:1 localize:1 real:1 dispersive:1 medium:4 large:4 range:1 narrow:1 observed:1 would:2 change:1 make:2 unclear:1 useless:1 quantity:1 physical:1 often:1 think:2 energy:2 information:1 convey:1 along:1 accurate:1 waveform:1 however:3 absorptive:1 always:2 hold:2 since:2 various:1 experiment:1 verify:1 possible:3 light:12 send:1 specially:1 prepared:1 material:3 significantly:1 exceed:2 vacuum:2 superluminal:3 communication:1 remain:1 less:1 also:5 reduce:1 zero:1 stop:1 negative:5 backwards:1 photon:1 continue:1 expected:1 george:1 gehring:1 aaron:1 schweinsberg:2 christopher:1 barsi:1 natalie:1 kostinski:1 robert:2 w:5 boyd:3 observation:2 backward:2 science:2 gunnar:1 dolling:1 christian:1 enkrich:1 martin:1 wegener:1 costas:1 soukoulis:1 stefan:1 linden:1 simultaneous:1 metamaterial:1 n:3 lepeshkin:2 bigelow:2 r:2 jarabo:1 erbium:1 doped:1 europhysics:1 letter:1 matthew:1 nick:1 heedeuk:1 shin:1 smooth:1 discontinuous:1 journal:1 physic:3 condense:1 matter:2 anomalous:4 area:2 rapid:1 spectral:1 variation:1 respect:1 refractive:1 index:1 therefore:1 value:1 occur:1 play:1 fundamental:1 role:1 achieve:1 propagating:1 use:1 produce:1 direction:1 exhibit:2 allow:1 c:2 history:1 idea:1 distinct:1 first:3 propose:1 hamilton:1 full:2 treatment:1 rayleigh:1 theory:1 sound:1 brillouin:1 léon:1 academic:1 press:1 inc:1 york:2 albert:1 einstein:1 explain:1 duality:3 louis:1 de:2 broglie:2 hypothesize:1 conclude:1 may:1 question:1 today:1 see:2 corresponding:1 deduce:1 already:1 hypothesis:2 mean:1 e:1 total:1 p:2 momentum:1 reduced:1 planck:1 constant:1 free:1 non:2 relativistic:3 follow:1 mass:2 special:1 relativity:1 find:1 rest:1 lorentz:1 factor:1 v:1 regardless:1 behavior:1 electron:2 confuse:1 product:1 multiply:1 quantum:2 identify:1 mechanic:1 accurately:1 demonstrate:2 show:1 explicitly:1 molecule:1 optic:1 discussion:1 reference:1 tipler:1 paul:1 ralph:1 llewellyn:1 modern:1 ed:1 h:1 freeman:1 company:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 greg:1 egan:1 excellent:1 java:2 applet:2 web:1 site:1 illustrate:1 apparent:1 difference:1 configurable:1 maarten:1 ambaum:1 webpage:1 movie:1 importance:1 downstream:1 development:1 weather:1 system:1 |@bigram velocity_dispersion:1 optical_fiber:2 specially_prepared:1 superluminal_communication:1 anomalous_dispersion:4 refractive_index:1 albert_einstein:1 particle_duality:1 de_broglie:2 reduced_planck:1 planck_constant:1 special_relativity:1 quantum_mechanic:1 external_link:1 greg_egan:1 java_applet:2 |
7,502 | Geography_of_Italy | Topographic map of Italy Italy's cities and main towns Italy viewed from space. southern Italy and Sicily on the 1849 map Italy is located in southern Europe and comprises the long, boot-shaped Italian Peninsula, the land between the peninsula and the Alps, and a number of islands including Sicily and Sardinia. Its total area is 301,230 km², of which 294,020 km² is land and 7,210 km² is water. Including islands, Italy has a coastline of 7,600 km on the Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian (740 km), France (488 km), Austria (430 km), Slovenia (232 km)and Switzerland. San Marino (39 km) and the Vatican City (3.2 km), both entirely surrounded by Italy, account for the remainder. Italy is a mountainous country, with the Alps as the northern boundary and the Apennine Mountains forming the backbone of the peninsula, but in between the two lies a large plain in the valley of the Po, the largest river in Italy, which flows 652 km (405 miles) eastward from the Cottian Alps to the Adriatic. Most of Italy's rivers drain either into the Adriatic Sea (like Po, Piave, Adige, Reno) or into the Thyrrenian (like Arno, Tiber and Volturno), though the waters from some border municipalities (Bormio in Lombardy, Innichen and Toblach in Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol) drain into the Black Sea through the basin of the Danube, and the waters from the Lago di Lei in Lombardy drain into the North Sea through the basin of the Rhine. In the north of the country are a number of subalpine lakes, the largest of which is Garda (370 km², 143 sq mi). Several islands form part of Italy. The largest are Sicily (25,708 km², 9,926 square miles) and Sardinia (24,090 km², 9,301 sq mi). There are also a few active volcanoes in Italy: Etna, the largest active volcano in Europe; Vulcano; Stromboli; and Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe. Natural resources Mercury, potash, marble, sulfur, dwindling natural gas and crude oil reserves, fish, coal, arable land Land use Arable land: 31% Permanent crops: 10% Permanent pastures: 15% Forests and woodland: 23% Other: 21% (1993 est.) Irrigated land 27,100 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards Regional risks include landslides, mudflows, avalanches, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flooding; land subsidence in Venice Environment—current issues Air pollution from industrial emissions such as sulphur dioxide; coastal and inland rivers polluted from industrial and agricultural effluents; acid rain damaging lakes; inadequate industrial waste treatment and disposal facilities Environment—international agreements Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol Geography—note Strategic location dominating central Mediterranean as well as southern sea and air approaches to Western Europe. 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7,503 | Christian_Church_(Disciples_of_Christ) | The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) is a Mainline Protestant denomination in North America. It is often referred to as The Christian Church, The Disciples of Christ, or more simply as The Disciples. It has made significant contributions to worldwide Christianity through the evangelistic work of its missionary societies and through its participation in the ecumenical dialogue of the 20th century. The Christian Church was a charter participant in the formation of both the World Council of Churches and the Federal Council of Churches (now the National Council of Churches), and it continues to be engaged in ecumenical conversations. The Disciples' local churches are congregationally governed. Currently there are 691,160 members in 3,754 congregations in North America. The Disciples Today History The Beginnings The early history of The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) is shared by two other groups, The Churches of Christ and the independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ. They all emerged from the same roots. McAlister and Tucker (1975). Page 29 The Stone-Campbell movement began as two separate threads, each without knowledge of the other, during the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century. The first, led by Barton W. Stone began at Cane Ridge, Bourbon County, Kentucky. The group called themselves simply Christians. The second, began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia), led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell. Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus that they found in the Bible. McAlister and Tucker (1975). Page 27 Not the only Christians, Just Christians, only. Barton W. Stone The defining event of the Stone wing of the movement was the publication of the Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery, at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in 1804. The Last Will is a brief document in which Stone and five others announced their withdrawal from Presbyterianism and their intention to be solely part of the body of Christ. Marshall, et al. 1804. The writers appealed for the unity of all who follow Jesus, suggested the value of congregational self-governance, and lifted the Bible as the source for understanding the will of God. They denounced the divisive use of the Augsburg Confession. McAlister and Tucker, (1975) page 79 Soon, they adopted the name "Christian" to identify their group. Thus, the remnants of the Springfield Presbytery became the Christian Church. McAlister and Tucker, (1975) page 80 It is estimated that the Christian Church numbered about 12,000 by 1830. McAlister and Tucker, (1975) page 82 The Campbells -- The Reformers Thomas Campbell Independently of Stone, the Campbell wing of the movement was launched when Thomas Campbell published the Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington, in 1809. The Presbyterian Synod had suspended his ministerial credentials. In The Declaration and Address he set forth some of his convictions about the church of Jesus Christ, as he organized the Christian Association of Washington, not as a church but as an association of persons seeking to grow in faith. McAlister and Tucker, (1975) pages 108-111 On May 4, 1811, however, the Christian Association constituted itself as a congregationally governed church. With the building it then constructed at Brush Run, it became known as Brush Run Church. McAlister & Tucker (1975) Page 117 Young Alexander Campbell When their study of the New Testament led the reformers to begin to practice Baptism by Immersion, the nearby Redstone Baptist Association invited Brush Run Church to join with them for the purpose of fellowship. The reformers agreed provided that they would be "allowed to preach and to teach whatever they learned from the Scriptures." Davis, M. M. (1915), Page 86 Thus began a sojourn for the reformers among the Baptists within the Redstone Baptist Association (1815-1824). While the reformers and the Baptists shared the same beliefs in Baptism by Immersion and Congregational polity, it was soon clear that the reformers were not traditional Baptists. Within the Redstone Association, the differences became intolerable to some of the Baptist leaders, when Alexander Campbell began publishing a journal, The Christian Baptist, promoting reform. Campbell anticipated the conflict and moved his membership to a congregation of the Mahoning Baptist Association in 1824. McAlister & Tucker (1975). page 131 Walter Scott In 1827, the Mahoning Association appointed reformer Walter Scott as an Evangelist. Through Scott’s efforts, the Mahoning Association grew rapidly. In 1828, Thomas Campbell visited several of the congregations formed by Scott and heard him preach. The elder Campbell realized that Scott was bringing an important new dimension to the movement with his approach to evangelism. McAlister & Tucker (1975). pages 132 - 133 Several Baptist associations began disassociating congregations that refused to subscribe to the Philadelphia Confession. The Mahoning Association itself came under attack. In 1830, The Mahoning Baptist Association disbanded. Alexander ceased publication of the Christian Baptist. In January 1831, he began publication of the Millennial Harbinger. McAlister & Tucker (1975). pages 144-145 Similarities between the two groups Both threads sought to find the unity of the church in the simple acknowledgment that Jesus is the Christ, the messiah, and an acceptance of Him as Lord. Both were opposed to the use of Creeds as a test of faith. The simple confession that Jesus Christ is Lord was believed to unite all Christians. Man-made creeds were seen as divisive. Both groups looked to the New Testament church to discover the practices that united the early church. The term, The Restoration Movement, has been used to describe this interest in restoring the New Testament church. In their reading of the Scriptures, both groups found that the early church gathered on the first day of the week "for the breaking of bread," and began to celebrate the Lord's Supper every week. In their study of the Bible, both groups believed that Baptism in the New Testament was for believers by immersion in water. They adopted the practice in their churches. The merging of the two groups "Raccoon John" Smith The two groups united at High Street Meeting House, Lexington, Kentucky with a handshake between Barton W. Stone and "Raccoon" John Smith, Saturday, December 31, 1831. Davis, M. M. (1915), Pages 116-120 Smith had been chosen, by those present, to speak on behalf of the followers of the Campbells. Davis, M. M. (1915), Pages 116 While contemporaneous accounts are clear that the handshake took place on Saturday, some historians have changed the date of the merger to Sunday, January 1, 1832. Garrison & DeGroot (1948) page 212 The 1832 date has become generally accepted. The actual difference is about 20 hours. Two representatives of those assembled were appointed to carry the news of the union to all the churches: John Rogers, for the Christians and "Raccoon" John Smith for the reformers. Despite some challenges, the merger succeeded. McAlister & Tucker (1975). pages 153 - 154 The challenge of the names With the merger, there was the challenge of what to call the new movement. Clearly, finding a Biblical, non-sectarian name was important. Stone wanted to continue to use the name "Christians." Alexander Campbell insisted upon "Disciples of Christ". Walter Scott and Thomas Campbell sided with Stone, but the younger Campbell had strong reasons and would not yield. As a result, both names were used. The confusion over names has been present ever since. McAlister & Tucker (1975) pages 27-28 During the first hundred years of the Restoration Movement, "Disciples of Christ," "Christian Church," and "Church of Christ" were all commonly used titles for congregations associated with the Campbell-Stone Movement. As interpretations, convictions, and preferences regarding a cappella and instrumental music distinguished congregations, the a cappella churches typically used "Church of Christ" to identify themselves. The First National Convention and the Missionary Movement Alexander Campbell, Age 65 In 1849, the first National Convention was held at Cincinnati, Ohio. Garrison and DeGroot (1948) page 245 Alexander Campbell had concerns that holding conventions would lead the movement into divisive denominationalism. He did not attend the gathering. Garrison and DeGroot (1948), page 245 Among its actions, the convention elected Alexander Campbell its President and created The American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS). Garrison and DeGroot (1948) Page 247 The formation of a missionary society set the stage for further "co-operative" efforts. By the end of the century, The Foreign Christian Missionary Society and the Christian Women's Board of Missions were also engaged in missionary activities. Forming the ACMS clearly did not reflect a consensus of the entire movement. It became a divisive issue. In the succeeding decades, for some congregations and their leaders, co-operative work through missionary societies and the adoption of instrumental music was straying too far. After the American Civil War, the schism grew. The Journals From the beginning of the movement, the free exchange of ideas among the people was fostered by the journals published by its leaders. Alexander Campbell published The Christian Baptist and The Millennial Harbinger. Stone published The Christian Messenger. Garrison and DeGroot, (1948), page 208. In a respectful way, both men routinely published the contributions of others whose positions were radically different from their own. Following Campbell’s death in 1866, journals continued to keep the discussion and conversation alive. Between 1870 and 1900, two journals emerged as the most prominent. The Christian Standard was edited and published by Isaac Errett of Cincinnati. The Christian Evangelist was edited and published by J. H. Garrison from St. Louis. The two men enjoyed a friendly rivalry, and kept the dialog going within the movement. Garrison and DeGroot, (1948), page 364. A third journal became part of the conversation with the publication in 1884 of The Christian Oracle, later to become The Christian Century, with an interdenominational appeal. Garrison and DeGroot, (1948), page 364 In 1914, Garrison’s Christian Publishing company was purchased by R. A. Long, who then established a non-profit corporation, “The Christian Board of Publication” as the Brotherhood publishing house. Garrison and DeGroot, (1948), page 426 Division In 1906, the U.S. Religious Census listed Churches of Christ for the first time as a group which was separate and distinct from the Disciples of Christ. McAlister & Tucker (1975). Page 251 However, the division had been growing for years, with published reports as early as 1883. McAlister & Tucker (1975). Page 252 The most obvious distinction between the two groups was the rejection of musical instruments in the Churches of Christ. The controversy over musical instruments began in 1860 with the introduction of Organs in some churches. More basic were the underlying approaches to Biblical interpretation. For the Churches of Christ any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church. They could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in Worship. For the Disciples any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered. McAlister & Tucker (1975). Pages 242 - 247 After the division, Disciples churches used "Christian Church" as the dominant designation for congregations. While music and the approach to missionary work were the most visible issues, there were also some deeper ones. The process that led to the separation had begun prior to the American Civil War. Cartwright, Colbert S. (1987) pages 17 - 18 Following the 1906 separation with the Churches of Christ (a cappella), controversy still existed within the movement. Should missionary efforts be cooperative or should they be independently sponsored by congregations? Should the methods of Biblical analysis, which had developed in the 19th century be embraced in the study and interpretation of the Bible? Garrison and DeGroot, (1948), pages 418-420 The "cooperative" churches were generally more likely to adopt the new biblical study methods. During the first half of the 20th century these opposing factions among the Christian Churches coexisted, but with growing discomfort and tension. For the cooperative churches, the three Missionary Societies merged into the United Christian Missionary Society in 1920. Garrison and DeGroot, (1948), pages 428 & 429 Human service ministries grew through the National Benevolent Association providing assistance to orphans, the elderly and the disabled. By mid century, the cooperative Christian Churches and the independent Christian Churches were following different paths. Restructure Following World War II, it became obvious that the organizations that had been developed in previous decades no longer effectively met the needs of the postwar era. McAlister & Tucker, (1975). page 419 After a number of discussions throughout the 1950s, the 1960 International Convention of Christian Churches adopted a process to plan the "restructure" of the entire organization. McAlister & Tucker, (1975). page 421 The Commission on Restructure, chaired by Granville T. Walker, held its first meeting on October 30 & November 1, 1962. McAlister & Tucker, (1975). pages 436 - 437 In 1968, the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) adopted the Commission's proposed “Provisional Design of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).” McAlister & Tucker, (1975). pages 442 - 443 Soon the Provisional Design became “The Design.” Under the Design, all churches in the 1968 yearbook of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) were automatically recognized as part of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). In the years that followed, many of the Independent Christian Church Congregations requested formal withdrawal from the yearbook. Many of those congregations became part of the Independent Christian Churches and Churches of Christ. Modern Disciples Beliefs and Practices The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) are a people of the Lord's Table. Each week, members of the Christian Church gather around the Table in local congregations to celebrate the Lord’s Supper, to sing hymns, to read the word of God from the Bible, to hear the word of God proclaimed and to extend Christ’s invitation to become his Disciples. Each congregation determines the nature of its worship, study, Christian service, and witness to the world. At the Lord’s table, individuals are invited to acknowledge their faults and sins, to remember the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, to remember their baptism, and to give thanks for God’s redeeming love. Cartwright (1987) pages 22-23 The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) believes that it is in the local congregations where people come, find, and know God as they gather in Christ's name. Cartwright (1987) page 30 Because Disciples believe that the invitation to the table comes from Jesus Christ, communion is open to all who confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Cartwright, 1991, page 29 For most Disciples, communion is understood as the symbolic presence of Jesus within the gathered community. Disciples practice believer's baptism in the form of immersion, believing it to be the form used in the New Testament. The experiences of yielding to Christ in being buried with him in the waters of baptism and rising to a new life, have profound meaning for the church. Cartwright, (1987) pages 61 - 68 "In essentials, Unity; In non-essentials, Liberty; and in all things, Charity." 19th Century slogan of the Campbell - Stone Movement For modern Disciples the one essential is the acceptance of Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, and obedience to him in baptism. Cummins. 1991, Pages 64-65 There is no requirement to give assent to any other statement of belief or creed. Nor is there any "official" interpretation of the Bible. Cummins (1991) pages 14 - 15 Hierarchical doctrine was traditionally rejected by Disciples as human-made and divisive, and subsequently, freedom of belief and scriptural interpretation allows many Disciples to question or even deny beliefs common in doctrinal churches such as the Incarnation, the Trinity, and the Atonement. Beyond the essential commitment to follow Jesus there is a tremendous freedom of belief and interpretation. As the basic teachings of Jesus are studied and applied to life, there is the freedom to interpret Jesus' teaching in different ways. As would be expected from such an approach, there is a wide diversity among Disciples in what individuals and congregations believe. It is not uncommon to find individuals who seemingly hold diametrically opposed beliefs within the same congregation affirming one another's journeys of faith as sisters and brothers in Christ. Members and seekers are encouraged to take being disciples seriously , meaning that they are student followers, of Jesus. Often the best teaching comes in the form, “I’ll tell you what I think, but read the Bible for yourself, and then study and pray about it. Decide in what ways God is calling you to be a follower of Jesus." Modern Disciples reject the use of creeds as "tests of faith," i.e., as required beliefs, necessary to be accepted as a follower of Jesus. Although Disciples respect the great creeds of the church as informative affirmations of faith, they are never seen as binding. Since the adoption of The Design of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), in 1968, Disciples have celebrated a sense of unity in reading the preamble to the Design publicly. It is as a meaningful affirmation of faith, not binding upon any member. It was originally intended to remind readers that this Church seeks God through Jesus Christ, even when it adopts a design for its business affairs. Some of the denomination's best scholars have noted the inadequacy of the "Preamble" as a balanced theological statement. ". . .the church of Christ upon earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one;consisting of all those in every place that profess their faith in Christ and obedience to him in all things. . ." Thomas Campbell - Proposition 1 of the Declaration and Address The Disciples celebrate their oneness with all who seek God through Jesus Christ, throughout time and regardless of location. That oneness is symbolized in the open invitation to communion for all who have professed faith in Christ without regard to church affiliation. Cartwright 1987. Page 13 In local communities, congregations share with churches of other denominations in joint worship and in community Christian service. Ecumenical cooperation and collaboration with other Christian Communions has long been practiced, by the Regions. At the General Church level, the Council on Christian Unity coordinates the ecumenical activities of the church. The Disciples continues to relate to the National Council of Churches, of which it was a founding member. It shares in the dialog and in the theological endeavors of the World Council of Churches. The Disciples has been a full participant in the Consultation on Church Union since it began in the sixties. It continues to support those ongoing conversations which have taken on the title “Churches Uniting in Christ.” The goal of these endeavors is not the merger into some “Super Church,” but rather to discover ways to celebrate and proclaim the unity and oneness that is Christ's gift to his church. Congregations Congregations of the Christian Church are self governing in the tradition of congregational polity. They select their own leadership, own their own property, and manage their own affairs. In Disciples congregations, the priesthood of all believers finds its expression in worship and Christian service. Typically, Lay Elders, rather than ordained ministers, preside at the Lord's Table in celebration of Communion. The lay Elders and called Pastors provide spiritual oversight and care for members in partnership with one another. Cartwright (1987) pages 42 - 44 Regional Ministries The Regional Churches of the Christian Church provide resources for leadership development and opportunities for Christian fellowship beyond the local congregation. They have taken responsibility for the nurture and support of those individuals seeking to discern God’s call to service as ordained or licensed ministers. Typically, they organize summer camping experiences for children and youth. Regional churches assist congregations who are seeking ministers and ministers who are seeking congregations. Regional leadership is available on request to assist congregations that face conflict. Though they have no authority to direct the life of any congregation, the Regional Churches are analogous to the middle judicatories of other denominations. General Ministries The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) at the “General Church” level consists of a number of self-governing agencies, which focus upon specific Christian witnesses to the world that have emerged in the dialog within the movement since before the first convention in 1849. Typically, these ministries have a scope that is larger than Regional Ministries, and often have a global perspective. The church agencies report to the General Assembly, which meets biennially in odd numbered years. The General Minister and President (GMP)is the designated leader for the General Church, but does not have the administrative authority to direct any of the general church agencies other than “The Office of General Minister and President.” The GMP has influence that derives from the respect of the church much as the pastor of a local church leads a local congregation. One highly popular and respected General Agency of the church is the “Week of Compassion,” named for the special offering to fund the program when it began in the 1950’s. The Week of Compassion is the disaster relief and Third World development agency. It works closely with Church World Service and church related organizations in countries around the world where disasters strike, providing emergency aid. The General Church has challenged the entire denomination to work for a 20/20 Vision for the first two decades of the 21st Century. Together the denomination is well on the way to achieving its three foci: Seeking racial justice, which it describes as anti-racism. Forming 2000 new congregations across the United States and Canada. Seeking God’s transformation of 2000 existing Congregations in ways that will renew their witness. The relationship between the congregations, regions and the general church are detailed in The Design of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Watkins, Sharon E. (2006) pages 291 -303 At the 2005 General Assembly, over 3000 delegates voted nearly unanimously to elect the Rev. Dr. Sharon E. Watkins as General Minister and President of the denomination. Watkins was the first woman to be elected as the presiding minister of a mainline Protestant denomination. Watkins, Sharon E. (2006) page 206 The Chalice The Logo of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) is a red chalice with a white St. Andrew's Cross. The chalice represents the centrality of Communion to the life of the church. The cross of Saint Andrew is a reminder of the ministry of each person and the importance of evangelism, and recalls the denomination's Scottish Presbyterian ancestry. The symbol was designed in 1969. Watkins, Sharon E. (2006) page 652 After the 1968 General Assembly, the Administrative Committee charged a sub-committee with the task of proposing a symbol for the church. Hundreds of designs were submitted, but none seemed right. By November the Deputy General Minister and President, William Howland, suggested that the committee's staff consultant and chairperson agree on a specific proposal and bring it back to the committee: that meant Robert L. Friedly of the Office of Interpretation and Ronald E. Osborn. On January 20, 1970, the two men sat down for lunch. With a red felt-tip pen, Osborn began to scrawl a Saint Andrew's cross circumscribed inside a chalice on his placemat. Immediately, Friedly dispatched the crude drawing to Bruce Tilsley of Denver with the plea that he prepare an artistic version of the ideas. Tilsley responded with two or three sketches, from which was selected the now-familiar red chalice. Use of the proposed symbol became so prevalent that there was little debate when official adoption was considered at the 1971 General Assembly. The chalice is a registered trademark of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Congregations and ministries of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) are free to use the chalice in publications, web sites and other media. Organizations not affiliated with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) are asked to obtain permission. Because most congregations call themselves "Christian Churches," the chalice has become a simple way to identify Disciples of Christ Churches through signage, letterhead, and other forms of publicity. Affiliated academic institutions From the very beginnings of the movement, Disciples have valued the education of its leadership. After all, a disciple is a "student." Alexander Campbell himself taught young leaders and founded Bethany College. Other similar schools followed, especially in the years following the American Civil War. Because intellectual and religious freedom are important values for the Disciples of Christ, the Colleges, Universities, and even Seminaries that are related to the Disciples do not seek to indoctrinate students or faculty with a sectarian point of view. In the 21st Century, the relationship between the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and its affiliated Universities is the pervue of Higher Education and Leadership Ministries (HELM), an agency of the General Church. Universities and colleges Barton College – in Wilson, North Carolina Bethany College – in Bethany, West Virginia Chapman University – in Orange, California Columbia College – in Columbia, Missouri Culver-Stockton College – in Canton, Missouri Drake University - in Des Moines, Iowa Drury University – in Springfield, Missouri Eureka College – in Eureka, Illinois Hiram College – in Hiram, Ohio Jarvis Christian College – in Hawkins, Texas Lynchburg College – in Lynchburg, Virginia Midway College – in Midway, Kentucky Northwest Christian University – in Eugene, Oregon Texas Christian University – in Fort Worth, Texas Tougaloo College - in Tougaloo, Mississippi Transylvania University – in Lexington, Kentucky William Woods University – in Fulton, Missouri Seminaries and theological institutions Brite Divinity School – in Fort Worth, Texas Christian Theological Seminary – in Indianapolis, Indiana Lexington Theological Seminary – in Lexington, Kentucky Phillips Theological Seminary – in Tulsa, Oklahoma Disciples Divinity House of the University of Chicago - in Chicago, Illinois Disciples Divinity House at Vanderbilt University - in Nashville, Tennessee Disciples Seminary Foundation - in Claremont, California Evangelical Seminary of Puerto Rico - in San Juan, Puerto Rico Ecumenical relations The Disciples of Christ maintains ecumenical relations with the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity. It is also affiliated with other ecumenical organizations such as Churches Uniting in Christ, Christian Churches Together, the National Council of Churches and the World Council of Churches. Prominent members Edgar Cayce, psychic and healer Fred Craddock, professor and preacher J. William Fulbright, U.S. Senator from Arkansas James Garfield, 20th President of the United States. He was an ordained minister having received his ordination, while serving as president of Hiram College. During the period he preached almost every Sunday in congregations around the Western Reserve David Lloyd George, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, who delivered open air sermons on temperance Murry Hammond and Grey DeLisle, singers W.H. "Boss" Hoover, founder of The Hoover Company, also a founding member and ordained minister of Community Christian Church in North Canton, Ohio Lyndon Baines Johnson, 36th President of the United States, who taught Sunday School as a young man and regularly attended National City Christian Church on Thomas Circle in Washington, D.C. during his time as President (his wife Lady Bird Johnson was a devoted Episcopalian. The President's grandfather Samuel Ealy Johnson, Sr. was raised as a Baptist. Subsequently, in his early manhood, he became a member of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). In his later years he became a Christadelphian. According to Lady Bird Johnson, President Johnson's father also joined the Christadelphian Church toward the end of his life. ) James Warren "Jim" Jones, founder of the Peoples Temple of Jonestown, Guyana, best known for the 1978 death of over 900 members in a ritualized mass suicide. He had been disaffiliated with the church before founding the People's Temple. Ken Lucas, former Congressman (D) candidate for Kentucky's 4th Congressional District. Frances McDormand, Oscar-winning actress James Clark McReynolds, United States Supreme Court Justice (1914-1941) Ronald Reagan, 40th President of the United States (baptized into the Disciples as a youth, and graduated from the Disciples' Eureka College, but a member of Bel Air Presbyterian Church in his later years) Gene Robinson, raised in a Disciples church, but now a bishop in the Episcopal Church in the United States of America Colonel Sanders, founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken Ike Skelton, congressman from Missouri's 4th Congressional District John Stamos, actor John Tanner, congressman from Tennessee's 8th Congressional District Lew Wallace, author and Civil War general; his membership in the Disciples is somewhat uncertain, but his stepmother, Zerelda G. Wallace, was a founding member of Central Christian in Indianapolis and active in the WCTU, with her portrait still in the Indiana Statehouse See also DisciplesWorld Restoration Movement First Christian Church Christianity The Churches of Christ and Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ which separated from the Disciples in 1906 and 1968, respectively. Notes References Campbell, Thomas (1809). The Declaration and Address Challen, James (editor), Biographical Sketch of Alexander Campbell, Ladies' Christian Annual, March, 1857 (Volume VI, No. 3), Philadelphia: James Challen, Publisher. Pages 81–90).Online Edition Corey, Stephen (1953). Fifty Years of Attack and Controversy St. Louis, MO: Committee on the publication of the Corey manuscript Davis, M. M. (1915). How the Disciples Began and Grew, A Short History of the Christian Church, Cincinnati: The Standard Publishing Company Garrison, Winfred Earnest and DeGroot, Alfred T. (1948). The Disciples of Christ, A History, St Louis, Missouri: The Bethany Press MARSHALL, ROBERT; DUNLAVY, JOHN; M'NEMAR,RICHARD; STONE,B. W.; THOMPSON, JOHN; and PURVIANCE,DAVID (1804). The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery McAlister, Lester G. and Tucker, William E. (1975), Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) - St. Louis, Chalice Press, ISBN 9780827217034 Watkins, Sharon E. (publisher) (2006). Yearbook & Directory of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) - 2006, Indianapolis: The Office of The General Minister and President External links Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) This is the official Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) website for the General ministries, with links to Regional and Congregational websites. 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7,504 | Mars_Attacks | Card #1: "The Invasion Begins" Mars Attacks is a science fiction trading card series released in 1962. The cards tell the story of the invasion of Earth by cruel, hideous Martians. Scenes depicted bizarre methods of attack, torture and slaughter the Martians used. The cards proved popular with children but their explicit gore and implied sexual content caused an outcry, leading the company to halt production. The cards became collectors' items. In the 1980s Topps began developing merchandise based on the Mars Attacks storyline, including mini-comic books and card reprints. An expanded set of 100 cards was issued in 1994. Director Tim Burton filmed Mars Attacks! in 1996 based on the series, spawning another round of merchandising. Trading cards The Mars Attacks trading card series was created by Topps in 1962. Product developer Len Brown, inspired by Wally Wood's cover for EC Comics Weird Science #16, pitched the idea to Woody Gelman. Gelman and Brown created the story – with Brown writing the copy – and created rough sketches. They enlisted Wood to flesh out the sketches and Bob Powell to finish them. Norman Saunders painted the 55-card set. Stewart, et al., p. 150 The cards were test marketed by Topps through a dummy corporation called Bubbles, Inc. under the name "Attack From Space". Sales were sufficient to expand the marketing and the name was changed to "Mars Attacks". Cards sold for five cents per pack of five. The cards sparked parental and community outrage over the graphic violence and implied sexuality depicted on the cards. Topps responded initially by repainting 13 of the cards to reduce the gore and sexuality, then, following inquiries from a Connecticut district attorney, agreed to halt production completely. Adaptations and merchandising Rossem Enterprises re-issued a set of 13 cards from the original series in 1984. The set consisted of those cards found most objectionable upon first release. also in 1984, Renata Galasso issued a full reprint of the series that included a cover card featuring the original wrapper art. In 1988, Topps collaborated with Pocket Comics to create a 54-chapter mini-comic book serialization of the card series. Sales and distribution were poor and the series was canceled after four issues. Topps issued an expanded 100-card set in 1994, featuring the original 55 cards and 45 "New Visions" cards. Twenty-one comics and graphic artists collaborated on the new cards, including Zina Saunders, daughter of the original artist. In conjunction with the expanded set, Topps issued a six-issue limited comic book series written by Keith Giffen and drawn by Charles Aldred. The series featured a "flip-cover" format, with 22 pages of the book following the story of the card set and six pages detailing previous encounters leading up to the invasion. The limited series was successful and lead Topps to continue it as a regular series. In 1996, Tim Burton's film Mars Attacks! was released by Warner Bros. The film combines the storyline and tone of a B-movie spoof with the budget of a blockbuster movie and features an ensemble cast including Jack Nicholson, Glenn Close, Pierce Brosnan, Joe Don Baker, Annette Bening, Danny DeVito, Martin Short, Michael J. Fox, Rod Steiger, Natalie Portman, Lukas Haas, Sarah Jessica Parker, Jim Brown, Pam Grier, Tom Jones and Jack Black. In conjunction with the film, two novels were released: Mars Attacks: Martian Deathtrap by Nathan Archer; and Mars Attacks: War Dogs of the Golden Horde by Ray W. Murrill. Screamin' Products released a tie-in set of Mars Attacks model kits. Notes References Stewart, Bhob, Bill Pearson, Roger Hill, Greg Sadowski and Wallace Wood (2003). Against the Grain: MAD Artist Wallace Wood. TwoMorrows Publishing. ISBN 1893905233 See also Mars in fiction Dinosaurs Attack External links Fanpage with information and photos of the cards Mars Attacks card gallery at TraderCracks.com Mars Attacks cards at MondoCollecto.Com | Mars_Attacks |@lemmatized card:27 invasion:3 begin:2 mar:12 attack:14 science:2 fiction:2 trading:2 series:11 release:5 tell:1 story:3 earth:1 cruel:1 hideous:1 martian:3 scene:1 depict:2 bizarre:1 method:1 torture:1 slaughter:1 use:1 prove:1 popular:1 child:1 explicit:1 gore:2 implied:2 sexual:1 content:1 cause:1 outcry:1 lead:3 company:1 halt:2 production:2 become:1 collector:1 item:1 topps:8 develop:1 merchandise:3 base:2 storyline:2 include:4 mini:2 comic:6 book:4 reprint:2 expanded:2 set:8 issue:7 director:1 tim:2 burton:2 film:4 spawn:1 another:1 round:1 trade:1 create:4 product:2 developer:1 len:1 brown:4 inspire:1 wally:1 wood:4 cover:3 ec:1 weird:1 pitch:1 idea:1 woody:1 gelman:2 write:2 copy:1 rough:1 sketch:2 enlist:1 flesh:1 bob:1 powell:1 finish:1 norman:1 saunders:2 paint:1 stewart:2 et:1 al:1 p:1 test:1 market:1 dummy:1 corporation:1 call:1 bubble:1 inc:1 name:2 space:1 sale:2 sufficient:1 expand:2 marketing:1 change:1 sell:1 five:2 cent:1 per:1 pack:1 spark:1 parental:1 community:1 outrage:1 graphic:2 violence:1 sexuality:2 respond:1 initially:1 repaint:1 reduce:1 follow:2 inquiry:1 connecticut:1 district:1 attorney:1 agree:1 completely:1 adaptation:1 rossem:1 enterprise:1 original:4 consist:1 find:1 objectionable:1 upon:1 first:1 also:2 renata:1 galasso:1 full:1 feature:4 wrapper:1 art:1 collaborate:2 pocket:1 chapter:1 serialization:1 distribution:1 poor:1 cancel:1 four:1 new:2 vision:1 twenty:1 one:1 artist:3 zina:1 daughter:1 conjunction:2 six:2 limit:1 keith:1 giffen:1 drawn:1 charles:1 aldred:1 flip:1 format:1 page:2 detail:1 previous:1 encounter:1 limited:1 successful:1 continue:1 regular:1 warner:1 bros:1 combine:1 tone:1 b:1 movie:2 spoof:1 budget:1 blockbuster:1 ensemble:1 cast:1 jack:2 nicholson:1 glenn:1 close:1 pierce:1 brosnan:1 joe:1 baker:1 annette:1 bening:1 danny:1 devito:1 martin:1 short:1 michael:1 j:1 fox:1 rod:1 steiger:1 natalie:1 portman:1 lukas:1 haas:1 sarah:1 jessica:1 parker:1 jim:1 pam:1 grier:1 tom:1 jones:1 black:1 two:1 novel:1 deathtrap:1 nathan:1 archer:1 war:1 dog:1 golden:1 horde:1 ray:1 w:1 murrill:1 screamin:1 tie:1 model:1 kit:1 note:1 reference:1 bhob:1 bill:1 pearson:1 roger:1 hill:1 greg:1 sadowski:1 wallace:2 grain:1 mad:1 twomorrows:1 publishing:1 isbn:1 see:1 dinosaur:1 external:1 link:1 fanpage:1 information:1 photo:1 gallery:1 tradercracks:1 com:2 mondocollecto:1 |@bigram science_fiction:1 tim_burton:2 wally_wood:1 et_al:1 warner_bros:1 jack_nicholson:1 pierce_brosnan:1 danny_devito:1 rod_steiger:1 golden_horde:1 twomorrows_publishing:1 external_link:1 |
7,505 | Kriegsmarine | Wartime propaganda poster. The Kriegsmarine (English: "War navy") was the name of the German Navy between 1935 and 1945, during the Nazi regime, superseding the Reichsmarine, and the Kaiserliche Marine of World War I. The Kriegsmarine was one of three official branches of the Wehrmacht. Command structure Adolf Hitler was the commander-in-chief of all German armed forces, including the Kriegsmarine. His authority was exercised through the Oberkommando der Marine, or OKM, with a Commander-in-Chief (Oberbefehlshaber der Kriegsmarine), a Chief of Naval General Staff (Chef der Stabes der Seekriegsleitung) and a Chief of Naval Operations (Chef der Operationsabteilung). Below these were regional, squadron and temporary flotilla commands: Regions These covered significant naval regions (commanded by a Generaladmiral or Admiral) and were themselves sub-divided, as necessary. There was a Marineoberkommando for the Baltic Fleet, Nord, Nordsee, Norwegen, Ost/Ostsee (formerly Baltic), Süd and West. Squadrons Each type of ship also had a command structure with its own Flag Officer. The commands were Battleships, Cruisers, Destroyers, Submarines, Torpedo Boats, Minesweepers, Reconnaissance Forces, Naval Security Forces, Big Guns and Hand Guns, and Midget Weapons. Flotillas Major naval operations were commanded by a Flottenchef. The commands were, by their nature, temporary. History Post-World War I origins Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was only allowed a minimal navy of 15,000 personnel, six capital ships of no more than 10,000 tons, six cruisers, twelve destroyers, twelve torpedo boats and no submarines. However, even before the Nazi takeover German naval rearmament had begun with the launching of the first pocket battleship, Deutschland in 1931. When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Adolf Hitler soon began to ignore many of the Treaty restrictions and accelerated German rearmament. The Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 18 June 1935 then allowed Germany to build a navy equivalent to 35% of British surface ship tonnage and 45% of British submarine tonnage; battleships were to be limited to no more than 35,000 tons. That same year the Reichsmarine was renamed as the Kriegsmarine. Build-up during the interwar period Kriegsmarine Jack Following the 1938 crisis caused by the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, Germany abandoned all pretensions of adherence to treaty limitations on its navy. Plan Z, the blueprint for the German naval construction program finalized in 1938, envisaged building a navy of approximately 800 ships between the period 1939 – 1947. The building programme was to include: ten new design battleships and battlecruisers, four aircraft carriers, fifteen armored ships (Panzerschiffe), five heavy cruisers, forty-four light cruisers, 158 destroyers and torpedo boats, and 249 submarines, as well as numerous smaller crafts. Personnel strength was planned to rise to over 200,000. Since the simultaneous and rapid build-up of the German army and airforce demanded substantial effort and resources, the planned naval program was not very far advanced by the time World War II began. Implementation only began in January 1939 when three H-class battleships and two M-class light cruisers were laid down. On September 1, 1939, the navy still had a total personnel strength of only 78,000, and it was not at all ready for a major role in the war. With expectations in Germany of a quick victory by land, Plan Z was essentially shelved and the resources initially allocated for its realization were largely redirected to the construction of U-boats. Spanish Civil War The first military action of the Kriegsmarine came during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). Following the outbreak of hostilities in July 1936 several capital ships of the German fleet were sent to the region. The Deutschland, Admiral Scheer, and light cruiser Köln were the first to be sent in July 1936. These capital ships were accompanied by the 2nd Torpedo-boat Flotilla. Ostensibly, the German presence was used to covertly support Franco's Nationalists although the immediate involvement of the Deutschland was humanitarian relief operations and the rescuing of 9,300 refugees from the fighting, including 4,550 Germans. Following the brokering of the International Non-Intervention Patrol to enforce an international arms embargo the Kriegsmarine was allotted the patrol area between Cabo de Gata (Almeria) and Oropesa. Numerous vessels served as part of these duties including Admiral Graf Spee. Uboats also participated in covert action against Republican shipping as part of Operation Ursula. At least eight uboats engaged a small number of targets in the area throughout the conflict. By way of comparison the Italian Navy, Regia Marina, operated fifty-eight submarines in the area as part of Sottomarini Legionari. On 29 May 1937 the Deutschland was attacked in the Deutschland incident off Ibiza by two bombers from the Republican Airforce. Total casualties from the Republican attack were 31 dead and 110 wounded, 71 seriously, mostly burn victims and in retaliation the Admiral Scheer shelled the harbour of Almeria on 31 May. Following further attacks by Republican submarine forces against the Leipzig off port of Oran between 15–18 June 1937 Germany withdrew from the Non-Intervention Patrol although maintained a continuous presence in the area until the end of the conflict. World War II The Kriegsmarine was involved in World War II from the start of the war and participated in the Battle of Westerplatte and the Battle of the Danzig Bay during the Invasion of Poland. In 1939, major events for the Kriegsmarine were the Battle of the River Plate, the sinking of the Battleship HMS Royal Oak, and the sinking of the Aircraft Carrier HMS Courageous. The Battle of the Atlantic started in 1939, although the German submarine fleet was hampered by the lack of good ports from which to attack Allied shipping. In April 1940, the main action the German Navy was involved in was the invasion of Norway, where it suffered quite heavy losses, including the Heavy Cruiser Blücher sunk by the guns of Oscarsborg Fortress in the Oslofjord, ten destroyers lost in the Battles of Narvik and two light cruiser lost elsewhere during the campaign. The Kriegsmarine did however sink a number of British ships during this campaign, including the Aircraft Carrier HMS Glorious. The losses in the Norwegian Campaign meant that only a handful of heavy ships were ready for action for the planned, but never executed, invasion of Britain (Operation Sealion) in the summer of 1940. There were serious doubts that the invasion sea routes could have been protected against British naval action. After the fall of France and the conquest of Norway, the German submarine fleet was brought much closer to the British shipping lanes in the Atlantic. At first, the British merchant convoys lacked radar equipped escorts; as such, the submarines were very hard to detect during their nighttime surface attacks. This year was for these reasons one of the most successful for the Kriegsmarine, as measured in terms of merchant shipping sunk compared to submarines lost (the First Happy Time). Italy entered the war in June 1940, and the Battle of the Mediterranean began: from September 1941 to May 1944 some 62 German submarines were transferred there, sneaking past the British naval base at Gibraltar. The Mediterranean submarines sunk 24 major Allied warships (including 12 destroyers, 4 cruisers, 2 aircraft carriers and 1 battleship) and 94 merchant ships (449,206 tons of shipping). None of the Mediterranean submarines made it back to their home bases as they were all either sunk in battle or scuttled by their crews at the end of the war uboat.net - U-boats in the Mediterranean - Overview Hitler and Captain Ernst Lindemann inspecting crew of battleship Bismarck in 1941. In 1941 one of the four modern German battleships, the Bismarck sank HMS Hood while breaking out into the Atlantic for commerce raiding. However, the Bismarck was in turn hunted down by much superior British forces after receiving crippling damage from a torpedo plane and scuttled after taking a heavy beating from two British battleships. Throughout the war the Kriegsmarine was responsible for coastal artillery protecting major ports and important coastal areas and also anti-aircraft batteries protecting major ports. Feldgrau :: Organization of the Kriegsmarine in the West 1940-45 During 1941, the Kriegsmarine and the United States Navy became de facto belligerents, although war was not formally declared, leading to the sinking of the USS Reuben James. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent German declaration of war against the United States in December 1941 led to another phase of the Battle of the Atlantic. In Operation Drumbeat and subsequent operations until August 1942, a large number of Allied merchant ships were sunk by submarines off the American coast as the Americans had not prepared for submarine warfare, despite clear warnings (this was the so-called Second happy time for the German navy). The situation became so serious that military leaders feared for the whole allied strategy. The vast American ship building capabilities and naval forces were however now brought into the war and soon more than offset any losses inflicted by the German submariners. In 1942, the submarine warfare continued on all fronts, and when German forces in the Soviet Union reached the Black Sea, a few submarines were eventually transferred there. The Battle of the Barents Sea was an attempt by a German naval force to attack an Allied Arctic convoy. However, the advantage was not pressed home and they returned to base. There were serious implications: this failure infuriated Hitler, who nearly enforced a decision to scrap the surface fleet. Instead, resources were diverted to the U-boats, and the surface fleet became a lesser threat to the Allies. Battleship Tirpitz in Norway, 1944 After 1943 when the Scharnhorst had been sunk in the Battle of North Cape by HMS Duke of York, most of the German surface ships were pent up in or close to their ports as a fleet in being, for fear of losing them in action and to tie up British naval forces. The largest ship of these ships, the battleship Tirpitz, was stationed in Norway as a threat to Allied shipping and also as a defense against a potential Allied invasion. When she was sunk by British bombers in late 1944 (Operation Catechism), several British capital ships could be moved to the Pacific. From late 1944 until the end of the war, the surface fleet of Kriegsmarine was heavily engaged in providing artillery support to the retreating German land forces along the Baltic coast and in ferrying civilian refugees to the western parts of Germany (Lübeck, Hamburg) in large rescue operations. Large parts of the population of eastern Germany fled the approaching Red Army out of fear for Soviet retaliation and mass rapes and killings. The Kriegsmarine evacuated large numbers of civilians in the evacuation of East Prussia and Danzig in January 1945. It was during this activity that the catastrophic sinking of several large passenger ships occurred: the Wilhelm Gustloff and the Goya was sunk by Soviet submarines, while the SS Cap Arcona was sunk by British bombers, each sinking claiming thousands of civilian lives. The Kriegsmarine also provided important assistance in the evacuation of the fleeing German civilians of Pomerania and Stettin in March and April 1945. In the last stage of the war, the Kriegsmarine also organized a number of divisions of infantry from its personnel (submarine crews and so on). During 1943 and 1944, due to Allied anti-submarine tactics and better equipment the U-boat fleet started to suffer heavy losses. Radar, longer range air cover, improved tactics and new weapons all contributed. German technical developments, such as the Schnorchel, attempted to counter these. New U-boat types, the Elektroboote, were in development and, had these become operational in sufficient numbers, the Allied advantage would have been eroded. Between 1943 and 1945, a group of U-boats known as the "Monsun Boats" (Monsun Gruppe) operated in the Indian Ocean from Japanese bases in occupied Indonesia. As the Allied merchant convoys had not yet been organized in those waters, the initial sinkings were plentiful. However, this situation was soon remedied. uboat.net - U-boat Operations- The Monsun U-boats During the later war years, the "Monsun Boats" were also used as a means of exchanging vital war supplies with Japan. Epilogue After the war, the German surface ships that remained afloat (only two large warships were operational) were divided among the victors. Some (like the unfinished aircraft carrier Graf Zeppelin) were used for target practice, while others (mostly destroyers and torpedo boats) were put into the service of Allied navies that lacked surface ships after the war. The British, French and Soviet navies received the destroyers, and some torpedo boats went to the Danish and Norwegian navies. The destroyers were all retired by the end of the 1950s, but some of the torpedo boats were returned to the new West German navy in the 1960s. For the purpose of mine clearing, the Royal Navy employed German crews and minesweepers from June 1945 to January 1948 German Mine Sweeping Administration (GMSA) (in German), accessed: 09 June 2008 , organised in the German Mine Sweeping Administration, the GMSA, which consisted of 27,000 members of the former Kriegsmarine and 300 vessels Google book review: German Seaman 1939-45 Page: 41, author: Gordon Williamson, John White, publisher: Osprey Publishing, accessed: 09 July 2008 . In 1956, with West Germany's accession to NATO, a new navy was established and was referred to as the Bundesmarine (Federal Navy). Some Kriegsmarine commanders like Erich Topp and Otto Kretschmer went on to serve in the Bundesmarine. In East Germany the Volksmarine (People's Navy) was established some time after the war. With the reunification of Germany in 1990, it was decided to simply use the name Deutsche Marine (German Navy). Major Kriegsmarine wartime operations Wikinger (1940) – foray by destroyers into the North Sea Weserübung ("Exercise Weser") (1940) – invasion of Denmark and Norway Juno (1940) – operation to disrupt Allied supplies to Norway Nordseetour (1940) – first Atlantic operation of Admiral Hipper Berlin (1941) – Atlantic cruise of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau Rheinübung ("Exercise Rhine") (1941) – breakout by Bismarck and Prinz Eugen Doppelschlag ("Double blow") (1942) – anti-shipping operation off Novaya Zemlya by Admiral Scheer and Admiral Hipper Sportpalast (1942) – aborted operation (including Tirpitz) to attack Arctic convoys Rösselsprung ("Knights Move") (1942) – operation (including Tirpitz) to attack Arctic convoy PQ-17 Wunderland (1942) – anti-shipping operation in Kara Sea by Admiral Scheer Paukenschlag ("Drumbeat" ("Beat of the Kettle Drum")); "Second Happy Time") (1942) – U-boat campaign off the United States east coast Regenbogen ("Rainbow") (1942) – failed attack on Arctic convoy JW-51B, by Admiral Hipper and Lützow Cerberus (1942) – movement of capital ships from Brest to home ports in Germany (Channel Dash) Ostfront ("East front") (1943) – final operation of Scharnhorst, to intercept convoy JW-55B Domino (1943) – second aborted Arctic sortie by Scharnhorst, Prinz Eugen and destroyers Zitronella ("Lemon extract") (1943) – raid upon Allied-occupied Spitsbergen (Svalbard) Deadlight (1945) – postwar scuttling of U-boats Ships See also: List of Kriegsmarine ships By the start of World War II, much of the Kriegsmarine were modern ships: fast, well-armed and well-armoured. This had been achieved by concealment but also by deliberately flouting World War I peace terms and those of various naval treaties. However, the war started with the German Navy still at a distinct disadvantage in terms of sheer size with what were expected to be its primary adversaries-the navies of France and Great Britain. Although a major re-armament of the navy (Plan Z) was planned, and initially begun, the start of the war in 1939 meant that the vast amounts of material required for the project were diverted to other areas. The sheer disparity in size when compared to the other European powers navies prompted German naval commander in chief Grand Admiral Erich Raeder to write of his own navy once the war began "The surface forces can do no more than show that they know how to die gallantly." A number of captured ships from occupied countries were added to the German fleet as the war progressed. Some ship types do not fit clearly into the commonly used ship classifications. Where there is argument, this has been noted. Surface ships The main combat ships (not U-boats) of the Kriegsmarine: Aircraft carriers Construction of the Graf Zeppelin was started in 1936 with an unnamed sister ship started two years later in 1938, but neither ship was completed. In 1942 conversion to auxiliary carriers was begun on three German passenger ships and two unfinished cruisers—the captured French light cruiser De Grasse and the German heavy cruiser Seydlitz—but by 1943 all the conversion work was halted for lack of materials and the deteriorating military situation. With no carriers in train, orders for the Fieseler Fi 167 ship-borne biplane torpedo and reconnaissance bomber were canceled. Battleships Bismarck and Tirpitz Battlecruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau. The classification of these ships is problematic. The "battlecruiser" designation is largely a British and Royal Naval usage (arguing that 11" armament would not be adequate) while the Germans in particular describe them as "battleships" or "Schlachtschiffe". Pre-dreadnought battleships The World War I era Pre-dreadnought battleships Schlesien and Schleswig-Holstein were used mainly as training ships, although they also participated in several military operations. Hessen was converted into a radio-guided target ship in 1930. Pocket battleships (Panzerschiffe) The "Pocket battleships" Deutschland / Lützow, Admiral Scheer]], and [[German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee|Admiral Graf Spee. Modern commentators favour classifying these as "heavy cruisers" and indeed the Kriegsmarine itself reclassified these ships as such (Schwere Kreuzer) in 1940. Deutschland History Heavy cruisers Destroyer Z1 Leberecht Maas. Admiral Hipper, Blücher, and Prinz Eugen Light cruisers The term "light cruiser" is a shortening of the phrase "light armoured cruiser." Light cruisers were defined under the Washington Naval Treaty by gun calibre. Light cruiser describes a small ship that carried armour in the same way as an armoured cruiser. In other words, like standard cruisers, light cruisers possessed a protective belt and a protective deck. Prior to this, smaller cruisers tended to be of the protected cruiser model and possessed only an armoured deck. Germany's light cruisers are as follows: Emden Königsberg Karlsruhe Köln Leipzig Nürnberg Auxiliary cruisers During the war, nine merchant ships were converted into "auxiliary cruisers" and used as commerce raiders, particularly in the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. The German auxiliary cruisers were: Orion (HSK-1) Atlantis (HSK-2) Widder (HSK-3) Thor (HSK-4) Pinguin (HSK-5) Stier (HSK-6) Komet (HSK-7) Kormoran (HSK-8) Michel (HSK-9) Coronel (HSK-10) Hansa (HSK-11) Destroyers Although the German World War II destroyer (Zerstörer) fleet was modern and the ships were larger than conventional destroyers of other navies, they had problems. Early classes were unstable, wet in heavy weather, suffered from engine problems and had short range. Some problems were solved with the evolution of later designs, but further developments were curtailed by the war and, ultimately, by Germany's defeat. In the first year of World War II, they were used mainly to sow offensive minefields in shipping lanes close to the British coast. Torpedo boats "Raubtier" class torpedo boats These vessels evolved through the 1930s from small vessels, relying almost entirely on torpedoes, to what were effectively small destroyers with mines, torpedoes and guns. Two classes of fleet torpedo boats were planned, but not built, in the 1940s. Troop ships Cap Arcona, Goya, Steuben, Wilhelm Gustloff. Miscellaneous Minelayers, Minesweepers, Gunboats, E-boats and Watchboats. Catapult-launched spotter planes: Arado Ar 196. Submarines (U-boat) At the outbreak of war, the Kriegsmarine had a relatively small fleet of submarines (U-boats) - 57. This was increased, particularly after Hitler lost patience with the large surface ships. It is arguable that, had more resources been put more into U-boats earlier, then Britain would not have been able to defend its convoys quickly enough to avoid defeat. In fact after a year of war, production of new ships had only kept up with losses. The principal types were the Type IX, a long range type used in the western and southern Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans; and the Type VII, the most numerous type, used principally in the north Atlantic. Type X was a small class of mine-layers and Type XIV was a specialised type used to support distant U-boat operations - the "Milchkuh" (Milkcow). Types XXI and XXIII, the "Elektroboot", would have negated much of the Allied anti-submarine tactics and technology, but they were never deployed in sufficient numbers. Post-war, they became the prototypes for modern submarines, in particular, the Soviet W-class. During World War II, about 60% of all U-boats commissioned were lost in action; 28,000 of the 40,000 U-boat crewmen were killed during the war and 8,000 were captured. The remaining U-boats were either surrendered to the Allies or scuttled by their own crews at the end of the war. Top 10 U-Boat Aces in World War II 274,333 tons (47 ships sunk) Otto Kretschmer 225,712 tons (43 ships) Wolfgang Lüth 193,684 tons (34 ships) Erich Topp 186,064 tons (29 ships) Karl-Friedrich Merten 171,164 tons (34 ships) Victor Schütze 171,122 tons (26 ships) Herbert Schultze 167,601 tons (28 ships) Georg Lassen 166,596 tons (22 ships) Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock 162,333 tons (30 ships) Heinrich Liebe 160,939 tons (28 ships), plus the British battleship Royal Oak inside Scapa Flow Günther Prien Captured ships The military campaigns in Europe yielded a number of captured vessels, many of which were under construction. Nations represented included Soviet Union, Norway, the Netherlands, France, Italy (after the armistice), Yugoslavia and Greece. Few of the incomplete ships were actually commissioned; they were abandoned, wrecked or broken up. Major warships sunk by the Kriegsmarine Warships ShipType Date Action HMS Royal Oak (UK) Battleship October 14, 1939 torpedoed at anchor by submarine U-47 HMS Hood (UK)Battlecruiser May 24 1941 sunk by the battleship Bismarck HMS Barham (UK)Battleship November 25 1941 torpedoed by submarine U-331 HMS Courageous (UK) fleet aircraft carrier September 17, 1939 torpedoed by submarine U-29 while on convoy escort HMS Glorious (UK) fleet aircraft carrier June 8, 1940 sunk by battlecruisers Gneisenau and Scharnhorst HMS Ark Royal (UK) fleet aircraft carrier November 14, 1941 torpedoed by submarine U-81 HMS Audacity (UK) escort carrier December 21, 1941 torpedoed by submarine U-751 HMS Eagle (UK)aircraft carrier August 11, 1942 torpedoed by submarine U-73 HMS Avenger (UK) escort carrier November 15, 1942 torpedoed by submarine U-155 USS Block Island (US) escort carrier May 29, 1944 torpedoed by submarine U-549 Battleships sunk by the Kriegsmarine Carriers sunk by the Kriegsmarine Comparative ranks (during World War II) Kriegsmarine US Navy/Royal Navy Großadmiral Fleet Admiral/Admiral of the Fleet Generaladmiral Admiral Admiral Vice Admiral Vizeadmiral Rear Admiral (Upper Half) Konteradmiral Rear Admiral (Lower Half) Kommodore Commodore Kapitän zur See Captain Fregattenkapitän Commander Korvettenkapitän Lieutenant Commander Kapitänleutnant Lieutenant Oberleutnant zur See Lieutenant (Jg.); Sub-Lieutenant Leutnant zur See Ensign/ -- Oberfähnrich zur See Midshipman (Senior) Fähnrich zur See Cadet/Midshipman (Junior) Uniforms Many different types of uniforms were worn by the Kriegsmarine, here is a list of the main ones: German English Dienstanzug Service Suit kleiner Dienstanzug Small Service Suit Ausgehanzug Suit for Walking Out Sportanzug Sports Suit Tropen-und Sommeranzug Tropical and Summer Suit große Uniform Parade Uniform kleiner Gesellschaftsanzug Small Party Suit großer Gesellschaftsanzug Parade Party Suit See also List of Kriegsmarine ships List of ships of the German navies List of Knight's Cross recipients of the Kriegsmarine Alwin-Broder Albrecht Erich Raeder Karl Dönitz Horst Wessel Notes External links | Kriegsmarine |@lemmatized wartime:2 propaganda:1 poster:1 kriegsmarine:34 english:2 war:42 navy:29 name:2 german:44 nazi:3 regime:1 supersede:1 reichsmarine:2 kaiserliche:1 marine:3 world:13 one:4 three:3 official:1 branch:1 wehrmacht:1 command:7 structure:2 adolf:2 hitler:5 commander:6 chief:5 arm:3 force:11 include:10 authority:1 exercise:3 oberkommando:1 der:5 okm:1 oberbefehlshaber:1 naval:18 general:1 staff:1 chef:2 stabes:1 seekriegsleitung:1 operation:20 operationsabteilung:1 regional:1 squadron:2 temporary:2 flotilla:3 region:3 cover:2 significant:1 generaladmiral:2 admiral:21 sub:2 divide:2 necessary:1 marineoberkommando:1 baltic:3 fleet:18 nord:1 nordsee:1 norwegen:1 ost:1 ostsee:1 formerly:1 süd:1 west:4 type:13 ship:59 also:11 flag:1 officer:1 battleship:23 cruiser:28 destroyer:15 submarine:32 torpedo:14 boat:32 minesweeper:3 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7,506 | Boer | Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War. Boer (, , or ; Dutch ) is the Dutch word for farmer which came to denote the descendants of the proto Afrikaans-speaking pastoralists of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 18th century as well as those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to settle in the Orange Free State, Transvaal (together known as the Boer Republics) and to a lesser extent Natal. Their primary motivation for leaving the Cape was to escape British rule as well as the constant border wars between the British imperial government and the native tribes on the eastern frontier. History Origin The Trekboere, as they were originally known, are descended mainly from Dutch Calvinist, Flemish and Frisian Calvinist as well as French Huguenot, and German Protestant origins dating from the 1650s and into the 1700s. Minor numbers of Scandinavians, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Polish, Scots, English, Irish and Welsh people were absorbed, as well as some descendants from early unions with slaves of mainly Indian and Malay descent and local Khoi people. For more information on history before the Great Trek, see Afrikaner. Great trek Those Trekboers who trekked into and occupied the eastern Cape were semi-nomadic. A significant number in the eastern Cape frontier later became Grensboere ("border farmers") who were the direct ancestors of the Voortrekkers. The Voortrekkers were those Boers (mainly from the eastern Cape) who left the Cape en masse in a series of large scale migrations later called the Great Trek beginning in 1835 as a result of British colonialism and constant border wars. When used in a historical context, the term Boer may refer to an inhabitant of the Boer Republics as well as those who were cultural Boers. Anglo-Boer wars Though the Boers, without resistance, accepted British rule in 1877, they fought two wars in the late 19th century in order to defend their internationally recognized independent countries, the republics of the Transvaal (the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek, or ZAR) and the Orange Free State (OFS), against the threat of annexation by the British Crown. This led the key figure in organizing the resistance, Paul Kruger, into conflict with the British. Boer War diaspora After the second Anglo-Boer War, a Boer diaspora occurred. Starting in 1903 the largest group emigrated to the Patagonia region of Argentina. Another group emigrated to British-ruled Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s, while a third group under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen emigrated to Mexico and to New Mexico and Texas in south-western USA. Boer Revolt The Maritz Rebellion or the Boer Revolt or the Five Shilling Rebellion, occurred in South Africa in 1914 at the start of World War I, in which men who supported the recreation of the old Boer republics rose up against the government of the Union of South Africa because they did not want to side with the British against Germany so soon after they had had a long bloody war with the British. Many Boers had German ancestory and many members of the government were themselves former Boer military leaders who had fought with the Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Boer War, which had ended only twelve years earlier. The rebellion was put down by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts, and the ringleaders received heavy fines and terms of imprisonment. A renowned Boer, Jopie Fourie, was executed for treason as he was in 1914 an officer in the Union Defence Force and was convicted as rebel for his refusal to take up arms with the British. Characteristics Culture The drive to trek (known as the trekgees) was a notable characteristic of the Boers in the past beginning in the 1690s out of necessity when the Trekboers began to inhabit the northern and eastern Cape frontiers, to the era of the Great Trek when the Voortrekkers left the eastern Cape en masse, as well as later after major republics were established such as during the Thirstland Trek. A rustic characteristic and tradition was developed quite early on as Boer society was born on the frontiers of white settlement and on the outskirts of civilization. The Boer quest for independence manifested in a tradition of declaring republics, which predates the arrival of the British since when the British arrived a number of Boers were in rebellion from the VOC having declared republics. They were also Christians, most of them, and they built their lives and culture upon what they believed to be the word of God, The Bible. The Boers of the frontier were known for their independent spirit, resourcefulness, hardiness, and self-sufficiency, whose political notions verged on anarchy but had begun to be influenced by republicanism. Most of the men were also skilled with the use of guns as they would hunt and also be able to protect their families with them. Nationalism The Boer nation is well-known for their strong nationalistic characteristics. Their nationalism was born of hundreds of years of fighting against imperialism, a continuing struggle for independence battling mainly British expansion into central South Africa, as well as the harsh African climate, a strong sense of nationhood. As with any other ethnic group that has come from troubled land to troubled land, many of them see it as their duty to educate future generations on their people's past. Calvinism The Boer nation is mainly descended from Dutch, German and French Calvinists, who migrated to South Africa during the 17th, 18th and early 19th centuries. The Boer nation has revealed a distinct Calvinist culture and the majority of Boers today are still members of a Reformed Church. The Nederdeutsch Hervormde Kerk was the national Church of the South African Republic (1852–1902). Also note the "Orange" in Orange Free State (1854–1902) was named after the Protestant House of Orange in the Netherlands. Recently, however, many Boers have found a spiritual home in the Christian Identity Movement. The Calvinist influence, however, remains, in that some fundamental Calvinist doctrines such as unconditional predestination and divine providence remains present in many of these Identity Churches. A small number of Boers may also be members of Baptist, Pentecostal or Lutheran Churches. Modern usage In more recent times, mainly during the apartheid reform and post-1994 eras, a number of white Afrikaans-speaking people, mainly with "conservative" political views and of voortrekker descent, have preferred to be called "Boers" or Boere-Afrikaners, rather than "Afrikaners". They feel that there were many people of Voortrekker descent who were not co-opted or assimilated into what they see as the Cape-based Afrikaner identity which began emerging after the Second Anglo-Boer War and the subsequent establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Certain Boer Nationalists have asserted that they do not consider themselves a right-wing element of the political spectrum. Dr. Tobias Louw. Open Letter to the Institute for Security Studies. They contend that the Boers of the South African (ZAR) and Orange Free State republics were recognized as a separate people or cultural group under international law by the Sand River Convention (which created the South African Republic in 1852) The Sand River Convention. , the Bloemfontein Convention (which created the Orange Free State Republic in 1854), the Pretoria Convention (which re-established the independence of the South African Republic 1881), the London Convention (which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in 1884) and the Vereeniging Peace Treaty, which formally ended the Second Anglo-Boer War on 31 May 1902. Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identity per se. The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner designation (or label) was used from the 1930s onwards as a means of unifying (politically at least) the white Afrikaans speakers of the Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent (whose ancestors began migrating eastward during the 1690s and throughout the 1700s and later northward during the Great Trek of the 1830s) in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established. Since the Anglo-Boer war the term "Boervolk" was rarely used in the twentieth century because of this attempt to assimilate the Boervolk with the Afrikaners. A portion of those who are the descendants of the Boerevolk have reasserted this designation. Yolandi Groenewald. Bang bang – you’re dead. Mail & Guardian Online. The supporters of the "Boer" designation view the term "Afrikaner" as an artificial political label which usurped their history and culture, turning "Boer" achievements into "Afrikaner" achievements. They feel that the Western-Cape based Afrikaners — whose ancestors did not trek eastwards or northwards — took advantage of the republican Boers' destitution following the Anglo-Boer War and later attempted to assimilate the Boers into a new politically based cultural label as "Afrikaners". Politics Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging Boere-Vryheidsbeweging Boerestaat Party Freedom Front Plus Herstigte Nasionale Party Transvaal Agricultural Union Education The BCVO ('Movement for Christian-National Education') is a federation of 47 Calvinist private schools, primarily located in the Free State and the Transvaal, committed to educating Boer children from grade 0 through to 12. Media Some local Radio stations promote the ideals of the people identifying with Boer/Afrikaner people, like Radio Rosestad (in Bloemfontein), Overvaal Stereo and Radio Pretoria. Territories Two territorial areas are being developed as settlement exclusively for Boer/Afrikaners, Orania in the Northern Cape and Kleinfontein near Pretoria. See also Afrikaner Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging Boer music Boeremag Great Trek Natalia Republic Orange Free State South African Farm Murders South African Republic Transvaal Volkstaat Voortrekker Notable Boers Voortrekker leaders Sarel Cilliers Voortrekker leader Andries Hendrik Potgieter Andries Pretorius Piet Retief Voortrekker leader Great trek Racheltjie de Beer Marthinus Oosthuizen Dirkie Uys Participants in the Second Anglo-Boer War Japie Greyling, hero Manie Maritz, soldier Siener van Rensburg, considered a prophet by some. Koos de la Rey, general and regarded as being one of the great military leaders of that conflict. Gideon Jacobus Scheepers, soldier Danie Theron, soldier Christiaan Rudolf de Wet, general Politicians Louis Botha, first prime minister of South Africa (1910–9) and former Boer general Petrus Jacobus Joubert, general and cabinet member of the Transvaal Republic Paul Kruger, president of the Transvaal Republic Eugene Terre'Blanche, leader of the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) political and paramilitary group. Spies Fritz Joubert Duquesne, a Boer Captain known as the Black Panther, served in the Second Boer War. Captured in Mozambique, he escaped prison in Portugal and returned to South Africa as a British officer. In 1901, he was caught planning to sabotage strategic British installations in Cape Town and sentenced to life in prison; however, he escaped and was re-captured several times again throughout his life. In World War I, Duquesne spied for Germany, earning the Iron Cross for allegedly sinking the HMS Hampshire thereby killing Lord Kitchener in 1916. He also served as a Nazi spy in the United States and, in 1941, he was caught by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in the largest espionage case in U.S. history: The Duquesne Spy Ring. References | Boer |@lemmatized boer:53 guerrilla:1 second:7 war:17 dutch:4 word:2 farmer:2 come:2 denote:1 descendant:3 proto:1 afrikaans:3 speaking:2 pastoralists:1 eastern:7 cape:14 frontier:6 southern:1 africa:10 century:5 well:8 leave:4 colony:1 settle:1 orange:8 free:7 state:8 transvaal:7 together:1 know:6 republic:18 less:1 extent:1 natal:1 primary:1 motivation:1 escape:3 british:16 rule:3 constant:2 border:3 imperial:1 government:3 native:1 tribe:1 history:4 origin:2 trekboere:1 originally:1 descend:2 mainly:7 calvinist:7 flemish:1 frisian:1 french:2 huguenot:1 german:3 protestant:2 date:1 minor:1 number:5 scandinavian:1 portuguese:1 italian:1 spanish:1 polish:1 scot:1 english:1 irish:1 welsh:1 people:8 absorb:1 early:3 union:5 slave:1 indian:1 malay:1 descent:4 local:2 khoi:1 information:1 great:8 trek:11 see:4 afrikaner:16 trekboers:2 occupy:1 semi:1 nomadic:1 significant:1 later:5 become:1 grensboere:1 direct:1 ancestor:3 voortrekkers:3 en:2 masse:2 series:1 large:3 scale:1 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force:1 convict:1 refusal:1 take:2 arm:1 characteristic:4 culture:4 drive:1 trekgees:1 notable:2 past:2 beginning:1 necessity:1 inhabit:1 northern:2 era:2 major:1 establish:3 thirstland:1 rustic:1 tradition:2 develop:2 quite:1 society:1 bear:2 white:3 settlement:2 outskirt:1 civilization:1 quest:1 independence:4 manifest:1 declare:2 predate:1 arrival:1 since:2 arrive:1 voc:1 also:7 christian:3 build:1 life:3 upon:1 believe:1 god:1 bible:1 spirit:1 resourcefulness:1 hardiness:1 self:1 sufficiency:1 whose:3 political:5 notion:1 verge:1 anarchy:1 influence:2 republicanism:1 skilled:1 gun:1 would:1 hunt:1 able:1 protect:1 family:1 nationalism:2 nation:3 strong:2 nationalistic:1 hundred:1 imperialism:1 continue:1 struggle:1 battle:1 expansion:1 central:1 harsh:1 african:8 climate:1 sense:1 nationhood:1 ethnic:1 troubled:2 land:2 duty:1 educate:2 future:1 generation:1 calvinism:1 migrate:2 reveal:1 distinct:1 majority:1 today:1 still:1 reform:2 church:4 nederdeutsch:1 hervormde:1 kerk:1 national:2 note:1 name:1 house:1 netherlands:1 recently:1 however:4 find:1 spiritual:1 home:1 identity:4 movement:2 remain:2 fundamental:1 doctrine:1 unconditional:1 predestination:1 divine:1 providence:1 present:1 small:1 baptist:1 pentecostal:1 lutheran:1 modern:1 usage:1 recent:1 time:2 apartheid:1 post:1 conservative:1 view:3 voortrekker:7 prefer:1 boere:2 rather:1 feel:3 co:1 opt:1 assimilate:3 base:3 emerge:1 subsequent:1 establishment:1 certain:1 nationalist:1 assert:1 consider:2 right:1 wing:1 element:1 spectrum:1 dr:1 tobias:1 louw:1 open:1 letter:1 institute:1 security:1 study:1 contend:2 separate:1 international:1 law:1 sand:2 river:2 convention:5 create:2 bloemfontein:2 pretoria:3 london:1 grant:1 full:1 vereeniging:1 peace:1 treaty:2 formally:1 others:1 deal:1 agreement:1 governmental:1 entity:1 imply:1 recognition:1 per:1 se:1 supporter:2 designation:3 label:3 onwards:1 mean:1 unify:1 politically:2 least:1 speaker:1 trekboer:1 eastward:2 throughout:2 northward:2 north:1 boervolk:2 rarely:1 twentieth:1 attempt:2 portion:1 boerevolk:1 reassert:1 yolandi:1 groenewald:1 bang:2 dead:1 mail:1 guardian:1 online:1 artificial:1 usurp:1 turn:1 achievement:2 advantage:1 republican:1 destitution:1 follow:1 politics:1 weerstandsbeweging:3 vryheidsbeweging:1 boerestaat:1 party:2 freedom:1 front:1 plus:1 herstigte:1 nasionale:1 agricultural:1 education:2 bcvo:1 federation:1 private:1 school:1 primarily:1 locate:1 commit:1 child:1 grade:1 medium:1 radio:3 station:1 promote:1 ideal:1 identify:1 like:1 rosestad:1 overvaal:1 stereo:1 territory:1 territorial:1 area:1 exclusively:1 orania:1 kleinfontein:1 near:1 music:1 boeremag:1 natalia:1 farm:1 murder:1 volkstaat:1 sarel:1 cilliers:1 andries:2 hendrik:1 potgieter:1 pretorius:1 piet:1 retief:1 racheltjie:1 de:3 beer:1 marthinus:1 oosthuizen:1 dirkie:1 uys:1 participant:1 japie:1 greyling:1 hero:1 manie:1 soldier:3 siener:1 van:1 rensburg:1 prophet:1 koos:1 la:1 rey:1 regard:1 one:1 gideon:1 jacobus:2 scheepers:1 danie:1 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7,507 | Dave_Grohl | David Eric Grohl (born January 14, 1969) is an American rock musician, singer and songwriter. Grohl began his music career in the 1980s as the drummer for several Washington, D.C., area bands, including the hardcore punk band Scream. In 1990 he became the drummer for grunge group Nirvana. Following the death of Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain in April 1994, Grohl formed Foo Fighters where he emerged as a frontman and songwriter. In addition to leading Foo Fighters, Grohl has also been involved in other musical projects, including Queens of the Stone Age and his heavy metal side project Probot, and has performed session work for a variety of musicians, including Killing Joke, Tenacious D, Nine Inch Nails and, most recently, The Prodigy. Biography Early life As a child, his family (father James Grohl, mother Virginia Wendt, and older sister Lisa) relocated from Warren, Ohio, to Alexandria, Virginia, a suburb of Washington, D.C. Three years later, his parents divorced, and Grohl grew up living with his mother. At the age of twelve, Grohl began learning to play guitar. He eventually grew tired of lessons and instead played in bands with friends. A year later in 1982, Grohl and his sister spent the summer in Evanston, Illinois at their cousin Tracy's house. Tracy introduced them to punk rock by taking the pair to shows by a variety of punk bands. "From then on we were totally punk," Grohl explained. "We went home and bought Maximumrocknroll and tried to figure it all out." In Virginia, Grohl attended Thomas Jefferson High School as a freshman and sophomore. He was elected vice president of his freshman class and played bits of songs by bands like the Circle Jerks and Bad Brains over the school intercom before his morning announcements. During his junior year, Grohl and his mother decided that he should transfer to Bishop Ireton High School in Alexandria because his marijuana usage was affecting his grades. He attended Bishop Ireton as a freshman and a partial year as sophomore from 1984-1986. While in high school, Grohl played in several local bands, including a stint on guitar in a band called Freak Baby. While playing in Freak Baby, Grohl had been teaching himself to play drums by banging on various items in his bedroom. When Freak Baby kicked out its bass player, Grohl decided to switch to drums, and the new band called themselves Mission Impossible. During his developing years as a drummer, Grohl cited John Bonham as his greatest influence, and eventually had Bonham's three-circle logo tattooed on his wrist. The Immortals - The Greatest Artists of All Time: 14) Led Zeppelin : Rolling Stone Mission Impossible later rebranded themselves Fast before breaking up, after which Grohl joined the post-punk-influenced hardcore punk band Dain Bramage. Azerrad, p. 149 Scream At the age of seventeen, Grohl scored an audition with local DC favorites Scream to fill the vacancy left by the departure of drummer Kent Stax. In order to try out for the audition, Grohl had lied about his age claiming he was 20. Lynskey, Dorian. "The Man Who Fell To Earth". Arena. December 2002. To Grohl's surprise, the band asked him to join. After waffling for a brief period, Grohl accepted the offer. Grohl dropped out of high school in his junior year; he said, "I was seventeen and extremely anxious to see the world, so I did it." Azerrad, p. 150 Over the next four years, Grohl toured extensively with the band, recording a couple of live albums and two studio albums, No More Censorship and Fumble, on which Grohl penned and sang vocals on the song "Gods Look Down". While playing in Scream, Grohl became a fan of The Melvins and eventually befriended the band. During a 1990 tour stop on the west coast, The Melvins' Buzz Osborne took a couple of his friends, Kurt Cobain and Krist Novoselic, to see the band. Nirvana A few months later, Scream unexpectedly disbanded following the departure of its bass player, and Grohl placed a phone call to Osborne for advice. Knowing how much Cobain and Novoselic liked Grohl's drumming, Osborne gave Novoselic's phone number to Grohl. Novoselic invited Grohl to Seattle, where Grohl attended Nirvana's infamous show at the Motor Sports Garage, the one Nirvana show that featured Dan Peters on drums. (Grohl admitted to Rolling Stone in 2005 that he spent most of Nirvana's set outside talking to a friend.) Grohl subsequently auditioned for the band, and soon joined them full-time. At the time that Grohl joined Nirvana, the band had already recorded several demos for what would be the follow-up to their debut album Bleach, having spent time recording with producer Butch Vig in Wisconsin. Initially, the plans were to release the album on Sub Pop, but the band found itself receiving a great deal of major label interest based on the demos. Grohl spent the initial months with Nirvana travelling to various major labels as the band shopped for a deal, eventually signing with DGC Records. In the spring of 1991, the band entered the studio to record the album. Upon its release, Nevermind exceeded all expectations and became a massive success, catapulting the band to worldwide stardom. At the same time, Grohl found himself fighting with his status in the band. While his drumming style was a significant element in the band's success, Grohl saw himself as just another in a long line of drummers. In his mind, Nirvana was the band that recorded Bleach; his arrival had altered that sound dramatically, and, as he saw it, not necessarily in a positive way. Though Grohl had been writing songs for several years, he declined to introduce his songs to the band for fear of damaging the band's chemistry. Instead, Grohl compiled his songs and recorded them himself, releasing a cassette called Pocketwatch in 1992 on indie label Simple Machines. Rather than using his own name, Grohl released the cassette under the pseudonym "Late!". In the later years of Nirvana, Grohl's songwriting contributions increased. In Grohl's initial months in Seattle, Cobain overheard him working on a song called "Color Pictures of a Marigold", and the two ended up jamming on it. Grohl would later record the song for the Pocketwatch cassette. During the sessions for In Utero, he decided to re-record the song, and the band released this version as a b-side on the "Heart-Shaped Box" single, titled simply "Marigold". Earlier, as the band worked on new material for In Utero, Grohl contributed the main guitar riff for what ended up becoming "Scentless Apprentice". Cobain conceded in a late 1993 MTV interview that he initially thought the riff was "kind of boneheaded", but was gratified at how the song developed (a process captured in part in a demo on the Nirvana box set With the Lights Out). Cobain noted that he was excited at the possibility of having Novoselic and Grohl contribute more to the band's songwriting. Prior to their 1994 European tour, the band decided to schedule session time at Robert Lang Studios in Seattle to work on demos. For most of the three-day session, Cobain was absent, so Novoselic and Grohl worked on demos of their own songs. The duo completed several of Grohl's songs, including future Foo Fighters songs "Exhausted", "Big Me", "February Stars", and "Butterflies". On the third day of the session, Cobain finally arrived, and the band recorded a demo of a song later named "You Know You're Right". It was the band's final studio recording. Foo Fighters Following Cobain's death in April 1994, Grohl retreated, unsure of where to go and what to do with himself. In October 1994, Grohl scheduled studio time, again at Robert Lang's Studio, and quickly recorded a fifteen-track demo. With the exception of a single guitar part on "X-Static" played by Greg Dulli of the Afghan Whigs, Grohl performed all of the instruments himself. At the same time, Grohl wondered if his future might be in drumming for other bands. In November, Grohl took a brief turn with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, including a memorable performance on Saturday Night Live. Petty asked him to join permanently, but Grohl realized that his future lay elsewhere, and thus he declined the invitation. Grohl's name was also rumored as a possible replacement for Pearl Jam drummer Dave Abbruzzese, and Grohl even performed with the band for a song or two at three shows during Pearl Jam's March 1995 Australian tour. However, by then, Pearl Jam had already settled on ex- Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer, Jack Irons, and Grohl had other solo plans in the works. After passing the demo around, Grohl found himself with considerable major label interest. Nirvana's A&R rep Gary Gersh had subsequently taken over as president of Capitol Records and lured Grohl to sign with the label. Grohl did not want the effort to be considered the start of a solo career so he recruited other band members: former Nirvana touring guitarist Pat Smear, and two members of the band Sunny Day Real Estate, William Goldsmith (drums) and Nate Mendel (bass). Rather than re-record the album, Grohl's demo was given a professional mix by Rob Schnapf and Tom Rothrock and was released in July 1995 as Foo Fighters' debut album. During a break between tours, the band entered the studio and recorded a cover of Gary Numan's "Down in the Park". In February 1996, Grohl and his then-wife Jennifer Youngblood made a brief cameo appearance on the X-Files third season episode "Pusher". (The two can be spotted walking in the FBI building, just after the Pusher character has put on his phony pass. Grohl pauses to look at his watch.) After touring for the self-titled album for more than a year, Grohl returned home and began work on the soundtrack to the 1997 movie Touch. Grohl performed all of the instruments and vocals himself, save for vocals from Veruca Salt singer Louise Post on the title track, and vocals and guitar by X's John Doe on "This Loving Thing (Lynn's Song)". Grohl completed the recording in two weeks, and immediately joined the Foo Fighters to work on their follow-up. In the midst of the initial sessions for Foo Fighters' second album, tension emerged between Grohl and Goldsmith. According to Goldsmith, "Dave had me do 96 takes of one song, and I had to do thirteen hours' worth of takes on another one. ... It just seemed that everything I did wasn't good enough for him, or anyone else." Goldsmith also believed that Capitol and producer Gil Norton wanted Grohl to drum on the album. Roberts, Michael. "Bring Back that Sunny Day." Miami New Times. December 3, 1998. With the album seemingly complete, Grohl headed home to Virginia with a copy of the rough mixes, and found himself unhappy with the results. Grohl penned a few new songs, recording one of them, "Walking After You", by himself at a studio in Washington, DC. Inspired by the session, Grohl opted to move the band, without Goldsmith's knowledge, to Los Angeles to re-record most of the album with Grohl behind the kit. After the sessions were complete, Goldsmith officially announced his departure from the band. The effort was released in May 1997 as the band's second album, The Colour and the Shape, which eventually cemented Foo Fighters as a staple of rock radio. The album spawned several hits, including "Everlong", "My Hero", and "Monkey Wrench". Just prior to the album's release, former Alanis Morissette drummer Taylor Hawkins joined the band on drums. The following September, Smear left the band, citing a need to settle down following a lifetime of touring. Smear was subsequently replaced by Grohl's former Scream bandmate Franz Stahl. (Stahl departed the band prior to recording of the Foo's third album and was replaced by touring guitarist Chris Shiflett, who later became a full-fledged member during the recording of One by One.) Grohl's life of non-stop touring and travel continued with Foo Fighters' popularity. During his infrequent pauses he lived in Seattle and Los Angeles before returning to Alexandria, Virginia. It was there that he turned his basement into a recording studio where the 1999 album There Is Nothing Left to Lose was recorded. In 2000, the band recruited Queen guitarist Brian May to add some guitar flourish to a cover of Pink Floyd's "Have a Cigar", a song which Foo Fighters previously recorded as a b-side. The friendship between the two bands resulted in Grohl and Taylor Hawkins being asked to induct Queen into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001. Grohl and Hawkins joined May and Queen drummer Roger Taylor to perform "Tie Your Mother Down", with Grohl standing in on vocals for Freddie Mercury. (May later contributed guitar work for the song "Tired of You" on the ensuing Foo Fighters album, as well as on an unreleased Foo Fighters song called "Knucklehead".) Near the end of 2001, Foo Fighters returned to the studio to work on their fourth album. After four months in the studio, with the sessions "finished", Grohl accepted an invitation to join Queens of the Stone Age and helped them to record their 2002 album Songs for the Deaf. (Grohl can be seen drumming for the band in the video for the song "No One Knows".) After a brief tour through North America, Britain and Japan with the band and feeling rejuvenated by the effort, Grohl recalled the other band members to completely re-record their album at his studio in Virginia. The effort became their fourth album, One by One. While initially pleased with the results, in another 2005 Rolling Stone interview, Dave Grohl admitted to not liking the record: "Four of the songs were good, and the other seven I never played again in my life. We rushed into it, and we rushed out of it." Grohl and Foo Fighters released their fifth album In Your Honor on June 14, 2005. Prior to starting work on the album, the band spent almost a year relocating Grohl's home-based Virginia studio to a brand new facility, dubbed Studio 606, located in a warehouse near Los Angeles. Featuring collaborations with John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin, Josh Homme of Queens of the Stone Age and Norah Jones, the album was a departure from previous efforts, and included one rock and one acoustic disc. Foo Fighters's sixth studio album Echoes, Silence, Patience & Grace was released on September 25, 2007. It was recorded during a three-month period between March 2007 and June 2007, and its release was preceded by the first single "The Pretender" on September 17. The second single, "Long Road to Ruin", was released on December 3, 2007, followed by the third single, "Let It Die", June 24, 2008. Other projects Apart from his main bands, Grohl has been involved in other music projects. In 1992, Grohl played drums on Buzz Osborne's Kiss-styled solo-EP King Buzzo, where he was credited as Dale Nixon, a pseudonym that Greg Ginn adopted to play bass on Black Flag's My War. Grohl also released the music cassette Pocketwatch under the pseudonym Late! on the now defunct indie label, Simple Machines. In 1993, Grohl was recruited to help recreate the music of The Beatles' early years for the movie Backbeat. Grohl played drums in an "all-star" lineup that included Greg Dulli of the Afghan Whigs, indie producer Don Fleming, Mike Mills of R.E.M., Thurston Moore of Sonic Youth, and Dave Pirner of Soul Asylum. A music video was filmed for the song "Money (That's What I Want)" while Grohl was with Nirvana on their 1994 European tour, but footage of Grohl was filmed later and included. Later in 1994, Grohl played drums on two tracks for Mike Watt's Ball-Hog or Tugboat?. In early 1995, Grohl and Foo Fighters played their first US tour opening for Watt, and helped make up Watt's supporting band. Nicknamed the "Ringspiel" tour, Watt's band featured Grohl and William Goldsmith on drums, Eddie Vedder and Pat Smear on guitar, and Watt on bass. Grohl at the Roskilde Festival in 2005 During the early 2000s, Grohl spent time in his basement studio writing and recording a number of songs for a "metal" project. Over the span of several years, Grohl recruited his favorite metal vocalists from the 1980s, including Lemmy of Motörhead, Conrad "Cronos" Lant from Venom, King Diamond, and Max Cavalera of Sepultura, to perform the vocals for the songs. The project was released in 2004 under the moniker Probot. Also in 2003, Grohl stepped behind the kit to perform on Killing Joke's second self-titled album. The move surprised some Nirvana fans, given that Nirvana had been accused of stealing the opening riff of "Come as You Are" from Killing Joke's 1984 song "Eighties". However, the controversy failed to create a lasting rift between the bands. Foo Fighters covered Killing Joke's "Requiem" during the late 1990s, and were even joined by Killing Joke singer Jaz Coleman for a performance of the song at a show in New Zealand in 2003. Grohl lent his drumming skills to other artists during the early 2000s. In 2000, Dave played drums and sang on a track, "Goodbye Lament", from Tony Iommi's album Iommi. In 2001, Grohl performed on Tenacious D's debut album, and appeared in the video for lead single "Tribute" as a demon. He later appeared in the duo's 2006 movie Tenacious D in: The Pick of Destiny as Beelzeboss and performed on its soundtrack. In 2002, Grohl helped Chan Marshall of Cat Power on the album You Are Free and also played with Queens of the Stone Age on their album Songs for the Deaf. In 2004, Grohl drummed on several tracks for Nine Inch Nails' 2005 album With Teeth. He also drummed on the song "Bad Boyfriend" on Garbage's 2005 album Bleed Like Me. Most recently, he recorded all the drums on Juliette and the Licks's 2006 album Four on the Floor and the song "For Us" from Pete Yorn's 2006 album Nightcrawler. Beyond drumming, Grohl contributed guitar to a cover of Neil Young's "I've Been Waiting For You" on David Bowie's 2002 album Heathen. In June 2008, Grohl was Paul McCartney's special guest for a concert at the Anfield football stadium in Liverpool, in one of the central events of the English city's year as European Capital of Culture. Grohl joined McCartney's band singing backup vocals and playing guitar on "Band on the Run" and drums on "Back in the U.S.S.R." and "I Saw Her Standing There". Grohl also performed with McCartney at the 51st Grammy Awards, again playing drums on "I Saw Her Standing There". Grohl played drums on the tracks 'Run With The Wolves' on The Prodigy's 2009 album Invaders Must Die. Personal life Grohl has been married twice. He was first married to photographer Jennifer Youngblood from 1993 to 1997. After their divorce, Grohl had relationships with Louise Post from Veruca Salt, solo artist and Hole bassist Melissa Auf Der Maur, and pro-snowboarder Tina Basich. He then went on to marry his second wife, Jordyn Blum on August 2, 2003, at their home in Los Angeles. Guests included Clive Davis, Jack Black, and former Nirvana bandmate Krist Novoselic. On April 15, 2006, Grohl and his wife welcomed their first child, daughter Violet Maye, in Los Angeles. She was named after Grohl's maternal grandmother. Earlier that year, Foo Fighters bandmate Taylor Hawkins told MTV, "We're going to be touring Europe in January and February, but we've got to be home by March, because Dave and his wife are having a baby," he said, adding, "but I probably wasn't supposed to tell you that." Grohl said that he had been playing music to his unborn child, saying she "likes The Beatles. Doesn't really get down to The Beach Boys. Digs Mozart." On April 17, 2009, Grohl and his wife welcomed their second child, daughter Harper Willow. In May 2006, Grohl sent a note of support to the two trapped miners in the Beaconsfield mine collapse in Tasmania, Australia. In the initial days following the collapse, one of the men requested an iPod with Foo Fighters album In Your Honor, to be sent down to them through a small hole. Grohl's note read, in part, "Though I'm halfway around the world right now, my heart is with you both, and I want you to know that when you come home, there's two tickets to any Foos show, anywhere, and two cold beers waiting for yous. Deal?" Daniel, Troy. "Foo Fighters' Dave Grohl Helps Trapped Miners". Stereoboard.com. May 9, 2006. In October 2006, one of the miners took up his offer, joining Grohl for a drink after the Foo Fighters acoustic concert at the Sydney Opera House. McCabe, Kathy. "Rocker has a miner problem". The Daily Telegraph. October 4, 2006. Grohl wrote an instrumental piece for the meeting, which Grohl pledged he would include on the band's next album. Cohen, Jonathan. "Foo Fighters Let It Rip On Sixth Album". Billboard.com. July 6, 2007. The song, titled "Ballad of the Beaconsfield Miners," appears on the Foo Fighters' latest release Echoes, Silence, Patience & Grace, and features Kaki King. Discography Dave Grohl discography References External links Foo Fighters official website | Dave_Grohl |@lemmatized david:2 eric:1 grohl:116 born:1 january:2 american:1 rock:5 musician:2 singer:3 songwriter:2 begin:3 music:6 career:2 drummer:9 several:8 washington:3 c:2 area:1 band:54 include:13 hardcore:2 punk:6 scream:6 become:6 grunge:1 group:1 nirvana:17 follow:8 death:2 frontman:2 kurt:2 cobain:9 april:4 form:1 foo:25 fighter:24 emerge:2 addition:1 lead:3 also:8 involve:2 musical:1 project:6 queen:7 stone:7 age:7 heavy:1 metal:3 side:3 probot:2 perform:10 session:9 work:11 variety:2 kill:5 joke:5 tenacious:3 nine:2 inch:2 nail:2 recently:2 prodigy:2 biography:1 early:5 life:4 child:4 family:1 father:1 jam:5 mother:4 virginia:7 wendt:1 old:1 sister:2 lisa:1 relocate:2 warren:1 ohio:1 alexandria:3 suburb:1 three:5 year:15 later:11 parent:1 divorce:2 grow:2 live:4 twelve:1 learn:1 play:20 guitar:10 eventually:5 tire:2 lesson:1 instead:2 friend:3 spend:5 summer:1 evanston:1 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external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram singer_songwriter:1 hardcore_punk:2 kurt_cobain:2 foo_fighter:24 inch_nail:2 evanston_illinois:1 punk_rock:1 thomas_jefferson:1 freshman_sophomore:1 vice_president:1 roll_stone:3 fill_vacancy:1 krist_novoselic:2 grohl_novoselic:1 guitar_riff:1 tom_petty:1 saturday_night:1 pearl_jam:3 hot_chili:1 chili_pepper:1 real_estate:1 gary_numan:1 cameo_appearance:1 anyone_else:1 washington_dc:1 los_angeles:5 full_fledged:1 pink_floyd:1 hall_fame:1 freddie_mercury:1 dave_grohl:3 led_zeppelin:1 sonic_youth:1 eddie_vedder:1 tony_iommi:1 david_bowie:1 paul_mccartney:1 grammy_award:1 auf_der:1 maternal_grandmother:1 unborn_child:1 beach_boys:1 daily_telegraph:1 external_link:1 |
7,508 | International_Hydrographic_Organization | The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) was originally established in 1921 as the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB). The present name was adopted in 1970 as a result of a revised international agreement among member nations. However, the former name International Hydrographic Bureau was retained for the IHO's administrative body of three Directors and a small staff at the organization's headquarters in Monaco. During the 19th century, many maritime nations established hydrographic offices to provide means for improving the navigation of naval and merchant vessels by providing nautical publications, nautical charts, and other navigational services. There were substantial differences in hydrographic procedures charts, and publications. In 1889, an International Marine Conference was held at Washington, D.C., and it was proposed to establish a "permanent international commission." Similar proposals were made at the sessions of the International Congress of Navigation held at St. Petersburg in 1908 and again in 1912. In 1919 the hydrographers of Great Britain and France cooperated in taking the necessary steps to convene an international conference of hydrographers. London was selected as the most suitable place for this conference, and on July 24, 1919, the First International Conference opened, attended by the hydrographers of 24 nations. The object of the conference was "To consider the advisability of all maritime nations adopting similar methods in preparation, construction, and production of their charts and all hydrographic publications; of rendering the results in the most convenient form to enable them to be readily used; of instituting a prompt system of mutual exchange of hydrographic information between all countries; and of providing an opportunity to consultations and discussions to be carried out on hydrographic subjects generally by the hydrographic experts of the world." This is still the major purpose of IHO. As a result of the conference, a permanent organization was formed and statutes for its operations were prepared. The IHB, now the IHO, began its activities in 1921 with 18 nations as members. The Principality of Monaco was selected because of its easy communication with the rest of the world and also because of the generous offer of Albert I, Prince of Monaco to provide suitable accommodations for the Bureau in the Principality. The principal work undertaken by the IHO is: ·To bring about a close and permanent association between national hydrographic offices. ·To study matters relating to Hydrography and allied sciences and techniques. ·To further the exchange of nautical charts and documents between hydrographic officers of member governments. ·To tender guidance and advice upon request, in particular to countries engaged in setting up or expanding their hydrographic service. ·To encourage coordination of hydrographic surveys with relevant oceanographic activities. ·To extend and facilitate the application of oceanographic knowledge for the benefit of navigators. ·To cooperate with international organizations and scientific institutions which have related objectives. The IHO sets forth hydrographic standards to be agreed upon by the member nations. All member states are urged and encouraged to follow these standards in their surveys, nautical charts, and publications. As these standards are uniformly adopted, the products of the world's hydrographic and oceanographic offices become more uniform. Much has been done in the field of standardization since the Bureau was founded. Many IHO publications are available to the general public from the IHO website, such as the International Hydrographic Review, International Hydrographic Bulletin, Chart Specifications of the IHO, and the Hydrographic Dictionary. The IHO has published Limits of Oceans and Seas, which shows the boundaries between the oceans. Limits of Oceans and Seas, and is known as International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 3rd Edition, 1953. . This edition, originally published in 1953 is out of date for many regions. The IHO also publishes various international standards related to charting and hydrography, including S-57 IHO Transfer Standard for Digital Hydrographic Data, the encoding standard that is used primarily for electronic navigational charts. The IHO is now developing a new hydrographic geospatial standard for marine data and information, known as S-100. S-100 is aligned with the ISO 19100 series of geographic standards, thereby making it fully compatible with contempory geospatial data standards. Member states The following countries are members of the IHO: Algeria Argentina Australia Bahrain Bangladesh Belgium Brazil Canada Chile China Colombia Democratic Republic of Congo (suspended) Croatia Cuba Cyprus Denmark Dominican Republic (suspended) Ecuador Egypt Estonia Fiji Finland France) Germany Greece Guatemala IcelandIndia Indonesia Iran Ireland Italy Jamaica Japan Democratic People's Republic of Korea Republic of Korea Kuwait Latvia Malaysia Mauritius Mexico Monaco Morocco Mozambique Myanmar Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Papua New Guinea Peru PhilippinesPoland Portugal Qatar Romania Russian Federation Saudi Arabia Serbia Singapore Slovenia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Suriname Sweden Syrian Arab Republic Thailand Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom Uruguay United States (NOAA, CNMOC, NGA) Venezuela See also International Association of Lighthouse Authorities General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans References External links International Hydrographic Organization Hydrographic Blogspot | International_Hydrographic_Organization |@lemmatized international:16 hydrographic:23 organization:6 iho:14 originally:2 establish:3 bureau:4 ihb:2 present:1 name:2 adopt:3 result:3 revised:1 agreement:1 among:1 member:7 nation:6 however:1 former:1 retain:1 administrative:1 body:1 three:1 director:1 small:1 staff:1 headquarters:1 monaco:4 century:1 many:3 maritime:2 office:3 provide:4 mean:1 improve:1 navigation:2 naval:1 merchant:1 vessel:1 nautical:4 publication:6 chart:9 navigational:2 service:2 substantial:1 difference:1 procedure:1 marine:2 conference:6 hold:2 washington:1 c:1 propose:1 permanent:3 commission:1 similar:2 proposal:1 make:2 session:1 congress:1 st:1 petersburg:1 hydrographers:3 great:1 britain:1 france:2 cooperate:2 take:1 necessary:1 step:1 convene:1 london:1 select:2 suitable:2 place:1 july:1 first:1 open:1 attend:1 object:1 consider:1 advisability:1 method:1 preparation:1 construction:1 production:1 render:1 convenient:1 form:2 enable:1 readily:1 use:2 institute:1 prompt:1 system:1 mutual:1 exchange:2 information:2 country:3 opportunity:1 consultation:1 discussion:1 carry:1 subject:1 generally:1 expert:1 world:3 still:1 major:1 purpose:1 statute:1 operation:1 prepare:1 begin:1 activity:2 principality:2 easy:1 communication:1 rest:1 also:3 generous:1 offer:1 albert:1 prince:1 accommodation:1 principal:1 work:1 undertake:1 bring:1 close:1 association:2 national:1 study:1 matter:1 relate:3 hydrography:2 allied:1 science:1 technique:1 document:1 officer:1 government:1 tender:1 guidance:1 advice:1 upon:2 request:1 particular:1 engage:1 set:2 expand:1 encourage:2 coordination:1 survey:2 relevant:1 oceanographic:3 extend:1 facilitate:1 application:1 knowledge:1 benefit:1 navigator:1 scientific:1 institution:1 objective:1 forth:1 standard:9 agree:1 state:3 urge:1 follow:1 uniformly:1 product:1 become:1 uniform:1 much:1 field:1 standardization:1 since:1 found:1 available:1 general:2 public:1 website:1 review:1 bulletin:1 specification:1 dictionary:1 publish:3 limit:2 ocean:4 sea:2 show:1 boundary:1 know:2 special:1 edition:2 date:1 region:1 various:1 include:1 transfer:1 digital:1 data:3 encode:1 primarily:1 electronic:1 develop:1 new:3 geospatial:2 align:1 iso:1 series:1 geographic:1 thereby:1 fully:1 compatible:1 contempory:1 following:1 algeria:1 argentina:1 australia:1 bahrain:1 bangladesh:1 belgium:1 brazil:1 canada:1 chile:1 china:1 colombia:1 democratic:2 republic:5 congo:1 suspend:2 croatia:1 cuba:1 cyprus:1 denmark:1 dominican:1 ecuador:1 egypt:1 estonia:1 fiji:1 finland:1 germany:1 greece:1 guatemala:1 icelandindia:1 indonesia:1 iran:1 ireland:1 italy:1 jamaica:1 japan:1 people:1 korea:2 kuwait:1 latvia:1 malaysia:1 mauritius:1 mexico:1 morocco:1 mozambique:1 myanmar:1 netherlands:1 zealand:1 nigeria:1 norway:1 oman:1 pakistan:1 papua:1 guinea:1 peru:1 philippinespoland:1 portugal:1 qatar:1 romania:1 russian:1 federation:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 serbia:1 singapore:1 slovenia:1 south:1 africa:1 spain:1 sri:1 lanka:1 suriname:1 sweden:1 syrian:1 arab:2 thailand:1 tonga:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 tunisia:1 turkey:1 ukraine:1 united:3 emirate:1 kingdom:1 uruguay:1 noaa:1 cnmoc:1 nga:1 venezuela:1 see:1 lighthouse:1 authority:1 bathymetric:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 blogspot:1 |@bigram hydrographic_organization:3 nautical_chart:3 st_petersburg:1 principality_monaco:1 bahrain_bangladesh:1 republic_congo:1 dominican_republic:1 saudi_arabia:1 sri_lanka:1 tonga_trinidad:1 trinidad_tobago:1 tobago_tunisia:1 tunisia_turkey:1 arab_emirate:1 external_link:1 |
7,509 | Mahatma_Gandhi | Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી, ) (2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of India and the Indian independence movement. He was the pioneer of satyagraha—resistance to tyranny through mass civil disobedience, firmly founded upon ahimsa or total non-violence—which led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. He is commonly known around the world as Mahatma Gandhi (Sanskrit: महात्मा mahātmā or "Great Soul", an honorific first applied to him by Rabindranath Tagore), and in India also as Bapu (Gujarati: બાપુ bāpu or "Father"). He is officially honoured in India as the Father of the Nation; his birthday, 2 October, is commemorated there as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and worldwide as the International Day of Non-Violence. Gandhi first employed non-violent civil disobedience as an expatriate lawyer in South Africa, in the resident Indian community's struggle for civil rights. After his return to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers in protesting excessive land-tax and discrimination. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, increasing economic self-reliance, but above all achieving Swaraj—the independence of India from foreign domination. Gandhi famously led Indians in the Non-cooperation movement in 1922 and in protesting the British-imposed salt tax with the Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in calling for the British to Quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned for many years, on numerous occasions, in both South Africa and India. As a practitioner of Ahimsa Gandhi swore to speak the truth, and advocated that others do the same. He lived modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn he had hand spun on a charkha. He ate simple vegetarian food, and also undertook long fasts as means of both self-purification and social protest. Early life and background Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Gandhi means "grocer" in Gujarati (L. R. Gala, Popular Combined Dictionary, English-English-Gujarati & Gujarati-Gujarati-English, Navneet), or "perfumer" in Hindi (Bhargava's Standard Illustrated Dictionary Hindi-English). was born in Porbandar, a coastal town in present-day Gujarat, India, on 2 October 1869. His father, Karamchand Gandhi (1822-1885), who belonged to the Hindu Modh community, was the diwan (Prime Minister) of the eponymous Porbander state, a small princely state in the Kathiawar Agency of British India. His mother, Putlibai, who came from the Hindu Pranami Vaishnava community, was Karamchand's fourth wife, the first three wives having apparently died in childbirth. Growing up with a devout mother and the Jain traditions of the region, the young Mohandas absorbed early the influences that would play an important role in his adult life; these included compassion to sentient beings, vegetarianism, fasting for self-purification, and mutual tolerance between individuals of different creeds. In May 1883, the 13-year old Mohandas was married to 14-year old Kasturbai Makhanji (her first name was usually shortened to "Kasturba," and affectionately to "Ba") in an arranged child marriage, as was the custom in the region. However, as was also the custom of the region, the adolescent bride was to spend much time at her parents' house, and away from her husband. In 1885, when Gandhi was 15, the couple's first child was born, but survived only a few days; Gandhi's father, Karamchand Gandhi, had died earlier that year. Mohandas and Kasturbai had four more children, all sons: Harilal, born in 1888; Manilal, born in 1892; Ramdas, born in 1897; and Devdas, born in 1900. At his middle school in Porbandar and high school in Rajkot, Gandhi remained an average student academically. He passed the matriculation exam for Samaldas College at Bhavnagar, Gujarat with some difficulty. While there, he was unhappy, in part because his family wanted him to become a barrister. On 4 September 1888, less than a month shy of his nineteenth birthday, Gandhi traveled to London, England, to study law at University College London and to train as a barrister. His time in London, the Imperial capital, was influenced by a vow he had made to his mother in the presence of the Jain monk Becharji, upon leaving India, to observe the Hindu precepts of abstinence from meat, alcohol, and promiscuity. Although Gandhi experimented with adopting "English" customs—taking dancing lessons for example—he could not stomach his landlady's mutton and cabbage. She pointed him towards one of London's few vegetarian restaurants. Rather than simply go along with his mother's wishes, he read about, and intellectually embraced vegetarianism. He joined the Vegetarian Society, was elected to its executive committee, and founded a local chapter. He later credited this with giving him valuable experience in organizing institutions. Some of the vegetarians he met were members of the Theosophical Society, which had been founded in 1875 to further universal brotherhood, and which was devoted to the study of Buddhist and Hindu literature. They encouraged Gandhi to read the Bhagavad Gita. Not having shown a particular interest in religion before, he read works of and about Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism, Islam and other religions. He returned to India after being called to the bar of England and Wales by the Inner Temple but had limited success establishing a law practice in Mumbai. Later, after applying and being turned down for a part-time job as a high school teacher, he ended up returning to Rajkot to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants, a business he was forced to close when he ran afoul of a British officer. In his autobiography, he refers to this incident as an unsuccessful attempt to lobby on behalf of his older brother. It was in this climate that, in 1893, he accepted a year-long contract from an Indian firm to a post in Natal, South Africa, then part of the British Empire. Civil rights movement in South Africa (1893–1914) In South Africa, Gandhi faced discrimination directed at Indians. He was thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg after refusing to move from the first class to a third class coach while holding a valid first class ticket. Traveling further on by stagecoach, he was beaten by a driver for refusing to travel on the foot board to make room for a European passenger. He suffered other hardships on the journey as well, including being barred from several hotels. In another incident, the magistrate of a Durban court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refused to do. These events were a turning point in his life, awakening him to social injustice and influencing his subsequent social activism. It was through witnessing firsthand the racism, prejudice and injustice against Indians in South Africa that Gandhi started to question his people's status within the British Empire, and his own place in society. Gandhi extended his original period of stay in South Africa to assist Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the right to vote. Though unable to halt the bill's passage, his campaign was successful in drawing attention to the grievances of Indians in South Africa. He founded the Natal Indian Congress in 1894, and through this organization, he molded the Indian community of South Africa into a homogeneous political force. In January 1897, when Gandhi returned from a brief trip to India, a white mob attacked and tried to lynch him. In an early indication of the personal values that would shape his later campaigns, he refused to press charges against any member of the mob, stating it was one of his principles not to seek redress for a personal wrong in a court of law. In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a new Act compelling registration of the colony's Indian population. At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolving methodology of satyagraha (devotion to the truth), or non-violent protest, for the first time, calling on his fellow Indians to defy the new law and suffer the punishments for doing so, rather than resist through violent means. This plan was adopted, leading to a seven-year struggle in which thousands of Indians were jailed (including Gandhi), flogged, or even shot, for striking, refusing to register, burning their registration cards, or engaging in other forms of non-violent resistance. While the government was successful in repressing the Indian protesters, the public outcry stemming from the harsh methods employed by the South African government in the face of peaceful Indian protesters finally forced South African General Jan Christiaan Smuts to negotiate a compromise with Gandhi. Gandhi's ideas took shape and the concept of satyagraha matured during this struggle. Role in Zulu War of 1906 In 1906, after the British introduced a new poll-tax, Zulus in South Africa killed two British officers. In response, the British declared a war against the Zulus. Gandhi actively encouraged the British to recruit Indians. He argued that Indians should support the war efforts in order to legitimize their claims to full citizenship. The British, however, refused to commission Indians as army officers. Nonetheless, they accepted Gandhi's offer to let a detachment of Indians volunteer as a stretcher bearer corps to treat wounded British soldiers. This corps was commanded by Gandhi. On 21 July 1906, Gandhi wrote in Indian Opinion: "The corps had been formed at the instance of the Natal Government by way of experiment, in connection with the operations against the Natives consists of twenty three Indians". Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi Vol 5 Document#393 from Gandhi: Behind the Mask of Divinity p106 Gandhi urged the Indian population in South Africa to join the war through his columns in Indian Opinion: “If the Government only realized what reserve force is being wasted, they would make use of it and give Indians the opportunity of a thorough training for actual warfare.” In Gandhi's opinion, the Draft Ordinance of 1906 brought the status of Indians below the level of Natives. He therefore urged Indians to resist the Ordinance along the lines of satyagraha by taking the example of "Kaffirs". In his words, "Even the half-castes and kaffirs, who are less advanced than we, have resisted the government. The pass law applies to them as well, but they do not take out passes." Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi VOL 5 p 410 In 1927 Gandhi wrote of the event: "The Boer War had not brought home to me the horrors of war with anything like the vividness that the [Zulu] 'rebellion' did. This was no war but a man-hunt, not only in my opinion, but also in that of many Englishmen with whom I had occasion to talk." Gandhi: An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth, trans. Mahaved Desai, (Boston, Beacon Press, 1993) p313 Struggle for Indian Independence (1916–1945) In 1915, Gandhi returned from South Africa to live in India. He spoke at the conventions of the Indian National Congress, but was primarily introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian people by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a respected leader of the Congress Party at the time. Champaran and Kheda Gandhi's first major achievements came in 1918 with the Champaran agitation and Kheda Satyagraha, although in the latter it was indigo and other cash crops instead of the food crops necessary for their survival. Suppressed by the militias of the landlords (mostly British), they were given measly compensation, leaving them mired in extreme poverty. The villages were kept extremely dirty and unhygienic; and alcoholism, untouchability and purdah were rampant. Now in the throes of a devastating famine, the British levied a tax which they insisted on increasing. The situation was desperate. In Kheda in Gujarat, the problem was the same. Gandhi established an ashram there, organizing scores of his veteran supporters and fresh volunteers from the region. He organized a detailed study and survey of the villages, accounting for the atrocities and terrible episodes of suffering, including the general state of degenerate living. Building on the confidence of villagers, he began leading the clean-up of villages, building of schools and hospitals and encouraging the village leadership to undo and condemn many social evils, as accounted above. But his main impact came when he was arrested by police on the charge of creating unrest and was ordered to leave the province. Hundreds of thousands of people protested and rallied outside the jail, police stations and courts demanding his release, which the court reluctantly granted. Gandhi led organized protests and strikes against the landlords who, with the guidance of the British government, signed an agreement granting the poor farmers of the region more compensation and control over farming, and cancellation of revenue hikes and its collection until the famine ended. It was during this agitation, that Gandhi was addressed by the people as Bapu (Father) and Mahatma (Great Soul). In Kheda, Sardar Patel represented the farmers in negotiations with the British, who suspended revenue collection and released all the prisoners. As a result, Gandhi's fame spread all over the nation. Non-cooperation Gandhi employed non-cooperation, non-violence and peaceful resistance as his "weapons" in the struggle against British. In Punjab, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of civilians by British troops (also known as the Amritsar Massacre) caused deep trauma to the nation, leading to increased public anger and acts of violence. Gandhi criticized both the actions of the British Raj and the retaliatory violence of Indians. He authored the resolution offering condolences to British civilian victims and condemning the riots which, after initial opposition in the party, was accepted following Gandhi's emotional speech advocating his principle that all violence was evil and could not be justified. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, p. 82. But it was after the massacre and subsequent violence that Gandhi's mind focused upon obtaining complete self-government and control of all Indian government institutions, maturing soon into Swaraj or complete individual, spiritual, political independence. In December 1921, Gandhi was invested with executive authority on behalf of the Indian National Congress. Under his leadership, the Congress was reorganized with a new constitution, with the goal of Swaraj. Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee. A hierarchy of committees was set up to improve discipline, transforming the party from an elite organization to one of mass national appeal. Gandhi expanded his non-violence platform to include the swadeshi policy — the boycott of foreign-made goods, especially British goods. Linked to this was his advocacy that khadi (homespun cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or poor, to spend time each day spinning khadi in support of the independence movement. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, p. 89. This was a strategy to inculcate discipline and dedication to weed out the unwilling and ambitious, and to include women in the movement at a time when many thought that such activities were not respectable activities for women. In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British educational institutions and law courts, to resign from government employment, and to forsake British titles and honours. "Non-cooperation" enjoyed widespread appeal and success, increasing excitement and participation from all strata of Indian society. Yet, just as the movement reached its apex, it ended abruptly as a result of a violent clash in the town of Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, in February 1922. Fearing that the movement was about to take a turn towards violence, and convinced that this would be the undoing of all his work, Gandhi called off the campaign of mass civil disobedience. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, p. 105. Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years imprisonment. He began his sentence on 18 March 1922. He was released in February 1924 for an appendicitis operation, having served only 2 years. Without Gandhi's uniting personality, the Indian National Congress began to splinter during his years in prison, splitting into two factions, one led by Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru favouring party participation in the legislatures, and the other led by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, opposing this move. Furthermore, cooperation among Hindus and Muslims, which had been strong at the height of the non-violence campaign, was breaking down. Gandhi attempted to bridge these differences through many means, including a three-week fast in the autumn of 1924, but with limited success. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, p. 131. Swaraj and the Salt Satyagraha (Salt March) Gandhi stayed out of active politics and as such limelight for most of the 1920s, preferring to resolve the wedge between the Swaraj Party and the Indian National Congress, and expanding initiatives against untouchability, alcoholism, ignorance and poverty. He returned to the fore in 1928. The year before, the British government had appointed a new constitutional reform commission under Sir John Simon, which did not include any Indian as its member. The result was a boycott of the commission by Indian political parties. Gandhi pushed through a resolution at the Calcutta Congress in December 1928 calling on the British government to grant India dominion status or face a new campaign of non-cooperation with complete independence for the country as its goal. Gandhi had not only moderated the views of younger men like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru, who sought a demand for immediate independence, but also reduced his own call to a one year wait, instead of two. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, p. 172. The British did not respond. On 31 December 1929, the flag of India was unfurled in Lahore. 26 January 1930 was celebrated by the Indian National Congress, meeting in Lahore, as India's Independence Day. This day was commemorated by almost every other Indian organization. Gandhi then launched a new satyagraha against the tax on salt in March 1930, highlighted by the famous Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, marching 400 kilometres (248 miles) from Ahmedabad to Dandi, Gujarat to make salt himself. Thousands of Indians joined him on this march to the sea. This campaign was one of his most successful at upsetting British hold on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people. The government, represented by Lord Edward Irwin, decided to negotiate with Gandhi. The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931. The British Government agreed to set all political prisoners free in return for the suspension of the civil disobedience movement. As a result of the pact, Gandhi was also invited to attend the Round Table Conference in London as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference was a disappointment to Gandhi and the nationalists, as it focused on the Indian princes and Indian minorities rather than the transfer of power. Furthermore, Lord Irwin's successor, Lord Willingdon, embarked on a new campaign of controlling and subduing the movement of the nationalists. Gandhi was again arrested, and the government attempted to negate his influence by completely isolating him from his followers. However, this tactic was not successful. In 1932, through the campaigning of the Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar, the government granted untouchables separate electorates under the new constitution. In protest, Gandhi embarked on a six-day fast in September 1932, successfully forcing the government to adopt a more equitable arrangement via negotiations mediated by the Dalit cricketer turned political leader Palwankar Baloo. This was the start of a new campaign by Gandhi to improve the lives of the untouchables, whom he named Harijans, the children of God. On 8 May 1933 Gandhi began a 21-day fast of self-purification to help the Harijan movement. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, pp. 230–32. This new campaign was not universally embraced within the Dalit community, however, as prominent leader B. R. Ambedkar condemned Gandhi's use of the term Harijans as saying that Dalits were socially immature, and that privileged caste Indians played a paternalistic role. Ambedkar and his allies also felt Gandhi was undermining Dalit political rights. Gandhi, although born into the Vaishya caste, insisted that he was able to speak on behalf of Dalits, despite the availability of Dalit activists such as Ambedkar. In the summer of 1934, three unsuccessful attempts were made on his life. When the Congress Party chose to contest elections and accept power under the Federation scheme, Gandhi decided to resign from party membership. He did not disagree with the party's move, but felt that if he resigned, his popularity with Indians would cease to stifle the party's membership, that actually varied from communists, socialists, trade unionists, students, religious conservatives, to those with pro-business convictions and that these various voices would get a chance to make themselves heard. Gandhi also did not want to prove a target for Raj propaganda by leading a party that had temporarily accepted political accommodation with the Raj. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, p. 246. Gandhi returned to the head in 1936, with the Nehru presidency and the Lucknow session of the Congress. Although Gandhi desired a total focus on the task of winning independence and not speculation about India's future, he did not restrain the Congress from adopting socialism as its goal. Gandhi had a clash with Subhas Bose, who had been elected to the presidency in 1938. Gandhi's main points of contention with Bose were his lack of commitment to democracy, and lack of faith in non-violence. Bose won his second term despite Gandhi's criticism, but left the Congress when the All-India leaders resigned en masse in protest against his abandonment of the principles introduced by Gandhi. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, pp. 277–81. World War II and Quit India World War II broke out in 1939 when Nazi Germany invaded Poland. Initially, Gandhi had favored offering "non-violent moral support" to the British effort, but other Congressional leaders were offended by the unilateral inclusion of India into the war, without consultation of the people's representatives. All Congressmen elected to resign from office en masse. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, pp. 283–86. After lengthy deliberations, Gandhi declared that India could not be party to a war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom, while that freedom was denied to India itself. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, drafting a resolution calling for the British to Quit India. This was Gandhi's and the Congress Party's most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from Indian shores. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, p. 309. Gandhi was criticized by some Congress party members and other Indian political groups, both pro-British and anti-British. Some felt that opposing Britain in its life or death struggle against the evil of Nazism was immoral, and others felt that Gandhi's opposition was insufficient. Quit India became the most forceful movement in the history of the struggle, with mass arrests and violence on an unprecedented scale. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, p. 318. Thousands of freedom fighters were killed or injured by police gunfire, and hundreds of thousands were arrested. Gandhi and his supporters made it clear they would not support the war effort unless India were granted immediate independence. He even clarified that this time the movement would not be stopped if individual acts of violence were committed, saying that the "ordered anarchy" around him was "worse than real anarchy." He called on all Congressmen and Indians to maintain discipline via ahimsa, and Karo Ya Maro ("Do or Die") in the cause of ultimate freedom. Gandhi and the entire Congress Working Committee were arrested in Bombay by the British on 9 August 1942. Gandhi was held for two years in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. It was here that Gandhi suffered two terrible blows in his personal life. His 50-year old secretary Mahadev Desai died of a heart attack 6 days later and his wife Kasturba died after 18 months imprisonment in 22 February 1944; six weeks later Gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack. He was released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing health and necessary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison and enrage the nation. Although the Quit India movement had moderate success in its objective, the ruthless suppression of the movement brought order to India by the end of 1943. At the end of the war, the British gave clear indications that power would be transferred to Indian hands. At this point Gandhi called off the struggle, and around 100,000 political prisoners were released, including the Congress's leadership. Freedom and partition of India Gandhi advised the Congress to reject the proposals the British Cabinet Mission offered in 1946, as he was deeply suspicious of the grouping proposed for Muslim-majority states—Gandhi viewed this as a precursor to partition. However, this became one of the few times the Congress broke from Gandhi's advice (though not his leadership), as Nehru and Patel knew that if the Congress did not approve the plan, the control of government would pass to the Muslim League. Between 1946 and 1948, over 5,000 people were killed in violence. Gandhi was vehemently opposed to any plan that partitioned India into two separate countries. An overwhelming majority of Muslims living in India, side by side with Hindus and Sikhs, were in favour of Partition. Additionally Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of the Muslim League, commanded widespread support in West Punjab, Sindh, North-West Frontier Province and East Bengal. The partition plan was approved by the Congress leadership as the only way to prevent a wide-scale Hindu-Muslim civil war. Congress leaders knew that Gandhi would viscerally oppose partition, and it was impossible for the Congress to go ahead without his agreement, for Gandhi's support in the party and throughout India was strong. Gandhi's closest colleagues had accepted partition as the best way out, and Sardar Patel endeavoured to convince Gandhi that it was the only way to avoid civil war. A devastated Gandhi gave his assent. He conducted extensive dialogue with Muslim and Hindu community leaders, working to cool passions in northern India, as well as in Bengal. Despite the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, he was troubled when the Government decided to deny Pakistan the 55 crores (550 million Indian rupees) due as per agreements made by the Partition Council. Leaders like Sardar Patel feared that Pakistan would use the money to bankroll the war against India. Gandhi was also devastated when demands resurged for all Muslims to be deported to Pakistan, and when Muslim and Hindu leaders expressed frustration and an inability to come to terms with one another. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, p. 462. He launched his last fast-unto-death in Delhi, asking that all communal violence be ended once and for all, and that the payment of 550 million rupees be made to Pakistan. Gandhi feared that instability and insecurity in Pakistan would increase their anger against India, and violence would spread across the borders. He further feared that Hindus and Muslims would renew their enmity and that this would precipitate open civil war. After emotional debates with his life-long colleagues, Gandhi refused to budge, and the Government rescinded its policy and made the payment to Pakistan. Hindu, Muslim and Sikh community leaders, including the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and Hindu Mahasabha assured him that they would renounce violence and call for peace. Gandhi thus broke his fast by sipping orange juice. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, pp. 464–66. Assassination On 30 January 1948, Gandhi was shot and killed while having his nightly public walk on the grounds of the Birla Bhavan (Birla House) in New Delhi. The assassin, Nathuram Godse, was a Hindu radical with links to the extremist Hindu Mahasabha, who held Gandhi responsible for weakening India by insisting upon a payment to Pakistan. R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life, p. 472. Godse and his co-conspirator Narayan Apte were later tried and convicted; they were executed on 15 November 1949. Gandhi's memorial (or Samādhi) at Rāj Ghāt, New Delhi, bears the epigraph "Hē Ram", (Devanagari: हे ! राम or, He ), which may be translated as "Oh God". These are widely believed to be Gandhi's last words after he was shot, though the veracity of this statement has been disputed. Vinay Lal. ‘Hey Ram’: The Politics of Gandhi’s Last Words. Humanscape 8, no. 1 (January 2001): pp. 34–38. Jawaharlal Nehru addressed the nation through radio: Gandhi's ashes were poured into urns which were sent across India for memorial services. Most were immersed at the Sangam at Allahabad on 12 February 1948 but some were secretly taken away. "Gandhi's ashes to rest at sea, not in a museum" The Guardian, 16 January 2008 In 1997, Tushar Gandhi immersed the contents of one urn, found in a bank vault and reclaimed through the courts, at the Sangam at Allahabad. "GANDHI'S ASHES SCATTERED" The Cincinnati Post, 30 January 1997 "For reasons no one knows, a portion of the ashes was placed in a safe deposit box at a bank in Cuttack, southeast of New Delhi. Tushar Gandhi went to court to gain custody of the ashes after newspapers reported in 1995 that they were at the bank." On 30 January 2008 the contents of another urn were immersed at Girgaum Chowpatty by the family after a Dubai-based businessman had sent it to a Mumbai museum. Another urn has ended up in a palace of the Aga Khan in Pune (where he had been imprisoned from 1942 to 1944) and another in the Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in Los Angeles. The family is aware that these enshrined ashes could be misused for political purposes but does not want to have them removed because it would entail breaking the shrines. Gandhi's principles Truth Gandhi dedicated his life to the wider purpose of discovering truth, or Satya. He tried to achieve this by learning from his own mistakes and conducting experiments on himself. He called his autobiography The Story of My Experiments with Truth. Gandhi stated that the most important battle to fight was overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities. Gandhi summarized his beliefs first when he said "God is Truth". He would later change this statement to "Truth is God". Thus, Satya (Truth) in Gandhi's philosophy is "God". Nonviolence Although Mahatama Gandhi was in no way the originator of the principle of non-violence, he was the first to apply it in the political field on a huge scale. The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) and nonresistance has a long history in Indian religious thought and has had many revivals in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Jewish and Christian contexts. Gandhi explains his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography The Story of My Experiments with Truth. He was quoted as saying: "When I despair, I remember that all through history the way of truth and love has always won. There have been tyrants and murderers and for a time they seem invincible, but in the end, they always fall — think of it, always." "What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans, and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?" "An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind." "There are many causes that I am prepared to die for but no causes that I am prepared to kill for." In applying these principles, Gandhi did not balk from taking them to their most logical extremes in envisioning a world where even government, police and armies were nonviolent. The quotations below are from the book "For Pacifists." Bharatan Kumarappa, Editor, "For Pacifists," by M.K. Gandhi, Navajivan Publishing House, Ahmedabad, India, 1949. The science of war leads one to dictatorship, pure and simple. The science of non-violence alone can lead one to pure democracy...Power based on love is thousand times more effective and permanent than power derived from fear of punishment....It is a blasphemy to say non-violence can be practiced only by individuals and never by nations which are composed of individuals...The nearest approach to purest anarchy would be a democracy based on non-violence...A society organized and run on the basis of complete non-violence would be the purest anarchy I have conceded that even in a non-violent state a police force may be necessary...Police ranks will be composed of believers in non-violence. The people will instinctively render them every help and through mutual cooperation they will easily deal with the ever decreasing disturbances...Violent quarrels between labor and capital and strikes will be few and far between in a non-violent state because the influence of the non-violent majority will be great as to respect the principle elements in society. Similarly, there will be no room for communal disturbances.... A non-violent army acts unlike armed men, as well in times of peace as in times of disturbances. Theirs will be the duty of bringing warring communities together, carrying peace propaganda, engaging in activities that would bring and keep them in touch with every single person in their parish or division. Such an army should be ready to cope with any emergency, and in order to still the frenzy of mobs should risk their lives in numbers sufficient for that purpose. ...Satyagraha (truth-force) brigades can be organized in every village and every block of buildings in the cities. [If the non-violent society is attacked from without] there are two ways open to non-violence. To yield possession, but non-cooperate with the aggressor...prefer death to submission. The second way would be non-violent resistance by the people who have been trained in the non-violent way...The unexpected spectacle of endless rows upon rows of men and women simply dying rather than surrender to the will of an aggressor must ultimately melt him and his soldiery...A nation or group which has made non-violence its final policy cannot be subjected to slavery even by the atom bomb.... The level of non-violence in that nation, if that even happily comes to pass, will naturally have risen so high as to command universal respect. In accordance with these views, in 1940, when invasion of the British Isles by Nazi Germany looked imminent, Gandhi offered the following advice to the British people (Non-Violence in Peace and War): "I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions...If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourselves, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them." In a post-war interview in 1946, he offered a view at an even further extreme: "The Jews should have offered themselves to the butcher's knife. They should have thrown themselves into the sea from cliffs." However, Gandhi was aware that this level of nonviolence required incredible faith and courage, which he realized not everyone possessed. He therefore advised that everyone need not keep to nonviolence, especially if it were used as a cover for cowardice: "Gandhi guarded against attracting to his satyagraha movement those who feared to take up arms or felt themselves incapable of resistance. 'I do believe,' he wrote, 'that where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence.'" Bondurant, p. 28. "At every meeting I repeated the warning that unless they felt that in non-violence they had come into possession of a force infinitely superior to the one they had and in the use of which they were adept, they should have nothing to do with non-violence and resume the arms they possessed before. It must never be said of the Khudai Khidmatgars that once so brave, they had become or been made cowards under Badshah Khan's influence. Their bravery consisted not in being good marksmen but in defying death and being ever ready to bare their breasts to the bullets." Bondurant, p. 139. Vegetarianism As a young child, Gandhi experimented with meat-eating. This was due partially to his inherent curiosity as well as his rather persuasive peer and friend Sheikh Mehtab. The idea of vegetarianism is deeply ingrained in Hindu and Jain traditions in India, and, in his native land of Gujarat, most Hindus were vegetarian and so are almost all Jains. Laidlaw, James: Riches and Renunciation. Religion, economy, and society among the Jains, Oxford 1995, p. 166-169. Jain Society: Some Discrepancies Between Principles And Practice. Retrieved on February 14, 2009. The Gandhi family was no exception. Before leaving for his studies in London, Gandhi made a promise to his mother, Putlibai and his uncle, Becharji Swami that he would abstain from eating meat, taking alcohol, and engaging in promiscuity. He held fast to his promise and gained more than a diet: he gained a basis for his life-long philosophies. As Gandhi grew into adulthood, he became a strict vegetarian. He wrote the book The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism and several articles on the subject, some of which were published in the London Vegetarian Society's publication, The Vegetarian. During this period, the young Gandhi became inspired by many great minds and was befriended by the chairman of the London Vegetarian Society, Dr. Josiah Oldfield. Having also read and admired the work of Henry Stephens Salt, the young Mohandas met and often corresponded with the vegetarian campaigner. Gandhi spent much time advocating vegetarianism during and after his time in London. To Gandhi, a vegetarian diet would not only satisfy the requirements of the body, it would also serve an economic purpose as meat was, and still is, generally more expensive than grains, vegetables, and fruits. Also, many Indians of the time struggled with low income, thus vegetarianism was seen not only as a spiritual practice but also a practical one. He abstained from eating for long periods, using fasting as a form of political protest. He refused to eat until his death or his demands were met. It was noted in his autobiography that vegetarianism was the beginning of his deep commitment to Brahmacharya; without total control of the palate, his success in Bramacharya would likely falter. Gandhi had been a fruitarian, Gokhale's Charity, My Experiments with Truth, M.K. Gandhi. but started taking goat's milk on the advice of his doctor. He never took dairy products obtained from cows because of his view initially that milk is not the natural diet of man, disgust for cow blowing, The Rowlatt Bills and my Dilemma, My Experiments with Truth, M.K. Gandhi. and, specifically, because of a vow to his late mother. Brahmacharya When Gandhi was 16 his father became very ill. Being very devoted to his parents, he attended to his father at all times during his illness. However, one night, Gandhi's uncle came to relieve Gandhi for a while. He retired to his bedroom where carnal desires overcame him and he made love to his wife. Shortly afterward a servant came to report that Gandhi's father had just died. Gandhi felt tremendous guilt and never could forgive himself. He came to refer to this event as "double shame." The incident had significant influence in Gandhi becoming celibate at the age of 36, while still married. This decision was deeply influenced by the philosophy of Brahmacharya — spiritual and practical purity — largely associated with celibacy and asceticism. Gandhi saw Brahmacharya as a means of becoming close with God and as a primary foundation for self realization. In his autobiography he tells of his battle against lustful urges and fits of jealousy with his childhood bride, Kasturba. He felt it his personal obligation to remain celibate so that he could learn to love, rather than lust. For Gandhi, Brahmacharya meant "control of the senses in thought, word and deed." The Story of My Experiments with Truth — An Autobiography, p. 176. Experiments with Brahmacharya Towards the end of his life, it became public knowledge that Gandhi had been sharing his bed for a number of years with young women. He explained that he did this for bodily warmth at night and termed his actions as "nature cure". Later in his life he started experimenting with Brahmacharya in order to test his self control. His letter to Birla in April, 1945 referring to ‘women or girls who have been naked with me’ indicates that several women were part of his experiments. Sex became the most talked about subject matter by Gandhi after ahimsa (non-violence) and increasingly so in his later years. He devoted five full editorials in Harijan discussing the practice of Brahmacharya. As part of these experiments, he initially slept with his women associates in the same room but at a distance. Afterwards he started to lie in the same bed with his women disciples and later took to sleeping naked alongside them. According to Gandhi active-celibacy meant perfect self control in the presence of opposite sex. Gandhi conducted his experiments with a number of women such as Abha, the sixteen-year-old wife of his grandnephew Kanu Gandhi. Gandhi acknowledged “that this experiment is very dangerous indeed”, but thought “that it was capable of yielding great results”. His nineteen-year-old grandniece, Manu Gandhi, too was part of his experiments. Gandhi had earlier written to her father, Jaisukhlal Gandhi, that Manu had started to share his bed so that he may "correct her sleeping posture". In Gandhi’s view, the experiment of sleeping naked with Manu in Noakhali would help him in contemplating upon Hindu-Muslim unity in India before partition and ease communal tensions. Gandhi saw himself as a mother to these women and would refer to Abha and Manu as “my walking sticks”. Gandhi called Sarladevi, a married woman with children and a devout follower, his “spiritual wife”. He later said that he had come close to having sexual relations with her. He had told a correspondent in March, 1945 that “sleeping together came with my taking up of bramhacharya or even before that”; he said he had experimented with his wife “but that was not enough”. Gandhi felt satisfied with his experiments and wrote to Manu that “I have successfully practiced the eleven vows taken by me. This is the culmination of my striving for last thirty six years. In this yajna I got a glimpse of the ideal truth and purity for which I have been striving”. Gandhi had to take criticism for his experiments by many of his followers and opponents. His stenographer, R. P. Parasuram, resigned when he saw Gandhi sleeping naked with Manu. Gandhi insisted that he never felt aroused while he slept beside her, or with Sushila or Abha. "I am sorry" Gandhi said to Parasuram, "you are at liberty to leave me today." Nirmal Kumar Bose, another close associate of Gandhi, parted company with him in April 1947, post Gandhi's tour of Noakhali, where some sort of altercation had taken place between Gandhi and Sushila Nayar in his bedroom at midnight that caused Gandhi to slap his forehead. Bose had stated that the nature of his experiments in Bramhacharya still remained unknown and unstated. N. K. Bose, who stayed close to Gandhi during his Noakhali tour, testified that “there was no immorality on part of Gandhi. Moreover Gandhi tried to conquer the feeling of sex by consciously endeavouring to convert himself into a mother of those who were under his care, whether men or women”. Dattatreya Balkrishna Kalelkar, a revolutionary turned disciple of Gandhi, used to say that Gandhi’s “relationships with women were, from beginning to end, as pure as mother’s milk”. Simplicity Gandhi earnestly believed that a person involved in social service should lead a simple life which he thought could lead to Brahmacharya. His simplicity began by renouncing the western lifestyle he was leading in South Africa. He called it "reducing himself to zero," which entailed giving up unnecessary expenditure, embracing a simple lifestyle and washing his own clothes. The Story of My Experiments with Truth — An Autobiography, p. 177. On one occasion he returned the gifts bestowed to him from the natals for his diligent service to the community. The Story of My Experiments with Truth — An Autobiography, p. 183. Gandhi spent one day of each week in silence. He believed that abstaining from speaking brought him inner peace. This influence was drawn from the Hindu principles of mauna (Sanskrit: — silence) and shanti (Sanskrit: — peace). On such days he communicated with others by writing on paper. For three and a half years, from the age of 37, Gandhi refused to read newspapers, claiming that the tumultuous state of world affairs caused him more confusion than his own inner unrest. After reading John Ruskin's Unto This Last, he decided to change his lifestyle and create a commune called Phoenix Settlement. Upon returning to India from South Africa, where he had enjoyed a successful legal practice, he gave up wearing Western-style clothing, which he associated with wealth and success. He dressed to be accepted by the poorest person in India, advocating the use of homespun cloth (khadi). Gandhi and his followers adopted the practice of weaving their own clothes from thread they themselves spun, and encouraged others to do so. While Indian workers were often idle due to unemployment, they had often bought their clothing from industrial manufacturers owned by British interests. It was Gandhi's view that if Indians made their own clothes, it would deal an economic blow to the British establishment in India. Consequently, the spinning wheel was later incorporated into the flag of the Indian National Congress. He subsequently wore a dhoti for the rest of his life to express the simplicity of his life. Faith Gandhi was born a Hindu and practised Hinduism all his life, deriving most of his principles from Hinduism. As a common Hindu, he believed all religions to be equal, and rejected all efforts to convert him to a different faith. He was an avid theologian and read extensively about all major religions. He had the following to say about Hinduism: "Hinduism as I know it entirely satisfies my soul, fills my whole being...When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and when I see not one ray of light on the horizon, I turn to the Bhagavad Gita, and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. My life has been full of tragedies and if they have not left any visible and indelible effect on me, I owe it to the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita." Gandhi wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Gujarati. The Gujarati manuscript was translated into English by Mahadev Desai, who provided an additional introduction and commentary. It was published with a Foreword by Gandhi in 1946. Desai, Mahadev. The Gospel of Selfless Action, or, The Gita According To Gandhi. (Navajivan Publishing House: Ahmedabad: First Edition 1946). Other editions: 1948, 1951, 1956. A shorter edition, omitting the bulk of Desai's additional commentary, has been published as: Anasaktiyoga: The Gospel of Selfless Action. Jim Rankin, editor. The author is listed as M.K. Gandhi; Mahadev Desai, translator. (Dry Bones Press, San Francisco, 1998) ISBN 1-883938-47-3. Gandhi believed that at the core of every religion was truth and love (compassion, nonviolence and the Golden Rule). He also questioned what he saw as hypocrisy, malpractices, and dogma in all religions, including his own, and he was a tireless advocate for social reform in religion. Some of his comments on various religions are: "Thus if I could not accept Christianity either as a perfect, or the greatest religion, neither was I then convinced of Hinduism being such. Hindu defects were pressingly visible to me. If untouchability could be a part of Hinduism, it could but be a rotten part or an excrescence. I could not understand the raison d'etre of a multitude of sects and castes. What was the meaning of saying that the Vedas were the inspired Word of God? If they were inspired, why not also the Bible and the Koran? As Christian friends were endeavouring to convert me, so were Muslim friends. Abdullah Seth had kept on inducing me to study Islam, and of course he had always something to say regarding its beauty." (source: his autobiography) "As soon as we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious. There is no such thing as religion over-riding morality. Man, for instance, cannot be untruthful, cruel or incontinent and claim to have God on his side." "The sayings of Muhammad are a treasure of wisdom, not only for Muslims but for all of mankind." "I like your Christ, I do not like your Christians." Later in his life when he was asked whether he was a Hindu, he replied: "Yes I am. I am also a Christian, a Muslim, a Buddhist and a Jew." In spite of their deep reverence to each other, Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore engaged in protracted debates more than once. These debates exemplify the philosophical differences between the two most famous Indians at the time. On 15 January 1934, an earthquake hit Bihar and caused extensive damage and loss of life. Gandhi maintained this was because of the sin committed by upper caste Hindus by not letting untouchables in their temples (Gandhi was committed to the cause of improving the fate of untouchables, referring to them as Harijans, people of Krishna). Tagore vehemently opposed Gandhi's stance, maintaining that an earthquake can only be caused by natural forces, not moral reasons, however repugnant the practice of untouchability may be. Writings Gandhi was a prolific writer. For decades he edited several newspapers including Harijan in Gujarati, Hindi and English; Indian Opinion while in South Africa and, Young India, in English, and Navajivan, a Gujarati monthly, on his return to India. Later Navajivan was also published in Hindi. Peerless Communicator by V.N. Narayanan. Life Positive Plus, October–December 2002 In addition, he wrote letters almost every day to individuals and newspapers. Gandhi also wrote a few books including his autobiography, An Autobiography of My Experiments with Truth, Satyagraha in South Africa about his struggle there, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule, a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gujarati of John Ruskin's Unto This Last. This last essay can be considered his program on economics. He also wrote extensively on vegetarianism, diet and health, religion, social reforms, etc. Gandhi usually wrote in Gujarati, though he also revised the Hindi and English translations of his books. Gandhi's complete works were published by the Indian government under the name The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi in the 1960s. The writings comprise about 50,000 pages published in about a hundred volumes. In 2000, a revised edition of the complete works sparked a controversy, as Gandhian followers argue that the government incorporated the changes for political purposes. The Indian government later withdrew the revised edition. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG) Controversy (gandhiserve) Books on Gandhi Several biographers have undertaken the task of describing Gandhi's life. Among them, two works stand out: D. G. Tendulkar with his Mahatma. Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in eight volumes, and Pyarelal and Sushila Nayar with their Mahatma Gandhi in 10 volumes. Colonel G. B. Singh from the US Army wrote the book Gandhi: Behind the Mask of Divinity. In the book, G. B. Singh argues that much of the existing Gandhi literature has promulgated from Gandhi's own autobiographies and there is little critical review of Gandhi's words and actions. In his thesis built on Gandhi's own words, letters and newspapers columns and his actions, Singh argues that Gandhi had a racial dislike for the native black Africans and later against the white British in India. Singh's later work with Dr. Tim Watson called Gandhi Under Cross Examination (2008) argues that Gandhi himself gave various varying accounts of the famous train incident in South Africa and the authors argue that this incident did not happen as understood today. Followers and influence Gandhi influenced important leaders and political movements. Leaders of the civil rights movement in the United States, including Martin Luther King and James Lawson, drew from the writings of Gandhi in the development of their own theories about non-violence. Anti-apartheid activist and former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, was inspired by Gandhi. Nelson Mandela, The Sacred Warrior: The liberator of South Africa looks at the seminal work of the liberator of India, Time Magazine, 3 January 2000. Others include Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Steve Biko, Aung San Suu Kyi and Philippine opposition leader during the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos, Benigno Aquino, Jr. Gandhi's life and teachings inspired many who specifically referred to Gandhi as their mentor or who dedicated their lives to spreading Gandhi's ideas. In Europe, Romain Rolland was the first to discuss Gandhi in his 1924 book Mahatma Gandhi, and Brazilian anarchist and feminist Maria Lacerda de Moura wrote about Gandhi in her work on pacifism. In 1931, notable European physicist Albert Einstein exchanged written letters with Gandhi, and called him "a role model for the generations to come" in a later writing about him. Lanza del Vasto went to India in 1936 intending to live with Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Gandhi's philosophy and founded the Community of the Ark in 1948 (modeled after Gandhi's ashrams). Madeleine Slade (known as "Mirabehn") was the daughter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devotee of Gandhi. In addition, the British musician John Lennon referred to Gandhi when discussing his views on non-violence. Lennon Lives Forever. Taken from rollingstone.com. Retrieved on 20 May 2007. At the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival in 2007, former U.S. Vice-President and environmentalist Al Gore spoke of Gandhi's influence on him. Of Gandhigiri and Green Lion, Al Gore wins hearts at Cannes. Taken from exchange4media.com. Retrieved on 23 June 2007. The President of the United States of America, Barack Obama, sees Mahatma Gandhi as an inspiration and has a portrait of the "apostle of peace" in his office to remind him that ordinary people can do extraordinary things. He says "In my life, I have always looked to Mahatma Gandhi as an inspiration, because he embodies the kind of transformational change that can be made when ordinary people come together to do extraordinary things". "That is why his portrait hangs in my Senate office; to remind me that real results will not just come from Washington, they will come from the people" he adds. Legacy Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is a national holiday in India, Gandhi Jayanti. On 15 June 2007, it was announced that the "United Nations General Assembly" has "unanimously adopted" a resolution declaring 2 October as "the International Day of Non-Violence." India observes January 30, the day of his assassination, as Martyr's Day, to commemorate those who gave up their lives in service of the Indian nation. The word Mahatma, while often mistaken for Gandhi's given name in the West, is taken from the Sanskrit words maha meaning Great and atma meaning Soul. Most sources, such as Dutta and Robinson's Rabindranath Tagore: An Anthology, state that Rabindranath Tagore first accorded the title of Mahatma to Gandhi. Dutta, Krishna and Andrew Robinson, Rabindranath Tagore: An Anthology, p. 2. Other sources state that Nautamlal Bhagavanji Mehta accorded him this title on 21 January 1915. In his autobiography, Gandhi nevertheless explains that he never felt worthy of the honour. M.K. Gandhi: An Autobiography. Retrieved 21 March 2006. According to the manpatra, the name Mahatma was given in response to Gandhi's admirable sacrifice in manifesting justice and truth. Documentation of how and when Mohandas K. Gandhi became known as the "Mahatma". Retrieved 21 March 2006. Time magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in 1930. Gandhi was also the runner-up to Albert Einstein as "Person of the Century" at the end of 1999. Time Magazine named The Dalai Lama, Lech Wałęsa, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Cesar Chavez, Aung San Suu Kyi, Benigno Aquino, Jr., Desmond Tutu, and Nelson Mandela as Children of Gandhi and his spiritual heirs to non-violence. The Children Of Gandhi. Time (magazine). Retrieved on 21 April 2007. The Government of India awards the annual Mahatma Gandhi Peace Prize to distinguished social workers, world leaders and citizens. Nelson Mandela, the leader of South Africa's struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, is a prominent non-Indian recipient. In 1996, the Government of India introduced the Mahatma Gandhi series of currency notes in rupees 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 denomination. Today, all the currency notes in circulation in India contain a portrait of Mahatma Gandhi. In 1969, the United Kingdom issued a series of stamps commemorating the centenary of Mahatma Gandhi. In the United Kingdom, there are several prominent statues of Gandhi, most notably in Tavistock Square, London near University College London where he studied law. 30 January is commemorated in the United Kingdom as the "National Gandhi Remembrance Day." In the United States, there are statues of Gandhi outside the Union Square Park in New York City, and the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site in Atlanta, and on Massachusetts Avenue in Washington, D.C., near the Indian Embassy, There is a Gandhi statue in San Francisco Embarcadero Neighborhood. The city of Pietermaritzburg, South Africa—where Gandhi was ejected from a first-class train in 1893—now hosts a commemorative statue. There are wax statues of Gandhi at the Madame Tussaud's wax museums in London, New York, and other cities around the world. Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace Prize, although he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by the American Friends Service Committee. AFSC's Past Nobel Nominations. Decades later, the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission, and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic opinion denying the award. Mahatma Gandhi was to receive the Prize in 1948, but his assassination prevented the award. The war breaking out between the newly created states of India and Pakistan could have been an additional complicating factor that year. Amit Baruah. "Gandhi not getting the Nobel was the biggest omission". The Hindu, 2006. Retrieved 17 October 2006. The Prize was not awarded in 1948, the year of Gandhi's death, on the grounds that "there was no suitable living candidate" that year, and when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi." Øyvind Tønnesson. Mahatma Gandhi, the Missing Laureate. Nobel e-Museum Peace Editor, 1998–2000. Retrieved 21 March 2006. In New Delhi, the Birla Bhavan, or Birla House, the home of Ghanshyam Das Birla, where Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948, was acquired by the Government of India in 1971 and opened to the public in 1973 as the Gandhi Smriti or "Gandhi Remembrance". It preserves the room where Mahatma Gandhi lived the last four months of his life and the grounds where he was shot while holding his nightly public walk. A Martyr's Column now marks the place where Mohandas Gandhi was assassinated. On 30 January every year, on the anniversary of the death of Mahatma Gandhi, in schools of many countries is observed the School Day of Non-violence and Peace (DENIP), founded in Spain in 1964. In countries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, it can be observed on 30 March or thereabouts. Ideals and criticisms Gandhi's rigid ahimsa implies pacifism, and is thus a source of criticism from across the political spectrum. Concept of partition As a rule, Gandhi was opposed to the concept of partition as it contradicted his vision of religious unity. reprinted in The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas., Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 106–108. Of the partition of India to create Pakistan, he wrote in Harijan on 6 October 1946: [The demand for Pakistan] as put forth by the Moslem League is un-Islamic and I have not hesitated to call it sinful. Islam stands for unity and the brotherhood of mankind, not for disrupting the oneness of the human family. Therefore, those who want to divide India into possibly warring groups are enemies alike of India and Islam. They may cut me into pieces but they cannot make me subscribe to something which I consider to be wrong [...] we must not cease to aspire, in spite of [the] wild talk, to befriend all Moslems and hold them fast as prisoners of our love. reprinted in The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas.Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 308–9. However, as Homer Jack notes of Gandhi's long correspondence with Jinnah on the topic of Pakistan: "Although Gandhi was personally opposed to the partition of India, he proposed an agreement...which provided that the Congress and the Moslem League would cooperate to attain independence under a provisional government, after which the question of partition would be decided by a plebiscite in the districts having a Moslem majority." Jack, Homer. The Gandhi Reader, p. 418. These dual positions on the topic of the partition of India opened Gandhi up to criticism from both Hindus and Muslims. Muhammad Ali Jinnah and contemporary Pakistanis condemned Gandhi for undermining Muslim political rights. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and his allies condemned Gandhi, accusing him of politically appeasing Muslims while turning a blind eye to their atrocities against Hindus, and for allowing the creation of Pakistan (despite having publicly declared that "before partitioning India, my body will have to be cut into two pieces"). "The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi", on BBC News, see section "Independence and partition." This continues to be politically contentious: some, like Pakistani-American historian Ayesha Jalal argue that Gandhi and the Congress's unwillingness to share power with the Muslim League hastened partition; others, like Hindu nationalist politician Pravin Togadia have also criticized Gandhi's leadership and actions on this topic, but indicating that excessive weakness on his part led to the division of India. Gandhi also expressed his dislike for partition during the late 1930s in response to the topic of the partition of Palestine to create Israel. He stated in Harijan on 26 October 1938: Several letters have been received by me asking me to declare my views about the Arab-Jew question in Palestine and persecution of the Jews in Germany. It is not without hesitation that I venture to offer my views on this very difficult question. My sympathies are all with the Jews. I have known them intimately in South Africa. Some of them became life-long companions. Through these friends I came to learn much of their age-long persecution. They have been the untouchables of Christianity [...] But my sympathy does not blind me to the requirements of justice. The cry for the national home for the Jews does not make much appeal to me. The sanction for it is sought in the Bible and the tenacity with which the Jews have hankered after return to Palestine. Why should they not, like other peoples of the earth, make that country their home where they are born and where they earn their livelihood? Palestine belongs to the Arabs in the same sense that England belongs to the English or France to the French. It is wrong and inhuman to impose the Jews on the Arabs. What is going on in Palestine today cannot be justified by any moral code of conduct. reprinted in The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas., Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 286-288. Rejection of violent resistance Gandhi also came under some political fire for his criticism of those who attempted to achieve independence through more violent means. His refusal to protest against the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Udham Singh and Rajguru were sources of condemnation among some parties. Mahatama Gandhi on Bhagat Singh. Gandhi — 'Mahatma' or Flawed Genius?. Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, "There was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms when they had no arms...but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the [Hindu–Moslem riots] and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense." reprinted in The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas., Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) p. 311. He continued this argument in a number of articles reprinted in Homer Jack's The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. In the first, "Zionism and Anti-Semitism," written in 1938, Gandhi commented upon the 1930s persecution of the Jews in Germany within the context of Satyagraha. He offered non-violence as a method of combating the difficulties Jews faced in Germany, stating, If I were a Jew and were born in Germany and earned my livelihood there, I would claim Germany as my home even as the tallest Gentile German might, and challenge him to shoot me or cast me in the dungeon; I would refuse to be expelled or to submit to discriminating treatment. And for doing this I should not wait for the fellow Jews to join me in civil resistance, but would have confidence that in the end the rest were bound to follow my example. If one Jew or all the Jews were to accept the prescription here offered, he or they cannot be worse off than now. And suffering voluntarily undergone will bring them an inner strength and joy...the calculated violence of Hitler may even result in a general massacre of the Jews by way of his first answer to the declaration of such hostilities. But if the Jewish mind could be prepared for voluntary suffering, even the massacre I have imagined could be turned into a day of thanksgiving and joy that Jehovah had wrought deliverance of the race even at the hands of the tyrant. For to the God-fearing, death has no terror. Jack, Homer. The Gandhi Reader, pp. 319–20. Gandhi was highly criticized for these statements and responded in the article "Questions on the Jews" with "Friends have sent me two newspaper cuttings criticizing my appeal to the Jews. The two critics suggest that in presenting non-violence to the Jews as a remedy against the wrong done to them, I have suggested nothing new...what I have pleaded for is renunciation of violence of the heart and consequent active exercise of the force generated by the great renunciation. Jack, Homer. The Gandhi Reader, p. 322. Gandhi's statements regarding Jews facing the impending Holocaust have attracted criticism from a number of commentators. David Lewis Schaefer. What Did Gandhi Do?. National Review, 28 April 2003. Retrieved 21 March 2006; Richard Grenier. "The Gandhi Nobody Knows". Commentary Magazine. March 1983. Retrieved 21 March 2006. Martin Buber wrote a sharply critical open letter to Gandhi on 24 February 1939. Buber asserted that the comparison between British treatment of Indian subjects and Nazi treatment of Jews was inapposite; moreover, he noted that when Indians were the victims of persecution, Gandhi had, on occasion, supported the use of force. Hertzberg, Arthur. The Zionist Idea. PA: Jewish Publications Society, 1997, pp. 463-464.; see also Gordon, Haim. "A Rejection of Spiritual Imperialism: Reflections on Buber's Letter to Gandhi." Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 22 June 1999. Gandhi commented upon the 1930s persecution of the Jews in Germany within the context of Satyagraha. In the November 1938 article on the Nazi persecution of the Jews quoted above, he offered non-violence as a solution: The German persecution of the Jews seems to have no parallel in history. The tyrants of old never went so mad as Hitler seems to have gone. And he is doing it with religious zeal. For he is propounding a new religion of exclusive and militant nationalism in the name of which any inhumanity becomes an act of humanity to be rewarded here and hereafter. The crime of an obviously mad but intrepid youth is being visited upon his whole race with unbelievable ferocity. If there ever could be a justifiable war in the name of and for humanity, a war against Germany, to prevent the wanton persecution of a whole race, would be completely justified. But I do not believe in any war. A discussion of the pros and cons of such a war is therefore outside my horizon or province. But if there can be no war against Germany, even for such a crime as is being committed against the Jews, surely there can be no alliance with Germany. How can there be alliance between a nation which claims to stand for justice and democracy and one which is the declared enemy of both?" Jack, Homer. The Gandhi Reader, Harijan, 26 November 1938, pp. 317–318. Mohandas K. Gandhi. A Non-Violent Look at Conflict & Violence Published in Harijan on 26 November 1938 Early South African articles Some of Gandhi's early South African articles are controversial. On 7 March 1908, Gandhi wrote in the Indian Opinion of his time in a South African prison: "Kaffirs are as a rule uncivilized - the convicts even more so. They are troublesome, very dirty and live almost like animals." Writing on the subject of immigration in 1903, Gandhi commented: "We believe as much in the purity of race as we think they do... We believe also that the white race in South Africa should be the predominating race." During his time in South Africa, Gandhi protested repeatedly about the social classification of blacks with Indians, who he described as "undoubtedly infinitely superior to the Kaffirs". It is worth noting that during Gandhi's time, the term Kaffir had a different connotation than its present-day usage. Remarks such as these have led some to accuse Gandhi of racism. Rory Carroll, "Gandhi branded racist as Johannesburg honours freedom fighter", The Guardian, 17 October 2003. Two professors of history who specialize in South Africa, Surendra Bhana and Goolam Vahed, examined this controversy in their text, The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. (New Delhi: Manohar, 2005). They focus in Chapter 1, "Gandhi, Africans and Indians in Colonial Natal" on the relationship between the African and Indian communities under "White rule" and policies which enforced segregation (and, they argue, inevitable conflict between these communities). Of this relationship they state that, "the young Gandhi was influenced by segregationist notions prevalent in the 1890s." The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. Surendra Bhana and Goolam Vahed, 2005: p.44 At the same time, they state, "Gandhi's experiences in jail seemed to make him more sensitive to their plight...the later Gandhi mellowed; he seemed much less categorical in his expression of prejudice against Africans, and much more open to seeing points of common cause. His negative views in the Johannesburg jail were reserved for hardened African prisoners rather than Africans generally." The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. Surendra Bhana and Goolam Vahed, 2005: p.45 Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela is a follower of Gandhi, despite efforts in 2003 on the part of Gandhi's critics to prevent the unveiling of a statue of Gandhi in Johannesburg. Bhana and Vahed commented on the events surrounding the unveiling in the conclusion to The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. In the section "Gandhi's Legacy to South Africa," they note that "Gandhi inspired succeeding generations of South African activists seeking to end White rule. This legacy connects him to Nelson Mandela...in a sense Mandela completed what Gandhi started." The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. Surendra Bhana and Goolam Vahed, 2005: p.149 They continue by referring to the controversies which arose during the unveiling of the statue of Gandhi. The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. Surendra Bhana and Goolam Vahed, 2005: pp.150–1 In response to these two perspectives of Gandhi, Bhana and Vahed argue: "Those who seek to appropriate Gandhi for political ends in post-apartheid South Africa do not help their cause much by ignoring certain facts about him; and those who simply call him a racist are equally guilty of distortion." The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. Surendra Bhana and Goolam Vahed, 2005: p.151 Anti Statism Gandhi was an anti statist in the sense that his vision of India meant India without an underlying government. Jesudasan, Ignatius. A Gandhian theology of liberation. Gujarat Sahitya Prakash: Ananda India, 1987, pp 236–237 His idea was that true self rule in a country means that every person rules himself and that there is no state which enforces laws upon the people. Murthy, Srinivas.Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy Letters. Long Beach Publications: Long Beach, 1987, pp 13 Murthy, Srinivas.Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy Letters. Long Beach Publications: Long Beach, 1987, pp 189. On occasions he described himself as a philosophical anarchist. Articles on and by Gandhi, Retrieved on 7 June 2008. A free India for him meant existence of thousands of self sufficient small communities (an idea possibly from Tolstoy) who rule themselves without hindering others. It did not mean merely transferring a British established administrative structure into Indian hands which he said was just making Hindustan into Englistan. Chapter VI Hind Swaraj by M.K. Gandhi He wanted to dissolve the Congress Party after independence and establish a system of direct democracy in India, Bhattacharyya, Buddhadeva. Evolution of the political philosophy of Gandhi. Calcutta Book House: Calcutta, 1969, pp 479 having no faith in the British styled parliamentary system. Depictions in popular culture Mahatma Gandhi has been portrayed in film, literature, and in the theater. Ben Kingsley portrayed Gandhi in the 1982 film Gandhi. Gandhi is also a central theme in the 2006 Bollywood film Lage Raho Munna Bhai. The 2007 film, Gandhi, My Father explores the relationship between Gandhi and his son Harilal. The 1996 film, The Making of the Mahatma, documents Gandhi's 21 years in South Africa. Srikanth recently announced his forthcoming film, Mahatma which will be directed by Krishna Vamsi. {{cite In South Park: Bigger, Longer and Uncut, Ghandi is shown with numerous other figures in Hell, consisting of Adolf Hitler and George Burns. web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Regional_Stars/Srikanths_new_milestone/articleshow/4137862.cms |title=Srikanth's new milestone-Regional Stars-Entertainment-The Times of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=2009-02-17 |accessdate=2009-03-12}} See also Gandhi Memorial International Foundation Gandhi Peace Prize Notes Further reading Bhana, Surendra and Goolam Vahed. The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. New Delhi: Manohar, 2005. Bondurant, Joan V. Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict. Princeton UP, 1988 ISBN 0-691-02281-X Chernus, Ira. American Nonviolence: The History of an Idea, chapter 7. ISBN 1-57075-547-7 Chadha, Yogesh. Gandhi: A Life. ISBN 0-471-35062-1 Dalton, Dennis (ed). Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 1996. ISBN 0-87220-330-1 Gandhi, Mahatma. The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1994. Eswaran, Eknath. Gandhi The Man. ISBN 0-915132-96-6 Fischer, Louis. The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas. Vintage: New York, 2002. (reprint edition) ISBN 1-4000-3050-1 Gandhi, M.K. The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. Homer Jack (ed.) Grove Press, New York, 1956. Gandhi, Rajmohan. Patel: A Life. Navajivan Publishing House, 1990 ISBN 81-7229-138-8 Grenier, Richard. The Gandhi Nobody Knows. Commentary, March 1983 Hunt, James D. Gandhi in London. New Delhi: Promilla & Co., Publishers, 1978. Mann, Bernhard, The Pedagogical and Political Concepts of Mahatma Gandhi and Paulo Freire. In: Claußen, B. (Ed.) International Studies in Political Socialization and Education. Bd. 8. Hamburg 1996. ISBN 3-926952-97-0 Rühe, Peter. Gandhi: A Photo biography. ISBN 0-7148-9279-3 Sharp, Gene. Gandhi as a Political Strategist, with Essays on Ethics and Politics. Boston: Extending Horizon Books, 1979. Singh, Col. G. B. Gandhi Behind the Mask of Divinity. Prometheus Books, 2004. ISBN 978-1573929981 Singh, Col. G. B. and Watson, Dr. Tim Gandhi Under Cross Examination, Sovereign Star Publishing, 2008. ISBN 0981499201 Sofri, Gianni. Gandhi and India: A Century in Focus. (1995) ISBN 1-900624-12-5 Gordon, Haim. A Rejection of Spiritual Imperialism: Reflections on Buber's Letter to Gandhi. Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 22 June 1999. Gandhi, M. K. Satyagraha in South Africa External links Mahatma Gandhi's autobiography on wikisource Gandhi- The Universal Guru Gandhi Smriti — Government of India website Mahatma Gandhi News Research and Media service Mahatma Gandhi a votary of sustainable living Mani Bhavan Gandhi Sangrahalaya Gandhi Museum & Library Gandhi Book Centre Works by Mahatma Gandhi Gandhi Hall and statue at Soka University of America When Gandhi was an honoured guest in Sri Lanka | Mahatma_Gandhi |@lemmatized mohandas:10 karamchand:6 gandhi:375 gujarati:12 મ:1 હનદ:1 સ:1 કરમચ:1 દ:1 ગ:1 ધ:1 october:10 january:15 pre:1 eminent:1 political:33 spiritual:8 leader:18 india:73 indian:75 independence:16 movement:18 pioneer:1 satyagraha:13 resistance:7 tyranny:1 mass:5 civil:12 disobedience:4 firmly:1 found:6 upon:11 ahimsa:6 total:3 non:47 violence:45 lead:17 inspired:2 right:8 freedom:7 across:4 world:9 commonly:1 know:11 around:4 mahatma:39 sanskrit:4 मह:1 त:1 म:2 mahātmā:1 great:8 soul:4 honorific:1 first:18 apply:4 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7,510 | Emperor_Monmu | Emperor Mommu (文武天皇 Monmu-tennō) (683-707) was the 42nd imperial ruler of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Spelling note: A modified Hepburn romanization system for Japanese words is used throughout Western publications in a range of languages including English. Unlike the standard system, the "n" is maintained even when followed by "homorganic consonants" (e.g., shinbun, not shimbun). In the same way that Wikipedia has not yet adopted a consensus policy to address spelling variations in English (e.g., humour, not humor), variant spellings based on place of articulation are unresolved, perhaps unresolvable -- as in Emperor Mommu vs. Emperor Monmu, which are each construed as technically correct. His reign spanned the years from 697 through 707. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, pp. 60-63; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 270-271; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki. pp. 137-140. Genealogy Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) Brown, pp. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their imina) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] was Karu-shinnō. Brown, p. 270. He was a grandson of Emperor Temmu and Empress Jitō. He was the second son of Prince Kusakabe. Mommu's mother was Princess Abe, a daughter of Emperor Tenji. Mommu's mother would later accede to the throne herself, and she would be known as Empress Gemmei. Varley, p. 138. Events of Mommu's life Karu-shinnō was only six years old when his father, Crown Prince Kusakabe, died. 697: In the 10th year of Jitō-tennō'''s reign (持統天皇10年), the empress abdicated; and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by a grandson of Emperor Temmu. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Mommu is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, p. 60; Brown, p. 270; Varley, pp. 44, 137-138. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] Emperor Mommu ruled until his death in 707, at which point he was succeeded by his mother, Empress Gemmei, who was also his first cousin once removed and his first cousin twice removed. He left a young son by Fujiwara no Miyako, a daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito: Obito no miko (Prince Obito), who eventually became Emperor Shōmu. Emperor Mommu's reign lasted 10 years. He died at the age of 25. Varley, p. 140. KugyōKugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Mommu's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included: Daijō-Daijin, Osakabe-shinnō. Sadaijin Udaijin Nadaijin, Nakatomi Kamako no Muraji. Brown, p. 266. Dainagon, Fujiwara Fuhito. Brown, p. 271. Eras of Mommu's reign Conventional modern scholarship seems to have determined that the years of Mommu's reign are encompassed within more than one era name or nengō. Titsingh, pp. 60-63; Brown, p. 271. Taihō (era) (701-704) Keiun (704-708) Non-nengō period The initial years of Mommu's reign are not linked by scholars to any era or nengō. Titsingh, p. 60. The Taika era innovation of naming time periods -- nengō -- languished until Mommu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701. See Japanese era name -- "Non-nengo periods" See Mommu (period) (697-701). In this context, Brown and Ishida's translation of Gukanshō offers an explanation about the years of Empress Jitō's reign which muddies a sense of easy clarity in the pre-Taiho time-frame: "The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō [(686+7=692?)]; and (2) Taika, which was four years long [695-698]. (The first year of this era was kinoto-hitsuji [695].) ...In the third year of the Taka era [697], Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince." [see above] Consorts and ChildrenBunin: Fujiwara no Miyako (藤原宮子) (?-754), daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito Prince Obito (首皇子) (Emperor Shōmu) (701-756)Hin: Ki no Kamado-no-iratsume (紀竃門娘)Hin: Ishikawa no Tone-no-iratsume (石川刀子娘) Prince Hironari (広成皇子) Prince Hiroyo (広世皇子) Notes References Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley).'' New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Monmu |@lemmatized emperor:17 mommu:14 文武天皇:1 monmu:2 tennō:2 imperial:4 ruler:1 japan:6 accord:1 traditional:1 order:1 succession:2 spell:2 note:2 modified:1 hepburn:1 romanization:1 system:2 japanese:2 word:1 use:2 throughout:1 western:1 publication:1 range:1 language:1 include:3 english:2 unlike:1 standard:1 n:1 maintain:1 even:1 follow:1 homorganic:1 consonant:1 e:2 g:2 shinbun:1 shimbun:1 way:1 wikipedia:1 yet:1 adopt:1 consensus:1 policy:1 address:1 variation:1 humour:1 humor:1 variant:1 spelling:1 base:1 place:1 articulation:1 unresolved:1 perhaps:1 unresolvable:1 v:1 construe:1 technically:1 correct:1 reign:11 span:1 year:12 titsingh:5 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:6 brown:9 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:4 varley:6 h:3 paul:3 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 genealogy:1 ascension:1 chrysanthemum:1 throne:4 personal:2 name:5 imina:2 time:4 jomei:2 long:2 people:1 generally:1 number:1 character:1 diminish:1 karu:2 shinnō:3 p:9 grandson:2 temmu:2 empress:6 jitō:5 second:1 son:2 prince:7 kusakabe:2 mother:3 princess:1 abe:1 daughter:3 tenji:2 would:3 later:1 accede:2 know:1 gemmei:2 event:1 life:2 six:1 old:1 father:1 crown:2 die:2 abdicate:1 senso:3 receive:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 say:1 sokui:2 distinct:1 act:1 unrecognized:1 prior:1 sovereign:2 except:1 yōzei:1 go:2 toba:1 fushimi:1 murakami:1 rule:1 death:1 point:1 succeed:1 also:2 first:3 cousin:2 remove:2 twice:1 leave:1 young:1 fujiwara:5 miyako:2 fuhito:3 obito:3 miko:1 eventually:1 become:1 shōmu:2 last:1 age:1 kugyōkugyō:1 公卿:1 collective:1 term:1 powerful:1 men:2 attach:1 court:1 pre:2 meiji:1 era:10 general:1 elite:1 group:1 three:1 four:2 hereditary:1 courtier:1 whose:1 experience:1 background:1 bring:1 pinnacle:1 career:1 apex:1 daijō:2 kan:1 daijin:1 osakabe:1 sadaijin:1 udaijin:1 nadaijin:1 nakatomi:1 kamako:1 muraji:1 dainagon:1 conventional:1 modern:1 scholarship:1 seem:1 determine:1 encompass:1 within:1 one:1 nengō:4 taihō:2 keiun:1 non:2 period:4 initial:1 link:1 scholar:1 taika:2 innovation:1 naming:1 languish:1 reassert:1 right:1 proclaim:1 commencement:1 see:4 nengo:1 context:1 ishida:2 translation:3 offer:1 explanation:1 muddy:1 sense:1 easy:1 clarity:1 taiho:1 frame:1 fell:1 remain:1 seven:1 shuchō:1 kinoto:1 hitsuji:1 third:1 taka:1 yield:1 consort:1 childrenbunin:1 藤原宮子:1 首皇子:1 hin:2 ki:1 kamado:1 iratsume:2 紀竃門娘:1 ishikawa:1 tone:1 石川刀子娘:1 hironari:1 広成皇子:1 hiroyo:1 広世皇子:1 reference:1 ichirō:1 ed:3 jien:1 c:1 future:1 past:1 study:1 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 isbn:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 chronicle:1 god:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 list:1 cult:1 |@bigram emperor_mommu:5 hepburn_romanization:1 homorganic_consonant:1 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 brown_delmer:2 delmer_et:1 et_al:1 varley_h:2 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 genealogy_ascension:1 ascension_chrysanthemum:1 chrysanthemum_throne:1 imina_brown:1 emperor_jomei:1 jomei_personal:1 emperor_imina:1 diminish_jomei:1 jomei_reign:1 emperor_temmu:2 empress_jitō:3 prince_kusakabe:2 emperor_tenji:2 accede_throne:2 abdicate_succession:1 succession_senso:1 shortly_thereafter:1 throne_sokui:1 sokui_titsingh:1 senso_unrecognized:1 unrecognized_prior:1 tenji_sovereign:1 except_jitō:1 jitō_yōzei:1 yōzei_go:1 toba_fushimi:1 fushimi_senso:1 senso_sokui:1 go_murakami:1 daughter_fujiwara:2 mommu_reign:5 公卿_collective:1 pre_meiji:1 hereditary_courtier:1 apex_daijō:1 daijō_kan:1 daijō_daijin:1 nengō_titsingh:2 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
7,511 | Kinetic_energy | The cars of a roller coaster reach their maximum kinetic energy when at the bottom of their path. When they start rising, the kinetic energy begins to be converted to gravitational potential energy. The sum of kinetic and potential energy in the system remains constant, assuming negligible losses to friction. The kinetic energy of an object is the extra energy which it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its current velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. Negative work of the same magnitude would be required to return the body to a state of rest from that velocity. Kinetic energy for single objects is completely frame-dependent (relative). For example, a bullet racing by a non-moving observer has kinetic energy in the reference frame of this observer, but the same bullet has zero kinetic energy in the reference frame which moves with the bullet. The kinetic energy of systems of objects, however, may sometimes not be completely removable by simple choice of reference frame. When this is the case, a residual minimum kinetic energy remains in the system as seen by all observers, and this kinetic energy (if present) contributes to the system's invariant mass, which is seen as the same value in all reference frames, and by all observers. History and Etymology The adjective "kinetic" has its roots in the Greek word κίνηση (kinesis) meaning "motion" – the same root as in the word cinema (referring to motion pictures). The principle in classical mechanics that E ∝ mv² was first theorized by Gottfried Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli, who described kinetic energy as the "living force", vis viva. Willem 's Gravesande of the Netherlands provided experimental evidence of this relationship. By dropping weights from different heights into a block of clay, 's Gravesande determined that their penetration depth was proportional to the square of their impact speed. Émilie du Châtelet recognized the implications of the experiment and published an explanation. Judith P. Zinsser Emilie Du Chatelet: Daring Genius of the Enlightenment Penguin, 2007. The terms "kinetic energy" and "work" with their present scientific meanings date back to the mid 19th century. Early understandings of these ideas can be attributed to Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis who in 1829 published the paper titled Du Calcul de l'Effet des Machines outlining the mathematics of kinetic energy. William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin, is given the credit for coining the term "kinetic energy" c. 1849 - 1851. Crosbie Smith, M. Norton Wise. Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin. Cambridge University Press, 866 pp. John Theodore Merz. A History of European thought in the Nineteenth Century. Blackwood, 1912, p. 139. Introduction There are various forms of energy: chemical energy, heat, electromagnetic radiation, potential energy (gravitational, electric, elastic, etc.), nuclear energy, rest energy. These can be categorized in two main classes: potential energy and kinetic energy. Kinetic energy can be best understood by examples that demonstrate how it is transformed to and from other forms of energy. For example, a cyclist will use chemical energy that was provided by food to accelerate a bicycle to a chosen speed. This speed can be maintained without further work, except to overcome air-resistance and friction. The energy has been converted into kinetic energy – the energy of motion – but the process is not completely efficient and heat is also produced within the cyclist. The kinetic energy in the moving cyclist and the bicycle can be converted to other forms. For example, the cyclist could encounter a hill just high enough to coast up, so that the bicycle comes to a complete halt at the top. The kinetic energy has now largely been converted to gravitational potential energy that can be released by freewheeling down the other side of the hill. (Since the bicycle lost some of its energy to friction, it will never regain all of its speed without further pedaling. Note that the energy is not destroyed; it has only been converted to another form by friction.) Alternatively the cyclist could connect a dynamo to one of the wheels and also generate some electrical energy on the descent. The bicycle would be traveling more slowly at the bottom of the hill because some of the energy has been diverted into making electrical power. Another possibility would be for the cyclist to apply the brakes, in which case the kinetic energy would be dissipated through friction as thermal energy. Like any physical quantity which is a function of velocity, the kinetic energy of an object depends on the relationship between the object and the observer's frame of reference. Thus the kinetic energy of an object is not invariant. Examples Spacecraft use chemical energy to take off and gain considerable kinetic energy to reach orbital velocity. This kinetic energy gained during launch will remain constant while in orbit because there is almost no friction. However it becomes apparent at re-entry when the kinetic energy is converted to heat. Kinetic energy can be passed from one object to another. In the game of billiards, the player gives kinetic energy to the cue ball by striking it with the cue stick. If the cue ball collides with another ball, it will slow down dramatically and the ball it collided with will accelerate to a speed as the kinetic energy is passed on to it. Collisions in billiards are effectively elastic collisions, where (by definition) kinetic energy is preserved. In inelastic collisions, kinetic energy is dissipated as: heat, sound, binding energy (breaking bound structures), or other kinds of energy. Flywheels are being developed as a method of energy storage (see Flywheel energy storage). This illustrates that kinetic energy can also be rotational. Calculations There are several different equations that may be used to calculate the kinetic energy of an object. In many cases they give almost the same answer to well within measurable accuracy. Where they differ, the choice of which to use is determined by the velocity of the body or its size. Thus, if the object is moving at a velocity much smaller than the speed of light, the Newtonian (classical) mechanics will be sufficiently accurate; but if the speed is comparable to the speed of light, relativity starts to make significant differences to the result and should be used. If the size of the object is sub-atomic, the quantum mechanical equation is most appropriate. Newtonian kinetic energy Kinetic energy of rigid bodies In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a point object (an object so small that its mass can be assumed to exist at one point), or a non-rotating rigid body, is given by the equation where is the mass and is the speed of the body. In units (used for most modern scientific work), mass is measured in kilograms, speed in metres per second, and the resulting kinetic energy is in joules. For example, one would calculate the kinetic energy of an 80 kg mass traveling at 18 meters per second (40 mph) as Note that the kinetic energy increases with the square of the speed. This means, for example, that an object traveling twice as fast will have four times as much kinetic energy. As a result of this, a car traveling twice as fast requires four times as much distance to stop (assuming a constant braking force. See mechanical work). The kinetic energy of an object is related to its momentum by the equation: where: is momentum is mass of the body For the translational kinetic energy, that is the kinetic energy associated with rectilinear motion, of a body with constant mass , whose center of mass is moving in a straight line with speed , as seen above is equal to where: is mass of the body is speed of the center of mass of the body. The kinetic energy of any entity is unique to the reference frame in which it is measured. An isolated system is one for which energy can neither enter nor leave, and has a total energy which is unchanging over time as measured in any reference frame. Thus, the chemical energy converted to kinetic energy by a rocket engine will be divided differently between the rocket ship and its exhaust stream depending upon the chosen reference frame. This is called the Oberth effect. But the total energy of the system (including kinetic energy, fuel chemical energy, heat energy, etc) will be conserved over time, regardless of the choice of reference frame. However, different observers moving with different reference frames will disagree on the value of this conserved energy. In addition, although the energy of such systems is dependent on the choice of reference frame, the minimal total energy which is seen in any frame will be the total energy seen by observers in the center of momentum frame; this minimal energy corresponds to the invariant mass of the aggregate. The calculated value of this invariant mass compensates for changing energy in different frames, and is thus the same for all frames and observers. Derivation The work done accelerating a particle during the infinitesimal time interval dt is given by the dot product of force and displacement: Applying the product rule we see that: Therefore (assuming constant mass), the following can be seen: Since this is a total differential (that is, it only depends on the final state, not how the particle got there), we can integrate it and call the result kinetic energy: This equation states that the kinetic energy (Ek) is equal to the integral of the dot product of the velocity (v) of a body and the infinitesimal change of the body's momentum (p). It is assumed that the body starts with no kinetic energy when it is at rest (motionless). Rotating bodies If a rigid body is rotating about any line through the center of mass then it has rotational kinetic energy () which is simply the sum of the kinetic energies of its moving parts, and is thus given by: where: ω is the body's angular velocity r is the distance of any mass dm from that line is the body's moment of inertia, equal to . (In this equation the moment of inertia must be taken about an axis through the center of mass and the rotation measured by ω must be around that axis; more general equations exist for systems where the object is subject to wobble due to its eccentric shape). Kinetic energy of systems A system of bodies may have internal kinetic energy due to macroscopic movements of the bodies in the system. For example, in the Solar System the planets and planetoids are orbiting the Sun. The kinetic energy of a system at any instant in time is the sum of the kinetic energies of the bodies it contains. A body that is stationary and not rotating nevertheless has internal energy, which is partly kinetic energy, due to molecular translation, rotation, and vibration, electron translation and spin, and nuclear spin. When discussing movements of macroscopic bodies the kinetic energies referred to are usually those of the macroscopic movements only. Frame of reference The total kinetic energy of a system depends on the inertial frame of reference: it is the sum of the total kinetic energy in a center of momentum frame and the kinetic energy the total mass would have if it were concentrated in the center of mass. This may be simply shown: let V be the relative speed of the frame k from the center of mass frame i : However, let the kinetic energy in the center of mass frame, would be simply the total momentum which is by definition zero in the center of mass frame, and let the total mass: . Substituting, we get: Physics notes - Kinetic energy in the CM frame. Duke.edu. Accessed 2007-11-24. Thus the kinetic energy of a system is lowest with respect to center of momentum reference frames, i.e., frames of reference in which the center of mass is stationary (either the center of mass frame or any other center of momentum frame). In any other frame of reference there is additional kinetic energy corresponding to the total mass moving at the speed of the center of mass. The kinetic energy of the system in the center of momentum frame contributes to the invariant mass of the system, and this total mass is a quantity which is both invariant (all observers see it to be the same) and is conserved (in an isolated system, it cannot change value, no matter what happens inside the system). Rotation in systems It sometimes is convenient to split the total kinetic energy of a body into the sum of the body's center-of-mass translational kinetic energy and the energy of rotation around the center of mass (rotational energy): where: Ek is the total kinetic energy Et is the translational kinetic energy Er is the rotational energy or angular kinetic energy in the rest frame Thus the kinetic energy of a tennis ball in flight is the kinetic energy due to its rotation, plus the kinetic energy due to its translation. Relativistic kinetic energy of rigid bodies In special relativity, we must change the expression for linear momentum. Integrating by parts, we get: Remembering that , we get: And thus: The constant of integration is found by observing that and when , so we get the usual formula: If a body's speed is a significant fraction of the speed of light, it is necessary to use relativistic mechanics (the theory of relativity as expounded by Albert Einstein) to calculate its kinetic energy. For a relativistic object the momentum p is equal to: , where m is the rest mass, v is the object's speed, and c is the speed of light in vacuum. Thus the work expended accelerating an object from rest to a relativistic speed is: . The equation shows that the energy of an object approaches infinity as the velocity v approaches the speed of light c, thus it is impossible to accelerate an object across this boundary. The mathematical by-product of this calculation is the mass-energy equivalence formula—the body at rest must have energy content equal to: At a low speed (v<<c), the relativistic kinetic energy may be approximated well by the classical kinetic energy. This is done by binomial approximation. Indeed, taking Taylor expansion for square root and keeping first two terms we get: , So, the total energy E can be partitioned into the energy of the rest mass plus the traditional Newtonian kinetic energy at low speeds. When objects move at a speed much slower than light (e.g. in everyday phenomena on Earth), the first two terms of the series predominate. The next term in the approximation is small for low speeds, and can be found by extending the expansion into a Taylor series by one more term: . For example, for a speed of 10 km/s the correction to the Newtonian kinetic energy is 0.07 J/kg (on a Newtonian kinetic energy of 50 MJ/kg) and for a speed of 100 km/s it is 710 J/kg (on a Newtonian kinetic energy of 5 GJ/kg), etc. For higher speeds, the formula for the relativistic kinetic energy In Einstein's original Über die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie (Zu Seite 41) and in most translations (e.g. Relativity - The Special and General Theory) kinetic energy is defined as . is derived by simply subtracting the rest mass energy from the total energy: . The relation between kinetic energy and momentum is more complicated in this case, and is given by the equation: . This can also be expanded as a Taylor series, the first term of which is the simple expression from Newtonian mechanics. What this suggests is that the formulas for energy and momentum are not special and axiomatic, but rather concepts which emerge from the equation of mass with energy and the principles of relativity. Quantum mechanical kinetic energy of rigid bodies In the realm of quantum mechanics, the expectation value of the electron kinetic energy, , for a system of electrons described by the wavefunction is a sum of 1-electron operator expectation values: where is the mass of the electron and is the Laplacian operator acting upon the coordinates of the ith electron and the summation runs over all electrons. Notice that this is the quantized version of the non-relativistic expression for kinetic energy in terms of momentum: The density functional formalism of quantum mechanics requires knowledge of the electron density only, i.e., it formally does not require knowledge of the wavefunction. Given an electron density , the exact N-electron kinetic energy functional is unknown; however, for the specific case of a 1-electron system, the kinetic energy can be written as where is known as the von Weizsäcker kinetic energy functional. See also Escape velocity Joule Parallel axis theorem Kinetic energy per unit mass of projectiles Kinetic projectile Recoil KE-Munitions Notes References Oxford Dictionary 1998 be-x-old:Кінэтычная энэргія | Kinetic_energy |@lemmatized car:2 roller:1 coaster:1 reach:2 maximum:1 kinetic:93 energy:141 bottom:2 path:1 start:3 rise:1 begin:1 convert:7 gravitational:3 potential:5 sum:6 system:22 remain:3 constant:6 assume:5 negligible:1 loss:1 friction:6 object:21 extra:1 possess:1 due:6 motion:5 define:2 work:8 need:1 accelerate:6 body:29 give:9 mass:38 rest:10 current:1 velocity:10 gain:3 acceleration:1 maintain:2 unless:1 speed:29 change:5 negative:1 magnitude:1 would:7 require:4 return:1 state:3 single:1 completely:3 frame:31 dependent:2 relative:2 example:9 bullet:3 racing:1 non:3 move:8 observer:9 reference:17 zero:2 however:5 may:5 sometimes:2 removable:1 simple:2 choice:4 case:5 residual:1 minimum:1 see:11 present:2 contribute:2 invariant:6 value:6 history:2 etymology:1 adjective:1 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7,512 | Nathaniel_Hawthorne | Nathaniel Hawthorne (born Nathaniel Hathorne; July 4, 1804 – May 19, 1864) was an American novelist and short story writer. Nathaniel Hathorne was born in 1804 in the city of Salem, Massachusetts to Nathaniel Hathorne and Elizabeth Clarke Manning Hathorne. He later changed his name to "Hawthorne", adding a "w" to dissociate from relatives including John Hathorne, a judge during the Salem Witch Trials. Hawthorne attended Bowdoin College and graduated in 1825; his classmates included future president Franklin Pierce and future poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Hawthorne anonymously published his first work, a novel titled Fanshawe, in 1828. He published several short stories in various periodicals which he collected in 1837 as Twice-Told Tales. The next year, he became engaged to Sophia Peabody. He worked at a Custom House and joined a Transcendentalist utopian community before marrying Peabody in 1842. The couple moved to The Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, later moving to Salem, the Berkshires, then to The Wayside in Concord. The Scarlet Letter was published in 1850, followed by a succession of other novels. A political appointment took Hawthorne and family to Europe before their return to The Wayside in 1860. Hawthorne died on May 19, 1864, leaving behind his wife and their three children. Much of Hawthorne's writing centers around New England, many works featuring moral allegories with a Puritan inspiration. His fiction works are considered part of the Romantic movement and, more specifically, dark romanticism. His themes often center on the inherent evil and sin of humanity and his works often have moral messages and deep psychological complexity. His published works include novels, short stories, and a biography of his friend Franklin Pierce. Biography Early life Nathaniel Hawthorne, 1840 Nathaniel Hawthorne was born on July 4, 1804, in Salem, Massachusetts; his birthplace is preserved and open to the public. Haas, Irvin. Historic Homes of American Authors. Washington, DC: The Preservation Press, 1991: 118. ISBN 0891331808. William Hathorne, the author's great-great-great-grandfather, a Puritan, was the first of the family to emigrate from England, first settling in Dorchester, Massachusetts before moving to Salem. There he became an important member of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and held many political positions including magistrate and judge, becoming infamous for his harsh sentencing. Miller, 20–21 William's son and the author's great-great-grandfather, John Hathorne, was one of the judges who oversaw the Salem Witch Trials. Having learned about this, the author may have added the "w" to his surname in his early twenties, shortly after graduating from college, in an effort to dissociate himself from his notorious forebears. McFarland, 18 Hawthorne's father, Nathaniel Hathorne, Sr., was a sea captain who died in 1808 of yellow fever in Suriname; Wineapple, Brenda. "Nathaniel Hawthorne 1804-1864: A Brief Biography", collected in A Historical Guide to Nathaniel Hawthorne, Larry J. Reynolds, editor. Oxford University Press, 2001: 14. ISBN 0195124146. after his death, young Nathaniel, his mother and two sisters moved in with maternal relatives, the Mannings, in Salem, where they lived for ten years. Wineapple, Brenda. "Nathaniel Hawthorne 1804-1864: A Brief Biography", collected in A Historical Guide to Nathaniel Hawthorne, Larry J. Reynolds, editor. Oxford University Press, 2001: 14–15. ISBN 0195124146. During this time, on November 10, 1813, young Hawthorne was hit on the leg while playing "bat and ball" Miller, 47 and became lame and bedridden for a year, though several physicians could find nothing wrong with him. Mellow, 18 In the summer of 1816, the family lived as boarders with farmers Mellow, 20 before moving to a home recently built specifically for them by Hawthorne's uncles Richard and Robert Manning in Raymond, Maine, near Sebago Lake. Miller, 50 Years later, Hawthorne looked back at his time in Maine fondly: "Those were delightful days, for that part of the country was wild then, with only scattered clearings, and nine tenths of it primeval woods". Mellow, 21 In 1819, he was sent back to Salem for school and soon complained of homesickness and being too far from his mother and sisters. Mellow, 22 In spite of his homesickness, for fun, he distributed to his family seven issues of The Spectator in August and September 1820. The homemade newspaper was written by hand and included essays, poems, and news utilizing the young author's developing adolescent humor. Miller, 57 Hawthorne's uncle Robert Manning insisted, despite Hawthorne's protests, that the boy attend college. Edwards, Herbert. "Nathaniel Hawthorne in Maine", 'Downeast Magazine', 1962 With the financial support of his uncle, Hawthorne was sent to Bowdoin College in 1821, partly because of family connections in the area. Wineapple, Brenda. "Nathaniel Hawthorne 1804-1864: A Brief Biography", collected in A Historical Guide to Nathaniel Hawthorne, Larry J. Reynolds, editor. Oxford University Press, 2001: 16. ISBN 0195124146. On the way to Bowdoin, at the stage stop in Portland, Hawthorne met future president Franklin Pierce and the two became fast friends. Once at the school, he also met the future poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, future congressman Jonathan Cilley, and future naval reformer Horatio Bridge. Cheever, 99 Years after his graduation with the class of 1825, he would describe his college experience to Richard Henry Stoddard: Early career Hawthorne was offered an appointment as weigher and gauger at the Boston Custom House at a salary of $1,500 a year, which he accepted on January 17, 1837. Miller, 169 During his time there, he rented a room from George Stillman Hillard, business partner of Charles Sumner. Mellow, 169 Hawthorne wrote in the comparative obscurity of what he called his "owl's nest" in the family home. As he looked back on this period of his life, he wrote: "I have not lived, but only dreamed about living". Letter to Longfellow, June 4, 1837. He contributed short stories, including "Young Goodman Brown" and "The Minister's Black Veil", to various magazines and annuals, though none drew major attention to the author. Horatio Bridge offered to cover the risk of collecting these stories in the spring of 1837 into one volume, Twice-Told Tales, which made Hawthorne known locally. McFarland, 22–23 Marriage and family Salem Custom-House where Hawthorne worked While at Bowdoin, Hawthorne had bet his friend Jonathan Cilley a bottle of Madeira wine that he would not be married in 12 years. Manning Hawthorne, "Nathaniel Hawthorne at Bowdoin", The New England Quarterly, Vol. 13, No. 2 (Jun., 1940): 246-279. By 1836 he had won the wager, but did not remain a bachelor for life. After public flirtations with local women Mary Silsbee and Elizabeth Peabody, Cheever, 102 he had become engaged in 1836 to the latter's sister, illustrator and transcendentalist Sophia Peabody. Seeking a possible home for himself and Sophia, he joined the transcendentalist Utopian community at Brook Farm in 1841 not because he agreed with the experiment but because it helped him save money to marry Sophia. McFarland, 83 He paid a $1,000 deposit and was put in charge of shoveling the hill of manure referred to as "the Gold Mine". Cheever, 104 He left later that year, though his Brook Farm adventure would prove an inspiration for his novel The Blithedale Romance. McFarland, 149 Hawthorne married Sophia Peabody on July 9, 1842, Wineapple, Brenda. "Nathaniel Hawthorne 1804-1864: A Brief Biography", A Historical Guide to Nathaniel Hawthorne, Larry J. Reynolds, ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001: 24. ISBN 0195124146. at a ceremony in the Peabody parlor. Cheever, 108 The couple moved to The Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, McFarland, 25 where they lived for three years. There he wrote most of the tales collected in Mosses from an Old Manse. Miller, 246–247 Like Hawthorne, Sophia was a reclusive person. Throughout her early life, she had frequent migraines and underwent several experimental medical treatments. Mellow, 6–7 She was mostly bedridden until her sister introduced her to Hawthorne, after which her headaches seem to have abated. The Hawthornes enjoyed a long marriage, often taking walks in the park. Of his wife, who he referred to as his "Dove", Hawthorne wrote that she "is, in the strictest sense, my sole companion; and I need no other—there is no vacancy in my mind, any more than in my heart... Thank God that I suffice for her boundless heart!" McFarland, 87 Sophia greatly admired her husband's work. In one of her journals, she writes: "I am always so dazzled and bewildered with the richness, the depth, the... jewels of beauty in his productions that I am always looking forward to a second reading where I can ponder and muse and fully take in the miraculous wealth of thoughts". January 14, 1851, Journal of Sophia Hawthorne. Berg Collection NY Public Library. Nathaniel and Sophia Hawthorne had three children. Their first, a daughter, was born March 3, 1844, and named Una, a reference to The Faerie Queene, to the displeasure of family members. McFarland, 97 In 1846, their son Julian was born. Hawthorne wrote to his sister Louisa on June 22, 1846, with the news: "A small troglodyte made his appearance here at ten minutes to six o'clock this morning, who claimed to be your nephew". Mellow, 273 Their final child, Rose, was born in May 1851. Hawthorne called her "my autumnal flower". Miller, 343–344 Middle years In April 1846, Hawthorne was officially appointed as the "Surveyor for the District of Salem and Beverly and Inspector of the Revenue for the Port of Salem" at an annual salary of $1,200. Miller, 242 He had difficulty writing during this period, as he admitted to Longfellow: "I am trying to resume my pen... Whenever I sit alone, or walk alone, I find myself dreaming about stories, as of old; but these forenoons in the Custom House undo all that the afternoons and evenings have done. I should be happier if I could write". Miller, 265 Like his earlier appointment to the custom house in Boston, this employment was vulnerable to the politics of the spoils system. A Democrat, Hawthorne lost this job due to the change of administration in Washington after the presidential election of 1848. Hawthorne wrote a letter of protest to the Boston Daily Advertiser which was attacked by the Whigs and supported by the Democrats, making Hawthorne's dismissal a much-talked about event in New England. Cheever, 179 Hawthorne was deeply affected by the death of his mother shortly thereafter in late July, calling it, "the darkest hour I ever lived". Cheever, 180 Hawthorne was appointed the corresponding secretary of the Salem Lyceum in 1848. Guests that came to speak that season included Emerson, Thoreau, Louis Agassiz and Theodore Parker. Miller, 264–265 Hawthorne returned to writing and published The Scarlet Letter in mid-March 1850, Miller, 300 including a preface which refers to his three-year tenure in the Custom House and makes several allusions to local politicians, who did not appreciate their treatment. Mellow, 316 One of the first mass-produced books in America, it sold 2,500 volumes within ten days and earned Hawthorne $1,500 over 14 years. McFarland, 136 The book became an immediate best-seller Cheever, 181 and initiated his most lucrative period as a writer. One of Hawthorne's friends, the critic Edwin Percy Whipple, objected to the novel's "morbid intensity" and its dense psychological details, writing that the book "is therefore apt to become, like Hawthorne, too painfully anatomical in his exhibition of them", Miller, 301–302 though 20th century writer D. H. Lawrence said that there could be no more perfect work of the American imagination than The Scarlet Letter. Miller, 284 Hawthorne and his family moved to a small red farmhouse near Lenox, Massachusetts at the end of March 1850. Miller, 274 Hawthorne became friends with Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. and Herman Melville beginning on August 5, 1850, when the authors met at a picnic hosted by a mutual friend. Cheever, 174 Melville had just read Hawthorne's short story collection Mosses from an Old Manse, and his unsigned review of the collection, titled "Hawthorne and His Mosses", was printed in the Literary World on August 17 and August 24. Miller, 312 Melville, who was composing Moby-Dick at the time, wrote that these stories revealed a dark side to Hawthorne, "shrouded in blackness, ten times black". Mellow, 335 Melville dedicated Moby-Dick (1851) to Hawthorne: "In token of my admiration for his genius, this book is inscribed to Nathaniel Hawthorne." Mellow, 382 Hawthorne's time in The Berkshires was very productive. Wright, John Hardy. Hawthorne's Haunts in New England. Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2008: 93. ISBN 978-1-59629-425-7 The House of the Seven Gables (1851), which poet and critic James Russell Lowell said was better than The Scarlet Letter and called "the most valuable contribution to New England history that has been made" Mellow, 368–369 and The Blithedale Romance (1852), his only work written in the first person, were written here. He also published in 1851 a collection of short stories retelling myths, A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys, a book he had been thinking about writing since 1846. Miller, 345 Though the family enjoyed the scenery of The Berkshires, Hawthorne did not enjoy the winters in their small red house. They left on November 21, 1851. Later years Grave of Nathaniel Hawthorne In 1852, the Hawthornes returned to Concord. In February, they bought The Hillside, a home previously inhabited by Amos Bronson Alcott and his family, and renamed it The Wayside. McFarland, 129–130 Their neighbors in Concord included Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. McFarland, 182 That year Hawthorne wrote the campaign biography of his friend Franklin Pierce, depicting him as "a man of peaceful pursuits" in the book The Life of Franklin Pierce. Miller, 381 Horace Mann said, "if he makes out Pierce to be a great man or a brave man, it will be the greatest work of fiction he ever wrote". In the biography, Hawthorne left out Pierce's drinking habits despite rumors of his alcoholism Mellow, 412 and emphasized Pierce's belief that slavery could not "be remedied by human contrivances" but would, over time, "vanish like a dream". Miller, 382–383 With Pierce's election as President, Hawthorne was rewarded in 1853 with the position of United States consul in Liverpool shortly after the publication of Tanglewood Tales. McFarland, 186 The role, considered the most lucrative foreign service position at the time, was described by Hawthorne's wife as "second in dignity to the Embassy in London". Mellow, 415 In 1857, his appointment ended and the Hawthorne family toured France and Italy. During his time in Italy, the previously clean-shaven Hawthorne grew a bushy mustache. McFarland, 210 The family returned to The Wayside in 1860, McFarland, 206 and that year saw the publication of The Marble Faun, his first new book in seven years. Mellow, 520 Failing health prevented him from completing several more romances. Hawthorne died in his sleep on May 19, 1864, in Plymouth, New Hampshire while on a tour of the White Mountains with Pierce. Pierce sent a telegram to Elizabeth Peabody to inform Hawthorne's wife in person; she was too saddened by the news to handle the funeral arrangements herself. Miller, 518 Longfellow wrote a tribute poem to Hawthorne, published in 1866, called "The Bells of Lynn". Wagenknecht, Edward. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: Portrait of an American Humanist. New York: Oxford University Press, 1966: 9. Hawthorne was buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord, Massachusetts. Pallbearers included Longfellow, Emerson, Holmes, Alcott, James Thomas Fields, and Edwin Percy Whipple. Baker, Carlos. Emerson Among the Eccentrics: A Group Portrait. New York: Viking Press, 1996: 448. ISBN 0-670-86675-X. After their respective deaths, wife Sophia and daughter Una were originally buried in England. However, in June 2006, they were re-interred in plots adjacent to Hawthorne. Mishra, Raja and Sally Heaney. "Hawthornes to be reunited", The Boston Globe. June 1, 2006. Accessed July 4, 2008 Writings Statue of Hawthorne in Salem, Massachusetts. Literary style and themes Hawthorne is best known today for his many short stories (he called them "tales") and his four major romances written between 1850 and 1860: The Scarlet Letter (1850), The House of the Seven Gables (1851), The Blithedale Romance (1852) and The Marble Faun (1860). Another novel-length romance, Fanshawe was published anonymously in 1828. Hawthorne defined a romance as being radically different from a novel by not being concerned with the possible or probable course of ordinary experience. Porte, 95 Many of his works are inspired by Puritan New England, Bell, Michael Davitt. Hawthorne and the Historical Romance of New England. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980: 173. ISBN 0-691-06136-X combining historical romance loaded with symbolism and deep psychological themes, bordering on surrealism. Howe, Daniel Walker. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007: 633. ISBN 978-0-19-507894-7 Hawthorne's works belong to romanticism or, more specifically, dark romanticism, Reynolds, David S. Beneath the American Renaissance: The Subversive Imagination in the Age of Emerson and Melville. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988: 524. ISBN 0674065654 cautionary tales that suggest that guilt, sin, and evil are the most inherent natural qualities of humanity. Wayne, Tiffany K. "Nathaniel Hawthorne", Encyclopedia of Transcendentalism. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2006: 140. ISBN 0816056269 His later writings would also reflect his negative view of the Transcendentalism movement. Galens, David, ed. Literary Movements for Students, Vol. 1. Detroit: Thompson Gale, 2002: 319. ISBN 0787665177 Criticism Contemporary response to Hawthorne's work praised his sentimentality and moral purity while more modern evaluations focus on the dark psychological complexity. Person, Leland S. "Bibliographical Essay: Hawthorne and History", collected in A Historical Guide to Nathaniel Hawthorne. Oxford University Press, 2001: 187. ISBN 0195124146. One of these contemporaries, Edgar Allan Poe, wrote important though largely unflattering reviews of both Twice-Told Tales and Mosses from an Old Manse. Poe's negative assessment was partly due to his own contempt of allegory, moral tales, and his chronic accusations of plagiarism though, he admitted, "The style of Hawthorne is purity itself. His tone is singularly effective—wild, plaintive, thoughtful, and in full accordance with his themes... We look upon him as one of the few men of indisputable genius to whom our country has as yet given birth". McFarland, 88–89 Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote that "Nathaniel Hawthorne's reputation as a writer is a very pleasing act, because his writing is not good for anything, and this is a tribute to the man". Nelson, Randy F. (editor). The Almanac of American Letters. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 150. ISBN 086576008X. Henry James praised Hawthorne, saying, "The fine thing in Hawthorne is that he cared for the deeper psychology, and that, in his way, he tried to become familiar with it". Porte, 97 Poet John Greenleaf Whittier wrote that he admired the "weird and subtle beauty" in Hawthorne's tales. Woodwell, Roland H. John Greenleaf Whittier: A Biography. Haverhill, Massachusetts: Trustees of the John Greenleaf Whittier Homestead, 1985: 293. Evert Augustus Duyckinck said of Hawthorne, "Of the American writers destined to live, he is the most original, the one least indebted to foreign models or literary precedents of any kind". McFarland, 88 Selected works Novels Fanshawe (published anonymously, 1828) Publication info on books from Editor's Note to the The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Page by Page Books, accessed June 11, 2007. Grandfather's Chair (1840) The Scarlet Letter (1850) The House of the Seven Gables (1851) The Blithedale Romance (1852) The Marble Faun (1860) The Dolliver Romance (1863) Septimius Felton; or, the Elixir of Life (Published in the Atlantic Monthly, 1872) Doctor Grimshawe's Secret: A romance, with Preface and Notes by Julian Hawthorne (1882) Short story collections Twice-Told Tales (1837) Mosses from an Old Manse (1846) The Snow-Image, and Other Twice-Told Tales (1852) A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys (1852) Tanglewood Tales (1853) The Dolliver Romance and Other Pieces (1876) The Great Stone Face and Other Tales of the White Mountains (1889) The Celestial Railroad and Other Short Stories Selected short stories "My Kinsman, Major Molineux" (1832) "Young Goodman Brown" 1835 "The Gray Champion" (1835) "The White Old Maid" (1835) "The Ambitious Guest" (1835) "The Minister's Black Veil" (1836) "The Man of Adamant" (1837) "The Maypole of Merry Mount" (1837) "The Great Carbuncle" (1837) "Dr. Heidegger's Experiment" (1837) "The Birth-Mark" (March 1843) "Egotism; or, The Bosom-Serpent" (1843) "The Artist of the Beautiful" (1844) "Rappaccini's Daughter" (1844) "P.'s Correspondence" (1845) "Ethan Brand" (1850) "Feathertop" (1854) Notes Sources Cheever, Susan (2006). American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. ISBN 078629521X. McFarland, Philip (2004). Hawthorne in Concord. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0802117767. Mellow, James R (1980). Nathaniel Hawthorne in His Times. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-365-27602-0. Miller, Edwin Haviland (1991). Salem Is My Dwelling Place: A Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. ISBN 0877453322. Porte, Joel (1969). The Romance in America: Studies in Cooper, Poe, Hawthorne, Melville, and James. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press. See also Dark romanticism Gothic literature External links Sites Hawthorne Community Association and boyhood home in Raymond, Maine The Wayside in Concord, Massachusetts The House of the Seven Gables in Salem, Massachusetts Works Eldred's Hawthorne site at Eldritch Press Legends of the Province House and Other Twice Told Tales, text and images About Hawthorne The Hawthorne in Salem Website Herman Melville's appreciation, "Hawthorne and His Mosses" (1851) Henry James's book-length study, Hawthorne (1879) Second copy at Project Gutenberg WBUR's celebration of Nathaniel Hawthorne at 200 Hawthorne Family Papers, ca. 1825-1929(1.5 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries | Nathaniel_Hawthorne |@lemmatized nathaniel:29 hawthorne:106 born:1 hathorne:8 july:5 may:6 american:8 novelist:1 short:10 story:13 writer:5 bear:5 city:2 salem:16 massachusetts:13 elizabeth:3 clarke:1 man:7 later:5 change:2 name:2 add:2 w:2 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7,513 | Hipparchus | Hipparchus. Hipparchus or Hipparchus (; c. 190 BC – c. 120 BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician of the Hellenistic period. Hipparchus was born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and probably died on the island of Rhodes. He is known to have been a working astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127 BC. Hipparchus is considered the greatest ancient astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall astronomer of antiquity. He was the first whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive. For this he certainly made use of the observations and perhaps the mathematical techniques accumulated over centuries by the Chaldeans from Babylonia. He developed trigonometry and constructed trigonometric tables, and he has solved several problems of spherical trigonometry. With his solar and lunar theories and his trigonometry, he may have been the first to develop a reliable method to predict solar eclipses. His other reputed achievements include the discovery of precession, the compilation of the first comprehensive star catalog of the western world, and possibly the invention of the astrolabe, also of the armillary sphere which first appeared during his century and was used by him during the creation of much of the star catalogue. It would be three centuries before Claudius Ptolemaeus' synthesis of astronomy would supersede the work of Hipparchus; it is heavily dependent on it in many areas. Life and work Relatively little of Hipparchus' direct work survived into modern times. Although he wrote at least fourteen books, only his commentary on the popular astronomical poem by Aratus was preserved by later copyists. Most of what is known about Hipparchus comes from Ptolemy's (2nd century) Almagest, with additional references to him by Pappus of Alexandria and Theon of Alexandria (ca. 4th century AD) in their commentaries on the Almagest; from Strabo's Geographia ("Geography"), and from Pliny the Elder's Naturalis historia ("Natural history") (1st century AD). For general information on Hipparchus see the following biographical articles: G. J. Toomer, "Hipparchus" (1978); and A. Jones, "Hipparchus." There is a strong tradition that Hipparchus was born in Nicaea (Greek Νικαία), in the ancient district of Bithynia (modern-day Iznik in province Bursa), in what today is Turkey the country. The exact dates of his life are not known, but Ptolemy attributes to him astronomical observations in the period from 147 BC to 127 BC, and some of these are stated as made in Rhodes; earlier observations since 162 BC might also be made by him. The date of his birth (ca. 190 BC) was calculated by Delambre based on clues in his work. Hipparchus must have lived some time after 127 BC because he analyzed and published his latest observations. Hipparchus obtained information from Alexandria as well as Babylon, but it is not known when or if he visited these places. It is not known what Hipparchus' economic means were and how he supported his scientific activities. Also, his appearance is unknown: there are no contemporary portraits. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries coins were made in his honour in Bithynia that bear his name and show him with a globe; this supports the tradition that he was born there. Hipparchus is believed to have died on the island of Rhodes, where he seems to have spent most of his later life. Hipparchus' only preserved work is Τῶν Ἀράτου καὶ Εὐδόξου φαινομένων ἐξήγησις ("Commentary on the Phaenomena of Eudoxus and Aratus"). This is a highly critical commentary in the form of two books on a popular poem by Aratus based on the work by Eudoxus. Modern edition: Karl Manitius (In Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena, Leipzig, 1894). Hipparchus also made a list of his major works, which apparently mentioned about fourteen books, but which is only known from references by later authors. His famous star catalog was incorporated into the one by Ptolemy, and may be almost perfectly reconstructed by subtraction of two and two thirds degrees from the longitudes of Ptolemy's stars. Hipparchus was in the international news in 2005, when it was again proposed (as in 1898) that the data on the celestial globe of Hipparchus or in his star catalog may have been preserved in the only surviving large ancient celestial globe which depicts the constellations with moderate accuracy, the globe carried by the Farnese Atlas. There are a variety of mis-steps D.Rawlins, "Farnese Atlas Celestial Globe, Proposed Astronomical Origins", 2005. in the more ambitious 2005 paper, thus no specialists in the area accept its widely publicized speculation. B. E. Schaefer, "Epoch of the Constellations on the Farnese Atlas and their Origin in Hipparchus's Lost Catalog", Journal for the History of Astronomy, May, 2005 versus Dennis Duke Journal for the History of Astronomy, February, 2006. There is evidence, based on references in non-scientific writers such as Plutarch, that Hipparchus was aware of some physical ideas that we consider Newtonian, and some claim that Newton knew this. Lucio Russo, The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why It Had To Be Reborn, (Berlin: Springer, 2004). ISBN 3-540-20396-6. Babylonian sources Earlier Greek astronomers and mathematicians were influenced by Babylonian astronomy to some extent, for instance the period relations of the Metonic cycle and Saros cycle may have come from Babylonian sources. Hipparchus seems to have been the first to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically For more information see G. J. Toomer, "Hipparchus and Babylonian astronomy." . Except for Timocharis and Aristillus, he was the first Greek known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes (Eratosthenes before him used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts). He also used the Babylonian unit pechus ("cubit") of about 2° or 2.5°. Hipparchus probably compiled a list of Babylonian astronomical observations; G. Toomer, a historian of astronomy, has suggested that Ptolemy's knowledge of eclipse records and other Babylonian observations in the Almagest came from a list made by Hipparchus. Hipparchus' use of Babylonian sources has always been known in a general way, because of Ptolemy's statements. However, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that the synodic and anomalistic periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian ephemerides, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called "System B" (sometimes attributed to Kidinnu). Franz Xaver Kugler, Die Babylonische Mondrechnung ("The Babylonian lunar computation"), Freiburg im Breisgau, 1900. Hipparchus's long draconitic lunar period (5458 months = 5923 draconitic months) also appears a few times in Babylonian records. But the only such tablet explicitly dated is post-Hipparchus so the direction of transmission is not secured. Geometry, trigonometry, and other mathematical techniques Hipparchus is recognised as the first mathematician known to have possessed a trigonometry table, which he needed when computing the eccentricity of the orbits of the Moon and Sun. He tabulated values for the chord function, which gives the length of the chord for each angle. He did this for a circle with a circumference of 21,600 and a radius (rounded) of 3438 units: this circle has a unit length of 1 arc minute along its perimeter. He tabulated the chords for angles with increments of 7.5°. In modern terms, the chord of an angle equals twice the sine of half of the angle, i.e.: chord(A) = 2 sin(A/2). He described the chord table in a work, now lost, called Tōn en kuklōi eutheiōn (Of Lines Inside a Circle) by Theon of Alexandria (4th century) in his commentary on the Almagest I.10; some claim his table may have survived in astronomical treatises in India, for instance the Surya Siddhanta. Trigonometry was a significant innovation, because it allowed Greek astronomers to solve any triangle, and made it possible to make quantitative astronomical models and predictions using their preferred geometric techniques. Toomer, "The Chord Table of Hipparchus" (1973). For his chord table Hipparchus must have used a better approximation for than the one from Archimedes of between 3 + 1/7 and 3 + 10/71; perhaps he had the one later used by Ptolemy: 3;8:30 (sexagesimal) (Almagest VI.7); but it is not known if he computed an improved value himself. Hipparchus could construct his chord table using the Pythagorean theorem and a theorem known to Archimedes. He also might have developed and used the theorem in plane geometry called Ptolemy's theorem, because it was proved by Ptolemy in his Almagest (I.10) (later elaborated on by Carnot). Hipparchus was the first to show that the stereographic projection is conformal, and that it transforms circles on the sphere that do not pass through the center of projection to circles on the plane. This was the basis for the astrolabe. Besides geometry, Hipparchus also used arithmetic techniques developed by the Chaldeans. He was one of the first Greek mathematicians to do this, and in this way expanded the techniques available to astronomers and geographers. There are several indications that Hipparchus knew spherical trigonometry, but the first surviving text of it is that of Menelaus of Alexandria in the 1st century, who on that basis is now commonly credited with its discovery. (Previous to the finding of the proofs of Menelaus a century ago, Ptolemy was credited with the invention of spherical trigonometry.) Ptolemy later used spherical trigonometry to compute things like the rising and setting points of the ecliptic, or to take account of the lunar parallax. Hipparchus may have used a globe for these tasks, reading values off coordinate grids drawn on it, or he may have made approximations from planar geometry, or perhaps used arithmetical approximations developed by the Chaldeans. Or perhaps he used spherical trigonometry. Lunar and solar theory Motion of the Moon Hipparchus also studied the motion of the Moon and confirmed the accurate values for two periods of its motion that Chaldean astronomers certainly possessed before him, whatever their ultimate origin. The traditional value (from Babylonian System B) for the mean synodic month is 29 days;31,50,8,20 (sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... d. Expressed as 29 days + 12 hours + 793/1080 hours this value has been used later in the Hebrew calendar (possibly from Babylonian sources). The Chaldeans also knew that 251 synodic months = 269 anomalistic months. Hipparchus used an extension of this period by a factor of 17, because after that interval the Moon also would have a similar latitude, and it is close to an integer number of years (345). Therefore, eclipses would reappear under almost identical circumstances. The period is 126007 days 1 hour (rounded). Hipparchus could confirm his computations by comparing eclipses from his own time (presumably 27 January 141 BC and 26 November 139 BC according to [Toomer 1980]), with eclipses from Babylonian records 345 years earlier (Almagest IV.2; [A.Jones, 2001]). Already al-Biruni (Qanun VII.2.II) and Copernicus (de revolutionibus IV.4) noted that the period of 4,267 lunations is actually about 5 minutes longer than the value for the eclipse period that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus. However, the timing methods of the Babylonians had an error of no less than 8 minutes Stephenson & Fatoohi 1993; Steele et al. 1997 . Modern scholars agree that Hipparchus rounded the eclipse period to the nearest hour, and used it to confirm the validity of the traditional values, rather than try to derive an improved value from his own observations. From modern ephemerides Chapront et al. 2002 and taking account of the change in the length of the day (see ΔT) we estimate that the error in the assumed length of the synodic month was less than 0.2 seconds in the 4th century BC and less than 0.1 seconds in Hipparchus' time Orbit of the Moon It had been known for a long time that the motion of the Moon is not uniform: its speed varies. This is called its anomaly, and it repeats with its own period; the anomalistic month. The Chaldeans took account of this arithmetically, and used a table giving the daily motion of the Moon according to the date within a long period. The Greeks however preferred to think in geometrical models of the sky. Apollonius of Perga had at the end of the 3rd century BC proposed two models for lunar and planetary motion: In the first, the Moon would move uniformly along a circle, but the Earth would be eccentric, i.e., at some distance of the center of the circle. So the apparent angular speed of the Moon (and its distance) would vary. The Moon itself would move uniformly (with some mean motion in anomaly) on a secondary circular orbit, called an epicycle, that itself would move uniformly (with some mean motion in longitude) over the main circular orbit around the Earth, called deferent; see deferent and epicycle. Apollonius demonstrated that these two models were in fact mathematically equivalent. However, all this was theory and had not been put to practice. Hipparchus was the first astronomer we know attempted to determine the relative proportions and actual sizes of these orbits. Hipparchus devised a geometrical method to find the parameters from three positions of the Moon, at particular phases of its anomaly. In fact, he did this separately for the eccentric and the epicycle model. Ptolemy describes the details in the Almagest IV.11. Hipparchus used two sets of three lunar eclipse observations, which he carefully selected to satisfy the requirements. The eccentric model he fitted to these eclipses from his Babylonian eclipse list: 22/23 December 383 BC, 18/19 June 382 BC, and 12/13 December 382 BC. The epicycle model he fitted to lunar eclipse observations made in Alexandria at 22 September 201 BC, 19 March 200 BC, and 11 September 200 BC. For the eccentric model, Hipparchus found for the ratio between the radius of the eccenter and the distance between the center of the eccenter and the center of the ecliptic (i.e., the observer on Earth): 3144 : 327+2/3 ; and for the epicycle model, the ratio between the radius of the deferent and the epicycle: 3122+1/2 : 247+1/2 . The somewhat weird numbers are due to the cumbersome unit he used in his chord table according to one group of historians, who explain their reconstruction's inability to agree with these four numbers as partly due to some sloppy rounding and calculation errors by Hipparchus, for which Ptolemy criticised him (he himself made rounding errors too). A simpler alternate reconstruction Summarized in Hugh Thurston (2002): Isis 93, 58-69. agrees with all four numbers. Anyway, Hipparchus found inconsistent results; he later used the ratio of the epicycle model (3122+1/2 : 247+1/2), which is too small (60 : 4;45 hexadecimal). Ptolemy established a ratio of 60 : 5+1/4. Toomer, 1967 . Apparent motion of the Sun Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euctemon, and their pupils at Athens had made a solstice observation (i.e., timed the moment of the summer solstice) on June 27, 432 BC (proleptic Julian calendar). Aristarchus of Samos is said to have done so in 280 BC, and Hipparchus also had an observation by Archimedes. Hipparchus himself observed the summer solstice in 135 BC, but he found observations of the moment of equinox more accurate, and he made many during his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an extensive discussion of Hipparchus' work on the length of the year in the Almagest III.1, and quotes many observations that Hipparchus made or used, spanning 162 BC to 128 BC. Ptolemy quotes an equinox timing by Hipparchus (at 24 March 146 BC at dawn) that differs by 5h from the observation made on Alexandria's large public equatorial ring that same day (at 1h before noon): Hipparchus may have visited Alexandria but he did not make his equinox observations there; presumably he was on Rhodes (at nearly the same geographical longitude). He could have used the equatorial ring of his armillary sphere or another equatorial ring for these observations, but Hipparchus (and Ptolemy) knew that observations with these instruments are sensitive to a precise alignment with the equator, so if he were restricted to an armillary, it would make more sense to use its meridian ring as a transit instrument. The problem with an equatorial ring (if an observer is naive enough to trust it very near dawn or dusk) is that atmospheric refraction lifts the Sun significantly above the horizon: so for a northern hemisphere observer its apparent declination is too high, which changes the observed time when the Sun crosses the equator. (Worse, the refraction decreases as the Sun rises and increases as it sets, so it may appear to move in the wrong direction with respect to the equator in the course of the day - as Ptolemy mentions. Ptolemy and Hipparchus apparently did not realize that refraction is the cause.) However, such numbing details have doubtful relation to the data of either man, since there is no textual, scientific, or statistical ground for believing that their equinoxes were taken on an equatorial ring, which is useless for solstices in any case. Not one of two centuries of mathematical investigations of their solar errors has claimed to have traced them to refraction's effect on use of an equatorial ring. And Ptolemy claims his solar observations were on a transit instrument set in the meridian. At the end of his career, Hipparchus wrote a book called Peri eniausíou megéthous ("On the Length of the Year") about his results. The established value for the tropical year, introduced by Callippus in or before 330 BC was 365 + 1/4 days. (Possibly from Babylonian sources, see above [???]. Speculating a Babylonian origin for the Callippic year is hard to defend, since Babylon did not observe solstices thus the only extant System B yearlength was based on Greek solstices. See below.) Hipparchus' equinox observations gave varying results, but he himself points out (quoted in Almagest III.1(H195)) that the observation errors by himself and his predecessors may have been as large as 1/4 day. He used old solstice observations, and determined a difference of about one day in about 300 years. So he set the length of the tropical year to 365 + 1/4 - 1/300 days (= 365.24666... days = 365 days 5 hours 55 min, which differs from the actual value (modern estimate) of 365.24219... days = 365 days 5 hours 48 min 45 s by only about 6 min). Between the solstice observation of Meton and his own, there were 297 years spanning 108,478 days. D.Rawlins noted that this implies a tropical year of 365.24579... days = 365 days;14,44,51 (sexagesimal; = 365 days + 14/60 + 44/602 + 51/603) and that this exact yearlength has been found on one of the few Babylonian clay tablets which explicitly specifies the System B month. DIO, volume 1, number 1, pages 49-66; A.Jones, 2001; Thurston, op. cit., page 62 This is an indication that Hipparchus' work was known to Chaldeans. Another value for the year that is attributed to Hipparchus (by the astrologer Vettius Valens in the 1st century) is 365 + 1/4 + 1/288 days (= 365.25347... days = 365 days 6 hours 5 min), but this may be a corruption of another value attributed to a Babylonian source: 365 + 1/4 + 1/144 days (= 365.25694... days = 365 days 6 hours 10 min). It is not clear if this would be a value for the sidereal year (actual value at his time (modern estimate) ca. 365.2565 days), but the difference with Hipparchus' value for the tropical year is consistent with his rate of precession (see below). Orbit of the Sun Before Hipparchus, astronomers knew that the lengths of the seasons are not equal. Hipparchus made observations of equinox and solstice, and according to Ptolemy (Almagest III.4) determined that spring (from spring equinox to summer solstice) lasted 94½ days, and summer (from summer solstice to autumn equinox) 92½ days. This is inconsistent with a premise of the Sun moving around the Earth in a circle at uniform speed. Hipparchus' solution was to place the Earth not at the center of the Sun's motion, but at some distance from the center. This model described the apparent motion of the Sun fairly well (it is today that the planets (including the Earth) move in ellipses around the Sun, but this was not discovered until Johannes Kepler published his first two laws of planetary motion in 1609). The value for the eccentricity attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy is that the offset is 1/24 of the radius of the orbit (which is a little too large), and the direction of the apogee would be at longitude 65.5° from the vernal equinox. Hipparchus may also have used other sets of observations, which would lead to different values. One of his two eclipse trios' solar longitudes are consistent with his having initially adopted inaccurate lengths for spring and summer of 95¾ and 91¼ days. Thurston, op. cit., page 67, note 16 His other triplet of solar positions is consistent with 94¼ and 92½ days, Ibid, note 14; Jones 2001 an improvement on the results (94½ and 92½ days) attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy, which a few scholars still question the authorship of. Ptolemy made no change three centuries later, and expressed lengths for the autumn and winter seasons which were already implicit (as shown, e.g., by A. Aaboe). Distance, parallax, size of the Moon and Sun Hipparchus also undertook to find the distances and sizes of the Sun and the Moon. He published his results in a work of two books called Perí megethōn kaí apostēmátōn ("On Sizes and Distances") by Pappus in his commentary on the Almagest V.11; Theon of Smyrna (2nd century) mentions the work with the addition "of the Sun and Moon". Hipparchus measured the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon with his diopter. Like others before and after him, he found that the Moon's size varies as it moves on its (eccentric) orbit, but he found no perceptible variation in the apparent diameter of the Sun. He found that at the mean distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon had the same apparent diameter; at that distance, the Moon's diameter fits 650 times into the circle, i.e., the mean apparent diameters are 360/650 = 0°33'14". Like others before and after him, he also noticed that the Moon has a noticeable parallax, i.e., that it appears displaced from its calculated position (compared to the Sun or stars), and the difference is greater when closer to the horizon. He knew that this is because in the then-current models the Moon circles the center of the Earth, but the observer is at the surface -- the Moon, Earth and observer form a triangle with a sharp angle that changes all the time. From the size of this parallax, the distance of the Moon as measured in Earth radii can be determined. For the Sun however, there was no observable parallax (we now know that it is about 8.8", several times smaller than the resolution of the unaided eye). In the first book, Hipparchus assumes that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as if it is at infinite distance. He then analyzed a solar eclipse, which Toomer (against the opinion of over a century of astronomers) presumes to be the eclipse of 14 March 190 BC. It was total in the region of the Hellespont (and in fact in his birth place Nicaea); at the time Toomer proposes the Romans were preparing for war with Antiochus III in the area, and the eclipse is mentioned by Livy in his Ab Urbe Condita VIII.2. It was also observed in Alexandria, where the Sun was reported to be obscured 4/5ths by the Moon. Alexandria and Nicaea are on the same meridian. Alexandria is at about 31° North, and the region of the Hellespont about 40° North. (It has been contended that authors like Strabo and Ptolemy had fairly decent values for these geographical positions, so Hipparchus must have known them too. However, Strabo's Hipparchus dependent latitudes for this region are at least 1° too high, and Ptolemy appears to copy them, placing Byzantium 2° high in latitude.) Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed by the two places and the Moon, and from simple geometry was able to establish a distance of the Moon, expressed in Earth radii. Because the eclipse occurred in the morning, the Moon was not in the meridian, and it has been proposed that as a consequence the distance found by Hipparchus was a lower limit. In any case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus found that the least distance is 71 (from this eclipse), and the greatest 81 Earth radii. In the second book, Hipparchus starts from the opposite extreme assumption: he assigns a (minimum) distance to the Sun of 490 Earth radii. This would correspond to a parallax of 7', which is apparently the greatest parallax that Hipparchus thought would not be noticed (for comparison: the typical resolution of the human eye is about 2'; Tycho Brahe made naked eye observation with an accuracy down to 1'). In this case, the shadow of the Earth is a cone rather than a cylinder as under the first assumption. Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses) that at the mean distance of the Moon, the diameter of the shadow cone is 2+½ lunar diameters. That apparent diameter is, as he had observed, 360/650 degrees. With these values and simple geometry, Hipparchus could determine the mean distance; because it was computed for a minimum distance of the Sun, it is the maximum mean distance possible for the Moon. With his value for the eccentricity of the orbit, he could compute the least and greatest distances of the Moon too. According to Pappus, he found a least distance of 62, a mean of 67+1/3, and consequently a greatest distance of 72+2/3 Earth radii. With this method, as the parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e., its distance increases), the minimum limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth radii - exactly the mean distance that Ptolemy later derived. Hipparchus thus had the problematic result that his minimum distance (from book 1) was greater than his maximum mean distance (from book 2). He was intellectually honest about this discrepancy, and probably realized that especially the first method is very sensitive to the accuracy of the observations and parameters. (In fact, modern calculations show that the size of the 190 B.C. solar eclipse at Alexandria must have been closer to 9/10ths and not the reported 4/5ths, a fraction more closely matched by the degree of totality at Alexandria of eclipses occurring in 310 B.C. and 129 B.C. which were also nearly total in the Hellespont and are thought by many to be more likely possibilities for the eclipse Hipparchus used for his computations.) Ptolemy later measured the lunar parallax directly (Almagest V.13), and used the second method of Hipparchus with lunar eclipses to compute the distance of the Sun (Almagest V.15). He criticizes Hipparchus for making contradictory assumptions, and obtaining conflicting results (Almagest V.11): but apparently he failed to understand Hipparchus' strategy to establish limits consistent with the observations, rather than a single value for the distance. His results were the best so far: the actual mean distance of the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within his limits from Hipparchus' second book. Theon of Smyrna wrote that according to Hipparchus, the Sun is 1,880 times the size of the Earth, and the Earth twenty-seven times the size of the Moon; apparently this refers to volumes, not diameters. From the geometry of book 2 it follows that the Sun is at 2,550 Earth radii, and the mean distance of the Moon is 60½ radii. Similarly, Cleomedes quotes Hipparchus for the sizes of the Sun and Earth as 1050:1; this leads to a mean lunar distance of 61 radii. Apparently Hipparchus later refined his computations, and derived accurate single values that he could use for predictions of solar eclipses. See [Toomer 1974] for a more detailed discussion. Eclipses Pliny (Naturalis Historia II.X) tells us that Hipparchus demonstrated that lunar eclipses can occur five months apart, and solar eclipses seven months (instead of the usual six months); and the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty days, but as seen by different nations. Ptolemy discussed this a century later at length in Almagest VI.6. The geometry, and the limits of the positions of Sun and Moon when a solar or lunar eclipse is possible, are explained in Almagest VI.5. Hipparchus apparently made similar calculations. The result that two solar eclipses can occur one month apart is important, because this can not be based on observations: one is visible on the northern and the other on the southern hemisphere - as Pliny indicates - and the latter was inaccessible to the Greek. Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e., exactly when and where it will be visible, requires a solid lunar theory and proper treatment of the lunar parallax. Hipparchus must have been the first to be able to do this. A rigorous treatment requires spherical trigonometry, thus those who remain certain that Hipparchus lacked it must speculate that he may have made do with planar approximations. He may have discussed these things in Perí tēs katá plátos mēniaías tēs selēnēs kinēseōs ("On the monthly motion of the Moon in latitude"), a work mentioned in the Suda. Pliny also remarks that "he also discovered for what exact reason, although the shadow causing the eclipse must from sunrise onward be below the earth, it happened once in the past that the moon was eclipsed in the west while both luminaries were visible above the earth" (translation H. Rackham (1938), Loeb Classical Library 330 p.207). Toomer (1980) argued that this must refer to the large total lunar eclipse of 26 November 139 BC, when over a clean sea horizon as seen from Rhodes, the Moon was eclipsed in the northwest just after the Sun rose in the southeast. This would be the second eclipse of the 345-year interval that Hipparchus used to verify the traditional Babylonian periods: this puts a late date to the development of Hipparchus' lunar theory. We do not know what "exact reason" Hipparchus found for seeing the Moon eclipsed while apparently it was not in exact opposition to the Sun. Parallax lowers the altitude of the luminaries; refraction raises them, and from a high point of view the horizon is lowered. Astronomical instruments and astrometry Hipparchus and his predecessors used various instruments for astronomical calculations and observations, such as the gnomon, the astrolabe, and the armillary sphere. Hipparchus is credited with the invention or improvement of several astronomical instruments, which were used for a long time for naked-eye observations. According to Synesius of Ptolemais (4th century) he made the first astrolabion: this may have been an armillary sphere (which Ptolemy however says he constructed, in Almagest V.1); or the predecessor of the planar instrument called astrolabe (also mentioned by Theon of Alexandria). With an astrolabe Hipparchus was the first to be able to measure the geographical latitude and time by observing stars. Previously this was done at daytime by measuring the shadow cast by a gnomon, or with the portable instrument known as a scaphe. Equatorial ring of Hipparchus' time. Ptolemy mentions (Almagest V.14) that he used a similar instrument as Hipparchus, called dioptra, to measure the apparent diameter of the Sun and Moon. Pappus of Alexandria described it (in his commentary on the Almagest of that chapter), as did Proclus (Hypotyposis IV). It was a 4-foot rod with a scale, a sighting hole at one end, and a wedge that could be moved along the rod to exactly obscure the disk of Sun or Moon. Hipparchus also observed solar equinoxes, which may be done with an equatorial ring: its shadow falls on itself when the Sun is on the equator (i.e., in one of the equinoctial points on the ecliptic), but the shadow falls above or below the opposite side of the ring when the Sun is south or north of the equator. Ptolemy quotes (in Almagest III.1 (H195)) a description by Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in Alexandria; a little further he describes two such instruments present in Alexandria in his own time. Hipparchus applied his knowledge of spherical angles to the problem of denoting locations on the Earth's surface. Before him a grid system had been used by Dicaearchus of Messana, but Hipparchus was the first to apply mathematical rigor to the determination of the latitude and longitude of places on the Earth. Hipparchus wrote a critique in three books on the work of the geographer Eratosthenes of Cyrene (3rd century BC), called Pròs tèn 'Eratosthénous geografían ("Against the Geography of Eratosthenes"). It is known to us from Strabo of Amaseia, who in his turn criticised Hipparchus in his own Geografia. Hipparchus apparently made many detailed corrections to the locations and distances mentioned by Eratosthenes. It seems he did not introduce many improvements in methods, but he did propose a means to determine the geographical longitudes of different cities at lunar eclipses (Strabo Geografia 1.1.12). A lunar eclipse is visible simultaneously on half of the Earth, and the difference in longitude between places can be computed from the difference in local time when the eclipse is observed. His approach would give accurate results if it were correctly carried out but the limitations of timekeeping accuracy in his era made this method impractical. Star catalog Late in his career (possibly about 135 BC) Hipparchus compiled his star catalog, the original of which does not survive. He also constructed a celestial globe depicting the constellations, based on his observations. His interest in the fixed stars may have been inspired by the observation of a supernova (according to Pliny), or by his discovery of precession (according to Ptolemy, who says that Hipparchus could not reconcile his data with earlier observations made by Timocharis and Aristillus; for more information see Discovery of precession). Previously, Eudoxus of Cnidus in the 4th century BC had described the stars and constellations in two books called Phaenomena and Entropon. Aratus wrote a poem called Phaenomena or Arateia based on Eudoxus' work. Hipparchus wrote a commentary on the Arateia - his only preserved work - which contains many stellar positions and times for rising, culmination, and setting of the constellations, and these are likely to have been based on his own measurements. Hipparchus made his measurements with an armillary sphere, and obtained the positions of at least 850 stars. It is disputed which coordinate system(s) he used. Ptolemy's catalog in the Almagest, which is derived from Hipparchus' catalog, is given in ecliptic coordinates. However Delambre in his Histoire de l'Astronomie Ancienne (1817) concluded that Hipparchus knew and used the equatorial coordinate system, a conclusion challenged by Otto Neugebauer in his A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy (1975). Hipparchus seems to have used a mix of ecliptic coordinates and equatorial coordinates: in his commentary on Eudoxos he provides stars' polar distance (equivalent to the declination in the equatorial system), right ascension (equatorial), longitude (ecliptical), polar longitude (hybrid), but not celestial latitude. As with most of his work, Hipparchus' star catalog was adopted and perhaps expanded by Ptolemy. Up until recently, it was heatedly disputed whether the star catalog in the Almagest is due to Hipparchus, but 1976-2002 statistical and spatial analyses (by R. R. Newton, Dennis Rawlins, Gerd Grasshoff, Keith Pickering and Dennis Duke) have shown conclusively that the Almagest star catalog is almost entirely Hipparchan. Ptolemy has even (since Brahe, 1598) been accused by astronomers of fraud for stating (Syntaxis book 7 chapter 4) that he observed all 1025 stars: for almost every star he used Hipparchus' data and precessed it to his own epoch 2⅔ centuries later by adding 2°40' to the longitude, using an erroneous (too small) precession constant of 1° per century. In any case the work started by Hipparchus has had a lasting heritage, and was much later updated by Al Sufi (964) and Copernicus (1543). Ulugh Beg reobserved all the Hipparchus stars he could see from Samarkand in 1437 to about the same accuracy as Hipparchus's. The catalog was superseded only in the late sixteenth century by Brahe and Wilhelm IV of Kassel via superior ruled instruments and spherical trigonometry, which improved accuracy by an order of magnitude even before the invention of the telescope. Stellar magnitude Hipparchus ranked stars in six magnitude classes according to their brightness: he assigned the value of one to the twenty brightest stars, to weaker ones a value of two, and so forth to the stars with a class of six, which can be barely seen with the naked eye. A similar system is still used today. Precession of the equinoxes (146 BC–130 BC) See also precession (astronomy) Hipparchus is perhaps most famous for being almost universally recognized as discoverer of the precession of the equinoxes. His two books on precession, On the Displacement of the Solsticial and Equinoctial Points and On the Length of the Year, are both mentioned in the Almagest of Claudius Ptolemy. According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus measured the longitude of Spica and other bright stars. Comparing his measurements with data from his predecessors, Timocharis and Aristillus, he concluded that Spica had moved 2° relative to the autumnal equinox. He also compared the lengths of the tropical year (the time it takes the Sun to return to an equinox) and the sidereal year (the time it takes the Sun to return to a fixed star), and found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus concluded that the equinoxes were moving ("precessing") through the zodiac, and that the rate of precession was not less than 1° in a century. Ptolemy followed up on Hipparchus' work in the 2nd century. He confirmed that precession affected the entire sphere of fixed stars (Hipparchus had speculated that only the stars near the zodiac were affected), and concluded that 1° in 100 years was the correct rate of precession. The modern value is 1° in 72 years. Named after Hipparchus The ESA's Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission was named after him, as are the lunar crater Hipparchus and the asteroid 4000 Hipparchus. Monument The Astronomer's Monument at Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California, USA features a relief of Hipparchus as one of six of the greatest astronomers of all time and the only one from Antiquity. See also Antikythera mechanism Apparent magnitude Astrometry History of astrology Geminus (of Rhodes) (10 BC - circa 60) Mira Mithraism Star catalogs Notes References Edition and translation: Karl Manitius: In Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena, Leipzig, 1894. J. Chapront, M. Chapront Touze, G. Francou (2002): "A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant, and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements". Astronomy and Astrophysics 387, 700-709. Duke, Dennis W. (2002). Associations between the ancient star catalogs. Archive for the History of Exact Sciences 56(5):435-450. A. Jones: "Hipparchus." In Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics. Nature Publishing Group, 2001. Patrick Moore (1994): Atlas of the Universe, Octopus Publishing Group LTD (Slovene translation and completion by Tomaž Zwitter and Savina Zwitter (1999): Atlas vesolja), 225. Newton, R.R. (1977). The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Rawlins, Dennis (1982). An Investigation of the Ancient Star Catalog. Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 94, 359-373. Has been updated several times: DIO, volume 8, number 1 (1998), page 2, note 3, and DIO, volume 10 (2000), page 79, note 177. B.E. Schaefer (2005): "The Epoch of the Constellations on the Farnese Atlas and their Origin in Hipparchus's Lost Catalogue". Journal for the History of Astronomy xxxvi, 1..29. J.M.Steele, F.R.Stephenson, L.V.Morrison (1997): "The accuracy of eclipse times measured by the Babylonians". Journal for the History of Astronomy xxviii, 337..345 F.R. Stephenson, L.J.Fatoohi (1993): "Lunar Eclipse Times Recorded in Babylonian History". Journal for the History of Astronomy xxiv, 255..267 N.M. Swerdlow (1969): "Hipparchus on the distance of the sun." Centaurus 14, 287-305. G.J. Toomer (1967): "The Size of the Lunar Epicycle According to Hipparchus." Centaurus 12, 145-150. G.J. Toomer (1973): "The Chord Table of Hipparchus and the Early History of Greek Trigonometry." Centaurus 18, 6-28. G.J. Toomer (1974): "Hipparchus on the Distances of the Sun and Moon." Archives for the History of the Exact Sciences 14, 126-142. G.J. Toomer (1978): "Hipparchus." In Dictionary of Scientific Biography 15: 207-224. G.J. Toomer (1980): "Hipparchus' Empirical Basis for his Lunar Mean Motions," Centaurus 24, 97-109. G.J. Toomer (1988): "Hipparchus and Babylonian Astronomy." In A Scientific Humanist: Studies in Memory of Abraham Sachs, ed. Erle Leichty, Maria deJ. Ellis, and Pamel Gerardi. Philadelphia: Occasional Publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund, 9. External links General Biographical page at the University of Cambridge University of Cambridge's Page about Hipparchus' sole surviving work Biographical page at the University of Oregon Biography of Hipparchus on Fermat's Last Theorem Blog Pastore, Giovanni, ANTIKYTHERA E I REGOLI CALCOLATORI, Rome, 2006, privately published The Antikythera Calculator (Italian and English versions) Os Eclipses, AsterDomus website, portuguese Precession David Ulansey about Hipparchus's understanding of the precession Celestial bodies M44 Praesepe at SEDS (University of Arizona): http://www.seds.org/messier/m/m044.html Star catalog A brief view by Carmen Rush on Hipparchus' stellar catalog | Hipparchus |@lemmatized hipparchus:146 c:5 bc:35 greek:10 astronomer:13 geographer:3 mathematician:4 hellenistic:1 period:14 bear:5 nicaea:4 iznik:2 turkey:2 probably:3 die:3 island:2 rhodes:6 know:25 work:21 least:7 consider:2 great:9 ancient:6 astronomical:12 observer:6 overall:1 antiquity:2 first:20 whose:1 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7,514 | Developmental_biology | "Views of a Fetus in the Womb", Leonardo da Vinci, ca. 1510-1512. The subject of prenatal development is a major subset of developmental biology. Developmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis," which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy. Developmental biology is that branch of life science, which deals with the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Related fields of study Embryology is a subfield, the study of organisms between the one-cell stage (generally, the zygote) and the end of the embryonic stage. Embryology was originally a more descriptive science until the 20th century. Embryology and developmental biology today deal with the various steps necessary for the correct and complete formation of the body of a living organism. The related field of evolutionary developmental biology was formed largely in the 1990s and is a synthesis of findings from molecular developmental biology and evolutionary biology which considers the diversity of organismal form in an evolutionary context. Perspectives Animal development is a spectacular process and represents a masterpiece of temporal and spatial control of gene expression. Developmental genetics is a very helpful process. It studies the effect that genes have in a phenotype. The findings of developmental biology can help to understand developmental malfunctions such as chromosomal aberrations, for example, Down syndrome. An understanding of the specialization of cells during embryogenesis may yield information on how to specialize stem cells to specific tissues and organs, which could lead to the specific cloning of organs for medical purposes. Another biologically important process that occurs during development is apoptosis - programmed cell death or "suicide". For this reason, many developmental models are used to elucidate the physiology and molecular basis of this cellular process. Similarly, a deeper understanding of developmental biology can foster greater progress in the treatment of congenital disorders and diseases, e.g. studying human sex determination can lead to treatment for disorders such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental model organisms Often used model organisms in developmental biology include the following: Vertebrates Zebrafish Danio rerio Medakafish Oryzias latipes Fugu (pufferfish) Takifugu rubripes Frog Xenopus laevis, Xenopus tropicalis Chicken Gallus gallus Mouse Mus musculus (Mammalian embryogenesis) Invertebrates Lancelet Branchiostoma lanceolatum Ascidian Ciona intestinalis Sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus Roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans Fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster (Drosophila embryogenesis) Plants (Plant embryogenesis) Arabidopsis thaliana Maize Snapdragon Antirrhinum majus Other Slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum Studied phenomena Cell differentiation Differentiation is the formation of cell types, from what is originally one cell – the zygote or spore. The formation of cell types like nerve cells occurs with a number of intermediary, less differentiated cell types. A cell stays a certain cell type by maintaining a particular pattern of gene expression. This depends on regulatory genes, e.g. for transcription factors and signaling proteins. These can take part in self-perpetuating circuits in the gene regulatory network, circuits that can involve several cells that communicate with each other. External signals can alter gene expression by activating a receptor, which triggers a signaling cascade that affects transcription factors. For example, the withdrawal of growth factors from myoblasts causes them to stop dividing and instead differentiate into muscle cells. Embryonal development Embryogenesis is the step in the life cycle after fertilisation – the development of the embryo, starting from the zygote (fertilised egg). Organisms can differ drastically in the how embryo develops, especially when belong to different phyla. For example, embryonal development in placental mammals starts with cleavage of the zygote into eight uncommited cells, which then form a ball (morula). The outer cells become the trophectoderm which will form the fetal part of the placenta, while inner cells become the inner cell mass that will form all other organs. In contrast, the fruit fly zygote first forms a sausage-shaped syncytium, which is still one cell but with many cell nuclei. Patterning is important for determining which cells develop which organs. This is mediated by signaling between adjacent cells by proteins on their surfaces, and by gradients of signaling molecules. An example is retinoic acid, which forms a gradient in the head to tail direction in animals. Retinoic acid enters cells and activates Hox genes in a concentration-dependent manner – Hox genes differ in how much retinoic acid they require for activation. As Hox genes code for transcription factors, this causes discrete segments in the head to tail direction. This is important for e.g. the segmentation of the spine in vertebrates. Embryonal development does not always go right, and errors can result in birth defects or miscarriage. Often the reason is genetic (mutation or chromosome abnormality), but there can be environmental influence (teratogens). Abnormal development is also of evolutionary interest as it provides a mechanism for changes in body plan (see evolutionary developmental biology). Growth Growth is the enlargement of a tissue or organism. Growth continues after the embryonal stage, and occurs through cell proliferation, enlargement of cells or accumulation of extracellular material. In plants, growth results in an adult organism that is strikingly different from the embryo. The proliferating cells tend to be distinct from differentiated cells (see stem cell and progenitor cell). In some tissues proliferating cells are restricted to specialised areas, such as the growth plates of bones. But some stem cells migrate to where they are needed, such as mesenchymal stem cells which can migate from the bone marrow to form e.g. muscle, bone or adipose tissue. The size of an organ frequently determines its growth, as in the case of the liver which grows back to its previous size if a part is removed. Growth factors, such as fibroblast growth factors in the animal embryo and growth hormone in juvenile mammals, also control the extent of growth. Metamorphosis Most animals have a larval stage, with a body plan different from that of the adult organism. The larva abrubtly develops into an adult in a process called metamorphosis. For example, butterfly larvae (caterpillars) are specilised for feeding whereas adult butterflies (imagos) are specilised for flight and reproduction. When the caterpillar has grown enough, it turns into an immobile pupa. Here, the imago develops from imaginal discs found inside the larva. Regeneration Regeneration is the reactivation of development so that a missing body part grows back. This phenomenon has been studied particularly in salamanders, where the adults can reconstruct a whole limb after it has been amputated. Researchers hope to one day be able to induce regeneration in humans (see regenerative medicine). There is little spontaneous regeneration in adult humans, although the liver is a notable exception. Like for salamanders, the regeneration of the liver involves dedifferentiation of some cells to a more embryonal state. Developmental systems biology Computer simulation of multicellular development is a research methodology to understand the function of the very complex processes involved in the development of organisms. This includes simulation of cell signaling, multicell interactions and regulatory genomic networks in development of multicellular structures and processes (see French flag model or Biological Physics of the Developing Embryo for literature). Minimal genomes for minimal multicellular organisms may pave the way to understand such complex processes in vivo. See also Altricial and Precocial Auxology Body plan Cell signaling Embryogenesis Embryology Evolutionary developmental biology Plant evolutionary developmental biology Fertilization Fish development Cell signaling networks Developmental noise Enhancer Enhanceosome Gene regulatory network Promoter Signal transduction Transcription factor References External links Developmental Biology of Plants and Animals Developmental Biology - 8th Edition by Scott Gilbert (online textbook) | Developmental_biology |@lemmatized view:1 fetus:1 womb:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 ca:1 subject:1 prenatal:1 development:13 major:1 subset:1 developmental:21 biology:17 study:9 process:11 organisms:2 grow:5 develop:5 modern:1 genetic:2 control:3 cell:37 growth:12 differentiation:3 morphogenesis:1 give:1 rise:1 tissue:5 organ:5 anatomy:1 branch:1 life:2 science:2 deal:2 related:2 field:2 embryology:4 subfield:1 organism:10 one:4 stage:4 generally:1 zygote:5 end:1 embryonic:1 originally:2 descriptive:1 century:1 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edition:1 scott:1 gilbert:1 online:1 textbook:1 |@bigram leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 developmental_biology:15 evolutionary_developmental:4 evolutionary_biology:1 congenital_disorder:1 congenital_adrenal:1 adrenal_hyperplasia:1 sea_urchin:1 caenorhabditis_elegans:1 drosophila_melanogaster:1 arabidopsis_thaliana:1 slime_mold:1 embryonal_development:3 placental_mammal:1 retinoic_acid:3 hox_gene:3 chromosome_abnormality:1 bone_marrow:1 adipose_tissue:1 fibroblast_growth:1 larval_stage:1 regenerative_medicine:1 multicellular_organism:1 signal_transduction:1 external_link:1 |
7,515 | National_League_Division_Series | In Major League Baseball, the National League Division Series (NLDS) determine which two teams from the National League will advance to the National League Championship Series. The Division Series consist of two best-of-five series, featuring the three division winners and a wild-card team. History The Division Series was permanently created after the 1993 season when Major League Baseball restructured each league into three divisions, but their first regular playing was in 1995 due to the cancellation of the 1994 playoffs. Previously, because of a players' strike in 1981, a split-season format forced a divisional playoff series, in which the Montreal Expos won the Eastern Division series over the Philadelphia Phillies three games to two while the Los Angeles Dodgers beat the Houston Astros three games to two in the Western Division. The team with the best overall record in the major leagues, the Cincinnati Reds, failed to win their division in either half of that season and were controversially excluded, as were the St. Louis Cardinals, who finished with the NL's second-best record. The Atlanta Braves have currently played in the most NL division series with eleven appearances. One team has yet to play in an NL division series, the Pittsburgh Pirates. The Washington Nationals also have only appeared as the Montreal Expos. Format Since 1998, the wild-card team has been assigned to play the division winner with the best winning percentage in one series, and the other two division winners meet in the other series. However, if the wild-card team and the division winner with the best record are from the same division, the wild-card team plays the division winner with the second-best record, and the remaining two division leaders play. In any event, the two series winners move on to the best-of-seven NLCS. The winner of the wild card has won the first round 7 out of the 11 years since the re-alignment and creation of the NLDS. According to Nate Silver, the advent of this playoff series, and especially of the wild card, has caused teams to focus more on "getting to the playoffs" rather than "winning the pennant" as the primary goal of the regular season. Nate Silver, "Selig's Dream: The Wild Card as Enabler of Pennant Races," in Steven Goldman, Ed., It Ain't Over 'til It's Over (New York: Basic Books): 170-178. Currently, the Division Series follows a 2-2-1 format. pressbox.mlb.com The higher seed plays at home in Games 1 and 2. The lower seed plays at home in Game 3 and Game 4 (if necessary). If a Game 5 is needed, the teams return to the higher seed's field. Historically, MLB had also used a 2-3 format in a best-of-5 series, but no longer uses that format. 1984 NLCS - Baseball References 1997 ALDS1 - Baseball References There is currently no award for the Most Valuable Player of the Division Series. Frequent matchups Since the NLDS' inception, five matchups have occurred more than once. The Atlanta Braves and Houston Astros have played five division series, the Braves winning the first three series and the Astros the last two. The San Diego Padres and St. Louis Cardinals have played three series, all of which the Cardinals won, and the Cardinals have also played the Arizona Diamondbacks twice. The Florida Marlins have played the San Francisco Giants twice, and won both series, 3 games to 0 and 3 games to 1. The Chicago Cubs and the Atlanta Braves have also met twice in the NLDS, with the Braves winning in 1998 and the Cubs winning in 2003. NLDS results YearWinnerLoserWinsLossesNotes1981 Montreal Expos Philadelphia Phillies 3 2 Los Angeles Dodgers Houston Astros 3 21994 Not held due to player strike.1995 Atlanta Braves Colorado Rockies†31 Cincinnati Reds Los Angeles Dodgers301996 Atlanta Braves Los Angeles Dodgers†30 St. Louis Cardinals San Diego Padres301997 Atlanta Braves Houston Astros30 Florida Marlins† San Francisco Giants 3 01998 Atlanta Braves Chicago Cubs†30 San Diego Padres Houston Astros311999 Atlanta Braves Houston Astros31 New York Mets† Arizona Diamondbacks312000 St. Louis Cardinals Atlanta Braves30 New York Mets† San Francisco Giants312001 Atlanta Braves Houston Astros30 Arizona Diamondbacks St. Louis Cardinals†322002 St. Louis Cardinals Arizona Diamondbacks30 San Francisco Giants† Atlanta Braves322003 Chicago Cubs Atlanta Braves32 Florida Marlins† San Francisco Giants312004 St. Louis Cardinals Los Angeles Dodgers31 Houston Astros† Atlanta Braves322005 St. Louis Cardinals San Diego Padres30 Houston Astros† Atlanta Braves 31Game 4 was the longest postseason game in MLB history2006 New York Mets Los Angeles Dodgers†30 St. Louis Cardinals San Diego Padres312007 Colorado Rockies† Philadelphia Phillies30 Arizona Diamondbacks Chicago Cubs302008 Los Angeles Dodgers Chicago Cubs30 Philadelphia Phillies Milwaukee Brewers†31† indicates wild card team See also Division Series Division Series#Criticism of scheduling Baseball National League pennant winners 1876-1900 National League pennant winners 1901-68 American League pennant winners 1901-68 American League Division Series (ALDS) National League Championship Series (NLCS) American League Championship Series (ALCS) World Series External links Baseball-Reference.com - annual playoffs MLB.com - MLB's Division Series historical reference - box scores, highlights, etc. Notes 1996, 1997, & 2007 are the years in which the National League Division Series finished in sweeps in both series. | National_League_Division_Series |@lemmatized major:3 league:14 baseball:6 national:8 division:24 series:29 nlds:5 determine:1 two:8 team:10 advance:1 championship:3 consist:1 best:8 five:3 feature:1 three:6 winner:10 wild:8 card:8 history:1 permanently:1 create:1 season:4 restructure:1 first:3 regular:2 playing:1 due:2 cancellation:1 playoff:5 previously:1 player:3 strike:2 split:1 format:5 force:1 divisional:1 montreal:3 expos:2 win:9 eastern:1 philadelphia:4 phillies:3 game:9 los:7 angeles:7 dodger:5 beat:1 houston:9 astros:6 western:1 overall:1 record:4 cincinnati:2 red:2 fail:1 either:1 half:1 controversially:1 exclude:1 st:9 louis:9 cardinal:11 finish:2 nl:3 second:2 atlanta:14 brave:12 currently:3 play:11 eleven:1 appearance:1 one:2 yet:1 pittsburgh:1 pirate:1 washington:1 also:5 appear:1 expo:1 since:3 assign:1 winning:1 percentage:1 meet:2 however:1 remain:1 leader:1 event:1 move:1 seven:1 nlcs:3 round:1 year:2 alignment:1 creation:1 accord:1 nate:2 silver:2 advent:1 especially:1 cause:1 focus:1 get:1 rather:1 pennant:5 primary:1 goal:1 selig:1 dream:1 enabler:1 race:1 steven:1 goldman:1 ed:1 til:1 new:4 york:4 basic:1 book:1 follow:1 pressbox:1 mlb:5 com:3 high:2 seed:3 home:2 low:1 necessary:1 need:1 return:1 field:1 historically:1 use:2 long:2 reference:4 award:1 valuable:1 frequent:1 matchup:2 inception:1 occur:1 last:1 san:10 diego:5 padre:2 arizona:5 diamondbacks:1 twice:3 florida:3 marlin:2 francisco:5 giant:3 chicago:5 cub:4 result:1 hold:1 colorado:2 rockies:2 mets:3 diamondback:2 marlins:1 postseason:1 milwaukee:1 brewer:1 indicate:1 see:1 criticism:1 schedule:1 american:3 alds:1 alcs:1 world:1 external:1 link:1 annual:1 historical:1 box:1 score:1 highlight:1 etc:1 note:1 sweep:1 |@bigram league_baseball:2 divisional_playoff:1 montreal_expos:2 philadelphia_phillies:3 los_angeles:7 angeles_dodger:5 houston_astros:5 atlanta_brave:10 pittsburgh_pirate:1 montreal_expo:1 winning_percentage:1 nate_silver:2 san_diego:5 diego_padre:2 florida_marlin:2 san_francisco:5 chicago_cub:3 colorado_rockies:2 arizona_diamondback:2 florida_marlins:1 milwaukee_brewer:1 pennant_winner:3 external_link:1 |
7,516 | Overview_of_gun_laws_by_nation | Gun politics is a set of legal issues surrounding the ownership, use, and regulation of firearms as well as safety issues related to firearms both through their direct use and through legal and criminal use. Spitzer, Donald J.,The Politics of Gun Control, Page 1. Chatham House Publishers, Inc., 1995. International A tower of confiscated smuggled weapons about to be set ablaze in Nairobi, Kenya National sovereignty Most nations hold the power to protect themselves and police their own territory as a fundamental power vested by sovereignty. However, this power can be lost under certain circumstances. Some nations have been forced to disarm by other nations, upon losing a war, or by having arms embargos or sanctions placed on them. Likewise, nations that violate international arms control agreements, even if claiming to be acting within the scope of their national sovereignty, may find themselves with a range of penalties or sanctions regarding firearms placed on them by other nations. Enforcement National and regional police and security services also conduct their own gun regulations. For example, the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) supports the United States' International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) program "to aggressively enforce this mission and reduce the number of weapons that are illegally trafficked worldwide from the United States and used to commit acts of international terrorism, to subvert restrictions imposed by other nations on their residents, and to further organized crime and narcotics-related activities. Tracing Illegal Small Arms: An ATF Program US State Department Worldwide politics and legislation There are many areas of debate into what kinds of firearms should be allowed to be privately owned, if any, and how, where and when they may be used. Australia Firearm laws in Australia are enforced at a State level. The minimum age for any shooter is 12 years. To obtain a full firearm license a person must pass a background check, a basic course of firearm safety and be of at least 18 years of age. For every firearm, a purchaser must obtain a Permit To Acquire. The first permit for each person has a mandatory 28 day delay before it is issued. In some states, such as Queensland, this is waived for second and subsequent firearms of the same class, whilst in others, it is not. For each firearm a "Genuine Reason" must be given, relating to pest control, hunting, target shooting, or collecting. Self-defense is not accepted as a reason for issuing a license. Brazil All firearms in Brazil are required to be registered with the state; the minimum age for ownership is 25 and it is generally illegal to carry a gun outside a residence. The total number of firearms in Brazil is thought to be around 17 million with 9 million of those being unregistered. Some 39,000 people died in 2003 due to gun-related injuries nationwide. In 2004, the number was 36,000. Although Brazil has 100 million fewer citizens than the United States, and more restrictive gun laws, there are 25 percent more gun deaths; other sources indicate that homicide rates due to guns are approximately four times higher than the rate in the United States. Brazil has the second largest arms industry in the Western Hemisphere. Approximately 80 percent of the weapons manufactured in Brazil are exported, mostly to neighboring countries; many of these weapons are then smuggled back into Brazil. Some firearms in Brazil come from police and military arsenals, having either been "stolen or sold by corrupt soldiers and officers." In 2005, a referendum was held in Brazil on the sale of firearms and ammunition to attempt to lower the number of deaths due to guns. Material focused on gun rights in opposition to the gun ban was translated from information from the National Rifle Association, much of which focused on US Constitutional discussions focused around the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution. As a result, "Now, a lot of Brazilians are insisting on their right to bear arms, they don't even have a pseudo right to bear arms. It's not in their Constitution." Although the Brazilian Government, the Catholic Church, and the United Nations, among others, fought for the gun ban, "The gun ownership lobby successfully argued that guns were needed for personal security." Canada Canada requires all firearms to be registered with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and all firearms owners to be licensed by the Canadian Firearms Program. The licensing requires extensive background and criminal record checks, that applicants take the Canadian Firearms Safety Course, and that all firearms must be stored locked and unloaded. There is concern in Canada about the smuggling of handguns into Canada across the border from the United States where firearms are more easily purchased. East Timor Under East Timorese law, only the military and police forces may legally possess, carry and use firearms. However, despite these laws, East Timor has many problems with illegally-armed militias, including widespread violence in 2006 which resulted in over 100,000 people being forced from their homes, as well as two separate assassination attempts on the Prime Minister and President in early 2008. However, in late June 2008, the Prime Minister, Xanana Gusmao, introduced a proposed gun law to Parliament for "urgent debate", pushing back scheduled budgetary discussions. This has sparked heated scenes in the East Timorese parliament between the parliamentarians who support the new law and those who oppose it. The United Nations, which has a peacekeeping force deployed in the nation, also expressed concern over the new law. However, State Secretary for Defence, Julio Tomas Pinto, defended the proposed law in Parliament on Monday, saying many countries in the world allowed citizens to own guns. European Union In late 2007 the European Union lawmakers adopted a legislative report to tighten gun control laws and establish an extensive firearms database. Passed with overwhelming backing, the tough new gun control rules were "hoped to prevent Europe from becoming a gun-friendly culture like the United States". Czech Republic Gun ownership in the Czech Republic is regulated by relatively liberal gun laws compared to the rest of Europe. The last Gun Act was passed in 2001 and replaced the old Law tightening the legislation slightly. Generally guns in the Czech Republic are available to anybody above 18 (or 21) with a clean criminal history. The gun ownership is also acceptable for self-defense purposes. Unlike most European countries the Czech gun laws allow its citizens to carry a concealed weapon without having any specific reason. United Kingdom The has one of the lowest levels of gun ownership and one of the lowest rates of intentional gun deaths. The gun crime rate rose between 1997 and 2004 but has since fallen back a little, while the number of homicides from gun crime has largely remained static over the past decade. Over the course of the 20th century, the UK gradually implemented tighter regulation of the civilian ownership of firearms through the enactment of the 1968, 1988, 1994 and 1997 Firearms (Amendment) Acts Firearms (Amendment) Act 1997 (c. 5) leading to the current outright ban on the ownership of all automatic, and most self-loading, firearms in the UK. The ownership of breech-loading handguns is, in particular, also very tightly controlled and effectively limited (other than in Northern Ireland Article 3, page 75 ) to those persons who may require such a handgun for the non routine humane killing of injured or dangerous animals. Each firearm owned must be registered on a Firearms Certificate (FAC) or shotgun certificate which is issued by the local police authority who will require the prospective owner to demonstrate a "good reason" for each firearm held (e.g. pest control or target shooting) and may place restrictions on the FAC relating to the type and amount of ammunition that is held and the places and the uses the firearms are put to. Firearms Enquiries While as late as the 1950s most certificates approved for handguns listed "self defence" as a reason, since 1968 self defense alone is not considered an acceptable "good reason" for firearm ownership. The police should not amend, revoke (even partially) or refuse an FAC without stating a valid reason. (Section 29(1) of the 1968 Act gives the chief officer power to vary, by a notice in writing, any such condition not prescribed by the rules made by the Secretary of State. The notice may require the holder to deliver the certificate to the chief officer within twentyone days for the purpose of amending the conditions. The certificate may be revoked if the holder fails to comply with such a requirement.) Air rifles under 12 ft/lbs and air pistols under 6 ft/lbs can be brought legally by anyone over the age of 18, and do not require any licensing. http://www.politics.co.uk/briefings-guides/issue-briefs/domestic-policy/crime/weapons/gun-crime-$477769.htm Finland Germany Japan Japan, in the postwar period, has had gun regulation which is strict in principle, but the application and enforcement has been inefficient. Gun licensing is required, but is generally treated as only a formality. There are background check requirements, but these requirements are typically not enforced unless a specific complaint has been filed, and then background checks are made after the fact. As is common in Japan, "regulations are treated more as road maps than as rules subject to active enforcement. Japan is still a very safe country when it comes to guns, a reality that has less to do with laws than with prevailing attitudes". The weapons law begins by stating "No-one shall possess a fire-arm or fire-arms or a sword or swords", and very few exceptions are allowed. "Law Controlling Possession, Etc. of Fire-Arms and Swords" (1978), Law No 6, Art 3, EHS Law Bulletin Series, No 3920. The only types of firearms which a Japanese citizen may even contemplate acquiring is a rifle or shotgun. Sportsmen are permitted to possess shotguns or rifles for hunting and for skeet and trap shooting, but only after submitting to a lengthy licensing procedure. D Bayley, Forces of Order: Police Behavior in Japan and the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), Art 4, 23. Without a license, a person may not even hold a gun in his or her hands. Recently in Japan the ruling conservative Liberal Democratic Party, in response to violent crimes by minors and gangsters, has called for rewriting the constitution to include new more stringent firearms control measures. In January 2008 Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda in a policy speech called for tighter regulations on firearms. Mexico Mexico has strict gun laws. Mexican citizens may purchase arms for self-protection or hunting only after receiving approval of a petition to the Defense Ministry, which performs extensive background checks. The allowed weapons are restricted to relatively low-caliber and must be purchased from the Defense Ministry only. President Felipe Calderón has recently called attention to the problem of the smuggling of guns from the United States into Mexico, guns which are easily available both legally and illegally in the United States, and has called for increased cooperation from the United States to stop this illegal weapons trafficking. Norway While having a large amount of civilian owned guns, Norway has a low gun crime rate. South Africa Switzerland Switzerland requires every male over the age of 20 to own an assault rifle (specifically SIG 550 in 5.56 cal.). In one study by David Kopel of seven countries, including the United States and Japan, Switzerland is found to be one of the safest countries in the study. In recent times political opposition has expressed a desire for tighter gun regulations. Switzerland practices universal conscription, which requires that all able-bodied male citizens keep fully-automatic firearms at home in case of a call-up. Every male between the ages of 20 and 42 is considered a candidate for conscription into the military, and following a brief period of active duty will commonly be enrolled in the militia until age or an inability to serve ends his service obligation. The Swiss Army at Europeforvisitors.com During their enrollment in the armed forces, these men are required to keep their government-issued selective fire combat rifles and semi-automatic handguns in their homes. Swiss Miss, John R. Lott writing for The National Review, October 2nd, 2003. Up until September 2007, soldiers also received 20 rounds of government-issued ammunition in a sealed box for storage at home. In addition to these official weapons, Swiss citizens are allowed to purchase surplus-to-inventory combat rifles, and shooting is a popular sport in all the Swiss cantons. United States Houston gun show at the George R. Brown Convention Center The issue of firearms takes a high-profile position in United States culture and politics. Michael Bouchard, Assistant Director/Field Operations of ATF, estimates that 5,000 gun shows take place each year in the United States. Incidents of gun violence in 'gun-free' school zones, such as the Virginia Tech massacre of 2007 have ignited debate involving gun politics in the United States. Support for gun control in America has been steadily dropping. Currently, the American public strongly opposes attempts to ban gun ownership, and is divided on attempts to limit gun ownership. A 2008 Gallup poll revealed that 28% of the population supported a total ban on handguns — the lowest level since the poll was first taken in 1959 (when support for a total ban was 60% of the population). This same poll revealed that 49% of Americans in 2008 preferred more restrictive gun laws, compared to 78% when the question was first asked in the 1990 version of the poll. A 2009 CNN poll found even lower levels of support for gun laws: in this poll, only 39% favored more restrictive laws. The poll indicates that the drop in support (compared to 2001 polls) came from self-identified Independents, with levels of opposition among Democrats and Republicans remaining consistent. There is a sharp divide between gun-rights proponents Homegrown Gun Politics Plays Well With Voters, Washington Post, 17 May 2007 and gun-control proponents. This leads to intense political debate over the effectiveness of firearm regulation. On the whole, Republicans are far less likely to support gun control than are Democrats. According to a 2004 Harris Interactive survey: Republicans and Democrats hold different views on gun control. A 71% to 11% majority of Democrats favors "stricter" rather than "less strict" gun control, whereas Republicans are split 35% "stricter" to 35% "less strict" with 24% of Republicans and 13% of Democrats opting for "neither". The division of beliefs may be attributable to the fact that Republicans are more likely to own guns, according to General Social Surveys conducted during the last 35 years. The graphs, below, show that gun ownership has generally declined; however, Republicans — especially men — are far more likely to own "guns or revolvers." Fried, Joseph, Democrats and Republicans - Rhetoric and Reality (New York: Algora Publishing, 2008), 50-1. More recently in a 2008 survey completed by Gallup, there are large differences between Republicans and Democrats on the issues of gun ownership and control: •More than half of Republicans report having a gun in their homes, while only about a third of Democrats report this. •Two in three Republicans say they are satisfied with the nation's laws or policies on guns. This percentage is much lower among Democrats, at 37%. •The strong majority of Democrats feel that gun laws in the United States should be stricter, while only about 4 in 10 Republicans feel this way. Forty-eight percent of Republicans feel gun laws should remain as they are at the present time. Incidents of gun violence and self-defense have routinely ignited bitter debate. About 10,000 murders are committed using firearms annually, The statistic is taken from FBI reports on crime in 2005 at FBI Web site. According to the FBI, 10,100 murders in 2005 were committed with firearms. while an estimated 2.5 million crimes are thwarted through civilian use of firearms annually. The American Journal of Public Health conducted a study that concluded "the United States has higher rates of firearm ownership than do other developed nations, and higher rates of homicide. Of the 233,251 people who were homicide victims in the United States between 1988 and 1997, 68% were killed with guns, of which the large majority were handguns." The ATF estimated in 1995 that the number of firearms available in the US was 223 million. Some perceive that firearms registration by making it easier for Federal agents to target gun owners for harassment and confiscation constitutes an easily exploited encroachment upon individual personal privacy and property rights. Licensing and Registration Statutes, Hamline Law Review - Symposium on Firearms Legislation and Litigation, Vol. 6, No. 2. 1983 Story,Joseph, A Familiar Exposition of the Constitution of the United States(1986) Regnery Gateway, Chicago, Illinois, p.319-320, ISBN 0-89526-796-9 Hardy,David T. The origins and Development of the Second Amendment(1986), Blacksmith Corp., Chino Valley, Arizona, pp.64-93, ISBN 0-941540-13-8 Halbrook, Stephen P. That Every Man be Armed--The Evolution of a Constitutional Right(1987), The University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico, pp.55-87, ISBN 0-8263-0868-6 In contrast, in a 2008 brief submitted to the United State Supreme Court, the Department of Justice advocated that reasonable regulation of weaponry has always been allowed by the Second Amendment in the interests of public safety. In District of Columbia v. Heller, the U.S. Supreme Court held that the Second Amendment secures an individual right to own and possess handguns in a home for self-defense. See below. Fully-automatic firearms are legal in most states, but have requirements for registration and restriction under federal law. The National Firearms Act of 1934 required approval of the local police chief, federally registered fingerprints, federal background check and the payment of a $200 tax for initial registration and for each transfer. The ATF National Firearms Act Handbook The Gun Control Act of 1968 prohibited imports of all nonsporting firearms and created several new categories of restricted firearms. The act also prohibited further registry of most automatic firearms. A provision of the Firearm Owners Protection Act of 1986 banned private ownership of machine guns manufactured after it took effect. The Gun Control Act of 1968, Public Law 90-618, with subsequent amendments including the Firearm Owners Protection Act The result has been a massive rise in the price of machine-guns available for private ownership, as an increased demand chases the fixed, pre-1986 supply. For example, the Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine-gun, which may be sold to law enforcement for about $1,000, "For Sale: "MP5's in .40 S&W" MassCops.com, 12/30/04 costs a private citizen about $20,000. Heckler & Koch MP5 A3, listing #976963191, GunsAmerica.com This price difference dwarfs the $200 tax stamp. Political scientist Earl R. Kruschke states, regarding the fully-automatic firearms owned by private citizens in the United States, that "approximately 175,000 automatic firearms have been licensed by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (the federal agency responsible for administration of the law) and evidence suggests that none of these weapons has ever been used to commit a violent crime." District of Columbia v Heller On June 26, 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court held that American citizens have an individual right to own guns, as defined by the Second Amendment of the Constitution. In District of Columbia v. Heller, District of Columbia v Heller opinion the Court stated that an absolute firearm ban was unconstitutional. See also Parker v District of Columbia, 478 F.3d 370 (D.C. Cir. 2007). The Court further determined that its decision in Heller does not impinge upon existing statutes and regulations, such as those that prohibit felons and the mentally-ill from owning or possessing firearms. Id. "The Second Amendment right to bear arms does not apply to: certain individuals (e.g. felons, mentally ill persons), broad classes of arms, and a wide variety of situations. Under the Solicitor General's theory, the government would have broad discretion to carve out exceptions" Arguments Gun ownership and gun violence Several studies have examined the correlations between rates of gun ownership and gun-related as well as overall homicide and suicide rates within various jurisdictions around the world. Gun Ownership, Suicide and Homicide: An International Perspective, Martin Killias Firearm-related deaths in the United States and 35 other high- and upper-middle income countries, EG Krug, KE Powell and LL Dahlberg, 1998 Martin Killias, in a study covering 21 countries, found that there were substantial correlations between gun ownership and gun-related suicide and homicide rates. There was also a substantial though lesser correlation between gun ownership and total homicide rates. It also reported a strong correlation between gun-related homicide of women and gun-related assaults against women; however, this was not the case for similar crimes against men. Killias, van Kesteren, and Rindlisbacher, "Guns, violent crime, and suicide in 21 countries"Canadian Journal of Criminology, October 2001, http://rechten.uvt.nl/icvs/pdffiles/Guns_Killias_vanKesteren.pdf, Similarly, a study by Rich et al. on suicide rates in Toronto and Ontario and psychiatric patients from San Diego reached the conclusion that increased gun restrictions, while reducing suicide-by-gun, resulted in no net decline in suicides, because of substitution of another method — namely leaping. Rich, et al.: "Guns and suicide: possible effects of some specific legislation" Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147:342-346 Killias argues against the theory of complete substitution, citing a number of studies that have indicated, in his view "rather convincingly", that suicidal candidates far from always turn to another means of suicide if their preferred means is not at hand. Resisting tyranny Advocates for gun rights often point to previous totalitarian regimes that passed gun control legislation, which was later followed by confiscation. Totalitarian governments such as Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany during World War II, as well as some communist states such as the People's Republic of China are cited as examples of this, Rummel,RJ, Death by Government (1994) Transaction Publishers, New Jersey, ISBN 1-56000-145-3 Simkin, J, Zelman, and Rice, A, Lethal Laws: Gun Control is the Key to Genocide-- Documentary Proof that Enforcement of Gun Control Laws Clears the way for Governments to Commit Genocide, Jews for the Preservation of Firearm Ownership, Inc.,1994, ISBN 0-9642304-0-2 Courtois,S, Werth, N, Panne, J-L, et al., The Black Book of Communism--Crimes, Terror, Repression(1999), Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, ISBN 0-674-07608-7 (Note that Nazi Germany only restricted Jews' gun rights, while lessening restrictions for others). Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union did not abolish personal gun ownership during the initial period from 1918 to 1929; the introduction of gun control in 1929 coincided with the beginning of the repressive Stalinist regime as part of Resolutions, 1918 Decree, July 12, 1920 Art. 59 & 182, Pen. code, 1926. Gun control opponents often cite the example of the Nazi regime. In their view, once the Nazis had taken and consolidated their power, they proceeded to implement gun control laws to disarm the population and wipe out the opposition, and genocide of disarmed Jews, gypsies, and other undesirables followed. Simkin, J, Zelman, and Rice, A, Lethal Laws: Gun Control is the Key to Genocide-- Documentary Proof that Enforcement of Gun Control Laws Clears the way for Governments to Commit Genocide, Jews for the Preservation of Firearm Ownership, Inc.,1994, pp.149-186, ISBN 0-9642304-0-2 Rummel,RJ, Death by Government (1994) Transaction Publishers, New Jersey, pp.111-122, ISBN 1-56000-145-3 Halbrook, Stephen P. (2000) "Nazi Firearms Law and the Disarming of the German Jews." Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law, Vol 17. No. 3. p.528. Pro-gun control historians have pointed out that already the democratic Weimar Republic had restrictive gun laws, which were actually liberalized by the Nazis. According to the Weimar Republic 1928 Law on Firearms & Ammunition, firearms acquisition or carrying permits were “only to be granted to persons of undoubted reliability, and — in the case of a firearms carry permit — only if a demonstration of need is set forth.” The Nazis replaced this law with the Weapons Law of March 18, 1938, which was very similar in structure and wording, but relaxed gun control requirements for the general populace. The relaxation included, for example, the exemption from regulation of all weapons and ammunition except handguns, the extension of the range of persons exempt from the permit requirement, and the lowering of the age for acquisition of firearms from 20 to 18. It did, however, prohibit manufacturing of firearms and ammunition by Jews. Harcourt, Bernard E (2004) "On the NRA, Adolph Hitler, Gun Registration, and the Nazi Gun Laws: Exploring the Culture Wars (A Call to Historians)", page 22 Shortly thereafter, in the additional Regulations Against Jew’s Possession of Weapons of November 11, 1938, Jews were forbidden from possession of any weapons at all. Location and capture of such records is a standard doctrine taught to military intelligence officers; and was widely practiced by German and Soviet troops during World War II. The Battles of Lexington and Concord, sometimes known as the Shot heard 'round the world, in the 1770s, were started in part because General Gage sought to carry out an order by the British government to disarm the populace. Kopel, David B. The Samurai, the Mountie, and the Cowboy--Should America Adopt the Gun Controls of Other Democracies? (1992), Prometheus Books, New York, pp.313,351, ISBN 0-87975-756-6 Self-defense In an extensive series of studies of large, nationally representative samples of crime incidents, criminologist Gary Kleck found that crime victims who defend themselves with guns are less likely to be injured or lose property than victims who either did not resist, or resisted without guns. This was so even though the victims using guns typically faced more dangerous circumstances than other victims. The findings applied to both robberies and assaults. Kleck "Crime control through the use of armed force." Social Problems Feb. 1988; Kleck and DeLone "Victim resistance and offender weapon effects in robbery" Journal of Quantitative Criminology March 1993; Tark and Kleck "Resisting Crime" Criminology Nov. 2004 Other research on rape indicated that although victims rarely resisted with guns, those using other weapons were less likely to be raped, and no more likely to suffer other injuries besides rape itself, than victims who did not resist, or resisted without weapons. Kleck and Sayles "Rape and Resistance" Social Problems May 1990 There is no evidence that victim use of a gun for self-protection provokes offenders into attacking the defending victim or results in the offender taking the gun away and using it against the victim. Kleck, Chapter 7 in Armed, by Kleck and Don B. Kates, Jr. Kleck has also shown, in his own national survey, and in other surveys with smaller sample sizes, that the numbers of defensive uses of guns by crime victims each year are probably substantially larger than the largest estimates of the number of crimes committed of offenders using guns. Kleck, Chapter 6 in Armed, by Kleck and Don B. Kates, Jr. Thus, defensive gun use by victims is both effective and, relative to criminal uses, frequent. The economist John Lott, in his book More Guns, Less Crime, claims to have shown the laws making it easier for noncriminals to get a permit to carry a gun in public places causes reductions in crime. Lott's results suggest that allowing law-abiding citizens to carry concealed firearms deters crime because potential criminals do not know who may or may not be carrying a firearm. Lott's data came from the FBI's crime statistics from all 3,054 US counties. Lott, John R.Jr., More Guns, Less Crime-- Understanding Crime and Gun Control Laws(1998), The University of Chicago Press, Chicago Illinois, pp.50-122, ISBN 0-226-49363-6 Critics, mostly gun-control advocates, have asserted that Lott's county-based crime data were largely meaningless because they did not reflect actual rates of crime in all the counties that Lott studied, but rather the number of crimes occurring in whatever local jurisdictions (towns and cities) that happened to report their crime statistics to state authorities. Thus, some of the supposed crime drops that Lott attributed to the new carry laws could merely have been the result of fewer local police forces reporting crime statistics. Lott answered their assertions by publishing his study and noting that this fact was taken into account by using the same police agencies that reported their statistics both before and after the new concealed carry laws took effect. The efficacy of gun control legislation at reducing the availability of guns has been challenged by, among others, the testimony of criminals that they do not obey gun control laws, and by the lack of evidence of any efficacy of such laws in reducing violent crime. The most thorough analysis of the impact of gun control laws, by Kleck, covered 18 major types of gun control and every major type of violent crime or violence (including suicide), and found that gun laws generally had no significant effect on violent crime rates or suicide rates. Kleck and Patterson, Journal of Quantitative criminology Sept. 1993 In his paper, Understanding Why Crime Fell in the 1990s: Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that Do not, Understanding Why Crime Fell in the 1990s: Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that Do Not, Steven D. Levitt, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 18 No. 1, 2004] University of Chicago economist Steven Levitt argues that available data indicate that neither stricter gun control laws nor more liberal concealed carry laws have had any significant effect on the decline in crime in the 1990s. While the debate remains hotly disputed, it is therefore not surprising that a comprehensive review of published studies of gun control, released in November 2004 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, was unable to determine any reliable statistically significant effect resulting from such laws, although the authors suggest that further study may provide more conclusive information. Thirty-nine U.S. states have passed "shall issue" concealed carry legislation of one form or another. In these states, law-abiding citizens (usually after giving evidence of completing a training course) may carry handguns on their person for self-protection. Other states and some cities such as New York may issue permits. Only Illinois, Wisconsin and the District of Columbia have explicit legislation forbidding personal carry. Vermont and Alaska do not require permits to carry concealed weapons, although Alaska retains a shall issue permit process for reciprocity purposes with other states. Supporters of gun-rights consider self-defense to be a fundamental and inalienable human right and believe that firearms are an important tool in the exercise of this right. They consider the prohibition of an effective means of self defense to be unethical and to violate Constitutional guarantees. For instance, in Thomas Jefferson’s "Commonplace Book," a quote from Cesare Beccaria reads, "laws that forbid the carrying of arms ... disarm only those who are neither inclined nor determined to commit crimes ... Such laws make things worse for the assaulted and better for the assailants; they serve rather to encourage than to prevent homicides, for an unarmed man may be attacked with greater confidence than an armed man." Story,Joseph, A Familiar Exposition of the Constitution of the United States(1986) Regnery Gateway, Chicago, Illinois, p.319-320, ISBN 0-89526-796-9 Hardy,David T. The origins and Development of the Second Amendment(1986), Blacksmith Corp., Chino Valley, Arizona, pp.1-78, ISBN 0-941540-13-8 Halbrook, Stephen P. That Every Man be Armed--The Evolution of a Constitutional Right(1987), The University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico, pp.1-88, ISBN 0-8263-0868-6 Domestic violence Gun control advocates argue that the strongest evidence linking availability of guns to injury and mortality rates comes in studies of domestic violence, most often referring to the series of studies by Arthur Kellermann. In response to public suggestions by some advocates of firearms for home defense, that homeowners were at high risk of injury from home invasions and would be wise to acquire a firearm for purposes of protection, Kellermann investigated the circumstances surrounding all in-home homicides in three cities of about half a million population each over five years, and found that the risk of a homicide was in fact slightly higher in homes where a handgun was present, rather than lower. From the details of the homicides he concluded that the risk of a crime of passion or other domestic dispute ending in a fatal injury was much higher when a gun was readily available (essentially all the increased risk being in homes where a handgun was kept loaded and unlocked), compared to a lower rate of fatality in domestic violence not involving a firearm. This increase in mortality, he postulated, was large enough to overwhelm any protective effect the presence of a gun might have by deterring or defending against burglaries or home invasions, which occurred much less frequently. The increased risk averaged over all homes containing guns was similar in size to that correlated with an individual with a criminal record living in the home, but substantially less than that associated with demographic factors known to be risks for violence, such as renting a home versus ownership, or living alone versus with others. Kellermann AL, Rivara FP, Rushforth NB, et al. Gun ownership as a risk factor for homicide in the home. N Engl J Med 1993;329(15):1084-1091. Critics of Kellermann's work and its use by advocates of gun control point out that since it deliberately ignores crimes of violence occurring outside the home (Kellermann states at the outset that the characteristics of such homicides are much more complex and ambiguous, and would be virtually impossible to classify rigorously enough), it is more directly a study of domestic violence than of gun ownership. Kellermann does in fact include in the conclusion of his 1993 paper several paragraphs referring to the need for further study of domestic violence and its causes and prevention. Researchers John Lott, Gary Kleck and many others dispute Kellermann's work. Suter, Edgar A, Guns in the Medical Literature-- A Failure of Peer Review, Journal of the Medical Association of Georgia;83:133-152, March, 1994 Kates DB, Schaffer HE, Lattimer JK, Murray GB, Cassem EH. Bad Medicine: Doctors and Guns in Guns Who Should Have Them? (Ed., Kopel DB), New York, NY, Prometheus Books, 1995, pp. 233-308. Faria MA Jr. The perversion of science and medicine (Part III): Public Health and Gun Control Research and (Part IV): The Battle Continues. Medical Sentinel 1997;2(3):81-82 and 83-86. Kates DB, Schaffer HE, Lattimer JK, Murray GB, Cassem EH. Guns and public health: epidemic of violence or pandemic of propaganda? Tennessee Law Review 1995;62:513-596 Kleck showed that no more than a handful of the homicides that Kellermann studied were committed with guns belonging to the victim or members of his or her household, and thus it was implausible that victim household gun ownership contributed to their homicide. Instead, the association that Kellermann found between gun ownership and victimization merely reflected the widely accepted notion that people who live in more dangerous circumstances are more likely to be murdered, but also were more likely to have acquired guns for self-protection prior to their death Kleck, Homicide Studies, Feb. 2001 Kleck and others argue that guns being used to protect property, save lives, and deter crime without killing the criminal accounts for the large majority of defensive gun uses. Suter E, Waters WC, Murray GB, et al. Violence in America-- effective solutions. J Med Assoc Ga 1995;84(6):253-264. Lott, John JR. More Guns, Less Crime: Understanding Crime and Gun Control Laws. Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 1998. Kleck G. Targeting Guns-- Firearms and Their Control. New York, NY, Aldine De Gruyter, 1997. Armed forces' reserves and reservist training In several countries, such as in Finland, the firearm politics and gun control is directly linked on the armed forces' reserves and reservist training. This is especially true in countries which base their armies on conscription; since every able-bodied male basically is a soldier, he is expected to be able to handle the gun reasonably and be able to practice for the time of need. Switzerland is a noted example of a country in which, due to the country's conscription and militia traditions, firearm ownership is widespread. Owing to Switzerland's history, all able-bodied male Swiss citizens aged between 21 and 50 (55 for officers) are issued assault rifles and ammunition in order to perform their annual military obligations. Because of this, Switzerland is one of the few nations in the world with a higher rate of firearm ownership than the United States. "What America can learn from Switzerland is that the best way to reduce gun misuse is to promote responsible gun ownership.", American Rifleman, February 1990 Also, Switzerland has a relatively low rate of gun crime. The comparatively low level of violent crime, despite the liberal gun laws, is demonstrated by the fact that Swiss politicians rarely have the same level of police protection as their counterparts in the United States and other countries, as was noted following the fatal shooting of several government officials in the Swiss canton of Zug in September 2001. 'Grudge' behind Swiss gun massacre, CNN, September 2001 According to many historians, Switzerland's militia tradition of "every man a soldier" contributed to the preservation of its neutrality during the Second World War, when it was not invaded by Nazi Germany. Switzerland was not invaded because the military cost to the Nazis would have been too high, Poe, Richard, The Seven Myths of Gun Control(2001), Prima Publishing, California, pp.75-83, ISBN 0-7615-2558-0 Kopel, David B., Guns-- Who Should Have Them? (Ed., Kopel DB), New York, NY, Prometheus Books, 1995, pp. 42-43. Kopel,David B., The Samurai, The Mountie and The Cowboy--Should America Adopt the Gun Control Laws of other Democracies? (1992) Prometheus Books, New York, pp.278-302, ISBN 0-87975-756-6 although this is meanwhile considered a legend regarding the existence of detailed invasion plans, which rated the Swiss defense capacity as overall low. Urner, Klaus Die Schweiz muss noch geschluckt werden, Zürich, Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 1990, ISBN 3-85823-303-X Schelbert, Leo Switzerland under siege; Rockport, Maine; Picton, 2000, ISBN 0-89725-414-7 Civil rights Jeff Snyder is perhaps the best known spokesman for the view that gun possession is a civil right, and that therefore arguments about whether gun restrictions reduce or increase violent crime are beside the point: "I am not here engaged in...recommending...policy prescriptions on the basis of the promised or probable results [on crime]...Thus these essays are not fundamentally about guns at all. They are, foremost, about...the kind of people we intend to be...and the ethical and political consequences of decisions [to control firearms]." Snyder, J: Nation of Cowards: Essays on the Ethics of Gun Control. Accurate Press, St. Louis, 2001:pp. i-ii He terms the main principle behind gun control "the instrumental theory of salvation:" that, lacking the ability to change the violent intent in criminals, we often shift focus to the instrument in an attempt to "limit our ability to hurt ourselves, and one another." ibid, p. 1 His work discusses the consequences that flow from conditioning the liberties of all citizens upon the behavior of criminals. Some of the earliest gun-control legislation at the state level were the "black codes" that replaced the "slave codes" after the Civil War, attempting to prevent blacks' having access to the full rights of citizens, including the right to keep and bear arms. Halbrook, SP: That Every Man be Armed: The evolution of a Constitutional Right. 2nd ed., The Independent Institute, Oakland, 1994:p. 108 Laws of this type later used racially neutral language to survive legal challenge, but were expected to be enforced against blacks rather than whites. Cramer, CE: The Racist Roots of Gun Control, 1993 A favorite target of gun control is so-called "junk guns," which are generally cheaper and therefore more accessible to the poor. However, some civil rights organizations favor tighter gun regulations. In 2003, the NAACP filed suit against 45 gun manufacturers for creating what it called a "public nuisance" through the "negligent marketing" of handguns, which included models commonly described as Saturday night specials. The suit alleged that handgun manufacturers and distributors were guilty of marketing guns in a way that encouraged violence in black and Hispanic neighborhoods. "The gun industry has refused to take even basic measures to keep criminals and prohibited persons from obtaining firearms," NAACP President/CEO Kweisi Mfume said. "The industry must be as responsible as any other and it must stop dumping firearms in over-saturated markets. The obvious result of dumping guns is that they will increasingly find their way into the hands of criminals." Editors (Sept/Oct 1999) "NAACP causes furor by suing gun manufacturers." New Crisis. The NAACP lawsuit was dismissed in 2003. "Gun Makers Repel Lawsuit by N.A.A.C.P." New York Times, July 22, 2003 It, and several similar suits—some brought by municipalities seeking re-imbursement for medical costs associated with criminal shootings—were portrayed by gun-rights groups as "nuisance suits," aimed at driving gun manufacturers (especially smaller firms) out of business through court costs alone, as damage awards were not expected. "Reckless Lawsuits: Courts Reject Lawsuits against Gun Makers." NRA-ILA, October 16, 2003 These suits prompted the passage of the Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act in October, 2005. Martin Luther King said, "By our readiness to allow arms to be purchased at will and fired at whim... we have created an atmosphere in which violence and hatred have become popular pastimes." King Jr., Martin Luther and Clayborne Carson (2001) The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. New York: Grand Central Publishing. p. 147. Inversely, the Dalai Lama said "If someone has a gun and is trying to kill you, it would be reasonable to shoot back with your own gun." (May 15, 2001, The Seattle Times) speaking at the "Educating Heart Summit" in Portland, Oregon, when asked by a girl how to react when a shooter takes aim at a classmate. Civic duty The Militia Information Service (MIS) contends that gun ownership is a civic duty in the context of membership of the militia, much like voting, neither of which they believe should be restricted to government officials in a true democracy. MIS also states that the people need to maintain the power of the sword so they can fulfil their duty, implicit in the social contract, to protect the rights and liberties of their fellow citizens, much as individual citizens have a legal and ethical duty to protect dependents under their care, such as a child, an elderly parent or a disabled spouse. Statistics Private ownership of guns Private ownership of guns and their relationship to domestic violence casualties is a significant variable used for political leverage in the policy debate. While many shootings occurring in the course of a mutual argument of passion, others occur where a partner or family member of a "romantic" or familial relationship, who is an ongoing victim of domestic physical abuse or sexual abuse, uses the force of a firearm in self-defense action against a perpetrator who also happens to be known to or related to the victim. As a corollary, in such policy advertising campaigns, the comparison of "domestic" gun casualties is usually not accompanied by murder and assault prosecution numbers stemming from the shootings occurring in that context. In many of the latter cases, the victim firing in self-defense is frequently a woman or youth victim of a more physically powerful abuser. In those situations gun rights advocates argue that the firearm arguably becomes an equalizer against the lethal and disabling force frequently exercised by the abusers. Haciendapub.com gunpage 15 In 2002 in the U.S., 1,202 women were killed by their intimate partners, accounting for 30 percent of the 4006 women murdered that year. A total of 700 women were killed by intimate partners using guns. WISQARS, Injury Mortality Reports The same year, 175 men were killed by intimate partners. Bureau of Justice Statistics, Homicide Trends in the U.S.: Intimate Homicide Many gun control opponents point to statistics in advertising campaigns purporting that "approximately 9 or so children are killed by people discharging firearms every day across the US," med.umich.edu and argue that this statistic is seldom accompanied by a differentiation of those children killed by individuals from unintentional discharges and stray bullets, and of those "children," under the age of majority—which is 18-21 in the U.S.—who are killed while acting as aggressors in street gang related mutual combat or while committing crimes, Haciendapub.com gunpage12 Haciendapub.com gunpage 13 many of which are seen as arising from the War on Drugs. There is further controversy regarding courts, trials, and the resulting sentences of these mostly "young men" as adults despite them not having reached the age of consent. A significant number of gun related deaths occur through suicide. According to statistics available from the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, of nearly 31,000 firearm-related deaths in 2005, suicides account for 55 percent of deaths in the United States whereas homicides account for 40 percent of deaths, accidents account for three percent, and the remaining two percent were legal killings. Public Health researchers state that the likelihood of someone dying from suicide or homicide is greater in homes where guns are present. "More than half firearm deaths are suicides" CNN.com, Retrieved 1 July 2008 Gun safety and gun laws There has been widespread agreement that the importance of gun safety education has a mitigating effect on the occurrence of accidental discharges involving children. There is somewhat less agreement about vicarious liability case law assigning strict liability to the gun owner for firearms casualties occurring when a careless gun owner loses proper custody and control of a firearm. The National Center for Policy Analysis, a conservative think tank, reported the following statistics New Jersey adopted what sponsors described as "the most stringent gun law" in the nation in 1966; two years later, the murder rate was up 46% and the reported robbery rate had nearly doubled. In 1968, Hawaii imposed a series of increasingly harsh measures, and its murder rate tripled from a low of 2.4 per 100,000 in 1968 to 7.2 by 1977. In 1976, Washington, D.C., enacted one of the most restrictive gun control laws in the nation. Since then, the city's murder rate has risen 134% while the national murder rate has dropped 2%. In addition: Over 50% of American households own guns, despite government statistics showing the number is approximately 35%, because guns not listed on any government roll were not counted during the gathering of data. pdf at ncjrs.gov Evanston, Illinois, a Chicago suburb of 75,000 residents, became the largest town to ban handgun ownership in September 1982 but experienced no decline in violent crime. It has subsequently ended its ban as a result of the District of Columbia v. Heller Supreme Court case, upon a federal lawsuit by the National Rifle Association being filed the day after Heller was settled. Among the 15 states with the highest homicide rates, 10 have restrictive or very restrictive gun laws. Lott, John JR. More Guns, Less Crime: Understanding Crime and Gun Control Laws. Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 1998, pp.50-96,135-138. Twenty percent of U.S. homicides occur in four cities with just 6% of the population—New York, Chicago, Detroit and Washington, D.C.—and each has or, in the cases of Detroit (until 2001) and D.C. (2008) had, a requirement for a licence on private handguns or an effective outright ban (in the case of Chicago). In England, Wales and Scotland, the private ownership of most handguns was banned in 1997 following a gun massacre at a school in Dunblane and an earlier gun massacre in Hungerford in which the combined deaths was 35 and injured 30. Gun ownership and gun crime was already at a low level, which made these slaughters particularly concerning. Only an estimated 57,000 people —0.1% of the population owned such weapons prior to the ban. http://www.firearmsafetyseminar.org.nz/_documents/Greenwood_Paper.pdf paragraph 58 Only 8 per cent of all criminal homicides are committed with a firearm of any kind. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/hosb0207.pdf Home Office statistical bulletin on Homicide and firearms offences in 2005/6 In 2005/6 the number of such deaths in England and Wales (population 53.3 million) was just 50, a reduction of 36 per cent on the year before and lower than at any time since 1998/9. The lowest rate of gun crime was in 2004/4 whilst the highest was in 1994. There was, however, a noticeable temporary increase in gun crime in the years immediately after the ban, though this has since fallen back. The reason for the increase has not been investigated thoroughly but it is thought that 3 factors may have raised the number of guns in circulation. These are, the reduction in gun crime in Northern Ireland (which led to guns coming from there to the criminal black market in England); guns (official issue or confiscated) acquired by military personnel in Iraq and Afghanistan; and guns coming from Eastern Europe after the fall of the iron curtain. Firearm injuries in England and Wales also noticeably increased in this time. Blair wants gun crime age reduced, BBC News, February 18, 2007 In 2005-06, of 5,001 such injuries, 3,474 (69%) were defined as "slight," and a further 965 (19%) involved the "firearm" being used as a blunt instrument. Twenty-four percent of injuries were caused with air guns, and 32% with "imitation firearms" (including soft air guns). Homicides, Firearm Offences and Intimate Violence 2005/2006 Supplementary Volume 1 to Crime in England and Wales 2005/2006) Since 1998, the number of fatal shootings has varied between 49 and 97, and was 50 in 2005. In Scotland the picture has been more varied with no pattern of rise or fall appearing. Violent crime accelerated in Jamaica after handguns were heavily restricted and a special Gun Court established. Kopel, David B. The Samurai, the Mountie, and the Cowboy--Should America Adopt the Gun Controls of Other Democracies? (1992), Prometheus Books, New York, pp.257-277, ISBN 0-87975-756-6 The Federal Bureau of Investigation's annual Uniform Crime Report ranking of cities over 40,000 in population by violent crime rates (per 100,000 population) finds that the ten cities with the highest violent crime rates for 2003 include three cities in the very strict state of New Jersey, one in the fairly restrictive state of Massachusetts. # City State1Saginaw MI 2IrvingtonNJ 3CamdenNJ 4AlexandriaLA 5DetroitMI 6East Orange NJ 7AtlantaGA 8SpringfieldMA 9Fort MyersFL 10MiamiFL See also Ballistic fingerprinting Concealed carry Gun violence and crime Gun violence in the United States Hoplophobia One handgun a month law Open carry Political arguments of gun politics in the United States Right to arms School shootings Gun political groups American Hunters and Shooters Association Americans for Democratic Action Americans for Gun Safety Foundation Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence British Association for Shooting and Conservation Citizens Committee for the Right to Keep and Bear Arms Coalition to Stop Gun Violence Gun Control Australia Gun Owners of America Jews for the Preservation of Firearms Ownership Law Enforcement Alliance of America League of Women Voters Liberty Belles Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition National Rifle Association of the United States Pink Pistols Schweizerischer Schützenverein Second Amendment Foundation Second Amendment Sisters Students for Concealed Carry on Campus Sporting Shooters Association of Australia References External links International Crime Survey data on gun ownership in eighteen nations Interactive Maps Showing Differences in U.S. Gun Control Laws First Reports Evaluating the Effectiveness of Strategies for Preventing Violence: Firearms Laws State of Florida Information For Resident and Non-Resident Concealed Weapon / Firearm License. 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7,517 | Graham_Chapman | Graham Arthur Chapman (8 January 1941 – 4 October 1989) was a comedian, actor, writer, physician and one of the six members of the Monty Python comedy troupe. He was also the lead actor in their two narrative films, playing King Arthur in Monty Python and the Holy Grail and the title character in Monty Python's Life of Brian. He co-authored and starred in the film Yellowbeard. Education Chapman was educated at Melton Mowbray Grammar School and studied medicine at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. At Cambridge, he began writing comedy sketches with fellow-student John Cleese. Chapman qualified as a medical doctor at the Barts Hospital Medical College, but never practised medicine professionally. While at Cambridge, Chapman joined Footlights. His fellow members included Cleese, Tim Brooke-Taylor, Bill Oddie, Tony Hendra, David Hatch, Jonathan Lynn, Humphrey Barclay, and Jo Kendall. Their revue A Clump of Plinths was so successful at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe that they renamed it Cambridge Circus, and took the revue to the West End in London and later New Zealand and Broadway in September 1964. The revue appeared in October 1964 on The Ed Sullivan Show. Before Python Cleese and Chapman wrote professionally for the BBC during the 1960s, primarily for David Frost, but also for Marty Feldman. Chapman also contributed sketches to the BBC radio series I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again and television programmes such as The Illustrated Weekly Hudd (starring Roy Hudd), Cilla Black, This is Petula Clark, and This is Tom Jones. Chapman, Cleese, and Tim Brooke-Taylor then joined Feldman in the television comedy series At Last the 1948 Show. Chapman, and on occasion Cleese, also wrote for the long-running television comedy series Doctor in the House. Chapman also co-wrote several episodes with Bernard McKenna and David Sherlock. Monty Python's Flying Circus |Graham Chapman as The Colonel in Monty Python's Flying CircusIn 1969 Chapman and Cleese joined Michael Palin, Terry Jones, Eric Idle and American artist Terry Gilliam for the BBC television comedy series Monty Python's Flying Circus. He most often played characters closer to his own personality: outwardly calm, authoritative figures barely concealing a manic unpredictability. In David Morgan's 1999 book Monty Python Speaks, Cleese asserted that Chapman - although officially his co-writer for many of their sketches - contributed comparatively little in the way of direct writing. Rather, the Pythons have said that his biggest contribution in the writing room was an intuition as to what was funny. John Cleese said in an interview that one of Chapman's great attributes was "his weird takes on things." In writing sessions Chapman "would lob in an idea or a line, but he could never be the engine", Cleese said. In the "Dead Parrot Sketch", written mostly by Cleese, the frustrated customer was initially trying to return a faulty toaster to a shop. Chapman would ask "How can we make this madder?", and then came up with the idea that returning a dead parrot to a pet shop might make a more interesting subject than a toaster. Cleese also complimented his writing partner by saying, "He was very possibly the best actor of all of us." Post-Python career In the late 1970s, Chapman moved to Los Angeles, where he guest-starred on many US television shows, including The Hollywood Squares, Still Crazy Like a Fox, and the NBC sketch series The Big Show. Upon returning to England he became involved with the Dangerous Sports Club (an extreme sports club which introduced bungee jumping to a wide audience). He began a lengthy series of US college tours in the 1980s, where he would tell the audience anecdotes on Monty Python, the Dangerous Sports Club, Keith Moon, and other subjects. His memoir, A Liar's Autobiography, was published in 1980 and, unusually for an autobiography, had five authors: Chapman, his partner David Sherlock, Alex Martin, David Yallop and Douglas Adams, who in 1977 was virtually unknown as a recent graduate fresh from Cambridge. Together they wrote a pilot for a TV series, Out of the Trees; it was aired in 1975, but never became a series. They also wrote a show for Ringo Starr, which was never made. Chapman mentored Adams, but they later had a falling out and did not speak for several years. It took years of planning and rewriting before he secured the funds to create Yellowbeard; The movie was finally released in 1983. Chapman's last project was to have been a TV series called Jake's Journey. Although the pilot episode was made, there were difficulties selling the project. Following Chapman's death, there was no interest. Chapman was also to have played a guest role as a television presenter in the Red Dwarf episode "Timeslides", but died before filming was to have started. In the years since Chapman's death, despite the existence of the "Graham Chapman Archive", only a few of his projects have actually been released. One of these projects is a play entitled O Happy Day, brought to life in 2000 by Dad's Garage Theatre Company in Atlanta, Georgia. Cleese and Palin assisted the theatre company in adapting the play. He also appeared in the Iron Maiden video, "Can I Play with Madness". Personal life In many ways, Chapman was the epitome of public-school respectability, a tall (6'2"/1.88 m), craggy pipe-smoker who enjoyed mountaineering and playing rugby. At the same time, he was highly eccentric and in later life open about his homosexuality. (Douglas Adams recalled in an interview that Chapman had told Adams he had once tired of slow service in his local pub, and had taken to slapping his penis against the bar to attract the attention of the bar staff.) Chapman was an alcoholic from his time in medical school. His drinking affected his performance on the TV recording set as well as on the set of Holy Grail, where he suffered from withdrawal symptoms including delirium tremens. He finally stopped drinking on Boxing Day 1977, having just irritated the other Pythons with an outspoken (and drunken) interview with the New Musical Express. Chapman kept his homosexuality a secret until the mid 1970s when he famously came out on a chat show hosted by British jazz musician George Melly, becoming one of the first celebrities to do so. Several days later, he came out to a group of friends at a party held at his home in Belsize Park where he officially introduced them to his partner, David Sherlock, whom he had met in Ibiza in 1966. Chapman later told a story in his college tour that when he made his homosexuality public, a member of the television audience wrote to the Pythons to complain that she had heard a member of the team was gay, adding that the Bible said any man that lies with a man should be taken out and stoned. With fellow Pythons already aware of his sexual orientation, Eric Idle replied, "We've found out who it was and we've had him shot." Chapman was a vocal spokesman for gay rights, and in 1972 he lent his support to the fledgling newspaper Gay News, which publicly acknowledged his financial and editorial support by listing him as one of its "special friends". Among Chapman's closest friends were Keith Moon of The Who, singer Harry Nilsson, and Beatle Ringo Starr. Before going sober, Chapman jokingly referred to himself as the British actress Betty Marsden, possibly because of Marsden's oft-quoted desire to die with a glass of gin in her hand. In 1971, Chapman and Sherlock adopted John Tomiczek as their son. Chapman met Tomiczek when the teenager was a runaway from Liverpool. After discussions with Tomiczek's father, it was agreed that Chapman would become Tomiczek's legal guardian. John later became Chapman's business manager. He died in 1992. Graham Chapman - Comedy Writer and Actor BBC, www.BBC.co.uk, January 29, 2003 Death Chapman died of a rare spinal cancer, which was diagnosed in November 1988 after his dentist found a growth on his tonsils. By September 1989 the cancer was declared incurable. He filmed scenes for the 20th anniversary of Monty Python that month, but was taken ill again on 1 October. Present when he died in a Maidstone Hospice on the evening of 4 October 1989 were John Cleese, Michael Palin, David Sherlock, his brother John, and John's wife, although Cleese had to be led out of the room to deal with his grief. The Pythons Autobiography Terry Jones and Peter Cook had visited earlier that day. His death occurred one day before the 20th anniversary of the first broadcast of Flying Circus; Jones called it “the worst case of party-pooping in all history." Memorial tributes and services A private memorial service to honor Chapman was held on the evening of 6 December, 1989 in the Great Hall at St Bartholomew's Hospital. Cleese delivered his eulogy: Graham Chapman, co-author of the "Parrot Sketch", is no more. <p> He has ceased to be. Bereft of life, he rests in peace. He's kicked the bucket, hopped the twig, bit the dust, snuffed it, breathed his last, and gone to meet the great Head of Light Entertainment in the sky. And I guess that we're all thinking how sad it is that a man of such talent, of such capability for kindness, of such unusual intelligence, should now so suddenly be spirited away at the age of only forty-eight, before he'd achieved many of the things of which he was capable, and before he'd had enough fun. <p> Well, I feel that I should say: nonsense. Good riddance to him, the freeloading bastard, I hope he fries. <p> And the reason I feel I should say this is he would never forgive me if I didn't, if I threw — threw away this glorious opportunity to shock you all on his behalf. Anything for him but mindless good taste. I could hear him whispering in my ear last night as I was writing this: <p> "All right, Cleese," he was saying, "you're very proud of being the very first person ever to say 'shit' on British television; if this service is really for me, just for starters, I want you to become the first person ever, at a British memorial service, to say 'fuck'". <p> You see, the trouble is, I can't. If he were here with me now I would probably have the courage, because he always emboldened me. But the truth is, I lack his balls, his splendid defiance. And so I'll have to content myself instead with saying 'Betty Marsden...' <p> But bolder and less inhibited spirits than me follow today. Jones and Idle, Gilliam and Palin. Heaven knows what the next hour will bring in Graham's name. Trousers dropping, blasphemers on pogo sticks, spectacular displays of high-speed farting, synchronized incest. One of the four is planning to stuff a dead ocelot and a 1922 Remington typewriter up his own arse to the sound of the second movement of Elgar's cello concerto. And that's in the first half. <p> Because you see, Gray would have wanted it this way. Really. Anything for him but mindless good taste. And that's what I'll always remember about him — apart, of course, from his Olympian extravagance. He was the prince of bad taste. He loved to shock. In fact, Gray, more than anyone I knew, embodied and symbolized all that was most offensive and juvenile in Monty Python. And his delight in shocking people led him on to greater and greater feats. I like to think of him as the pioneering beacon that beat the path along which fainter spirits could follow. <p> Some memories. I remember writing the undertaker speech with him, and him suggesting the punch line, 'All right, we'll eat her, but if you feel bad about it afterwards, we'll dig a grave and you can throw up into it.' I remember discovering in 1969, when we wrote every day at the flat where Connie Booth and I lived, that he'd recently discovered the game of printing four-letter words on neat little squares of paper, and then quietly placing them at strategic points around our flat, forcing Connie and me into frantic last minute paper chases whenever we were expecting important guests. <p> I remember him at BBC parties crawling around on all fours, rubbing himself affectionately against the legs of gray-suited executives, and delicately nibbling the more appetizing female calves. Mrs Eric Morecambe remembers that too. <p> I remember his being invited to speak at the Oxford Union, and entering the chamber dressed as a carrot — a full length orange tapering costume with a large, bright green sprig as a hat — and then, when his turn came to speak, refusing to do so. He just stood there, literally speechless, for twenty minutes, smiling beatifically. The only time in world history that a totally silent man has succeeded in inciting a riot. <p> I remember Graham receiving a Sun newspaper TV award from Reggie Maudling. Who else! And taking the trophy falling to the ground and crawling all the way back to his table, screaming loudly, as loudly as he could. And if you remember Gray, that was very loud indeed. <p> It is magnificent, isn't it? You see, the thing about shock... is not that it upsets some people, I think; I think that it gives others a momentary joy of liberation, as we realized in that instant that the social rules that constrict our lives so terribly are not actually very important. <p> Well, Gray can't do that for us anymore. He's gone. He is an ex-Chapman. All we have of him now is our memories. But it will be some time before they fade. (transcript) Michael Palin also spoke and said that he liked to think that Chapman was there with them all that day — "or rather, he will be in about twenty-five minutes," a joke in reference to Chapman's habitual lateness when they were all working together. Afterward, Idle led Cleese, Gilliam, Jones, and Palin, along with Chapman's other friends, in a rendition of "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life" from the film Monty Python's Life of Brian. Not to be outdone by Cleese, Idle was heard to say during the song's close, "I'd just like to be the last person at this meeting to say 'fuck'." Burial On 31 December 1999 Chapman's ashes were rumoured to have been "blasted into the skies in a rocket". In reality, however, Sherlock scattered Chapman's ashes in Snowdon, North Wales on 18 June 2005. Legacy After his death, speculation of a Python revival inevitably faded, with Idle saying, "we would only do a reunion if Chapman came back from the dead. So we're negotiating with his agent". Subsequent gatherings of the Pythons have actually been accompanied by an urn, said to contain Chapman's ashes. At the 1998 Aspen Comedy Arts festival, the urn was 'accidentally' knocked over by Terry Gilliam, spilling the 'ashes' on-stage. The cremains were then removed with a dust-buster. Asteroid 9617 Grahamchapman, named in Chapman's honour, is the first in a series of six asteroids carrying the names of members of the Monty Python comedy troupe. In 1997, David Sherlock allowed Jim Yoakum to start the Graham Chapman Archives. Later that year, the novel Graham Crackers: Fuzzy Memories, Silly Bits, and Outright Lies was released. It is a semi-sequel to A Liar's Autobiography, with Chapman works compiled by Yoakum. A collection of unpublished material has been released in 1999, Ojril: The Completely Incomplete Graham Chapman, containing scripts Graham wrote with Douglas Adams and others, such as "Our show for Ringo Starr, a.k.a. Goodnight Vienna". And in 2005 Calcium Made Interesting: Sketches, Letters, Essays & Gondolas was published. At one time, the script for "Out of the trees", written by Chapman and Adams in 1975 (and later extensively rewritten by Chapman with Bernard McKenna), was online, but Jim Yoakum had it removed, to the disappointment of the fans of Monty Python and also of co-writer Douglas Adams, who had made no objections to it being there. The debate that followed did nothing to promote the legacy of Graham Chapman, and cast some doubt about the erratic way in which Jim Yoakum, who had only known Graham Chapman superficially, was handling his literary estate. Jim did however start his own website, called the Graham Chapman Archives, demanding people to turn in any rare recordings featuring Graham Chapman they might have, but the site never offered any real biographical information or other materials, and it has since disappeared from the web. Graham Chapman's college tours in the 1980s had been recorded and these were released over the years by Yoakum. The CD A Liar Live was delayed several times, but was released as A Six Pack of Lies in 1997. Other, almost identical, college tours also came out on CD, such as Spot the Loony in 2001. A DVD of the tours (Looks Like a Brown Trouser Job) was released in 2005. The single episodes for "Out of the trees", which was wiped but later recovered on an early home video system, and "Jake's Journey" still remain to be released. In 2004 there was talk of a movie about the life of Graham Chapman, to be called "Gin and Tonic", by Hippofilms in cooperation with Jim Yoakum. Auditions were held in March 2004 in California http://www.dailyllama.com/news/2004/llama227.html , but since then the project died silently, and it isn't clear when exactly it has been officially abandoned. Its website is no longer online and the IMDB page has been deleted; the Graham Chapman Archive's website has disappeared as well. Notes References External links Graham Chapman at PythOnline Pythons Page Graham Chapman at the BBC Comedy Guide Graham Chapman at the Comedy Zone Graham Chapman at Gay Greats | Graham_Chapman |@lemmatized graham:22 arthur:2 chapman:64 january:2 october:4 comedian:1 actor:4 writer:4 physician:1 one:8 six:3 member:5 monty:13 python:23 comedy:10 troupe:2 also:12 lead:4 two:1 narrative:1 film:4 play:6 king:1 holy:2 grail:2 title:1 character:2 life:9 brian:2 co:6 author:3 star:3 yellowbeard:2 education:1 educate:1 melton:1 mowbray:1 grammar:1 school:3 study:1 medicine:2 emmanuel:1 college:6 cambridge:5 begin:2 write:14 sketch:7 fellow:3 student:1 john:7 cleese:18 qualify:1 medical:3 doctor:2 bart:1 hospital:2 never:6 practise:1 professionally:2 join:3 footlights:1 include:3 tim:2 brooke:2 taylor:2 bill:1 oddie:1 tony:1 hendra:1 david:9 hatch:1 jonathan:1 lynn:1 humphrey:1 barclay:1 jo:1 kendall:1 revue:3 clump:1 plinth:1 successful:1 edinburgh:1 festival:2 fringe:1 rename:1 circus:4 take:7 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7,518 | CANDU_reactor | Qinshan Phase III Units 1 & 2, located in Zhejiang China (30.436 N 120.958 E): Two CANDU 6 reactors, designed by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL), owned and operated by the Third Qinshan Nuclear Power Company Limited. Photo courtesy of AECL. The CANDU reactor is a Canadian-invented, pressurized heavy water reactor developed initially in the late 1950s and 1960s by a partnership between Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL), the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario (renamed Ontario Hydro in 1974, and now known as Ontario Power Generation since 1999), Canadian General Electric (now known as GE Canada), as well as several private industry participants. The acronym "CANDU", a registered trademark of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, stands for "CANada Deuterium Uranium". This is a reference to its deuterium-oxide (heavy water) moderator and its use of uranium fuel (originally, natural uranium). All current power reactors in Canada are of the CANDU type. Canada markets this power reactor abroad. The reactors are used in nuclear power plants to produce nuclear power from nuclear fuel. Design features Schematic Diagram of a CANDU reactor: The primary loop is in yellow and orange, the secondary in blue and red. The cool heavy water in the calandria can be seen in pink, along with partially-inserted shutoff rods. +Key1Fuel bundle8Fueling machines 2Calandria (reactor core)9Heavy water moderator3Adjuster rods10Pressure tube4Heavy water pressure reservoir11Steam going to steam turbine5Steam generator12Cold water returning from turbine6Light water pump13Containment building made of reinforced concrete7Heavy water pump The CANDU reactor is conceptually similar to most light water reactors, although it differs in the details. Fission reactions in the nuclear reactor core heat a fluid, in this case heavy water (see below). This coolant is kept under high pressure to raise its boiling point and avoid significant steam formation in the core. The hot heavy water generated in this primary cooling loop is passed into a heat exchanger heating light water in the less-pressurized secondary cooling loop. This water turns to steam and powers a conventional turbine with an electrical generator attached to it. Any excess heat energy in the steam after flowing through the turbine is rejected into the environment in a variety of ways, most typically into a large body of cool water, such as a lake, river or ocean. Heat can also be disposed of using a cooling tower, but they are avoided whenever possible because they reduce the plant's efficiency. More recently-built CANDU plants, such as the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station near Toronto, Ontario, use a discharge-diffuser system that limits the thermal effects in the environment to within natural variations. At the time of its design, Canada lacked the heavy industry to cast and machine the large, heavy steel pressure vessel used in most light water reactors. Instead, the pressure is contained in much smaller tubes, 10 cm diameter, that contain the fuel bundles. These smaller tubes are easier to fabricate than a large pressure vessel. In order to allow the neutrons to flow freely between the bundles, the tubes are made of zircaloy, which is highly transparent to neutrons. The zircaloy tubes are surrounded by a much larger low-pressure tank known as a calandria, which contains the majority of the moderator. Canada also lacked access to uranium enrichment facilities, which were then extremely expensive to construct and operate. The CANDU was therefore designed to use natural uranium as its fuel, like the ZEEP reactor, the first Canadian reactor. Traditional designs using light water as a moderator will absorb too many neutrons to allow a chain reaction to occur in natural uranium due to the low density of active nuclei. Heavy water absorbs fewer neutrons than light water, allowing a high neutron economy that can sustain a chain reaction even in unenriched fuel. Also, the low temperature of the moderator (below the boiling point of water) reduces changes in the neutrons' speeds from collisions with the moving particles of the moderator ("neutron scattering"). The neutrons therefore are easier to keep near the optimum speed to cause fissioning; they have good spectral purity. At the same time, they are still somewhat scattered, giving an efficient range of neutron energies. The large thermal mass of the moderator provides a significant heat sink that acts as an additional safety feature. If a fuel assembly were to overheat and deform within its fuel channel, the resulting change of geometry permits high heat transfer to the cool moderator, thus preventing the breach of the fuel channel, and the possibility of a meltdown. Furthermore, because of the use of natural uranium as fuel, this reactor cannot sustain a chain reaction if its original fuel channel geometry is altered in any significant manner. In a traditional light water reactor (LWR) design, the entire reactor core is a single large pressure vessel containing the light water, which acts as moderator and coolant, and the fuel arranged in a series of long bundles running the length of the core. To refuel such a reactor, it must be shut down, the pressure dropped, the lid removed, and a significant fraction of the core inventory, such as one-third, replaced in a batch procedure. The CANDU's calandria-based design allows individual fuel bundles to be removed without taking the reactor off-line, improving overall duty cycle or capacity factor. A pair of remotely-controlled fueling machines visit each end of an individual fuel string. One machine inserts new fuel while the other receives discharged fuel. A lower 235U density also generally implies that less of the fuel will be consumed before the fission rate drops too low to sustain criticality (due primarily to the relative depletion of 235U compared with the build-up of parasitic fission products). However, through increased efficiency which, among other benefits, avoids the need for enriched uranium, CANDU reactors use about 30-40% less mined uranium than light-water reactors per unit of electrical energy produced. Two CANDU fuel bundles: Each about 50 cm in length and 10 cm in diameter, and generating about 1 GWh of electricity during its time in the reactor. Photo courtesy of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. A CANDU fuel assembly consists of a number of zircaloy tubes containing ceramic pellets of fuel arranged into a cylinder that fits within the fuel channel in the reactor. In older designs the assembly had 28 or 37 half-meter long fuel tubes with 12 such assemblies lying end to end in a fuel channel. The relatively new CANFLEX bundle has 43 tubes, with two pellet sizes. It is about 10 cm (four inches) in diameter, 0.5 m (20 inches) long and weighs about 20 kg (44 lb) and replaces the 37-tube bundle. It has been designed specifically to increase fuel performance by utilizing two different pellet diameters. A number of distributed light-water compartments called liquid zone controllers help control the rate of fission. The liquid zone controllers absorb excess neutrons and slow the fission reaction in their regions of the reactor core. CANDU reactors employ two independent, fast-acting safety shutdown systems. Shutoff rods penetrate the calandria vertically and lower into the core in the case of a safety-system trip. A secondary shutdown system involves injecting high-pressure gadolinium nitrate solution directly into the low-pressure moderator. Purpose of using heavy water See nuclear reactor physics and nuclear fission and heavy water for complete details. The key to maintaining a nuclear reaction within a nuclear reactor is to use the neutrons being released during fission to stimulate fission in other nuclei. With careful control over the geometry and reaction rates, this can lead to a self-sustaining chain reaction, a state known as "criticality". Natural uranium consists of a mixture of various isotopes, primarily 238U and a much smaller amount (about 0.72% by weight) of 235U. 238U can only be fissioned by neutrons that are fairly energetic, about 1 MeV or above. No amount of 238U can be made "critical", however, since it will tend to parasitically absorb more neutrons than it releases by the fission process. In other words, 238U is not fissile. 235U, on the other hand, can support a self-sustained chain reaction, but due to the low natural abundance of 235U, natural uranium cannot achieve criticality by itself. The "trick" to making a working reactor is to slow some of the neutrons to the point where their probability of causing nuclear fission in 235U increases to a level that permits a sustained chain reaction in the uranium as a whole. This requires the use of a neutron moderator, which absorbs some of the neutrons' kinetic energy, slowing them down to an energy comparable to the thermal energy of the moderator nuclei themselves (leading to the terminology of "thermal neutrons" and "thermal reactors"). During this slowing-down process it is beneficial to physically separate the neutrons from the uranium, since 238U nuclei have an enormous parasitic affinity for neutrons in this intermediate energy range (a reaction known as "resonance" absorption). This is a fundamental reason for designing reactors with discrete solid fuel separated by moderator, rather than employing a more homogeneous mixture of the two materials. Water makes an excellent moderator. The hydrogen atoms in the water molecules are very close in mass to a single neutron and thus have a potential for high energy transfer, similar conceptually to the collision of two billiard balls. However, in addition to being a good moderator, water is also fairly effective at absorbing neutrons. Using water as a moderator will absorb enough neutrons that there will be too few left over to react with the small amount of 235U in natural uranium, again precluding criticality. So, light water reactors require fuel with an enhanced amount of 235U in the uranium, that is, enriched uranium which generally contains between 3% and 5% 235U by weight (the waste from this process is known as depleted uranium, consisting primarily of 238U). In this enriched form there is enough 235U to react with the water-moderated neutrons to maintain criticality. One complication of this approach is the requirement to build uranium enrichment facilities which are generally expensive to build and operate. They also present a nuclear proliferation concern since the same systems used to enrich the 235U can also be used to produce much more "pure" weapons-grade material (90% or more 235U), suitable for making a nuclear bomb. Operators could reduce these issues by purchasing ready-made fuel assemblies from the reactor supplier and have the latter reprocess the spent fuel. An alternative solution to the problem is to use a moderator that does not absorb neutrons as readily as water. In this case potentially all of the neutrons being released can be moderated and used in reactions with the 235U, in which case there is enough 235U in natural uranium to sustain criticality. One such moderator is heavy water, or deuterium-oxide. It reacts dynamically with the neutrons in a similar fashion to light water, albeit with less energy transfer on average given that heavy hydrogen, or deuterium, is about twice the mass of hydrogen. The advantage is that it already has the extra neutron that light water would normally tend to absorb, reducing the absorption rate. The use of heavy water moderator is the key to the CANDU system, enabling the use of natural uranium as fuel (in the form of ceramic UO2), which means that it can be operated without expensive uranium enrichment facilities. Additionally, the mechanical arrangement of the CANDU, which places most of the moderator at lower temperatures, is particularly efficient because the resulting thermal neutrons are "more thermal" than in traditional designs, where the moderator normally runs hot. This means that the CANDU is not only able to "burn" natural uranium and other fuels, but tends to do so more effectively as well. Fuel cycles Range of possible CANDU fuel cycles: CANDU reactors can accept a variety of fuel types, including the used fuel from light-water reactors. Courtesy of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. Compared with light water reactors, a heavy water design is "neutron rich". This makes the CANDU design suitable for "burning" a number of alternative nuclear fuels. To date, the fuel to gain the most attention is mixed oxide fuel (MOX). MOX is a mixture of natural uranium and plutonium, such as that extracted from former nuclear weapons. Currently, there is a worldwide surplus of plutonium due to the various agreements between the United States and the former Soviet Union to dismantle many of their warheads. However, the security of these supplies is a cause for concern. One way to address this security issue is by converting the warhead into fuel and burning the plutonium in a CANDU reactor. Plutonium can also be extracted from spent nuclear fuel reprocessing. While this consists usually of a mixture of isotopes that is not attractive for use in weapons, it can be used in a MOX formulation reducing the net amount of nuclear waste that has to be disposed of. Plutonium isn't the only fissile material in spent nuclear fuel that CANDU reactors can utilize. Because the CANDU reactor was designed to work with natural uranium, CANDU fuel can be manufactured from the used (depleted) uranium found in light water reactor (LWR) spent fuel. Typically this "Recovered Uranium" (RU) has a U-235 enrichment of around 0.9%, which makes it unusable to an LWR, but a rich source of fuel to a CANDU (natural uranium has a U-235 abundance of roughly 0.7%). It is estimated that a CANDU reactor can extract a further 30-40% energy from LWR fuel by recycling it in a CANDU reactor. Recycling of LWR fuel does not necessarily need to involve a reprocessing step. Fuel cycle tests have also included the DUPIC fuel cycle, or direct use of spent PWR fuel in CANDU, where used fuel from a pressurized water reactor is packaged into a CANDU fuel bundle with only physical reprocessing (cut into pieces) but no chemical reprocessing. Again, where light-water reactors require the reactivity associated with enriched fuel, the DUPIC fuel cycle is possible in a CANDU reactor due to the neutron economy which allows for the low reactivity of natural uranium and used enriched fuel. Several Inert-Matrix Fuels have been proposed for the CANDU design, which have the ability to "burn" plutonium and other actinides from spent nuclear fuel, much more efficiently than in MOX fuel. This is due to the "inert" nature of the fuel, so-called because it lacks uranium and thus does not create plutonium at the same time as it is being consumed. CANDU reactors can also breed fuel from natural thorium, if uranium is unavailable. Chronology The first CANDU-type reactor was Nuclear Power Demonstration (NPD), in Rolphton, Ontario. It was intended as a proof-of-concept design, and was rated for only 22 MWe, a very low power for a commercial power reactor. It produced the first nuclear-generated electricity in Canada, and ran successfully from 1962 to 1987. The second CANDU was the Douglas Point reactor, a more powerful version rated at roughly 200 MWe and located near Kincardine, Ontario. Douglas Point went into service in 1968, and ran until 1984. Uniquely among CANDU stations, Douglas Point incorporated an oil-filled window which offered a view of the east reactor face, even when the reactor was operating. The Douglas Point type was exported to India, and was the basis for India's fleet of domestically-designed and built 'CANDU-derivatives'. Douglas Point was originally planned to be a two-unit station, but the second unit was cancelled because of the success of the larger 515 MWe units at Pickering. In parallel to the development of the classic CANDU heavy-water design, experimental CANDU variants were developed. WR-1, located at the AECL's Whiteshell Laboratories in Pinawa, Manitoba, used vertical pressure tubes and organic oil as the primary coolant. The oil used has a higher boiling point than water, allowing the reactor to operate at higher temperatures and lower pressures than a conventional reactor. This reactor operated successfully for many years, and promised a significantly higher thermal efficiency than water-cooled versions. Gentilly-1, near Trois-Rivières, Québec, was also an experimental version of CANDU, using a boiling light-water coolant and vertical pressure tubes, but was not considered successful and was closed after 7 years of fitful operation. The successes at NPD and Douglas Point led to the decision to construct the first multi-unit station in Pickering, Ontario. Pickering A, consisting of units 1 to 4, went into service in 1971. Pickering B, consisting of units 5 to 8, went into service in 1983, giving a full-station capacity of 4,120 MWe. The station is placed very close to the city of Toronto, in order to reduce transmission costs. Pickering A was placed into voluntary lay-up in 1997, as a part of Ontario Hydro's Nuclear Improvement plan (note: the electricity generating division of Ontario Hydro was renamed Ontario Power Generation in 1999). Units 1 and 4 have since been returned to service, although not without considerable controversy regarding significant cost-overruns, especially on Unit 4. (The refurbishment of Unit 1 was essentially on-time and on-budget. ) In 2005, Ontario Power Generation announced that refurbishment of Units 2 and 3 at Pickering A would not be pursued, contrary to expectations. The reason for this change in plan was economic: the material condition of these units was much poorer than had existed for Units 1 and 4, particularly the condition of the steam generators, and thus the refurbishment costs would be much higher. This rendered a return-to-service of Units 2 and 3 uneconomical. A project to decommission these units is currently in the early stages of planning. Economics The central functionality behind the CANDU design is heavy water moderation and on-line refuelling, which permits a range of fuel types to be used (including natural uranium, enriched uranium, thorium, and used fuel from Light Water Reactors). Significant fuel cost savings can be realized if the uranium does not have to be enriched, but simply formed into ceramic natural uranium-dioxide fuel. This saves not only on the construction of an enrichment plant, but also on the costs of processing the fuel. However, some of this potential savings is offset by the initial, one time cost of the heavy water. The heavy water required must be more than 99.75% pure A. CANDU Nuclear Power Technology A.3 What is "heavy water"? "reactor-grade" heavy water, nominally 99.75 wt% deuterium content. and tonnes of this are required to fill the calandria and the heat transfer system. The next generation reactor (the Advanced CANDU Reactor, also called the "ACR") mitigates this disadvantage by having a smaller moderator size and by using light water as a coolant. Since heavy water is less efficient at transferring energy from neutrons, the moderator volume (relative to fuel volume) is larger in CANDU reactors compared with light-water designs, making a CANDU reactor core generally larger than a light water reactor of the same power output. In turn, this implies higher building costs for standard features like the containment building. This is offset to some degree by the calandria-based construction, but even considering this, the CANDU tends to have higher capital costs compared with other designs. In fact, CANDU plant costs are dominated by construction costs, the price of fuel representing perhaps 10% of the cost of the power it delivers. This is true in general of nuclear plants, where the plant cost and cost of operations represent about 65% of overall lifetime cost. Due to the lower fuelling costs compared to light water reactor designs, the levelized lifetime cost on a "per-kWh" basis tends to be comparable to these other designs. When first being offered, CANDUs offered much better "running" time statistics, the capacity factor, than light-water reactors of a similar generation. At the time, light-water (LWR) designs spent, on average, about half of their time in maintenance or refueling outages. However, since the 1980s dramatic improvements in LWR outage management have narrowed the gap between LWR and CANDU, with several LWR units achieving capacity factors in the 90% and higher range, with an overall fleet performance of 89.5% in 2005. US Fleet Performance The latest-generation CANDU 6 reactors have demonstrated an 88-90% capacity factor, but overall fleet performance is dominated by the older Canadian units which generally report capacity factors on the order of 80%. CANDU Lifetime Performance to November 30, 2001 Some CANDU plants suffered from cost overruns during construction, primarily due to external factors. For instance, a number of imposed construction delays led to roughly a doubling of the projected cost of the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station near Toronto, Ontario. Technical problems and redesigns added about another billion to the resulting $14.4 billion price. Team CANDU, Debunking Darlington "Can CANDU estimates be trusted?" by J.A.L. Robertson (2004) In contrast, the two CANDU 6 reactors more recently installed in China at the Qinshan site were completed on-schedule and on-budget, an achievement attributed to tight control over scope and schedule. The company SNC-Lavalin has had the best record in constructing a power plant of this size. Team CANDU, "On Budget, On Time" Nuclear nonproliferation In terms of safeguards against nuclear proliferation, CANDU reactors meet a similar level of international certification as other reactor designs. However, there is a common misconception that the plutonium for India's first nuclear detonation, conducted in 1974 Operation Smiling Buddha, was produced in a CANDU design. In fact, the plutonium was produced in the unsafeguarded CIRUS reactor whose design is based on the NRX, a Canadian research reactor. In addition to its two CANDU reactors, India has some unsafeguarded pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs) based on the CANDU design, and two safeguarded light-water reactors supplied by the US. Plutonium has been extracted from the spent fuel from all of these sources in the PREFRE reprocessing facility. While all of these reactors could in principle be used for plutonium production, India uses an Indian designed and built military reactor for plutonium production called Dhruva. It is believed that the Dhruva reactor design is derived from the CIRUS reactor, with the Dhruva being scaled-up for more efficient plutonium production. It is this reactor which is thought to have produced the plutonium for India's more recent (1998) Operation Shakti nuclear tests. Another concern is tritium production. Although heavy water is relatively immune to neutron capture, a small amount of the deuterium turns into tritium via this process. Tritium, when mixed with deuterium, undergoes nuclear fusion more easily than any other elemental mixture. Small amounts of tritium can be used in both the "trigger" of an A-bomb and the "fusion boost" of a boosted fission weapon. Tritium can also be used in the main fusion process of an H-bomb, but in this application it is typically generated in situ by neutron irradiation of lithium-6. Tritium is extracted from some CANDU plants in operation in Canada, primarily to improve safety in case of heavy-water leakage. The gas is stockpiled and used in a variety of commercial products, notably "powerless" lighting systems and medical devices. In 1985 what was then Ontario Hydro sparked controversy in Ontario due to its plans to sell tritium to the US. The plan, by law, involved sales to non-military applications only, but some speculated that even this minor penetration of the market would aid the U.S. nuclear weapon program. Demands for this supply in the future appear to outstrip production; in particular the needs of future generations of experimental fusion reactors like ITER will use up a significant amount of any potential stockpile. Currently between 1.5 and 2.1 kg of tritium are recovered yearly at the Darlington separation facility, of which a minor fraction is sold. The 1998 Operation Shakti test series in India included one bomb of about 45 kT yield that India has publicly claimed was a hydrogen bomb. An offhand comment in the BARC publication Heavy Water - Properties, Production and Analysis appears to suggest that the tritium was extracted from the heavy water in the CANDU and PHWR reactors in commercial operation. Janes Intelligence Review quotes the Chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission as admitting to the tritium extraction plant, but refusing to comment on its use. It is known, however, that India has developed the technology to create tritium from the neutron-irradiation of lithium-6 in reactors, a process that is several orders of magnitude more efficient than the extraction of tritium from irradiated heavy water. Active CANDU reactors Today there are 29 CANDU reactors in use around the world, and a further 13 "CANDU-derivatives" in use in India (these reactors were developed from the CANDU design after India detonated a nuclear bomb in 1974 and Canada stopped nuclear dealings with India). The countries the reactors are located in are: Canada: 17 (+3 refurbishing, +5 decommissioned) South Korea: 4 China: 2 India: 2 (+13 CANDU-derivatives in use, +3 CANDU-derivatives under construction) Argentina: 1 Romania: 2 (+3 under construction, currently dormant) Pakistan: 1 New plants Interest continues to be expressed in new CANDU construction around the world, and CANDU technology is typically involved in open bidding processes alongside LWR technology. CANDU reactors have been proposed as the main vehicle for planned supply replacement and growth in Ontario, Canada, a province that currently generates over 50% of its electricity from CANDU reactors, with Canadian government help with financing. Interest has also been expressed in Western Canada, where CANDU reactors are being considered as heat and electricity sources for the energy-intensive oil sands extraction process, which currently uses natural gas. Energy Alberta Corporation, headquartered in Calgary, announced August 272007 that they had filed application for a license to build a new nuclear plant at Lac Cardinal (30 km west of the town of Peace River, Alberta). The application would see an initial twin AECL ACR-1000 plant go online in 2017, producing 2.2 gigawatt (electric). Lac Cardinal (Alberta Index) Lac Cardinal (CBC) 2007-08-28 The Hill Times page 26, 2007-06-04 Romania is in discussions for the completion of its multi-unit nuclear plant at Cernavoda, now consisting of two operating CANDU reactors. Three more partially-completed CANDU reactors exist on the same site, part of a project discontinued at the close of the Nicolae Ceauşescu regime. Turkey has repeatedly shown interest in the CANDU reactor, but so far has chosen not to pursue nuclear energy. In the summer of 2006, Turks protested against plans for building nuclear reactors. Enhanced CANDU 6 The Enhanced CANDU 6 is an evolutionary upgrade of the standard CANDU 6 design rated to deliver a gross output of 740 MWe per unit. The units are designed with a planned operating life of over fifty years, which will be achieved with a mid-life program to replace some of the key components, such as the fuel channels. The plants have a projected average annual capacity factor of more than ninety per cent. Enhancement of the CANDU 6 design to achieve higher plant output include: the installation of an Ultrasonic Flow Meter (UFM) to improve the accuracy of feedwater flow measurements, improvements in turbine design itself and change in condenser vacuum system design for operation at lower condenser pressures. AECL continues to develop other features to further improve the plant’s performance while maintaining the basic features of the CANDU 6 design, which over time have proven to be extremely reliable with an excellent production record since the early 1980s. The additional enhancements include: Increased plant margins, both operational and safety Enhanced environmental protection Improved Severe Accident Response Improved Fire Protection System Improved Plant Security Modern Computers and Control Systems Improved Plant Operability and Maintainability Optimized Plant Maintenance Outages Reduced Overall Project Schedule Advanced MACSTOR Design for Spent Fuel Storage Advanced CANDU Reactor (ACR-1000) The ACR-1000 represents the continuing evolution of CANDU design to match changing market conditions. ACR-1000 is the next-generation (officially, "Generation III+") CANDU technology from Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (AECL), which maintains proven elements of existing CANDU design, while making some significant modifications: compact fuel-channel design, generating over 50% more power than a conventional CANDU-6 reactor, with approximately the same overall core diameter; improved thermal efficiency through higher-pressure steam turbines (13 MPa primary pressure; 7 MPa steam outlet pressure, vs. approximately 10 MPa and 5 MPa, respectively, in current designs); pressurized light-water coolant; negative coolant void reactivity; reduction in used fuel production by over 30%; greater thermal efficiency due to higher operating temperatures and pressures; reduced use of heavy water (more than half, for the same power output), thus reducing cost and eliminating many material handling concerns; use of slightly enriched uranium (about 2%) to extend fuel life to three times that of existing *natural uranium fuel (reducing fuel waste volume by two-thirds); average channel power increased from roughly 6 MW (CANDU 6) to roughly 7 MW; flatter neutron flux shape, allowing 14% lower peak fuel element ratings; longer plant operational lifetime (60 years); longer operating cycles between maintenance outages (3 years); 90% design capacity factor; pre-stressed concrete containment (1.8 m thick) with steel liner; and further additions to CANDU's inherent passive safety. At the same time the basic and defining design features of CANDU are all maintained: modular, horizontal fuel channel core; heavy water moderation; simple, economical fuel bundle; separate, cool, low-pressure moderator with back-up heat sink capability; two independent, fast-acting shutdown systems; ability to perform long-term flux-shaping and failed fuel management through on-line refuelling. It is expected that the capital cost of constructing these plants will be reduced by up to 40% compared to current CANDU 6 plants. In 2007 AECL submitted the ACR-1000 design to the British Generic Design Assessment process to evaluate reactors for a new British nuclear power station program. However in 2008 AECL withdrew the design from the evaluation stating that AECL "is focusing its marketing and licensing resources for the advanced Candu reactor on the immediate needs of the Canadian domestic marketplace." Tritium Emissions Tritium is a radioactive form of hydrogen (H-3), with a half-life of 12.3 years. It is found in small amounts in nature (about 4 kg globally), created by cosmic ray interactions in the upper atmosphere. Tritium is considered to be a weak radionuclide because of the low energy of its radioactive emissions (beta particle energy 0 -19 keV). reviewed by Dr. Richard Osborne The beta particles do not travel very far in air and do not penetrate skin; therefore the main biological hazard of tritium is due to its intake into the body (inhalation, ingestion, or absorption). Tritium is generated in all nuclear power designs; however, CANDU reactors generate more tritium in their coolant and moderator than light-water designs, due to neutron capture in heavy hydrogen. Some of this tritium escapes into containment and is generally recovered; however a small percentage (about 1%) escapes containment and constitutes a routine radioactive emission from CANDU plants (also higher than from an LWR of comparable size). Operation of a CANDU plant therefore includes monitoring of this effluent in the surrounding biota (and publishing the results), in order to ensure that emissions are maintained below regulatory limits. In some CANDU reactors the tritium concentration in the moderator is periodically reduced by an extraction process, in order to further reduce this risk. Typical tritium emissions from CANDU plants in Canada are less than 1% of the national regulatory limit, which is based upon the guidelines of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) (for example, the maximum permitted drinking water concentration for tritium in Canada, 7000 Bq/L, corresponds to 1/10 of the ICRP's public dose limit). Tritium emissions from other CANDU plants are similarly low. http://www.djs.si/proc/port2001/pdf/508.pdf In general there is significant public controversy associated with radioactive emissions from nuclear power plants, and for CANDU plants one of the main concerns is tritium. In 2007 Greenpeace published a critique of tritium emissions from Canadian nuclear power plants by Dr. Ian Fairlie. This report was reviewed by Dr. Richard Osborne and found to be in significant error. References See also ZEEP reactor Nuclear power in Canada List of nuclear reactors Embalse nuclear power plant External links The Evolution of CANDU Fuel Cycles and Their Potential Contribution to World Peace CANDU Owner's Group A history of the CANDU reactor CANTEACH - Educational and Reference Library on Candu Technology Ontario Power Generation Bruce Power New Brunswick Power Hydro-Québec Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission Canadian Nuclear Society Canadian Nuclear Association Canadian Nuclear FAQ CBC Digital Archives - Candu: The Canadian Nuclear Reactor Chernobyl – A Canadian Perspective Will CANDU do? 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7,519 | Kid_Rock | Robert James Ritchie (born January 17, 1971), known by his stage name Kid Rock, is an American rapper and singer-songwriter with five Grammy Award nominations. Kid Rock is known for his eccentric personality and his music that fuses rap with heavy metal, blues rock, southern rock, funk and country music. Kid Rock released several studio albums that mostly went unnoticed before his 1998 record Devil Without a Cause, released with Atlantic Records, sold 11 million albums behind the hits, "Bawitdaba","Cowboy," and "Only God Knows Why". In 2000, he released The History of Rock which was a compilation of remixed and remastered versions of songs from his previous albums as well as the single, "American Bad Ass". In 2001, he released the follow up, Cocky. After a slow start, his country-flavored hit "Picture" with Sheryl Crow resurrected the album and it went gold as a single and pushed the album's sales to more than 5 million. It was followed by 2003's self-titled release, which failed to chart a major hit. In 2006 he released Live Trucker , which was a greatest hits live album. In 2008, Kid Rock released Rock N Roll Jesus, which produced a hit in "All Summer Long". It was his first worldwide smash hit, charting #1 in eight countries across Europe and Australia. Rock N Roll Jesus would go on to sell 5 million albums worldwide including being certified double platinum in the US. He has sold 22.4 million records in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan, while the RIAA has him certified at 21 million. His singles have charted on every major chart genre. He is backed by The Twisted Brown Trucker Band, who he formed in 1994, in Sterling Heights, MI. Musical career Grits Sandwiches for Breakfast Kid Rock grew up on an apple orchard farm in Romeo, Michigan and his father was a wealthy car dealer. His parents would entertain guests with Bobby singing covers of Jim Croce, Johnny Cash and Bob Seger at their barn parties. However, by the time the 1980s began hip-hop had emerged, and a late-night TV performance by the Fat Boys had Bobby hooked. He became immersed in hip hop with groups like Run DMC, Beastie Boys, Whodini, Too Short and Erik B and Rakim. At age eleven he joined a breakdance crew (referred to as b-boy), called the Furious Funkers. They would dance anywhere they could for money. He saved up his money to buy a cheap belt-driven turntable and he taught himself how to work the tables. In high school, Ritchie DJed at parties for beer. He eventually joined Bo Wisdom of Groove Time Productions, in Mt. Clemens, Michigan to perform basement parties for thirty dollars a night. It was then that he was given his stage name; club goers dubbed him with the moniker "Kid Rock" after they had enjoyed watching "that white kid rock." In addition to DJing, Rock started rapping and joined a local hip hop group The Beast Crew they were composed of The Blackman, Champtown, KDC, Crisp and Doc Rounce Cee. Rock also became friends with producer D-Nice of the legendary hip-hop group Boogie Down Productions. When Rock opened for BDP one night, D-Nice invited an A&R representative from Jive Records to see him perform. This meeting led to a demo deal, which developed into a full record contract. Against his parents' wishes, Rock signed the deal at the age of seventeen. Despite his new record deal, he had a falling out with The Beast Crew when he signed over fellow member Champtown (the two have become friends again since). They also left his vocals in on tracks on their debut underground album "Chapter 1: He Don't Want Us No More," against his wishes. Rock later became part of the Straight From The Underground Tour, where he found himself alongside several heavyweights of rap including Ice Cube, Too Short, D-Nice, and Yo-Yo. On December 11, 1990, Kid Rock released his debut album Grits Sandwiches for Breakfast on Jive Records. The lead single "Yo Da Lin In The Valley" was banned by the FCC for its fixation on oral sex, and received at the time the largest non-commercial radio fine of all time at $23,750 fined to SUNY Cortland Radio (WSUC-FM). . Jive released Kid Rock from their roster in 1991. It was during the height of the 2 Live Crew censorship trial and they deemed Kid Rock's album too dirty. He would meet Uncle Kracker in 1991 after battling Kracker's brother in a battle rap back in Clawson,Michigan. Kid Rock eventually asked Uncle Kracker to become his full time DJ, although at the time he had no clue how to play them. Grits Sandwiches sold 100,000 copies upon its initial release. Atlantic Record won the rights to the record in 2000 and re-released the album. Independent days In late 1991 he was picked up by an independent record label called Continuum Records, which released his second album The Polyfuze Methodthe following year. He moved to Brooklyn to work on the album. It was more rock oriented with Rock teaching himself how to play several different instruments including guitar, drums, keyboard and organ. While the album saw some local college radio success at Central Michigan University with the tracks "Back From The Dead" and "Balls In Your Mouth" (which was an even crudier ode to oral sex than Yo Da Lin In The Valley,that never got fined ), the lead single, "U Don't Know Me",failed to chart, and the music video received little airplay on any major music video channels. Kid Rock rereleased "Back From The Dead" as a single to mainstream radio ,but that do failed as a single. The album has sold around 100,000 copies. He released an EP called Fire It Up! in 1994. The album was hard rock oriented but he couldn't get rock radio to pick up on any of the singles, including "I Am the Bullgod", which would be a hit five years later. They would tell him there was too much rapping in the songs. Continuum didn't see a future with Rock after this and released him from his contract in 1994. He moved back to Detroit where his on-again/off-again relationship with Kelly South resulted in the birth of his son, Robert James Ritchie Jr. Kid Rock gained custody of his son. He started his own label, Top Dog Records, and released monthly demo tapes dubbed The Bootleg Series, which featured demos of him and other up-and-coming rappers and garage rock bands in the Detroit area. Around the same time, Kid Rock formed his back-up band Twisted Brown Trucker, later recruiting Joe C., who he met at a 1994 concert, as part of the group. In 1995, Rock took a job as a janitor at Whiterooms Studios in order to pay studio fees. When he wasn't working, Kid Rock recorded the material that would eventually make up his fourth album, Early Morning Stoned Pimp. During the recording process he met piano player Jimmie Bones ,who was working with Robert Bradley in the adjacent room at White Room Studios. Bones decided to join Kid Rock's band soon after. The album was released January 9 th 1996, after a loan from his father and Kid Rock sold 60,000 copies out of the trunk of his car and after concerts. With EMSP local success he would rerelease The Polyfuze Method as The Polyfuze Method Revisted in 1997 with " I Am The Bullgod", "Rollin On The Island" and "Rain Check" as additional tracks in March 1997. While Kid Rock was now popular in Michigan and controlling his own label, he felt he needed to get attention from a major label. Without knowing in December 1996, Lava/Atlantic Records A&R man Andy Karp, traveled to Cleveland to see Rock perform at a small club called The Grog Shop. This was key because on March 30, 1997, Rock performed a special showcase concert to attract major label attention. While many of the major labels were invited, the only attendees were Karp and Lava President Jason Flom (Lava/Atlantic Records) who had seen him in Cleveland. Following the performance, record executives said they loved him but expressed doubts about the strength of his material. Kid Rock returned to the studio and cut a six song demo tape; the first two songs on the tape were "Somebody's Gotta Feel This" and "I Got One For Ya". After hearing the two songs, Jason Flom supported Karp in signing Kid Rock to a record deal for $100,000, without even hearing the rest. Devil Without a Cause In 1997, Kid Rock added drummer/vocalist Stefanie Eulinberg to his band, joining Kenny Olson, Jason Krause, Jimmie Bones, Uncle Kracker, Misty Love, Shirley Hayden and Joe C.. On August 18 1998, Atlantic released Devil Without a Cause behind the single "Welcome 2 The Party." Kid Rock went on the Vans Warped Tour to support the album. Audiences ignored "Welcome 2 The Party" and Devil sat on the shelves collecting dust for eight months. While sales nationwide lagged, his performance on the 1998 Warped Tour in Northampton, Massachusetts stimulated regional interest in Massachusetts and New England. This led to substantial airplay in the summer and fall of 1998 on rock staples in Massachusetts WZLX and WAAF for the single "I Am The Bullgod." In December 1998, while dj'ing at a club he meet and became friends with MTV host Carson Daly, he got an offer to perform on MTV Fashionably Loud in Miami, giving the nation its first real look at Kid Rock. From there, MTV took him under their wing as he performed on MTV's Wanna B A VJ doing "My Name Is Rock" and was the DJ for TRL on the Spring Break Special as well as a judge on Say What Karaoke. This sparked him to gold status by April 1999. In May 1999, he released the song "Bawitdaba" to radio outlets, and proceeded to blow up overnight. By June, the album had gone platinum. Kid Rock went on the Limptropolis Tour with fellow rap-rockers Limp Bizkit and Staind in the same month, his first major tour. By the time he made his career defining performance at Woodstock 1999 on July 27, 1999, he was double platinum. The following single "Cowboy" was an even bigger hit. It was a unique mix of southern rock, country and rap that found its way into the Top 40. Kid Rock helped create one of the most memorable moments in MTV history with his 1999 Video Music Awards medley with Run-D.M.C. and Aerosmith who rejoined to perform the seminal rap-rock version of "Walk This Way," the same song that revived Aerosmith's career in the 1980s. Rock's next single, the rock ballad "Only God Knows Why," would be the biggest hit off the album charting at No 19 on the Billboard Hot 100. By the time the final single "Wasting Time" was released the album had sold 7 million albums, Devil Without A Cause was certified 11 times platinum by the RIAA on April 17, 2003.. He was nominated as Best New Artist at the 2000 Grammy Award's losing out to Christina Aguilera. He was also nominated for "Bawitdaba" for Best Hard Rock Performance, the award was won by Metallica for "Whiskey In The Jar." The History of Rock After reacquiring the rights to his early material in 2000, Rock released The History of Rock, a collection of remixed and re-recorded songs from The Polyfuze Method and Early Mornin Stoned Pimp. The one of two new tracks, "American Bad Ass" was released as a single. It sampled the Metallica track "Sad But True". On May 27 Kid Rock would perform on Saturday Night Live. He did "American Bad Ass" and used the intro to trash the previous week's singer Britney Spears for lip syncing. The second song was an acoustic version of "Only God Knows Why" that featured Phish's Trey Anatasio. Kid Rock would join Phish later in the year in Las Vegas, Nevada for a set of cover songs. "American Bad Ass" was used as pro wrestler The Undertaker's entrance song in the World Wrestling Federation for a year. He performed the song in Vancouver Canada on Monday Night Raw on May 29, 2000. During the show Joe C helped the Dudley Boys win the tag team titles from Edge and Christain who had mocked him for being a midget. Edge and Christain got their revenge by stuffing him in a trash can and slamming him into the wall afterwards. The following night Lars Ulrich and Kirk Hamet of Metallica joined Kid Rock to do "American Bad Ass" on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. From June 30 to August 22 2000, Rock joined the Summer Sanitarium Tour with Metallica, Korn, Powerman 5000, and System of a Down. Kid Rock filled in for James Hetfield of Metallica, singing vocals on the songs "Enter Sandman", "Sad But True", and "Nothing Else Matters" and the turntables for "Fuel", for three shows after Hetfield injured his spine riding a jet ski on Lake Lanier the day before the July 7th Atlanta concert. On November 16, 2000 Joseph "Joe C" Callejua would pass away in his sleep from Coeliac disease in Taylor, MI. The disease stunted his growth and forced him to take 60 pills a day. Joe C's final song was "Cool Daddy Cool" for the Osmosis Jones soundtrack. The band made a cameo in the movie as the band playing in the club scene. Kid Rock was referred to as Kidney Rock to go along with the cartoon aspect of being a cell in the body of Frank played by Bill Murray. In early 2001, Rock inducted Aerosmith into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and performed "Sweet Emotion" at the induction ceremony. The same year, Rock landed his first acting role in the David Spade white trash comedy Joe Dirt. His character was Robbie a redneck bully to Joe Dirt who was chasing after Joe's unaware love interest Brandy. "American Bad Ass" was nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 2001s Grammy Awards. Losing out to Rage Against The Machine's "Guerilla Radio". The History of Rock would go on to be certified double platinum. Cocky Pamela Anderson and Kid Rock in 2003 In 2001 Kid Rock began dating Playboy playmate and actress Pamela Anderson, after the two met at a VH1 tribute to Aretha Franklin. By April 2002, he and Anderson were engaged, but the engagement was later called off. In November, Kid Rock released Cocky, which was marketed as the official follow up to Devil Without a Cause. With the era of rap metal on the decline, Kid Rock included several southern rock and country ballads on the album. The first single, "Forever", featured his standard brash rap-rock sound, but lacked the selling power of "Devil Without A Cause". By the time the songs "Lonely Road of Faith"and "You Never Met a Motherfucker Quite Like Me" were released as singles the album struggled to reach platinum a year later . However, the release of "Picture", a country-influenced duet with Sheryl Crow, introduced Kid Rock to a wider audience. "Picture" was ultimately the most successful single on the album, and was eventually certified gold, with album sales reaching 5 million. Interestingly, neither his record company nor Sheryl Crow's wanted anything to do with "Picture" as a single. Allison Moorer remade the song for the single version after Kid Rock released the song against his label's wishes. Once it began to climb the country charts, Sheryl Crow's label caved and the original version was released. The song would chart at No 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No 17 on Country radio. The song remains his most successful pop song in the US to date. On December 14, 2001, CMT aired an episode of Crossroads featuring Rock with Hank Williams, Jr. The episode drew 2.1 million viewers, a record on CMT. . He would perform for troops in January 2002 on an MTV USO Special at Germany's Rammstein Air Force Base along with Ja Rule and Jennifer Lopez. At the end of 2002, Uncle Kracker left the band to pursue a solo career and Detroit underground rapper Paradime replaced him. Kid Rock also made his second movie, Biker Boyz, with Laurence Fishburne. His character was Dogg, a rival bike leader to Laurence Fishburne's character. A new direction In 2003, Kid Rock returned with an eponymous album, almost stripping away the accustomed rap rock sound that he had created, opting for southern rock and several country ballads in the wake of "Picture"'s success. None of the album's singles could match "Picture"'s success however. The album's lead single was a cover of Bad Company's "Feel Like Makin' Love". A media blitz accompanied the single capped off by the VH-1 special called A Kid Rock Christmas, which aired on December 14, 2003. He would release "Cold And Empty", "Jackson, Mississippi" and "I Am" to minor success on radio. The David Allan Coe penned "Single Father", became his second charting country song, although like the other singles it was minor hit at #50.. Kid Rock would be his lowest selling mainstream studio album of his career with 1.4 million copies sold. Kid Rock was involved in the halftime show controversy at Super Bowl XXXVIII in Houston, Texas on February 1, 2004. He was criticized by war veterans for his choice of wearing the American flag as a poncho. The following month, Kid inducted Bob Seger into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In September, Kid Rock filled in for Johnny Van Zant, the lead singer of Lynyrd Skynyrd on the band's hit "Sweet Home Alabama" at the Hurricane Katrina benefit concert. He performed the theme song for Spike TV's Striperella, which featured Pamela Anderson in 2003, the song was entitled "Erotica". Live Trucker Kid Rock in concert on September 16, 2006 in Denver, Colorado. On February 28, 2006, Kid Rock released his first live album, Live Trucker, comprising songs from his homestead performances in Clarkston (on September 1, 2000, and August 26 through August 28, 2004), and Detroit's Cobo Hall (March 26, 2004). The album contained the last two performances of Joe C. on "Devil Without a Cause" and "Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp," as well as Kid duetting with country star Sheryl Crow on "Picture." He brought Detroit's favorite son Bob Seger back from semi-retirement during his pre-Super Bowl concerts on February 2 and 3, 2006 in Detroit. The two performed a rousing version of Seger's "Rock 'N' Roll Never Forgets" on both nights. Kid Rock would appear on Bob Seger's much anticipated album, Face The Promise, on a Vince Gill cover of "Real Mean Bottle," a tribute to country legend Merle Haggard. He would make a cameo in the movie Larry The Cable Guy: Health Inspector and was also was in an episode of CSI: New York in 2006 as the main suspect of the death of his limo driver. He would induct Lynyrd Skynyrd into the 2006 Rock N Roll Hall Of Fame and perform "Sweet Home Alabama" with them. Kid Rock and Pamela Anderson resumed their on-again, off-again relationship, culminating in a surprise wedding in July 2006 after it was reported Anderson was pregnant. They divorced 5 months later after Kid Rock stated she lied about having a miscarriage. Rock N Roll Jesus Rock N Roll Jesus was released on October 9, 2007. The album became Kid Rock's first album to go number 1 in his career, selling 172,000 copies in its first week. He made the cover of Rolling Stone magazine for the second time of his career, and appeared for the first time ever on Larry King Live to discuss the new album. Although the albums first two singles were very successful on rock radio in "So Hott" and "Amen," the albums third single "All Summer Long", would become a worldwide smash. It would bring Kid Rock back to the forefront of music during 2008 and 2009. It utilized the mash up of Lynyrd Skynyrd's "Sweet Home Alabama" and Warren Zevon's "Werewolves of London", while talking about two teens falling in love during summer camp in 1989. Despite his boycott of iTunes, "All Summer Long" would chart at No 23 on the Billboard Hot 100. It would also become his biggest country hit as well peaking at No 4. It did even better worldwide charting number one in eight countries across Europe and Australia. Due to the strength of the single, "Rock N Roll Jesus" would return to the Top 10 on the charts for an astounding 17 straight weeks. During that time album sales sky rocketed from gold to double platinum. He has since released Roll On, Rock N Roll Jesus,Blue Jeans and a Rosary and Lowlife (Living The Highlife) as singles and they have helped close in on triple platinum status. Kid Rock performed on VH1 Storytellers on November 27, 2008, giving insight to how he wrote some of his hit songs. On April 5,2009 he performed a 5-song medley at WrestleMania XXV. He was nominated for best rock album and best male pop/rock performance for "All Summer Long" at the 2009 Grammys. He lost to Coldplay's Viva La Vida for best Rock Album and John Mayer's "Say" for Best Male Pop/Rock Performance. On May 22 Kid Rock's June 8th, 2008 concert at Germany's Rock AM Festival was aired on every MTV affiliate around the world on their debut show "World Stage". http://www.kidrock.com/news/2009/05/20/kid-rock-featured-on-mtvs-world-stage/ Kid Rock will hold his largest headling concert of his career the weekend of July 17 and 18th,2009 at Comerica Park, which is home to the Detroit Tigers. The first concert sold out in only 27 minutes and features Lynyrd Skynyrd and Robert Randolph and The Family Band. The second nights tickets go on sale May 9,2009 and will feature Alice N Chains and Cypress Hill as opening acts. Both days will host a Battle Of The Bands, a chili cook off and an autoshow leading up to the concerts. Future projects On May 8 2009, Kid Rock discuss song off his next album on the Detroit rock station WRIF. He talked about Midwest Fall which will be about Detroit's struggling auto industry. He will also cover Alabama's "Mountain Song" over an original melodic hard rock riff. He did another mash up this time mashing his own "Cowboy" with Bon Jovi's "Wanted Dead Or Alive". The song will feature Bon Jovi has they recorded the song when Kid Rock opened for Bon Jovi in Ireland in 2008. The title of the song was not given. The last song discussed was said to have been a song originally started by someone that frequents WRIF. They left the song unfinished, but Kid Rock finished it and will give them credit for the song. Kid Rock was mum on who originally began writing it, the title is also unknown. Kid Rock also stated Rick Rubin will be producing the album, it was originally Mike E Clarke who produced "All Summer Long". Lil Wayne and T.I. have been shown on his official website working in Kid Rock's studio. In an earlier interview in January he discussed a song with Mary J Blige as well. http://wrif.com/media/2009_0508_kidrock.asx Legal troubles Kid Rock has had multiple run-ins with law enforcement. In February 2005, he was arrested on assault charges for punching DJ Jay Campos in 'Christies Cabaret' strip club. Rock pled No Contest and was sued for $575,000 by Campos. Kid Rock was cited for assault on Mötley Crüe drummer Tommy Lee on September 9, 2007 at MTV's Video Music Awards. In October 2007, Kid Rock was involved in a brawl at a Waffle House in Atlanta and charged with simple battery . He pled nolo contendere ("no contest") to one count, was fined $1,000, required to perform 80 hours of community service and complete a 6-hour course on anger management. Feuds Insane Clown Posse In 1992 Kid Rock recorded the track "Is That You?" with the Insane Clown Posse on their 1992 album Carnival of Carnage. A payment altercation would lead to an ICP and Kid Rock feud for several years. Awesome Dre was originally going to do a verse on "Taste" for Carnival of Carnage but while waiting in the studio for him to arrive, Insane Clown Posse saw Esham. Esham suggested he appear on the track instead, for the same amount of money as Awesome Dre, and Insane Clown Posse allowed him on. Esham was paid $500 for his appearance. Kid Rock demanded a hundred more than Esham, and was thus paid $600 to appear on "Is That You?" Kid Rock showed up to record "Is That You?" intoxicated, but re-recorded his vocals and record scratching the following day. ICP would during an interview about the album diss Kid Rock and said they didn't even want him on the album. Kid Rock responded on his bootleg series tapes on "Ya Keep On" saying "Don't call me Joe, cause the Joes I know can't even flow." Shaggy 2 Dope would respond with "Fuck Off" saying "I won't mix no rap with rock n roll like somebody else I know." Kid Rock would respond back on "Freestyle Rhyme" with "Is there anything wackier than a clown, nope, some people don't get it they have no talent so they hide behind a gimmick." After no response from ICP in 1999 on Uncle Kracker's "Heaven," Kid Rock and Kracker took another shot at them. Saying "Fuck Faygos bitch, we pound cans of Strohs." Violent J responded this time with "Posse On Vernor" with "Junkie on the corner, needle about to shoot, with a rebel flag and some cowboy boots, the closer we got the more clear it became, it's Kid Rock yelling What's my name?" Kid Rock hasn't responded as he would become big soon after. Tommy Lee Kid Rock began dating Pamela Anderson after they met during a TV special. Tommy Lee, Anderson's ex-husband, was serving a jail sentence for spousal abuse of Anderson at the time. Kid Rock telephoned Lee to tell him he was dating Anderson. For a few years Tommy Lee threatened to "beat Kid Rock up" if they ever met in person. In 2004, while Kid Rock, Anderson, and Lee were coincidentally staying at the Mandalay Bay Hotel in Las Vegas, Kid Rock learned that Anderson had contracted Hepatitis C from Lee. He went through the hotel looking for Lee but a confrontation was avoided when Kid Rock barged into the wrong room. During a 2006 Super Bowl party in Detroit, Tommy Lee was assaulted by rapper Trick Trick after he made several remarks about Kid Rock. After Kid Rock and Pamela Anderson were divorced in 2006, she resumed her relationship with Lee, briefly. Tommy Lee began sending text messages to Kid Rock, bragging that he and Anderson were back together. At the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards, Kid Rock went to the bathroom, and when he returned Tommy Lee had taken his seat to talk to Sean "P. Diddy" Combs. Kid Rock returned to his seat, and finding Lee there slapped and punched him before they were separated by security personnel. Kid Rock was later quoted as saying that he was "tired of the disrespect" from Tommy Lee. Influences and sound Kid Rock's genre-spanning sound incorporates a wide variety of musical styles and influences, ranging from classic rock and hip-hop to country. Kid Rock himself has referred to his unique stylistic blend as a result of being "creatively confused." Rock's earliest exposure to music was via the classic rock and country albums of his parents; these included the likes of Bob Seger, Jim Croce, Johnny Cash, John Lee Hooker, and Elton John. As rap and hip-hop gained mainstream prominence during the 1980s, Kid Rock's influences expanded to include notable artists of the genre such as The Beastie Boys and Run DMC as well as Too Short, who also went on to produce Rock's first album. In 1999, he became friends with Hank Williams Jr., who also became an important influence. His most recent album includes gospel tracks with "Amen" and "When U Love Someone", honky tonk with "Half Your Age", and jazz, delta blues, creole, and zydeco with "New Orleans." During his career he has influenced artist and groups such as Eminem, Uncle Kracker, Paradime, Trick Trick, Ty Stone and The Truth, Jocaine and 75 North, Black Magic Crossing, Johnny Lawerence, Kirk Dubb, and Huck Johns locally. He has had an influence on the country duo of Big And Rich which also mix rap with country and rock. Devil Without A Cause opened the door for rap metal outfits such as Linkin Park, Saliva, System of A Down, P.O.D. and Papa Roach, as well. Country singer Gretchen Wilson has said Kid Rock has been a big influence and even name checks him in her hit "Redneck Women." Lil' Wayne stated that Kid Rock was a major influence on him. His next album Rebirth will be a rock album after hanging out with Kid Rock and watching him play guitar. Twisted Brown Trucker Twisted Brown Trucker is Kid Rock's band, formed in 1994, with Bob Ebeling in Sterling Heights, Michigan. The original lineup included Kenny Olson on lead guitar, Uncle Kracker on turntables, Andy Gould and Greg Metropolous on guitar, Paul Anthony on bass and Bob Ebeling on drums. The band's first involvement was on the 1994 demo of Dark & Grey on his Bootleg Series Tapes, they would make three more appearances on the tapes in Watch Me Come, Only A Dog and Box #10. Trucker became both Rock's studio and live band in 1997. Dubbed by Kid Rock as "The Loudest Band In America Today", they are well known for their hodge-podge of genres, sometimes mixing many in a single song. Both lead gutairist Kenny Olsen and Kenny Tudrick would leave due to money altercations with Rock.They were replaced by Marlon Young who was in the band for a year in 1996, before leaving to pursue his own ventures. Chris Peters was the studio guitarist for The Polyfuze Method and Fire It Up. Matt O Brien (Bass) and Kenny Tudrick (Guitar,Drums) were studio musicians for Devil Without A Cause. Lastly Rayse Biggs (trumpet) was a studio musician for Kid Rock and Rock N Roll Jesus. Also various members of the jazz/funk band Howling Diablos have helped out on many of the jazz inspired songs including Martin 'Tino' Gross,Jeff Grand,and Johnny Evans. Kenny Olson went on to form a band called The Flask, who later switched singers and changed their name to Five Star Carnie. They are derivative of Kid Rock's old sound mixing rap with rock and blues.Kenny Tudrick is with the band Detroit Cobras who he was with before touring on Kid Rock's 'Live' Trucker tour. Percussionist Larry Frantangelo won a Detroit Music Award in 2009 for Outstanding Urban/Funk Musician. 1994- 1995 Kenny Olson- Lead Guitar Andy Gould-Guitar Greg Metropolous-Guitar Paul Anthony-Bass Bob Ebeling-Drums Uncle Kracker-Turntables Joe C-Vocals 1996 Kenny Olson-Lead Guitar Marlon Young-Guitar Jeff Hall-Guitar Lonnie Motley-Bass Jimmie "Bones" Trombley-Organ,Piano,Keyboard,Harmonica Bon Ebeling-Drums Uncle Kracker-Turntables Joe C-Vocals 1997 Kenny Olson- Lead Guitar Jason Krause-Guitar Lonnie Motley-Bass Jimmie Bones-Organ,Piano,Keyboard,Harmonica Bob Ebeling-Drums Chris Lebroux-Bongos Uncle Kracker-Turntables Joe C- Vocals Thornetta Davis-Background Vocals 1998-2001 Kenny Olson- Lead Guitar Jason Krause- Guitar Mike Bradford- Bass Jimmie Bones-Organ,Piano,Keys,Harmonica Stefanie Eulinberg-Drums and Vocals Uncle Kracker-Turntables Joe C-vocals, died in 2000 Misty Love-Background Vocals Shirly Hayden-Background Vocals 2002-2003 Kenny Olson-Lead Guitar Jason Krause-Guitar Bobby East-Bass Jimmie Bones-Organ,Piano,Keys,Harmonica Stefanie Eulinberg-Drums and Vocals Paradime-Turntables 2004-2005 Kenny Olson-Lead Guitar, replaced by Bobby East in 2005 Jason Krause-Guitar Aaron Julison-Bass Jimmie Bones-Organ,Piano,Keys,Harmonica Stefanie Eulinberg-Drums And Vocals Smith Curry-Dobro Paradime-Turtables Karen Newman-Background Vocals Lauren Creamer-Background Vocals 2006 Kenny Tudrick-Lead Guitar Jason Krause-Guitar Aaron Julison-Bass Jimmie Bones-Organ,Piano,Keys,Harmonica Stefanie Eulinberg-Drums And Vocals Paradime-Turntables Current Lineup Marlon Young- Lead Guitar Jason Krause- Guitar Aaron Julison-Bass Jimmie Bones-Organ,Piano,Keys,Harmonica Stefanie Eulinberg-Drums And Vocals Larry Frantangelo- Percussion David McMurray-Saxaphone Stacey Michelle-Background Vocals Jessica Wagner-Background Vocals Discography 1990: Grits Sandwiches for Breakfast 1993: The Polyfuze Method 1994: Fire It Up! (EP) 1996: Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp 1997: The Polyfuze Method Revisited 1998: Devil Without a Cause 2000: The History of Rock 2001: Cocky 2003: Kid Rock 2006: Live Trucker 2007: Rock N Roll Jesus Tours 1988: By All Means Necessary Tour ( opened for Boogie Down Productions ) 1989: Straight From The Underground Tour (opened for Ice Cube, Too Short, D Nice and Yo Yo) 1998: Lollapalooza Tour 1998: Vans Warped Tour 1998-99: White Thrash On Dope Tour (with Monster Magnet and Hed PE) 1999: Destroy Your Liver Tour 1999: Limptropolis Tour (with Limp Bizkit and Staind) 1999: European Tour (with Blink-182) 1999: Between The Legs Tour (with Powerman 5000, Professional Murder Music) 1999-00: Millennium Tour (with Metallica, Sevendust and Creed) 2000: Summer Saniturm Tour (with Metallica, Korn, System of a Down, Powerman 5000) 2000: The History Of Rock Tour (with Dope) 2001: The American Bad Ass Tour (with Buckcherry ,Fuel and David Allan Coe) 2002: The Cocky Tour (with Lit, Tenacious D and Saliva) 2002: Girls of Summer Tour (opening for Aerosmith with Run-D.M.C.) 2004: Rock N Roll Pain Train Tour (with Puddle of Mudd, Gov't Mule, Jerry Cantrell) 2005: Lazy Muthafuga Tour (only 6 concert dates) 2006: 'Live' Trucker Tour (with Ty Stone, Peter Frampton (opened in Auburn Hills, Michigan) and Whitestarr) 2007-2008: Rock N Roll Revival Tour (with Reverend Run, Dicky Betts,Duane Betts, Peter Wolf, Lynyrd Skynyrd, in a revue style) 2008: Rock N Roll Revival Tour: European Tour 2008: Rock N Rebels Tour (with Lynyrd Skynyrd and Backdoor Slam) 2008: European Tour ( with Finger Eleven) 2009: Rock N Rebels Tour II (with Lynyrd Skynyrd,Black Stone Cherry,Alice N Chains,Cypress Hill,Robert Randolph and the Family Band) Filmography The Howard Stern Show (8 episodes, 1999-2008) Saturday Night Live (Musical Guest, 2000) Road Trip (2000) The Simpsons (1 episode, 2000) WWE Monday Night RAW (Musical Guest, 2000) Joe Dirt (2001) Osmosis Jones (Voice, 2001) Kid Rock: Lonely Road of Faith (2001) 3000 Miles to Graceland (2001) King of the Hill (2002) Punk'd (1 episode, 2003) Biker Boyz (2003) Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle (2003) Stripperella (Unknown episodes, 2003) CMT Outlaws (2003) South Park (2004) CSI: NY (1 episode, 2005) Larry the Cable Guy: Health Inspector (2005) Motorcycle Mania 3 (2005) Coors Light Mountain Jam (2005) Stacked (1 episode, 2002) The 2006 Billboard Music Awards (2006) Run's House (2007) Hancock (2008) All Summer Long (2008) VH1 Storytellers (2008) WrestleMania XXV (Musical Guest, 2009) Awards and nominations Grammy Awards 2000 Best New Artist (Nominated) 2000 Best Hard Rock Performance for "Bawitdaba" (Nominated) 2001 Best Hard Rock Performance for "American Bad Ass" (Nominated) 2009 Best Rock Album for Rock N Roll Jesus (Nominated) 2009 Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for "All Summer Long" (Nominated) Academy of Country Music 2003, Vocal Event of the Year: "Picture" (Nominated) American Music Awards 2008, Favorite Male Pop/Rock Artist (Nominated) 2003, Favorite Male Pop/Rock Artist: (Winner)2003, Favorite Pop/Rock Album: Cocky (Nominated) 2001, Favorite Male Pop/Rock Artist: (Winner) 2000, Favorite Alternative Artist: (Nominated) 2000, Favorite Pop/Rock New Artist: (Nominated) Billboard Music Awards 1999 Best New Artist (Winner) 1999 Best Hard Rock Performance for "Bawitdaba" (Winner) 1999 Best New Hard Rock Artist (Winner) MTV Video Music Awards 2001, Best Male Video: "Cowboy" (Nominated) 2001, Best Rock Video: "Cowboy" (Nominated) 2000, Best Male Video: "Bawitdba" (Nominated) 2000, Best New Artist: "Bawitdba" (Nominated) Teen Choice Awards 2003, Choice Love Song: "Picture" (Nominated) 2003 Choice Hookup Song: "Picture" (Nominated) Detroit Music Awards 1999 Outstanding National Album for Devil Without A Cause (Winner) Outstanding National Single for "I Am The Bullgod" (Winner) Outstanding National Single for "Bawitdaba" (Nominee) Outstanding National Hip Hop Writer/Producer (Winner) 2000 Outstanding National Album for History Of Rock (Nominee) Outstanding National Single for "American Bad Ass" (Winner) Outstanding National Single for "Cowboy" (Nominee) Outstanding National Duet for "Higher" with Robert Bradley (Winner) Outstanding National Spokesperson (Winner) 2001 Outstanding National Album for Cocky (Nominated) Outstanding National Single for "Forever" (Nominated) 2003 Outstanding National Single for Picture (Nominated) 2004 Outstanding National Album for Kid Rock (Nominated) Outstanding National Single for "Cold And Empty" (Nominated) Outstanding National Single for "Jackson, Mississippi" (Nominated) 2006 Outstanding National Album for Live Trucker (Nominated) 2008 Outstanding National Album for Rock N Roll Jesus (Winner) Outstanding National Single for "So Hott" (Nominated) Outstanding National Single for "Amen" (Nominated) 2009 Outstanding National Single for All Summer Long (Winner) Outstanding National Single for Roll On (Nominated) MTV European Music Awards 2008 Most Attictive Track for "All Summer Long" (Nominated) BMI Songwriting Award 2002 "Picture" (Winner) CMT Flameworthy Awards 2003 Choice Male Video for "Picture" (Nominated) 2009 Video of The Year for "All Summer Long" (Current Nominee) 2009 Wide Open Country Video of the Year for "All Summer Long" (Current Nominee) World Music Awards 2008 Worlds Best Male Pop Artist (Winner) 2008 Worlds Best Pop/Rock Artist (Winner) People's Choice Awards 2009 Best Rock Song for "All Summer Long" (Winner) Kid's Choice Awards 2009 Favorite Male Singer (Current Nominee) Echo Award (Germany) 2009 Hit Of The Year for "All Summer Long" (Winner) Other ventures and honors He has his own clothing line called Made In Detroit which he purchased from its creator, Detroit designer Robert Stanzler, in 2003. Stanzler, a longtime friend of Kid Rock, is mentioned by name in Rock's song "Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp". Wayne State University named a scholarship after Kid Rock for musicians. Kid Rock is using his clothing line to fund it. He was Grand Marshal of the Krewe of Endymion Mardi Gras parade in New Orleans on February 21, 2009 and was accompanied by The Chee-Weez, a local area cover band. Jung, Andy (2009-02-21). Krewe of Endymion Mardi Gras parade photos Retrieved on 2009-05-14. References Inline General http://www.atlanticrecords.com/kidrock/ http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/kidrock http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/kid_rock/artist.jhtml http://www.mtv.com/music/artist/kid_rock/artist.jhtml UK Interview (11/8/2008)http://www.thrashhits.com/2008/08/kid-rock-%E2%80%9Ci-was-the-kid-with-the-vial-full-of-rocks%E2%80%A6%E2%80%9D/ External links Official site Kid Rock at Imeem.com Extreme Kid Rock Kid Rock Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos Kid Rock on Demand | Kid_Rock |@lemmatized robert:7 james:3 ritchie:3 born:1 january:4 know:10 stage:4 name:8 kid:110 rock:200 american:12 rapper:4 singer:6 songwriter:1 five:3 grammy:4 award:23 nomination:2 eccentric:1 personality:1 music:20 fuse:1 rap:15 heavy:1 metal:3 blue:4 southern:4 funk:3 country:21 release:30 several:7 studio:12 album:60 mostly:1 go:15 unnoticed:1 record:25 devil:12 without:13 cause:12 atlantic:5 sell:12 million:9 behind:3 hit:15 bawitdaba:6 cowboy:7 god:3 history:8 compilation:1 remixed:2 remastered:1 version:6 song:42 previous:2 well:9 single:41 bad:10 follow:6 cocky:7 slow:1 start:4 flavor:1 picture:13 sheryl:5 crow:5 resurrect:1 gold:4 push:1 sale:5 self:1 title:4 fail:3 chart:11 major:8 live:15 trucker:12 great:1 n:20 roll:21 jesus:10 produce:4 summer:18 long:13 first:14 worldwide:4 smash:2 eight:3 across:2 europe:2 australia:2 would:32 include:10 certify:4 double:4 platinum:8 u:6 accord:1 nielsen:1 soundscan:1 riaa:2 every:2 genre:4 back:10 twisted:2 brown:4 band:21 form:4 sterling:2 height:3 mi:2 musical:5 career:9 grit:4 sandwich:4 breakfast:3 grow:1 apple:1 orchard:1 farm:1 romeo:1 michigan:7 father:3 wealthy:1 car:2 dealer:1 parent:3 entertain:1 guest:4 bobby:4 sing:2 cover:7 jim:2 croce:2 johnny:5 cash:2 bob:9 seger:6 barn:1 party:6 however:3 time:18 begin:6 hip:7 hop:7 emerge:1 late:2 night:10 tv:3 performance:14 fat:1 boy:4 hook:1 become:15 immerse:1 group:5 like:6 run:7 dmc:2 beastie:2 whodini:1 short:4 erik:1 b:3 rakim:1 age:3 eleven:2 join:8 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7,520 | Telecommunications_in_Kyrgyzstan | Communications policy The long-term goal of the government’s information and communications technology strategy is for the telecommunications sector to contribute 5 percent to gross domestic product by 2010. The June 2006 launch of the KazSat communications satellite from Kazakhstan was expected to reduce the dependence of all the Central Asian countries on European and U.S. telecommunications satellites. Launch of a second KazSat is planned for 2009.<ref name=cp>Kyrgyzstan country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> Telephone In the early 2000s, Kyrgyzstan used international investment support to restructure its telecommunications system, which had 7.7 telephone lines per 100 inhabitants in 2002 and 1,100,000 cellular phones in use in 2007. As part of the upgrading process, the government has attempted to sell a majority interest in the state-owned telecommunications company, Kyrgyztelecom, to foreign bidders. Companies from Russia, Sweden, and Turkey have been possible buyers. However, in 2005 an estimated 100,000 applicants were waiting for telephone line installation. Telephone system:domestic:principally microwave radio relay; one cellular provider, probably limited to Bishkek regioninternational:'' connections with other CIS countries by landline or microwave radio relay and with other countries by leased connections with Moscow international gateway switch and by satellite; satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik and 1 Intelsat; connected internationally by the Trans-Asia-Europe (TAE) fiber-optic line Internet One of many internet cafes in Bishkek In the early 2000s, Internet use has expanded rapidly. Between 1999 and 2005, the number of Internet subscribers increased from 3,000 to 263,000. In 2004 some 12,300 Internet hosts were in operation. The country code top level domain is .kg. Variable upload/download speeds through xDSL are available through state telephone company Kyrgyz Telecom (up to 8 Mbit/s downlink) and private ISPs (up to 1 Mbit/s downlink). There is typically a monthly cap on the amount of data transferred, with separate caps depending on whether the data stays within Kyrgyzstan or travels beyond the border. Broadband internet access with unlimited international traffic is rarely offered by ISPs to the market at significantly higher price. This is probably due to the lack of country's telecommunications bandwidth capacity. ISPs provide internet access through satellite backbone communication lines linked to Russia, Germany, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. There is a major telecommunications project under construction - The Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber Optic Line, connecting Shanghai, China and Frankfurt, Germany, with the capacity of 622 Mbit/s, where Kyrgyzstan has completed its part. Completion of this project might affect broadband internet prices in Kyrgyzstan. There are several ISPs that provide broadband internet access using different technologies such as xDSL, ISDN, Leased Line, Ethernet. ISPs in Kyrgyzstan include Kyrgyz Telecom, Elcat, Asiainfo, Transfer Ltd, Totel, Megaline, Aknet, Intranet, Saima Telecom, Rikonet, AlaTV, ExNET, and IPVICH. See also Media of Kyrgyzstan References | Telecommunications_in_Kyrgyzstan |@lemmatized communication:4 policy:1 long:1 term:1 goal:1 government:2 information:1 technology:2 strategy:1 telecommunication:6 sector:1 contribute:1 percent:1 gross:1 domestic:2 product:1 june:1 launch:2 kazsat:2 satellite:5 kazakhstan:2 expect:1 reduce:1 dependence:1 central:1 asian:1 country:6 european:1 u:1 second:1 plan:1 ref:2 name:1 cp:1 kyrgyzstan:7 profile:1 library:1 congress:1 federal:1 research:1 division:1 january:1 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:1 public:1 domain:2 telephone:5 early:2 use:4 international:3 investment:1 support:1 restructure:1 system:2 line:6 per:1 inhabitant:1 cellular:2 phone:1 part:2 upgrading:1 process:1 attempt:1 sell:1 majority:1 interest:1 state:2 company:3 kyrgyztelecom:1 foreign:1 bidder:1 russia:2 sweden:1 turkey:1 possible:1 buyer:1 however:1 estimate:1 applicant:1 wait:1 installation:1 principally:1 microwave:2 radio:2 relay:2 one:2 provider:1 probably:2 limit:1 bishkek:2 regioninternational:1 connection:2 ci:1 landline:1 leased:1 moscow:1 gateway:1 switch:1 earth:1 station:1 intersputnik:1 intelsat:1 connect:2 internationally:1 trans:2 asia:2 europe:2 tae:1 fiber:2 optic:2 internet:9 many:1 cafe:1 expand:1 rapidly:1 number:1 subscriber:1 increase:1 host:1 operation:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 kg:1 variable:1 upload:1 download:1 speed:1 xdsl:2 available:1 kyrgyz:2 telecom:3 mbit:3 downlink:2 private:1 isps:5 typically:1 monthly:1 cap:2 amount:1 data:2 transfer:2 separate:1 depend:1 whether:1 stay:1 within:1 travel:1 beyond:1 border:1 broadband:3 access:3 unlimited:1 traffic:1 rarely:1 offer:1 market:1 significantly:1 high:1 price:2 due:1 lack:1 bandwidth:1 capacity:2 provide:2 backbone:1 link:1 germany:2 ukraine:1 major:1 project:2 construction:1 shanghai:1 china:1 frankfurt:1 complete:1 completion:1 might:1 affect:1 several:1 different:1 isdn:1 lease:1 ethernet:1 include:1 elcat:1 asiainfo:1 ltd:1 totel:1 megaline:1 aknet:1 intranet:1 saima:1 rikonet:1 alatv:1 exnet:1 ipvich:1 see:1 also:1 medium:1 reference:1 |@bigram gross_domestic:1 cellular_phone:1 fiber_optic:2 upload_download:1 broadband_internet:3 |
7,521 | John_Baskerville | Baskerville in later life, oil on canvas by James Millar. Baskerville types in a 1761 title page. John Baskerville (January 28, 1706 - January 8, 1775) was an English businessman, in areas including japanning and papier-mâché, but he is best remembered as a printer and typographer. Life He was born in the village of Wolverley, near Kidderminster in Worcestershire and was a printer in Birmingham, England. He was a member of the Royal Society of Arts, and an associate of some of the members of the Lunar Society. He directed his punchcutter, John Handy, in the design of many typefaces of broadly similar appearance. He printed works for the University of Cambridge in 1758 and, although an atheist, printed a splendid folio Bible in 1763. His typefaces were greatly admired by fellow member of the Royal Society of Arts, Benjamin Franklin, who took the designs back to the newly-created United States, where they were adopted for most federal government publishing. His work was criticized by jealous competitors and soon fell out of favour, but since the 1920s many new fonts have been released by Linotype, Monotype, and other type foundries – revivals of his work and mostly called 'Baskerville'. Emigre released a popular revival of this typeface in 1996 called Mrs Eaves, named for Baskerville's wife, Sarah Eaves. Baskerville was responsible for significant innovations in printing, paper and ink production. He developed a technique which produced a smoother whiter paper which showcased his strong black type. Baskerville also pioneered a completely new style of typography adding wide margins and leading between each line. James Sutton An Atlas of Typeforms Wordsworth Editions, 1988, p 59 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who once lived in Birmingham, may have borrowed Baskerville's surname for one of his Sherlock Holmes stories, The Hound of the Baskervilles - which, in turn, was borrowed by Umberto Eco for the character William of Baskerville in his best-selling novel, The Name of the Rose (Sean Connery played the character in the film based on the book). As an atheist, Baskerville was buried, at his own request, in unconsecrated ground in the garden of his own house, Easy Hill. When a canal was built through the land his body was placed in storage in a warehouse for several years before being secretly deposited in the crypt of Christ Church (demolished 1899), Birmingham. Later his remains were moved, with other bodies from the crypt, to consecrated catacombs at Warstone Lane Cemetery. Baskerville House was built on the grounds of Easy Hill. Commemoration Industry and Genius, 1990, by David Patten, sculpture in Centenary Square A Portland stone sculpture of the Baskerville typeface,, Industry and Genius, in his honour stands in front of Baskerville House in Centenary Square, Birmingham. It is by local artist David Patten. http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/baskerville . He was the subject of an animated film from October 2008. See also Typography References James Sutton An Atlas of Typeforms Wordsworth Editions, 1988, ISBN: 1-85326-911-5 External links Birmingham City Council page on Industry and Genius (includes picture) Birmingham City Council page on Baskerville Revolutionary Players website Baskerville the Animated Movie Some typographical studies on the use of the Baskerville font (in French). | John_Baskerville |@lemmatized baskerville:17 late:1 life:2 oil:1 canvas:1 james:2 millar:1 type:3 title:1 page:3 john:2 january:2 english:1 businessman:1 area:1 include:2 japanning:1 papier:1 mâché:1 best:2 remember:1 printer:2 typographer:1 bear:1 village:1 wolverley:1 near:1 kidderminster:1 worcestershire:1 birmingham:7 england:1 member:3 royal:2 society:3 art:2 associate:1 lunar:1 direct:1 punchcutter:1 handy:1 design:2 many:2 typeface:4 broadly:1 similar:1 appearance:1 print:2 work:3 university:1 cambridge:1 although:1 atheist:2 splendid:1 folio:1 bible:1 greatly:1 admire:1 fellow:1 benjamin:1 franklin:1 take:1 back:1 newly:1 create:1 united:1 state:1 adopt:1 federal:1 government:1 publishing:1 criticize:1 jealous:1 competitor:1 soon:1 fell:1 favour:1 since:1 new:2 font:2 release:2 linotype:1 monotype:1 foundry:1 revival:2 mostly:1 call:2 emigre:1 popular:1 mr:1 eaves:2 name:2 wife:1 sarah:1 responsible:1 significant:1 innovation:1 printing:1 paper:2 ink:1 production:1 develop:1 technique:1 produce:1 smoother:1 whiter:1 showcased:1 strong:1 black:1 also:2 pioneer:1 completely:1 style:1 typography:2 add:1 wide:1 margin:1 lead:1 line:1 sutton:2 atlas:2 typeforms:2 wordsworth:2 edition:2 p:1 sir:1 arthur:1 conan:1 doyle:1 live:1 may:1 borrow:2 surname:1 one:1 sherlock:1 holmes:1 story:1 hound:1 baskervilles:1 turn:1 umberto:1 eco:1 character:2 william:1 selling:1 novel:1 rise:1 sean:1 connery:1 play:1 film:2 base:1 book:1 bury:1 request:1 unconsecrated:1 ground:2 garden:1 house:3 easy:2 hill:2 canal:1 build:2 land:1 body:2 place:1 storage:1 warehouse:1 several:1 year:1 secretly:1 deposit:1 crypt:2 christ:1 church:1 demolished:1 later:1 remains:1 move:1 consecrate:1 catacomb:1 warstone:1 lane:1 cemetery:1 commemoration:1 industry:3 genius:3 david:2 patten:2 sculpture:2 centenary:2 square:2 portland:1 stone:1 honour:1 stand:1 front:1 local:1 artist:1 http:1 www:1 gov:1 uk:1 subject:1 animated:2 october:1 see:1 reference:1 jam:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 city:2 council:2 picture:1 revolutionary:1 player:1 website:1 movie:1 typographical:1 study:1 use:1 french:1 |@bigram oil_canvas:1 papier_mâché:1 benjamin_franklin:1 arthur_conan:1 conan_doyle:1 sherlock_holmes:1 umberto_eco:1 best_selling:1 sean_connery:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
7,522 | Neoclassical_economics | Neoclassical economics is a term variously used for approaches to economics focusing on the determination of prices, outputs, and income distributions in markets through supply and demand, often as mediated through a hypothesized maximization of income-constrained utility by individuals and of cost-constrained profits of firms employing available information and factors of production, in accordance with rational choice theory. Antonietta Campus (1987), “marginal economics”, The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, p. 323. Neoclassical economics dominates microeconomics, and together with Keynesian economics forms the neoclassical synthesis, which dominates mainstream economics today. Clark, B. (1998). Principles of political economy: A comparative approach. Westport, CT: Praeger. There have been many critiques of neoclassical economics, often incorporated into newer versions of neoclassical theory as human awareness of economic criteria change. The term was originally introduced by Thorstein Veblen in 1900, in his Preconceptions of Economic Science, to distinguish marginalists in the tradition of Alfred Marshall from those in the Austrian School. Veblen, Thorstein Bunde; “The Preconceptions of Economic Science” Pt III, Quarterly Journal of Economics v14 (1900). Colander, David; The Death of Neoclassical Economics. It was later used by John Hicks, George Stigler, and others who presumed that significant disputes amongst marginalist schools had been largely resolved Stigler, George J. Production and Distribution Theories: The Formative Period, MacMillan (1941). to include the work of Carl Menger, William Stanley Jevons, John Bates Clark and many others. Today it is usually used to refer to mainstream economics, although it has also been used as an umbrella term encompassing a number of mainly defunct schools of thought, Fonseca G. L.; “Introduction to the Neoclassicals”, The New School. notably excluding institutional economics, various historical schools of economics, and Marxian economics, in addition to various other heterodox approaches to economics. Overview Neoclassical economics is the singular element several schools of thought in economics address. There is not a complete agreement on what is meant by neoclassical economics, and the result is a wide range of neoclassical approaches to various problem areas and domains -- ranging from neoclassical theories of labor to neoclassical theories of demographic changes. As expressed by E. Roy Weintraub, neoclassical economics rests on three assumptions, although certain branches of neoclassical theory may have different approaches: People have rational preferences among outcomes that can be identified and associated with a value. Individuals maximize utility and firms maximize profits. People act independently on the basis of full and relevant information. From these three assumptions, neoclassical economists have built a structure to understand the allocation of scarce resources among alternative ends -- in fact understanding such allocation is often considered the definition of economics to neoclassical theorists. Here's how William Stanley Jevons presented "the problem of Economics". "Given, a certain population, with various needs and powers of production, in possession of certain lands and other sources of material: required, the mode of employing their labour which will maximize the utility of their produce." William Stanley Jevons (1879, 2nd ed., p. 289), The Theory of Political Economy. Italics in original. From the basic assumptions of neoclassical economics comes a wide range of theories about various areas of economic activity. For example, profit maximization lies behind the neoclassical theory of the firm, while the derivation of demand curves leads to an understanding of consumer goods, and the supply curve allows an analysis of the factors of production. Utility maximization is the source for the neoclassical theory of consumption, the derivation of demand curves for consumer goods, and the derivation of labor supply curves and reservation demand Philip H. Wicksteed The Common Sense of Political Economy . Market supply and demand are aggregated across firms and individuals. Their interactions determine equilibrium output and price. The market supply and demand for each factor of production is derived analogously to those for market final output to determine equilibrium income and the income distribution. Factor demand incorporates the marginal-productivity relationship of that factor in the output market. Christopher Bliss (1987), "distribution theories, neoclassical," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 883-886. Robert F. Dorfman (1987), "marginal productivity theory," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 323-25. George J. Stigler (1941). Production and Distribution Theories(1870-1895). New York: Macmillan. Neoclassical economics emphasizes equilibria, where equilibria are the solutions of agent maximization problems. Regularities in economies are explained by methodological individualism, the position that economic phenomena can be explained by aggregating over the behavior of agents. The emphasis is on microeconomics. Institutions, which might be considered as prior to and conditioning individual behavior, are de-emphasized. Economic subjectivism accompanies these emphases. See also general equilibrium. Origins Classical economics, developed in the 18th and 19th centuries, included a value theory and distribution theory. The value of a product was thought to depend on the costs involved in producing that product. The explanation of costs in Classical economics was simultaneously an explanation of distribution. A landlord received rent, workers received wages, and a capitalist tenant farmer received profits on their investment. This classic approach included the work of Adam Smith and David Ricardo. However, some economists gradually began emphasizing the perceived value of a goods to the consumer. They proposed a theory that the value of a product was to be explained with differences in "utility." This is called Utilitarianism and is associated with philosopher and economic thinker John Stuart Mill. The third step from political economy to economics was the introduction of the "marginal theory of value" or marginalism. Marginal value means that economic actors make decisions based on the "margins". For example, a person decides to buy a second sandwich based on how full they are after the first one, a firm hires a new employee based on the expected increase in profits the employee will bring. This differs from the aggregate decision making of classical political economy in that it explains how vital goods such as water can be cheap, while luxuries can be expensive. The Neoclassical Revolution Neoclassical economics is conventionally dated from William Stanley Jevons's Theory of Political Economy (1871), Carl Menger's Principles of Economics (1871), and Leon Walras's Elements of Pure Economics (1874 – 1877). These three economists have been said to have promulgated the marginal utility revolution, or Neoclassical Revolution. Historians of economics and economists have debated: Whether utility or marginalism was more essential to this revolution (whether the noun or the adjective in the phrase "marginal utility" is more important) Whether there was a revolutionary change of thought or merely a gradual development and change of emphasis from their predecessors Whether grouping these economists together disguises differences more important than their similarities William Jaffé (1976) "Menger, Jevons, and Walras De-Homogenized", Economic Inquiry, V. 14 (December): 511-525 . In particular, Walras was more interested in the interaction of markets than in explaining the individual psyche through a hedonistic psychology. Jevons saw his economics as an application and development of Jeremy Bentham's utilitarianism and never had a fully developed general equilibrium theory. Menger emphasized disequilibrium and the discrete. Menger had a philosophical objection to the use of mathematics in economics, while the other two modeled their theories after 19th century mechanics Philip Mirowski (1989) More Heat than Light: Economics as Social Physics, Physics as Nature's Economics, Cambridge University Press . Alfred Marshall's textbook, Principles of Economics (1890), was the dominant textbook in England a generation later. Marshall's influence extended elsewhere; Italians would compliment Maffeo Pantaleoni by calling him the "Marshall of Italy". Marshall thought classical economics attempted to explain prices by the cost of production. He asserted that the neoclassicals went too far in correcting this imbalance by overemphasizing utility and demand. Marshall thought the question of whether supply or demand was more important was analogous to the pointless question of which blade of a scissors did the cutting. Marshall explained prices by the intersection of supply and demand curves. The introduction of different market "periods" was an important innovation of Marshall's: Market period. The goods produced for sale on the market are taken as given data, e.g. in a fish market. Prices quickly adjust to clear markets. Short period. Industrial capacity is taken as given. The level of output, the level of employment, the inputs of raw materials, and prices fluctuate to equate marginal cost and marginal revenue, where profits are maximized. Economic rents exist in short period equilibrium for fixed factors, and the rate of profit is not equated across sectors. Long period. The stock of capital goods, such as factories and machines, is not taken as given. Profit-maximizing equilibria determine both industrial capacity and the level at which it is operated. Very long period. Technology, population trends, habits and customs are not taken as given, but allowed to vary in very long period models. Marshall took supply and demand as stable functions and extended supply and demand explanations of prices to all runs. He argued supply was easier to vary in longer runs, and thus became a more important determinate of price in the very long run. Further developments An important change in neoclassical economics occurred around 1933. Joan Robinson and Edward H. Chamberlin, with the near simultaneous publication of their respective books, The Economics of Imperfect Competition (1933) and The Theory of Monopolistic Competition (1933), introduced models of imperfect competition. Theories of market forms and industrial organization grew out of this work. They also emphasized certain tools, such as the marginal revenue curve. Joan Robinson's work on imperfect competition, at least, was a response to certain problems of Marshallian partial equilibrium theory highlighted by Piero Sraffa. Anglo-American economists also responded to these problems by turning towards general equilibrium theory, developed on the European continent by Walras and Vilfredo Pareto. J. R. Hicks's Value and Capital (1939) was influential in introducing his English-speaking colleagues to these traditions. He, in turn, was influenced by the Austrian School economist Friedrich Hayek's move to the London School of Economics, where Hicks then studied. These developments were accompanied by the introduction of new tools, such as indifference curves and the theory of ordinal utility. The level of mathematical sophistication of neoclassical economics increased. Paul Samuelson's Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947) contributed to this increase in formal rigor. The interwar period in American economics has been argued to have been pluralistic, with neoclassical economics and institutionalism competing for allegiance. Frank Knight, an early Chicago school economist attempted to combine both schools. But this increase in mathematics was accompanied by greater dominance of neoclassical economics in Anglo-American universities after World War II. Hicks' book, Value and Capital had two main parts. The second, which was arguably not immediately influential, presented a model of temporary equilibrium. Hicks was influenced directly by Hayek's notion of intertemporal coordination and paralleled by earlier work by Lindhal. This was part of an abandonment of disaggregated long run models. This trend probably reached its culmination with the Arrow-Debreu model of intertemporal equilibrium. The Arrow-Debreu model has canonical presentations in Gerard Debreu's Theory of Value (1959) and in Arrow and Hahn. Many of these developments were against the backdrop of improvements in both econometrics, that is the ability to measure prices and changes in goods and services, as well as their aggregate quantities, and in the creation of macroeconomics, or the study of whole economies. The attempt to combine neo-classical microeconomics and Keynesian macroeconomics would lead to the neoclassical synthesis Olivier Jean Blanchard (1987). "neoclassical synthesis," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 634-36. which has been the dominant paradigm of economic reasoning in English-speaking countries since the 1950s. Hicks and Samuelson were for example instrumental in mainstreaming Keynesian economics. Macroeconomics influenced the neoclassical synthesis from the other direction, undermining foundations of classical economic theory such as Say's Law, and assumptions about political economy such as the necessity for a hard-money standard. These developments are reflected in neoclassical theory by the search for the occurrence in markets of the equilibrium conditions of Pareto optimality and self-sustainability. Criticisms Neoclassical economics is sometimes criticized for having a normative bias. In this view, it does not focus on explaining actual economies, but instead on describing a "utopia" in which Pareto optimality applies. The assumption that individuals act rationally may be viewed as ignoring important aspects of human behavior. Many see the "economic man" as being quite different from real people. Many economists, even contemporaries, have criticized this model of economic man. Thorstein Veblen put it most sardonically. Neoclassical economics assumes a person to be, "a lightning calculator of pleasures and pains, who oscillates like a homogeneous globule of desire of happiness under the impulse of stimuli that shift about the area, but leave him intact." Thorstein Veblen (1898) Why Is Economics Not an Evolutionary Science?, reprinted in The Place of Science in Modern Civilization (New York, 1919), p. 73. Large corporations might perhaps come closer to the neoclassical ideal of profit maximization, but this is not necessarily viewed as desirable if this comes at the expense of neglect of wider social issues. The response to this is that neoclassical economics is descriptive and not normative. It addresses such problems with concepts of private versus social utility. Problems exist with making the neoclassical general equilibrium theory compatible with an economy that develops over time and includes capital goods. This was explored in a major debate in the 1960s—the "Cambridge capital controversy"—about the validity of neoclassical economics, with an emphasis on the economic growth, capital, aggregate theory, and the marginal productivity theory of distribution. There were also internal attempts by neoclassical economists to extend the Arrow-Debreu model to disequilibrium investigations of stability and uniqueness. However a result known as the Sonnenschein-Mantel-Debreu theorem suggests that the assumptions that must be made to ensure that the equilibrium is stable and unique are quite restrictive. Neoclassical economics is also often seen as relying too heavily on complex mathematical models, such as those used in general equilibrium theory, without enough regard to whether these actually describe the real economy. Many see an attempt to model a system as complex as a modern economy by a mathematical model as unrealistic and doomed to failure. A famous answer to this criticism is Milton Friedman's claim that theories should be judged by their ability to predict events rather than by the realism of their assumptions. Mathematical models also include those in game theory, linear programming, and econometrics. Critics of neoclassical economics are divided in those who think that highly mathematical method is inherently wrong and those who think that mathematical method is potentially good even if contemporary methods have problems. The assumption of rational expectations which has been introduced in some more modern neoclassical models (sometimes also called new classical) can also be criticized on the grounds of realism. In general, allegedly overly unrealistic assumptions are one of the most common criticisms towards neoclassical economics. It is fair to say that many (but not all) of these criticisms can only be directed towards a subset of the neoclassical models (for example, there are many neoclassical models where unregulated markets fail to achieve Pareto-optimality and there has recently been an increased interest in modeling non-rational decision making). See also Aspects of Economics: Aggregation problem Distribution theory Homo economicus (economic man) Rational choice theory Utility Value and Capital Foundations of Economic Analysis A broad critique of Neoclassical economics has been put forward in the book Debunking Economics by Steve Keen Other theories of economics and variations on Neoclassical theory: Economic liberalism Classical economics Keynesian economics Monetarism Heterodox economics: Feminist economics Behavioral economics Austrian School of economics Bounded rationality and Behavioral finance Biophysical economics Ecological economics Evolutionary economics Institutionalist Political Economics References External links Neoclassical economics from the Concise Library of Economics Introduction to neoclassical economics at Drexel What Is Neoclassical Economics at Post-Autistic Economics Review Rationality Controversy and Economic Theory from www.rationalitycontroversy.org/ | Neoclassical_economics |@lemmatized 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7,523 | Hel_(being) | "Hel" (1882) by Karl Ehrenberg. In Norse mythology, Hel is a being that presides over a realm of the same name, where she receives a portion of the dead. Hel is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In addition, mentioned in poems recorded in Heimskringla and Egils saga that date from the 9th and 10th century respectively. An episode in the Latin work Gesta Danorum, written in the 12th century by Saxo Grammaticus, is generally considered to refer to Hel, and Hel may appear on various Migration Period bracteates. In the Poetic Edda, Prose Edda, and Heimskringla, Hel is referred to as a daughter of Loki, and to "go to Hel" is to die. In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, Hel is described as having been appointed by the god Odin as ruler of a realm of the same name, located in Niflheim. In the same source, her appearance is described as half-black and half-flesh colored, and as further having a gloomy, down-cast appearance. The Prose Edda details that Hel rules over vast mansions, her servants in her underworld realm, and as playing a key role in the attempted resurrection of the god Baldr. Scholarly theories have been proposed about Hel's potential connections to figures appearing in the 11th century Old English Gospel of Nicodemus and Old Norse Bartholomeus saga postola, potential Indo-European parallels to Bhavani, Kali, and Mahakali, and her origins. Attestations Poetic Edda The Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, features various poems that mention Hel. In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá, Hel's realm is referred to as the "Halls of Hel". Larrington (1999:9). In Grímnismál, Hel is listed as living beneath one of three roots growing from the world tree Yggdrasil. Larrington (1999:56). In Fáfnismál, the hero Sigurd stands before the mortally wounded body of the dragon Fáfnir, and states that Fáfnir lies in pieces, where "Hel can take" him. Larrington (1999:61). In Atlamál, the phrases "Hel has half of us" and "sent off to Hel" are used in reference to death. Larrington (1999:225 and 232). In stanza 4 of Baldrs draumar, Odin rides towards the "high hall of Hel". Larrington (1999:243). Prose Edda A depiction of a young Hel (center) being led to the assignment of her realm, while her brother Fenrir is led forward (left) and Jörmungandr (right) is about to be cast by Odin (1906) by Lorenz Frølich. Hel is referenced in the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, various times. In chapter 34 of the book Gylfaginning, Hel is listed by High as one of the three children of Loki and Angrboða; the wolf Fenrir, the serpent Jörmungandr, and Hel. High continues that, once the gods found that these three children are being brought up in the land of Jötunheimr, and when the gods "traced prophecies that from these siblings great mischief and disaster would arise for them" then the gods expected a lot of trouble from the three children, partially due to the nature of the mother of the children, yet worse so due to the nature of their father. Faulkes (1995:26–27). High says that Odin sent the gods to gather the children and bring them to him. Upon their arrival, Odin threw Jörmungandr into "that deep sea that lies round all lands", Odin threw Hel into Niflheim, and bestowed upon her authority over nine worlds, in that she must "administer board and lodging to those sent to her, and that is those who die of sickness or old age." High details that in this realm Hel has "great Mansions" with extremely high walls and immense gates, a hall called Éljúðnir, a dish called "Hunger", a knife called "Famine", the servant Ganglati (Old Norse "lazy walker" Orchard (1997:79). ), the serving-maid Ganglöt (also "lazy walker"), the entrance threshold "Stumbling-block", the bed "Sick-bed", and the curtains "Gleaming-bale". High describes Hel as "half black and half flesh-coloured", adding that this makes her easily recognizable, and furthermore that Hel is "rather downcast and fierce-looking". Faulkes (1995:27). "Hermod before Hela" (1909) by John Charles Dollman. In chapter 49, High describes the events surrounding the death of the god Baldr. The goddess Frigg asks who among the Æsir will earn "all her love and favour" by riding to Hel, the location, to try to find Baldr, and offer Hel herself a ransom. The god Hermóðr volunteers and sets off upon the eight-legged horse Sleipnir to Hel. Hermóðr arrives in Hel's hall, finds his brother Baldr there, and stays the night. The next morning, Hermóðr begs Hel to allow Baldr to ride home with him, and tells her about the great weeping the Æsir have done upon Baldr's death. Faulkes (1995:49–50). Hel says the love people have for Baldr that Hermóðr has claimed must be tested, stating: "If all things in the world, alive or dead, weep for him, then he will be allowed to return to the Æsir. If anyone speaks against him or refuses to cry, then he will remain with Hel." Byock (2005:68). Later in the chapter, after the female jötunn Þökk refuses to weep for the dead Baldr, she responds in verse, ending with "let Hel hold what she has." Byock (2005:69). In chapter 51, High describes the events of Ragnarök, and details that when Loki arrives at the field Vígríðr "all of Hel's people" will arrive with him. Faulkes (1995:54). In chapter 5 of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál, Hel is mentioned in a kenning for Baldr ("Hel's companion"). Faulkes (1995:74). In chapter 16, "Hel's [...] relative or father" is given as a kenning for Loki. Faulkes (1995:76). In chapter 50, Hel is referenced ("to join the company of the quite monstrous wolf's sister") in the skaldic poem Ragnarsdrápa. Faulkes (1995:123). Heimskringla "The children of Loki" (1920) by Willy Pogany. "Loki's Brood" (1905) by Emil Doepler. "Hel" (1889) by Johannes Gehrts. In the Heimskringla book Ynglinga saga, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, Hel is referred to, though never by name. In chapter 17, the king Dyggvi dies of sickness. A poem from the 9th century Ynglingatal that forms the basis of Ynglinga saga is then quoted that describes Hel's taking of Dyggvi: I doubt not but Dyggvi's corpse Hel does hold to whore with him; for Ulf's sib a scion of kings by right should caress in death: to love lured Loki's sister Yngvi's heir o'er all Sweden. Hollander (2007:20). In chapter 45, a section from Ynglingatal is given which refers to Hel as "howes'-warder" (meaning "guardian of the graves") and as taking King Halfdan Hvitbeinn from life. Hollander (2007:46). In chapter 46, King Eystein Halfdansson dies by being knocked overboard by a sail yard. A section from Ynglingatal follows, describing that Eystein "fared to" Hel (referred to as "Býleistr's-brother's-daughter"). Hollander (2007:47). In chapter 47, the deceased Eystein's son King Halfdan dies of an illness, and the excerpt provided in the chapter describes his fate thereafter, a portion of which references Hel: Loki's child from life summoned to her thing the third liege-lord, when Halfdan of Holtar farm left the life allotted to him. Hollander (2007:20–21). In a stanza from Ynglingatal recorded in chapter 72 of the Heimskringla book Saga of Harald Sigurdsson, "given to Hel" is again used as a phrase to referring to death. Hollander (2007:638). Egils saga The Icelanders' saga Egils saga contains the poem Sonatorrek. The saga attributes the poem to 10th century skald Egill Skallagrímsson, and writes that it was written by Egill after the death of his son Gunnar. The final stanza of the poem contains a mention of Hel, though not by name: Now my course is tough: Death, close sister of Odin's enemy stands on the ness: with resolution and without remorse I will gladly await my own. Scudder (2001:159). Gesta Danorum In the account of Baldr's death in Saxo Grammaticus' early 13th century work Gesta Danorum, the dying Baldr has a dream visitation from Proserpina (here translated as "the goddess of death"): The following night the goddess of death appeared to him in a dream standing at his side, and declared that in three days time she would clasp him in her arms. It was no idle vision, for after three days the acute pain of his injury brought his end. Fisher (1999:I 75). Scholars have assumed that Saxo used Proserpina as a goddess equivalent to the Norse Hel. Davidson (1999:II 356); Grimm (2004:314). Archaeological record It has been suggested that several Migration Period imitation medallions and bracteates feature depictions of Hel. In particular the bracteates IK 14 and IK 124 depict a rider traveling down a slope and coming upon a female being holding a scepter or a staff. The downward slope may indicate that the rider is traveling towards the realm of the dead and the woman with the scepter may be a female ruler of that realm, corresponding to Hel. Pesch (2002:67). Some B-class bracteates showing three godly figures have been interpreted as depicting Baldr's death, the best known of these is the Fakse bracteate. Two of the figures are understood to be Baldr and Odin while both Loki and Hel have been proposed as candidates for the third figure. If it is Hel she is presumably greeting the dying Baldr as he comes to her realm. Simek (2007:44); Pesch (2002:70); Bonnetain (2006:327). Theories An 18th century Prose Edda manuscript illustration featuring Hermóðr upon Sleipnir (left), Baldr (upper right), and Hel (lower right). Details include Hel's dish "hunger" and the knife "famine". Seo Hell The Old English Gospel of Nicodemus, preserved in two manuscripts from the 11th century, contains a female figure referred to as Seo hell who engages in flyting with Satan and tells him to leave her dwelling (Old English ut of mynre onwununge). Regarding Seo Hell in the Old English Gospel of Nicodemus, Michael Bell states that "her vivid personification in a dramatically excellent scene suggests that her gender is more than grammatical, and invites comparison with the Old Norse underworld goddess Hel and the Frau Hölle of German folklore, to say nothing of underworld goddesses in other cultures" yet adds that "the possibility that these genders are merely grammatical is strengthened by the fact that an Old Norse version of Nicodemus, possibly translated under English influence, personifies Hell in the neuter (Old Norse þat helviti)". Bell (1983:263). Bartholomeus saga postola The Old Norse Bartholomeus saga postola, an account of the life of Saint Bartholomew dating from the 13th century, mentions a "Queen Hel". In the story, a devil is hiding within a pagan idol, and bound by Bartholomew's spiritual powers to acknowledge himself and confess, the devil refers to Jesus as the one which "made war on Hel our queen" (Old Norse heriaði a Hel drottning vara). "Queen Hel" is not mentioned elsewhere in the saga. Bell (1983:263–264). Michael Bell says that while Hel "might at first appear to be identical with the well-known pagan goddess of the Norse underworld" as described in chapter 34 of Gylfaginning, "in the combined light of the Old English and Old Norse versions of Nicodemus she casts quite a different a shadow", and that in Bartholomeus saga postola "she is clearly the queen of the Christian, not pagan, underworld". Bell (1983:265). Origins and development "Heimdallr desires Iðunn's return from the Underworld" (1881) by Carl Emil Doepler. Jacob Grimm theorized that Hel (whom he refers to here as Halja, the theorized Proto-Germanic form of the term) is essentially an "image of a greedy, unrestoring, female deity" and that "the higher we are allowed to penetrate into our antiquities, the less hellish and more godlike may Halja appear. Of this we have a particularly strong guarantee in her affinity to the Indian Bhavani, who travels about and bathes like Nerthus and Holda, but is likewise called Kali or Mahakali, the great black goddess. In the underworld she is supposed to sit in judgment on souls. This office, the similar name and the black hue [...] make her exceedingly like Halja. And Halja is one of the oldest and commonest conceptions of our heathenism." Grimm (1882:315). Grimm theorizes that the Helhest, a three legged-horse that roams the countryside "as a harbinger of plague and pestilence" in Danish folklore, was originally the steed of the goddess Hel, and that on this steed Hel roamed the land "picking up the dead that were her due". In addition, Grimm says that a wagon was once ascribed to Hel, with which Hel made journeys. Grimm (1882:314). Grimm says that Hel is an example of a "half-goddess"; "one who cannot be shown to be either wife or daughter of a god, and who stands in a dependent relation to higher divinities" and that "half-goddesses" stand higher than "half-gods" in Germanic mythology. Grimm (1882:397). Hilda Ellis Davidson (1948) states that Hel "as a goddess" in surviving source seems to belong to a genre of literary personification, that the word hel is generally "used simply to signify death or the grave", and that the word often appears as a the equivalent to the English 'death', which Davidson states "naturally lends itself to personification by poets". Davidson explains that "whether this personification has originally been based on a belief in a goddess of death called Hel is another question," but that she does not believe that the surviving sources give any reason to believe so. Davidson adds that, on the other hand, various other examples of "certain supernatural women" connected with death are to be found in sources for Norse mythology, that they "seem to have been closely connected with the world of death, and were pictured as welcoming dead warriors", and that the depiction of Hel "as a goddess" in Gylfaginning "might well owe something to these". Ellis (1968:84). In a later work (1998), Davidson states that the description of Hel found in chapter 33 of Gylfaginning "hardly suggests a goddess." Davidson adds that "yet this is not the impression given in the account of Hermod's ride to Hel later in Gylfaginning (49)" and points out that here Hel "[speaks] with authority as ruler of the underworld" and that from her realm "gifts are sent back to Frigg and Fulla by Balder's wife Nanna as from a friendly kingdom." Davidson posits that Snorri may have "earlier turned the goddess of death into an allegorical figure, just as he made Hel, the underworld of shades, a place 'where wicked men go', like the Christian Hell (Gylfaginning 3)." Davidson continues that: "On the other hand, a goddess of death who represents the horrors of slaughter and decay is something well known elsewhere; the figure of Kali in India is an outstanding example. Like Snorri's Hel, she is terrifying to in appearance, black or dark in colour, usually naked, adorned with severed heads or arms or the corpses of children, her lips smeared with blood. She haunts the battlefield or cremation ground and squats on corpses. Yet for all this she is 'the recipient of ardent devotion from countless devotees who approach her as their mother' [...]. Davidson (1998:178) quoting 'the recipient ...' from Kinsley (1989:116). Davidson further compares to early attestations of the Irish goddesses Badb (Davidson points to the description of Badb from The Destruction of Da Choca's Hostel where Badb is wearing a dusky mental, has a large mouth, is dark in color, and has gray hair falling over her shoulders, or, alternately, "as a red figure on the edge of the ford, washing the chariot of a king doomed to die") and The Morrígan. Davidson concludes that, in these examples, "here we have the fierce destructive side of death, with a strong emphasis on its physical horrors, so perhaps we should not assume that the gruesome figure of Hel is wholly Snorri's literary invention." Davidson (1998:179). John Lindow states that most details about Hel, as a figure, are not found outside of Snorri's writing in Gylfaginning, and says that when older skaldic poetry "says that people are 'in' rather than 'with' Hel, we are clearly dealing with a place rather than a person, and this is assumed to be the older conception", that the noun and place Hel likely originally simply meant "grave", and that "the personification came later." Lindow (1997:172). Rudolf Simek theorizes that the figure of Hel is "probably a very late personification of the underworld Hel", and says that "the first kennings using the goddess Hel are found at the end of the 10th and in the 11th centuries." Simek states that the allegorical description of Hel's house in Gylfaginning "clearly stands in the Christian tradition", and that "on the whole nothing speaks in favour of there being a belief in Hel in pre-Christian times". Simek (2007:138). However, Simek also cites Hel as possibly appearing as one of three figures appearing together on Migration Period B-bracteates. Simek (2007:44). See also Death in Norse paganism Notes References Bell, Michael (1983). "Hel Our Queen: An Old Norse Analogue to an Old English Female Hell" as collected in The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 76, No. 2 (April 1983), pages 263–268. Cambridge University Press. Bonnetain, Yvonne S. (2006). "Potentialities of Loki" in Old Norse Religion in Long Term Perspectives edited by A. Andren, pp. 326-330. Nordic Academic Press. ISBN 918911681X Byock, Jesse (Trans.) (2005). The Prose Edda. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0140447555 Davidson, Hilda Ellis (commentary), Peter Fisher (Trans.) 1999. Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX : I. English Text; II. Commentary. D.S. Brewer. ISBN 0-85991-502-6 Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1998). Roles of the Northern Goddess. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13611-3 Ellis, Hilda Roderick (1968). The Road to Hel: A Study of the Conception of the Dead in Old Norse Literature. Greenwood Press Publishers. Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.) (1995). Edda. Everyman. ISBN 0-4608-7616-3 Grimm, Jacob (James Steven Stallybrass Trans.) (1882). Teutonic Mythology: Translated from the Fourth Edition with Notes and Appendix Vol. I. London: George Bell and Sons. Grimm, Jacob (2004). Teutonic Mythology, vol. IV. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0486435466 Hollander, Lee Milton. (Trans.) (2007). Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway. University of Texas Press ISBN 978-0-292-73061-8 Kinsley, D. (1989). The Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East to West. State University of New York Press. Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 0192839462 Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell. ISBN 0 304 34520 2 Pesch, Alexandra. (2002). "Frauen und Brakteaten - eine Skizze" in Mythological Women', edited by Rudolf Simek and Wilhelm Heizmann, pp. 33-80. Verlag Fassbaender, Wien. ISBN 3-900538-73-5 Scudder, Bernard (Trans.) (2001). "Egils saga" as collected in various (2001). The Sagas of Icelanders. Penguin Group. ISBN 0 14 10.0003 1 Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology''. D.S. Brewer. 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7,524 | Common_Era | Common Era, abbreviated as CE, is a designation for the calendar system most commonly used world-wide for numbering the year part of the date. The numbering of years is identical to that used in the Anno Domini (BC/AD) system, with being the current year in both systems and neither using a year zero. Two separate systems that also do not use religious titles, the astronomical system and the ISO 8601 standard do use a year zero. The year 1 BCE (identical to the year 1 BC) is represented as 0 in the astronomical system, and as 0000 in ISO 8601. Presently, ISO 8601 dating requires usage of the Gregorian calendar for all dates, however; whereas astronomical dating and Common Era dating allow usage of the Julian calendar for dates before 1582 CE. Common Era is also known as Christian Era Dictionaries: Common Era and Christian Era used interchangeably and Current Era, Sources supporting interchangeabilty with Current Era with all three expressions abbreviated as CE. Dictionaries: CE "ce" – WP editorial note: the source does not mention any suffix like "[syn: CE]" for entry "ce" as shown for entry "c.e.". (Christian Era is, however, also abbreviated AD, for Anno Domini.) Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for "Before the Common Era", "Before the Christian Era", or "Before the Current Era". Dictionaries: BCE "bce" – WP editorial note: the source does not mention any suffix like "[syn: BCE]" for entry "bce" as shown for entry "b.c.e.". Both the BCE/CE and BC/AD systems are based on a sixth century estimate for the year in which Jesus was conceived or born; with common era designation originating among Christians in Europe at least as early as 1615 (at first in Latin). The Gregorian calendar, and the year numbering system associated with it, is the calendar system with most widespread usage in the world today. For decades, it has been the de facto global standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations and the Universal Postal Union. Common Era notation has been adopted in several non-Christian cultures, by many scholars in religious studies and other academic fields, and by others wishing to be sensitive to non-Christians, . because Common Era does not explicitly make use of religious titles for Jesus, such as Christ and Lord, which are used in the BC/AD notation. Anno Domini (which means in the year of the/our Lord) Translated as "in the year of (Our) Lord" in Blackburn, B & Holford-Strevens, L, (2003), The Oxford Companion to the Year, Oxford University Press, 782. The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows the year number. Unlike AD, which traditionally precedes the year number, CE always follows the year number (if context requires that it be written at all). Thus, the current year is written as in both systems (or, if further clarity is needed, as CE, or as AD ), and the year that Socrates died is represented as 399 BCE (the same year that is represented by 399 BC in the BC/AD system). The abbreviations are sometimes written with small capital letters, or with periods (e.g., "BCE" or "C.E."). Origins The year numbering system for the Common Era was devised by the monk Dionysius Exiguus in the year 525 to replace the Diocletian years, because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. He attempted to number years from an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus Pedersen, O., (1983), "The Ecclesiastical Calendar and the Life of the Church" in Coyne, G.V. et al. (Eds.) The Gregorian Reform of the Calendar, Vatican Observatory, p. 50. although scholars today generally believe that Jesus was born before AD 1. Doggett, L.E., (1992), "Calendars" in Seidelmann, P.K., The Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, Sausalito CA: University Science Books, p. 579. Dionysius labeled the column of the Easter table in which he introduced the new era "Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi" Pedersen, O., (1983), "The Ecclesiastical Calendar and the Life of the Church" in Coyne, G.V. et al. (Eds.) The Gregorian Reform of the Calendar, Vatican Observatory, p. 52. Numbering years in this manner became more widespread with its usage by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before the supposed year of birth Bede wrote of the Incarnation of Jesus, but treated it as synonymous with birth. Blackburn, B & Holford-Strevens, L, (2003), The Oxford Companion to the Year, Oxford University Press, 778. of Jesus, and the practice of not using a year zero. As noted in Zero#History of zero, the use of zero in Western civilization was uncommon before the 12th century. In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The term "Common Era" is traced back in English to its appearance as "Vulgar It is relatively recently the word vulgar has come to mean "crudely indecent" Era" (from the Latin word vulgus, the common people, i.e. those who are not royalty), to distinguish it from the Regnal dating systems typically used in national law. The first use of the Latin equivalent (vulgaris aerae) In Latin, Common Era is written as Vulgaris Aerae. It also occasionally appears as æræ vulgaris, aerae vulgaris, aeram vulgarem, anni vulgaris, vulgaris aerae Christianae, and anni vulgatae nostrae aerae Christianas. discovered so far was in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler. Kepler uses it again in a 1617 table of ephemerides. Translation of title (per 1635 English edition): New Ephemerids for the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeeres of the Vulgar Era 1617–1636 A 1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English - so far, the earliest-found usage of Vulgar Era in English. A 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra, 6". A 1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, "before the beginning of the vulgar æra, by which we now compute the years from his incarnation." Merriam Webster accepts the date of 1716, but does not give the source. A 1796 book uses the term "vulgar era of the nativity". The first so-far-discovered usage of "Christian Era" is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the title page of a 1584 theology book. In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac. A 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of "Christian Era". The English phrase "common Era" appears at least as early as 1715 in a book on astronomy, used synonymously with Christian Era and Vulgar Era. Before Christ and Christian Era appear on the same page 252, while Vulgar Era appears on page 250 A 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews. In this case, their refers to the Jews. Common era and vulgar era are used as synonyms in 1770, in a translation of a book originally written in German. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era and common era synonymously. In 1835, in his book Living Oracles, Alexander Campbell, wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days", and also refers to the common era as a synonym for vulgar era with "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era..." The Catholic Encyclopedia uses the sentence: "Foremost among these [various eras] is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, Vulgar or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living." During the 19th century, "Vulgar Era" came to be contrasted with "Christian Era", and "vulgar" came to mean "crudely indecent", thus no longer a synonym for "common". The phrase "common era", in lower case, also appeared in the 19th century in a generic sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any system of dates in common use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common era of the Jews", "the common era of the Mahometans", "common era of the world", "the common era of the foundation of Rome". When it did refer to the Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified, e.g., "common era of the Incarnation", "common era of the Nativity", or "common era of the birth of Christ". Some Jewish academics were already using the CE and BCE abbreviations by the mid-19th century, such as in 1856, when Rabbi and historian, Morris Jacob Raphall used the abbreviation in his book, Post-Biblical History of The Jews. The term common era does not appear in this book; the term Christian era [lowercase] does appear a number of times. Nowhere in the book is the abbreviation explained or expanded directly. Other associations An adapted translation of Common Era into Latin as Era Vulgaris was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of Aleister Crowley, and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD. Usage The terms "Common Era", "Anno Domini", "Before the Common Era" and "Before Christ" can be applied to dates that rely on either the Julian calendar or the Gregorian calendar. Modern dates are understood in the Western world to be in the Gregorian calendar, but for older dates writers should specify the calendar used. Dates in the Gregorian calendar have always used the Common Era, but over the millennia a wide variety of eras have been used with the Julian calendar. Although the Jewish people have their own Hebrew calendar, they often find it convenient to use the Gregorian Calendar as well. The reasons for some using Common Era notation are described below:Indeed, Common Era notation has also been in use for Hebrew lessons for "more than a century". (Registration required.) Some American academics in the fields of education and history have adopted CE and BCE notation, although there is some disagreement. See, for example, the Society for Historical Archaeology states in its more recent style guide "Do not use C.E. (current era) ... or B.C.E.; convert these expressions to A.D. and B.C." . Whereas the American Anthropological Association style guide takes a different approach. The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, which is the leading publishing body of the Jehovah's Witnesses, uses CE and BCE exclusively in its publications. Also see, for example, comment "In this publication, instead of the traditional 'AD' and 'BC', the more accurate 'CE' (Common Era) and 'BCE' (before the Common Era) are used." in The Bible — God's Word or Man's?, p. 16 footnote, published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. More visible uses of Common Era notation have recently surfaced at major museums in the English-speaking world: The Smithsonian Institution prefers Common Era usage, though individual museums are not required to use it. Furthermore, several style guides now prefer or mandate its usage. - – Scholar search - - - Even some style guides for Christian churches prefer its use: for example, the Episcopal Diocese Maryland Church News. In the United States, the usage of the BCE/CE notation in textbooks is growing. Some publications have moved over to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 World Almanac was the first edition to switch over to the BCE/CE usage, ending a 138-year usage of the traditional BC/AD dating system. It is used by the College Board in its history tests, by the Norton Anthology of English Literature, and by the United States Naval Observatory. Others have taken a different approach. The US-based History Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as Jerusalem and Judaism. ; In June 2006, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision that would have included the designations BCE and CE as part of state law, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of discretion at the local level. In some formerly Communist, predominantly Christian societies, the designation New Era (or Our Era) was encouraged by Communist authorities to replace BC and AD. In Bulgaria, for example, пр.н.е. (преди новата ера, before the new era, or преди нашата ера, before our era) and н.е. (от новата ера, of the new era, or от нашата ера, of our era) are still widely used by atheists/agnostics instead of traditional пр.Хр. (преди Христа, Before Christ) and сл.Хр. (след Христа, After Christ), which were unofficially reinstituted after the Communist period. In Asia, the Chinese use the term "Common Era (公元)". The Japanese use seireki (西暦), which translates to "Western Calendar". The Koreans use the word Seogi (서기, 西紀), which means "Western Era" for AD/CE and Kiwonjeon (기원전, 紀元前) which is an abbreviation of Seoryok Kiwonjeon (서력기원전, 西曆紀元前) which means "Before Genesis of the Western Calendar". Rationale A range of arguments has been presented for the adoption of the Common Era notation. Supporters of Common Era notation promote it as a more accurate and religiously neutral notation better suited for cross-cultural communication. The label Anno Domini is almost certainly inaccurate; "scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before A.D. 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating." Use of BCE and CE shows sensitivity to those who agree to use the same calendar, but are not Christian. Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan argued, "[T]he Christian calendar no longer belongs exclusively to Christians. People of all faiths have taken to using it simply as a matter of convenience. There is so much interaction between people of different faiths and cultures - different civilizations, if you like - that some shared way of reckoning time is a necessity. And so the Christian Era has become the Common Era." Both BCE and CE are used as suffixes, unlike BC/AD where BC is used as a suffix and AD is used as a prefix or suffix. This can be beneficial for computer usage. Opposition Efforts to replace BC/AD notation with BCE/CE notation have given rise to opposition. Anthropologist Carol Delaney argues that the substitution of BC/AD to BCE/CE is merely a euphemism that conceals the political implications without modifying the actual source of contention. English language expert Kenneth G. Wilson speculated in his style guide that "if we do end by casting aside the A.D./B.C. convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system [that is, the method of numbering years] itself, given its Christian basis." Some critics assert that the use of identifiers which have common spellings is more ambiguous than the use of identifiers with divergent spellings. Both C.E. and B.C.E. have in common the letters "C.E.", which is more likely to cause confusion, they claim, than identifiers with clearly different spelling. Religious opposition Because the BC/AD notation is based on the supposed year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, the removal of reference to him in era notation is perceived by some Christians as offensive. Some groups oppose the Common Era notation for explicitly religious reasons; for example, the Southern Baptist Convention supports retaining the BC/AD abbreviations as "a reminder of the preeminence of Christ and His gospel in world history." The Southern Baptist Convention has criticized the use of BCE and CE as being the result of "secularization, anti-supernaturalism, religious pluralism, and political correctness" and encourages its members to "retain the traditional method of dating and avoid this revisionism." Conservative opposition According to a Los Angeles Times report, it was a student's use of BCE/CE notation, inspired by its use within Wikipedia, which prompted the history teacher Andrew Schlafly to found Conservapedia, a cultural conservative wiki. One of its "Conservapedia Commandments" is that users must always apply BC/AD notation, since its sponsors perceive BCE/CE notation to "deny the historical basis" of the dating system. Conservapedia Commandments at Conservapedia See also Calendar reform Before present Notes and references External links Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why? 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7,525 | Irreducible_complexity | This article covers irreducible complexity as used by those who argue for intelligent design. For information on irreducible complexity as used in Systems Theory, see Irreducible complexity (Emergence). Irreducible complexity (IC) is an argument made by proponents of intelligent design that certain biological systems are too complex to have evolved from simpler, or "less complete" predecessors, through natural selection acting upon a series of advantageous naturally occurring chance mutations. It is one of two main arguments intended to support intelligent design, the other being specified complexity. . It is rejected by the scientific community "We therefore find that Professor Behe’s claim for irreducible complexity has been refuted in peer-reviewed research papers and has been rejected by the scientific community at large." Ruling, Judge John E. Jones III, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District and intelligent design has been referred to as pseudoscience. "True in this latest creationist variant, advocates of so-called intelligent design ... use more slick, pseudoscientific language. They talk about things like 'irreducible complexity'" — "for most members of the mainstream scientific community, ID is not a scientific theory, but a creationist pseudoscience." Mark D. Decker. College of Biological Sciences, General Biology Program, University of Minnesota Frequently Asked Questions About the Texas Science Textbook Adoption Controversy "The Discovery Institute and ID proponents have a number of goals that they hope to achieve using disingenuous and mendacious methods of marketing, publicity, and political persuasion. They do not practice real science because that takes too long, but mainly because this method requires that one have actual evidence and logical reasons for one's conclusions, and the ID proponents just don't have those. If they had such resources, they would use them, and not the disreputable methods they actually use." Biochemistry professor Michael Behe, the originator of the argument of irreducible complexity, defines an irreducibly complex system as one "composed of several well-matched, interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning". Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution, Michael Behe, 1996, quoted in Irreducible Complexity and Michael Behe (retrieved 8 January 2006) These examples are said to demonstrate that modern biological forms could not have evolved naturally. Critics consider that most, or all, of the examples were based on misunderstandings of the workings of the biological systems in question, and consider the low quality of these examples excellent evidence for the argument from ignorance. The argument's fallacy is in assuming that evolution must compose these parts to create a working system, ignoring the simpler process of subtracting parts from a less efficient system until the irreducibly complex one remains. In the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial, Behe gave testimony on the subject of irreducible complexity. The court found that "Professor Behe's claim for irreducible complexity has been refuted in peer-reviewed research papers and has been rejected by the scientific community at large." Ruling, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, page 64 Nonetheless, irreducible complexity continues to be cited as an important argument by creationists, particularly intelligent design proponents. Definitions The term "irreducible complexity" was originally defined by Behe as: A single system which is composed of several interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, and where the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning. (Darwin's Black Box p39 in the 2006 edition) Supporters of intelligent design use this term to refer to biological systems and organs that they believe could not have come about by any series of small changes. They argue that anything less than the complete form of such a system or organ would not work at all, or would in fact be a detriment to the organism, and would therefore never survive the process of natural selection. Although they accept that some complex systems and organs can be explained by evolution, they claim that organs and biological features which are irreducibly complex cannot be explained by current models, and that an intelligent designer must have created life or guided its evolution. Accordingly, the debate on irreducible complexity concerns two questions: whether irreducible complexity can be found in nature, and what significance it would have if it did exist in nature. A second definition given by Behe (his "evolutionary definition") is as follows: An irreducibly complex evolutionary pathway is one that contains one or more unselected steps (that is, one or more necessary-but-unselected mutations). The degree of irreducible complexity is the number of unselected steps in the pathway. Intelligent design advocate William Dembski gives this definition: A system performing a given basic function is irreducibly complex if it includes a set of well-matched, mutually interacting, nonarbitrarily individuated parts such that each part in the set is indispensable to maintaining the system's basic, and therefore original, function. The set of these indispensable parts is known as the irreducible core of the system. (No Free Lunch, 285) History Forerunners The argument from irreducible complexity is a descendant of the teleological argument for God (the argument from design or from complexity). This states that because certain things in nature are very complicated, they must have been designed. William Paley famously argued, in his 1802 watchmaker analogy, that complexity in nature implies a God for the same reason that the existence of a watch implies the existence of a watchmaker. This argument has a long history, and can be traced back at least as far as Cicero's De natura deorum ii.34. On the Nature of the Gods, translated by Francis Brooks, London: Methuen, 1896. See Henry Hallam's Introduction to the Literature of Europe part iii chapter iii paragraph 26 footnote u Galen (1st and 2nd centuries AD) wrote about the large number of parts of the body and their relationships, which observation was cited as evidence for creation. De Formatione Foetus=The Construction of the Embryo, chapter 11 in Galen: Selected Works, translated by P. N. Singer, The World's Classics, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997 ISBN 978-019-282450-9. One 18th-century reference to Galen is David Hume Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, 1779, Part 12, § 3, page 215. Also see Galen's De Usu Partium=On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body, translated and edited by Margaret Tallmadge May, Ithaca, New York, Cornell University Press, 1968, especially book XVII. The idea that specifically the interdependence between parts would have implications for the origins of living things was raised by writers starting with Pierre Gassendi in the mid 17th century De Generatione Animalium, chapter III. Partial translation in: Howard B. Adelmann, Marcello Malpighi and the Evolution of Embryology Ithaca, New York, Cornell University Press, 1966, volume 2, pages 811-812. and John Wilkins, who wrote (citing Galen), "Now to imagine, that all these things, according to their several kinds, could be brought into this regular frame and order, to which such an infinite number of Intentions are required, without the contrivance of some wise Agent, must needs be irrational in the highest degree." Of the Principles and Duties of Natural Religion, London, 1675, book I, chapter 6, page 82. In the late 17th century, Thomas Burnet referred to "a multitude of pieces aptly joyn’d" to argue against the eternity of life. The Sacred Theory of the Earth, 2nd edition, London: Walter Kettilby, 1691. Book I Chapter IV page 43 In the early 18th century, Nicolas Malebranche De la recherche de la verité 6.2.4, 6th edition, 1712. English translation The Search after Truth, translated and edited by Thomas M. Lennon and Paul J. Olscamp, Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-521-58004-8. Second paragraph from the end of the chapter, on page 465. wrote "An organized body contains an infinity of parts that mutually depend upon one another in relation to particular ends, all of which must be actually formed in order to work as a whole," arguing in favor of preformation, rather than epigenesis, of the individual; and a similar argument about the origins of the individual was made by other 18th century students of natural history. Chapter XV of Paley's Natural Theology discusses at length what he called "relations" of parts of living things as an indication of their design. William Paley: Natural Theology; or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity. Collected from the Appearances of Nature 12th edition, 1809 In a different application, in the early 19th century Georges Cuvier used the concept of "correlation of parts" in establishing the anatomy of animals from fragmentary remains. The Chicken or the Egg While he did not originate the term, Charles Darwin identified the argument as a possible way to falsify a prediction of the theory of evolution at the outset. In The Origin of Species, he wrote, "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case." Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species. London: John Murray. page 189, Chapter VI Darwin's theory of evolution challenges the teleological argument by postulating an alternative explanation to that of an intelligent designer—namely, evolution by natural selection. The argument from irreducible complexity attempts to demonstrate that certain biological features cannot be purely the product of Darwinian evolution. Hermann Muller, in the early 20th century, discussed a concept similar to irreducible complexity. However, far from seeing this as a problem for evolution, he described the "interlocking" of biological features as a consequence to be expected of evolution, which would lead to irreversibility of some evolutionary changes. , especially pages 463–4. He wrote, "Being thus finally woven, as it were, into the most intimate fabric of the organism, the once novel character can no longer be withdrawn with impunity, and may have become vitally necessary." In 1974, Young Earth Creationist Henry M. Morris introduced a similar concept in his book "Scientific Creationism" in which he wrote; "This issue can actually be attacked quantitatively, using simple principles of mathematical probability. The problem is simply whether a complex system, in which many components function unitedly together, and in which each component is uniquely necessary to the efficient functioning of the whole, could ever arise by random processes." A book-length study of a concept similar to irreducible complexity, explained by gradual, step-wise, non-teleological evolution, was published in 1975 by Thomas H. Frazzetta. "A complex adaptation is one constructed of several components that must blend together operationally to make the adaptation "work". It is analogous to a machine whose performance depends upon careful cooperation among its parts. In the case of the machine, no single part can greatly be altered without changing the performance of the entire machine." The machine that he chose as an analog is the Peaucellier machine, and one biological system given extended description was the jaw apparatus of a python. The conclusion of this investigation, rather than that evolution of a complex adaptation was impossible, "awed by the adaptations of living things, to be stunned by their complexity and suitability", was "to accept the inescapable but not humiliating fact that much of mankind can be seen in a tree or a lizard." T. H. Frazzetta, Complex Adaptations in Evolving Populations, Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 1975. ISBN 0-87893-194-5. Referencing pages 3, 4-7, 7-20, and xi, respectively. In 1981, Ariel Roth, in defense of the creation science position in the trial McLean v. Arkansas, said of "complex integrated structures" that "This system would not be functional until all the parts were there ... How did these parts survive during evolution ...?" In 1985 Cairns-Smith wrote of "interlocking", "How can a complex collaboration between components evolve in small steps?" and used the analogy of the scaffolding called centering used to build an arch then removed afterwards: "Surely there was 'scaffolding'. Before the multitudinous components of present biochemistry could come to lean together they had to lean on something else." However, neither Muller or Cairns-Smith claimed that their ideas were evidence of something supernatural. An essay in support of creationism published in 1994 referred to bacterial flagella as showing "multiple, integrated components", where "nothing about them works unless every one of their complexly fashioned and integrated components are in place" and asked the reader to "imagine the effects of natural selection on those organisms that fortuitously evolved the flagella ... without the concommitant [sic] control mechanisms". An early concept of irreducibly complex systems comes from Ludwig von Bertalanffy, a 20th-century Austrian biologist. Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1952). Problems of Life: An Evaluation of Modern Biological and Scientific Thought, pg 148 ISBN 1-131-79242-4 He believed that complex systems must be examined as complete, irreducible systems in order to fully understand how they work. He extended his work on biological complexity into a general theory of systems in a book titled General Systems Theory. After James Watson and Francis Crick published the structure of DNA in the early 1950s, General Systems Theory lost many of its adherents in the physical and biological sciences. However, Systems theory remained popular in the social sciences long after its demise in the physical and biological sciences. Origins Michael Behe's controversial book Darwin's Black Box popularized the concept of irreducible complexity. Michael Behe developed his ideas on the concept around 1992, in the early days of the 'wedge movement', and first presented his ideas about "irreducible complexity" in June 1993 when the "Johnson-Behe cadre of scholars" met at Pajaro Dunes in California. Barbara Forrest, The Wedge at Work. Talk Reason. He set out his ideas in the second edition of Of Pandas and People published in 1993, extensively revising Chapter 6 Biochemical Similarities with new sections on the complex mechanism of blood clotting and on the origin of proteins. The New Pandas: Has Creationist Scholarship Improved? Comments on 1993 Revisions by Frank J. Sonleitner (1994)Introduction: Of Pandas and People, the foundational work of the 'Intelligent Design' movement by Nick Matzke 2004,Design on Trial in Dover, Pennsylvania by Nicholas J Matzke, NCSE Public Information Project Specialist He first used the term "irreducible complexity" in his 1996 book Darwin's Black Box, to refer to certain complex biochemical cellular systems. He posits that evolutionary mechanisms cannot explain the development of such "irreducibly complex" systems. Notably, Behe credits philosopher William Paley for the original concept, not von Bertalanffy, and suggests that his application of the concept to biological systems is entirely original. Intelligent design advocates argue that irreducibly complex systems must have been deliberately engineered by some form of intelligence. In 2001, Michael Behe wrote: "[T]here is an asymmetry between my current definition of irreducible complexity and the task facing natural selection. I hope to repair this defect in future work." Behe specifically explained that the "current definition puts the focus on removing a part from an already functioning system", but the "difficult task facing Darwinian evolution, however, would not be to remove parts from sophisticated pre-existing systems; it would be to bring together components to make a new system in the first place". In the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial, Behe testified under oath that he "did not judge [the asymmetry] serious enough to [have revised the book] yet." See also Behe's testimony in Kitzmiller v. Dover Behe additionally testified that the presence of irreducible complexity in organisms would not rule out the involvement of evolutionary mechanisms in the development of organic life. He further testified that he knew of no earlier "peer reviewed articles in scientific journals discussing the intelligent design of the blood clotting cascade," but that there were "probably a large number of peer reviewed articles in science journals that demonstrate that the blood clotting system is indeed a purposeful arrangement of parts of great complexity and sophistication." Behe, Michael 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science (p. 88) (The judge ruled that "intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature".) Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: Conclusion, section H According to the theory of evolution, genetic variations occur without specific design or intent. The environment "selects" the variants that have the highest fitness, which are then passed on to the next generation of organisms. Change occurs by the gradual operation of natural forces over time, perhaps slowly, perhaps more quickly (see punctuated equilibrium). This process is able to adapt complex structures from simpler beginnings, or convert complex structures from one function to another (see spandrel). Most intelligent design advocates accept that evolution occurs through mutation and natural selection at the "micro level", such as changing the relative frequency of various beak lengths in finches, but assert that it cannot account for irreducible complexity, because none of the parts of an irreducible system would be functional or advantageous until the entire system is in place. The mousetrap analogy Behe uses the mousetrap as an illustrative example of this concept. A mousetrap consists of five interacting pieces—the base, the catch, the spring, the hammer and the hold-down bar. All of these must be in place for the mousetrap to work, as the removal of any one piece destroys the function of the mousetrap. Likewise, biological systems require multiple parts working together in order to function. Intelligent design advocates claim that natural selection could not create from scratch those systems for which science is currently unable to find a viable evolutionary pathway of successive, slight modifications, because the selectable function is only present when all parts are assembled. In his 2008 book Only A Theory, biologist Kenneth R. Miller challenges Behe's claim that the mousetrap is irreducibly complex. Miller observes that various subsets of the five components can be devised to form cooperative units, ones that have different functions from the mousetrap. In an amusing example taken from his high school experience, Miller recalls that one of his classmates...struck upon the brilliant idea of using an old, broken mousetrap as a spitball catapult, and it worked brilliantly....It had worked perfectly as something other than a mousetrap....my rowdy friend had pulled a couple of parts --probably the hold-down bar and catch-- off the trap to make it easier to conceal and more effective as a catapult...[leaving] the base, the spring, and the hammer. Not much of a mousetrap, but a helluva spitball launcher....I realized why [Behe's] mousetrap analogy had bothered me. It was wrong. The mousetrap is not irreducibly complex after all. Other systems identified by Miller that include mousetrap components include the following: use the spitball launcher as a tie clip (same three-part system with different function) remove the spring from the spitball launcher/tie clip to create a two-part key chain (base + hammer) glue the spitball launcher/tie clip to a sheet of wood to create a clipboard (launcher + glue + wood) remove the hold-down bar for use as a toothpick (single element system) Consequences of irreducible complexity Behe's original examples of irreducibly complex mechanisms included the bacterial flagellum of E. coli, the blood clotting cascade, cilia, and the adaptive immune system. Michael Behe believes that many aspects of life show evidence of design, using the mousetrap in an analogy disputed by others. A reducibly complex mousetrap (graphics-intensive, requires JavaScript) Behe argues that organs and biological features which are irreducibly complex cannot be wholly explained by current models of evolution. In explicating his definition of "irreducible complexity" he notes that: An irreducibly complex system cannot be produced directly (that is, by continuously improving the initial function, which continues to work by the same mechanism) by slight, successive modifications of a precursor system, because any precursor to an irreducibly complex system that is missing a part is by definition nonfunctional. Irreducible complexity is not an argument that evolution does not occur, but rather an argument that it is "incomplete". In the last chapter of Darwin's Black Box, Behe goes on to explain his view that irreducible complexity is evidence for intelligent design. Mainstream critics, however, argue that irreducible complexity, as defined by Behe, can be generated by known evolutionary mechanisms. Behe's claim that no scientific literature adequately modeled the origins of biochemical systems through evolutionary mechanisms has been challenged by TalkOrigins. Claim CA350: Professional literature is silent on the subject of the evolution of biochemical systems TalkOrigins Archive. The judge in the Dover trial wrote "By defining irreducible complexity in the way that he has, Professor Behe attempts to exclude the phenomenon of exaptation by definitional fiat, ignoring as he does so abundant evidence which refutes his argument. Notably, the NAS has rejected Professor Behe’s claim for irreducible complexity..." Ruling, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, December 2005. Page 74. Stated examples Behe and others have suggested a number of biological features that they believe may be irreducibly complex. Blood clotting cascade The blood clotting or coagulation cascade in vertebrates is a complex biological pathway which is given as an example of apparent irreducible complexity. Action, George "Behe and the Blood Clotting Cascade" The irreducible complexity argument assumes that the necessary parts of a system have always been necessary, and therefore could not have been added sequentially. However, in evolution, natural selection can lead to complex biochemical systems being built up from simpler systems, or to existing functional systems being recombined as a new system with a different function. For example, one of the clotting factors that Behe listed as a part of the clotting cascade was later found to be absent in whales, demonstrating that it is not essential for a clotting system. Many purportedly irreducible structures can be found in other organisms as much simpler systems that utilize fewer parts. These systems, in turn, may have had even simpler precursors that are now extinct. The "improbability argument" also misrepresents natural selection. It is correct to say that a set of simultaneous mutations that form a complex protein structure is so unlikely as to be unfeasible, but that is not what Darwin advocated. His explanation is based on small accumulated changes that take place without a final goal. Each step must be advantageous in its own right, although biologists may not yet understand the reason behind all of them—for example, jawless fish accomplish blood clotting with just six proteins instead of the full 10. Creationism special: A sceptic's guide to intelligent design, New Scientist, 9 July 2005 Eye Often used as an example of irreducible complexity.(a) A pigment spot(b) A simple pigment cup(c) The simple optic cup found in abalone(d) The complex lensed eye of the marine snail and the octopus The eye is a famous example of a supposedly irreducibly complex structure, due to its many elaborate and interlocking parts, seemingly all dependent upon one another. It is frequently cited by intelligent design and creationism advocates as an example of irreducible complexity. Behe used the "development of the eye problem" as evidence for intelligent design in Darwin's Black Box. Although Behe acknowledged that the evolution of the larger anatomical features of the eye have been well-explained, he claimed that the complexity of the minute biochemical reactions required at a molecular level for light sensitivity still defies explanation. Creationist Jonathan Sarfati has described the eye as evolutionary biologists' "greatest challenge as an example of superb 'irreducible complexity' in God's creation", specifically pointing to the supposed "vast complexity" required for transparency. Sarfati, Jonathan (2000). Argument: 'Irreducible complexity', from Refuting Evolution (Answers in Genesis). In an often mis-quoted CA113.1: Evolution of the eye passage from The Origin of Species, Charles Darwin appears to acknowledge the eye's development as a difficulty for his theory. However, the quote in context shows that Darwin actually had a very good understanding of the evolution of the eye. He notes that "to suppose that the eye [...] could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest possible degree". Yet this observation was merely a rhetorical device for Darwin. He goes on to explain that if gradual evolution of the eye could be shown to be possible, "the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection [...] can hardly be considered real". He then proceeded to roughly map out a likely course for evolution using examples of gradually more complex eyes of various species. Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species. London: John Murray. pages 186ff, Chapter VI The eyes of vertebrates (left) and invertebrates such as the octopus (right) developed independently: vertebrates evolved an inverted retina with a blind spot over their optic disc, whereas octopuses avoided this with a non-inverted retina. Since Darwin's day, the eye's ancestry has become much better understood. Although learning about the construction of ancient eyes through fossil evidence is problematic due to the soft tissues leaving no imprint or remains, genetic and comparative anatomical evidence has increasingly supported the idea of a common ancestry for all eyes. As Behe admits, current evidence does suggest possible evolutionary lineages for the origins of the anatomical features of the eye, for example, that eyes originated as simple patches of photoreceptor cells that could detect the presence or absence of light, but not its direction. By developing a small depression for the photosensitive cells, the organisms obtained a better sense of the light's source, and by continuing to deepen the depression into a pit so that light would strike certain cells depending on its angle, increasingly precise visible information was possible. The aperture of the eye was then shrunk so that light is focused, turning the eye into a pinhole camera and allowing the organism to dimly make out shapes—the nautilus is a modern example of an animal with such an eye. Finally, the protective layer of transparent cells over the aperture was differentiated into a crude lens, and the interior of the eye was filled with humours to assist in focusing images. Fernald, Russell D. (2001). The Evolution of Eyes: Why Do We See What We See? Karger Gazette 64: "The Eye in Focus". In this way, eyes are recognized by modern biologists as actually a relatively unambiguous and simple structure to evolve, and many of the major developments of the eye's evolution are believed to have taken place over only a few million years, during the Cambrian explosion. However, according to Behe, the complexity of light sensitivity at the molecular level and the minute biochemical reactions required for those first "simple patches of photoreceptor[s]" still defies explanation. Flagella The flagella of certain bacteria constitute a molecular motor requiring the interaction of about 40 complex protein parts, and the absence of any one of these proteins causes the flagella to fail to function. Behe holds that the flagellum "engine" is irreducibly complex because if we try to reduce its complexity by positing an earlier and simpler stage of its evolutionary development, we get an organism which functions improperly. Mainstream scientists regard this argument as having been largely disproved in the light of fairly recent research. Miller, Kenneth R. The Flagellum Unspun: The Collapse of "Irreducible Complexity" with reply here They point out that the basal body of the flagella has been found to be similar to the Type III secretion system (TTSS), a needle-like structure that pathogenic germs such as Salmonella and Yersinia pestis use to inject toxins into living eucaryote cells. The needle's base has ten elements in common with the flagellum, but it is missing forty of the proteins that make a flagellum work. Kenneth Miller's The Collapse of Intelligent Design: Section 5 Bacterial Flagellum (Case Western Reserve University, 2006 January 3) Thus, this system seems to negate the claim that taking away any of the flagellum's parts would render it useless. This has caused Kenneth Miller to note that, "The parts of this supposedly irreducibly complex system actually have functions of their own." Unlocking cell secrets bolsters evolutionists (Chicago Tribune, 2006 February 13) Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum (Talk Design, 2006 September) Response of the scientific community Like intelligent design, the concept it seeks to support, irreducible complexity has failed to gain any notable acceptance within the scientific community. One science writer called it a "full-blown intellectual surrender strategy." Mirsky, Steve Sticker Shock: In the beginning was the cautionary advisory Scientific American, February 2005 Reducibility of "irreducible" systems Potentially viable evolutionary pathways have been proposed for allegedly irreducibly complex systems such as blood clotting, the immune system Matt Inlay, 2002. "Evolving Immunity." In TalkDesign.org. and the flagellum, Nicholas J. Matzke, 2003. "Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum." which were the three examples Behe used. Even his example of a mousetrap was shown to be reducible by John H. McDonald. If irreducible complexity is an insurmountable obstacle to evolution, it should not be possible to conceive of such pathways—Behe has remarked that such plausible pathways would defeat his argument. Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin, both of East Tennessee State University, have shown that systems satisfying Behe's characterization of irreducible biochemical complexity can arise naturally and spontaneously as the result of self-organizing chemical processes. Shanks, Niall Redundant Complexity:A Critical Analysis of Intelligent Design in Biochemistry Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin. Redundant Complexity:A Critical Analysis of Intelligent Design in Biochemistry. East Tennessee State University. They also assert that what evolved biochemical and molecular systems actually exhibit is "redundant complexity"—a kind of complexity that is the product of an evolved biochemical process. They claim that Behe overestimated the significance of irreducible complexity because of his simple, linear view of biochemical reactions, resulting in his taking snapshots of selective features of biological systems, structures and processes, while ignoring the redundant complexity of the context in which those features are naturally embedded. They also criticized his over-reliance of overly simplistic metaphors, such as his mousetrap. In addition, research published in the peer-reviewed journal Nature has shown that computer simulations of evolution demonstrate that it is possible for irreducible complexity to evolve naturally. It is illustrative to compare a mousetrap with a cat, in this context. Both normally function so as to control the mouse population. The cat has many parts that can be removed leaving it still functional; for example, its tail can be bobbed, or it can lose an ear in a fight. Comparing the cat and the mousetrap, then, one sees that the mousetrap (which is not alive) offers better evidence, in terms of irreducible complexity, for intelligent design than the cat. Even looking at the mousetrap analogy, several critics have described ways in which the parts of the mousetrap could have independent uses or could develop in stages, demonstrating that it is not irreducibly complex. Moreover, even cases where removing a certain component in an organic system will cause the system to fail do not demonstrate that the system couldn't have been formed in a step-by-step, evolutionary process. By analogy, stone arches are irreducibly complex—if you remove any stone the arch will collapse—yet we build them easily enough, one stone at a time, by building over centering that is removed afterward. Similarly, naturally occurring arches of stone are formed by weathering away bits of stone from a large concretion that has formed previously. Evolution can act to simplify as well as to complicate. This raises the possibility that seemingly irreducibly complex biological features may have been achieved with a period of increasing complexity, followed by a period of simplification. In April 2006 a team led by Joe Thornton, assistant professor of biology at the University of Oregon's Center for Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, using techniques for resurrecting ancient genes, scientists for the first time reconstructed the evolution of an apparently irreducibly complex molecular system. The research was published in the April 7 issue of Science. Press release University of Oregon, April 4, 2006. It may be that irreducible complexity does not actually exist in nature, and that the examples given by Behe and others are not in fact irreducibly complex, but can be explained in terms of simpler precursors. There has also been a theory that challenges irreducible complexity called facilitated variation. The theory has been presented in 2005 by Marc W. Kirschner, a professor and chair of Department of Systems Biology at Harvard Medical School, and John C. Gerhart, a professor in Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley. In their theory, they describe how certain mutation and changes can cause apparent irreducible complexity. Thus, seemingly irreducibly complex structures are merely "very complex", or they are simply misunderstood or misrepresented. Gradual adaptation to new functions The precursors of complex systems, when they are not useful in themselves, may be useful to perform other, unrelated functions. Evolutionary biologists argue that evolution often works in this kind of blind, haphazard manner in which the function of an early form is not necessarily the same as the function of the later form. The term used for this process is "exaptation". The mammalian middle ear (derived from a jawbone) and the panda's thumb (derived from a wrist bone spur) are considered classic examples. A 2006 article in Nature demonstrates intermediate states leading toward the development of the ear in a Devonian fish (about 360 million years ago). Furthermore, recent research shows that viruses play a heretofore unexpectedly great role in evolution by mixing and matching genes from various hosts. Arguments for irreducibility often assume that things started out the same way they ended up—as we see them now. However, that may not necessarily be the case. In the Dover trial an expert witness for the plaintiffs, Ken Miller, demonstrated this possibility using Behe's mousetrap analogy. By removing several parts, Miller made the object unusable as a mousetrap, but he pointed out that it was now a perfectly functional, if unstylish, tie clip. Falsifiability and experimental evidence Some critics, such as Jerry Coyne (professor of evolutionary biology at the University of Chicago) and Eugenie Scott (a physical anthropologist and executive director of the National Center for Science Education) have argued that the concept of irreducible complexity, and more generally, the theory of intelligent design is not falsifiable, and therefore, not scientific. Behe argues that the theory that irreducibly complex systems could not have been evolved can be falsified by an experiment where such systems are evolved. For example, he posits taking bacteria with no flagellum and imposing a selective pressure for mobility. If, after a few thousand generations, the bacteria evolved the bacterial flagellum, then Behe believes that this would refute his theory. Other critics take a different approach, pointing to experimental evidence that they believe falsifies the argument for Intelligent Design from irreducible complexity. For example, Kenneth Miller cites the lab work of Barry G. Hall on E. coli, which he asserts is evidence that "Behe is wrong." Other evidence that irreducible complexity is not a problem for evolution comes from the field of computer science, where computer analogues of the processes of evolution are routinely used to automatically design complex solutions to problems. The results of such Genetic Algorithms are frequently irreducibly complex since the process, like evolution, both removes non-essential components over time as well as adding new components. The removal of unused components with no essential function, like the natural process where rock underneath a natural arch is removed, can produce irreducibly complex structures without requiring the intervention of a designer. Researchers applying these algorithms are automatically producing human competitive designs—but no human designer is required. 36 Human-Competitive Results Produced by Genetic Programming Argument from ignorance Intelligent design proponents attribute to an intelligent designer those biological structures they believe are irreducibly complex and where a natural explanation is absent or insufficient to account for them. Michael Behe. Evidence for Intelligent Design from Biochemistry. 1996. However, critics view irreducible complexity as a special case of the "complexity indicates design" claim, and thus see it as an argument from ignorance and God of the gaps argument. Index to Creationist Claims. Mark Isaak. The Talk.Origins Archive. "Irreducible complexity and complex specified information are special cases of the "complexity indicates design" claim; they are also arguments from incredulity." "The argument from incredulity creates a god of the gaps." Eugenie Scott, along with Glenn Branch and other critics, has argued that many points raised by intelligent design proponents are arguments from ignorance. Eugenie C. Scott and Glenn Branch, "Intelligent Design" Not Accepted by Most Scientists, National Center for Science Education website, September 10, 2002. Behe has been accused of using an "argument by lack of imagination", and Behe himself acknowledges that a failure of current science to explain how an "irreducibly complex" organism did or could evolve does not automatically prove the impossibility of such an evolution. Irreducible complexity is at its core an argument against evolution. If truly irreducible systems are found, the argument goes, then intelligent design must be the correct explanation for their existence. However, this conclusion is based on the assumption that current evolutionary theory and intelligent design are the only two valid models to explain life, a false dilemma. IC and Evolution makes the point that: if "irreducible complexity" is tautologically redefined to allow a valid argument that intelligent design is the correct explanation for life then there is no such thing as "irreducible complexity" in the mechanisms of life; while, if we use the unmodified original definition then "irreducible complexity" has nothing whatever to do with evolution. The Court in Dover noted that this implicit assumption of the defendant school board created a "flawed and illogical contrived dualism" (Opinion p. 64). Irreducible complexity in the Dover trial While testifying at the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial Behe conceded that there are no peer-reviewed papers supporting his claims that complex molecular systems, like the bacterial flagellum, the blood-clotting cascade, and the immune system, were intelligently designed nor are there any peer-reviewed articles supporting his argument that certain complex molecular structures are "irreducibly complex." In the final ruling of Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, Judge Jones specifically singled out Behe and irreducible complexity: Memorandum Opinion, Judge John E. Jones III, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District "Professor Behe admitted in "Reply to My Critics" that there was a defect in his view of irreducible complexity because, while it purports to be a challenge to natural selection, it does not actually address "the task facing natural selection." and that "Professor Behe wrote that he hoped to "repair this defect in future work..." (Page 73) "As expert testimony revealed, the qualification on what is meant by "irreducible complexity" renders it meaningless as a criticism of evolution. (3:40 (Miller)). In fact, the theory of evolution proffers exaptation as a well-recognized, well-documented explanation for how systems with multiple parts could have evolved through natural means." (Page 74) "By defining irreducible complexity in the way that he has, Professor Behe attempts to exclude the phenomenon of exaptation by definitional fiat, ignoring as he does so abundant evidence which refutes his argument. Notably, the NAS has rejected Professor Behe’s claim for irreducible complexity..." (Page 75) "As irreducible complexity is only a negative argument against evolution, it is refutable and accordingly testable, unlike ID [Intelligent Design], by showing that there are intermediate structures with selectable functions that could have evolved into the allegedly irreducibly complex systems. (2:15-16 (Miller)). Importantly, however, the fact that the negative argument of irreducible complexity is testable does not make testable the argument for ID. (2:15 (Miller); 5:39 (Pennock)). Professor Behe has applied the concept of irreducible complexity to only a few select systems: (1) the bacterial flagellum; (2) the blood-clotting cascade; and (3) the immune system. Contrary to Professor Behe’s assertions with respect to these few biochemical systems among the myriad existing in nature, however, Dr. Miller presented evidence, based upon peer-reviewed studies, that they are not in fact irreducibly complex." (Page 76) "...on cross-examination, Professor Behe was questioned concerning his 1996 claim that science would never find an evolutionary explanation for the immune system. He was presented with fifty-eight peer-reviewed publications, nine books, and several immunology textbook chapters about the evolution of the immune system; however, he simply insisted that this was still not sufficient evidence of evolution, and that it was not "good enough." (23:19 (Behe))." (Page 78) "We therefore find that Professor Behe’s claim for irreducible complexity has been refuted in peer-reviewed research papers and has been rejected by the scientific community at large. (17:45-46 (Padian); 3:99 (Miller)). Additionally, even if irreducible complexity had not been rejected, it still does not support ID as it is merely a test for evolution, not design. (2:15, 2:35-40 (Miller); 28:63-66 (Fuller)). We will now consider the purportedly “positive argument” for design encompassed in the phrase used numerous times by Professors Behe and Minnich throughout their expert testimony, which is the “purposeful arrangement of parts.” Professor Behe summarized the argument as follows: We infer design when we see parts that appear to be arranged for a purpose. The strength of the inference is quantitative; the more parts that are arranged, the more intricately they interact, the stronger is our confidence in design. The appearance of design in aspects of biology is overwhelming. Since nothing other than an intelligent cause has been demonstrated to be able to yield such a strong appearance of design, Darwinian claims notwithstanding, the conclusion that the design seen in life is real design is rationally justified. (18:90-91, 18:109-10 (Behe); 37:50 (Minnich)). As previously indicated, this argument is merely a restatement of the Reverend William Paley’s argument applied at the cell level. Minnich, Behe, and Paley reach the same conclusion, that complex organisms must have been designed using the same reasoning, except that Professors Behe and Minnich refuse to identify the designer, whereas Paley inferred from the presence of design that it was God. (1:6- 7 (Miller); 38:44, 57 (Minnich)). Expert testimony revealed that this inductive argument is not scientific and as admitted by Professor Behe, can never be ruled out. (2:40 (Miller); 22:101 (Behe); 3:99 (Miller))." (Pages 79–80) Notes and references Additional references Behe, Michael (1996). Darwin's Black Box. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-83493-6 Sunderland, Luther D. (March 1976). Miraculous Design in Woodpeckers. Creation Research Society Quarterly. Testing Darwin Discover Magazine Vol. 26 No. 02 | February 2005 External links Supportive Michael J. Behe home page About Irreducible Complexity Discovery Institute How to Explain Irreducible Complexity -- A Lab Manual Discovery Institute Institute for Creation Research (pdf) Irreducible Complexity Revisited (pdf) Behe's Reply to his Critics (pdf) Response to Avida computer simulations Critical Behe, Biochemistry, and the Invisible Hand Facilitated Variation Darwin vs. Intelligent Design (again), by H. Allen Orr (review of Darwin's Black Box) Talk.origins archive (see talk.origins) Irreducible Complexity and Michael Behe: Do Biochemical Machines Show Intelligent Design? Darwin's Black Box: Irreducible Complexity or Irreproducible Irreducibility? by Keith Robinson Is the Complement System Irreducibly Complex? by Mike Coon Genetic Algorithms (Genetic algorithms have produced irreducibly complex solutions to real problems.) Discussion of the Bombardier Beetle at Talk.origins TalkDesign.org (sister site to talk.origins archive on intelligent design) Irreducible complexity demystified by Pete Dunkelberg. Professor Kenneth R. Miller's textbook website A Darwinian explanation of the blood clotting cascade "The Flagellum Unspun: The Collapse of "Irreducible Complexity" by Professor Miller A rigorous mathematical analysis of the concept of irreducible complexity by Mishkin Berteig. PDF. 139 page in-depth analysis of Intelligent Design, Irreducible Complexity, and the book "Of Pandas and People" by a judge and based on expert testimony Devolution: Why intelligent design isn't (The New Yorker) Unlocking cell secrets bolsters evolutionists (Chicago Tribune) Does irreducible complexity imply Intelligent Design? by Mark Perakh Evolution of the Eye (Video) Zoologist Dan-Erik Nilsson demonstrates eye evolution through intermediate stages with working model. (PBS) Himma, Kenneth Einar. Design Arguments for the Existence of God. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 2. Contemporary Versions of the Design Argument, a. 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7,526 | Bodhidharma | Bodhidharma, woodblock print by Yoshitoshi, 1887.Names (details)Known in English as:BodhidharmaSanskrit:बोधिधर्मSimplified Chinese:菩提达摩Traditional Chinese:菩提達摩Chinese abbreviation:達摩Hanyu Pinyin:PútídámóWade-Giles:P'u-t'i-ta-moJapanese:達磨 DarumaKorean:달마 DalmaVietnamese:Bồ-đề-đạt-maThai:ตั๊กม๊อ TakmorMalay:DharumaTibetan: बोधिधर्मोत्तर BodhidharmottāraBodhidharma (c. early 5th century CE) was the Buddhist monk traditionally credited as the transmitter of Zen to China. Very little contemporary biographical information on Bodhidharma is extant, and subsequent accounts became layered with legend, but most accounts agree that he was South Indian Tamilian and was a Pallava prince from the kingdom of Kanchipuram, the third son of King Sugandha. Bodhidharma left the kindgom after becoming a Buddhist monk and travelled to Southern China and subsequently relocated northwards. The accounts differ on the date of his arrival, with one early account claiming that he arrived during the Liú Sòng Dynasty (420–479) and later accounts dating his arrival to the Liáng Dynasty (502–557). Bodhidharma was primarily active in the lands of the Northern Wèi Dynasty (386–534). Modern scholarship dates him to about the early 5th century. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume One), pages 57, 130 Biography Contemporary accounts There are two known extant accounts written by contemporaries of Bodhidharma. Yáng Xuànzhī A Dehua ware porcelain statuette of Bodhidharma, from the late Ming Dynasty, 17th century The Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang (洛陽伽藍記 Luòyáng Qiélánjì), was compiled in 547 by his wife a writer and translator of Mahāyāna Buddhist texts into the Chinese language.At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, a Persian Central Asian. He traveled from the wild borderlands to China. Seeing the golden disks [on the pole on top of Yung-ning's stupa] reflecting in the sun, the rays of light illuminating the surface of the clouds, the jewel-bells on the stupa blowing in the wind, the echoes reverberating beyond the heavens, he sang its praises. He exclaimed: "Truly this is the work of spirits." He said: "I am 150 years old, and I have passed through numerous countries. There is virtually no country I have not visited. Even the distant Buddha realms lack this." He chanted homage and placed his palms together in salutation for days on end. dates Bodhidharma's presence in Luoyang to between 516 and 526, when the temple referred to—Yǒngníngsì (永寧寺)—was at the height of its glory. Starting in 526, Yǒngníngsì suffered damage from a series of events, ultimately leading to its destruction in 534. Tánlín The second account was written by Tánlín (曇林; 506–574). Tánlín's brief biography of the "Dharma Master" is found in his preface to the Two Entrances and Four Acts, a text traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma, and the first text to identify Bodhidharma as South Indian:The Dharma Master was a South Indian of the Western Region. He was the third son of a great Indian king of the Pallava dynasty. His ambition lay in the Mahayana path, and so he put aside his white layman's robe for the black robe of a monk [...] Lamenting the decline of the true teaching in the outlands, he subsequently crossed distant mountains and seas, traveling about propagating the teaching in Han and Wei. Tánlín's account was the first to mention that Bodhidharma attracted disciples, specifically mentioning Dàoyù (道育) and Huìkě, the latter of whom would later figure very prominently in the Bodhidharma literature. Tánlín has traditionally been considered a disciple of Bodhidharma, but it is more likely that he was a student of Huìkě, who in turn was a student of Bodhidharma. Later accounts Dàoxuān In the 7th-century historical work Further Biographies of Eminent Monks (續高僧傳 Xù gāosēng zhuàn), Dàoxuān (道宣; 596-667) possibly drew on Tanlin's preface as a basic source, but made several significant additions:This Japanese scroll calligraphy of Bodhidharma reads “Chán points directly to the human heart, see into your nature and become Buddha”. It was created by Hakuin Ekaku (1685 to 1768)Firstly, Dàoxuān adds more detail concerning Bodhidharma's origins, writing that he was of "South Indian Brahman stock" (南天竺婆羅門種 nán tiānzhú póluómén zhŏng). Secondly, more detail is provided concerning Bodhidharma's journeys. Tanlin's original is imprecise about Bodhidharma's travels, saying only that he "crossed distant mountains and seas" before arriving in Wei. Dàoxuān's account, however, implies "a specific itinerary": "He first arrived at Nan-yüeh during the Sung period. From there he turned north and came to the Kingdom of Wei". This implies that Bodhidharma had travelled to China by sea, and that he had crossed over the Yangtze River. Thirdly, Dàoxuān suggests a date for the Bodhidharma's arrival in China. He writes that Bodhidharma makes landfall in the time of the Song, thus making his arrival no later than the time of the Song's fall to the Southern Qi Dynasty in 479. Finally, Dàoxuān provides information concerning Bodhidharma's death. Bodhidharma, he writes, died at the banks of the Luo River, where he was interred by his disciple Huike, possibly in a cave. According to Dàoxuān's chronology, Bodhidharma's death must have occurred prior to 534, the date of the Northern Wei Dynasty's fall, because Huike subsequently leaves Luoyang for Ye. Furthermore, citing the shore of the Luo River as the place of death might possibly suggest that Bodhidharma died in the mass executions at Heyin in 528. Supporting this possibility is a report in the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō stating that a Buddhist monk was among the victims at Heyin. Epitaph for Fărú The idea of a patriarchal lineage in Chán dates back to the epitaph for Fărú (法如 638–689), a disciple of the 5th patriarch Hóngrĕn (弘忍 601–674), which gives a line of descent identifying Bodhidharma as the first patriarch. Yǒngjiā Xuánjué According to the Song of Enlightenment (證道歌 Zhèngdào gē) by Yǒngjiā Xuánjué (665-713) . —one of the chief disciples of Huìnéng, sixth Patriarch of Chán—Bodhidharma was the 28th Patriarch of Buddhism in a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha via his disciple Mahākāśyapa, and the first Patriarch of Chán:Mahakashyapa was the first, leading the line of transmission;Twenty-eight Fathers followed him in the West;The Lamp was then brought over the sea to this country;And Bodhidharma became the First Father hereHis mantle, as we all know, passed over six Fathers,And by them many minds came to see the Light. The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha is the basis for the distinctive lineage tradition of the Chán school. Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall In the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (祖堂集 Zǔtángjí) of 952, the elements of the traditional Bodhidharma story are in place. Bodhidharma is said to have been a disciple of Prajñātāra, thus establishing the latter as the 27th patriarch in India. After a three-year journey, Bodhidharma reaches China in 527 during the Liang Dynasty (as opposed to the Song period of the 5th century, as in Dàoxuān). The Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall includes Bodhidharma's encounter with Emperor Wu, which was first recorded around 758 in the appendix to a text by Shen-hui (神會), a disciple of Huineng. . Finally, as opposed to Daoxuan's figure of "over 150 years," the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall states that Bodhidharma died at the age of 150. He was then buried on Mount Xiong'er (熊耳山 Xióng'ĕr Shān) to the west of Luoyang. However, three years after the burial, in the Pamir Mountains, Sòngyún (宋雲)—an official of one of the later Wei kingdoms—encountered Bodhidharma, who claimed to be returning to India and was carrying a single sandal. Bodhidharma predicted the death of Songyun's ruler, a prediction which was borne out upon the latter's return. Bodhidharma's tomb was then opened, and only a single sandal was found inside. Insofar as, according to the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall, Bodhidharma left the Liang court in 527 and relocated to Mount Song near Luoyang and the Shaolin Monastery, where he "faced a wall for nine years, not speaking for the entire time", his date of death can have been no earlier than 536. Moreover, his encounter with the Wei official indicates a date of death no later than 554, three years before the fall of the last Wei kingdom. Dàoyuán Subsequent to the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall, the only dated addition to the biography of Bodhidharma is in the Jingde Records of the Transmission of the Lamp (景德傳燈錄 Jĭngdé chuándēng lù, published 1004 CE), by Dàoyuán (道原), in which it is stated that Bodhidharma's original name had been Bodhitāra but was changed by his master Prajñātāra. After death Soon after his death, someone supposedly witnessed Bodhidharma walking back towards India barefoot and with a single shoe in hand. His grave was later exhumed, and according to legend, the only thing found in it was the shoe he left behind.For nine years he had remained and nobody knew him;Carrying a shoe in hand he went home quietly, without ceremony. Modern scholarship Bodhidharma's origins Though Dàoxuān wrote that Bodhidharma was "of South Indian Tamilian stock," notes that Bodhidharma's royal pedigree implies that he was of the Kshatriya warrior caste. argued that the Pallava dynasty was Tamilian dynasty, and proposed that Bodhidharma was born a prince of the Pallava dynasty in their capital of Kanchipuram. Yáng Xuànzhī's eyewitness account identifies Bodhidharma as a Persian (波斯國胡人 bō-sī guó hú rén) from Central Asia (西域 xī yù), and notes that an Iranian Buddhist monk making his way to North China via the Silk Road is more likely than that of a South Indian master making his way by sea. : "There is, however, nothing implausible about an early sixth-century Iranian Buddhist master who made his way to North China via the fabled Silk Road. This scenario is, in fact, more likely than a South Indian master who made his way by the sea route." also states that the language Yang uses in his description of Bodhidharma is specifically associated with "Central Asia and particularly to peoples of Iranian extraction" and that of "an Iranian speaker who hailed from somewhere in Central Asia". However, notes that Yáng may have actually been referring to another monk named Boddhidharma, not related to the historical founder of Chan Buddhism. : Bodhidharma's name notes that "Bodhidharma’s name appears sometimes truncated as Bodhi, or more often as Dharma (Ta-mo). In the first case, it may be confused with another of his rivals, Bodhiruci." He got the name Bodhidharma by his Indian teacher Prajnatara. Tibetan sources give his name as "Bodhidharmottāra" or "Dharmottara", that is, "Highest teaching (dharma) of enlightenment". Tibetan Buddhism. By Steven D. Goodman, Ronald M. Davidson. SUNY Press, 1992. p. 65 Practice and teaching Meditation Tanlin, in the preface to Two Entrances and Four Acts, and Daoxuan, in the Further Biographies of Eminent Monks, mention a practice of Bodhidharma's termed "wall-gazing" (壁觀 bìguān). Both Tanlin translates 壁觀 as "wall-examining". and Daoxuan Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō, Vol. 50, No. 2060, p. 551c 06(02) associate this "wall-gazing" with "quieting [the] mind" (安心 ān xīn). Elsewhere, Daoxuan also states: "The merits of Mahāyāna wall-gazing are the highest". These are the first mentions in the historical record of what may be a type of meditation being ascribed to Bodhidharma. Bodhidharma seated in meditation before a wall; ink painting by Sesshū In the Two Entrances and Four Acts, traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma, the term "wall-gazing" also appears:Those who turn from delusion back to reality, who meditate on walls, the absence of self and other, the oneness of mortal and sage, and who remain unmoved even by scriptures are in complete and unspoken agreement with reason. , emphasis added. offers a more literal rendering of the key phrase 凝住壁觀 (níngzhù bìguān) as "[who] in a coagulated state abides in wall-examining". Exactly what sort of practice Bodhidharma's "wall-gazing" was remains uncertain. Nearly all accounts have treated it either as an undefined variety of meditation, as Daoxuan and Dumoulin, or as a variety of seated meditation akin to the zazen (坐禪; Chinese: zuòchán) that later became a defining characteristic of Chán; the latter interpretation is particularly common among those working from a Chán standpoint. e.g., Keizan, Denkoroku;Child, Simon, "In the Spirit of Chan". There have also, however, been interpretations of "wall-gazing" as a non-meditative phenomenon. viz. , where a Tibetan Buddhist interpretation of "wall-gazing" as being akin to Dzogchen is offered. The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, one of the Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtras, is a highly "difficult and obscure" text whose basic thrust is to emphasize "the inner enlightenment that does away with all duality and is raised above all distinctions". It is among the first and most important texts in the Yogācāra, or "Consciousness-only", school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. One of the recurrent emphases in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra is a lack of reliance on words to effectively express reality:If, Mahamati, you say that because of the reality of words the objects are, this talk lacks in sense. Words are not known in all the Buddha-lands; words, Mahamati, are an artificial creation. In some Buddha-lands ideas are indicated by looking steadily, in others by gestures, in still others by a frown, by the movement of the eyes, by laughing, by yawning, or by the clearing of the throat, or by recollection, or by trembling. In contrast to the ineffectiveness of words, the sūtra instead stresses the importance of the "self-realization" that is "attained by noble wisdom" and occurs "when one has an insight into reality as it is": "The truth is the state of self-realization and is beyond categories of discrimination". The sūtra goes on to outline the ultimate effects of an experience of self-realization:[The Bodhisattva] will become thoroughly conversant with the noble truth of self-realization, will become a perfect master of his own mind, will conduct himself without effort, will be like a gem reflecting a variety of colours, will be able to assume the body of transformation, will be able to enter into the subtle minds of all beings, and, because of his firm belief in the truth of Mind-only, will, by gradually ascending the stages, become established in Buddhahood. One of the fundamental Chán texts attributed to Bodhidharma is a four-line stanza whose first two verses echo the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'''s disdain for words and whose second two verses stress the importance of the insight into reality achieved through "self-realization":A special transmission outside the scriptures,Not founded upon words and letters;By pointing directly to [one's] mindIt lets one see into [one's own true] nature and [thus] attain Buddhahood. The stanza, in fact, is not Bodhidharma's, but rather dates to the year 1108. Nonetheless, there are earlier texts which explicitly associate Bodhidharma with the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra. Daoxuan, for example, in a late recension of his biography of Bodhidharma's successor Huike, has the sūtra as a basic and important element of the teachings passed down by Bodhidharma:In the beginning Dhyana Master Bodhidharma took the four-roll Laṅkā Sūtra, handed it over to Huike, and said: "When I examine the land of China, it is clear that there is only this sutra. If you rely on it to practice, you will be able to cross over the world." Another early text, the Record of the Masters and Disciples of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra (楞伽師資記 Léngqié shīzī jì) of Jìngjué (淨覺; 683–750), also mentions Bodhidharma in relation to this text. Jingjue's account also makes explicit mention of "sitting meditation", or zazen: Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō, Vol. 85, No. 2837, p. 1285b 17(05) For all those who sat in meditation, Master Bodhi[dharma] also offered expositions of the main portions of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, which are collected in a volume of twelve or thirteen pages, The "volume" referred to is the Two Entrances and Four Acts. [...] bearing the title of Teaching of [Bodhi-]Dharma. In other early texts, the school that would later become known as Chán is sometimes referred to as the "Laṅkāvatāra school" (楞伽宗 Léngqié zōng). Portrayals of Bodhidharma Throughout Buddhist art, Bodhidharma is depicted as a rather ill-tempered, profusely bearded and wide-eyed barbarian. He is described as "The Blue-Eyed Barbarian" 藍眼睛的野人 (lán yǎnjīngde yěrén) in Chinese texts. Soothill and Hodous The Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952) identifies Bodhidharma as the 28th Patriarch of Buddhism in an uninterrupted line that extends all the way back to the Buddha himself. D.T. Suzuki contends that Chán's growth in popularity during the 7th and 8th centuries attracted criticism that it had "no authorized records of its direct transmission from the founder of Buddhism" and that Chán historians made Bodhidharma the 28th patriarch of Buddhism in response to such attacks. Legends Bodhidharma and martial arts The Yi Jin Jing credits Shaolin Kung Fu to Bodhidharma, which would make him an important influence on Asian martial arts in general. Bodhidharma is remembered in the Kerala Region of Southern India (the Homeland of Kalari) as both a lineage Kalari Master and as the Father of Han-Chinese Shaolin Kung Fu By Steve Richards http://www.lionsroar.name/indian_kalari_martial_arts.htm . However, both the attribution of Shaolin Kung Fu to Bodhidharma and the authenticity of the Yi Jin Jing itself have been discredited by historians including Tang Hao, Xu Zhen and Matsuda Ryuchi. This argument is summarized by modern historian Lin Boyuan in his Zhongguo wushu shi as follows: The oldest available copy was published in 1827 and the composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624. Even then, the association of Bodhidharma with martial arts only becomes widespread as a result of the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine. . Huiguang and Sengchou were expert in the martial arts before they became two of the very first Shaolin monks—years before the arrival of Bodhidharma. The Taishō Tripiṭaka documents Sengchou's skill with the tin staff. Bodhidharma is associated with the idea that spiritual, intellectual and physical excellence are an indivisible whole necessary for enlightenment. Such an approach to enlightenment ultimately proved highly attractive to the Samurai class in Japan, who made Zen their way of life, following their encounter with the martial-arts-oriented Chán Lingji School introduced to Japan by Eisai in the 12th century. Yet in some versions of his legend, Bodhidharma's focus was so single-minded during his nine years of meditation that his legs atrophied. In Southeast Asia In the Malay Peninsula, Bodhidharma was believed to have been a Buddhist monk from South India who came to Palembang by boat. He spent a significant amount of time there before journeying north into Malaysia and Siam. He travelled throughout the Indo-Chinese region bringing his knowledge of both Buddhism and martial arts before eventually reaching China. Encounter with Emperor Liang According to the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall, in 527 during the Liang Dynasty, Bodhidharma, the first Patriarch of Chán, visited the Emperor Wu, a fervent patron of Buddhism. The emperor asked Bodhidharma, "What is the highest meaning of noble truth?" Bodhidharma answered, "There is no noble truth." The emperor then asked Bodhidharma, "Who is standing before me?" Bodhidharma answered, "I don't know." The emperor then asked Bodhidharma, "How much karmic merit have I earned by ordaining Buddhist monks, building monasteries, having sutras copied, and commissioning Buddha images?" Bodhidharma answered, "None." From then on, the emperor refused to listen to whatever Bodhidharma had to say. Although Bodhidharma came from India to China to become the first patriarch of China, the emperor refused to recognize him. Bodhidharma knew that he would face difficulty in the near future, but had the emperor been able to leave the throne and yield it to someone else, he could have avoided his fate of starving to death. According to the teaching, Emperor Wu's past life was as a bhikshu. While he cultivated in the mountains, a monkey would always steal and eat the things he planted for food, as well as the fruit in the trees. One day, he was able to trap the monkey in a cave and blocked the entrance of the cave with rocks, hoping to teach the monkey a lesson. However, after two days, the bhikshu found that the monkey had died of starvation. Supposedly, that monkey was reincarnated into Hou Jing of the Northern Wei Dynasty, who led his soldiers to attack Nanjing. After Nanjing was taken, the emperor was held in captivity in the palace and was not provided with any food, and was left to starve to death. Though Bodhidharma wanted to save him and brought forth a compassionate mind toward him, the emperor failed to recognize him, so there was nothing Bodhidharma could do. Thus, Bodhidharma had no choice but to leave Emperor Wu to die and went into meditation in a cave for nine years. This encounter would later form the basis of the first kōan of the collection The Blue Cliff Record. However that version of the story is somewhat different. In the Blue Cliff's telling of the story, there is no claim that Emperor Wu did not listen to Bodhidharma after the Emperor was unable to grasp the meaning. Instead, Bodhidharma left the presence of the Emperor once Bodhidharma saw that the Emperor was unable to understand. Then Bodhidharma went across the river to the kingdom of Wei. After Bodhidharma left, the Emperor asked the official in charge of the Imperial Annals about the encounter. The Official of the Annals then asked the Emperor if he still denied knowing who Bodhidharma was? When the Emperor said he didn't know, the Official said, "This was the Great-being Guanyin (i.e., the Mahasattva Avalokiteśvara) transmitting the imprint of the Buddha's Heart-Mind." The Emperor regretted his having let Bodhidharma leave and was going to dispatch a messenger to go and beg Bodhidharma to return. The Official then said, "Your Highness, do not say to send out a messenger to go fetch him. The people of the entire nation could go, and he still would not return." Nine years of gazing at a wall Failing to make a favorable impression in Southern China, Bodhidharma is said to have retreated to the northern Chinese kingdom of Wei to a cave near the Shaolin Monastery where he "faced a wall for nine years, not speaking for the entire time". In one version of the story, he is said to have fallen asleep seven years into his nine years of wall-gazing. Becoming angry with himself, he cut off his eyelids to prevent it from happening again. According to the legend, as his eyelids hit the floor the first tea plants sprang up; and thereafter tea would provide a stimulant to help keep students of Chán awake during meditation. In another version of the story, after the nine years, Bodhidharma "passed away, seated upright". In another, Bodhidharma disappeared, leaving behind the Yi Jin Jing. In yet another version of the legend, Bodhidharma's legs atrophied after nine years of sitting, which is why Japanese Bodhidharma dolls have no legs. Teaching In one legend, Bodhidharma refused to resume teaching until his would-be student, Hui-k'o, who had kept vigil for weeks in the deep snow outside of the monastery, cut off his own right arm to demonstrate sincerity. Dàoxuān records that Huìkě's arm was cut off by bandits . The lineage from Shakyamuni Buddha to Bodhidharma Shakyamuni Buddha 1.Mahakasyapa 2.Ananda 3.Sanavasa 4.Upagupta 5.Dhritaka 6.Michaka 7.Vasumitra 8.Buddhanandi 9.Buddhamitra 10.Parhsva 11.Punyayasas 12.Asvaghosa 13.Kapimala 14.Nagarjuna 15.Kanadeva 16.Rahulata 17.Sanghanandi 18.Sanghayasas 19.Kumarata 20.Jayata 21.Vasubandhu 22.Manura (Manorhita/Manorhata) 23.Haklenayasas 24.Aryasimha 25.Vasiasta(Vasi-Asita) 26.Punyamitra 27.Prajnatara 28.Bodhidharma Diener, Michael S. and friends.THE SHAMBHALA DICTIONARY OF BUDDHISM AND ZEN. 1991. Boston: Shambhala.page 266 The lineage of Bodhidharma and his disciples In the Two Entrances and Four Acts and the Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks, Daoyu and Huike are the only explicitly identified disciples of Bodhidharma. The Jingde Records of the Transmission of the Lamp gives Bodhidharma four disciples who, in increasing order of understanding, are Daofu, who attains Bodhidharma's skin; the nun Dharani, In the Jingde Records of the Transmission of the Lamp, Dharani repeats the words said by the nun Yuanji in the Two Entrances and Four Acts, possibly identifying the two with each other . who attains Bodhidharma's flesh; Daoyu, who attains Bodhidharma's bone; and Huike, who attains Bodhidharma's marrow. Heng-Ching Shih see: Advisors - Ven. Bhiksuni Heng-ching Shih, Professor of Philosophy at Taiwan National University (Gelongma ordination 1975 in San Francisco). states that according to the Ching-te chuan-teng lu the first `bhiksuni` mentioned in the Ch'an literature was a disciple of the First Patriarch of Chinese Ch'an Bodhidharma, known as Tsung-chih [early-mid 500s]; Bodhidharma before returning to India after many years of teaching in China asked his disciples Tao-fu, Bhikshuni Tsung-chih, Tao-yu and Hui-k'o to relate their realization of the Dharma. WOMEN IN ZEN BUDDHISM: Chinese Bhiksunis in the Ch'an Tradition by Heng-Ching Shih . TSUNG-CH'IH is also known as Zongchi, by her title Soji, and by Myoren, her nun name. In the Shobogenzo chapter called Katto ("Twining Vines") by Dogen Zenji (1200-1253), she is named as one of Bodhidharma's four Dharma heirs. Although the First Patriarch's line continued through another of the four, Dogen emphasizes that each of them had a complete understanding of the teaching. some information . Bodhidharma Daoyu Yuan (Yuan-chi?) Tao-chih Huike Tanlin (506–574) Sengcan (d.606) Daoxin(580 - 651) Hongren(601 - 674) Huineng (638-713) Xuanjue (665-713) Layman Hsiang Hua-kung Yen-kung Dhyana Master Na Dhyana Master Ho Hsuan-ching Ching-ai T'an-yen Tao-an Tao-p'an Chih-tsang Seng-chao P'u-an Ching-yuan (1067-1120) Zen Teachings of Fo-yen Ching-yuan Works attributed to Bodhidharma The Outline of Practice or Two Entrances The Bloodstream Sutra The Breakthrough Sutra The Wake-Up Sutra See also Buddhism in China List of Buddhist topics Notes References . . Ferguson, Andrew. Zen's Chinese Heritage: The Masters and their Teachings. Somerville: Wisdom Publications, 2000. ISBN 0-86171-163-7. . . Soothill, William Edward and Hodous, Lewis. A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 1995. . . . Watts, Alan. The Way of Zen. New York: Vintage Books, 1985. ISBN 0-375-70510-4 . Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations''. ISBN 0-415-02537-0. . External links Essence of Mahayana Practice By Bodhidharma, with annotations. Also known as "The Outline of Practice." 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7,527 | Effects_unit | Effects units are devices that affect the sound of an electric instrument or other audio source (such as recorded material) when plugged in to the electrical signal path the instrument or source sends, most often an electric guitar or bass guitar. They can also be used on other instruments or sound sources, like the Rhodes piano, synths or even the human voice. While some effect units transform the sound completely, others just color the sound picture in a minor way. An effects unit consists of one or more electronic devices which typically contain analog circuitry for processing audio signals, similar to that found in music synthesizers, for example active and passive filters, envelope followers, voltage-controlled oscillators, or digital delays. Effects units are packaged by their manufacturers, and used by musicians, in various sizes, the most common of which are the stomp-box and the rack-mount unit. A "Stomp box" is a metal box, containing the circuitry, which is placed on the floor in front of the musician and connected in line with, say, the guitar cord. The box is typically controlled by one or more foot-pedal on-off switches and typically contains only one or two effects. A second type of effects unit may contain the identical electronic circuit, but is mounted in a standard 19" equipment rack. Usually, however, rack-mount effects units contain several different types of effects. They are typically controlled by knobs or switches on the front panel, and often by a MIDI digital control interface. "Off-boards" are used by musicians who prefer multiple stomp-boxes; these may be simply pieces of plywood with several stomp-box units fastened to the plywood and connected in series. Rackmounted effects or off-boards can combine several effects in one unit, and can include analog controls such as pedals or knobs. Modern desktop and notebook computers often have sound processing capabilities that rival commercially available effects boxes. Some can process sound through VST or similar plugins, such as RTAS or Direct X. With a decent sound card, musicians can play any instrument through a computer, emulating any effects unit or even an amplifier in a convincing way. Many VST-plugins are freely downloadable. Types of effects Dynamics De-esser The gain of the signal is reduced when it contains heavy emphasis of high frequencies. Compressor The gain of the amplifier is varied to reduce the dynamic range of the signal. Tremolo Tremolo produces a periodic variation in the amplitude (volume) of the note. i.e. A sine wave applied as input to a voltage-controlled amplifier produces this effect. Tone Overdrive and distortion Distortion is when the signal is amplified past the limits of the amplifier, resulting in clipping. (see Fuzzbox) Overdrive is when you amplify the signal from the guitar beyond the limits of the main amplifier. Wah-wah pedal An effect that gives the instrument an almost vocal effect, familiar as the wah-wah pedal. Examples include: "White Room" by Cream, used by Eric Clapton. Also popular in funk and psychedelic rock, i.e. Jimi Hendrix and Pink Floyd. Ring modulation "Organic" effect that takes a "carrier frequency" and your guitar frequency, and outputs the sum and difference of the two pitches. Must be heard to be understood. Equalizer Adjusts the frequency response in a number of different bands of EQ. Variants include the parametric EQ which instead of flatly boosting and cutting frequencies, curves the frequency response to include changes in adjacent frequencies. As well the paragraphic EQ, which combines the visual interface of the graphic EQ with the flexibility of the parametric EQ, giving each band its own adjustable Q. Clean boost or any other "booster" Amplifies some aspect of the instrument's signal output. Generally used for preventing signal loss through long chains of effects units (pedals) and getting overdrive tones out of a tube amp. On stage, used for volume boosts for solos. Talk box A powered speaker that amplifies the guitar's output through a tube which is positioned next to a microphone. The effect is manipulated by vocal technique. Notable uses include Rufus's "Tell Me Something Good", Peter Frampton's "Show Me the Way", Aerosmith's Sweet Emotion and by Slash in many songs and solos. Also used in many Bon Jovi songs. Time-based Delay First used by Les Paul, e.g. I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles. (Modern digital delay units, the first of which was the Eventide Harmonizer, involve sound waves being converted from analog to digital signals, and clocked through large banks of RAM memory. Paul achieved time delay by stretching audiotape between two reel-to-reel tape decks spaced several feet apart.) The Edge of U2 is a notable user of this effect in his music. An obvious example of this is the song "Where the Streets Have No Name". Echo Uses short, effected delays to simulate an echo. Reverb Simulates reverberation in stadiums, halls, other performance areas. Even actual surfaces, such as plate metal and metal springs, are sometimes simulated. Chorus Splits the signal into a vibrato effect and a clean path. The output is the sum of these inputs. Creates a spacey sound, or if used subtly, a double-tracking effect. Flanging Uses very short variable delays to cause a changing comb filter effect. First notable uses were in "Itchycoo Park" by Small Faces, and "Sky Pilot" by The Animals. It is often said that flange sounds like air planes coming in for a landing or the swirling sound of water going down a drain. The flanger was a studio effect at first. Old tape reels have flanges in the reel. The effect was created by poking a drumstick in and out the flange in regular time. This created the sweeping effect. Phase shifting (or phasing) Modulates the phase of the signal. Popular during the 1970s; examples include the guitar from the Three's Company theme, and keyboard part of Paul Simon's "Slip-Slidin' Away". High phasing speeds produce an "underwater" effect, as used by Jimi Hendrix in "1983... (A Merman I Should Turn to Be)". Frequency Pitch shifter Also introduced by the Harmonizer which has a knob on the front to "change your pitch up." A notable example is the Digitech Whammy. Vibrato Vibrato refers to a variation in frequency of a note, for example as an opera singer holding one note for a long time will vary the frequency up and down. A sine wave applied as input to a voltage-controlled oscillator produces this effect.Guitarists often use the terms "vibrato" and "tremolo" inconsistently. A so-called vibrato unit in a guitar amplifier actually produces tremolo, while a tremolo arm on a guitar produces vibrato. However, finger vibrato is genuine vibrato. See Electric guitar, tremolo, vibrato. Other specific effects Defretter It simulates a fretless guitar Acoustic guitar simulator Simulates an acoustic guitar. Rotary speaker A Leslie speaker simulation effect. One particular effect of this type (the Uni-Vibe) was made famous by Jimi Hendrix. Envelope Follower Uses the signal amplitude envelope to control one or more effects. Pickup simulation Simulates either a single-coil pickup if the musician has a humbucker or vice-versa. Ambiance modelling Creates an ambiance through an amalgam of effects. Guitar amplifier modelling Models instrument tone to imitate the tone produced by various amplifiers, especially to attain the valve sound with solid-state equipment. These types of effects are usually digital, and can therefore be found as features of effect processors such as the Boss ME series and Vox multieffects. Boutique Pedal Manufacturers Boutique pedals are typically handmade and designed by smaller, independent companies. Usually, they are mainly distributed online, through mail-order, or through a small number of music stores. In some cases, these products depend on "word-of-mouth" advertising. The prices of boutique pedals are too high to compete with mass-produced brands such as Boss or Digitech. Boutique manufacturers offer products and features for the more discriminating guitar player--features such as true-bypass switching, higher-quality components, and innovative designs. Other boutique companies focus on re-creating classic or vintage effects that are no longer available. For example, the Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face and Dallas Rangemaster are classic effects that are produced in many variations by the boutique industry. Some boutique pedal manufacturers include: AnalogMan Effectrode Pete Cornish Ellis Guitars GoudieFX Lovetone Metasonix Moog Music Robert Keeley Z.Vex Effects Other Boutique Markets There is also a niche market for the modification (nicknamed "modding") of effects. Typically, vendors provide either custom modication services or they sell new effects pedals which have been modified. The Ibanez Tube Screamer, the Boss DS-1, and the ProCo Rat are some of the most commonly modified effects. Mods typically encompass value changes in capacitors or resistors, the substitution of higher-quality components, and the replacement of the unit's original operational amplifier (opamp) with a different value. See also Effects pedal Effects loop Guitar effects Sound effect Guitar pedalboard Stomp Box Software effect processor Notable manufacturers Behringer Boss Corporation DigiTech DOD Jim Dunlop Electro Harmonix Korg Lexicon Line6 Roland TC Electronic Waves Audio Vox Zoom Zvex External links History and Photos of Vintage Fuzz Pedals. | Effects_unit |@lemmatized effect:46 unit:14 device:2 affect:1 sound:13 electric:3 instrument:7 audio:3 source:3 recorded:1 material:1 plug:1 electrical:1 signal:12 path:2 sends:1 often:5 guitar:18 bass:1 also:6 use:12 like:2 rhodes:1 piano:1 synths:1 even:3 human:1 voice:1 transform:1 completely:1 others:1 color:1 picture:1 minor:1 way:3 consist:1 one:7 electronic:3 typically:7 contain:6 analog:3 circuitry:2 process:2 similar:2 find:2 music:4 synthesizer:1 example:7 active:1 passive:1 filter:2 envelope:3 follower:2 voltage:3 control:8 oscillator:2 digital:5 delay:6 package:1 manufacturer:5 musician:5 various:2 size:1 common:1 stomp:5 box:9 rack:3 mount:3 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7,528 | Politics_of_Germany | Politics of Germany take place in a framework of a federal parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Chancellor is the head of government, and of a plurality multi-party system. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament (Bundestag) and the Bundesrat as the representation of the regional states. Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). The Judiciary of Germany is independent of the executive and the legislature. The political system is laid out in the 1949 constitution, the Grundgesetz (Basic Law), which remained in effect with minor amendments after 1990's German reunification. The constitution emphasizes the protection of individual liberty in an extensive catalogue of human rights and also divides powers both between the federal and state levels and between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. In many ways, the 1949 Basic Law is a response to the perceived flaws of the 1919 Weimar Constitution, which may have had its share in the decline of the republic and the subsequent rise of the Nazi party in 1933. Federal executive branch The Bundeskanzler (Federal Chancellor) heads the Bundesregierung (Federal Government) and thus the executive branch of the federal government. He or she is elected by and responsible to the Bundestag, Germany's parliament. Germany, like the United Kingdom, can thus be classified as a parliamentary system. The Chancellor cannot be removed from office during a four year term unless the Bundestag has agreed on a successor. This Constructive Vote of No Confidence is intended to avoid the situation of the Weimar Republic in which the executive did not have enough support in the legislature to govern effectively, but the legislature was too divided to name a successor. Except in the periods 1969–72 and 1976–82, when the social democratic party of Chancellor Brandt and Schmidt came in second in the elections, the Chancellor has always been the candidate of the largest party, usually supported by a coalition of two parties with a majority in the parliament. The Chancellor appoints a Vice-Chancellor (Vizekanzler), who is a member of his cabinet. The office itself is hardly important but often indicates who is the main cabinet member of the smaller coalition partner. By contrast, the duties of the Bundespräsident (Federal President) are largely representative and ceremonial. The President is elected every five years on May 23 by the Federal Assembly (Bundesversammlung), a special body convened only for this purpose, comprising the entire Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates selected especially for this purpose in proportion to election results for the state diets. In May 2004, Horst Köhler of the CDU was elected. As this party has usually the biggest support in national elections but also in the Länder, it is quite common that the Federal President is a Christian Democrat. |President |Horst Köhler |CDU |1 July 2004 |- |Chancellor |Angela Merkel |CDU |22 November 2005 |- |Other government parties | |SPD, CSU | |} 1) Although Mr. Köhler has been a member of the CDU the German Basic Law requests in Article 55 that the Federal President does not hold another office, practice a profession or hold a membership of any corporation. Accordingly every Federal President has let his party membership rest dormant and does not belong to a political party during his term of office. The federal legislature The Reichstag building, seat of the Bundestag. Federal legislative power is divided between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. The Bundestag is directly elected by the German people, whilst the Bundesrat represents the regional states (Länder). The federal legislature has powers of exclusive jurisdiction and concurrent jurisdiction with the states in areas specifically enumerated by the constitution. The Bundestag is more powerful than the Bundesrat and only need the latter's consent for proposed legislation related to revenue shared by the federal and state governments, and the imposition of responsibilities on the states. In practice, this means that the agreement of the Bundesrat in the legislative process is very often required, as federal legislation often has to be executed by state or local agencies. In the event of disagreement between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat a conciliation committee is formed to find a compromise. The Bundestag The Bundestag (Federal Diet) is elected for a four year term and consists of 598 or more members elected by a means of mixed member proportional representation. 299 members represent single-seat constituencies and are elected by means a First Past the Post electoral system. Parties that obtain less constituency seats than their national share of the vote indicates that they ought to have, are allotted seats from party lists to make up the difference. In contrast parties that obtain more constituency seats than their national share of the vote indicates that they ought to have, are allowed to keep these so-called overhang seats. In the current parliament elected in 2005 there are 16 overhang seats, giving the Bundestag a total of 614 members. A party must receive either five percent of the national vote or win at least three directly elected seats to be represented in the Bundestag. This rule, often called the "five percent hurdle", was incorporated into Germany's election law to prevent political fragmentation and strong minor parties. The first Bundestag elections were held in the Federal Republic of Germany ("West Germany") on August 14, 1949. Following reunification, elections for the first all-German Bundestag were held on December 2 1990. The last election was held on 18 September 2005, the 16th Bundestag convened on 18 October 2005. The number of Bundestag Deputies was reduced from 656 to 598 beginning in 2002, although under the additional member system, more deputies may be admitted if a party wins more directly elected seats than it would be entitled to under proportional representation. The Bundesrat The Bundesrat (Federal Council) represents the state governments at the federal level. It consists of 69 members who are delegates of the 16 länder and usually, but not necessarily include the 16 Minister Presidents themselves. The Länder each have from three to six votes in the Bundesrat, dependent on population. Bundesrat members receive voting instructions from their state governments. Since the political orientation of the Bundesrat (which depends on the various state elections that occur independently of the federal ones) is quite frequently the opposite of that of the Bundestag, it has, in recent years, become more and more of a forum for the opposition parties, as opposed to one for state interests. Political parties and elections More info: 16th German federal election, 2005 The Federal Council is composed by representatives of the State governments. Judicial branch The independence of the judiciary of Germany is historically older than democracy in Germany, the organization of courts is traditionally strong, and almost all state actions are subject to judicial review. Besides a so-called "ordinary" judicial branch that handles civil and criminal cases, which is in turn composed of four levels of courts up to the Bundesgerichtshof in a fairly complex appeals system, there are separate branches for administrative, tax, labour, and social security issues, each with their own hierarchies. Courts are generally in the hands of the states, except for the highest courts of each branch, which are federal, respectively, to maintain a certain degree of unity in jurisdiction. In addition, Germany has a powerful Constitutional Court, the Bundesverfassungsgericht. This is somewhat unique since the Basic Law stipulates that every person may file a complaint to that court when his or her constitutional rights, especially the human rights, have been violated by the state and when he or she has exhausted all stages of appeal in the regular court system. Such actions can include laws passed by the legislative branch, court decisions, or acts of the administration. While in practice, only a small percentage of these constitutional complaints are successful, the Constitutional Court is known to frequently antagonise both the executive and the legislative branches with far-reaching decisions. This has even gone so far as judges openly stating that they are indifferent to the reactions of the government, the Bundestag, public opinion or any financial consequences arising from a decision with the only relevant point being the constitution. It should also be mentioned that the Bundesverfassungsgericht has very high approval rates throughout the general population. The Constitutional Court also handles several other procedures such as disputes between state institutions over their constitutional powers. It has also the power to outlaw political parties when their goals contravene the principles of the constitution. However so far the Constitutional court has only used this power twice, outlawing the SRP (Socialist Reichs Party, a successor to the NSDAP) in 1952, and the KPD (Communist Party of Germany) in 1956. Recent politics "Red-Green" coalition of 1998-2002 After 16 years of the Christian liberal coalition of Helmut Kohl, the Social Democrats together with the Greens won the elections of 1998. SPD leader Gerhard Schröder positioned himself as a centrist "Third Way" candidate in the mold of Britain's Tony Blair and America's Bill Clinton. The Kohl government was hurt at the polls by slower growth in the east in the past two years, widening the economic gap between east and west. The final margin of victory was sufficiently high to permit a "red-green" coalition of the SPD with Alliance '90/The Greens (Bündnis '90/Die Grünen), bringing the Greens into a national government for the first time.Initial problems of the new government, marked by policy disputes between the moderate and traditional left wings of the SPD, resulting in some voter disaffection. CDU won in the first state election after the federal election held in Hesse in February 1999, but in other state elections of this time, the respective SPD- or CDU-led coalition governments were re-elected into power. The popularity of the CDU dropped severely when in 2000 it became public that Kohl had accepted high party donations not indicating them to the authorities as required by law. As a result of this CDU crisis, Angela Merkel became chair. The next election for the Bundestag was September 22 2002. Gerhard Schröder led the coalition of SPD and Greens to an eleven seat victory over the Christian democrat challengers headed by Edmund Stoiber (CSU). Three factors are generally cited that enabled Schröder to win the elections despite poor approval ratings a few months before: good handling of the 100-year-flood, firm opposition to the USA's 2003 invasion of Iraq, and Stoiber's unpopularity in the east that cost the CDU crucial seats there. Christian democrat comeback In its second term, the red green coalition lost several very important state elecitions, for example in Lower Saxony where Schröder was the prime minister from 1990 to 1998. The liberal FDP, weakened by the loss of power in 1998 and not quite recovering in 2002, became again more successful on state level. On the other hand, some far right wing parties had their moments in state elections, too. In April 20 2003, chancellor Schröder announced massive labor market reforms, called Agenda 2010, that among other measures include a shakeup of the system of German job offices, cuts in unemployment benefits and subsidies for unemployed persons who start their own businesses. These changes are commonly known by the name of the chairman of the commission which conceived them as Hartz I - Hartz IV. Although these reforms have sparked massive protests they are now credited with being in part responsible for the economic upswing and the fall of unemployment figures in Germany in the years 2006/7. The European elections on June 13 2004 brought a staggering defeat for the Social Democrats, who polled only slightly more than 21%, the lowest election result for the SPD in a nationwide election since the Second World War. Many observers believe that this election marked the beginning of the end of the Schröder government and indicates a process in which the SPD party seems to shrink and/or fall apart. Grand Coalition since 2005 On May 22 2005 as predicted the SPD took a devastating defeat in its former heartland, North Rhine-Westphalia. Half an hour after the election results, the SPD chairman Franz Müntefering announced that the chancellor would clear the way for special federal elections by the means of a purposely lost vote of confidence in the Bundestag. This took the republic by surprise, especially because the SPD was below 25% in polls at the time. On the following Monday the CDU announced Angela Merkel as Christian democrat candidate for chancellorship, aspiring to be the first female chancellor in German history. New for the 2005 election was the alliance between the newly formed Electoral Alternative for Labor and Social Justice (WASG) and the PDS, planning to fuse into a common party (see Left Party.PDS). With the former SPD chairman Oskar Lafontaine for the WASG and Gregor Gysi for the PDS as prominent figures, this alliance soon found interest in the media and in the population. Polls in July saw them as high as 12%. Whereas in May and June 2005 victory of the Christian democrats seemed highly likely, with some polls giving them an absolute majority, this picture changed shortly before the election at September 18, 2005, especially after the Christian democrats introduced Paul Kirchhof as potential minister of the treasury, and after a TV duel between Merkel and Schröder where many considered Schröder to have performed better. The election results of September 18 2005 were surprising insofar as they differed widely from the polls of the previous weeks. The Christian democrats lost votes compared to 2002, reaching only 35%, and failed to get a majority for a "black-yellow" government of CDU/CSU and liberal FDP. The FDP polled a stunning 10% of the votes, one of their best results ever. But the red-green coalition also failed to get a majority, with the SPD losing votes, but polling 34% and the greens staying at 8%. The left party alliance reached 8.7% and entered the German Parliament, whereas the NPD only got 1.6%. The most likely outcome of coalition talks was a so-called "grand coalition" between the Christian democrats (CDU/CSU) and the social democrats (SPD), with the three smaller parties (liberals, greens and the left) in the opposition. Other possible coalitions include a "traffic light coalition" between SPD, FDP and Greens and a "Jamaica coalition" between CDU/CSU, FDP and Greens. Coalitions involving the Left Party have been ruled out by all parties (including the Left Party itself). On November 22 2005 Angela Merkel was sworn in by president Horst Köhler for the office of Bundeskanzlerin. She is the first woman, the first East German and the first scientist to be chancellor as well as the youngest post-war German chancellor. The existence of the grand coalition on federal level helps smaller parties to do better in state elections. Since in 2008 the CSU lost its absolute majority in Bavaria and formed a coalition with the FDP, the grand coalition has no majority in the Bundesrat'' and depends on FDP votes at important issues. In November 2008, the SPD reelected Franz Müntefering as its chairman and made Frank-Walter Steinmeier its leading candidate for the elections in September 2009. See also Political culture of Germany German federal election, 2005 List of political parties in Germany States of Germany External links Official Site of the Bundesregierung Official source of election results Official source from the German Embassy in Washington, DC | Politics_of_Germany |@lemmatized politics:2 germany:16 take:3 place:1 framework:1 federal:29 parliamentary:2 representative:3 democratic:4 republic:5 whereby:1 chancellor:13 head:3 government:15 plurality:1 multi:1 party:34 system:9 legislative:6 power:9 vest:1 parliament:5 bundestag:21 bundesrat:12 representation:3 regional:2 state:26 since:6 dominate:1 christian:10 union:1 cdu:14 social:7 spd:17 judiciary:2 independent:1 executive:6 legislature:5 political:8 lay:1 constitution:6 grundgesetz:1 basic:4 law:7 remain:1 effect:1 minor:2 amendment:1 german:12 reunification:2 emphasize:1 protection:1 individual:1 liberty:1 extensive:1 catalogue:1 human:2 right:4 also:7 divide:3 level:5 judicial:4 branch:9 many:3 way:3 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7,529 | National_Basketball_Association | The National Basketball Association (NBA) is North America's professional men's basketball league, composed of thirty teams: twenty-nine in the United States and one in Canada. It is an active member of USA Basketball (USAB), Inside USA Basketball which is recognized by the International Basketball Federation as the National Governing Body (NGB) for basketball in the United States. The NBA is one of the four major North American professional sports leagues, which include Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Football League (NFL), and the National Hockey League (NHL). The league was founded in New York City on June 6, 1946 as the Basketball Association of America (BAA). The First NBA Game: 1946 New York-Toronto The league adopted the name National Basketball Association in 1949 after merging with the rival National Basketball League (NBL). The league's several international as well as individual team offices are directed out of its head offices located in the Olympic Tower at 645 Fifth Avenue in New York City. NBA Entertainment and NBA TV studios are directed out of offices located in Secaucus, New Jersey. History 1940s and 1950s: The early years The Basketball Association of America was founded in 1946 by the owners of the major ice hockey arenas in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States. On November 1, 1946, in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, the Toronto Huskies hosted the New York Knickerbockers, which the NBA now regards as the first game played in the league's history. Although there had been earlier attempts at professional basketball leagues, including the American Basketball League and the NBL, the BAA was the first league to attempt to play primarily in large arenas in major cities. During its early years, the quality of play in the BAA was not significantly better than in competing leagues or among leading independent clubs such as the Harlem Globetrotters. For instance, the 1948 ABL finalist Baltimore Bullets moved to the BAA and won that league's 1948 title, and the 1948 NBL champion Minneapolis Lakers won the 1949 BAA title. On August 3, 1949, the BAA agreed to merge with the NBL, creating the new National Basketball Association. The new league had seventeen franchises located in a mix of large and small cities, as well as large arenas and smaller gymnasiums and armories. In 1950, the NBA consolidated to eleven franchises, a process that continued until 1954, when the league reached its smallest size of eight franchises, all of which are still in the league (the Knicks, Celtics, Warriors, Lakers, Royals/Kings, Pistons, Hawks, and Nationals/76ers). The process of contraction saw the league's smaller-city franchises move to larger cities. The Hawks shifted from "Tri-Cities" (the area now known as the Quad Cities) to Milwaukee (in 1951) and then to St. Louis (in 1955); the Royals from Rochester to Cincinnati (in 1957); and the Pistons from Fort Wayne to Detroit (in 1957). In 1960, the Lakers relocated to Los Angeles, and the Warriors moved to San Francisco, in 1963. The following year, the Nationals left upstate New York to bring basketball back to Philadelphia, changing their nickname from "Nationals" to "76ers." Thus far, out of the original eight franchises, only the Knicks and Celtics have not relocated. Although Japanese-American Wataru Misaka technically broke the NBA color barrier in the 1947–48 season when he played for the New York Knicks, 1950 is recognized as the year the NBA integrated. This year witnessed the addition of African American players by several teams, including Chuck Cooper with the Boston Celtics, Nat "Sweetwater" Clifton with the New York Knicks, and Earl Lloyd with the Washington Capitols. During this period, the Minneapolis Lakers, led by center George Mikan, won five NBA Championships and established themselves as the league's first dynasty. To encourage shooting and discourage stalling, the league introduced the 24-second shot clock in 1954. If a team does not attempt to score a field goal (or the ball fails to make contact with the rim) within 24 seconds of obtaining the ball, play is stopped and the ball given to its opponent. In 1957, rookie center Bill Russell joined the Boston Celtics, who already featured guard Bob Cousy and coach Red Auerbach, and went on to lead the club to eleven NBA titles in thirteen seasons. Center Wilt Chamberlain entered the league with the Warriors in 1959 and became the dominant individual star of the 1960s, setting new records in scoring (100) and rebounding (55). Russell's rivalry with Chamberlain became one of the great individual rivalries in the history of American team sports. 1960s: The Celtics Dynasty Through this period, the NBA continued to strengthen with the shift of the Minneapolis Lakers to Los Angeles, the Philadelphia Warriors to San Francisco, and the Syracuse Nationals to Philadelphia, as well as the addition of its first expansion franchises. The Chicago Packers (now Washington Wizards) became the 9th NBA team in 1961. From 1966 to 1968, the league expanded from nine teams to fourteen, introducing the Chicago Bulls, Seattle SuperSonics (now Oklahoma City Thunder), San Diego Rockets (who relocated to Houston four years later), Milwaukee Bucks, and Phoenix Suns. In 1967, the league faced a new external threat with the formation of the American Basketball Association. The leagues engaged in a bidding war. The NBA landed the most important college star of the era, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (then known as Lew Alcindor). However, the NBA's leading scorer, Rick Barry jumped to the ABA, as did four veteran referees—Norm Drucker, Earl Strom, John Vanak, and Joe Gushue. 1970s: The NBA vs. the ABA The American Basketball Association also succeeded in signing a number of major stars, including Julius Erving of the Virginia Squires, in part because it allowed teams to sign college undergraduates. The NBA expanded rapidly during this period, one purpose being to tie up the most viable cities. From 1966 to 1974, the NBA grew from nine franchises to 18. In 1970 the Portland Trail Blazers, Cleveland Cavaliers, and Buffalo Braves (now the Los Angeles Clippers) all made their debuts expanding the league to 17. The New Orleans Jazz (now in Utah) came aboard in 1974 bringing the total to 18. Following the 1976 season, the leagues reached a settlement that provided for the addition of four ABA franchises to the NBA, raising the number of franchises in the league at that time to 22. The franchises added were the San Antonio Spurs, Denver Nuggets, Indiana Pacers and New York Nets (now the New Jersey Nets). Some of the biggest stars of this era were Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Rick Barry, Dave Cowens, Julius Erving, Walt Frazier, Artis Gilmore, George Gervin, Dan Issel and Pete Maravich. 1980s: Magic vs. Bird The league added the ABA's innovative three-point field goal beginning in 1979 to open up the game. That same year, rookies Larry Bird and Earvin "Magic" Johnson joined the Boston Celtics and Los Angeles Lakers respectively, initiating a period of significant growth in fan interest in the NBA throughout the country and the world. Bird went on to lead the Celtics to three titles, and Johnson went on to lead the Lakers to five. Also in the early '80s, the NBA added one more expansion franchise, the Dallas Mavericks, bringing the total to 23 teams. Later on, Larry Bird won the first two three-point shooting contests ever. 1990s: The Jordan Era Michael Jordan entered the league in 1984 with the Chicago Bulls, providing an even more popular star to support growing interest in the league. This resulted in more cities demanding teams of their own. In 1988 and 1989, four cities got their wishes as the Charlotte Hornets (now the New Orleans Hornets), Miami Heat, Orlando Magic, and Minnesota Timberwolves made their NBA debuts. Jordan and Scottie Pippen would lead the Bulls to six championships in eight years during the 1990s. Olajuwon won back-to-back titles with the Houston Rockets in '94 and '95, during Jordan's first retirement. The 1992 Olympic basketball Dream Team, the first to use current NBA stars, featured Michael Jordan as the anchor, along with Larry Bird, Magic Johnson, David Robinson, Patrick Ewing, Scottie Pippen, Clyde Drexler, Karl Malone, John Stockton, Chris Mullin, Charles Barkley, and Christian Laettner. In 1995, the NBA expanded to Canada adding with the Vancouver Grizzlies and the Toronto Raptors. In 2001, the Vancouver Grizzlies were relocated to Memphis, which left the Raptors as the only Canadian team in the NBA. In 1996, the NBA created a women's league, the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). In 1998, the NBA owners began a lockout which lasted 191 days and was settled on January 18, 1999. As a result of this lockout the 1998-99 NBA season was reduced from 82 to 50 games. Since these games were all played in the same year, the season is known as the 1999 NBA season. San Antonio won the championship on June 25 by beating the New York Knicks, the first, and to this date, the only 8th seed to ever make the NBA Finals. 2000–present: Western Conference Dominance Since the break-up of the Chicago Bulls in the summer of 1998, the Western Conference has dominated the NBA, winning 7 of 10 championships. Tim Duncan and David Robinson won the 1999 championship with the San Antonio Spurs, and Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant started the 2000s off with the three consecutive championships with the Los Angeles Lakers. The Spurs reclaimed the title in 2003 against the Nets. In 2004 the Lakers returned to the Finals, only to fall to the Detroit Pistons. The following off-season, O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat while the Spurs won their third championship in 2005. Miami with Dwyane Wade and O'Neal won the title in 2006 against the Dallas Mavericks. The dominance of the Western Conference continued in the 2006–07 season with the triumph of the San Antonio Spurs in 2007 over the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Cavaliers were led by young sensation LeBron James who took his team to their first finals appearance in franchise history. James' Game 5 performance in the 2007 Eastern Conference Finals against the Detroit Pistons is considered one of the greatest playoff performances in NBA history. 2008 saw a rematch of the league's highest profile rivalry, the Boston Celtics and the Los Angeles Lakers, with Boston prevailing. Kobe Bryant won his first NBA MVP award in his 12th season after leading the Lakers to their first Conference Title since the departure of Shaquille O'Neal. The 2008-2009 season has seen a continuing emergence of James, becoming the second youngest player to win the NBA MVP award at age 24. Led by James, Cavaliers clinched the NBA's top playoff seed, ahead of Bryant and the Lakers with the top seed in the Western Conference. Dwayne Wade was the leading scorer in the 2008-2009 NBA Season. International Influence An increasing number of international players have moved directly from playing elsewhere in the world to starring in the NBA, such as: Leandro Barbosa, Brazil – 2007 Sixth Man Award winner (entered the NBA in 2003) Andrea Bargnani, Italy – First pick in the 2006 NBA Draft by the Toronto Raptors (entered the NBA in 2006) Pau Gasol, Spain – Two time NBA All-Star, 2002 NBA Rookie of the Year, 2004 Mr. Europa, 2006 World Championships MVP, 2008 Euroscar and FIBA Europe Player of the Year (entered the NBA in 2001) Manu Ginóbili, Argentina – 2004 Olympic Tournament MVP and 2008 Sixth Man Award winner (drafted in 1999, entered the NBA in 2002) Žydrūnas Ilgauskas, Lithuania – Two time NBA All-Star, 1997–98 All-Rookie First Team (entered the NBA in 1996) Andrei Kirilenko, Russia – EuroBasket 2007 MVP, 2007 FIBA Europe Player of the Year (drafted in 1999, entered the NBA in 2001) Dirk Nowitzki, Germany – MVP of the 2002 World Championships and Eurobasket 2005, 2002–2006 Euroscar winner, 2005 Mr. Europa and FIBA Europe Player of the Year, and 2007 NBA MVP (entered the NBA in 1998) Tony Parker, France – 2007 NBA Finals MVP and 2007 Euroscar winner (entered the NBA in 2001) Peja Stojakovic, Serbia – Eurobasket 2001 MVP, 2001 Euroscar winner, 2002 Euroscar and Mr. Europa (drafted in 1996, entered the NBA in 1998) Hedo Turkoglu, Turkey – 2008 Most Improved Player Award winner (entered the NBA in 2000) Yao Ming, China – First pick in the 2002 NBA Draft and 7-time NBA All-Star (entered the NBA in 2002) On some occasions, young players from the English-speaking world have attended U.S. colleges before playing in the NBA. Notable examples are Canadian Steve Nash (2005 and 2006 MVP) and Australians Luc Longley (3-times champion with the Michael Jordan led Chicago Bulls in 1990s) and Andrew Bogut, (top draft pick in 2005). Currently, the Toronto Raptors have the most international players in the NBA. The NBA is now televised in 212 nations in 42 languages. Other developments In 2001, an affiliated minor league, the National Basketball Development League, now called the NBA Development League (or D-League) was created. Before the league was started, there were strong rumors that the NBA would purchase the CBA, and call it its developmental league, as the Continental Basketball Association was its "minor league" affiliate for years. In 2004, two years after the Hornets relocation to New Orleans, the NBA returned to North Carolina as the Charlotte Bobcats were formed. In 2005, the Hornets relocated to Oklahoma City for two seasons. This was required due to damage caused by Hurricane Katrina. In 2007, the Hornets returned to New Orleans. On June 29, 2006, a new official game ball was introduced for the 2006–07 season, marking the first change to the ball in over 35 years and only the second in 60 seasons. Manufactured by Spalding, the new ball featured a new design and new synthetic material that Spalding claimed offered a better grip, feel, and consistency than the original ball. However, many players were vocal in their disdain for the new ball, saying that it was too sticky when dry, and too slippery when wet. On December 11, 2006, Commissioner Stern announced that beginning January 1, 2007, the NBA would return to the traditional leather basketball in use prior to the 2006–2007 season. The change was influenced by frequent player complaints and confirmed hand injuries (cuts) caused by the microfiber ball. Stein, Marc. Leather ball will return on January 1 2007- NBA, ESPN. December 12, 2006. The Players' Association had filed a suit in behalf of the players against the NBA over the new ball. Stein, Mark. "NBA ball controversy reaches new level", ESPN. December 8, 2006. As of 2006, the NBA team jerseys are manufactured by Adidas, which purchased the previous supplier, Reebok. On July 19, 2007, the FBI investigated allegations that veteran NBA referee Tim Donaghy bet on basketball games he officiated over the past two seasons and that he made calls affecting the point spread in those games. Donaghy under investigation for betting on NBA games, ESPN. July 20, 2007. On August 15, 2007, Donaghy pleaded guilty to two federal charges related to the investigation. However, he could face more charges if it is determined that he deliberately miscalled individual games. In June 2008, it was announced that the Seattle SuperSonics would be rendered inactive and the franchise itself would relocate to Oklahoma City. The Oklahoma City Thunder began playing in the 2008–2009 season. This marks the third NBA franchise to relocate in the past decade. On October 11, 2008, the Phoenix Suns and the Denver Nuggets played the first outdoor game in the modern era of the NBA at the Indian Wells Tennis Garden. Teams The NBA originated in 1946 with 11 teams, and through a sequence of team expansions, reductions, and relocations currently consists of 30 teams. The United States is home to 29 teams and one is located in Canada. The Boston Celtics have won the most championships, including the most recent, with 17 NBA Finals wins. The next most successful franchise is the Los Angeles Lakers, who have 14 overall championships (9 in Los Angeles, 5 in Minneapolis). Following the Lakers are the Chicago Bulls with six championships, all of them over an 8-year span during the 1990s, and the San Antonio Spurs with four championships, all since 1999. The current league organization divides thirty teams into two conferences of three divisions with five teams each. The current divisional alignment was introduced in the 2004–05 season. Division Team City/Area Arena Founded Joined Head Coach Eastern Conference Atlantic Boston Celtics Boston, MA TD Banknorth Garden 1946 Glenn "Doc" Rivers New Jersey Nets East Rutherford, NJ Izod Center 1967 1976 Lawrence Frank New York Knicks New York City, NY Madison Square Garden 1946 Mike D'Antoni Philadelphia 76ers Philadelphia, PA Wachovia Center 1939* 1949 Eddie Jordan Toronto Raptors Toronto, ON Air Canada Centre 1995 Jay Triano Central Chicago Bulls Chicago, IL United Center 1966 Vinny Del Negro Cleveland Cavaliers Cleveland, OH Quicken Loans Arena 1970 Mike Brown Detroit Pistons Auburn Hills, MI The Palace of Auburn Hills 1941* 1948 Michael Curry Indiana Pacers Indianapolis, IN Conseco Fieldhouse 1967 1976 Jim O'Brien Milwaukee Bucks Milwaukee, WI Bradley Center 1968 Scott Skiles Southeast Atlanta Hawks Atlanta, GA Philips Arena 1946* 1949 Mike Woodson Charlotte Bobcats Charlotte, NC Time Warner Cable Arena 2004 Larry Brown Miami Heat Miami, FL American Airlines Arena 1988 Erik Spoelstra Orlando Magic Orlando, FL Amway Arena 1989 Stan Van Gundy Washington Wizards Washington, D.C. Verizon Center 1961* Flip Saunders Western Conference Northwest Denver Nuggets Denver, CO Pepsi Center 1967 1976 George Karl Minnesota Timberwolves Minneapolis, MN Target Center 1989 Kevin McHale Oklahoma City Thunder Oklahoma City, OK Ford Center 1967* Scott Brooks Portland Trail Blazers Portland, OR Rose Garden 1970 Nate McMillan Utah Jazz Salt Lake City, UT EnergySolutions Arena 1974* Jerry Sloan Pacific Golden State Warriors Oakland, CA Oracle Arena 1946* Don Nelson Los Angeles Clippers Los Angeles, CA Staples Center 1970* Mike Dunleavy, Sr. Los Angeles Lakers Los Angeles, CA Staples Center 1946* 1948 Phil Jackson Phoenix Suns Phoenix, AZ US Airways Center 1968 Alvin Gentry Sacramento Kings Sacramento, CA ARCO Arena 1945* 1948 TBD Southwest Dallas Mavericks Dallas, TX American Airlines Center 1980 Rick Carlisle Houston Rockets Houston, TX Toyota Center 1967* Rick Adelman Memphis Grizzlies Memphis, TN FedExForum 1995* Lionel Hollins New Orleans Hornets New Orleans, LA New Orleans Arena 1988* Byron Scott San Antonio Spurs San Antonio, TX AT&T Center 1967 1976 Gregg Popovich Notes An asterisk (*) denotes a franchise move. See the respective team articles for more information. The Fort Wayne Pistons, Minneapolis Lakers and Rochester Royals all joined the NBA (BAA) in 1948 from the NBL. The Syracuse Nationals and Tri-Cities Blackhawks joined the NBA in 1949 as part of the BAA-NBL merger. The Indiana Pacers, New York Nets, San Antonio Spurs, and Denver Nuggets all joined the NBA in 1976 as part of the NBA-ABA merger. Defunct teams Regular season Following the summer break, teams hold training camps in October. Training camps allow the coaching staff to evaluate players (especially rookies), scout the team's strengths and weaknesses, prepare the players for the rigorous regular season, and determine the 12-man active roster (and a 3-man inactive list) with which they will begin the regular season. Teams have the ability to assign players with less than two years of experience to the NBA development league. After training camp, a series of preseason exhibition games are held. The NBA regular season begins in the first week of November. During the regular season, each team plays 82 games, 41 each home and away. A team faces opponents in its own division four times a year (16 games), teams from the other two divisions in its conference either three or four times (36 games), and teams in the other conference twice apiece (30 games). This asymmetrical structure means the strength of schedule will vary significantly between teams. As of 2008, the NBA is one of only three major leagues in North America (besides the Canadian Football League) in which teams play every other team during the regular season (the others being the National Hockey League and Major League Soccer). Each team hosts and visits every other team at least once every season. However, this results in each team playing nearly double the number of games against teams from the opposite conference (30) as teams in their own division (16). Milwaukee Bucks playing the Charlotte Bobcats in a regular season game In February, the regular season pauses to celebrate the annual NBA All-Star Game. Fans vote throughout the United States, Canada, and on the internet, and the top vote-getters at each position in each conference are given a starting spot on their conference's All-Star team. Coaches vote to choose the remaining 14 All-Stars. Then, Eastern conference players face the Western conference players in the All-Star game. The player with the best performance during the game is rewarded with a Game MVP award. Other attractions of the All-Star break include the Rookie Challenge, which pits the best rookies and the best second-year players against each other; the Skills Challenge, a competition between players to see who could complete an obstacle course comprising shooting, passing and dribbling in the fastest time; the Three Point Contest, a competition between players to see who is the best three-point shooter; and the NBA Slam Dunk Contest, to see which player dunks the ball in the most entertaining way. These other attractions have varying names which include the names of the various sponsors who have paid for naming rights. Shortly after the All-Star break, the trading deadline falls on the second to last Thursday in February at 3pm Eastern Time. NBA.com: NBA Trading Deadline Trades Since 1987 After this date, teams are not allowed to exchange players with each other for the remainder of the season, although they may still sign and release players. Major trades are often completed right before the trading deadline, making that day a hectic time for general managers. Around the end of April, the regular season ends. It is during this time that voting begins for individual awards, as well as the selection of the honorary, league-wide, post-season teams. The Sixth Man of the Year Award is given to the best player coming off the bench (must have more games coming off the bench than actual games started). The Rookie of the Year Award is awarded to the most outstanding first-year player. The Most Improved Player Award is awarded to the player who is deemed to have shown the most improvement from the previous season. The Defensive Player of the Year Award is awarded to the league's best defender. The Coach of the Year Award is awarded to the coach that has made the most positive difference to a team. The Most Valuable Player Award is given to player deemed the most valuable for (his team) that season. Additionally, Sporting News awards an unofficial (but widely recognized) Executive of the Year Award to the general manager who is adjudged to have performed the best job for the benefit of his franchise. The post-season teams are the All-NBA Team, the All-Defensive Team, and the All-Rookie Team; each consists of five players. There are three All-NBA teams, consisting of the top players at each position, with first-team status being the most desirable. There are two All-Defensive teams, consisting of the top defenders at each position. There are also two All-Rookie teams, consisting of the top first-year players regardless of position. Playoffs NBA Playoffs begin in late April, with eight teams in each conference going for the Championship. The three division winners, along with the team with the next best record from the conference are given the top four seeds. The next four teams in terms of record are given the lower four seeds. Having a higher seed offers several advantages. Since the first seed begins the playoffs playing against the eighth seed, the second seed plays the seventh seed, the third seed plays the sixth seed, and the fourth seed plays the fifth seed, having a higher seed means a team faces a weaker team in the first round. The team in each series with the better record has home court advantage, including the First Round. This means that, for example, if the team who receives the 5 (five) seed has a better record than the team with the 4 (four) seed (by virtue of a divisional championship), the 5 seed would have home court advantage, even though the other team has a higher seed. Therefore, the team with the best regular season record in the league is guaranteed home court advantage in every series it plays. For example, in 2006, the Denver Nuggets won 44 games and captured the Northwest Division and the #3 seed. Their opponent was the #6 seeded Los Angeles Clippers, who won 47 games and finished second in the Pacific Division. Although Denver won its much weaker division, the Clippers had home-court advantage and won the series in five games. The playoffs follow a tournament format. Each team plays a rival in a best-of-seven series, with the first team to win four games advancing into the next round, while the other team is eliminated from the playoffs. In the next round, the successful team plays against another advancing team of the same conference. All but one team in each conference are eliminated from the playoffs. Since the NBA does not re-seed teams, the playoff bracket in each conference uses a traditional design, with the winner of the series matching the 1st and 8th seeded teams playing the winner of the series matching the 4th and 5th seeded teams, and the winner of the series matching the 2nd and 7th seeded teams playing the winner of the series matching the 3rd and 6th seeded teams. In every round except the NBA Finals, the best of seven series follows a 2-2-1-1-1 home-court pattern, meaning that one team will have home court in games 1, 2, 5, and 7, while the other plays at home in games 3, 4, and 6. For the final round (NBA Finals), the series follows a 2-3-2 pattern, meaning that one team will have home court in games 1, 2, 6, and 7, while the other plays at home in games 3, 4, and 5. The 2-3-2 pattern in the NBA Finals has been in place since 1985. The final playoff round, a best-of-seven series between the victors of both conferences, is known as the NBA Finals, and is held annually in June. The victor in the NBA Finals wins the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy. Each player and major contributor -- including coaches and the general manager -- on the winning team receive a championship ring. In addition, the league awards a Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award to the best performing player of the series. On August 2, 2006, the NBA announced the new playoff format. The new format takes the three division winners and the second-place team with the best record and rank them 1–4 by record. The other 4 slots are filled by best record other than those other 4 teams. Previously, the top three seeds went to the division winners. International Competitions The NBA has sporadically participated in international club competitions. From 1987-1999 the NBA champion played against the continental champions of the Fédération Internationale de Basketball (FIBA) in the McDonald's Championship. This tournament was won by the NBA invitee every year it was held. FIBA is organizing a new World Club Championship to begin in 2010, and currently plans to invite the NBA champions starting in 2011. New club basketball championship to debut in 2010 - Associated Press via ESPN (December 9, 2008) (retrieved on May 7, 2007) Notable people Presidents and commissioners Maurice Podoloff, President from 1946–1963 Walter Kennedy, President from 1963–1967 and Commissioner from 1967–1975 Larry O'Brien, Commissioner from 1975–1984 David Stern, Commissioner since 1984–present Players List of National Basketball Association players List of foreign NBA players, a list that is exclusively for players who are not from the United States Coaches List of NBA head coaches List of NBA championship head coaches Awards See also List of NBA champions Rivalries of the NBA List of professional sports teams in the United States and Canada List of attendance figures at domestic professional sports leagues List of TV markets and major sports teams in the United States Major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada National Basketball Association Cheerleading Affiliates Women's National Basketball Association National Basketball Association Development League Miscellaneous Music Nielsen ratings Notable statistics Active NBA non-playoff appearance streaks Active NBA playoff appearance streaks All-time NBA playoff appearance streaks others Television partners BTV (Philippines) ABC CBS ESPN NBA TV NBC TNT Video games NBA 2K NBA Jam NBA Live NBA Street, NBA Street V3, NBA Street: Homecourt NBA 06, NBA 07, NBA 08, NBA '09: The Inside NBA Hang Time NBA Ballers, NBA Ballers Phenom, NBA Ballers: Chosen One Mobile Applications Mobilecdn ESPN MVP Store NBA Store Further reading Charley Rosen, 2009, The First Tip-Off: The Incredible Story of the Birth of the NBA, McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-148785-6 Notes External links Official Site National Basketball Players Association National Basketball Referees Association be-x-old:Нацыянальная баскетбольная асацыяцыя | National_Basketball_Association |@lemmatized national:21 basketball:30 association:16 nba:124 north:4 america:4 professional:7 men:1 league:53 compose:1 thirty:2 team:81 twenty:1 nine:3 united:10 state:10 one:12 canada:8 active:4 member:1 usa:2 usab:1 inside:2 recognize:3 international:7 federation:1 governing:1 body:1 ngb:1 four:13 major:11 american:9 sport:7 include:9 baseball:1 mlb:1 football:2 nfl:1 hockey:3 nhl:1 found:3 new:37 york:12 city:21 june:5 baa:8 first:26 game:34 toronto:8 adopt:1 name:4 merge:2 rival:2 nbl:6 several:3 well:5 individual:5 office:3 direct:2 head:4 locate:4 olympic:3 tower:1 fifth:2 avenue:1 entertainment:1 tv:3 studio:1 secaucus:1 jersey:4 history:5 early:3 year:28 owner:2 ice:1 arena:13 northeastern:1 midwestern:1 november:2 ontario:1 husky:1 host:2 knickerbockers:1 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7,530 | Geography_of_Haiti | Haiti's cities and main towns The Republic of Haiti comprises the western third of the island of Hispaniola, west of the Dominican Republic. It is positioned between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. Haiti's geographic coordinates are at a longitude of 72° 25′ west and a latitude of 19° 00′ north. The total area is 27,750km,² of which 27,560km² is land and 190km² is water. This makes Haiti slightly smaller than the U.S. state of Maryland. Haiti has 1,771km of coastline and a 360km-border with the Dominican Republic. Physical Geography Haiti is a very mountainous country with more than 3/4ths of the territory being 600 feet and above. It's climate is tropical and semiarid. Fertile valleys are interspersed between the mountain ranges forming vast areas of contrast between elevations in many areas throughout the territory. The country (and Hispaniola) is separated from Cuba by way of the Windward Passage, an 80k wide strait that passes between the two countries. Haiti's lowest elevation is at sea level (the Caribbean Sea), while its highest point is Pic la Selle at 2,680 m. Relief The country's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which is oriented south of the Montagnes Noires. This region supports the country's (also Ile d'Haiti's) longest river, the Riviere l'Artibonite whose estuary begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues most of its length through central Haiti and onward where it empties into the Golfe de la Gonâve. The eastern and central region of the island is a large elevated plateau. The northern region consists of the Massif du Nord (Northern Massif) and the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain). The Massif du Nord is an extension of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic. It begins at Haiti's eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The Plateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the Massif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the Plateau Central are the Montagnes Noires, whose most northwestern part merges with the Massif du Nord. The southern region consists of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (also known as the Tiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression which harbors the country's saline lakes, such as Trou Caïman and Haiti's largest lake Lac Azuei (also known as Etang Saumatre). The Chaîne de la Selle mountain range, an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco), extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte in the west. This mountain range harbors Pic la Selle, the highest point in Haiti at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft). Islands Ile a Vache, Haiti Numerous smaller islands make up a part of Haiti's total territory. The most notable islands are: Île de la Gonâve, the largest offshore island of mainland Hispaniola, is located to the west-northwest of Port-au-Prince in Haiti's Gulf of Gonâve, in the Caribbean Sea (the largest gulf of the Antilles). It has an area of 743 km². Its Taíno name was Guanabo. La Gonâve was once a pirate base. Tortuga (Turtle), the second largest offshore island of the mainland, located off the northwest coast of Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea. It has an area of 180 km². The island was a major center of Caribbean piracy during the 17th century and has become famous in many works of literature and film. The island's name derives from the turtle-like shape of the island. Île à Vache (Island of Cows) is a small and lush island located off southwestern de l'Ile d'Haiti with a total area is 52 km². Les Cayemites, a pair of islands located in the Gulf of Gonâve off the coast of southwest Hispaniola. It has a combined area of 45 km². Haiti also harbors several lakes. The largest lake of Haiti, and the second largest lake of Ile d'Haiti and the West Indies, is Lake Azuei. It is located in the Cul-de-Sac Depression with an area of 170 km². It is a saline lake with a higher concentration of salt than the sea water and harbors numerous fauna such as American Crocodiles and American Flamingos. Lake Peligre is an artificial lake created by the construction of the Peligre Hydroelectric Dam. Trou Caïman is a saltwater lake with a total area of 16.2 km². Lake Miragoâne is one of the largest natural freshwater lakes in the Caribbean, with an area of 25 km². See also List of islands of Haiti | Geography_of_Haiti |@lemmatized haiti:20 city:1 main:1 town:1 republic:6 comprise:1 western:2 third:1 island:13 hispaniola:5 west:5 dominican:5 position:1 caribbean:6 sea:6 north:3 atlantic:1 ocean:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 longitude:1 latitude:1 total:4 area:10 land:1 water:2 make:2 slightly:1 small:3 u:1 state:1 maryland:1 coastline:1 border:2 physical:1 geography:1 mountainous:2 country:6 territory:3 foot:1 climate:1 tropical:1 semiarid:1 fertile:1 valley:2 intersperse:1 mountain:4 range:3 form:1 vast:1 contrast:1 elevation:2 many:2 throughout:1 separate:1 cuba:1 way:1 windward:1 passage:1 wide:1 strait:1 pass:1 two:1 low:1 level:1 high:3 point:2 pic:2 la:8 selle:4 relief:1 important:1 term:1 crop:1 plaine:4 de:11 l:3 artibonite:2 orient:1 south:2 montagnes:2 noires:2 region:5 support:1 also:5 ile:4 long:1 river:3 riviere:1 whose:2 estuary:1 begin:2 continue:1 length:1 central:6 onward:1 empty:1 golfe:1 gonâve:5 eastern:2 large:8 elevated:1 plateau:4 northern:4 consist:2 massif:7 du:7 nord:5 plain:1 extension:2 cordillera:1 guayamouc:2 extend:2 northwest:4 peninsula:3 along:1 side:1 run:1 southeast:2 southwest:2 northwestern:1 part:2 merges:1 southern:3 cul:3 sac:3 know:2 tiburon:1 natural:2 depression:2 harbor:4 saline:2 lake:12 trou:2 caïman:2 lac:1 azuei:2 etang:1 saumatre:1 chaîne:1 chain:1 sierra:1 baoruco:1 extends:1 east:1 hotte:1 metre:1 ft:1 islands:1 vache:2 numerous:2 notable:1 île:2 offshore:2 mainland:2 locate:5 port:1 au:1 prince:1 gulf:3 antilles:1 taíno:1 name:2 guanabo:1 pirate:1 base:1 tortuga:1 turtle:2 second:2 coast:2 major:1 center:1 piracy:1 century:1 become:1 famous:1 work:1 literature:1 film:1 derive:1 like:1 shape:1 à:1 cow:1 lush:1 southwestern:1 les:1 cayemites:1 pair:1 combined:1 several:1 indie:1 concentration:1 salt:1 fauna:1 american:2 crocodile:1 flamingo:1 peligre:2 artificial:1 create:1 construction:1 hydroelectric:1 dam:1 saltwater:1 miragoâne:1 one:1 freshwater:1 see:1 list:1 |@bigram dominican_republic:5 atlantic_ocean:1 geographic_coordinate:1 la_selle:4 l_artibonite:2 montagnes_noires:2 la_gonâve:3 massif_du:4 du_nord:5 plaine_du:3 cordillera_central:1 du_cul:2 cul_de:3 metre_ft:1 west_indie:1 hydroelectric_dam:1 freshwater_lake:1 |
7,531 | Minimax | Minimax (sometimes minmax) is a decision rule used in decision theory, game theory, statistics and philosophy for minimizing the maximum possible loss. Alternatively, it can be thought of as maximizing the minimum gain (maximin). Originally formulated for two-player zero-sum game theory, covering both the cases where players take alternate moves and those where they make simultaneous moves. It has also been extended to more complex games and to general decision making in the presence of uncertainty. Game theory In the theory of simultaneous games, a minimax strategy is a mixed strategy which is part of the solution to a zero-sum game. In zero-sum games, the minimax solution is the same as the Nash equilibrium. Minimax theorem The minimax theorem states: For every two-person, zero-sum game with finite strategies, there exists a value V and a mixed strategy for each player, such that (a) Given player 2's strategy, the best payoff possible for player 1 is V, and (b) Given player 1's strategy, the best payoff possible for player 2 is -V. Equivalently, Player 1's strategy guarantees him a payoff of V regardless of Player 2's strategy, and similarly Player 2 can guarantee himself a payoff of -V. The name minimax arises because each player minimizes the maximum payoff possible for the other--since the game is zero-sum, he also maximizes his own minimum payoff. This theorem was established by John von Neumann Von Neumann, J: Zur Theorie der Gesellschaftsspiele Math. Annalen. 100 (1928) 295-320 , who is quoted as saying "As far as I can see, there could be no theory of games … without that theorem … I thought there was nothing worth publishing until the Minimax Theorem was proved". See Sion's minimax theorem and Parthasarathy's theorem for generalizations; see also example of a game without a value. Example B chooses B1 B chooses B2 B chooses B3 A chooses A1 +3 −2 +2 A chooses A2 −1 0 +4 A chooses A3 −4 −3 +1 The following example of a zero-sum game, where A and B make simultaneous moves, illustrates minimax solutions. Suppose each player has three choices and consider the payoff matrix for A displayed at right. Assume the payoff matrix for B is the same matrix with the signs reversed (i.e. if the choices are A1 and B1 then B pays 3 to A). Then, the minimax choice for A is A2 since the worst possible result is then having to pay 1, while the simple minimax choice for B is B2 since the worst possible result is then no payment. However, this solution is not stable, since if B believes A will choose A2 then B will choose B1 to gain 1; then if A believes B will choose B1 then A will choose A1 to gain 3; and then B will choose B2; and eventually both players will realize the difficulty of making a choice. So a more stable strategy is needed. Some choices are dominated by others and can be eliminated: A will not choose A3 since either A1 or A2 will produce a better result, no matter what B chooses; B will not choose B3 since B2 will produce a better result, no matter what A chooses. A can avoid having to make an expected payment of more than 1/3 by choosing A1 with probability 1/6 and A2 with probability 5/6, no matter what B chooses. B can ensure an expected gain of at least 1/3 by using a randomized strategy of choosing B1 with probability 1/3 and B2 with probability 2/3, no matter what A chooses. These mixed minimax strategies are now stable and cannot be improved. Maximin Frequently, in game theory, maximin is distinct from minimax. Minimax is used in zero-sum games to denote minimizing the opponent's maximum payoff. In a zero-sum game, this is identical to minimizing one's own maximum loss, and to maximizing one's own minimum gain. "Maximin" is a term commonly used for non-zero-sum games to describe the strategy which maximizes one's own minimum payoff. In non-zero-sum games, this is not generally the same as minimizing the opponent's maximum gain, nor the same as the Nash equilibrium strategy. Combinatorial game theory In combinatorial game theory, there is a minimax algorithm for game solutions. A simple version of the minimax algorithm, stated below, deals with games such as tic-tac-toe, where each player can win, lose, or draw. If player A can win in one move, his best move is that winning move. If player B knows that one move will lead to the situation where player A can win in one move, while another move will lead to the situation where player A can, at best, draw, then player B's best move is the one leading to a draw. Late in the game, it's easy to see what the "best" move is. The Minimax algorithm helps find the best move, by working backwards from the end of the game. At each step it assumes that player A is trying to maximize the chances of A winning, while on the next turn player B is trying to minimize the chances of A winning (i.e., to maximize B's own chances of winning). Minimax algorithm with alternate moves A minimax algorithm is a recursive algorithm for choosing the next move in an n-player game, usually a two-player game. A value is associated with each position or state of the game. This value is computed by means of a position evaluation function and it indicates how good it would be for a player to reach that position. The player then makes the move that maximizes the minimum value of the position resulting from the opponent's possible following moves. If it is A's turn to move, A gives a value to each of his legal moves. A possible allocation method consists in assigning a certain win for A as +1 and for B as −1. This leads to combinatorial game theory as developed by John Horton Conway. An alternative is using a rule that if the result of a move is an immediate win for A it is assigned positive infinity and, if it is an immediate win for B, negative infinity. The value to A of any other move is the minimum of the values resulting from each of B's possible replies. For this reason, A is called the maximizing player and B is called the minimizing player, hence the name minimax algorithm. The above algorithm will assign a value of positive or negative infinity to any position since the value of every position will be the value of some final winning or losing position. Often this is generally only possible at the very end of complicated games such as chess or go, since it is not computationally feasible to look ahead as far as the completion of the game, except towards the end, and instead positions are given finite values as estimates of the degree of belief that they will lead to a win for one player or another. This can be extended if we can supply a heuristic evaluation function which gives values to non-final game states without considering all possible following complete sequences. We can then limit the minimax algorithm to look only at a certain number of moves ahead. This number is called the "look-ahead", measured in "plies". For example, the chess computer Deep Blue (that beat Garry Kasparov) looked ahead at least 12 plies, then applied a heuristic evaluation function. The algorithm can be thought of as exploring the nodes of a game tree. The effective branching factor of the tree is the average number of children of each node (i.e., the average number of legal moves in a position). The number of nodes to be explored usually increases exponentially with the number of plies (it is less than exponential if evaluating forced moves or repeated positions). The number of nodes to be explored for the analysis of a game is therefore approximately the branching factor raised to the power of the number of plies. It is therefore impractical to completely analyze games such as chess using the minimax algorithm. The performance of the naïve minimax algorithm may be improved dramatically, without affecting the result, by the use of alpha-beta pruning. Other heuristic pruning methods can also be used, but not all of them are guaranteed to give the same result as the un-pruned search. A naive minimax algorithm may be trivially modified to additionally return an entire Principal Variation along with a minimax score. Pseudocode Pseudocode for the negamax version of the minimax algorithm (using an evaluation heuristic to terminate at a given depth) is given below. The code is based on the observation that . This avoids the need for the algorithm to treat the two players separately. function minimax(node, depth) if node is a terminal node or depth = 0 return the heuristic value of node else let α := -∞ foreach child of node { evaluation is identical for both players } let α := max(α, -minimax(child, depth-1)) return α Example Suppose the game being played only has a maximum of two possible moves per player each turn. The algorithm generates the tree on the right, where the circles represent the moves of the player running the algorithm (maximizing player), and squares represent the moves of the opponent (minimizing player). Because of the limitation of computation resources, as explained above, the tree is limited to a look-ahead of 4 moves. The algorithm evaluates each leaf node using a heuristic evaluation function, obtaining the values shown. The moves where the maximizing player wins are assigned with positive infinity, while the moves that lead to a win of the minimizing player are assigned with negative infinity. At level 3, the algorithm will choose, for each node, the smallest of the child node values, and assign it to that same node (e.g the node on the left will choose the minimum between "10" and "+∞", therefore assigning the value "10" to himself). The next step, in level 2, consists of choosing for each node the largest of the child node values. Once again, the values are assigned to each parent node. The algorithm continues evaluating the maximum and minimum values of the child nodes alternatively until it reaches the root node, where it chooses the move with the largest value (represented in the figure with a blue arrow). This is the move that the player should make in order to minimize the maximum possible loss. Minimax for individual decisions Minimax in the face of uncertainty Minimax theory has been extended to decisions where there is no other player, but where the consequences of decisions depend on unknown facts. For example, deciding to prospect for minerals entails a cost which will be wasted if the minerals are not present, but will bring major rewards if they are. One approach is to treat this as a game against nature, and using a similar mindset as Murphy's law, take an approach which minimizes the maximum expected loss, using the same techniques as in the two-person zero-sum games. In addition, expectiminimax trees have been developed, for two-player games in which chance (for example, dice) is a factor. Minimax criterion in statistical decision theory In classical statistical decision theory, we have an estimator that is used to estimate a parameter . We also assume a risk function , usually specified as the integral of a loss function. In this framework, is called minimax if it satisfies An alternative criterion in the decision theoretic framework is the Bayes estimator in the presence of a prior distribution . An estimator is Bayes if it minimizes the average risk Non-probabilistic decision theory A key feature of minimax decision making is that it is non-probabilistic: in contrast to decisions using expected value or expected utility, it makes no assumptions about the probabilities of various outcomes, just scenario analysis of what the possible outcomes are. It is thus robust to changes in the assumptions, as these other decision techniques are not. Various extensions of this non-probabilistic approach exist, notably minimax regret and Info-gap decision theory. Further, minimax only requires ordinal measurement (that outcomes be compared and ranked), not interval measurements (that outcomes include "how much better or worse"), and returns ordinal data, using only the modeled outcomes: the conclusion of a minimax analysis is: "this strategy is minimax, as the worst case is (outcome), which is less bad than any other strategy". Compare to expected value analysis, whose conclusion is of the form: "this strategy yields E(X)=n." Minimax thus can be used on ordinal data, and can be more transparent. Maximin in philosophy In philosophy, the term "maximin" is often used in the context of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice, where he refers to it (Rawls (1971, p. 152)) in the context of The Difference Principle. Rawls defined this principle as the rule which states that social and economic inequalities should be arranged so that "they are to be of the greatest benefit to the least-advantaged members of society". In other words, an unequal distribution can be just when it maximizes the benefit to those who have the most minuscule allocation of welfare conferring resources (which he refers to as "primary goods"). Arrow, "Some Ordinalist-Utilitarian Notes on Rawls's Theory of Justice, Journal of Philosophy 70, 9 (May 1973), pp. 245-263. Harsanyi, "Can the Maximin Principle Serve as a Basis for Morality? a Critique of John Rawls's Theory, American Political Science Review 69, 2 (June 1975), pp. 594-606. See also Alpha-beta pruning Claude Elwood Shannon Computer chess Expectiminimax Horizon effect Maximin Minimax Condorcet Negamax Minimax regret Transposition table Notes External links Minimax Analysis for Zero Sum Games A visualization applet "Maximin principle" from A Dictionary of Philosophical Terms and Names. Play a betting-and-bluffing game against a mixed minimax strategy The Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures entry for minimax Minimax (with or without alpha-beta pruning) algorithm visualization - game tree (Java Applet) CLISP minimax - game. | Minimax |@lemmatized minimax:46 sometimes:1 minmax:1 decision:14 rule:3 use:17 theory:18 game:41 statistic:1 philosophy:4 minimize:10 maximum:9 possible:14 loss:5 alternatively:2 think:3 maximize:9 minimum:8 gain:6 maximin:9 originally:1 formulate:1 two:7 player:39 zero:12 sum:12 cover:1 case:2 take:2 alternate:2 move:31 make:7 simultaneous:3 also:6 extend:3 complex:1 general:1 making:2 presence:2 uncertainty:2 strategy:17 mixed:4 part:1 solution:5 nash:2 equilibrium:2 theorem:7 state:5 every:2 person:2 finite:2 exist:2 value:23 v:5 give:8 best:7 payoff:10 b:24 equivalently:1 guarantee:3 regardless:1 similarly:1 name:3 arises:1 since:8 establish:1 john:4 von:2 neumann:2 j:1 zur:1 theorie:1 der:1 gesellschaftsspiele:1 math:1 annalen:1 quote:1 say:1 far:3 see:5 could:1 without:5 nothing:1 worth:1 publishing:1 prove:1 sion:1 parthasarathy:1 generalization:1 example:7 choose:17 chooses:7 following:1 illustrate:1 suppose:2 three:1 choice:6 consider:2 matrix:3 displayed:1 right:2 assume:3 sign:1 reverse:1 e:5 pay:2 bad:5 result:9 simple:2 payment:2 however:1 stable:3 believe:2 eventually:1 realize:1 difficulty:1 need:2 dominate:1 others:1 eliminate:1 either:1 produce:2 good:4 matter:4 avoid:2 expected:3 probability:5 ensure:1 least:3 randomized:1 cannot:1 improve:2 frequently:1 distinct:1 denote:1 opponent:4 identical:2 one:9 term:3 commonly:1 non:6 describe:1 generally:2 combinatorial:3 algorithm:22 version:2 deal:1 tic:1 tac:1 toe:1 win:11 lose:2 draw:3 know:1 lead:6 situation:2 another:2 late:1 easy:1 help:1 find:1 work:1 backwards:1 end:3 step:2 try:2 chance:4 winning:3 next:3 turn:3 recursive:1 n:2 usually:3 associate:1 position:10 compute:1 mean:1 evaluation:6 function:7 indicate:1 would:1 reach:2 follow:2 legal:2 allocation:2 method:2 consist:1 assign:8 certain:2 develop:2 horton:1 conway:1 alternative:2 immediate:2 positive:3 infinity:5 negative:3 reply:1 reason:1 call:4 maximizing:2 minimizing:2 hence:1 final:2 often:2 complicate:1 chess:4 go:1 computationally:1 feasible:1 look:5 ahead:5 completion:1 except:1 towards:1 instead:1 estimate:2 degree:1 belief:1 supply:1 heuristic:6 complete:1 sequence:1 limit:2 number:8 measure:1 ply:4 computer:2 deep:1 blue:2 beat:1 garry:1 kasparov:1 apply:1 explore:3 node:18 tree:6 effective:1 branching:2 factor:3 average:3 child:6 increase:1 exponentially:1 less:2 exponential:1 evaluate:3 force:1 repeat:1 analysis:5 therefore:3 approximately:1 raise:1 power:1 impractical:1 completely:1 analyze:1 performance:1 naïve:1 may:3 dramatically:1 affect:1 alpha:3 beta:3 pruning:1 prune:4 un:1 search:1 naive:1 trivially:1 modify:1 additionally:1 return:4 entire:1 principal:1 variation:1 along:1 score:1 pseudocode:2 negamax:2 terminate:1 depth:4 code:1 base:1 observation:1 treat:2 separately:1 terminal:1 else:1 let:2 α:4 foreach:1 max:1 play:2 per:1 generate:1 circle:1 represent:3 run:1 square:1 limitation:1 computation:1 resource:2 explain:1 leaf:1 obtain:1 show:1 level:2 small:1 g:1 left:1 consists:1 large:2 parent:1 continue:1 nod:1 root:1 figure:1 arrow:2 order:1 individual:1 face:1 consequence:1 depend:1 unknown:1 fact:1 decide:1 prospect:1 mineral:2 entail:1 cost:1 waste:1 present:1 bring:1 major:1 reward:1 approach:3 nature:1 similar:1 mindset:1 murphy:1 law:1 technique:2 addition:1 expectiminimax:2 dice:1 criterion:2 statistical:2 classical:1 estimator:3 parameter:1 risk:2 specify:1 integral:1 framework:2 satisfy:1 theoretic:1 bayes:2 prior:1 distribution:2 probabilistic:3 key:1 feature:1 contrast:1 expect:3 utility:1 assumption:2 various:2 outcome:4 scenario:1 thus:2 robust:1 change:1 extension:1 notably:1 regret:2 info:1 gap:1 require:1 ordinal:3 measurement:2 outcomes:2 compare:2 rank:1 interval:1 include:1 much:1 well:1 data:3 model:1 conclusion:2 whose:1 form:1 yield:1 x:1 transparent:1 context:2 rawls:5 justice:2 refer:2 p:1 difference:1 principle:4 define:1 social:1 economic:1 inequality:1 arrange:1 great:1 benefit:2 advantaged:1 member:1 society:1 word:1 unequal:1 minuscule:1 welfare:1 confer:1 primary:1 ordinalist:1 utilitarian:1 note:2 journal:1 pp:2 harsanyi:1 serve:1 basis:1 morality:1 critique:1 american:1 political:1 science:1 review:1 june:1 claude:1 elwood:1 shannon:1 horizon:1 effect:1 condorcet:1 transposition:1 table:1 external:1 link:1 visualization:2 applet:2 dictionary:2 philosophical:1 betting:1 bluffing:1 structure:1 entry:1 java:1 clisp:1 |@bigram decision_making:2 nash_equilibrium:2 minimax_theorem:4 von_neumann:2 zur_theorie:1 theorie_der:1 minimax_algorithm:11 tic_tac:1 tac_toe:1 horton_conway:1 garry_kasparov:1 alpha_beta:3 leaf_node:1 external_link:1 java_applet:1 |
7,532 | Ed_Sullivan | Edward Vincent "Ed" Sullivan (September 28, 1901 – October 13, 1974) was an American entertainment writer and television host, best known as the presenter of a popular TV variety show called The Ed Sullivan Show that was popular in the 1950s and 1960s. Early career A former boxer, Sullivan began his media work as a newspaper sportswriter. When Walter Winchell, one of the original gossip columnists and the most powerful entertainment reporter of his day, left the newspaper for the Hearst syndicate, Sullivan took over as theater columnist for The New York Graphic Yagoda, Ben (1981), "The True Story of Bernarr Macfadden," American Heritage 33(1), December, 1981; reference used for this article was the online version, and later for The New York Daily News. His column concentrated on Broadway shows and gossip, as Winchell's had and, like Winchell, he also did show business news broadcasts on radio. Sullivan soon became a powerful starmaker in the entertainment world himself, becoming one of Winchell's main rivals, setting the El Morocco nightclub in New York as his unofficial headquarters against Winchell's seat of power at the nearby Stork Club. Sullivan continued writing for The News throughout his broadcasting career and his popularity long outlived that of Winchell. Television In 1948, the CBS network hired Sullivan to do a weekly Sunday night TV variety show, Toast of the Town, which later became The Ed Sullivan Show. Debuting in June 1948, the show was broadcast from CBS Studio 50, at 1697 Broadway (at 53rd Street) in New York City, which in 1967 was renamed the Ed Sullivan Theater (and is now the home of The Late Show with David Letterman). Sullivan himself had little acting ability; his mannerisms on camera were somewhat awkward and often caricatured by comedians who called him "Old Stone Face," owing to his deadpan delivery. Columnist Harriet Van Horne alleged that "he got where he is not by having a personality, but by having no personality." Somehow, Sullivan still seemed to fit the show; he appeared to the audience as an average guy who brought the great acts of show business to their home televisions. ("He will last," comedian and frequent guest Alan King was quoted as saying, "as long as someone else has talent.") He had a newspaperman's instinct for what the public wanted, and programmed his variety hours with remarkable balance. There was something for everyone. A typical show would feature a vaudeville act (acrobats, jugglers, magicians, etc.), one or two popular comedians, a singing star, a hot jukebox favorite, a figure from the legitimate theater, and for the kids, a visit with puppet "Topo Gigio, the little Italian mouse." The bill was often international in scope, with many European performers augmenting the American artists. Sullivan had a healthy sense of humor about himself and permitted—even encouraged—impersonators such as John Byner, Frank Gorshin, Rich Little and especially Will Jordan to imitate him on his show. Johnny Carson also did a fair impression, and even Joan Rivers imitated Sullivan's unique posture. The impressionists exaggerated his stiffness, raised shoulders, and nasal tenor phrasing, along with some of his commonly used introductions, such as "And now, right here on our stage..." and "For all you youngsters out there..." and "...a really big shoe..." Will Jordan portrayed Sullivan in the films I Wanna Hold Your Hand, The Buddy Holly Story, The Doors, Mr. Saturday Night, Down With Love, and in the 1979 TV movie Elvis. In the 1950s and 1960s, Sullivan was a respected starmaker because of the number of performers that became household names after appearing on the show. He had a knack for identifying and promoting top talent and paid a great deal of money to secure that talent for his show. Sullivan appreciated African American talent. He paid for the funeral of dancer Bill 'Bojangles' Robinson out of his own pocket. He also defied pressure to exclude African American musicians from appearing on his show. In 1969, Sullivan presented the Jackson 5 with their first single "I Want You Back", which ousted B. J. Thomas's "Raindrops Keep Falling on My Head" from the top spot of Billboard's pop charts. At the end of the debut episode of The Flying Nun, the convent receives a telephone call from "Mr. Sullivan" who wishes to speak to Sister Bertrille. Assuming that it's a priest, Reverend Mother gives Bertrille the phone. After addressing the person on the other end, Bertrille shouts "Ed Sullivan!" Personality There was another side to Sullivan: he could be very quick to take offense if he felt he had been crossed, and could hold a grudge for a long time. This could unfortunately be seen as a part of his TV personality. Jackie Mason, Bo Diddley, Buddy Holly, and The Doors became intimately familiar with Sullivan's negative side. On November 20, 1955, Bo Diddley was asked by Sullivan to sing Tennessee Ernie Ford's hit "Sixteen Tons". Come air time, Diddley sang his #2 hit song "Bo Diddley". He was banned from the show. Jackie Mason was banned from the series in October 1964 (the ban was removed a year and a half later, and Mason made his final appearance on the show). During Mason's monologue Sullivan, off camera, gestured that Mason should wrap things up, as a breaking news story was developing. The nervous Mason told the audience, "I'm getting two fingers here!" and made his own frantic hand gesture: "Two fingers for you!" Videotapes of the incident are inconclusive as to whether Mason's upswept hand was intended to be an indecent gesture, but Sullivan's body language immediately afterward made it clear that he was convinced of it, despite Mason's panic-stricken denials later. CBS special, The Very Best of the Ed Sullivan Show Sullivan later invited Mason back for a return engagement, but the notoriety of the "finger" incident lingered with the studio audience. The Doors were banned in 1967 after they were asked to remove the lyric "Girl, we couldn't get much higher" from their song "Light My Fire" (CBS censors believed that it was too overt a reference to drug use) but sang the song with the lyrics intact. On January 26, 1958, for their second appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show, Buddy Holly and the Crickets were scheduled to perform two songs. Sullivan wanted the band to substitute a different song for his record hit "Oh, Boy!", which he felt was too raucous. Holly had already told his hometown friends in Texas that he would be singing "Oh, Boy!" for them, and told Sullivan as much. During the afternoon the Crickets were summoned to rehearsal on short notice, but only Holly was in their dressing room. When asked where the others were, Holly replied, "I don't know. No telling." Sullivan then turned to Holly and said "I guess The Crickets are not too excited to be on The Ed Sullivan Show" to which Holly caustically replied, "I hope they're damn more excited than I am." Sullivan, already bothered by the choice of songs, was now even angrier. He cut the Crickets' act from two songs to one, and when introducing them mispronounced Holly's name, so it came out vaguely as 'Hollered' or "Holland." In addition, Sullivan saw to it that the microphone for Holly's electric guitar was turned off. Holly tried to compensate by singing as loudly as he could, and repeatedly trying to turn up the volume on his guitar. For the instrumental break he cut loose with a dramatic solo, making clear to the audience that the technical fault wasn't his. The band was received so well that Sullivan was forced to invite them back for a third appearance. Holly's response was that Sullivan didn't have enough money. Film of the performance survives; photographs taken that day show Sullivan looking angry and Holly smirking and perhaps ignoring Sullivan. When The Byrds performed on December 12, 1965, David Crosby got into a shouting match with the show's director. They were never asked to return. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2105166789756539416&q=the+ed+sullivan+show+byrds&ei=e2NwSLuhCYSSrgLNvPylBw&hl=en The Rolling Stones were told to change the chorus of "Let's Spend the Night Together" to "Let's spend some time together". Lead singer Mick Jagger complied, but deliberately called attention to this censorship by rolling his eyes and mugging when he uttered the new words. The video of this performance can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0uewUcr-BYo Moe Howard of the Three Stooges recalled in 1975 that Sullivan had a memory problem of sorts: "Ed was a very nice man, but for a showman, quite forgetful. On our first appearance, he introduced us as the Three Ritz Brothers. He got out of it by adding, "who look more like the Three Stooges to me." Howard, Moe. (1977, rev. 1979) Moe Howard and the Three Stooges, p. 165; Citadel Press. ISBN 978-0-8065-0723-1 Diana Ross later recalled Sullivan's forgetfulness during the many occasions The Supremes performed on his show. In a 1995 appearance on The Late Show with David Letterman (which is filmed in Ed Sullivan Theater), Ross stated, "he could never remember our names. He called us 'the girls'." http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WMeZCg98_2U&feature=related Standards Unlike many shows of the time, Sullivan asked that most musical acts perform their music live, rather than lip-synching to their recordings. Some of these performances have recently been issued on CD. www.amazon.com Examination of performances show that exceptions were made, as when a microphone could not be placed close enough to a performer for technical reasons. An example was B.J. Thomas' 1969 performance of "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head," in which actual water was sprinkled on him as a special effect. The act that appeared most frequently through the show's run was the Canadian comedy duo of Wayne & Shuster, making 67 appearances between 1958 and 1969. Sullivan also appeared as himself on other television programs, including an April 1958 episode of the Howard Duff and Ida Lupino CBS sitcom, Mr. Adams and Eve. In 1961, Sullivan was asked by CBS to fill in for an ailing Red Skelton on The Red Skelton Show. He performed some of Skelton's characters successfully. One character was renamed "Eddie the Freeloader" (normally "Freddie the Freeloader"). In August 1956, Sullivan was injured in an automobile accident that occurred near his country home in Southbury, Connecticut. Sullivan had to take a medical leave from the show and missed the September 8 appearance of Elvis Presley. Earlier Sullivan had said that he would never invite Presley on his program. Charles Laughton wound up introducing Presley on the Sullivan hour. On a later Presley appearance, Sullivan made amends by telling his audience, "This is a real decent, fine boy." Sullivan's failure to scoop the TV industry with Presley made him determined to get the next big sensation first. In 1964, he achieved that with the first live American appearance of The Beatles, on February 9, 1964, the most-watched program in TV history to that point and still one of the most-watched programs of all time. The Beatles appeared three more times on the Sullivan show in person, and submitted filmed performances later. Sullivan struck up such a rapport with the Beatles that he agreed to introduce them at their momentous Shea Stadium concert on August 15, 1965. The Dave Clark Five, heavily promoted as having a "cleaner" image than the Beatles, made 13 appearances on the Sullivan show, more than any other UK group. Ed Sullivan visits Expo 67 in Montreal In the fall of 1965, CBS began televising the weekly programs in color. Although the Sullivan show was seen live in the Central and Eastern time zones, it was taped for airing in the Pacific and Mountain time zones. Most of the taped programs (as well as some early kinescopes) were preserved, and excerpts have been released on home video. At a time when television had not yet embraced country and western music, Sullivan was adamant about featuring Nashville performers on his program. This insistence paved the way for shows such as "Hee Haw" and variety shows hosted by country singers like Johnny Cash and Glen Campbell. Politics Reacting to the Cold War fervor of the 1950s, Ed Sullivan worked closely with Theodore Kirkpatrick of the anti-communist Counterattack newsletter. Sullivan would check with Kirkpatrick if a potential guest had some "explaining to do" about his politics. Sullivan wrote in his June 21, 1950 New York Daily News column that "Kirkpatrick has sat in my living room on several occasions and listened attentively to performers eager to secure a certification of loyalty." Tube of Plenty, Eric Barnouw, Oxford University Press, 1990 Jerome Robbins, in his PBS American Experience biography, explained that he was forced to capitulate to the House Un-American Committee, identifying eight Communist sympathizers and disgracing himself among his fellow artists, because Sullivan threatened to reveal Robbins's homosexuality to the public. Death By 1971, the show was no longer in television's top 20. New CBS executives, who wanted to attract younger viewers, canceled the show along with virtually all of the network's oldest shows. Sullivan was so upset and angry that he refused to do a final show, although he did return to CBS for several TV specials and a 25th-anniversary show in 1973. One year later, the man known as "Stone Face" died October 13, 1974 of esophageal cancer at age 73 at New York's Lenox Hill Hospital, coincidentally on a Sunday night. His funeral was attended by 3,000 at St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York on a cold, rainy day. Sullivan is interred in a crypt at the Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. Sullivan was married to the former Sylvia Weinstein from April 28, 1930, until her death on March 16, 1973. They had one daughter, Betty Sullivan (who married the Sullivan show's producer, Bob Precht). Sullivan was in the habit of calling Sylvia after every program to get her immediate critique. Sullivan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6101 Hollywood Blvd. References Further reading Ed Sullivan by Gerald Nachman, December 18, 2006. Impresario: The Life and Times of Ed Sullivan by James Maguire. Billboard Books, 2006 External links Ed Sullivan at TVGuide.com Ed Sullivan appearance on the Phil Silvers Show Overview of Ed Sullivan's life | Ed_Sullivan |@lemmatized edward:1 vincent:1 ed:18 sullivan:72 september:2 october:3 american:8 entertainment:3 writer:1 television:6 host:2 best:2 know:3 presenter:1 popular:3 tv:7 variety:4 show:42 call:6 early:3 career:2 former:2 boxer:1 begin:2 medium:1 work:2 newspaper:2 sportswriter:1 walter:1 winchell:6 one:8 original:1 gossip:2 columnist:3 powerful:2 reporter:1 day:3 leave:2 hearst:1 syndicate:1 take:4 theater:4 new:10 york:8 graphic:1 yagoda:1 ben:1 true:1 story:3 bernarr:1 macfadden:1 heritage:1 december:3 reference:3 use:3 article:1 online:1 version:1 later:8 daily:2 news:5 column:2 concentrate:1 broadway:2 like:3 also:4 business:2 broadcast:3 radio:1 soon:1 become:5 starmaker:2 world:1 main:1 rival:1 set:1 el:1 morocco:1 nightclub:1 unofficial:1 headquarters:1 seat:1 power:1 nearby:1 stork:1 club:1 continue:1 write:2 throughout:1 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7,533 | Environmental_skepticism | Environmental skepticism is an umbrella term that describes those that argue that particular claims put forward by environmentalists and environmental scientists are incorrect or exaggerated, along with those who are critical of environmentalism in general. The use of the term is contested. Supporters of environmentalists argue that "skepticism" implies an open-minded attitude to empirical evidence and that their opponents are in fact advocates for predetermined positions reflecting ideological commitments or financial interests. Critics of environmental skepticism frequently use more pejorative terms such as denialism. Examples of Skeptic Thinking The popularity of the term was enhanced by Bjørn Lomborg's book The Skeptical Environmentalist. Lomborg approached environmental claims from a statistical and economic standpoint, and concluded that often the claims made by environmentalists were overstated. Lomborg argued, on the basis of cost benefit analysis, that few environmentalist claims warranted serious concern. Tom Bethell's Politically Incorrect Guide to Science extends environmental skepticism to a more general critique of scientific consensus. Bethell rejects mainstream views on evolution and global warming and supports AIDS denialism. Frank Luntz's 2002 memo The Environment: A Cleaner, Safer, Healthier America to President George W. Bush emphasizes that "you need to continue to make the lack of scientific certainty a primary issue in the debate [of environmental issues]" in order to preserve the political support of voters. "Frank Luntz's memo at www.aspenlawschool.com" "Frank Luntz's memo at www.sindark.com" Luntz has since changed his thinking, but stands by what he said as appropriate at the time he said it. The Heartland Institute of the United States and its 'common sense environmentalism' is an example of environmental skeptic thinking. The Institute makes the distinction between 'real' environmental issues and 'imaginary' ones. It advocates that only the 'real' issues should be addressed, and done so "without trampling on other things we value, such as individual freedom and economic prosperity." "The Heartland Institute: Environment Policy and Freedom" Analysis of Skepticism A recent study of the environmental skepticism movement found that the overwhelming majority of environmentally skeptical books published since the 1970's were either written or published by authors or institutions affiliated with conservative think thanks. The authors identified four defining themes in the movement: The "denial of the seriousness of environmental problems and dismissal of scientific evidence documenting these problems" The "question[ing of] the importance of environmentally protective policies" The "endorse[ment] an anti-regulatory/anti-corporate liability position" And the promotion of the idea that "environmentalism [is] a growing threat to social and economic progress and the ‘American way of life’" They "conclude that scepticism is a tactic of an elite-driven counter-movement designed to combat environmentalism, and that the successful use of this tactic has contributed to the weakening of US commitment to environmental protection." The mainstream news media of the United States is an example of the effectiveness of skepticism as a 'tactic'. A 2005 study reviewed and analyzed the US mass-media coverage of the environmental issue of climate change from 1988 to 2004. The authors confirm that within the journalism industry there is great emphasis on eliminating the presence of media bias. In their study they found that - due to this practice of objectivity - “Over a 15-year period, a majority (52.7%) of prestige-press articles featured balanced accounts that gave ‘roughly equal attention’ to the views that humans were contributing to global warming and that exclusively natural fluctuations could explain the earth’s temperature increase.” As a result, they observed that it is easier for people to conclude that the issue of global warming and the accompanying scientific evidence is still hotly debated. Boykoff, M. T., Boykoff, J. M. (2007) "Climate change and journalistic norms: A case-study of US mass-media coverage.", ScienceDirect Retrieved on February 07, 2009. See also Global warming controversy Silent Spring Genetically modified food controversies Global warming denial References Bibliography Bethell, Tom, The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science, Washington, DC, Regnery Publishing, Inc., 2005 ISBN 0-89526-031-X Huber, Peter, Hard Green: Saving the Environment from the Environmentalists, New York, Basic Books, 2000 ISBN 0-465-03113-7 Lomborg, Bjørn, The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World, Cambridge & New York, Cambridge University Press, 2001 ISBN 0-521-01068-3 Mooney, Chris, The Republican War on Science, Basic Books. ISBN 0465046762. de Steiguer, J.E. 2006. The Origins of Modern Environmental Thought. The University of Arizona Press. Tucson. 246 pp. | Environmental_skepticism |@lemmatized environmental:13 skepticism:7 umbrella:1 term:4 describe:1 argue:3 particular:1 claim:4 put:1 forward:1 environmentalist:7 scientist:1 incorrect:3 exaggerated:1 along:1 critical:1 environmentalism:4 general:2 use:3 contest:1 supporter:1 imply:1 open:1 minded:1 attitude:1 empirical:1 evidence:3 opponent:1 fact:1 advocate:2 predetermined:1 position:2 reflect:1 ideological:1 commitment:2 financial:1 interest:1 critic:1 frequently:1 pejorative:1 denialism:2 example:3 skeptic:2 think:2 popularity:1 enhance:1 bjørn:2 lomborg:4 book:4 skeptical:3 approach:1 statistical:1 economic:3 standpoint:1 conclude:3 often:1 make:3 overstate:1 basis:1 cost:1 benefit:1 analysis:2 warrant:1 serious:1 concern:1 tom:2 bethell:3 politically:2 guide:2 science:3 extends:1 critique:1 scientific:3 consensus:1 reject:1 mainstream:2 view:2 evolution:1 global:5 warming:3 support:2 aid:1 frank:3 luntz:4 memo:3 environment:3 cleaner:1 safer:1 healthy:1 america:1 president:1 george:1 w:1 bush:1 emphasize:1 need:1 continue:1 lack:1 certainty:1 primary:1 issue:6 debate:2 order:1 preserve:1 political:1 voter:1 www:2 aspenlawschool:1 com:2 sindark:1 since:2 change:3 thinking:2 stand:1 say:2 appropriate:1 time:1 heartland:2 institute:3 united:2 state:3 common:1 sense:1 distinction:1 real:3 imaginary:1 one:1 address:1 without:1 trample:1 thing:1 value:1 individual:1 freedom:2 prosperity:1 policy:2 recent:1 study:4 movement:3 find:2 overwhelming:1 majority:2 environmentally:2 publish:2 either:1 write:1 author:3 institution:1 affiliate:1 conservative:1 thanks:1 identify:1 four:1 define:1 theme:1 denial:2 seriousness:1 problem:2 dismissal:1 scientific:1 document:1 question:1 ing:1 importance:1 protective:1 endorse:1 ment:1 anti:2 regulatory:1 corporate:1 liability:1 promotion:1 idea:1 grow:1 threat:1 social:1 progress:1 american:1 way:1 life:1 scepticism:1 tactic:3 elite:1 driven:1 counter:1 design:1 combat:1 successful:1 contribute:2 weakening:1 u:3 protection:1 news:1 medium:4 effectiveness:1 review:1 analyze:1 mass:2 coverage:2 climate:2 confirm:1 within:1 journalism:1 industry:1 great:1 emphasis:1 eliminate:1 presence:1 bias:1 due:1 practice:1 objectivity:1 year:1 period:1 prestige:1 press:3 article:1 feature:1 balanced:1 account:1 give:1 roughly:1 equal:1 attention:1 human:1 exclusively:1 natural:1 fluctuation:1 could:1 explain:1 earth:1 temperature:1 increase:1 result:1 observe:1 easy:1 people:1 accompany:1 still:1 hotly:1 boykoff:2 j:2 journalistic:1 norm:1 case:1 sciencedirect:1 retrieve:1 february:1 see:1 also:1 warm:2 controversy:2 silent:1 spring:1 genetically:1 modify:1 food:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 washington:1 dc:1 regnery:1 publishing:1 inc:1 isbn:4 x:1 huber:1 peter:1 hard:1 green:1 save:1 new:2 york:2 basic:2 measure:1 world:1 cambridge:2 university:2 mooney:1 chris:1 republican:1 war:1 de:1 steiguer:1 e:1 origin:1 modern:1 thought:1 arizona:1 tucson:1 pp:1 |@bigram bjørn_lomborg:1 skeptical_environmentalist:2 environmentalist_lomborg:1 politically_incorrect:2 global_warming:3 aid_denialism:1 w_bush:1 heartland_institute:2 overwhelming_majority:1 hotly_debate:1 genetically_modify:1 washington_dc:1 |
7,534 | Debian | Debian () is a computer operating system composed of free and open source software. The primary form, Debian GNU/Linux, is a popular and influential Linux distribution. It is distributed with access to repositories containing thousands of software packages ready for installation and use. These packages are distributed under free software / open source licenses. Debian is known for strict adherence to the Unix and free software philosophies as well as using collaborative software development and testing processes. Debian can be used as a desktop as well as server operating system. The Debian Project is governed by the Debian Constitution and the Social Contract which set out the governance structure of the project as well as explicitly stating that the goal of the project is the development of a free operating system. Debian is developed by over one thousand volunteers from around the world and supported by donations through several non-profit organizations around the world, with SPI , an umbrella organization for various free software projects, being the most important. Thus, the Debian Project is an independent decentralized organization; it is not backed by a company like other Linux distributions such as Ubuntu, openSUSE, Fedora, and Mandriva. The cost of developing Debian 4.0 etch, assuming paid programmers from a single organization and based on source lines of code, has been estimated to be close to US$13,000,000,000. As of April 2, 2009, Ohloh estimates that the Debian GNU/Linux project, assuming a $55,000 average salary, would cost $819,274,547 to redevelop from scratch. http://www.ohloh.net/p/debian Debian GNU/Linux (at Ohloh) Many distributions are based on Debian, including Ubuntu, MEPIS, Dreamlinux, Damn Small Linux, Xandros, Knoppix, BackTrack(as of Backtrack 4), Linspire, sidux, Kanotix, Parsix and LinEx, among others. Debian is also known for an abundance of options. The current stable release includes over twenty five thousand software packages for twelve computer architectures. These architectures range from the Intel/AMD 32-bit/64-bit architectures commonly found in personal computers to the ARM architecture commonly found in embedded systems and the IBM eServer zSeries mainframes. Prominent features of Debian are the APT package management system, repositories with large numbers of packages, strict policies regarding packages, and the high quality of releases. These practices allow easy upgrades between releases as well as automated installation and removal of packages. The Debian standard install makes use of the GNOME desktop environment. It includes popular programs such as OpenOffice.org, Iceweasel (a rebranding of Firefox), Evolution mail, CD/DVD writing programs, music and video players, image viewers and editors, and PDF viewers. There are pre-built CD images for KDE, Xfce and LXDE as well. The remaining discs, which span five DVDs or over thirty CDs, contain all packages currently available and are not necessary for a standard install. Another install method is via a net install CD which is much smaller than a normal install CD/DVD. It contains only the bare essentials needed to start the installer and downloads the packages selected during installation via APT. These CD/DVD images can be freely obtained by web download, BitTorrent, jigdo or buying them from online retailers. History 1993–2000 Debian was first announced on 16 August 1993 by Ian Murdock. Murdock initially called the system "the Debian Linux Release". Prior to Debian's release, the Softlanding Linux System (SLS) had been the first Linux distribution compiled from various software packages, and was a popular basis for other distributions in 1993-1994. The perceived poor maintenance and prevalence of bugs in SLS motivated Murdock to launch a new distribution. In 1993 Murdock also released the Debian Manifesto, outlining his view for the new operating system. In it he called for the creation of a distribution to be maintained in an open manner, in the spirit of Linux and GNU. He formed the name "Debian" as a combination of the first name of his then girlfriend Debra and his own first name. The Debian Project grew slowly at first and released the first 0.9x versions in 1994 and 1995. The first ports to other, non-i386 architectures began in 1995, and the first 1.x version of Debian was released in 1996. In 1996, Bruce Perens replaced Ian Murdock as the project leader. In the same year, fellow developer Ean Schuessler suggested that Debian should establish a social contract with its users. He distilled the resulting discussion on Debian mailing lists into the Debian Social Contract and the Debian Free Software Guidelines, defining fundamental commitments for the development of the distribution. He also initiated the creation of the legal umbrella organization, Software in the Public Interest. Perens left the project in 1998 before the release of the first glibc-based Debian, 2.0. The Project elected new leaders and made two more 2.x releases, each including more ports and packages. The Advanced Packaging Tool was deployed during this time and the first port to a non-Linux kernel, Debian GNU/Hurd, was started. The first Linux distributions based on Debian, namely Libranet, Corel Linux and Stormix's Storm Linux, were started in 1999. 2000–present In late 2000, the project made major changes to archive and release management, reorganizing software archive processes with new "package pools" and creating a testing distribution as an ongoing, relatively stable staging area for the next release. In the same year, developers began holding an annual conference called DebConf with talks and workshops for developers and technical users. In July 2002, the Project released version 3.0, codenamed woody, a stable release which would see relatively few updates until the following release, 3.1 sarge in June 2005. There were many major changes in the sarge release, mostly due to the large time it took to freeze and release the distribution. Not only did this release update over 73% of the software shipped in the previous version, but it also included much more software than previous releases, almost doubling in size with 9,000 new packages. A new installer replaced the aging boot-floppies installer with a modular design. This allowed advanced installations (with RAID, XFS and LVM support) including hardware detection, making installations easier for novice users. The installation system also boasted full internationalization support as the software was translated into almost forty languages. An installation manual and comprehensive release notes were released in ten and fifteen different languages respectively. This release included the efforts of the Debian-Edu/Skolelinux, Debian-Med and Debian-Accessibility sub-projects which boosted the number of educational packages and those with a medical affiliation as well as packages designed especially for people with disabilities. Debian 4.0 (etch) was released April 8, 2007 for the same number of architectures as in sarge. It included the AMD64 port but dropped support for m68k. The m68k port was, however, still available in the unstable distribution. There were around 18,200 binary packages maintained by more than 1,030 Debian developers. Debian 5.0 (lenny) was released February 14, 2009 after 22 months of development. It includes over 25,000 software packages. Support was added for Marvell's Orion platform and for netbooks such as the Asus Eee PC. The release was dedicated to Thiemo Seufer, an active developer and member of the community who died in a car accident on December 26, 2008. Mozilla Corporation software rebranded by the Debian project Firefox and Thunderbird were rebranded in 2006 to Iceweasel and Icedove, along with other Mozilla software. The Mozilla Corporation stated that Debian may not use the Firefox trademark if it distributes Firefox with modifications which have not been approved by the Mozilla Corporation. Two prominent reasons that Debian modifies the Firefox software are to change the artwork, and to provide security patches. Debian's free software guidelines consider Mozilla's artwork non-free. Debian provides long term support for older versions of Firefox in the stable release, where Mozilla prefers that old versions are not supported. The software programs owned by the Mozilla Corporation were rebranded but the programs' source codes remained the same only with minor differences. Development procedures Software packages in development are either uploaded to the project distribution named unstable (also known as sid), or to the experimental repository. Software packages uploaded to unstable are normally versions stable enough to be released by the original upstream developer, but with the added Debian-specific packaging and other modifications introduced by Debian developers. These additions may be new and untested. Software not ready yet for the unstable distribution is typically placed in the experimental repository. After a version of a software package has remained in unstable for a certain length of time (depending on the urgency of the software's changes), that package is automatically migrated to the testing distribution. The package's migration to testing occurs only if no serious (release-critical) bugs in the package are reported and if other software needed for package functionality qualifies for inclusion in testing. Since updates to Debian software packages between official releases do not contain new features, some choose to use the testing and unstable distributions for their newer packages. However, these distributions are less tested than stable, and unstable does not receive timely security updates. In particular, incautious upgrades to working unstable packages can sometimes seriously break software functionality. Since September 9, 2005 the testing distributions security updates have been provided by the testing security team. After the packages in testing have matured and the goals for the next release are met, the testing distribution becomes the next stable release. The latest stable release of Debian (lenny) is 5.0, released on February 14, 2009. The forthcoming release is version 6.0, codenamed "Squeeze". Project organization Diagram of the organizational structure of the project. The Debian Project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents: The Debian Social Contract defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs. The Debian Free Software Guidelines define the criteria for "free software" and thus what software is permissible in the distribution, as referenced in the Social Contract. These guidelines have also been adopted as the basis of the Open Source Definition. Although it can be considered a separate document for all practical purposes, it formally is part of the Social Contract. The Debian Constitution describes the organizational structure for formal decision-making within the Project, and enumerates the powers and responsibilities of the Debian Project Leader, the Debian Project Secretary, and the Debian Developers generally. Currently, the project includes more than a thousand developers. Each of them sustains some niche in the project, be it package maintenance, software documentation, maintaining the project infrastructure, quality assurance, or release coordination. Package maintainers have jurisdiction over their own packages, although packages are increasingly co-maintained. Other tasks are usually handled by the domain of smaller, more collaborative groups of developers. The project maintains official mailing lists and conferences for communication and coordination between developers. For issues with single packages or domains, a public bug tracking system is used by developers and end-users. Informally, Internet Relay Chat channels (primarily on the OFTC and freenode networks) are used for communication among developers and users as well. Together, the Developers may make binding general decisions by way of a General Resolution or election. All voting is conducted by Cloneproof Schwartz Sequential Dropping, a Condorcet method of voting. A Project Leader is elected once per year by a vote of the Developers; in April 2008, Steve McIntyre was voted into this position, succeeding Sam Hocevar. The Debian Project Leader has several special powers, but this power is far from absolute and is rarely used. Under a General Resolution, the Developers may, among other things, recall the leader, reverse a decision by him or his delegates, and amend the constitution and other foundational documents. The Leader sometimes delegates authority to other developers in order for them to perform specialized tasks. Generally this means that a leader delegates someone to start a new group for a new task, and gradually a team gets formed that carries on doing the work and regularly expands or reduces their ranks as they think is best and as the circumstances allow. A role in Debian with a similar importance to the Project Leader's is that of a Release Manager. Release Managers set goals for the next release, supervise the processes, and make the final decision as to when to release. Project leaders The project has had the following leaders: Ian Murdock (August 1993 – March 1996), founder of the Debian Project Bruce Perens (April 1996 – December 1997) Ian Jackson (January 1998 – December 1998) Wichert Akkerman (January 1999 – March 2001) Ben Collins (April 2001 – April 2002) Bdale Garbee (April 2002 – April 2003) Martin Michlmayr (March 2003 – March 2005) Branden Robinson (April 2005 – April 2006) Anthony Towns (April 2006 – April 2007) Sam Hocevar (April 2007 – April 2008) Steve McIntyre (April 2008 – Present) A supplemental position, Debian Second in Charge (2IC), was created by Anthony Towns. Steve McIntyre held the position between April 2006 and April 2007. Release managers Brian C. White (1997-1999) Richard Braakman (1999-2000) Anthony Towns (2000-2004) Steve Langasek, Andreas Barth and Colin Watson (2004-2007) Andreas Barth and Luk Claes (2007-2008) Luk Claes and Marc Brockschmidt (2008-2009) Luk Claes and Adeodato Simó (2009-present) Note that this list includes the active release managers; it does not include the release assistants (first introduced in 2003) and the retiring managers ("release wizards"). Developer recruitment, motivation, and resignation The Debian project has a steady influx of applicants wishing to become developers. These applicants must undergo an elaborate vetting process which establishes their identity, motivation, understanding of the project's goals (embodied in the Social Contract), and technical competence. Debian Developers join the Project for a number of reasons; some that have been cited in the past include: A desire to contribute back to the Free Software community (practically all applicants are users of Free Software) A desire to see some specific software task accomplished (some view the Debian user community as a valuable testing or proving ground for new software) A desire to make, or keep, Free Software competitive with proprietary alternatives A desire to work closely with people that share some of their aptitudes, interests, and goals (there is a very strong sense of community within the Debian project which some applicants do not experience in their paid jobs) A simple enjoyment of the iterative process of software development and maintenance Debian Developers may resign their positions at any time by orphaning the packages they were responsible for and sending a notice to the developers and the keyring maintainer (so that their upload authorization can be revoked). Package life cycle Flowchart of the life cycle of a Debian package Each Debian software package has a maintainer who keeps track of releases by the "upstream" authors of the software and ensures that the package is compliant with Debian Policy, coheres with the rest of the distribution, and meets the standards of quality of Debian. In relations with users and other developers, the maintainer uses the bug tracking system to follow up on bug reports and fix bugs. Typically, there is only one maintainer for a single package, but increasingly small teams of developers "co-maintain" larger and more complex packages and groups of packages. Periodically, a package maintainer makes a release of a package by uploading it to the "incoming" directory of the Debian package archive (or an "upload queue" which periodically batch-transmits packages to the incoming directory). Package uploads are automatically processed to ensure that they are well-formed (all the requisite files are in place) and that the package is digitally signed by a Debian developer using OpenPGP-compatible software. All Debian developers have public keys. Packages are signed to be able to reject uploads from hostile outsiders to the project, and to permit accountability in the event that a package contains a serious bug, a violation of policy, or malicious code. If the package in incoming is found to be validly signed and well-formed, it is installed into the archive into an area called the "pool" and distributed every day to hundreds of mirrors worldwide. Initially, all package uploads accepted into the archive are only available in the "unstable" suite of packages, which contains the most up-to-date version of each package. However, new code is also untried code, and those packages are only distributed with clear disclaimers. For packages to become candidates for the next "stable" release of the Debian distribution, they first need to be included in the "testing" suite. The requirements for a package to be included in "testing" is that it: Must have been in unstable for the appropriate length of time (the exact duration depends on the "urgency" of the upload) Must not have a greater number of "release-critical" bugs filed against it than the current version in testing. Release-critical bugs are those bugs which are considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release. Must be compiled for all release architectures the package claims to support (eg: the i386-specific package gmod can be included in "testing") All of its dependencies must either be satisfiable by packages already in testing, or be satisfiable by the group of packages which are going to be installed at the same time. The operation of installing the package into testing must not break any packages currently in testing. Thus, a release-critical bug in a package on which many packages depend, such as a shared library, may prevent many packages from entering the "testing" area, because that library is considered deficient. Periodically, the Release Manager publishes guidelines to the developers in order to ready the release, and in accordance with them eventually decides to make a release. This occurs when all important software is reasonably up-to-date in the release-candidate suite for all architectures for which a release is planned, and when any other goals set by the Release Manager have been met. At that time, all packages in the release-candidate suite ("testing") become part of the released suite ("stable"). It is possible for a package—particularly an old, stable, and seldom-updated one—to belong to more than one suite at the same time. The suites are simply collections of pointers into the package "pool" mentioned above. Security information and policy The Debian Project, being free software, handles security policy through public disclosure rather than through security through obscurity. Many advisories are coordinated with other free software vendors and are published the same day a vulnerability is made public. Debian has a security audit team that reviews the archive looking for new or unfixed security bugs. Debian also participates in security standardization efforts: the Debian security advisories are compatible with the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) dictionary, and Debian is represented in the Board of the Open Vulnerability and Assessment Language (OVAL) project. The Debian Project offers extensive documentation and tools to harden a Debian installation both manually and automatically. SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux) packages are installed by default thought not enabled. Releases Debian Installer As of February 2009, the latest stable release is version 5.0, code name lenny. When a new version is released, the previous stable is labeled oldstable; currently, this is version 4.0, code name etch. In addition, a stable release gets minor updates (called point releases). The numbering scheme up for the point releases to Debian 4.0 was to include the letter r (for release) after the main version number (eg 4.0) and then the number of the point release; for example, the latest point release of version 4.0 (etch) as of 15 February 2009 is 4.0r7. From Debian 5.0 (lenny) and the numbering scheme of point releases has been changed and conforms to the GNU version numbering standard; so, for example, the first point release of Debian 5.0 was 5.0.1 (instead of 5.0r1). The Debian security team releases security updates for the latest stable major release, as well as for the previous stable release for one year. Version 4.0 etch was released on 8 April 2007, and the security team supported version 3.1 Sarge until March 31 2008. For most uses it is strongly recommended to run a system which receives security updates. The testing distribution also receives security updates, but not in as timely a manner as stable. Debian has made ten major stable releases: Color Meaning Red Old release; not supported Yellow Old release; still supported Green Current release Blue Future release Version Code name Release date Archs Packages Support Notes 1.1 buzz 17 June 1996 1 474 1996 dpkg, ELF transition, Linux 2.0 1.2 rex 12 December 1996 1 848 1996 - 1.3 bo 5 June 1997 1 974 1997 - 2.0 hamm 24 July 1998 2 ~ 1,500 1998 glibc transition, new architecture: m68k 2.1 slink 9 March 1999 4 ~ 2,250 2000-12 APT, new architectures: alpha, sparc 2.2 potato 15 August 2000 6 ~ 3,900 2003-04 New architectures: arm, powerpc 3.0 woody 19 July 2002 11 ~ 8,500 2006-08 New architectures: hppa, ia64, mips, mipsel, s390 3.1 sarge 6 June 2005 11 ~ 15,400 2008-04 Modular installer, semi-official amd64 support 4.0 etch 8 April 2007 11 ~ 18,000 2010-02 Graphical installer, udev transition, modular X.Org transition, new architecture: amd64, dropped architecture: m68k. Latest update 4.0r8 was released 2009-04-09 5.0 lenny 14 February 2009 12 ~ 23,000 TBA 32-bit SPARC architecture dropped. New architecture/binary ABI: armel. Almost complete UTF-8 support. Full Eee PC support. Latest update 5.0.1 was released 2009-04-11 6.0 squeeze TBA TBA TBA TBA GTK 1 is dropped . KDE 3.5 is dropped . glibc is dropped A Debian 4.0 Box Cover Due to an incident involving a CD vendor who made an unofficial and broken release labeled 1.0, an official 1.0 release was never made. The code names of Debian releases are names of characters from the film Toy Story. The unstable, development distribution is permanently nicknamed sid, after the emotionally unstable next-door neighbor boy who regularly destroyed toys. Linux kernel versions Debian release Debian Linux kernel Latest Linux kernel version just before the Debian release 1.1 buzz on 17 June 1996 2.0 http://lists.debian.org/debian-announce/1996/msg00021.html 2.0.14 on 6 June 1996 http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v1.3/ 1.2 rex on 12 December 19962.0.27 http://lists.debian.org/debian-announce/1996/msg00026.html 2.0.27 on 1 December 1996 http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.0/ 1.3 bo on 5 June 1997 ? 2.1.42 on 29 May 1997 http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.1/ 2.0 hamm on 24 July 1998 ? 2.1.110 on 21 July 1998 2.1 slink on 9 March 19992.0.35-3, 2.0.36-3, 2.1.125-1, 2.2.1-1 http://www.debian.org/releases/slink/i386/reps_hamm_slink/rep.0.html 2.2.3 on 9 March 1999 http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.2/ 2.2 potato on 15 August 2000 2.2.16 2.2.16 on 7 June 2000 and 2.3.99-pre9 on 23 May 2000 http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.3/ 3.0 woody on 19 July 20022.2.20, 2.4.18 http://lists.debian.org/debian-announce/2002/msg00004.html 2.2.21 on 20 May 2002, 2.4.18 on 25 February 2002, http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.4/ and 2.5.26 on 16 July 2002 http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.5/ 3.1 sarge on 6 June 20052.4.27 and 2.6.8 http://lists.debian.org/debian-announce/2005/msg00003.html 2.4.30 on 4 April 2005, and 2.6.11.11 on 27 May 2005 http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.6/ 4.0 etch on 8 April 2007 2.6.182.6.20.6 on 6 April 2007 5.0 lenny on 14 February 20092.6.262.6.28.5 on 12 February 2009 Repositories Debian provides repositories of more than twenty five thousand installable packages. Any of the repositories can be added or modified by directly editing the /etc/apt/sources.list file or modifying the settings in APT front-ends. This is an example of the contents of this file: deb http://http.us.debian.org/debian lenny main contrib non-free Distributions The Debian Project offers 3 distributions to choose from, each with different characteristics. The distributions include packages which comply with the Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG); which are included inside the main repositories. stable, presently aliased lenny, is the current release that has stable and well tested software. Stable is made by freezing testing for a few months where bugs are fixed in order to make the distribution as stable as possible; then the resulting system is released as stable. It is updated only if major security or usability fixes are incorporated. Debian aims to create stable releases about every 18 months, although that doesn't always happen. Stable's CDs and DVDs can be found in the Debian web site. testing, presently aliased squeeze, is what the next major release will be and is currently being tested. The packages included in this distribution have had some testing in unstable but they may not be completely fit for release yet. It contains more modern packages than stable but older than unstable. This distribution is updated continuously until it enters the "frozen" state. Security updates for testing distribution are provided by Debian testing security team. Testing's CDs and DVDs can be found on the Debian web site. unstable, permanently aliased sid, repository contains packages currently under development; it is updated continuously. This repository is designed for Debian developers who participate in a project and need the latest libraries available, therefore it will not be as stable as the other distributions. There are no CDs/DVDs because it is rapidly changing but the other two distributions can be upgraded to unstable. Additional repositories The DFSG adhere to a strict interpretation of FOSS. This is why a relatively small number of packages are excluded from the distributions' main repositories and included inside the non-free and contrib repositories. These two repositories are not officially part of Debian GNU/Linux. non-free: repositories include packages which do not comply with the DFSG. contrib: repositories include packages which do comply with the DFSG, but may fail other requirements. For instance, they may depend on packages which are in non-free. These are other repositories available in Debian: experimental: is not actually a full (self-contained) development distribution, it is meant to be a temporary staging area for highly experimental software. Dependencies missing are most likely found in unstable. Debian warns that these packages are likely unstable or buggy and are to be used at the user's own risk. volatile project: repository contains updates to the stable and oldstable release for programs whose functionality requires frequent updates. Some packages aim at fast moving targets, such as spam filtering and virus scanning, and even when using updated data patterns, they do not really work for the full time of a stable release. The main goal of volatile is allowing system administrators to update their systems in a nice, consistent way, without getting the drawbacks of using unstable, even without getting the drawbacks for the selected packages. So debian-volatile will only contain updates to programs that are necessary to keep them functional. oldstable, presently aliased etch, is the previous stable release. It is supported until 1 year after a new stable is released. Debian recommends to update to the new stable once it has been released. Third party repositories These repositories are not part of the Debian Project, they are maintained by third party organizations. They contain packages that are either more modern than the ones found in stable or include packages that are not included in the Debian Project for a variety of reasons such as: e.g. alleged possible patent infringement, binary-only/no sources, or special too restrictive licenses. Their use requires precise configuration of the priority of the repositories to be merged; otherwise these packages may not integrate correctly into the system, and may cause problems upgrading or conflicts between packages from different sources. The Debian Project discourages the use of these repositories as they are not part of the project. Some well-known unofficial repositories include: debian-multimedia.org debian-unofficial.org backports.org repository contains recompiled packages from testing (mostly) and unstable (in a few cases only, e.g. security updates), which will therefore run with few or no new libraries on stable and in some cases on oldstable. This repository's packages are listed along with the distributions and the additional repositories in debian.org but the packages are hosted at backports.org. It is considered a semi-official repository. Installation of software packages dpkg, installing local .deb packages dpkg is the base of the Debian package management system. dpkg is a command-line utility to install, remove, and provide information about local .deb packages. Gdebi is a tool that expands the functionality of dpkg by not only installing local .deb packages but also fetching and installing dependencies from online repositories. Gdebi can be used both in a graphical interface and by command-line. APT, installing packages from online repositories APT expands the functionality of dpkg by searching, fetching and installing packages from online repositories along with their dependencies, either from binary files or by compiling source code. It can also upgrade packages and upgrade the whole distribution to a new release. Installing and removing software in Debian.Synaptic: a GUI for APT.Package installed with aptitude. Graphical front-ends Add/Remove Applications is a GNOME program to install applications. Synaptic is a GTK+ front-end for APT. KPackage is KDE's front-end for APT. Adept is a discontinued KDE front-end for APT. Command-line front-ends aptitude is the preferred front-end for APT. apt-get is another front-end for APT with fewer features and worse dependency management than aptitude. dselect is an old front-end for APT, largely superseded by other front-ends. wajig is a simplified front end, providing the functionality of APT, dpkg, dpkg-deb, apt-cache, and other tools. Architectures As of the current stable release, the official ports are: i386 – x86 architecture designed for Intel/AMD 32-bit PCs. Also compatible but not recommended on Intel/AMD 64-bit single/multi core PCs amd64 – x86-64 architecture designed for Intel/AMD 64-bit single/multi core PCs alpha – DEC Alpha architecture sparc – Sun SPARC architecture on sun4u/v systems arm, armel – ARM architecture on Risc PC and various embedded systems (both little-endian – old ABI and EABI) powerpc – PowerPC architecture hppa – HP PA-RISC architecture ia64 – Intel Itanium (IA-64) architecture mips, mipsel – MIPS architecture (big-endian and little-endian) s390 – IBM ESA/390 architecture and z/Architecture The m68k port was the second official port in Debian, and has been part of five stable Debian releases. Due to its failure to meet the release criteria, it has been dropped before the release of etch. Still, it continues to be available as part of the unstable distribution: m68k – Motorola 68k architecture on Amiga, Atari, Macintosh, and various embedded VME systems Ongoing efforts include ports to Hitachi SuperH (sh4), Renesas M32R (m32r), and Atmel AVR32 (avr32) architectures, big-endian ARM port (armeb), and 64-bit-only PowerPC port (ppc64). Kernels The Debian Project's goal is the development of a free operating system. There are Debian variants under development which use the GNU tool-sets (gcc, coreutils, bash, etc.) with other kernels apart from Linux: Debian GNU/Linux, on the Linux kernel — the original, officially released port. Most Debian users run Debian GNU/Linux. Debian GNU/Hurd, on GNU Hurd, for the i386 architecture. Debian GNU/Hurd has been in development for years, but still has not been officially released. Roughly half of the software packaged for Debian GNU/Linux has been ported to the GNU Hurd. However, the Hurd itself remains under development, and as such is not ready for use in production systems. The current version of Debian GNU/Hurd is K16 (released 2007-12-21). Debian GNU/kFreeBSD, on the FreeBSD kernel, for the i386 and amd64 architectures. It is a port of the Debian operating system that consists of the GNU userland, GNU C library, Debian package management (dpkg, apt etc.) and system tools, on top of the FreeBSD kernel. The k in kFreeBSD refers to the fact that only the kernel of the complete FreeBSD operating system is used. Although some bugs still exist, Debian GNU/kFreeBSD is a very complete and usable system. Supported desktop environments include GNOME, KDE and Xfce, among others. The FreeBSD 7.1 kernel is used in the install CD. Ging is a Debian GNU/kFreeBSD Live CD. Debian GNU/NetBSD, is a port of the Debian Operating System to the NetBSD kernel. It is currently in an early stage of development - however, it can now be installed from scratch. Although these are official Debian projects, there have been no official releases of the non-Linux ports yet, so currently Debian is exclusively a Linux distribution. Debian Live A Debian Live system is a version of Debian that can be booted directly from removable media (CDs, DVDs, USB keys) or via netboot without having to install it on the hard drive. This allows the user to try out Debian before installing it or use it as a boot-disk. There are prebuilt Debian Live CD images for rescue, standard, GNOME, KDE, Xfce and LXDE in both i386 and amd64. A hard disk installation can be achieved using the Debian Installer included in the CD. Customized CD images can be built using live-helper. Live-helper can not only generate CD Images, but also bootable DVDs, images for USB thumb drives, or netboot images. Live-magic is a GUI for live-helper. Ging is a Debian GNU/kFreeBSD Live CD. Desktop environments Debian offers stable and testing CD images specifically built for GNOME (the default), KDE, Xfce and LXDE. Less common window managers such as Enlightenment, Fluxbox, GNUstep, IceWM, Window Maker and others can also be installed. Hardware requirements Debian has no hardware requirements beyond those of the Linux kernel and the GNU tool-sets (gcc, coreutils, bash, etc.). Therefore, any architecture or platform to which these packages have been ported, and for which a Debian port exists, can run Debian. Linux, and therefore Debian, supports many processors or “symmetric multiprocessing”. This does not inhibit support for single-processor systems. Debian's recommended system requirements differ depending on the level of installation, which corresponds to increased numbers of installed components: Install TypeMinimal RAMRecommended RAMHard Drive space used No Desktop 64 MB 256 MB 1 GB With Desktop 64 MB 512 MB 5 GB A 1 GHz processor is the minimum recommended for desktop systems. The real minimum memory requirements are a lot less than the numbers listed in this table. Depending on the architecture, it is possible to install Debian with as little as 20 MB for s390 or 48 MB for i386 and amd64. The same is applicable for disk space requirements which depend on the packages to be installed. It is possible to run graphical user interfaces on older or low-end systems, but it is recommended to install window managers instead which are less resource-intensive than desktop environments. The LXDE desktop environment was released with lenny and has much lower processor and memory usages compared with GNOME or KDE. Depending on the nature of the server, RAM and disk space requirements can vary widely. The release of lenny (5.0) coincided with the release of Emdebian 1.0, which gives much more control over packing Debian for extremely resource-constrained embedded systems. http://www.emdebian.org/News/2009/20090214.html So far only ARM (EABI) is supported for the smallest Crush flavour. Response Debian was ranked second only to Ubuntu (which is itself derived from Debian) for Most Used Linux Distribution for both Personal and Organizational use in a 2007 survey by SurveyMonkey.com. Debian won the 2007 poll on Server Distribution of the Year by LinuxQuestions.org. Both the Debian distribution and their website have won various awards from different organizations. Debian was awarded the 2004 Readers' Choice Award for Favorite Linux Distribution by the Linux Journal. A total of fifteen other awards have been awarded throughout Debian's lifetime including Best Linux Distribution. Debian has also received negative assessments. In May 2008, Luciano Bello, a fellow Debian Developer, revealed his discovery that changes made in 2006 to the random number generator in the version of the openssl package distributed with Debian and other Debian-based distributions such as Ubuntu or Knoppix, made a variety of security keys vulnerable to a random number generator attack. The security weakness was caused by changes made to the openssl code by a Debian developer in response to compiler warnings. The security hole was soon patched by Debian and others, but the complete resolution procedure was cumbersome for users because it involved regenerating all affected keys, and it drew criticism to Debian's practice of making Debian-specific changes to software. Some in the free software community have criticized the Debian Project for providing the non-free repository, rather than excluding this type of software entirely. Others have criticized Debian for separating the non-free repository from the distributions' main repositories. During the release cycles of Woody and Sarge, the Debian Project drew considerable criticism from the free software community because of the extended period between stable releases. This triggered the creation of Ubuntu in 2004. Ubuntu has releases every 6 months which are forks of Debian's unstable distribution with bug fixes and other modifications. However, it may be more appropriate to compare Debian releases (which continue to be supported after the release of subsequent versions) to Ubuntu's Long Term Support releases (which are supported for three years for desktops and five years for servers LTS - Ubuntu Wiki ); Ubuntu produces a new LTS release every two years, which is similar to Debian's release cycles for the last two stable releases, Etch and Lenny. When in need of updated versions of software, some users have suggested to use Debian testing instead of stable as it usually contains more modern, though slightly less stable packages instead of using Ubuntu's Debian-based unstable distribution. See also List of Debian-based Linux distributions Comparison of Linux distributions DCC Alliance References Further reading External links Debian official site Debian Live official site Original comp.os.linux.development announcement from 1993 Debian Project Leader Election 2008 Results Scientific study about Debian Project governance and social organization List of packages in Debian #debian on FreeNode | Debian |@lemmatized debian:183 computer:3 operate:2 system:33 compose:1 free:25 open:5 source:9 software:55 primary:1 form:5 gnu:24 linux:44 popular:3 influential:1 distribution:50 distribute:5 access:1 repository:31 contain:12 thousand:5 package:106 ready:4 installation:11 use:28 license:2 know:4 strict:3 adherence:1 unix:1 philosophy:1 well:12 collaborative:2 development:16 testing:4 process:6 desktop:10 server:4 operating:6 project:53 govern:1 constitution:3 social:8 contract:7 set:6 governance:2 structure:3 explicitly:1 state:3 goal:8 develop:2 one:6 volunteer:2 around:3 world:2 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7,535 | Alexander_of_Pherae | Alexander (Greek: ) was tagus or despot of Pherae in Thessaly, and ruled from 369 BC to 358 BC. Reign The accounts of his usurpation vary somewhat in minor points. Diodorus Siculus tells us that on the assassination of his father, the tyrant Jason of Pherae, in 370 BC, his brother Polydorus ruled for a year, and was then poisoned by Alexander, another brother. Diodorus Siculus, xv. 60-61 According to Xenophon, Polydorus was murdered by his brother Polyphron, and Polyphron, in 369 BC Xenophon, Hellenica vi. 4. ~ 34 This date is at variance with Pausanias (vi. 5) Wesseling, On Diodorus Siculus xv. 75 murdered by Alexander--his nephew, according to Plutarch, who relates also that Alexander worshiped the spear with which he slew his uncle as if it was a god. Plutarch, Pelop. p. 293, &c. Alexander governed tyrannically, and according to Diodorus, differently from the former rulers, but Polyphron, at least, seems to have set him the example. The states of Thessaly, however, which had acknowledged the authority of Jason of Pherae, were not so willing to submit to the oppression of Alexander the tyrant, and they applied therefore (and especially the old family of the Aleuadae of Larissa, who had most reason to fear him) to Alexander II of Macedon. The tyrant, with his characteristic energy, prepared to meet his enemy in Macedonia, but the king anticipated him, and, reaching Larissa, was admitted into the city, obliged the Thessalian Alexander to flee to Pherae, and left a garrison in Larissa, as well as in Crannon, which had also come over to him. But the Macedonian having retired, his friends in Thessaly feared the vengeance of Alexander, and sent for aid to Thebes, the policy of which was to check a neighbor who might otherwise become formidable, and Pelopidas was accordingly dispatched to aid them. On the arrival of the latter at Larissa, whence according to Diodorus he dislodged the Macedonian garrison, Alexander presented himself and offered submission; but soon after escaped by flight, alarmed by the indignation which Pelopidas expressed at the tales he heard of his cruelty and tyrannical profligacy. Diodorus Siculus, xv. 67 Plutarch, Pelop. p. 291-297, d. These events appear to be referable to the early part of the year 368 BC. In the summer of that year Pelopidas was again sent into Thessaly, in consequence of fresh complaints against Alexander. Accompanied by Ismenias, he went merely as a negotiator, and without any military force, and venturing incautiously within the power of the tyrant, was seized by him and thrown into prison. Diodorus Siculus, xv. 71-75 Polybius, viii. 1 The scholar William Mitford suggested that Pelopidas was taken prisoner in battle, but the language of Demosthenes hardly supports such an inference. Demosthenes, Against Aristocrates p. 660 William Mitford, History of Greece ch. 27. sec. 5 The Thebans sent a large army into Thessaly to rescue Pelopidas, but they could not keep the field against the superior cavalry of Alexander, who, aided by auxiliaries from Athens, pursued them with great slaughter; and the destruction of the whole Theban army is said to have been averted only by the ability of Epaminondas, who was serving in the campaign, but not as general. The next year, 367 BC, was initiated by a specimen of Alexander's treacherous cruelty, in the massacre of the citizens of Scotussa; Pausanias, Description of Greece vi. 5 and also by another expedition of the Thebans under Epaminondas into Thessaly, to rescue Pelopidas. According to Plutarch, Alexander did not dare offer resistance, and was glad to purchase even a thirty days' truce by the delivery of the prisoners. During the next three years Alexander would seem to have renewed his attempts against the states of Thessaly, especially those of Magnesia and Phthiotis, for at the end of that time, 364 BC, we find them again applying to Thebes for protection against him. The army appointed to march under Pelopidas is said to have been dismayed by an eclipse (on June 13, 364), and Pelopidas, leaving it behind, entered Thessaly at the head of three hundred volunteer horsemen and some mercenaries. A battle ensued at Cynoscephalae, wherein Pelopidas was himself slain, but defeated Alexander; Diodorus Siculus, xv. 80 and this victory was closely followed by another of the Thebans under Malcites and Diogiton, who obliged Alexander to restore the conquered towns to the Thessalians, to confine himself to Pherae, to join the Boeotian League, and to be a dependent ally of Thebes. If the death of Epaminondas in 362 BC freed Athens from fear of Thebes, it appears at the same time to have exposed her to further aggression from Alexander, who made a piratical raid on Tinos and other cities of the Cyclades, plundering them, and making slaves of the inhabitants. He besieged Peparethus too, and "even landed troops in Attica itself, and seized the port of Panormus, a little eastward of Sounion." Leosthenes, the Athenian admiral, defeated him, and relieved Peparethus, but Alexander delivered his men from a blockade in Panormus, took several Attic triremes, and plundered the Piraeus. Diodorus Siculus, xv. 95 Polyaenus, vi. 2 Demosthenes, c. Polycl. pp. 1207-1208 Connop Thirlwall, History of Greece vol. v. p. 209 Death The murder of Alexander is assigned by Diodorus to 367 BC. Plutarch gives a detailed account of it, containing a lively picture of the palace. Guards watched throughout it all the night, except at Alexander's bedchamber, which was situated at the top of a ladder, and at the door of which a ferocious dog was chained. Thebe, Alexander's wife and cousin (or half-sister, as the daughter of Jason of Pherae), concealed her three brothers in the house during the day, caused the dog to be removed when Alexander had gone to rest, and having covered the steps of the ladder with wool, brought up the young men to her husband's chamber. Though she had taken away Alexander's sword, they feared to set about the deed until she threatened to wake him. Her brothers then entered and killed Alexander. His body was cast into the streets, and exposed to every indignity. Of Thebe's motive for the murder different accounts are given. Plutarch states it to have been fear of her husband, together with hatred of his cruel and brutal character, and ascribes these feelings principally to the representations of Pelopidas, when she visited him in his prison. In Cicero the deed is ascribed to jealousy. Other accounts have it that Alexander had taken Thebe's youngest brother as his eromenos and tied him up. Exasperated by his wife's pleas to release the youth, he murdered the boy, which drove her to revenge. Diodorus Siculus, xvi. 14 Xenophon, Hellenica vi. 4. ~ 37 Cicero, De Officiis 7 Cicero, De Inventione ii. 49 Aristot. ''ap. Cicero de Div. i. 25; the dream of Eudemus References Other sources | Alexander_of_Pherae |@lemmatized alexander:26 greek:1 tagus:1 despot:1 pherae:6 thessaly:8 rule:2 bc:9 reign:1 account:4 usurpation:1 vary:1 somewhat:1 minor:1 point:1 diodorus:11 siculus:8 tell:1 u:1 assassination:1 father:1 tyrant:4 jason:3 brother:6 polydorus:2 year:5 poison:1 another:3 xv:6 accord:5 xenophon:3 murder:5 polyphron:3 hellenica:2 vi:5 date:1 variance:1 pausanias:2 wesseling:1 nephew:1 plutarch:6 relate:1 also:3 worship:1 spear:1 slew:1 uncle:1 god:1 pelop:2 p:4 c:2 govern:1 tyrannically:1 differently:1 former:1 ruler:1 least:1 seem:2 set:2 example:1 state:3 however:1 acknowledge:1 authority:1 willing:1 submit:1 oppression:1 apply:2 therefore:1 especially:2 old:1 family:1 aleuadae:1 larissa:4 reason:1 fear:5 ii:2 macedon:1 characteristic:1 energy:1 prepare:1 meet:1 enemy:1 macedonia:1 king:1 anticipate:1 reach:1 admit:1 city:2 oblige:2 thessalian:2 flee:1 leave:2 garrison:2 well:1 crannon:1 come:1 macedonian:2 retire:1 friend:1 vengeance:1 send:3 aid:3 thebes:2 policy:1 check:1 neighbor:1 might:1 otherwise:1 become:1 formidable:1 pelopidas:10 accordingly:1 dispatch:1 arrival:1 latter:1 whence:1 dislodge:1 present:1 offer:2 submission:1 soon:1 escape:1 flight:1 alarm:1 indignation:1 express:1 tale:1 hear:1 cruelty:2 tyrannical:1 profligacy:1 event:1 appear:2 referable:1 early:1 part:1 summer:1 consequence:1 fresh:1 complaint:1 accompany:1 ismenias:1 go:2 merely:1 negotiator:1 without:1 military:1 force:1 venture:1 incautiously:1 within:1 power:1 seize:2 throw:1 prison:2 polybius:1 viii:1 scholar:1 william:2 mitford:2 suggest:1 take:4 prisoner:2 battle:2 language:1 demosthenes:3 hardly:1 support:1 inference:1 aristocrates:1 history:2 greece:3 ch:1 sec:1 theban:4 large:1 army:3 rescue:2 could:1 keep:1 field:1 superior:1 cavalry:1 auxiliary:1 athens:2 pursue:1 great:1 slaughter:1 destruction:1 whole:1 say:2 avert:1 ability:1 epaminondas:3 serve:1 campaign:1 general:1 next:2 initiate:1 specimen:1 treacherous:1 massacre:1 citizen:1 scotussa:1 description:1 expedition:1 dare:1 resistance:1 glad:1 purchase:1 even:2 thirty:1 day:2 truce:1 delivery:1 three:3 would:1 renew:1 attempt:1 magnesia:1 phthiotis:1 end:1 time:2 find:1 protection:1 appoint:1 march:1 dismay:1 eclipse:1 june:1 behind:1 enter:2 head:1 hundred:1 volunteer:1 horseman:1 mercenary:1 ensue:1 cynoscephalae:1 wherein:1 slain:1 defeat:2 victory:1 closely:1 follow:1 malcites:1 diogiton:1 restore:1 conquered:1 town:1 confine:1 join:1 boeotian:1 league:1 dependent:1 ally:1 thebe:5 death:2 free:1 expose:2 aggression:1 make:2 piratical:1 raid:1 tinos:1 cyclades:1 plunder:2 slave:1 inhabitant:1 besiege:1 peparethus:2 land:1 troop:1 attica:1 port:1 panormus:2 little:1 eastward:1 sounion:1 leosthenes:1 athenian:1 admiral:1 relieve:1 deliver:1 men:2 blockade:1 several:1 attic:1 trireme:1 piraeus:1 polyaenus:1 polycl:1 pp:1 connop:1 thirlwall:1 vol:1 v:1 assign:1 give:2 detailed:1 contain:1 lively:1 picture:1 palace:1 guard:1 watch:1 throughout:1 night:1 except:1 bedchamber:1 situate:1 top:1 ladder:2 door:1 ferocious:1 dog:2 chain:1 wife:2 cousin:1 half:1 sister:1 daughter:1 conceal:1 house:1 cause:1 remove:1 rest:1 cover:1 step:1 wool:1 bring:1 young:2 husband:2 chamber:1 though:1 away:1 sword:1 deed:2 threaten:1 wake:1 kill:1 body:1 cast:1 street:1 every:1 indignity:1 motive:1 different:1 together:1 hatred:1 cruel:1 brutal:1 character:1 ascribes:1 feeling:1 principally:1 representation:1 visit:1 cicero:4 ascribe:1 jealousy:1 eromenos:1 tie:1 exasperate:1 plea:1 release:1 youth:1 boy:1 drive:1 revenge:1 xvi:1 de:3 officiis:1 inventione:1 aristot:1 ap:1 div:1 dream:1 eudemus:1 reference:1 source:1 |@bigram diodorus_siculus:8 siculus_xv:6 pausanias_description:1 de_officiis:1 |
7,536 | Chrono_Trigger | is a console role-playing game developed and published by Square (now Square Enix) for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1995. The game's story follows a group of adventurers who travel through time to prevent a global catastrophe. Square re-released a ported version by TOSE in Japan for Sony's PlayStation in 1999, later repackaged with a Final Fantasy IV port as Final Fantasy Chronicles in 2001. A slightly enhanced Chrono Trigger was released for the Nintendo DS on November 25, 2008 in North America and Japan, and went on sale in Europe on 6 February 2009. It was not released in PAL territories until the DS version. Chrono Trigger's development team included three designers that Square dubbed the "Dream Team", consisting of Hironobu Sakaguchi, creator of the Final Fantasy series, and Yuuji Horii and Akira Toriyama—two freelance designers known for their work on Enix's Dragon Quest series. Kazuhiko Aoki produced the game. Masato Kato wrote most of the plot, while composer Yasunori Mitsuda scored most of the game before falling ill and deferring remaining tracks to Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu. Chrono Trigger was well-received by reviewers and commercially successful. Nintendo Power magazine described certain aspects of Chrono Trigger as revolutionary, including its multiple endings, plot-related sidequests focusing on character development, unique battle system, and detailed graphics. Chrono Trigger was the third best-selling game of 1995, and the game's SNES and PSX iterations have shipped more than 2.36 million copies in Japan and 290,000 overseas as of March 31, 2003. Chrono Trigger DS has shipped 490,000 copies in Japan and 220,000 in North America as of December 2008. Gameplay Chrono Trigger features standard console role-playing game (RPG) gameplay with several innovations. The player controls the protagonist and his companions in the game's two-dimensional fictional world, consisting of various forests, cities, and dungeons. Navigation occurs via an overworld map, depicting the landscape from a scaled down overhead view. Areas such as forests, cities, and similar places are depicted as more realistic scaled down maps, in which players can converse with locals to procure items and services, solve puzzles and challenges, or encounter enemies. Chrono Trigger's gameplay deviates from that of traditional RPGs in that, rather than appearing in random encounters, many enemies are openly visible on field maps or lie in wait to ambush the party. Contact with enemies on a field map initiates a battle that occurs directly on the map rather than on a separate battle screen. This concept had previously been featured in such titles as Secret of Mana and Final Fantasy Adventure, but was uncommon at the time for RPGs outside the action RPG genre. Example of a basic battle Players and enemies may use physical or magical attacks to wound targets during battle, and players may use items to heal or protect themselves. Each character and enemy has a certain number of hit points, and successful attacks reduce that character's hit points, while hit points can be restored with potions and spells. When a playable character loses all hit points, he or she faints; if all the player's characters fall in battle, the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved chapter, except in specific storyline-related battles that allow or force the player to lose. Between battles, the player can equip his/her characters with weapons, armor, helmets, and accessories that provide special effects (such as increased attack power or defense against magic), and various consumable items can be used both in and out of battles. Items and equipment can be purchased in shops or found on field maps, often in treasure chests. By exploring new areas and fighting enemies, players progress through Chrono Trigger's story. Chrono Trigger uses an Active Time Battle system—a staple of Square's Final Fantasy game series designed by Hiroyuki Itō for Final Fantasy IV—named "Active Time Battle 2.0." Each character can take action in battle once a personal timer dependent on the character's speed statistic counts to zero. Magic and special physical techniques are handled through a system called "Techs." Techs deplete a character's magic points (a numerical meter like hit points), and often have special areas of effect; some spells damage huddled monsters, while others can harm enemies spread in a line. Enemies often change positions during battle, creating opportunities for tactical Tech use. A unique feature of Chrono Trigger's Tech system is that numerous cooperative techniques exist. Each character receives eight personal Techs which can be used in conjunction with others' to create Double and Triple Techs for greater effect. For instance, Crono's sword-spinning Cyclone Tech can be combined with Lucca's Flame Toss to create Fire Whirl. When characters with compatible Techs have enough magic points available to perform their techniques, the game automatically displays the combo as an option. Chrono Trigger features several other unique gameplay traits, including time travel. Players have access to seven eras of the game world's history, and past actions affect future events. Throughout history, players find new allies, complete side quests, and search for keynote villains. Time travel is accomplished via portals and pillars of light called "time gates", as well as a time machine named Epoch. The game contains thirteen unique endings; the ending the player receives depends on when and how he or she reaches and completes the game's final battle. Chrono Trigger DS features a new ending that can be accessed from the End of Time upon completion of the final extra dungeon and optional final boss. Chrono Trigger also introduces a New Game+ option; after completing the game, the player may begin a new game with the same character levels, techniques, and equipment (but not money) that he or she ended the previous game with. Certain items central to the storyline are removed and must be found again, such as the sword Masamune. Square has since employed the New Game+ concept in later titles, including Vagrant Story, Chrono Cross, Parasite Eve and Final Fantasy X-2. Plot Setting Chrono Trigger takes place in an original world similar to earth, with eras such as the prehistoric age, where early humans and dinosaurs share the earth; the Middle Ages, replete with knights and magic; and the post-apocalyptic future, where humans and sentient robots struggle to survive. The characters frequently travel through time to obtain allies, gather equipment, and learn information to help them in their quest. The party also gains access to the End of Time (represented as year ∞), which serves as a hub to travel back to other time periods. The party eventually acquires a time-machine vehicle known as the Wings of Time, nicknamed the Epoch. The vehicle is capable of time travel between any time period without first having to travel to the End of Time. Characters Promotional art illustrating Crono, Lucca, and Frog battling Magus Chrono Trigger's seven playable characters come from different eras in the game world's history. Chrono Trigger begins in 1000 A.D. with Crono, Marle, and Lucca. Crono is the silent protagonist, characterized as a fearless young man with an interest in the art of wielding katanas. Marle lives as princess in Guardia Castle; though sheltered, at heart she's a spirited tomboy who enjoys sneaking out to observe common life. Lucca is a friend of Crono's and a mechanical genius who wields a gun; her home is filled with laboratory equipment and machinery. From the era of A.D. 2300 comes Robo, originally designated as "R-66Y" or Prometheus, a robot with a helpful and near-human personality created to assist humans. Found dormant in the future, Robo is repaired by Lucca and joins the group in an act of gratitude. The fiercely confident Ayla dwells in 65,000,000 B.C. Unmatched in raw strength, Ayla is the chief of Ioka Village, and leads her people in war against a species of humanoid reptiles known as Reptites. The last two characters are Frog and Magus. Frog originated in A.D. 600. Frog is a former squire once named Glenn; Magus turned Glenn into an anthropomorphic frog and also slew his friend Cyrus. Chivalrous but mired in regret, Frog dedicates his life to protecting Leene, the queen of Guardia, and avenging Cyrus. Meanwhile, Guardia in A.D. 600. is in a state of conflict against the Mystics (known as Fiends in the US DS port), a race of demons and intelligent animals. Under the leadership of Magus, a powerful sorcerer, they wage war against humanity. While Magus appears to be a powerful magician, his seclusiveness contains a long-lost past; in the Dark Ages, he was known as Janus, the young prince of the Kingdom of Zeal, which was destroyed by Lavos in 12,000 B.C. The incident sent him forward through time, and as he ages, he plots revenge against Lavos and broods over the fate of his sister, Schala. Lavos, who awakens and ravages the world in A.D. 1999, is an extraterrestrial parasitic creature that harvests DNA and the Earth's energy for its own growth. Story In 1000 A.D., Crono and Marle watch Lucca and her father demonstrate her new teleporter at the Millennial Fair. When Marle volunteers to be teleported, her pendant interferes with the device and creates a time portal that she is drawn into. After Crono and Lucca separately recreate the portal and find themselves in 600 A.D., they learn that Marle's presence has created a grandfather paradox by preventing the recovery of Marle's kidnapped ancestor. Crono and Lucca, with the help of Frog, restore history to normal by recovering the kidnapped girl. After returning to the present, Crono is arrested on charges of kidnapping the princess and sentenced to death by the king's fake advisor. Lucca and Marle help Crono to flee, haphazardly using another time portal to escape their pursuers. Upon arriving in the year 2300 A.D., they eventually learn that an advanced civilization has been wiped out by a giant creature known as Lavos that appeared in 1999 A.D. The three vow to find a way to prevent the destruction of their world. After meeting and repairing Robo, Crono and his friends find Gaspar, an old sage at the End of Time, who helps them acquire magical powers and travel through time by way of several pillars of light. Their party expands to include Ayla and Frog after they visit the prehistoric era to repair Frog's sword. They challenge Magus in 600 A.D., believing him to be the source of Lavos; a summoning spell causes a time gate after the battle that throws Crono and his friends to the past. In prehistory, Crono, Ayla, and the others battle the Reptites and witness the origin of Lavos. They learn that Lavos was an alien being that impacted the planet millions of years in the past, and began to absorb DNA and energy from every living creature before arising and razing the planet's surface in 1999 A.D. so that it could spawn a new generation. In 12,000 B.C., Crono and friends find that the Kingdom of Zeal recently discovered Lavos and seeks to drain its power to achieve immortality through the Mammon Machine. They travel next to 2,300 A.D. to find a time machine called the Wings of Time (or Epoch), which can access any time period without using a time gate. They travel back to Zeal for the Mammon Machine's activation at the Ocean Palace. Lavos awakens, disturbed by the Mammon Machine, and the prophet reveals himself to be Magus and tries to kill the creature. Crono stands up to Lavos but is vaporized by a powerful blast; Lavos then destroys Zeal. Crono's friends awake in a village and find Magus, who confesses that he was prince Janus of Zeal. In his memories, the disaster at the Ocean Palace scattered the Gurus of Zeal across time and sent him to the Middle Ages. Janus took the alias of Magus and gained a cult of followers while plotting to summon and kill Lavos in revenge for the death of his sister, Schala. As Crono's friends depart, the Ocean Palace rises into the air as the Black Omen. The group turns to Gaspar for help, and he gives them a "Chrono Trigger", an egg-shaped device that allows the group to replace Crono just before the moment of death with a Dopple Doll. Crono and his friends then gather power by helping people across time with Gaspar's instructions. Their journeys involve defeating the remnants of the Mystics, stopping Robo's maniacal AI creator, addressing Frog's feelings towards Cyrus, locating and charging up the mythical Sun Stone, retrieving the Rainbow Shell, and helping restore a forest destroyed by a desert monster. The group enters the Black Omen and defeats Queen Zeal, then successfully battles Lavos, saving the future of their world. If Magus joined the party, he departs to search for Schala. Crono's mother accidentally enters the time gate at the fair before it closes, prompting Crono, Marle, and Lucca to set out in the Epoch to find her while fireworks light up the night sky. Alternatively, if the party used the Epoch to break Lavos's outer shell, Marle will help her father hang Nadia's bell at the festival and accidentally get carried away by several balloons. Crono jumps on to help her, but cannot bring them down to earth. Hanging on in each others arms, the pair travel through the cloudy, moonlit sky. Chrono Trigger DS added two new scenarios to the game. In the first, Crono and his friends can help a "lost sanctum" of Reptites, who reward powerful items and armor. The second scenario adds ties to Trigger's sequel, Chrono Cross. In a New Game +, the group can explore several temporal distortions to combat shadow versions of Crono, Marle, and Lucca, and to fight Dalton, who promises in defeat to raise an army in the town of Porre to destroy the Kingdom of Guardia. The group can then fight the Dream Devourer, a prototypical form of the Time Devourer—a fusion of Schala and Lavos seen in Chrono Cross. A version of Magus pleads with Schala to resist; though she recognizes him as her brother, she refuses to be helped and sends him away. Magus subsequently erases his memories and awakens in a forest, determined to find what he had lost. Development history Chrono Trigger was conceived in 1992 by Hironobu Sakaguchi, producer and creator of the Final Fantasy series; Yuuji Horii, director and creator of the Dragon Quest series; and Akira Toriyama, famous manga artist and creator of the Dragon Ball series. Traveling to America to research computer graphics, the three decided to create something that "no one had done before." After spending over a year considering the difficulties of developing a new game, they received a call from Kazuhiko Aoki, who offered to produce. The four met and spent four days brainstorming ideas for the game. Aoki ultimately produced Chrono Trigger, while director credits were attributed to Akihiko Matsui, Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita. Toriyama designed the game's aesthetic, including characters, monsters, vehicles, and the look of each era. The development staff also studied the drawings of Toriyama to approximate his style. Sakaguchi and Horii supervised; Sakaguchi was responsible for the game's overall system and contributed several monster ideas. The game was originally developed without involvement from Tokita and Kitase, who had been busy directing Final Fantasy VII. Other notable designers include Tetsuya Takahashi, the graphic director, and Yasuyuki Honne, Tetsuya Nomura, and Yusuke Naora, who worked as field graphic artists. Hironobu Sakaguchi, part of the "Dream Team" Yuji Horii, a fan of time travel fiction (such as the TV series Time Tunnel), fostered a theme of time travel in his general story outline of Chrono Trigger with input from Akira Toriyama. Horii felt that the grandfather paradox surrounding Marle was his favorite scenario. Concerning story planning, Horii commented, "If there’s a fairground, I just write that there’s a fairground; I don’t write down any of the details. Then the staff brainstorm and come up with a variety of attractions to put in." Sakaguchi contributed some minor elements, including the character Gato; he felt Marle's drama and reconciliation with her father was his favorite event. Masato Kato subsequently edited and completed the outline by writing the majority of the game's story, including all the events of the 12,000 B.C. era. Kato devised the system of multiple endings because he could not branch the story out to different paths. Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita then wrote various subplots. Hironobu Sakaguchi likened the development of Chrono Trigger to "play[ing] around with Toriyama's universe," citing the inclusion of humorous sequences in the game that would have been "impossible with something like Final Fantasy." When Square Co. suggested a non-human player character, developers created Frog by adapting one of Toriyama's sketches. The team created the End of Time to help players with hints, worrying that they might become stuck and need to consult a walkthrough. The game's testers had previously complained that Chrono Trigger was too difficult; as Horii explained, "It's because we know too much. The developers think the game's just right; that they’re being too soft. They're thinking from their own experience. The puzzles were the same. Lots of players didn’t figure out things we thought they’d get easily." Sakaguchi later cited the unusual desire of beta testers to play the game a second time as an affirmation of the New Game + feature: "Wherever we could, we tried to make it so that a slight change in your behavior caused subtle differences in people’s reactions, even down to the smallest details...I think the second playthrough will hold a whole new interest." The team planned to release Chrono Trigger in late 1994, but release was pushed back to the following year. Early alpha versions of Chrono Trigger were demonstrated at the 1994 and 1995 V-Jump festivals in Japan. A few months prior to the game's release, Square shipped a beta version to magazine reviewers and game stores for review. An unfinished build of the game dated November 17, 1994, it contains unused music tracks, locations, and other features changed or removed from the final release—such as a dungeon named "Singing Mountain" and its eponymous tune. Some names also differed; the character Slash was known as Wiener, while Flea was named Ketchappa. The ROM image was uploaded to the internet, prompting fans to explore and document the game's differences, including two unused world map character sprites and presumed additional sprites for certain non-player characters. Around the game's release, Yuji Horii commented that Chrono Trigger "went beyond [the development team's] expectations," and Hironobu Sakaguchi congratulated the game's graphic artists and field designers. Sakaguchi felt a sequel could better perfect the "sense of dancing you get from exploring Toriyama's worlds." Chrono Trigger used a 32-megabit cartridge with battery-backed RAM for saved games, lacking special on-cartridge coprocessors. The Japanese release of Chrono Trigger included art for the game's ending and running counts of items in the player's status menu. Developers created the North American version before adding these features to the original build, inadvertently leaving in vestiges of Chrono Trigger's early development (such as the piece "Singing Mountain"). Hironobu Sakaguchi asked translator Ted Woolsey to localize Chrono Trigger for English audiences and gave him roughly thirty days to work. Lacking the help of a modern translation team, he memorized scenarios and looked at drafts of commercial player's guides to put dialogue in context. Woolsey later reflected that he would have preferred two-and-a-half months, and blames his rushed schedule on the prevailing attitude in Japan that games were children's toys rather than serious works. Some of his work was cut due to space constraints, though he still considered Trigger "one of the most satisfying games I ever worked on or played." Nintendo of America censored certain dialogue, including references to breastfeeding, consumption of alcohol, and religion. Square shipped Trigger with two world maps, and Japanese buyers who preordered received holographic foil cards. A Nintendo Power reader poll conducted in April 2008 identified Chrono Trigger as the third-most wanted game for the Virtual Console. There have been two notable attempts by Chrono Trigger fans to unofficially remake parts of the game for PC with a 3D graphics engine. Chrono Resurrection, an attempt at remaking ten small interactive cut scenes from Chrono Trigger, and Chrono Trigger Remake Project, which sought to remake the entire game, were forcibly terminated by Square Enix by way of a cease and desist order. Another group of fans created a sequel via a ROM hack of Chrono Trigger called Crimson Echoes; developed from 2004-2009; although feature-length and virtually finished, it also was terminated through a cease & desist letter days before its May 2009 release. The letter also banned the dissemination of existing Chrono Trigger ROM hacks and documentation. Ayla, as shown in an animated cut scene in the PlayStation release PlayStation release Square released an enhanced port of Chrono Trigger developed by TOSE in Japan for the Sony PlayStation in 1999. Square timed its release before that of Chrono Cross, the 1999 sequel to Chrono Trigger, to familiarize new players with story leading up to it. This version included anime cut scenes created by original character designer Akira Toriyama's Bird Studio and animated by Toei Animation, as well as several bonus features, accessible after achieving various endings in the game. Scenarist Masato Kato attended planning meetings at Bird Studio to discuss how the ending cut scenes would illustrate subtle ties to Chrono Cross. The port was later released in North America in 2001—along with a remastered version of Final Fantasy IV—under the package title Final Fantasy Chronicles. Reviewers criticized Chronicles for lengthy load times and an absence of new in-game features. Nintendo DS release On July 2, 2008, Square Enix announced that they were officially planning to bring Chrono Trigger to the Nintendo DS handheld platform. Composer Yasunori Mitsuda was pleased with the project, exclaiming "finally!" after receiving the news from Square Enix and maintaining, "it's still a very deep, very high-quality game even when you play it today. I'm very interested in seeing what kids today think about it when they play it." Square Enix touted the game by displaying Akira Toriyama's original art at the 2008 Tokyo Game Show. The DS re-release contains all of the bonus material from the PlayStation port, as well as other enhancements. The added features include a more accurate translation by Tom Slattery, a dual-screen mode which clears the top screen of all menus, a self-completing map screen, and a default "run" option. Masato Kato participated in development, overseeing the addition of the monster-battling Arena and two new areas, the Lost Sanctum and the Dimensional Vortex. One of the areas within the Vortex uses the "Singing Mountain" song that was featured on the original Chrono Trigger soundtrack. These new dungeons met with mixed reviews; GameSpot called them "frustrating" and "repetitive", while IGN noted that "the extra quests in the game connect extremely well." It was a nominee for "Best RPG for the Nintendo DS" in IGN's 2008 video game awards. The Nintendo DS version of Chrono Trigger was the 22nd best-selling game of 2008 in Japan. Music Chrono Trigger was scored by Yasunori Mitsuda and veteran Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu, with one track composed by both Uematsu and Noriko Matsueda. A sound programmer at the time, Mitsuda was unhappy with his pay and threatened to leave Square if he could not compose music. Hironobu Sakaguchi suggested he score Chrono Trigger, remarking, "maybe your salary will go up." Mitsuda reflected, "I wanted to create music that wouldn't fit into any established genre...music of an imaginary world. The game's director, Masato Kato, was my close friend, and so I'd always talk with him about the setting and the scene before going into writing." Mitsuda slept in his studio several nights, and attributed certain songs—such as To Far Away Times—to inspiring dreams. He later attributed this song to an idea he was developing before Chrono Trigger, reflecting that the song was made in dedication to "a certain person with whom I wanted to share a generation." He also tried to use leitmotifs of the Chrono Trigger main theme to create a sense of consistency in the soundtrack. Mitsuda suffered a hard drive crash that lost around forty in-progress tracks. After Mitsuda contracted stomach ulcers, Uematsu joined the project to compose ten songs and finish the score. Mitsuda returned to watch the ending with the staff before the game's release, crying upon seeing the finished scene. At the time of the game's release, the number of tracks and sound effects was unprecedented—the soundtrack spanned three discs in its 1995 commercial pressing. Square also released a one-disc acid jazz arrangement called "The Brink of Time" by Guido that year. The Brink of Time came about because Mitsuda felt that acid jazz and its related genres were underrepresented in the Japanese market. Mitsuda considers Chrono Trigger a landmark title which helped mature his talent. While Mitsuda later held that the title piece was "rough around the edges," he maintains that it had "significant influence on my life as a composer." In 1999, Square produced another one-disc soundtrack to complement the PlayStation release of Trigger, featuring orchestral tracks used in cut scenes. Tsuyoshi Sekito composed four new pieces for the game's bonus features which weren't included on the soundtrack. Some fans were displeased by Mitsuda's absence in creating the port, whose instruments sometimes aurally differed from the original game's. Recently, Mitsuda arranged versions of music from the Chrono series for Play! video game music concerts, presenting the main theme, Frog's Theme, and To Far Away Times. He worked with Square Enix to ensure that the Nintendo DS Chrono Trigger port's music would sound close to the Super Nintendo version's. Fans who preordered Chrono Trigger DS received a special music disc containing two orchestral arrangements of Chrono Trigger music directed by Natsumi Kameoka; Square Enix also held a random prize drawing for two signed copies of Chrono Trigger sheet music. Mitsuda expressed difficulty in selecting the songs for the orchestral medley, eventually picking a song from each era and certain character themes. Mitsuda later wrote: Fans have heavily remixed the soundtrack, producing over 700 tributes and several cover performance albums released over the internet or sold at retail. These include Time & Space - A Tribute to Yasunori Mitsuda and Chrono Symphonic, the latter released by the remix website OverClocked ReMix. Japanese fans often sell their remix work in compilation albums popularly called "Dōjin" by Western fans. The soundtrack continues to appear in the set lists of video game concert groups such as the Eminence Orchestra and Video Games Live. Reception The game's SNES and PSX iterations have shipped more than 2.36 million copies in Japan and 290,000 abroad. The first two million copies sold in Japan were delivered in only two months. Chrono Trigger ended 1995 as the third best-selling game of the year behind Dragon Quest VI: Realms of Reverie and Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest. The game was met with substantial success upon release in North America, and its rerelease on the PlayStation as part of the Final Fantasy Chronicles package topped the NPD TRSTS PlayStation sales charts for over six weeks. This version was later re-released again in 2003 as part of Sony's Greatest Hits line. Chrono Trigger DS has shipped 490,000 copies in Japan and 220,000 in North America as of December 2008. Chrono Trigger has recently placed highly on all six of multimedia website IGN's "top 100 games of all time" lists—4th in 2002, 6th in early 2005, 13th in late 2005, 2nd in 2006, 18th in 2007, and 2nd in 2008. GameSpot included Chrono Trigger in "The Greatest Games of All Time" list released in April 2006, and it also appeared as 28th on an "All Time Top 100" list in a poll conducted by Japanese magazine Famitsu the same year. In 2004, Chrono Trigger finished runner up to Final Fantasy VII in the inaugural GameFAQs video game battle. In 2008, readers of Dengeki Online voted it the eighth best game ever made. Nintendo Power's twentieth anniversary issue named it the fifth best Super Nintendo game. Chrono Trigger garnered much critical praise in addition to its brisk sales. Nintendo Power called it Square's "biggest game ever", citing improved graphics, sound, and gameplay over past RPG titles. Chrono Trigger won multiple awards from Electronic Gaming Monthly's 1995 video game awards, including Best Role-Playing Game, Best Music in a Cartridge-Based Game, and Best Super NES Game. Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine described Trigger as "original and extremely captivating", singling out its graphics, sound and story as particularly impressive. IGN commented that "it may be filled with every imaginable console RPG cliché, but Chrono Trigger manages to stand out among the pack" with "a [captivating] story that doesn't take itself too serious [sic]" and "one of the best videogame soundtracks ever produced". Other reviewers (such as the staff of RPGFan and RPGamer) have criticized the game's short length and relative ease compared to its peers. Overall, critics lauded Chrono Trigger for its "fantastic yet not overly complex" story, simple but innovative gameplay, and high replay value afforded by multiple endings. In 2009, Guiness World Records listed it as the 32nd most influential video game in history Related media Chrono Trigger inspired several sequels and expansion packs or add-ons; the first were three titles released for the Satellaview in 1995. They included Chrono Trigger: Jet Bike Special, a racing game based on a minigame from the original; Chrono Trigger: Character Library, featuring profiles on characters and monsters from the game; and Chrono Trigger: Music Library, a collection of music from the game's soundtrack. The contents of Character Library and Music Library were later included as extras in the PlayStation rerelease of Chrono Trigger. Production I.G created a 16-minute OVA entitled "Nuumamonja: Time and Space Adventures" broadcasted at the Japanese V-Jump Festival of July 31, 1996. Sequels Square released a fourth Satellaview game in 1996, named Radical Dreamers: Nusumenai Hōseki. Feeling that Trigger ended with "unfinished business", scenarist Masato Kato wrote and directed the game. Dreamers functioned as a side story to Chrono Trigger, resolving a loose subplot from its predecessor. A short, text-based game relying on minimal graphics and atmospheric music, the game never received an official release outside Japan—though it was translated by fans to English in April 2003. Square planned to release Radical Dreamers as an easter egg in the PlayStation edition of Chrono Trigger, but Kato was unhappy with his work and halted its inclusion. Square released Chrono Cross for the Sony PlayStation in 1999. Cross is a sequel to Chrono Trigger featuring a new setting and cast of characters. Presenting a theme of parallel worlds, the story followed the protagonist Serge—a teenage boy thrust into an alternate reality in which he died years earlier. With the help of a thief named Kid, Serge endeavors to discover the truth behind his apparent death and obtain the Frozen Flame, a mythical artifact. Regarded by writer and director Masato Kato as an effort to "redo Radical Dreamers properly", Chrono Cross borrowed certain themes, scenarios, characters, and settings from Dreamers. Yasunori Mitsuda also adapted certain songs from Radical Dreamers while scoring Cross. Radical Dreamers was consequently removed from the series' main continuity, considered an alternate dimension. Kid: Radical Dreamers...!? And me name's on here, too! What the bloody hell is goin' on? ... / Kid: ......This seems to be an archive from a different time than our own. Aside from the two worlds we already know about...there may be other worlds and times which exist... Chrono Cross shipped 1.5 million copies and was almost universally praised by critics. There are no plans for a new title, despite a statement from Hironobu Sakaguchi in 2001 that the developers of Chrono Cross wanted to make a new Chrono game. The same year, Square applied for a trademark for the names Chrono Break in the United States and Chrono Brake in Japan. However, the United States trademark was dropped in 2003. Director Takashi Tokita mentioned "Chrono Trigger 2" in a 2003 interview which has not been translated to English. Yuji Horii expressed no interest in returning to the Chrono franchise in 2005, while Hironobu Sakaguchi remarked in April 2007 that his creation Blue Dragon was an "extension of [Chrono Trigger]." During a Cubed³ interview on February 1, 2007, Square Enix’s Senior Vice President Hiromichi Tanaka said that although no sequel is currently planned, some sort of sequel is still possible if the Chrono Cross developers can be reunited. Yasunori Mitsuda has expressed interest in scoring a new game, but warned that "there are a lot of politics involved" with the series. He stressed that Masato Kato should participate in development. The February 2008 issue of Game Informer ranked the Chrono series eighth among the "Top Ten Sequels in Demand", naming the games "steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue" and asking, "what's the damn holdup?!" In Electronic Gaming Monthly's June 2008 "Retro Issue", writer Jeremy Parish cited Chrono as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to. References External links Official Japanese Chrono Trigger for Nintendo DS website Official North American Chrono Trigger for Nintendo DS website Chrono Compendium, a series encyclopedia | Chrono_Trigger |@lemmatized console:4 role:3 playing:3 game:91 develop:6 publish:1 square:27 enix:10 super:4 nintendo:16 entertainment:1 system:7 story:14 follow:2 group:9 adventurer:1 travel:14 time:51 prevent:3 global:1 catastrophe:1 release:31 ported:1 version:13 tose:2 japan:13 sony:4 playstation:12 later:9 repackaged:1 final:20 fantasy:16 iv:3 port:7 chronicle:4 slightly:1 enhance:1 chrono:92 trigger:78 november:2 north:7 america:7 go:4 sale:3 europe:1 february:3 pal:1 territory:1 ds:5 development:9 team:7 include:20 three:5 designer:5 dub:1 dream:4 consisting:1 hironobu:9 sakaguchi:14 creator:5 series:12 yuuji:2 horii:9 akira:5 toriyama:10 two:14 freelance:1 know:9 work:9 dragon:5 quest:7 kazuhiko:2 aoki:3 produce:6 masato:8 kato:10 write:8 plot:5 composer:5 yasunori:6 mitsuda:19 score:6 fall:2 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7,537 | Cheshire | Cheshire (; also known, archaically, as the County of Chester) is a ceremonial county in North West England. The traditional county town is the city of Chester, although Cheshire's largest town is Warrington. Other major towns include Congleton, Crewe, Ellesmere Port, Widnes, Runcorn, Macclesfield, Nantwich, Northwich, and Wilmslow. The county is bordered by Merseyside and Greater Manchester to the north, Derbyshire to the east, Staffordshire and Shropshire to the south, Flintshire and Wrexham in Wales to the west. Cheshire has an overall area of and has a population of just over one million. Besides the large towns along the Mersey and the historic city of Chester, it is a mostly rural county with a number of small towns and villages that support an agricultural industry. It is historically famous for the production of Cheshire cheese, salt, bulk chemicals and the weaving of silk. History Toponymy Cheshire's name was originally derived from an early name for Chester and first occurred as Legeceasterscir in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. Harris, B. E. and Thacker, A. T. (1987). page 237. Its name meant the shire of the city of legions. Crosby, A. (1996). page 31. It was first recorded in 980, but it is thought that the county was created by Edward the Elder around 920. In the Domesday Book, Chester was recorded as having the name Cestrescir, (Chestershire) which was also derived from the name for Chester in use at the time. A series of changes that occurred as English itself changed, together with some simplifications, resulted in the name Cheshire, as it occurs today. Because of the historical close links with the land bordering Cheshire to the west, which became Wales, there is a history of interaction between Cheshire and Wales. The Domesday Book records Cheshire as having two complete Hundreds (Atiscross and Exestan) which later became entirely part of Wales. Additionally, another large portion of the Duddestan Hundred later became known as Maelor Saesneg when it was transferred to Wales. Harris, B.E. and Thacker, A.T. (1987). pages 340—341. For this and other reasons, the Welsh name for Cheshire (Swydd Gaerlleon) Welsh dictionary entry for Cheshire. www.geriadur.net website (Welsh-English / English-Welsh On-line Dictionary ). Department of Welsh, University of Wales, Lampeter. Retrieval Date: 21 February 2008 is sometimes used within Wales and by Welsh speakers. Administrative history Cheshire in the Domesday Book was recorded as a larger county than it is today. It included two hundreds which later became part of Wales: Atiscross and Exestan. At the time of the Domesday Book, it also included as part of Duddestan Hundred the area of land later known as Maelor Saesneg (which used to be a detached part of Flintshire) in Wales. The area in between the Mersey and Ribble (referred to in the Domesday Book as "Inter Ripam et Mersam") formed part of the returns for Cheshire. Morgan (1978). pp.269c–301c,d. Sylvester (1980). p. 14. Although this has been interpreted to mean that at that time south Lancashire was part of Cheshire, Roffe (2000) more exhaustive research indicates that the boundary between Cheshire and what was to become Lancashire remained the River Mersey. Harris and Thacker (1987) write on page 252: Phillips and Phillips (2002); pp. 26–31. Crosby, A. (1996) writes on page 31: With minor variations in spelling across sources, the complete list of hundreds of Cheshire at this time are: Atiscross, Bochelau, Chester, Dudestan, Exestan, Hamestan, Middlewich, Riseton, Roelau, Tunendune, Warmundestrou and Wilaveston. Harris, B. E., and Thacker, A. T. (1987); pages 340–341. In 1182 the land north of the Mersey became administered as part of the new county of Lancashire, thus resolving any uncertainty about the county in which the land "Inter Ripam et Mersam" was. Over the years, the ten hundreds consolidated and changed names to leave just seven—Broxton, Bucklow, Eddisbury, Macclesfield, Nantwich, Northwich and Wirral. In 1397 the county had lands in the march of Wales added to its territory, and was promoted to the rank of principality. This was because of the support the men of the county had given to King Richard II, in particular by his standing armed force of about 500 men called the 'Cheshire Guard'. As a result the king's title was changed to 'King of England and France, Lord of Ireland, and Prince of Chester'. No other English county has been honoured in this way, although it lost the distinction on Richard's fall in 1399. R. R. Davies, 'Richard II and the Principality of Chester' in The Reign of Richard II: Essays in Honour of May McKisack, ed. F. R. H. Du Boulay and Caroline Baron (1971) Through the Local Government Act 1972, which came into effect on 1 April 1974, some areas in the north-west became part of the metropolitan counties of Greater Manchester and Merseyside. Stockport (previously a county borough), Hyde, Dukinfield and Stalybridge in the north-east became part of Greater Manchester. Much of the Wirral Peninsula in the north-west, including the county boroughs of Birkenhead and Wallasey, joined Merseyside. At the same time the Tintwistle Rural District was transferred to Derbyshire. The area of Lancashire south of the Merseyside/Greater Manchester area, including Widnes and the county borough of Warrington, was added to the new non-metropolitan county of Cheshire. Local Government Act 1972 Halton and Warrington became unitary authorities independent of Cheshire County Council on 1 April 1998, but remain part of Cheshire for ceremonial purposes, as well as fire and policing. A referendum for a further local government reform connected with an elected regional assembly was planned for 2004, but was abandoned - see Northern England referendum, 2004. As part of the local government restructuring in April 2009, Cheshire County Council and the Cheshire districts were abolished and replaced with two new unitary authorities known as Cheshire East and Cheshire West and Chester. The existing unitary authorities of Halton and Warrington were not affected by these changes. As part of a 2002 marketing campaign, the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose the cuckooflower as the county flower. Buildings and structures Prehistoric burial grounds can be found at The Bridestones, near Congleton (Neolithic) and Robin Hood's Tump, near Alpraham (Bronze Age). Cheshire County Council: Revealing Cheshire's Past The remains of Iron Age hill forts are found on sandstone ridges at several locations in Cheshire. Examples include Maiden Castle on Bickerton Hill, Helsby Hillfort and Woodhouse Hillfort at Frodsham. The Roman fortress and walls of Chester, perhaps the earliest building works in Cheshire remaining above ground, are constructed from purple-grey sandstone. Images of England The distinctive local red sandstone has been used for many monumental and ecclesiastical buildings throughout the county: for example, the medieval Beeston Castle, Chester Cathedral and numerous parish churches. Occasional residential and industrial buildings, such as Helsby Station, Helsby (1849), are also in this sandstone. Many surviving buildings from the 15th to 17th centuries are timbered, particularly in the southern part of the county. Notable examples include the moated manor house Little Moreton Hall, dating from around 1450, and many commercial and residential buildings in Chester, Nantwich and surrounding villages. Early brick buildings include Peover Hall near Macclesfield (1585), Tattenhall Hall (pre-1622) and Pied Bull Hotel in Chester (17th century). From the 18th century, orange, red or brown brick became the predominant building material used in Cheshire, although earlier buildings are often faced or dressed with stone. Examples from the Victorian period onwards often employ distinctive brick detailing, such as brick patterning and ornate chimney stacks and gables. Notable examples include Arley Hall near Northwich, Willington Hall Detailed Record near Chester (both by Nantwich architect George Latham) and Overleigh Lodge, Chester. From the Victorian era, brick buildings often incorporate timberwork in a mock Tudor style, and this hybrid style has been used in some modern residential developments in the county. Industrial buildings, such as the Macclesfield silk mills (for example, Waters Green New Mill), are also usually in brick. Physical geography Cheshire covers a boulder clay plain separating the hills of North Wales and the Peak District of Derbyshire (the area is also known as the Cheshire gap). This was formed following the retreat of ice age glaciers which left the area dotted with kettle holes, locally referred to as meres. The bedrock of this region is almost entirely Triassic sandstone, outcrops of which have long been quarried, notably at Runcorn, providing the distinctive red stone for Liverpool Cathedral and Chester Cathedral. The eastern half of the county is Upper Triassic Mercia mudstone laid down with large salt deposits which were mined for hundreds of years around Northwich. Separating this area from Lower Triassic Sherwood sandstone to the west is a prominent Sandstone Ridge. A footpath, the Sandstone Trail, follows this ridge from Frodsham to Whitchurch passing Delamere Forest, Beeston Castle and earlier Iron Age forts. Demographics Population Based on the Census of 2001, the overall population of Cheshire is 673,781, of which 51.3% of the population were male and 48.7% were female. Of those aged between 0–14 years, 51.5% were male and 48.4% were female; and of those aged over 75 years, 62.9% were female and 37.1% were male. The population density of Cheshire is 32 people per km², lower than the North West average of 42 people/km² and the England and Wales average of 38 people/km². Ellesmere Port and Neston has a greater urban density than the rest of the county with 92 people/km². The population for 2021 is forecast to be 708,000. Ethnicity Ethnic white groups accounted for 98% (662,794) of the population with 10,994 (2%) in ethnic groups other than white. Of the 2% in non-white ethnic groups: 3,717 (34%) belonged to mixed ethnic groups 3,336 (30%) were Asian or Asian British 1,076 (10%) were Black or Black British 1,826 (17%) were of Chinese ethnic groups 1,039 (9%) were of other ethnic groups. Politics and administration Cheshire is a ceremonial county administered by four unitary authorities; Cheshire East, Cheshire West and Chester, Halton and Warrington. Cheshire retains the offices of Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff for ceremonial purposes under the Lieutenancies Act 1997. Policing and fire and rescue services continue to be provided across all four areas together, with the Cheshire Police Authority and Cheshire Fire Authority consisting of members of the four councils. From 1 April 1974 the area under the control of the county council was divided into eight local government districts; Chester, Congleton, Crewe and Nantwich, Ellesmere Port and Neston, Halton, Macclesfield, Vale Royal and Warrington. Vision of Britain - Divisions of Cheshire Cheshire County Council - Map of Cheshire districts Halton (which includes the towns of Runcorn and Widnes) and Warrington became unitary authorities in 1998. The remaining districts and the county were abolished as part of local government restructuring on 1 April 2009. Cheshire (Structural Changes) Order 2008 The Halton and Warrington boroughs were not affected by the 2009 restructuring. On 25 July 2007, the Secretary of State Hazel Blears announced she was 'minded' to split Cheshire into two new unitary authorities, Cheshire West and Chester, and Cheshire East. She confirmed she had not changed her mind on 19 December 2007 and therefore the proposal to split two-tier Cheshire into two would proceed. Cheshire County Council leader Paul Findlow, who attempted High Court legal action against the proposal, claimed that splitting Cheshire would only disrupt excellent services while increasing living costs for all. A widespread sentiment that this decision was taken by the European Union long ago has often been portrayed via angered letters from Cheshire residents to local papers. On 31 January 2008 the standard, Cheshire & district newspaper announced that the legal action had been dropped. Members against the proposal were advised that they may be unable to persuade the court that the decision of Hazel Blears was "manifestly absurd". The Cheshire West and Chester unitary authority covers the area formerly occupied by the City of Chester and the boroughs of Ellesmere Port and Neston and Vale Royal; Cheshire East now covers the area formerly occupied by the boroughs of Congleton, Crewe and Nantwich, and Macclesfield. The changes were implemented on 1 April 2009. BBC News, 25 July 2007 - County split into two authorities Congleton Borough Council pursued an appeal against the judicial review it lost in October 2007. The appeal was dismissed on 4 March 2008. The ceremonial county borders Merseyside, Greater Manchester, Derbyshire, Staffordshire and Shropshire in England along with Flintshire and Wrexham in Wales, arranged by compass directions as shown in the table. below. Cheshire also forms part of the North West England region. Neighbouring Authorities to the Ceremonial County Religion In the 2001 Census, 81% of the population (542,413) identified themselves as Christian; 124,677 (19%) did not identify with any religion or did not answer the question; 5,665 (1%) identified themselves as belonging to other major world religions; and 1,033 belonged to other religions. The boundary of the Church of England Diocese of Chester follows most closely the pre-1974 county boundary of Cheshire, so it includes all of Wirral, Stockport, and the Cheshire panhandle that included Tintwistle Rural District council area. Chester Diocese (Church of England). Official website. Retrieval Date: 30 September 2007. In terms of Roman Catholic church administration, the majority of Cheshire falls into the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury. Diocese of Shrewsbury (Roman Catholic). Official website. Retrieval Date: 30 September 2007. Economy and industry Cheshire has a diverse economy with significant sectors including agriculture, automotive, bio-technology, chemical, financial services, food and drink, ICT, and tourism. The county is famous for the production of Cheshire cheese, salt and silk. Cheshire is a mainly rural county with a high concentration of villages. Agriculture is generally based around the dairy trade and cattle are the predominant livestock. Land use given to agriculture has fluctuated somewhat, and in 2005 totalled 1558 km² over 4,609 holdings. Based on holdings by EC farm type in 2005, 8.51 km² was allocated to dairy farming, with another 11.78 km² allocated to cattle and sheep. The chemical industry in Cheshire was founded in the Roman times with the mining of salt in Middlewich and Northwich. Salt is still mined in this area by British Salt. The salt mining has led to a continued chemical industry around Northwich, with Brunner Mond based in the town. More chemical companies, including Ineos (formerly ICI), have plants at Runcorn. The Shell Stanlow Refinery is at Ellesmere Port. The oil refinery has operated since 1924 and has a capacity of 12 million tonnes per year. Crewe was once the centre of the British railway industry, and remains a major railway junction. The Crewe railway works, built in 1840, employed 20,000 people at its peak, though the workforce is now less than 1,000. Crewe is also the home of Bentley cars. Also within Cheshire are manufacturing plants for Jaguar and Vauxhall Motors in Ellesmere Port. The county also has an aircraft industry, with the BAE Systems facility at Woodford Aerodrome, part of BAE System's Military Air Solutions division. The facility designed and constructed Avro Lancaster and Avro Vulcan bombers and the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod. On the Cheshire border with Flintshire is the Broughton aircraft factory, more recently associated with Airbus. Tourism in Cheshire from both within the UK and overseas continues to perform strongly. Over 8 million nights of accommodation (both UK & overseas) and over 2.8 million visits to Cheshire were recorded during 2003. At the start of 2003, there were 22,020 VAT-registered enterprises in Cheshire, an increase of 7% since 1998, many in the Business Services (31.9%) and Wholesale/Retail (21.7%) sectors. Between 2002 and 2003 the number of businesses grew in four sectors: Public Administration and Other Services (6.0%), Hotels & Restaurants (5.1%), Construction (1.7%) and Business Services (1.0%). The county saw the largest proportional reduction between 2001 and 2002 in employment in the Energy and Water sector and there was also a significant reduction in the Manufacturing sector. The largest growth during this period was in the 'Other Services' and 'Distribution, Hotels and Retail' sectors. Education Cheshire LEA has a completely comprehensive state school system (as does Halton and Warrington) with 42 state schools, not including sixth form colleges, and 15 independent schools. There is also one University, The University of Chester. When Altrincham, Sale and Wirral were moved from Cheshire to Trafford in 1974, they took some former Cheshire selective schools. Culture, media and sport Cheshire has two league football teams, namely League Two Crewe Alexandra and Macclesfield Town. Chester City were also a League Two team until their relegation to the Blue Square Premier in April 2009. Cheshire County Cricket Club is one of the minor county cricket clubs. The county has also been home to many notable sportsmen and athletes, including footballers Dean Ashton (West Ham), Djibril Cissé (France and Olympique de Marseille), Peter Crouch (England and Liverpool), Seth Johnson (Derby County) Michael Owen (England and Newcastle United) and Wayne Rooney (England and Manchester United). Other local athletes have included cricketer Ian Botham, marathon runner Paula Radcliffe, Great Britain Olympic oarsman Matthew Langridge, Shirley Strong, and mountaineer George Mallory, who died in 1924 on Mount Everest. The county has produced several notable musicians, including popular artists John Mayall (John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers), John Mayall biographical details. www.johnmayall.com website. Retrieval Date: 21 February 2008. Ian Astbury (The Cult), Tim Burgess (Charlatans), Ian Curtis (Joy Division) and Kerry Katona (Atomic Kitten). Concert pianist Stephen Hough, singer Thea Gilmore and her producer husband Nigel Stonier also reside in Cheshire. The county has also been home to several writers, including Hall Caine (1853-1931), popular romantic novelist and playwright; Alan Garner; Victorian novelist Elizabeth Gaskell, whose novel Cranford features her home town of Knutsford; and most famously Lewis Carroll, born and raised in Daresbury, hence the Cheshire cat. Artists from the county include ceramic artist Emma Bossons and sculptor and photographer Andy Goldsworthy. Actors from Cheshire include Daniel Craig, the 6th James Bond; Dame Wendy Hiller; and Lewis McGibbon, best known for his role in Millions. Warrington Wolves are the premier Rugby League team in Cheshire and play in the Super League. Widnes Vikings are currently in National League One. Local radio stations in the county include Dee 106.3, Marcher Sound and Classic Gold Marcher for Chester and West Cheshire, Silk FM for the east of the county, Signal 1 for the south, Wire FM for Warrington, Wish FM, which covers Widnes, and community station Cheshire FM, which covers central Cheshire. The BBC covers the west with BBC Radio Merseyside, the north and east with BBC Radio Manchester and the south with BBC Radio Stoke. There were plans to launch BBC Radio Cheshire, but those were shelved in 2007 after a lower-than-expected BBC licence fee settlement. Notable residents Gary Barlow (born 1971), solo artist, songwriter and frontman for Take That, was born in Frodsham and formerly lived in Cheshire. Thomas Brassey (1805–1870), civil engineering contractor, was born in Buerton. Sir John Brunner (1842–1919) co-founded the chemical works of Brunner Mond & Company at Northwich and was MP for the Northwich constituency. Dick, Francis (2004) 'Brunner, Sir John Tomlinson, first baronet (1842-1919)', rev., Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press , retrieved on 20 December 2008. Sir John Chesshyre (1662–1738), lawyer, was born near Runcorn and is buried in Runcorn parish church. Daniel Craig (born 1968), the actor most famous for his portrayal of James Bond, 2006 to present, was born in Chester. Emma Hamilton (Lady Hamilton) was born in the county. Thomas Hazlehurst (1779–1842) established the soap and alkali manufacturing business of Hazlehurst & Sons in Runcorn. Thomas Hazlehurst (1816–1876), son of the above, paid for the building of twelve Methodist chapels and three schools in the Runcorn area. Robert Spear Hudson (1812–1884), manufacturer of soap powder, lived in Bache Hall, Chester. George Ormerod (1785–1873), historian, lived in Chorlton House near Chester while he wrote his History of Cheshire. Crosby, Alan G (2004) 'Ormerod, George (1785-1873)',Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press Retrieved on 20 December 2008. Wayne Rooney (born 1985), Manchester United and England footballer. Harriet Shaw Weaver (1876–1961), political activist and patron of James Joyce, was born in Frodsham. Cottam, Rachel (2004) 'Weaver, Harriet Shaw (1876-1961), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, , retrieved on 20 December 2008. Lewis Carroll, born 1832 in Daresbury, an author most well-known for writing Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, in which he depicts a character named the Cheshire Cat. Settlements and communications Settlements The county is home to some of the most affluent areas of England, including Alderley Edge, Wilmslow, Prestbury, Tarporley and Knutsford, named in 2006 as the most expensive place to buy a house in the north of England. The former Cheshire town of Altrincham was in second place. The area is sometimes referred to as The Golden Triangle on account of the area in and around the above mentioned towns and villages. The cities and towns in Cheshire are: Ceremonial county District Centre of administration Other Towns or Cities Cheshire Cheshire East (unitary) Sandbach Alsager, Bollington, Crewe, Congleton, Knutsford, Macclesfield, Middlewich, Nantwich, Wilmslow Cheshire West and Chester (unitary) Chester Ellesmere Port, Frodsham, Malpas, Neston, Northwich, Winsford Halton (borough) (unitary) Widnes Runcorn Warrington (borough) (unitary) Warrington (none) Some settlements which were historically part of the county now fall under the counties of Derbyshire, Merseyside and Greater Manchester: Derbyshire Newtown, Tintwistle, Whaley Bridge (western part) Greater Manchester Altrincham, Bramhall, Bredbury, Cheadle, Cheadle Hulme, Dukinfield, Gatley, Hazel Grove, Hyde, Marple, Romiley, Sale, Stalybridge, Stockport, Wythenshawe Merseyside Bebington, Birkenhead, Heswall, Hoylake, Wallasey, West Kirby Transport Rail and road The main lines through the county are the West Coast Main Line at which most trains call as Crewe (in the south of the county) and Warrington Bank Quay (in the north of the county) en route to London and Scotland, as well as Runcorn on the Liverpool branch of the WCML. The major interchanges are: Crewe (the biggest station in Cheshire) for trains to London Euston and Scotland (via the WCML), Wales, The Midlands (Birmingham, Stoke and Derby) as well as suburban services to Manchester, Chester and Liverpool. Warrington stations (Central and Bank Quay) for suburban services to Manchester, Chester and Liverpool and regional express services to North Wales, London, Scotland, Yorkshire, the East Coast and the East Midlands Chester for urban services (via Merseyrail) to Liverpool Central, suburban services to Manchester, Warrington and rural Cheshire and express services to Llandudno, Holyhead, Birmingham, the West Midlands, London and Cardiff The Cheshire road system is made up of , which includes of the M6, M62, M53 and M56 motorways, with 23 interchanges and four service areas. The M6 motorway across the Thelwall Viaduct carries 140,000 vehicles every 24 hours. Waterways The Cheshire canal system includes several canals originally used to transport the county's industrial products (mostly chemicals). Nowadays they are mainly used for tourist traffic. The Cheshire Ring is formed from the Rochdale, Ashton, Peak Forest, Macclesfield, Trent and Mersey and Bridgewater canals. The Manchester Ship Canal is a wide, stretch of water opened in 1894. It consists of the rivers Irwell and Mersey made navigable to Manchester for seagoing ships leaving the Mersey estuary. The canal passes through the north of the county via Runcorn and Warrington. See also Cheshire cat Notes and references Notes Bibliography Beck, J. (1969). Tudor Cheshire. (Volume 7 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. Bu'Lock, J. D. (1972). Pre-Conquest Cheshire 383-1066. (Volume 3 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. Crosby, A. (1996). A History of Cheshire. (The Darwen County History Series.) Chichester, UK: Phillimore & co. Ltd. ISBN 0850339324. Dore, R.N. (1966). The Civil Wars in Cheshire. (Volume 8 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. Driver, J. T. (1971). Cheshire in the Later Middle Ages 1399-1540. (Volume 6 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. Harris, B. E. (1979). 'The Victoria History of the County of Chester. (Volume 2). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019722749X. Harris, B. E. (1980). 'The Victoria History of the County of Chester. (Volume 3). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0197227546. Harris, B. E., and Thacker, A. T. (1987). The Victoria History of the County of Chester. (Volume 1: Physique, Prehistory, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Domesday). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0197227619. Hewitt, H. J. (1967). Cheshire Under the Three Edwards. (Volume 5 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. Higham, N. J. (1993). The Origins of Cheshire. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719031605. Hodson, J. H. (1978). Cheshire, 1660-1780: Restoration to Industrial Revolution. (Volume 9 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. ISBN 0903119110. Husain, B. M. C. (1973). Cheshire Under the Norman Earls 1066-1237. (Volume 4 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. Morgan, P. (Ed.) (1978). Domesday Book. Volume 26: Cheshire. Chichester, Sussex: Phillmore and Company Limited. ISBN 0850331404. Morgan, V., and Morgan, P. (2004). Prehistoric Cheshire. Ashbourne, Derbyshire:Landmark Publishing Company. ISBN 1843061406. Phillips, A. D. M., and Phillips, C. B. (Eds.) (2002). A New Historical Atlas of Cheshire. Chester, UK: Cheshire County Council and Cheshire Community Council Publications Trust. ISBN 0904532461. Scard, G. (1981). Squire and Tenant: Rural Life in Cheshire 1760-1900. (Volume 10 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. ISBN 0903119137. Scholes, R. (2000). The Towns and Villages of Britain: Cheshire. Wilmslow, Cheshire: Sigma Press. ISBN 1850586373. Sylvester, D. (1980). A History of Cheshire, (The Darwen County History Series.) (Second Edition, original publication date, 1971). London and Chichester, UK: Phillimore & Co. Ltd. ISBN 0850333849. Sylvester. D., and Nulty, G. (1958). The Historical Atlas of Cheshire. (Third Edition) Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. Thompson, F. H. (1965). Roman Cheshire. (Volume 2 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. Tigwell, R. E. (1985). Cheshire in the Twentieth Century. (Volume 11 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. Varley, W. J. (1964). Cheshire Before the Romans. (Volume 1 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire). Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. Youngs, F. A. (1991). Guide to the Local Administrative Units of England. (Volume 1: Northern England). London: Royal Historical Society. ISBN 0861931270. External links Cheshire East Council and Cheshire West and Chester Council: Working in Partnership Office of National Statistics - 2001 Bicentenary - Cheshire Cheshire Wildlife Trust The Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire rECOrd (Local Biological Records Centre for Cheshire) | Cheshire |@lemmatized cheshire:155 also:17 know:7 archaically:1 county:64 chester:52 ceremonial:7 north:14 west:20 england:17 traditional:1 town:14 city:7 although:4 large:7 warrington:17 major:4 include:25 congleton:6 crewe:10 ellesmere:7 port:7 widnes:6 runcorn:11 macclesfield:9 nantwich:7 northwich:9 wilmslow:4 border:4 merseyside:8 great:9 manchester:17 derbyshire:7 east:12 staffordshire:2 shropshire:2 south:6 flintshire:4 wrexham:2 wale:14 overall:2 area:20 population:8 one:4 million:5 besides:1 along:2 mersey:7 historic:2 mostly:2 rural:6 number:2 small:1 village:5 support:2 agricultural:1 industry:6 historically:2 famous:3 production:2 cheese:2 salt:7 bulk:1 chemical:7 weaving:1 silk:4 history:22 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7,538 | Francesco_Borromini | Borromini (anonymous youth portrait). Francesco Borromini, byname of Francesco Castelli (25 September 1599 - 3 August 1667) was an Italian architect who, with his contemporaries, Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Pietro da Cortona, was a leading figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture. A keen student of the architecture of Michelangelo and the ruins of Antiquity, Borromini developed an inventive and distinctive, if somewhat idoiosyncratic, architecture employing manipulations of Classical architectural forms, geometrical rationales in his plans and symbolic meanings in his buildings. He seems to have had a sound understanding of structures, which perhaps Bernini and Cortona, who were principally trained in other areas of the visual arts, lacked. His soft lead drawings are particularly distinctive. He appears to have been a self-taught scholar, amassing a large library by the end of his life. His career was constrained by his personality. Unlike Bernini who easily adopted the mantle of the charming courtier in his pursuit of important commissions, Borromini was both meloncholic and quick in temper which resulted in him withdrawing from certain jobs Blunt, Anthony (1979, Borromini, Harvard University Press, Belknap, p. 21 . He committed suicide. Probably because his work was idiosyncratic, his subsequent influence was not widespread but is apparent in the Piedmontese works of Camillo-Guarino Guarini and, as a fusion with the architectural modes of Bernini and Cortona, in the late Baroque architecture of Northern Europe Blunt,(1979), p. 213-7 . Later critics of the Baroque, such as Francesco Milizia and the English architect Sir John Soane, were particularly critical of Borromini’s work. From the late nineteenth century onwards, interest has revived in the works of Borromini and his architecture has become appreciated for its inventiveness. Early life and first works Borromini was born at Bissone Later he was also called "Bissone". , near Lugano, Ticino, in the Italian speaking part of Switzerland), the son of a stone mason. He began his career as a stone mason himself, and soon moved to Milan to study and practice this activity. When in Rome (1619) he changed his name (from Castelli to Borromini) and started working for Carlo Maderno, his distant relative, at St. Peter's. When Maderno died in 1629, he joined the group under Gian Lorenzo Bernini, completing the facade and expansions of Maderno's Palazzo Barberini. San Carlino (San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane) Façade of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane. Borromini's first major independent commission was the reconstruction in 1634-37 of the interior spaces of the church and adjacent buildings of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (also called San Carlino); the façade of the small church would be completed by Borromini much later, at the end of his career, which San Carlo neatly brackets. The church is dedicated to San Carlo Borromeo, and may have prompted his name change. The small church is considered by many an iconic masterpiece of Roman Baroque. Borromini avoided linear classicism and eschewed a simple circular shape in favor of a corrugated oval, beneath an oval dome that is coffered in a system of crosses and octagons that diminishes towards the lantern, source of all the light in this dark interior Electric lighting has blurred this intended effect. The church is small; Its whole façade would fit into one of the piers of Saint Peter's, Siegfried Giedion pointed out in Space, Time and Architecture (1941 etc.). its complex convex-concave rhythms disrupt the oval of the nave Plan of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane ; he "designed the walls to weave in and out as if they were formed not of stone but of pliant substance set in motion by an energetic space, carrying with them the deep entablatures, the cornices, moldings and pediments" (Trachtenberg & Hyman). It is far bolder in geometric intricacy and less encrusted with figurative decorations Borromini was working within the slender means of his patrons, the Spanish order of Discalced Trinitarians (Giedion). than Bernini's Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, which lies just down the street. That latter church has a sculptural drama embedded into the architecture, as a form of bel composto. In San Carlino, the drama is rational and geometric. The undulating elements in the façade (1662-67; illustration, right), united by a serpentining cornice, and sculpted with niches, are also masterful; San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane such flexing boldness bore fruit especially in the distinctive Neapolitan and Sicilian Baroque. Remarkable are also the optical artifices Borromini is employing to make the dome elongate and seemingly, such as scaling the intricate pattern of the aforementioned coffers, and employing near-visible lanterns. Sant'Agnese in Agone For Sant'Agnese in Agone, he reverted the original plan of Girolamo Rainaldi (and his son Carlo Rainaldi), which previously had its main entrance on Via di Santa Maria dell'Anima. The façade was expanded to include parts of the bordering Palazzo Pamphilj, gaining space for the two bell towers (each of which has a clock, as in St. Peter's, one for Roman time, the other for tempo ultramontano, European time). Borromini lost this commission before completion due to the death of the Pope Innocent X in 1655. The new Pope, Alexander VII, and Prince Camillo Pamphilj recalled Rainaldi, but this one didn't change very much and the church is mainly considered a notable expression of Borromini's concepts. Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza, courtyard and façade. Sant' Ivo alla Sapienza From 1640-1650, he worked on the design of the church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza and its courtyard, near University of Rome La Sapienza palace. It was initially the church of the Roman Archiginnasio. He had been initially recommended for the commission in 1632, by his then supervisor for the work at the Palazzo Barberini, Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The site, like many in cramped Rome, is challenged for external perspectives. It was built at the end of Giacomo della Porta's long courtyard. The dome and cochlear steeple are peculiar, and reflect the idiosyncratic architectural motifs that distinguish Borromini from contemporaries. Inside, the nave has an unusual centralized plan circled by alternating concave and convex-ending cornices, leading to a dome decorated with linear arrays of stars and putti. The geometry of the structure is a symmetric six-pointed star; from the center of the floor, the cornice looks like a two equilateral triangles forming a hexagon, but three of the points are clover-like, while the other three are concavely clipped. The innermost columns are points on a circle. The fusion of feverish and dynamic baroque excesses with a rationalistic geometry is an excellent match for a church in a papal institution of higher learning. Oratory of Saint Phillip Neri (Oratorio dei Fillipini) Oratory of Saint Phillip Neri The congregation of the Filippini already had one of the most well-decorated Baroque churches in Rome, and the order, so enthralled by the piousness encouraged by music, had planned to build an oratory, as well as a residential quarters, adjacent to the church of Santa Maria in Vallicella (Chiesa Nuova) located in crowded central Rome. Borromini won a competition for designing the structure against many including Paolo Maruscelli. He was employed in the task for 13 years, often a testy process. By 1640, the oratory was in use, by 1643, the library was complete. The striking facade adjacent to the church entrance has little regard for the structures behind. Inside the oratory is articulated by half columns and a complex rhythm of pilasters. Borromini was a contemporary with the prolific papal architect, and specially late in life, a rival of the eminently successful Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Borromini is purported to be a strong influence on the Piedmontese architect, Camillo-Guarino Guarini and his successors. Other works Borromini's works include: Interior of Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano Cappella Spada, San Girolamo della Carità (uncertain attribution) Palazzo Spada (trick perspective) Palazzo Barberini (upper-level windows and oval staircase) Santi Apostoli in Naples - Filamarino Altar Sant'Andrea delle Fratte Oratorio dei Filippini Collegio de Propaganda Fide Collegio di Propaganda Fide Santa Maria dei Sette Dolori San Giovanni in Oleo (restoration) Palazzo Giustiniani (with Carlo Fontana) Facade of Palazzo Falconieri Santa Lucia in Selci (restoration) Saint Peter's Basilica (gates to Blessed Sacrament Chapel and possibly parts of baldacchino) Death and epitaph In the summer of 1667, Borromini, suffering from nervous disorders and depression, committed suicide in Rome, after the completion of the Falconieri chapel (the main chapel) in San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, where he was buried (account). The primary inscription on Borromini's tomb, in San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, reads: FRANCISCVS BORROMINI TICINENSIS EQVES CHRISTI QVI IMPERITVRAE MEMORIAE ARCHITECTVS DIVINAM ARTIS SVAE VIM AD ROMAM MAGNIFICIS AEDIFICIIS EXORNANDAM VERTIT IN QVIBUS ORATORIVM PHILLIPINVM S. IVO S. AGNES IN AGONE INSTAVRATA LATERANENSIS ARCHIBASILICA S. ANDREAS DELLE FRATTE NVNCVPATUM S. CAROLVS IN QVIRINALI AEDES DE PROPADANDA FIDE HOC AVTEM IPSVM TEMPLVM ARA MAXIMA DECORAVIT NON LONGE AB HOC LAPIDE PROPE MORTALES CAROLI MADERNI EXUVVIAS PROPINQVI MVNICIPIS ET AEMVLI SVI IN PACE DOMINI QVIESCIT Francesco Borromini was featured on the 100 Swiss Franc banknote current in the 1980s . Notes External links Columbia University: Joseph Connors, Francesco Borromini: Opus Architectonicum, Milan, 1998: Introduction to Borromini's own description of the Casa dei Filippini Borromini's own account of his eventually successful suicide attempt (3) | Francesco_Borromini |@lemmatized borromini:28 anonymous:1 youth:1 portrait:1 francesco:5 byname:1 castelli:2 september:1 august:1 italian:2 architect:4 contemporary:3 gian:4 lorenzo:4 bernini:8 pietro:1 da:1 cortona:3 leading:1 figure:1 emergence:1 roman:4 baroque:7 architecture:7 keen:1 student:1 michelangelo:1 ruin:1 antiquity:1 develop:1 inventive:1 distinctive:3 somewhat:1 idoiosyncratic:1 employ:4 manipulation:1 classical:1 architectural:3 form:4 geometrical:1 rationale:1 plan:5 symbolic:1 meaning:1 building:2 seem:1 sound:1 understanding:1 structure:4 perhaps:1 principally:1 train:1 area:1 visual:1 art:1 lack:1 soft:1 lead:2 drawing:1 particularly:2 appear:1 self:1 taught:1 scholar:1 amass:1 large:1 library:2 end:4 life:3 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7,539 | Agrippina_the_Elder | Julia Vipsania Agrippina or most commonly known as Agrippina Major (Major is Latin for the elder, Classical Latin: AGRIPPINA•GERMANICI (edd.), Prosopographia Imperii Romani saeculi I, II et III (PIR), Berlin, 1933 - V 463 , 14 BC – 18 October 33) was the distinguished and prominent Roman grand-daughter of Augustus. She lived between the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. Agrippina was the wife of the general, politician Germanicus and a relative to the first Roman Emperors. She was the second granddaughter to Augustus; sister-in-law, stepdaughter and daughter-in-law to Tiberius; mother to Caligula; maternal second cousin and sister-in-law to Claudius and the maternal grandmother to Nero. Family and early life Agrippina was born as the second daughter and fourth child to Roman Statesman and Augustus’ trusted ally Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. Agrippina’s mother Julia, was the only natural child born to Augustus from his second marriage to noblewoman Scribonia, who was a descendant of triumvir Pompey and dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Her father’s marriage to Julia was his third marriage. From Agrippa’s previous two marriages, Agrippina had two half-sisters: Vipsania Agrippina and Vipsania Marcella Agrippina. Vipsania Agrippina was the Agrippa’s first child from his first marriage to Pomponia Caecilia Attica and became the first wife of the future Emperor Tiberius and was the mother to Tiberius’ son, prince Drusus Julius Caesar. Vipsania Agrippina later married senator and consul Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus. Vipsania Marcella was Agrippa’s second child from his second marriage to Augustus’ first niece and the paternal cousin of Julia the Elder, Claudia Marcella Major. Vipsania Marcella was the first wife to general Publius Quinctilius Varus. Her mother’s marriage to Agrippa was her second marriage, as Julia the Elder was widowed from her first marriage to her paternal cousin Marcus Claudius Marcellus and they had no children. From the marriage of Julia and Agrippa, Agrippina had four full-blooded siblings: a sister Julia the Younger and three brothers: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar and Agrippa Postumus. Agrippina was born in Athens Greece, as in the year of her birth; Agrippa was in Athens completing official duties on behalf of Augustus. Her mother and her siblings had travelled with Agrippa. Later Agrippina’s family had returned to Rome. In 12 BC, Agrippina’s father had died. Augustus had forced his first step-son Tiberius to end his first happy marriage to Vipsania Agrippina to marry Julia the Elder. The marriage of Julia and Tiberius was an unhappy marriage. In 2 BC Augustus had exiled Agrippina’s mother, because she had committed adultery and this had caused a major scandal. Julia was banished for her remaining years and Agrippina never saw Julia again. Around this time, to avoid any scandals Tiberius divorced Julia and left Rome to live on the Greek island of Rhodes. Agrippina along with her siblings were raised in Rome, by their maternal grandfather and their maternal step-grandmother Livia Drusilla. Livia was the first Roman Empress and was Augustus’ third wife, (from Livia’s first marriage to praetor Tiberius Nero, she had two sons: emperor Tiberius and general Nero Claudius Drusus. Her marriage to Augustus would be her second one). According to Suetonius, Agrippina had a strict upbringing and education. Her education included how to spin and weave and she was forbidden to say or do anything, either in public or private. Augustus made her record any daily activities she did in the imperial day book and the emperor took severe measures in preventing Agrippina from forming friendships, without his consent. As a member of the imperial family, Agrippina was expected to have and show strict traditional Roman virtues for a woman that was frugality, chastity and domesticity. Agrippina and Augustus had a very close relationship. The wife of Germanicus Between 1 BC-5, Agrippina married her second maternal cousin Germanicus. Germanicus was the first born son to Antonia Minor and Nero Claudius Drusus. Antonia Minor was the second daughter born to Octavia Minor and triumvir Mark Antony, hence Antonia’s maternal uncle was Augustus. Germanicus was a popular general and politician. Augustus ordered and forced Tiberius to adopt Germanicus as his son and heir. Germanicus was always favored by his great uncle and had hoped that he would succeed Tiberius, who was adopted by Augustus as his heir and successor. Agrippina and Germanicus were devoted to each other. She was a loyal, affectionate wife, who supported her husband. The Roman historian Tacitus states that Agrippina had an ‘impressive record as wife and mother’. In the marriage of Agrippina and Germanicus, they had nine children. Three children from their union died young. The six children who survived to adulthood were Nero Caesar, Drusus Caesar, Caligula (born as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus), Julia Agrippina or Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla. Caligula would become future Roman Emperor. While their daughter Agrippina the Younger, would become future Roman Empress and mother to future Roman Emperor Nero. Their children were born at various places throughout the Roman Empire and Agrippina acquired a well-deserved reputation for successful childbearing. Eventually Agrippina was proud of her large family and this was apart of the reason, she was popular with Roman citizens. According to Suetonius who had cited from Pliny the Elder, Agrippina had borne to Germanicus a son called Gaius Julius Caesar who had a lovable character. This son died young. The child was born at Treveri, near the village of Ambitarvium, just before the junction of the Moselle River and the Rhine River (modern Koblenz Germany). At this spot, there was local altars inscribed as a dedication to Agrippina: “IN HONOR OF AGRIPPINA’S PUERPERIUM”, puerperium means child-bearing for a boy. Germanicus was a candidate for future succession and had won fame campaigning in Germania and Gaul. During the military campaigns, Agrippina accompanied Germanicus with their children. Agrippina’s actions were considered unusual as for a Roman wife, because a conventional Roman wife was required to stay home. Agrippina had earned herself a reputation as a heroic woman and wife. During her time in Germania, Agrippina had proved herself to be an efficient and effective diplomat. Agrippina had reminded Germanicus on occasion of his relation to Augustus. A few months before Augustus’ death in 14, the emperor wrote and sent a letter to Agrippina mentioning how Gaius (Caligula) must be future emperor because at that time, no other child had this name. The letter reads: Agrippina landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus, Oil on canvas, c. 1768. Agrippina and Germanicus travelled to the Middle East in 19, incurring the displeasure of Tiberius. Germanicus quarrelled with Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, the governor of Syria and died in Antioch in mysterious circumstances. It was widely suspected that Germanicus had been poisoned or perhaps on the orders of Tiberius. Agrippina was in grief when Germanicus died. She returned with her children to Italy with Germanicus’ ashes. The Roman citizens had great sympathy for Agrippina and her family. She returned to Rome to avenge his death and boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus. According to Tacitus (Annals 3.14.1), the prosecution could not prove the poisoning charge, but other charges of treason seemed likely to stick and Piso committed suicide. Time in Rome, downfall and posthumous honors From 19 to 29, Agrippina lived on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Her remaining children were raised between her, Livia Drusilla and Germanicus’ mother Antonia Minor. Agrippina had become very lonely, distressed, physically ill and many of her relatives had died. Agrippina had a hasty, uncomfortable relationship with Tiberius and possibly with Tiberius’ mother Livia Drusilla. She started to become involved in politics in Tiberius’ imperial court and became an advocate for her sons to succeed Tiberius and was in opposition to Tiberius’ natural son and natural grandson Tiberius Gemellus for succession. She was unwise in her complaints about Germanicus’ death to Tiberius. Tiberius took Agrippina by her hand and quoted the Greek line: “And if you are not queen, my dear, have I then you wrong?” Agrippina became involved in a group of Roman Senators who opposed the growing power and influence of notorious Praetorian Guard Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Tiberius began to distrust Agrippina. In 26, Agrippina requested to Tiberius if she could marry her brother-in-law, Roman Senator Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus. However Tiberius didn’t allow her to marry Saloninus, because of the political implications the marriage could have. Tiberius carefully staged to invite Agrippina to dinner at the imperial palace. At dinner, Tiberius offered Agrippina an apple as a test of Agrippina’s feelings for the emperor. Agrippina had suspected that the apple could carry a certain death and refused to taste the apple. This was the last time that Tiberius invited Agrippina to his dinner table. Agrippina later stated that Tiberius tried to poison her. In 29, Agrippina with her sons Nero and Drusus, were arrested on the orders of Tiberius. Tiberius falsely accused Agrippina in planning to take sanctuary besides the image of Augustus or with the Roman Army abroad. Agrippina and her sons were tried by the Roman Senate. She was banished on Tiberius’ orders to the island of Pandataria (now called Ventotene) in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the coast of Campania. This was the island where her mother was banished. In prison at Pandataria, Agrippina protested very violently. On one occasion Tiberius ordered a centurion to flog her and in course she lost an eye. Agrippina was force-fed and later starved herself to death. There is a possibility that malnutrition was a contributed to her death. She died October 18 33. Agrippina’s son Drusus died of starvation being imprisoned in Rome and her other son Nero either committed suicide or was murdered after his trial in 29. The notorious Guard Sejanus was murdered in 31 on the orders of Tiberius. Tiberius suspected Sejanus in plotting to overthrow the emperor. After the death of Agrippina, Tiberius wickedly slandered her memory. Tiberius had stated while Agrippina lived, he showed her clemency. Tiberius was able to persuade the Roman Senate to decree Agrippina’s birthday as a day of ill omen. In March 37, Tiberius had died and Agrippina’s remaining son Caligula succeeded as emperor. After Caligula delivered Tiberius’ eulogy, Caligula sailed to Pandataria and the Pontine Islands and returned with the ashes of his mother and brother Nero. Caligula returned with their ashes in urns in his own hands. Caligula Depositing the Ashes of his Mother and Brother in the Tomb of his Ancestors, by Eustache Le Sueur, 1647 As a proof of devotion to his family, Caligula arranged the most distinguished knights available to the carry the urns of mother and his two brothers in two biers at about noon in Rome, when the streets were at their busiest to the Mausoleum of Augustus. A bronze medal in the British Museum shows Agrippina’s ashes being brought back to Rome by Caligula. Cinerary urn of Agrippina, in the tabularium. Caligula appointed an annual day each year in Rome, for people to offer funeral sacrifices to honor their late relatives. As a dedication to Agrippina, Caligula set aside the Circus Games to honor the memory of his late mother. On the day that the Circus Games occurred, Caligula had a statue made of Agrippina’s image to be paraded in a covered carriage at the Games. After the Circus Games, Caligula had ordered written evidence of the court cases from Tiberius’ treason trials to be brought to the Forum to be burnt. The written evidence from their court cases to be burnt first was the cases of Agrippina and her two sons. According to Suetonius, Caligula nursed a fantasy that Augustus and Julia the Elder had an incestuous union from which Agrippina had been born. According to Tacitus, Agrippina’s daughter Agrippina the Younger, had written various memoirs for prosperity. One memoir was an account of her mother’s life; another memoir was about the fortunes of her mother’s family and the last memoir recorded the misfortunes (casus suorum) of the family of Agrippina and Germanicus. Unfortunately these memoirs are now lost. Personality Agrippina is regarded in ancient and modern historical sources as a Roman Matron with a reputation as a great woman, who had an excellent character and had outstanding Roman morals. She was a dedicated, supporting wife and mother who looked out for the interests of her children and the future of her family. Tacitus describes Agrippina’s character as “determined and rather excitable”. Throughout her life, Agrippina always proudly and arrogantly prized her ancestry from Augustus. However Agrippina’s constant dwelling of her noble birth and her stating being the "sole surviving offspring of Augustus" (Tacitus, Annals 3.4) may have contributed to her downfall. Although Agrippina was an innocent victim of Tiberius’ tyranny, Agrippina dwelling on her ancestry, was an complete insult to Tiberius and Livia Drusilla. Tiberius was the adopted son and heir of Augustus, while Livia was adopted into the imperial family after the death of Augustus. Agrippina’s attitude in her ancestry became a challenge to the position of Tiberius as successor of Augustus and ruling as an emperor, which effected future succession in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Legacy Agrippina the Elder is considered the most prominent and distinguished grandchild born to Rome’s first Emperor. She is also considered one of the most prominent women in the Julio-Claudian dynasty; one of the most virtuous and heroic women of antiquity and of the first century. She was the first Roman woman of the Roman Empire to have travelled with her husband to Roman military campaigns; to support and live with the Roman Legions. Agrippina was the first Roman matron to have more than one child from her family to reign on the Roman throne. Apart from being the late maternal grandmother of Nero, she was the late paternal grandmother of Princess Julia Drusilla, the child of Caligula. Through Nero, Agrippina was the great paternal grandmother of Princess Claudia Augusta, the child of Nero. Although Agrippina was a great example of a Roman Matron, she set a precedent for many upcoming Roman aristocratic women. She paved the way for women to wield influence and power in Roman politics, particularly in the Imperial Court, Senate and Army. She also set a precedent for wives who were Roman Empresses or female relatives of the ruling Imperial Family of the day to assist in the ruling and decision making policies that could effect, change and shape the Empire. The aristocratic women of the empire, had more power and influence, than their predecessors in the Roman Republic. Through the precedents that were set by Agrippina, some aristocratic women later became patrons of learning, culture or charity and advisors to the later Roman Emperors. From the memoirs written by Agrippina the Younger, Tacitus used the memoirs to extract information regarding the family and fate of Agrippina the Elder, when Tacitus was writing The Annals. There is a surviving portrait of Agrippina the Elder in the Capitoline Museums in Rome. See also Tacitus, Annals i.-vi. Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars Julio-Claudian Family Tree Claudia Pulchra Gaius Silius References Ancient sources Suetonius, De vita Casearum - On the Life of the Caesars - Augustus, Tiberius iii.52.3, 53 and Caligula iv.23.1 Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome Secondary sources Robin Seager, Tiberius, London (Eyre Methuen) 1972 (ed.), Prosopographia Imperii Romani, 3 vol., Berlin, 1897-1898. 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7,540 | Gleichschaltung | Gleichschaltung , meaning "coordination", "making the same", "bringing into line", is a Nazi term for the process by which the Nazi regime successively established a system of totalitarian control over the individual, and tight coordination over all aspects of society and commerce. The historian Richard J. Evans offered the term "forcible-coordination" in his most recent work on Nazi Germany. One goal of this policy was to eliminate individualism by forcing everybody to adhere to a specific doctrine and way of thinking and to control as many aspects of life as possible using an invasive police force. Overview The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of non-Nazi organizations that could potentially influence people, such as trade unions and political parties. Those critical of Hitler's agenda, especially his close ties with industry, were suppressed, intimidated or permanently silenced. The regime also assailed the influence of the churches, for example by instituting the Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs under Hanns Kerrl. Organizations that the administration could not eliminate, such as the education system, came under its direct control. The Gleichschaltung also included the formation of various organisations with compulsory membership for segments of the population, in particular the youth. Boys served as apprentices in the Pimpfen ("cubs") beginning at the age of six, and at age 10, entered the Deutsches Jungvolk ("Young German Boys") and served there until entering the Hitler Youth proper at age 14. Boys remained there until age 18, at which time they entered into the Arbeitsdienst ("Labor Service") and the armed forces (Wehrmacht). Girls became part of the Jungmädel ("Young Maidens") at age 10, and at age 14 were enrolled in the Bund Deutscher Mädel ("League of German Maidens"). At 18 BDM members went generally to the eastern territory for their Pflichtdienst, or Landjahr, a year of labor on a farm. In 1936 membership of the Hitler Youth numbered just under 6 million. For workers an all-embracing recreational organization called Kraft durch Freude ("Strength through Joy") was set up. In Nazi Germany, even hobbies were regimented; all private clubs (whether they be for chess, football, or woodworking) were brought under the control of KdF and, in turn, the Nazi Party. The Kraft durch Freude organization provided vacation trips (skiing, swimming, concerts, ocean cruises, and so forth). With some 25 million members, KdF was the largest of the many organizations established by the Nazis. Workers were also brought in line with the party through activities such as the Reichsberufswettkampf, a national vocational competition. Specific measures In a more specific sense, Gleichschaltung refers to the legal measures taken by the government during the first months following January 30 1933, when Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany. It was in this sense that the term was used by the Nazis themselves. One day after the Reichstag fire on February 27 1933, President of Germany Paul von Hindenburg, acting at Hitler's request, issued the Reichstag Fire Decree. This decree suspended most human rights provided for by the 1919 constitution of the Weimar Republic and thus allowed for the arrest of political adversaries, mostly Communists, and for general terrorizing by the Sturmabteilung (SA) to intimidate the voters before the upcoming election. In this atmosphere the Reichstag general election of March 5 1933 took place. These yielded only a slim majority for Hitler's coalition government and no majority for Hitler's own Nazi party. When the newly-elected Reichstag first convened on March 23 1933, (not including the Communist delegates, since their party had already been banned by that time) it passed the Enabling Act (Ermächtigungsgesetz), transferring all legislative powers to the Nazi government and, in effect, abolishing the remainder of the Weimar constitution as a whole. Soon afterwards the government banned the Social Democratic party, which had voted against the Act, while the other parties chose to dissolve themselves to avoid arrests and concentration camp imprisonment. The "First Gleichschaltung Law" (Erstes Gleichschaltungsgesetz) (March 31 1933) gave the governments of the Länder the same legislative powers that the Reich government had received through the Enabling Act. A "Second Gleichschaltung Law" (Zweites Gleichschaltungsgesetz) (April 7 1933) deployed one Reichsstatthalter (proconsul) in each state, apart from Prussia. These officers were supposed to act as local presidents in each state, appointing the governments. For Prussia, which constituted the vast majority of Germany anyway, Hitler reserved these rights for himself. The trade union association ADGB (Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund) was shattered on May 2 1933 (the day after Labor Day), when SA and NSBO (Nationalsozialistische Betriebszellenorganisation) units occupied union facilities and ADGB leaders were imprisoned. Other important associations including trade unions were forced to merge with the German Labor Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront (DAF)), to which all workers had to belong. The Gesetz gegen die Neubildung von Parteien ("Law against the establishment of political parties") (July 14 1933) forbade any creation of new political parties. The Gesetz über den Neuaufbau des Reiches ("Law concerning the reconstruction of the Reich") (January 30 1934) abandoned the concept of a federal republic. Death of the States, TIME Magazine, February 12, 1934 Instead, the political institutions of the Länder were practically abolished altogether, passing all powers to the central government. A law dated February 14 1934 dissolved the Reichsrat, the representation of the Länder at the federal level. In the summer of 1934 Hitler instructed the SS to kill Ernst Röhm and other leaders of the Nazi party's SA, former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher and several aides to former Chancellor Franz von Papen in the so-called Night of the Long Knives (June 30 1934/July 1 1934). These measures received retrospective sanction in a special one-article Law Regarding Measures of State Self-Defense (Gesetz über Maßnahmen der Staatsnotwehr) (July 3 1934). At nine o'clock in the morning of August 2 1934, Reichspräsident Paul von Hindenburg died at the age of 86. Three hours before, the government had issued a law to take effect the day of his death; this prescribed that the office of the Reichspräsident should be united with that of the Reichskanzler and that the competencies of the former should be transferred to the "Führer und Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler", as the law stated. Hitler henceforth demanded the use of that title. Thus the last separation of powers was abolished. Following the Reichswehr purge of 1938, Hitler could be described as the absolute dictator of Germany until his suicide in 1945. Philology Gleichschaltung, as a compound word, is better comprehended by those who speak other languages by listing its predecessory uses in German. The word gleich in German means alike, equal, or the same; schaltung means something like switching. The word Gleichschaltung had two uses in German for physical, rather than political, meanings: A locking clutch, as used in some machines for connecting two shafts that would otherwise rotate freely such that they rotate at the same speed when in the locked condition. A certain means of wiring an alternating current electrical generator, and AC electric motors, so that when the generator is made to turn at a given speed, or even turned a certain angle, each motor connected to it will also turn at that speed, or to the same angle. This is the meaning which is most commonly referred to explain the Nazi use of the word: the political party is considered the generator, and every member of a professional group or society is considered a motor wired to it. See selsyn. However, because of the Nazi associations of the term, its use for these physical meanings has largely been abandoned since the war. Sources and further reading Karl Kroeschell, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte 3 (seit 1650), 2nd ed. 1989, ISBN 3-531-22139-6 Karl Kroeschell, Rechtsgeschichte Deutschlands im 20. Jahrhundert, 1992, ISBN 3-8252-1681-0 Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online: Die Errichtung des Einparteienstaats 1933 Claudia Koonz The Nazi Conscience. Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003. Karl Dietrich Bracher "Stages of Totalitarian "Integration" (Gleichschaltung): The Consolidation of National Socialist Rule in 1933 and 1934" pages 109–128 from Republic To Reich The Making of the Nazi Revolution Ten Essays edited by Hajo Holborn, New York: Pantheon Books, 1972. Everett HughesThe "Gleichschaltung" of the German Statistical Yearbook: A Case in Professional Political Neutrality. The American Statistician Vol. IX (December, 1955, pp. 8–11. 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7,541 | Fahrenheit_451 | Fahrenheit 451 is a dystopian speculative fiction novel authored by Ray Bradbury and first published in 1953. The novel presents a future American society in which the masses are hedonistic, and critical thought through reading is outlawed. The central character, Guy Montag, is employed as a "fireman" (which, in this future, means "book burner"). The number "451" refers to the temperature in Fahrenheit at which book paper auto-ignites. Although some claim this is factually incorrect, claiming the autoignition temperature for paper is instead far higher (approximately 840 °F / 450 °C). See The "firemen" burn them "for the good of humanity". Written in the early years of the Cold War, the novel is a critique of what Bradbury saw as an increasingly dysfunctional American society. The concept began with Bradbury's short story "Bright Phoenix," written in 1947 but first published in the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction in 1963. The original short story was reworked into the novella, The Fireman, and published in the February 1951 issue of Galaxy Science Fiction. The novel was also serialized in the March, April, and May 1954 issues of Playboy magazine. Bradbury wrote the entire novel on a pay typewriter in the basement of UCLA's Powell Library. His original intention in writing Fahrenheit 451 was to show his great love for books and libraries. He has often referred to Montag as an allusion to himself. Over the years, the novel has been subject to various interpretations, primarily focusing on the historical role of book burning in suppressing dissenting ideas. Bradbury has stated that the novel is not about censorship; he states that Fahrenheit 451 is a story about how television destroys interest in reading literature, which leads to a perception of knowledge as being composed of "factoids", partial information devoid of context, e.g., Napoleon's birth date alone, without an indication of who he was. Bradbury, Ray About Freedom, raybradbury.com, Date unknown Boyle Johnston, Amy E. "Ray Bradbury: Fahrenheit 451 Misinterpreted", LA Weekly, May 30, 2007. A movie version of the novel was released in 1966. At least two BBC Radio 4 dramatizations have also been aired, both of which follow the book very closely. Plot summary Cover of the UK Hart-Davis edition (1954). Fahrenheit 451 takes place in an unspecified future time (dialogue on one page places it after 1990) in a hedonistic anti-intellectual America that has completely abandoned self-control. This America is filled with lawlessness in the streets ranging from teenagers crashing cars into people to firemen at a station who set their 'mechanical hound' to hunt various animals by their amino acid sequence for the simple and grotesque pleasure of watching them die. Anyone caught reading or possessing books is, at the minimum, confined to a mental hospital while the books are burned by the firemen. Illegal books mainly include famous works of literature, such as Walt Whitman and William Faulkner, as well as the Bible and all historical texts. One rainy night returning from his job, fireman Guy Montag meets his new neighbor Clarisse McClellan, whose free-thinking ideals and liberating spirit force him to question his life, his ideals, and his own perceived happiness. Clarisse would not ask how a thing was done but why. Later, Clarisse is killed by being hit by a car. After meeting Clarisse, Montag returns home to find his wife Mildred asleep with an empty bottle of sleeping pills next to her bed. He calls for medical help; two technicians respond by proceeding to suck out Mildred's blood with a machine and insert new blood into her. The technicians' utter disregard for Mildred forces Montag to question the state of society. In the following days, while ransacking the book-filled house of an old woman before the inevitable burning, Montag accidentally reads a line in one of her books: "Time has fallen asleep in the afternoon sunshine". This prompts him to steal one of the books. The woman refuses to leave her house and her books, choosing instead to light a match she had concealed from the firemen's view, prematurely igniting the kerosene and martyring herself. This disturbs Montag, who wonders why someone would die for books, which he considers to be without value. Jarred by the woman's suicide, Montag calls for sick leave, whereupon he receives a visit from his fire chief Captain Beatty, who explains to him the political and social causes which underlie the work they perform. Captain Beatty claims that society, in its search for happiness and in an attempt to minimize cultural offenses through political correctness, brought about the suppression of literature as an act of self-censorship and that the government merely took advantage of the situation. Beatty adds that all firemen eventually steal a book out of curiosity, but all would be well if the book is turned in within 24 hours. Montag argues with his wife, Mildred, over the book he himself has stolen, showing his growing disgust for her and for his society. It is revealed that Montag has, over the course of a year, hidden dozens of books in the ventilation shafts of his own house, and tries to memorize them to preserve their contents, but becomes frustrated that the words seem to simply fall away from his memory. He then remembers a man he had met at one time: Faber, a former English professor. Montag seeks Faber's help, whereafter Faber begins teaching Montag about the vagaries and ambiguities but overall importance of literature in its attempt to explain human existence. He also gives Montag a green bullet-shaped ear-piece so that Faber can offer guidance throughout his daily activities. During a card game at the firehouse, Beatty tells Montag he had a dream about him, and relates the literary argument he claims to have had in his dream. Beatty quotes many books and shows an amazing knowledge of literature to prove to Montag that books can confuse the thoughts. Then follows another call to arms; Beatty theatrically leads the crew to Montag's own home. He reveals that he knew all along of Montag's books, and orders Montag to destroy the house. Montag sees Mildred, who had betrayed his secret, moving away from the house and sets to work burning their home; not content destroying the books, he burns the televisions, beds, and other emblems of his past life. When Beatty finds Faber's earpiece, he threatens to track Faber down, whereupon Montag turns the flamethrower on Beatty, killing him. He is soon a fugitive for these crimes. When the firehouse's mechanical hound attacks him, he turns the flamethrower on it, destroying it. He flees to Faber's house, with another firehouse's mechanical hound and television network helicopters in hot pursuit. The newscasters hope to document his escape as a spectacle, and distract the people from the oncoming threat of war, a threat that has been foreshadowed throughout the book via the reader being repeatedly told of planes flying over the buildings that the characters are in, as well as a radio broadcast that says "this country stands ready to defend itself". Faber tells Montag of vagabond book-lovers in the countryside. Montag then escapes to a local river, floats downstream and meets a group of older men who, to Montag's astonishment, have memorized entire books, preserving them orally until the law against books is overturned. They burn the books they read to prevent discovery, retaining the verbatim content (and possibly valid interpretations) in their minds. The group leader, Granger, discusses the legendary phoenix and its endless cycle of long life, death in flames, and rebirth, adding that the phoenix must have some relation to mankind, which constantly repeats its mistakes. Meanwhile, the television network helicopters surround and kill another man (who regularly walks about) who they kill instead of Montag to maintain the illusion of a successful hunt. The war begins. Montag watches helplessly as jet bombers fly overhead and attack the city with nuclear weapons. It is implied Mildred dies, though Faber is stated to have left the city. It is implied that more cities across the country have been incinerated as well; a bitter irony in that the world that sought to burn thought is burned itself. At the moment of the explosion, the emotion of seeing the city burned causes a key phrase from the Bible to emerge from the depths of Montag's memory. The final page of the novel shows this phrase to be Revelation 22:2. The novel is concluded in a shocking but slightly optimistic tone. It is suggested that the society Montag knew has almost completely collapsed and a new society must be built from the ashes. Whether this new society will meet the same fate is unknown, but it is implied that the book-keepers will begin to build mirror factories (a literary allusion wherein mirrors are a metaphor for books) to show people who they are, what they have become, and how they can change with time and knowledge. Characters Guy Montag is the protagonist and fireman (see above) whose metamorphosis is illustrated throughout the book and who presents the dystopia through the eyes of a loyal worker to it, a man in conflict about it, and one resolved to be free of it. Through most of the book, Montag lacks knowledge and believes what he hears. Bradbury notes in his afterword that he noticed, after the book was published, that Montag is the name of a paper company. Faber is a former English professor who represents those who know what is being done is wrong but are too fearful to act. Bradbury notes in his afterword that Faber is part of the name of a German manufacturer of pencils, Faber-Castell. Mildred Montag is Guy Montag's wife, who makes an attempt at suicide early on in the book by overdosing on sleeping pills. She is used symbolically as the opposite of Clarisse McClellan. She is known as Linda Montag in the 1966 film. Clarisse McClellan displays every trait Mildred does not, in that she is outgoing, naturally cheerful, unorthodox, and intuitive. She serves as the wake-up call for Montag by posing the question “Why?” to him. She is unpopular among peers and disliked by teachers for (as Captain Beatty puts it) asking why instead of how and focusing on nature rather than on technology. Montag regards her as odd until she goes missing; the book gives no definitive explanation. It is said that Captain Beatty and Mildred know that Clarisse has been killed by a car. Captain Beatty is Montag's boss and the fire chief. Once an avid reader, he has come to hate books as a result of life's tragedies and of the fact that books contradict and refute each other. Beatty tries to entice Montag back into the book-burning business but is burned to death by Montag when he underestimates Montag's resolve. Montag later realizes that Beatty might have wanted to die, purposely provoking Montag to kill him. In a scene written years later by Bradbury for the Fahrenheit 451 play, Beatty invites Montag to his house where he shows him walls of books left to molder on their shelves. Beatty is the symbolic opposite of Faber. Granger is the leader of a group of wandering intellectual exiles who memorize books in order to preserve their contents. Where Beatty destroys, he preserves; where Beatty uses fire for the purpose of burning, Granger uses it for the purpose of warming. His acceptance of Montag is considered the final step in Montag's metamorphosis from embracing Beatty's ultimate value of happiness and complacency to embracing Granger's value of the love of knowledge. Mechanical Hound The mechanical hound exists in the original book but not in the 1966 film. It is an emotionless, eight-legged killing machine that can be programmed to seek out and destroy free thinkers, hunting them down by scent. It can remember as many as 10,000 scents at a time. The hound is blind to anything but the destruction for which it is programmed. It has a proboscis in a sheath on its snout, which injects lethal amounts of procaine. Although Montag is able to survive a partial injection into his leg, he suffers severe discomfort and numbness for a short time. The first hound encountered in the novel is destroyed when Montag sets it on fire with a flamethrower. A second hound sent to kill Montag loses his scent when Montag jumped into a river. The hound then goes and finds a random victim to convince the television audience that the hound never fails, even though Montag escaped. Bradbury notes in his afterword that the hound is "my robot clone of A. Conan Doyle's great Baskerville beast", referring to the famous Sherlock Holmes mystery The Hound of the Baskervilles. Mildred's friends (Mrs. Bowles and Mrs. Phelps) Mildred's friends represent the average citizens in the numbed society portrayed in the novel. They are examples of the people in the society who are unhappy but do not think they are. When they are introduced to literature (Dover Beach), which symbolizes the pain and happiness that has been censored from them, Mrs. Phelps is overwhelmed by the rush of emotion that she has not felt before. Themes The novel reflects several major concerns of the time of its writing, leading many to interpret it differently than intended by Bradbury (see "Censorship and the effects of mass media" below). Among the themes attributed to the novel were what Bradbury has called "the thought-destroying force" of censorship, the book-burnings in Nazi Germany in 1933 and the horrible consequences of the explosion of a nuclear weapon. "I meant all kinds of tyrannies anywhere in the world at any time, right, left, or middle," Bradbury has said. One particularly ironic circumstance is that, unbeknownst to Bradbury, his publisher released a censored edition in 1967, omitting the words "damn" and "hell," for distribution to schools. Later editions with all words restored include a coda from the author describing this event and further thoughts on censorship and "well-meaning" revisionism. Censorship and the effects of mass media The novel is frequently interpreted as being critical of state-sponsored censorship, but Bradbury has disputed this interpretation. He said in a 2007 interview that the book explored the effects of television and mass media on the reading of literature. Yet in the paperback edition released in 1979, Bradbury wrote a new coda for the book containing multiple comments on censorship and its relation to the novel. The coda is also present in the 1987 mass market paperback, which is still in print. In the late '50s, Bradbury observed that the novel touches on the alienation of people by media: Bradbury directly foretells this incident, and perhaps the ubiquitous iPod a half century later, early in the work: Films 1966 film Fahrenheit 451 was a film written and directed by François Truffaut and starring Oskar Werner and Julie Christie. The film was released in 1966. Future film In July 1994, a new film adaptation of Fahrenheit 451 began development with the studio Warner Bros. and actor Mel Gibson, who planned to star in the lead role. Scripts were written by Bradbury, Tony Puryear, and Terry Hayes. With the project estimated to be expensive and Gibson believing himself too old to portray the film's protagonist Guy Montag, the actor decided in 1997 to instead direct the film. By 1999, he had planned to begin filming with actor Tom Cruise in the lead role, but Gibson was forced to postpone due to Cruise's unavailability. Actor Brad Pitt was also approached for the lead role, but a deal was never made. According to Gibson, there was difficulty in finding a script that would be appropriate for the film, and that with the advent of computers, the concept of book-burning in a futuristic period may no longer work. In February 2001, the project was revived as director Frank Darabont entered negotiations with Warner Bros. to rewrite Terry Hayes's script and direct the film. Gibson was confirmed to be involved only as a producer, and Darabont planned to complete the script by the end of 2002. In July 2004, Darabont said that he had completed the script and hoped to begin filming Fahrenheit 451 after completing a script for Mission: Impossible III. Darabont did not begin Fahrenheit 451 immediately, instead going on to direct The Mist. The director said in November 2006 that he would do long-term preparation work for Fahrenheit 451 while filming The Mist and hoped that he would begin filming after The Mist was completed. In August 2007, Darabont expressed his intent to film Fahrenheit 451 in the summer of 2008, and that he would place the story's setting in an "intentionally nebulous" future, approximately 50 years from the contemporary period. Darabont planned to keep certain elements from the book, such as the mechanical hound, in the film. The director did not comment on rumors of Tom Hanks as Guy Montag. The director said that the protagonist had been cast and would be announced soon. The following November, the director confirmed Hanks's involvement with the film and described the actor to be "the perfect embodiment of the regular guy". In March 2008, Hanks withdrew from the film, citing prior commitments as the reason. Darabont is now looking for a new lead, explaining the difficulty, "It needs to be somebody like Hanks who has the ability to trigger a greenlight but is also the right guy for the part. It's a narrow target. It's a short list of people." Theatrical adaptation The Obie Award winning off-Broadway theatre The American Place Theatre is presenting a one man show adaptation of Fahrenheit 451 as a part of their 2008-2009 Literature to Life season http://www.americanplacetheatre.org/stage/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=331&Itemid=1 . Allusions and references in other works 50th Anniversary Edition cover The title of Bradbury's book has become a well-known byword amongst those who oppose censorship, in much the way George Orwell's 1984 or Aldous Huxley's Brave New World have. As such, it has been alluded to many times, including in the ACLU's 1997 white paper Fahrenheit 451.2: Is Cyberspace Burning? Ann Beeson. Chris Hansen. Others, see "Credits" section on page. "Fahrenheit 451.2: Is Cyberspace Burning? ", ACLU.com, 2002-03-17. retrieved 2007-09-18 and Michael Moore's 2004 documentary Fahrenheit 9/11. Bradbury objected to the latter's allusion to his work, claiming that Moore "stole my title and changed the numbers without ever asking me for permission." SFGate.com (2004), “Author seeks apology from Michael Moore”, retrieved 2006-10-03 Artist Micah Wright used the theme "Hand all books to your local fireman for safe disposal" overlaid on a 1940s fireman propaganda poster. Hungarian poet György Faludy includes the lines in the opening stanza of his 1983 poem "Learn by Heart This Poem of Mine": "Learn by heart this poem of mine, / Books only last a little time, / And this one will be borrowed, scarred, [...] / Or slowly brown and self-combust, / When climbing Fahrenheit has got / To 451, for that's how hot / it will be when your town burns down. / Learn by heart this poem of mine." Gyorgy (George) Faludy. John Robert Colombo, ed. Learn by Heart This Poem of Mine: Sixty Poems and One Speech, Hounslow Press, 1983, ISBN 978-0-88882-060-0. Online version hosted by opendemocracy.net The theme and plot of the movie Equilibrium, starring Christian Bale and Sean Bean, draws heavily from Fahrenheit 451, as well as from 1984 and Brave New World. Ray Bradbury also alludes to himself in his book Let's All Kill Constance as the main character, a writer, thinks about writing a book about a "hero who smells of kerosene" and muses about the possibility of books being used to start fires in the future. A 1986 computer text adventure revisits the story of Fahrenheit 451. In a Japanese light novel, manga and anime series Toshokan Sensō (lit. "Library War"), a book referred to as "The Book of Prophecy" simply titled K505 was targeted for termination. This title alludes to Fahrenheit 451, as K505 can be read as 505 units of the Kelvin measurement of temperature that approximates 451 degrees Fahrenheit. Characters in the series' fictional, near-future setting also reference the book as being written "60 years ago" and how "a French director adapted it into a film." An episode of the anime series R.O.D. the TV is entitled Fahrenheit 451 in which the British Library burns books in Jinbo-cho. In the season three episode of The Simpsons entitled "Dog of Death", Homer Simpson throws a series of books on a fireplace during the course of the episode. One of these is Fahrenheit 451, in which the throwing of the book on the fire is a reference to the plotline of the book itself. Fahrenheit 451 was one of several books used in Dominique Gonzalez-Foerster's art installation "TH.2058" in the Turbine Hall at Tate Modern in London in 2008. American power metal band Steel Prophet's 1999 album "Dark Hallucinations" has 5 songs which recount the story. The songs are Montag (Chapter One), Strange Encounter (Chapter Two), The Secret (Chapter Three), Betrayal (Chapter Four), and New Life (Chapter Five). Printings "The Fireman" (Galaxy Science Fiction, Vol. 1 No. 5, February 1951) First edition (1953) – This edition was actually published in three formats, and included two short stories: "The Playground" and "And the Rock Cried Out" Paperback (Ballantine No. 41) – The true first edition, preceding the hardcovers by six weeks. Standard hardcover – Limited to about 4,500 copies. Asbestos hardcover – Just over 200 copies were signed and numbered, before being bound in "Johns-Manville Quinterra", a fire resistant asbestos material. Later editions: Serialized version (Playboy, March, April, & May 1954) First British hardcover edition (Rupert Hart-Davis, 1954) – Title novel only. Science Fiction Book Club (London, 1955) – Title novel only. First British paperback edition (Corgi No. T389, 1957) – Title novel only. Softcover edition (Ballantine Books, 1962) - Issued with a new cover illustration by Joe Mugnaini. Student softcover edition (Bal-Hi, 1967) – Includes a two page "Note to Teachers and Parents" by Richard Tyre and features an enlarged and revised version of the 1962 cover illustration. Reprinted ten times through 1973. Hardcover edition (Simon & Schuster, 1967) – Full contents of the first edition (novel and two short stories) with a new introduction by Bradbury. Softcover edition (Ballantine Books, 1969) - Issued with a new cover illustration by Bob Pepper. Special Book Club edition (1976) Panther science fiction (Granada Publishing, 1976, reprinted 1977, 1978) ISBN 058604356X Hardcover edition (Del Rey Gold Seal, 1981) – Issued without a dust jacket, and includes "Investing Dimes", an afterword by Bradbury. Hardcover edition (Limited Editions Club, 1982) – Issued in a slipcase without a dust jacket, and includes an original lithograph and threefold-out color plates by Joseph Mugnaini. 2000 copies were signed by Bradbury & Mugnaini. Large print cloth edition (G K Hall & Co., 1988, ISBN 0745171060) Hardcover edition (Buccaneer Books, 1995, ISBN 089968484X) – Issued without a dust jacket, and includes the "Investing Dimes" afterword, and a "Coda" by Bradbury. 40th anniversary cloth edition (Simon & Schuster, 1996) – Limited to 7500 copies, with 500 signed and numbered by Bradbury. Trade paper edition (Del Rey, 1996, ISBN 0345410017) Mass-market paperback edition (Del Rey, ISBN 0345342968) 50th anniversary edition In Canada First Edition - February 1963 Seventh Printing - October 1972 References Notes Bibliography Bustard, Ned (2004), Fahrenheit 451 Comprehension Guide, Veritas Press. Bradbury, Ray Fahrenheit 451, New York: Ballantine Books, 1953 External links Ray Bradbury reading Fahrenheit 451 online multimedia e-book (Chapter 1). 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7,542 | DDT | DDT (from its trivial name, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) is one of the most well-known synthetic pesticides. It is a chemical with a long, unique, and controversial history. First synthesized in 1874, DDT's insecticidal properties were not discovered until 1939. In the second half of World War II, it was used with great effect among both military and civilian populations to control mosquitoes spreading malaria and lice transmitting typhus, resulting in dramatic reductions in the incidence of both diseases. The Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller of Geigy Pharmaceutical was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948 "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods." NobelPrize.org: The Nobel Prize in Physiology of Medicine 1948 Accessed July 26, 2007. After the war, DDT was made available for use as an agricultural insecticide, and soon its production and use skyrocketed. Environmental Health Criteria 9: DDT and its derivatives, World Health Organization, 1979. In 1962, Silent Spring by American biologist Rachel Carson was published. The book catalogued the environmental impacts of the indiscriminate spraying of DDT in the US and questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their effects on ecology or human health. The book suggested that DDT and other pesticides may cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds. Its publication was one of the signature events in the birth of the environmental movement. Silent Spring resulted in a large public outcry that eventually led to most uses of DDT being banned in the US in 1972. DDT was subsequently banned for agricultural use worldwide under the Stockholm Convention, but its limited use in disease vector control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains controversial. Along with the passage of the Endangered Species Act, the US ban on DDT is cited by scientists as a major factor in the comeback of the bald eagle in the contiguous US. E. Stokstad, "Species conservation. Can the bald eagle still soar after it is delisted?", Science 316, 5832 (2007), p. 1689f. doi: Properties and chemistry DDT is an organochlorine, similar in structure to the insecticide methoxychlor and the acaricide dicofol. It is a highly hydrophobic, colorless, crystalline solid with a weak, chemical odor. It is nearly insoluble in water but has a good solubility in most organic solvents, fats, and oils. DDT does not occur naturally, but is produced by the reaction of chloral (CCl3CHO) with chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl) in the presence of sulfuric acid, which acts as a catalyst. Trade names that DDT has been marketed under include Anofex, Cezarex, Chlorophenothane, Clofenotane, Dicophane, Dinocide, Gesarol, Guesapon, Guesarol, Gyron, Ixodex, Neocid, Neocidol, and Zerdane. Isomers and Related Compounds o,p' -DDT, a minor component in commercial DDT. Commercial DDT is actually a mixture of several closely related compounds. The major component (77%) is the p,p isomer which is pictured at the top of this article. The o,p' isomer (pictured to the right) is also present in significant amounts (15%). Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) make up the balance. DDE and DDD are also the major metabolites and breakdown products of DDT in the environment. The term "total DDT" is often used to refer to the sum of all DDT related compounds (p, p-DDT, o, p-DDT, DDE, and DDD) in a sample. Production and use statistics From 1950 to 1980, when DDT was extensively used in agriculture, more than 40,000 tonnes were used each year worldwide, and it has been estimated that a total of 1.8 million tonnes of DDT have been produced globally since the 1940s. Toxicological Profile: for DDT, DDE, and DDE. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, September 2002. In the U.S., where it was manufactured by Ciba, Montrose Chemical Company, Pennwalt Environmental Cleanup Site Information Database for Arkema (former Pennwalt) facility, Oregon DEQ, April 2009. and Velsicol Chemical Corporation, production peaked in 1963 at 82,000 tonnes per year. More than 600,000 tonnes (1.35 billion lbs) were applied in the U.S. before the 1972 ban, with usage peaking in 1959 with about 36,000 tonnes applied that year. DDT Regulatory History: A Brief Survey (to 1975), U.S. EPA, July 1975. Today, 4-5,000 tonnes of DDT are used each year for the control of malaria and visceral leishmaniasis, with India being the largest consumer. India, China, and North Korea are the only countries still producing and exporting it, and production is reportedly on the rise. Mechanism of action DDT is moderately toxic, with a rat LD50 of 113 mg/kg. World Health Organization, The WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard, 2005. It has potent insecticidal properties, where it kills by opening sodium ion channels in the neurons, causing them to fire spontaneously leading to spasms and eventual death. Insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT and other similar insecticides. DDT resistance is also conferred by up-regulation of genes expressing cytochrome P450 in some insect species. History Commercial product containing 5% DDT First synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler, DDT's insecticidal properties were not discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts. Use in the 1940s and 1950s DDT is the best-known of a number of chlorine-containing pesticides used in the 1940s and 1950s. With pyrethrum in short supply, DDT was used extensively during World War II by the Allies to control the insect vectors of typhus—nearly eliminating the disease in many parts of Europe. In the South Pacific, it was sprayed aerially for malaria control with spectacular effects. While DDT's chemical and insecticide properties were important factors in these victories, advances in application equipment coupled with a high degree of organization and sufficient manpower were also crucial elements in the success of these wartime spray programs. In 1945, it was made available to farmers as an agricultural insecticide. DDT played a small role in the final elimination of malaria in Europe and North America, as malaria had already been eliminated from much of the developed world before the advent of DDT through the use of a range of public health measures and generally increasing health and living standards. One CDC physician involved in the United States' DDT spraying campaign said of the effort that "we kicked a dying dog." Shah, Sonia “Don’t Blame Environmentalists for Malaria,” The Nation. April 2006. But in countries without these advances, it was critical in their eradication of the disease. In 1955, the World Health Organization commenced a program to eradicate malaria worldwide, relying largely on DDT. The program was initially highly successful, eliminating the disease in "Taiwan, much of the Caribbean, the Balkans, parts of northern Africa, the northern region of Australia, and a large swath of the South Pacific" . and dramatically reducing mortality in Sri Lanka and India. However resistance soon emerged in many insect populations as a consequence of widespread agricultural use of DDT. In many areas, early victories against malaria were partially or completely reversed, and in some cases rates of transmission even increased. The program was successful in eliminating malaria only in areas with "high socio-economic status, well-organized healthcare systems, and relatively less intensive or seasonal malaria transmission". DDT was less effective in tropical regions due to the continuous life cycle of mosquitoes and poor infrastructure. It was not pursued at all in sub-Saharan Africa due to these perceived difficulties, with the result that mortality rates in the area were never reduced to the same dramatic extent, and now constitute the bulk of malarial deaths worldwide, especially following the resurgence of the disease as a result of microbe resistance to drug treatments and the spread of the deadly malarial variant caused by Plasmodium falciparum. The goal of eradication was abandoned in 1969, and attention was focused on controlling and treating the disease. Spraying programs (especially using DDT) were curtailed due to concerns over safety and environmental effects, as well as problems in administrative, managerial and financial implementation, but mostly because mosquitoes were developing resistance to DDT. Efforts were shifted from spraying to the use of bednets impregnated with insecticides and other interventions. Silent Spring and the U.S. ban As early as the 1940s, scientists in the U.S. had begun expressing concern over possible hazards associated with DDT, and in the 1950s the government began tightening some of the regulations governing its use. However, these early events received little attention, and it was not until 1957, when the New York Times reported an unsuccessful struggle to restrict DDT use in Nassau County, New York, that the issue came to the attention of the popular naturalist-author, Rachel Carson. William Shawn, editor of The New Yorker, urged her to write a piece on the subject, which developed into her famous book Silent Spring, published in 1962. The book argued that pesticides, including DDT, were poisoning both wildlife and the environment and were also endangering human health. Lear, Linda (1997). Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature. New York: Henry Hoyten. Silent Spring was a best seller, and public reaction to it launched the modern environmental movement in the United States. The year after it appeared, President Kennedy ordered his Science Advisory Committee to investigate Carson's claims. The report the committee issued "add[ed] up to a fairly thorough-going vindication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring thesis," in the words of the journal Science, cited in and recommended a phaseout of "persistent toxic pesticides". DDT became a prime target of the growing anti-chemical and anti-pesticide movements, and in 1967 a group of scientists and lawyers founded the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) with the specific goal of winning a ban on DDT. Victor Yannacone, Charles Wurster, Art Cooley and others associated with inception of EDF had all witnessed bird kills or declines in bird populations and suspected that DDT was the cause. In their campaign against the chemical, EDF petitioned the government for a ban and filed a series of lawsuits. "Sue the Bastards", TIME October 18, 1971 Around this time, toxicologist David Peakall was measuring DDE levels in the eggs of peregrine falcons and California condors and finding that increased levels corresponded with thinner shells. In response to an EDF suit, the U.S. District Court of Appeals in 1971 ordered the EPA to begin the de-registration procedure for DDT. After an initial six-month review process, William Ruckelshaus, the Agency's first Administrator rejected an immediate suspension of DDT's registration, citing studies from the EPA's internal staff stating that DDT was not an imminent danger to human health and wildlife. However, the findings of these staff members were criticized, as they were performed mostly by economic entomologists inherited from the United States Department of Agriculture, whom many environmentalists felt were biased towards agribusiness and tended to minimize concerns about human health and wildlife. The decision not to ban thus created public controversy. The EPA then held seven months of hearings in 1971-1972, with scientists giving evidence both for and against the use of DDT. In the summer of 1972, Ruckelshaus announced the cancellation of most uses of DDT—an exemption allowed for public health uses under some conditions. Immediately after the cancellation was announced, both EDF and the DDT manufactures filed suit against the EPA, with the industry seeking to overturn the ban, and EDF seeking a comprehensive ban. The cases were consolidated, and in 1973 the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia ruled that the EPA had acted properly in banning DDT. The U.S. DDT ban took place amid a climate of growing public mistrust of industry, with the Surgeon General issuing a report on smoking in 1964, the Cuyahoga River catching fire in 1969, the fiasco surrounding the use of diethylstilbestrol (DES), and the well-publicized decline in the bald eagle population. Some uses of DDT continued under the public health exemption. For example, in June 1979, the California Department of Health Services was permitted to use DDT to suppress flea vectors of bubonic plague. DDT also continued to be produced in the US for foreign markets until as late as 1985, when over 300 tonnes were exported. Restrictions on usage In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use of DDT was banned in most developed countries. DDT was first banned in Hungary in 1968 then in Norway and Sweden in 1970 and the US in 1972, but was not banned in the United Kingdom until 1984. The use of DDT in vector control has not been banned, but it has been largely replaced by less persistent alternative insecticides. The Stockholm Convention, which entered into force in 2004, outlawed several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted the use of DDT to vector control. The Convention was signed by 98 countries and is endorsed by most environmental groups. Recognizing that a total elimination of DDT use in many malaria-prone countries is currently unfeasible because there are few affordable or effective alternatives, the public health use of DDT was exempted from the ban until alternatives are developed. The Malaria Foundation International states that "The outcome of the treaty is arguably better than the status quo going into the negotiations…For the first time, there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only, meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before." Despite the worldwide ban on agricultural use of DDT, its use in this context continues in India North Korea, and possibly elsewhere. Today, about 4-5,000 tonnes of DDT are used each year for vector control. In this context, DDT is applied to the inside walls of homes to kill or repel mosquitos entering the home. This intervention, called indoor residual spraying (IRS), greatly reduces environmental damage compared to the earlier widespread use of DDT in agriculture. It also reduces the risk of resistance to DDT. This use only requires a small fraction of that previously used in agriculture; for example, the amount of DDT that might have been used on 40 hectares (100 acres) of cotton during a typical growing season in the U.S. is estimated to be enough to treat roughly 1,700 homes. Environmental impact DDT is a persistent organic pollutant that is extremely hydrophobic and strongly absorbed by soils. Depending on conditions, its soil half life can range from 22 days to 30 years. Routes of loss and degradation include runoff, volatilization, photolysis and aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation. When applied to aquatic ecosystems it is quickly absorbed by organisms and by soil or it evaporates, leaving little DDT dissolved in the water itself. Its breakdown products and metabolites, DDE and DDD, are also highly persistent and have similar chemical and physical properties. These products together are known as "total DDT". DDT and its breakdown products are transported from warmer regions of the world to the Arctic by the phenomenon of global distillation, where they then accumulate in the region's food web. DDT, DDE, and DDD magnify through the food chain, with apex predators such as raptors having a higher concentration of the chemicals than other animals sharing the same environment. They are very lipophilic and are stored mainly in body fat. DDT and DDE very resistant to metabolism; in humans their half-lives are 6 and up to 10 years, respectively. In the United States, these chemicals were detected in almost all human blood samples tested by the Centers for Disease Control in 2005, though their levels have sharply declined since most uses were banned in the US. Estimated dietary intake has also declined, despite it still being commonly detected in food samples tested by the FDA. USDA, Pesticide Data Program Annual Summary Calendar Year 2005, November 2006. Marine algae (seaweeds) have been shown to act as bioremediation agents and can reduce the toxicity of soil contaminated by DDT by up to 80% within six weeks. Effects on wildlife and eggshell thinning DDT is toxic to a wide range of animals in addition to insects. It is highly toxic to aquatic life, including crayfish, daphnids, sea shrimp and many species of fish. It is less toxic to mammals but cats are very susceptible, and in several instances cat populations were significantly depleted in malaria control operations that used DDT, often leading to explosive growth in rodent populations. DDT may be moderately toxic to some amphibian species, especially in the larval stages. Most famously, it is a reproductive toxicant for certain birds species, and it is a major reason for the decline of the bald eagle, brown pelican "Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Petition Finding and Proposed Rule To Remove the Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) From the Federal List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife; Proposed Rule," Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, February 20, 2008. peregrine falcon, and osprey. Birds of prey, waterfowl, and song birds are more susceptible to eggshell thinning than chickens and related species, and DDE appears to be more potent that DDT. The biological mechanism for the thinning is not entirely known, but it is believed that p,p'-DDE impairs the shell gland's ability to excrete calcium carbonate onto the developing egg. There is also evidence that o,p'-DDT disrupts the development of the female reproductive tract, thereby impairing the quality of the eggshells produced by the bird once its matures. Multiple mechanisms may be at work, or different mechanisms may operate in different species. Some studies have shown that although DDE levels have fallen dramatically, eggshell thickness remains 10–12 percent thinner than before DDT was first used. Division of Environmental Quality Effects on human health Acute Toxicity DDT is classified as "moderately toxic" by the United States National Toxicology Program (NTP) Pesticideinfo.org and "moderately hazardous" by WHO, based on the rat oral LD50 of 113 mg/kg. DDT has on rare occasions been administered orally as a treatment for barbiturate poisoning. Chronic Toxicity Diabetes Organochlorine compounds, generally, and DDT and DDE, specifically, have been linked to diabetes. A number of studies from the US and Sweden have found that the prevalence of the disease in a population increases with serum DDT or DDE levels. Developmental and reproductive toxicity DDT and DDE, like other organochlorines, have been shown to have xenoestrogenic activity, meaning they are chemically similar enough to estrogens to trigger hormonal responses in animals. This endocrine disrupting activity has been observed toxicological studies involving mice and rats, and available epidemiological evidence indicates that these effects may be occurring in humans as a result of DDT exposure. There is therefore concern that DDT may cause developmental and reproductive toxicity. A review article in The Lancet concludes that, "research has shown that exposure to DDT at amounts that would be needed in malaria control might cause preterm birth and early weaning … toxicological evidence shows endocrine-disrupting properties; human data also indicate possible disruption in semen quality, menstruation, gestational length, and duration of lactation." Human epidemiological studies suggest that DDT exposure is a risk factor for premature birth and low birth weight, and may harm a mother's ability to breast feed. Some 21st century researchers argue that these effects may cause increases in infant deaths in areas where DDT is used for malaria control, and thus offset any benefit derived from its anti-malarial effects. Chen A, Rogan WJ. Malaria control and public health (replies). Emerging Infectious Disease, 10(6):1171-1172, June 2004 A 2008 study, however, failed to confirm the association between exposure and difficulty breastfeeding. Several recent studies demonstrate a link between in utero exposure to DDT or DDE and developmental neurotoxicity in humans. For example, a 2006 study conducted by the University of California, Berkeley suggests children who have been exposed to DDT while in the womb have a greater chance of experiencing development problems, and other studies have found that even low levels of DDT or DDE in umbilical cord serum at birth are associated with decreased attention at infancy Sharon K. Sagiv, J. Kevin Nugent, T. Berry Brazelton, Anna L. Choi, Paige E. Tolbert, Larisa M. Altshul, and Susan A. Korrick, 2008. [http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2008/10553/abstract.html Prenatal Organochlorine Exposure and Measures of Behavior in Infancy Using the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)], Environmental Health Perspectives 116(5):666-673. and decreased cognitive skills at 4 years of age. Similarly, Mexican researchers have demonstrated a link between DDE exposure in the first trimester of pregnancy and retarded psychomotor development. A 2007 study documented decreases in semen quality among South African men from communities where DDT is used to combat endemic malaria. The researchers found statistically significant correlations between increased levels of DDT or DDE in blood plasma and decreases in several measures of semen quality including ejaculate volume, certain motility parameters, and sperm count. The same researchers reported similar results in 2006 from a study of men in Mexico. A review of earlier studies noted that "Studies of populations with a much lower exposure than that seen in current malaria-endemic areas have shown only weak, inconsistent associations between DDE and testosterone amounts, semen quality, and sperm DNA damage." Several studies have examined the association between time to pregnancy (TTP) and levels of DDT or DDE in the blood of pregnant women. These studies have generally found that high exposure levels do not increase TTP. There is some evidence that the daughters of highly exposed women may have more difficulty getting pregnant (i.e. increased TTP). DDT exposure is associated with early pregnancy loss, a type of miscarriage. A prospective cohort study of Chinese textile workers found "a positive, monotonic, exposure-response association between preconception serum total DDT and the risk of subsequent early pregnancy losses." The median serum DDE level of study group was lower than that typically observed in women living in homes sprayed with DDT, suggesting that these findings are relevant to the debate about DDT and malaria control. A case-control study of congenital hypothyroidism in Japan concluded that in utero DDT exposure may affect thyroid hormone levels and "play an important role in the incidence and/or causation of cretinism." Other studies have also found the DDT or DDE interfere with proper thyroid function. Other Occupational exposure to DDT (either as a farmer or a malaria control worker) has been linked to: Neurological problems Asthma Anthony J Brown, Pesticide Exposure Linked to Asthma, Scientific American, September 17, 2007. Carcinogenicity DDT is suspected to cause cancer. The NTP classifies it as "reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen", and the EPA classifies DDT, DDE, and DDD as a class B2 "probable" human carcinogens. The International Agency for Research on Cancer classifies it is as a "possible" human carcinogen. These evaluations are based mainly on the results for animal studies. There is good epidemiological evidence (i.e. studies in humans) that DDT causes cancer of the: Liver Pancreas Breast (see below) There is mixed evidence that it contributes cancer of the: Blood (i.e. Leukemia) Testis . Lymphatic system (i.e. non-Hodgkin Lymphoma) In contrast, epidemiological studies suggest that DDT/DDE does not cause cancers of the: plasma, (i.e. multiple myeloma) prostate endometrium rectum lung bladder stomach Breast cancer The question of whether DDT or DDE can cause breast cancer has been the subject of numerous investigations. While individual studies have come to conflicting conclusions, the most recent reviews of all the evidence conclude that exposure to DDT before puberty increases the risk of breast cancer later in life. Until recently, almost all studies measured DDT or DDE blood levels at the time of breast cancer diagnosis or after. This study design has been criticized, since the levels of DDT or DDE at diagnosis do not necessarily correspond to the levels present in a woman's body at the time when her cancer first started. Such studies have thus yielded conflicting results and taken as a whole "do not support the hypothesis that exposure to DDT is an important risk factor for breast cancer." DDT and Breast Cancer in Young Women: New Data on the Significance of Age at Exposure, Barbara A. Cohn, Mary S. Wolff, et al., Environ. Health Perspect., 115:1406–1414 (2007). The studies of this design have been extensively reviewed. DDE Burden and Breast Cancer Risk: A Meta-Analysis of the Epidemiologic Evidence. Malaquías López-Cervantes, Luisa Torres-Sánchez, Aurelio Tobías, and Lizbeth López-Carrillo, EHP, 112(2): 207-214, 2004. In contrast to these studies, a study published in 2007 found a strong association between exposure to specifically the p,p-isomer of DDT early in life and breast cancer later in life. Unlike previous studies, this was prospective cohort study in which blood samples were collected from young mothers in the 1960s while DDT was still in use, and their breast cancer status was then monitored. In addition to suggesting that exposure to the p,p-isomer of DDT is the more significant risk factor of breast cancer, the study also suggests that the timing of exposure is critical. For the subset of women born more than 14 years prior to the introduction of DDT into US agriculture, there was no association between DDT levels and breast cancer. However, for women born more recently—and thus exposed earlier in life—the third who were exposed most to p, p-DDT had a fivefold increase in breast cancer incidence over the least exposed third, after correcting for the protective effect of o,p-DDT. News media articles about this study: (a) Exposure to DDT is linked to cancer, Douglas Fischer, Contra Costa Times, August 8th, 2007. (b) Study suggests DDT, breast cancer link, Marla Cone, LA Times, September 30th, 2007. These results are supported by animal studies. DDT use against malaria Malaria remains a major public health challenge in many parts of the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that there are 250 million cases every year, resulting in almost 1 million deaths. About 90% of these deaths occur in Africa, and mostly to children under the age of 5. 2005 WHO World Malaria Report 2008 Spraying DDT is one of many public health interventions currently used to fight the disease. Its use in this context has been called everything from a "miracle weapon [that is] like Kryptonite to the mosquitoes," to "toxic colonialism." Paull, John, Toxic Colonialism New Scientist, (2628): 25, 3 November 2007 Before the advent of DDT, aggressive campaigns to eliminate mosquito breeding grounds by drainage or poisoning with Paris green or pyrethrum were used, sometimes successfully, to fight the disease. In many parts of the world, rising standards of living resulted in the elimination of malaria as a collateral benefit of the introduction of window screens and improved sanitation. Today, a variety of interventions are used, and usually many are used simultaneously. These include the use of antimalarial drugs to prevent or treat malaria infections; improvements in public health infrastructure to quickly diagnose, sequester, and treat infected individuals; the distribution of bednets and other methods intended to keep mosquitos from biting humans; and vector control strategies. These include larvaciding with appropriate insecticides, ecological controls such as draining mosquito breeding grounds or introducing fish to eat larva, and indoor residual spraying (IRS) with insecticides. IRS involves the treatment of all interior walls and ceilings with insecticides, and is particularly effective against mosquitoes, since many species will rest on an indoor wall before or after feeding. DDT is one of 12 insecticides approved by the WHO for IRS, and the contemporary DDT debate revolves around how much of a role the chemical should play in this mix of strategies. The WHO's anti-malaria campaign of the 1950s and 1960s relied heavily on DDT and initially the results were promising, though short lived. Experts tie the resurgence of malaria to numerous factors, including poor leadership, management, and funding of malaria control programs; poverty; civil unrest; and increased irrigation. The evolution of resistance of the malaria parasite to the drugs traditionally used to treat the disease (e.g. chloroquine) and evolution of resistance of mosquitos to insecticides have greatly exacerbated the situation. Resistance of mosquitoes to DDT was largely fueled by its often unrestricted use in agriculture. This, coupled with the awareness that DDT may be harmful both to humans and the environment led many governments to restrict or curtail the use of DDT in vector control. Once the mainstay of anti-malaria campaigns, as of 2006 only 13 countries were still using DDT, including India and some southern African states, though the number is expected to rise. Overall effectiveness of DDT against malaria When it was first introduced in World War II, DDT was very effective in reducing malaria morbidity and mortality. The WHO's anti-malaria campaign, which consisted mostly of spraying DDT, was initially very successful as well. For example, in Sri Lanka, the program reduced cases from about 3 million per year before spraying to just 29 in 1964. Thereafter the program was halted to save money, and malaria rebounded to 600,000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969. The country resumed DDT spraying, but it was largely ineffective because mosquitoes had acquired resistance to the chemical in the interim, presumably because of its continued use in agriculture. The program was forced to switch to malathion, which though more expensive, proved effective. Today, DDT is still included in the WHO's list of insecticides recommended for IRS. Since the appointment of Arata Kochi as head of its anti-malaria division, WHO's policy has shifted from recommending IRS only in areas of seasonal or episodic transmission of malaria, to also advocating it in areas of continuous, intense transmission. WHO | WHO gives indoor use of DDT a clean bill of health for controlling malaria The WHO remains, however, "very much concerned with health consequences from use of DDT" and it has reaffirmed its commitment to eventually phasing it out. http://www.yubanet.com/artman/publish/article_56180.shtml South Africa is one country that continues to use DDT under WHO guidelines. In 1996, the country switched to alternative insecticides and malaria incidence increased dramatically. Returning to DDT and introducing new drugs brought malaria back under control. According to DDT advocate Donald Roberts, malaria cases increased in South America after countries in that continent stopped using DDT. Research data shows a significantly strong negative relationship between DDT residual house sprayings and malaria rates. In a research from 1993 to 1995, Ecuador increased its use of DDT and resulted in a 61% reduction in malaria rates, while each of the other countries that gradually decreased its DDT use had large increase in malaria rates. Mosquito resistance to DDT The evolution of resistance to DDT in mosquitos has greatly reduced its effectiveness in many parts of the world, and current WHO guidelines require that before the chemical is used in an area, susceptibility of local mosquitos to DDT must be confirmed. Indoor Residual Spraying: Use of Indoor Residual Spraying for Scaling Up Global Malaria Control and Elimination. World Health Organization, 2006. The appearance of DDT-resistance is largely due to its use in agriculture, where it was used in much greater amounts than the relatively small quantities used for disease prevention. According to one study that attempted to quantify the lives saved by banning agricultural uses of DDT and thereby slowing the spread of resistance, "it can be estimated that at current rates each kilo of insecticide added to the environment will generate 105 new cases of malaria." Resistance was noted early in spray campaigns, with Paul Russell, a former head of the Allied Anti-Malaria campaign, observing in 1956 that eradication programs had to be wary of relying on DDT for too long as "resistance has appeared [after] six or seven years." DDT has lost much of its effectiveness in many parts of the world including Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Turkey and Central America, and it has largely been replaced by organophosphate or carbamate insecticides, e.g. malathion or bendiocarb. Control of Malaria Vectors in Africa and Asia C.F.Curtis In many parts of India, DDT has largely lost its effectiveness. Agricultural uses were banned in 1989, and its use for anti-malarial purposes has been declining. Its use in urban areas has been halted completely. Nevertheless, DDT is still manufactured and used in the country, and one study had concluded that "DDT is still a viable insecticide in indoor residual spraying owing to its effectivity in well supervised spray operation and high excito-repellency factor." Studies of malaria-vector mosquitoes in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa found susceptibility to 4% DDT (the WHO susceptibility standard), in 63% of the samples, compared to the average of 86.5% in the same species caught in the open. The authors concluded that "Finding DDT resistance in the vector An. arabiensis, close to the area where we previously reported pyrethroid-resistance in the vector An. funestus Giles, indicates an urgent need to develop a strategy of insecticide resistance management for the malaria control programmes of southern Africa." It has been argued that DDT can still be effective against resistant mosquitos, and that the avoidance of DDT-sprayed walls by mosquitoes is an additional benefit of the chemical. For example, a 2007 study reported that DDT-resistant mosquitoes still avoided DDT-treated huts. The researchers argued that DDT was the best pesticide for use in IRS (even though it did not afford the most protection from mosquitos out of the three test chemicals) because the others pesticides worked primarily by killing or irritating mosquitoes—modes of action the authors presume mosquitoes will develop resistance to. Others have argued that the avoidance of DDT sprayed walls by mosquitoes is detrimental to the actual eradication of the disease. Unlike other insecticides such as pyrethroids, DDT requires a long period of contact before mosquitoes pick up a lethal dose; however its irritant property makes them fly off before this occurs. "For these reasons, when comparisons have been made, better malaria control has generally been achieved with pyrethroids than with DDT." In India, with its outdoor sleeping habits and frequent night duties, "the excito-repellent effect of DDT, often reported useful in other countries, actually promotes outdoor transmission." Residents' resistance to use of DDT For IRS to be effective, at least 80% of homes and barns in an area must be sprayed, and if enough residents refuse spraying, the effectiveness of the whole program can be jeopardized. Many residents resist DDT spraying for various reasons. For instance, the smell lingers, it stains on the walls, and it sometime fails to kill—or even exacerbates problems with—other insect pests. In Malaria War, South Africa Turns To Pesticide Long Banned in the West, Roger Thurow, Wall Street Journal, July 26, 2001 The use of pyrethroid insecticides (e.g. deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin) can overcome some of these issues, and meets with less resistance than DDT. Human exposure associated with DDT spraying People living in areas where DDT is used for IRS have high levels of the chemical and its breakdown products in their bodies. Compared to contemporaries living in countries where DDT is not used, South Africans living in sprayed homes have levels that are several orders of magnitude greater. Breast milk from regions where DDT is used for malaria control contains enough DDT to greatly exceed the allowable daily intake of breast feeding infants. Spicer PE, Kereu RK. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 1993 April;50(4):540-6. These levels have been associated with neurological abnormalities in babies ingesting relatively large quantities of DDT in their milk. Most studies of DDT's health effects on human have been conducted in developed countries where DDT is not used and exposure is relatively low. Many experts are therefore concerned about the health consequences of its use in IRS, as this results in very high exposure. They urge that alternatives been used instead. Epidemiologist Brenda Eskenazi argues that "We know DDT can save lives by repelling and killing disease-spreading mosquitoes. But evidence suggests that people living in areas where DDT is used are exposed to very high levels of the pesticide. The only published studies on health effects conducted in these populations have shown profound effects on male fertility. Clearly, more research is needed on the health of populations where indoor residual spraying is occurring, but in the meantime, DDT should really be the last resort against malaria rather than the first line of defense." Illegal diversion of DDT from the public health sector to agriculture is also a concern, as it is almost impossible to prevent, and its subsequent use on crops is totally unregulated. "The consequent insecticidal residues in crops at levels unacceptable for the export trade have been an important factor in recent bans of DDT for malaria control in several tropical countries". Adding to this problem is a lack of skilled personnel and supervision. Criticism of restrictions on DDT use Critics claim that restrictions on the use of DDT in vector control have resulted in substantial numbers of unnecessary deaths due to malaria. Estimates for the number of deaths that have been caused by an alleged lack of availability of DDT range from hundreds of thousands, according to Nicholas Kristof, to much higher figures. Robert Gwadz of the National Institutes of Health said in 2007 that "The ban on DDT may have killed 20 million children." Finkel, Michael, "Malaria," National Geographic, July 2007 These arguments have been called "outrageous" by former WHO scientist Socrates Litsios and May Berenbaum, a professor of entomology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, says that "to blame environmentalists who oppose DDT for more deaths than Hitler is worse than irresponsible." Rachel Carson's birthday bashing, Kirsten Weir, Salon.com, June 29, 2007, accessed July 1, 2007. Criticisms of a "ban" on DDT often specifically reference the 1972 US ban (with the erroneous implication that this constituted a worldwide ban and prohibited use of DDT in vector control). Reference is often made to Rachel Carson's Silent Spring even though she never pushed for a ban on DDT. John Quiggin and Tim Lambert have written that "the most striking feature of the claim against Carson is the ease with which it can be refuted." Rehabilitating Carson, John Quiggin & Tim Lambert, Prospect, May 2008. Carson actually devoted a page of her book to considering the relationship between DDT and malaria, warning of the evolution of DDT resistance in mosquitoes and concluding: It is more sensible in some cases to take a small amount of damage in preference to having none for a time but paying for it in the long run by losing the very means of fighting [is the advice given in Holland by Dr Briejer in his capacity as director of the Plant Protection Service]. Practical advice should be "Spray as little as you possibly can" rather than "Spray to the limit of your capacity." According to Amir Attaran, many environmental groups fought against the public health exception of DDT in the 2001 Stockholm Convention, over the objections of third world governments and many malaria researchers. Attaran strongly objected to an outright ban, writing, "Environmentalists in rich, developed countries gain nothing from DDT, and thus small risks felt at home loom larger than health benefits for the poor tropics. More than 200 environmental groups, including Greenpeace, Physicians for Social Responsibility and the World Wildlife Fund, actively condemn DDT..." It has also been argued that donor governments and agencies have refused to fund DDT spraying, or made aid contingent upon not using DDT. According a report in the British Medical Journal, use of DDT in Mozambique "was stopped several decades ago, because 80% of the country's health budget came from donor funds, and donors refused to allow the use of DDT." Roger Bate of the pro-DDT advocacy group Africa Fighting Malaria (AFM), asserts that "many countries have been coming under pressure from international health and environment agencies to give up DDT or face losing aid grants: Belize and Bolivia are on record admitting they gave in to pressure on this issue from [USAID]." The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has been the focus of much criticism. While the agency is currently funding the use of DDT in some African countries, in the past it has not. When John Stossel accused USAID of not funding DDT because it wasn't "politically correct," Anne Peterson, the agency's assistant administrator for global health, replied that "I believe that the strategies we are using are as effective as spraying with DDT … So, politically correct or not, I am very confident that what we are doing is the right strategy." USAID's Kent R. Hill states that the agency has been misrepresented: "USAID strongly supports spraying as a preventative measure for malaria and will support the use of DDT when it is scientifically sound and warranted." With regard to decision to start funding the use of the chemical, the Agency's website states that "USAID has never had a 'policy' as such either 'for' or 'against' DDT for IRS. The real change in the past two years [2006/07] has been a new interest and emphasis on the use of IRS in general—with DDT or any other insecticide—as an effective malaria prevention strategy in tropical Africa." The website further explains that in many cases alternative malaria control measures were judged to be more cost-effective that DDT spraying, and so were funded instead. Alternatives to DDT DDT versus other insecticides Advocates of increased use of DDT in IRS claim that alternative insecticides are more expensive, more toxic, or not as effective. As discussed above, susceptibility of mosquitos to DDT varies geographically and the same is true for alternative insecticides, so its effectiveness vis-a-vis other chemicals varies. With regard to toxicity and cost-effectiveness versus other insecticides, actual data is lacking. The relative costs of employing various insecticides vary by location and ease of access, the habits of the particular mosquitoes prevalent in each area, the degrees of resistance to various pesticides exhibited by the mosquitoes, and the habits and compliance of the population, among other factors. Furthermore, the choice of insecticide has little impact on the overall cost of a round of spraying, since insecticide costs are only a fraction total budget for an IRS campaign. However to be effective, IRS needs to be maintained throughout the malaria season, and DDT lasts longer than alternative insecticides, so needs to be applied less frequently. Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides, e.g. malathion and bendiocarb, respectively, are more expensive than DDT per kilogram and are applied at roughly the same dosage. Pyrethroids such as deltamethrin are also more expensive than DDT, but are applied more sparingly (0.02-0.3 g/m2 vs 1-2 g/m2), so the net cost per house is about the same per 6 months. DDT versus non-chemical vector control Before DDT, malaria was successfully eradicated or curtailed in several tropical areas by removing or poisoning the breeding grounds of the mosquitoes or the aquatic habitats of the larva stages, for example by filling or applying oil to places with standing water. These methods have seen little application in Africa for more than half a century. The relative effectiveness of IRS (with DDT or alternative insecticides) versus other malaria control techniques (e.g. bednets or prompt access to anti-malarial drugs) varies greatly and is highly dependent on local conditions. A study by the World Health Organization released in January 2008 found that mass distribution of insecticide-treated mosquito nets and artemisinin based drugs cut malaria deaths in half in Rwanda and Ethiopia, countries with very high malaria burdens. IRS with DDT was determined to not have played an important role in the reduction of mortality. Impact of long-lasting insecticidal-treated nets (LLINs) and artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) measured using surveillance data in four African countries. World Health Organization, January 31, 2008. News article about the study: Malaria deaths halved in Rwanda and Ethiopia Better drugs, mosquito nets are the crucial tools, David Brown (Washington Post), SF Chronicle, A-12, February 1, 2008. Vietnam is an example of a country that has seen a continued decline in malaria cases after switching in 1991 from a poorly funded DDT-based campaign to a program based on prompt treatment, bednets, and the use of pyrethroid group insecticides. Deaths from malaria dropped by 97%. http://www.afronets.org/files/malaria.pdf World Health Organization, "A story to be shared: The successful fight against malaria in Vietnam," November 6, 2000. In Mexico, the use of a range of effective and affordable chemical and non-chemical strategies against malaria has been so successful that the Mexican DDT manufacturing plant ceased production voluntarily, due to lack of demand. Furthermore, while the increased numbers of malaria victims since DDT usage fell out of favor would, at first glance, suggest a 1:1 correlation, many other factors are known to have contributed to the rise in cases. A review of fourteen studies on the subject in sub-Saharan Africa, covering insecticide-treated nets, residual spraying, chemoprophylaxis for children, chemoprophylaxis or intermittent treatment for pregnant women, a hypothetical vaccine, and changing the first line drug for treatment, found decision making limited by the gross lack of information on the costs and effects of many interventions, the very small number of cost-effectiveness analyses available, the lack of evidence on the costs and effects of packages of measures, and the problems in generalizing or comparing studies that relate to specific settings and use different methodologies and outcome measures. The two cost-effectiveness estimates of DDT residual spraying examined were not found to provide an accurate estimate of the cost-effectiveness of DDT spraying; furthermore, the resulting estimates may not be good predictors of cost-effectiveness in current programmes. However, a study in Thailand found the cost per malaria case prevented of DDT spraying ($1.87 US) to be 21% greater than the cost per case prevented of lambdacyhalothrin-treated nets ($1.54 US), at very least casting some doubt on the unexamined assumption that DDT was the most cost-effective measure to use in all cases. The director of Mexico's malaria control program finds similar results, declaring that it is 25% cheaper for Mexico to spray a house with synthetic pyrethroids than with DDT. However, another study in South Africa found generally lower costs for DDT spraying than for impregnated nets. A more comprehensive approach to measuring cost-effectiveness or efficacy of malarial control would not only measure the cost in dollars of the project, as well as the number of people saved, but would also take into account the negative aspects of insecticide use on human health and ecological damage. One preliminary study regarding the effect of DDT found that it is likely the detriment to human health approaches or exceeds the beneficial reductions in malarial cases, except perhaps in malarial epidemic situations. It is similar to the earlier mentioned study regarding estimated theoretical infant mortality caused by DDT and subject to the criticism also mentioned earlier. A study in the Solomon Islands found that "although impregnated bed nets cannot entirely replace DDT spraying without substantial increase in incidence, their use permits reduced DDT spraying." A comparison of four successful programs against malaria in Brazil, India, Eritrea, and Vietnam does not endorse any single strategy but instead states "Common success factors included conducive country conditions, a targeted technical approach using a package of effective tools, data-driven decision-making, active leadership at all levels of government, involvement of communities, decentralized implementation and control of finances, skilled technical and managerial capacity at national and sub-national levels, hands-on technical and programmatic support from partner agencies, and sufficient and flexible financing." DDT resistant mosquitoes have generally proved susceptible to pyrethroids. Thus far, pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles has not been a major problem. See also DDT in Australia DDT in New Zealand DDT in the United States Mickey Slim References External links US Government A Persistent Controversy, a Still Valid Warning - May Berenbaum, head of the entomology department at University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign EPA on DDT Toxicity DDT Technical Fact Sheet - National Pesticide Information Center EXTOXNET: Pesticide Information Profiles—DDT Scorecard: The Pollution Information Site—DDT Interview with Barbara Cohn, PhD about DDT and breast cancer Environmental impact Microbial Degradation of Pesticides US Fish and Wildlife Service Historic News Releases - DDT Aerobic pathway of DDT metabolization Anaerobic pathway of DDT metabolization Pesticide residues in food 2000 : DDT Environmental Fate Evaluation of DDT, Chlordane and Lindane Politics and DDT DDT, Eggshells, and Me Article from Reason magazine Rachel Carson, Mass Murderer?: The creation of an anti-environmental myth. Aaron Swartz, Extra!, September/October, 2007. Malaria and DDT "If Malaria's the Problem, DDT's Not the Only Answer", a Washington Post column by entomologist May Berenbaum 'Andrew Spielman, Harvard School of Public Health, discusses environmentally friendly control of Malaria and uses of DDT Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust The DDT ban myth Malaria and the DDT Story Ugandan farmers push for DDT ban. 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7,543 | MINIX | MINIX is a Unix-like computer operating system based on a microkernel architecture. Andrew S. Tanenbaum wrote the operating system to be used for educational purposes; MINIX also inspired the creation of the Linux kernel. Its name derives from the words minimal and Unix. Released under the BSD license, MINIX is free and open source software. History Andrew S. Tanenbaum created MINIX at Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam to exemplify the principles conveyed in his textbook, Operating Systems Design and Implementation (1987). An abridged 12,000 lines of the mainly C source code of the kernel, memory manager, and file system of MINIX 1.0 are printed in the book. Prentice-Hall also released MINIX source code and binaries on floppy disk with a reference manual. MINIX 1 was system-call compatible with Seventh Edition Unix Operating Systems Design and Implementation . Tanenbaum originally developed MINIX for compatibility with the IBM PC and IBM PC/AT microcomputers available at the time. MINIX 1.5, released in 1991, included support for MicroChannel IBM PS/2 systems and was also ported to the Motorola 68000 and SPARC architectures, supporting the Atari ST, Commodore Amiga, Apple Macintosh and Sun SPARCstation computer platforms. There were also unofficial ports to Intel 386 PC compatibles (in 32-bit protected mode), National Semiconductor NS32532, ARM and INMOS transputer processors. Meiko Scientific used an early version of MINIX as the basis for the MeikOS operating system for its transputer-based Computing Surface parallel computers. A version of MINIX running as a user process under SunOS and Solaris was also available, a simulator called SMX. Demand for the 68k-based architectures waned, however, and MINIX 2.0, released in 1997, was only available for the x86 and Solaris-hosted SPARC architectures. It was the subject of the second edition of Tanenbaum's textbook, co-written with Albert Woodhull and was distributed on a CD-ROM included with the book. MINIX 2.0 added POSIX.1 compliance, support for 386 and later processors in 32-bit mode and replaced the Amoeba network protocols included in MINIX 1.5 with a TCP/IP stack. Unofficial ports of MINIX 2.0.2 to the 68020-based ISICAD Prisma 700 workstation http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/town/way/fr30/minix/ and the Hitachi SH3-based HP Jornada 680/690 PDA http://web.archive.org/web/20021211135921/http://minixsh.tripod.co.jp/index.html were also developed. Minix-vmd is a variant of MINIX 2 for Intel IA-32-compatible processors, created by two Vrije Universiteit researchers, which adds virtual memory and support for the X Window System. MINIX 3 MINIX 3 was publicly announced on 24 October 2005 by Andrew Tanenbaum during his keynote speech on top of the ACM Symposium Operating Systems Principles conference. Although it still serves as an example for the new edition of Tanenbaum and Woodhull's textbook, it is comprehensively redesigned to be "usable as a serious system on resource-limited and embedded computers and for applications requiring high reliability." MINIX 3 currently supports only IA-32 architecture PC compatible systems. It is available in a Live CD format that allows it to be used on a computer without installing it on the hard drive, and in versions compatible with hardware emulation/virtualization systems, including Bochs, Qemu, VMware Workstation/Fusion, and Microsoft Virtual PC. Version 3.1.2 was released 8 May 2006. It contains X11, emacs, , cc, gcc, perl, python, ash, bash, zsh, ftp, ssh, telnet, pine, and over 400 other common UNIX utility programs. With the addition of X11, this version marks the transition away from a text-only system. Another feature of this version, which will be improved in future releases, is the ability of the system to withstand device driver crashes, and in many cases having them automatically replaced without affecting running processes. In this way, MINIX is self-healing and can be used in applications demanding high reliability. MINIX and Linux The design principles Tanenbaum applied to MINIX famously influenced the design decisions Linus Torvalds applied in the creation of the Linux kernel. Torvalds used and appreciated MINIX, but his design deviated from the MINIX architecture in significant ways, most notably by employing a monolithic kernel instead of a microkernel. This was famously disapproved of by Tanenbaum in the Tanenbaum-Torvalds debate. (Tanenbaum explained again his rationale for using a microkernel in May 2006.) Early Linux kernel development was done on a MINIX host system, which led to Linux inheriting various features from MINIX, such as the MINIX file system. In May 2004, Kenneth Brown of the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution raised the accusation Alexis de Tocqueville Institution/Kenneth Brown, 'Samizdat's critics... Brown replies', http://www.adti.net/samizdat/brown.reply.june.04.html that major parts of the Linux kernel had been copied from the MINIX codebase, in a book called Samizdat. These accusations were rebutted universally - in particular by Andrew Tanenbaum, who strongly criticised Kenneth Brown and published a long rebuttal on his own personal website. Tanenbaum, Andrew S. 'Some Notes on the "Who wrote Linux" Kerfuffle', http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/brown/ Tanenbaum, Andrew S. 'MINIX 3 FAQ', http://www.MINIX3.org/doc/faq.html#legal Licensing At the time of its original development, the license for MINIX was considered to be rather liberal. Its licensing fee was very small ($69) compared to those of other operating systems. Although Tanenbaum wished for MINIX to be as accessible as possible to students, his publisher was not prepared to offer material (such as the source code) that could be copied freely, so a restrictive license requiring a nominal fee (included in the price of Tanenbaum's book) was applied as a compromise. This prevented the use of MINIX as the basis for a freely distributed software system. When free/open source Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and 386BSD became available in the early 1990s many volunteer software developers abandoned MINIX in favour of these. In April 2000, MINIX became free/open source software under a permissive free software licence , but by this time other operating systems had surpassed its capabilities, and it remained primarily an operating system for students and hobbyists. See also MINIX file system Minix-vmd References External links Official MINIX 3 Operating System site History of MINIX from Andrew Tanenbaum MINIX 3 in Russia be-x-old:Minix | MINIX |@lemmatized minix:42 unix:5 like:2 computer:5 operate:7 system:24 base:5 microkernel:3 architecture:6 andrew:7 tanenbaum:16 write:3 operating:4 use:7 educational:1 purpose:1 also:7 inspire:1 creation:2 linux:8 kernel:6 name:1 derive:1 word:1 minimal:1 release:6 bsd:1 license:3 free:4 open:3 source:6 software:5 history:2 create:2 vrije:2 universiteit:2 amsterdam:1 exemplify:1 principle:2 convey:1 textbook:3 design:5 implementation:2 abridged:1 line:1 mainly:1 c:2 code:3 memory:2 manager:1 file:3 print:1 book:4 prentice:1 hall:1 binary:1 floppy:1 disk:1 reference:2 manual:1 call:3 compatible:4 seventh:1 edition:3 originally:1 develop:2 compatibility:1 ibm:3 pc:5 microcomputer:1 available:5 time:3 include:5 support:5 microchannel:1 p:1 port:3 motorola:1 sparc:2 atari:1 st:1 commodore:1 amiga:1 apple:1 macintosh:1 sun:1 sparcstation:1 platform:1 unofficial:2 intel:2 compatibles:1 bit:2 protected:1 mode:2 national:1 semiconductor:1 arm:1 inmos:1 transputer:2 processor:3 meiko:1 scientific:1 early:3 version:6 basis:2 meikos:1 compute:1 surface:1 parallel:1 run:2 user:1 process:2 sunos:1 solaris:2 simulator:1 smx:1 demand:2 wan:1 however:1 host:2 subject:1 second:1 co:2 albert:1 woodhull:2 distribute:2 cd:2 rom:1 add:2 posix:1 compliance:1 late:1 replace:2 amoeba:1 network:1 protocol:1 tcp:1 ip:1 stack:1 isicad:1 prisma:1 workstation:2 http:6 dspace:1 dial:1 pipex:1 com:1 town:1 way:3 hitachi:1 hp:1 jornada:1 pda:1 web:2 archive:1 org:2 minixsh:1 tripod:1 jp:1 index:1 html:3 vmd:2 variant:1 ia:2 two:1 researcher:1 virtual:2 x:2 window:1 publicly:1 announce:1 october:1 keynote:1 speech:1 top:1 acm:1 symposium:1 conference:1 although:2 still:1 serve:1 example:1 new:1 comprehensively:1 redesign:1 usable:1 serious:1 resource:1 limited:1 embedded:1 application:2 require:2 high:2 reliability:2 currently:1 live:1 format:1 allow:1 without:2 instal:1 hard:1 drive:1 hardware:1 emulation:1 virtualization:1 bochs:1 qemu:1 vmware:1 fusion:1 microsoft:1 may:3 contain:1 emacs:1 cc:1 gcc:1 perl:1 python:1 ash:1 bash:1 zsh:1 ftp:1 ssh:1 telnet:1 pine:1 common:1 utility:1 program:1 addition:1 mark:1 transition:1 away:1 text:1 another:1 feature:2 improve:1 future:1 ability:1 withstand:1 device:1 driver:1 crash:1 many:2 case:1 automatically:1 affect:1 self:1 healing:1 principles:1 apply:3 famously:2 influence:1 decision:1 linus:1 torvalds:3 appreciate:1 deviate:1 significant:1 notably:1 employ:1 monolithic:1 instead:1 disapprove:1 debate:1 explain:1 rationale:1 development:2 lead:1 inherit:1 various:1 kenneth:3 brown:6 alexis:2 de:2 tocqueville:2 institution:2 raise:1 accusation:2 samizdat:3 critic:1 reply:2 www:3 adti:1 net:1 june:1 major:1 part:1 copy:2 codebase:1 rebut:1 universally:1 particular:1 strongly:1 criticise:1 publish:1 long:1 rebuttal:1 personal:1 website:1 note:1 kerfuffle:1 vu:1 nl:1 ast:1 faq:2 doc:1 legal:1 licensing:2 original:1 consider:1 rather:1 liberal:1 fee:2 small:1 compare:1 wish:1 accessible:1 possible:1 student:2 publisher:1 prepared:1 offer:1 material:1 could:1 freely:2 restrictive:1 nominal:1 price:1 compromise:1 prevent:1 become:2 volunteer:1 developer:1 abandon:1 favour:1 april:1 permissive:1 licence:1 surpass:1 capability:1 remain:1 primarily:1 hobbyist:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 russia:1 old:1 |@bigram andrew_tanenbaum:5 linux_kernel:4 bsd_license:1 vrije_universiteit:2 prentice_hall:1 floppy_disk:1 ibm_pc:2 sparc_architecture:2 commodore_amiga:1 apple_macintosh:1 pc_compatibles:1 protected_mode:1 cd_rom:1 tcp_ip:1 keynote_speech:1 pc_compatible:1 vmware_workstation:1 perl_python:1 linus_torvalds:1 monolithic_kernel:1 tanenbaum_torvalds:1 torvalds_debate:1 de_tocqueville:2 http_www:3 tanenbaum_andrew:2 licensing_fee:1 external_link:1 |
7,544 | Motorola_68000 | The Motorola 68000 is a 16/32-bit CISC microprocessor core designed and marketed by Freescale Semiconductor (formerly Motorola Semiconductor Products Sector). Introduced in 1979 with HMOS technology as the first member of the successful 32-bit m68k family of microprocessors. It is generally software forward compatible with the rest of the line despite being limited to a 16-bit wide external bus. After three decades in production, the 68000 architecture is still in use. Pre-release XC68000 chip manufactured in 1979. History The 68000 grew out of the MACSS (Motorola Advanced Computer System on Silicon) project, begun in 1976 to develop an entirely new architecture without backward compatibility. It would be a higher-power sibling complementing the existing 8-bit 6800 line rather than a compatible successor. In the end, the 68000 did retain a bus protocol compatibility mode for existing 6800 peripheral devices, and a version with an 8-bit data bus was produced. However, the designers mainly focused on the future, or forward compatibility, which gave the M68K platform a head start against later 32-bit instruction set architectures. For instance, the CPU registers are 32 bits wide, though few self-contained structures in the processor itself operate on 32 bits at a time. The MACSS team drew heavily on the influence of minicomputer processor design, such as the PDP-11 and VAX systems, which were similarly microcoded. In the mid 1970s, the 8-bit microprocessor manufacturers raced to introduce the 16-bit generation. National Semiconductor had been first with its IMP-16 and PACE processors in 1973-1975, but these had issues with speed. The Intel 8086 in 1977 quickly gained popularity. The decision to leapfrog the competition and introduce a hybrid 16/32-bit design was necessary, and Motorola turned it into a coherent mission. Arriving late to the 16-bit arena afforded the new processor more transistors (roughly 40000 active versus 20000 active in the 8086), 32-bit macroinstructions, and acclaimed general ease of use. The original MC68000 was fabricated using an HMOS process with a 3.5-micrometre feature size. Initial engineering samples were released in late 1979. Production chips were available in 1980, with initial speed grades of 4, 6, and 8 MHz. 10 MHz chips became available during 1981, and 12.5 MHz chips during 1982. The 16.67 MHz "12F" version of the MC68000, the fastest version of the original HMOS chip, was not produced until the late 1980s. The 68000 had many high-end design wins early on. It became the dominant CPU for Unix based workstations including Sun workstations and Apollo/Domain workstations, found its way into heralded computers such as the Amiga, Atari ST, Apple Lisa and Macintosh, and was used in the first generation of desktop laser printers including the original Apple Inc. LaserWriter. In 1982, the 68000 received an update to its ISA allowing it to support virtual memory and to conform to the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements. The updated chip was called the 68010. A further extended version which exposed 31 bits of the address bus was also produced, in small quantities, as the 68012. To support lower-cost systems and control applications with smaller memory sizes, Motorola introduced the 8-bit compatible MC68008, also in 1982. This was a 68000 with an 8-bit data bus and a smaller (20 bit) address bus. After 1982, Motorola devoted more attention to the 68020 and 88000 projects. Second-sourcing Hitachi HD68000. [[Image:KL_Thomson_TS68000.jpg|thumb|Thomson TS68000.]] Several other companies were second-source manufacturers of the HMOS 68000. These included Hitachi (HD68000), Mostek (MK68000), Rockwell (R68000), Signetics (SCN68000), Thomson/SGS-Thomson (originally EF68000 and later TS68000), and Toshiba (TMP68000). Toshiba was also a second-source maker of the CMOS 68HC000 (TMP68HC000). CMOS versions The 68HC000, the first CMOS version of the 68000, was designed by Hitachi and jointly introduced in 1985. "Company Briefs", The New York Times, September 21, 1985, available from TimesSelect (subscription). Motorola's version was called the MC68HC000, while Hitachi's was the HD68HC000. The 68HC000 was eventually offered at speeds from 8 MHz to 20 MHz. Except for using CMOS circuitry, it behaved identically to the HMOS MC68000, but the change to CMOS greatly reduced its power consumption. The original HMOS MC68000 consumed around 1.35 watts at an ambient temperature of 25 °C, regardless of clock speed, while the MC68HC000 consumed only 0.13 watts at 8 MHz and 0.38 watts at 20 MHz. (Unlike CMOS circuits, HMOS still draws power when idle, so power consumption varies little with clock rate.) Motorola replaced the MC68008 with the MC68HC001 in 1990. "68HC001 obsoletes 68008.", Microprocessor Report, June 20, 1990; available from HighBeam Research (subscription). This chip resembled the 68HC000 in most respects, but its data bus could operate in either 16-bit or 8-bit mode, depending on the value of an input pin at reset. Thus, like the 68008, it could be used in systems with cheaper 8-bit memories. The later evolution of the 68000 focused on more modern embedded control applications and on-chip peripherals. The 68EC000 chip and SCM68000 core expanded the address bus to 32 bits, removed the M6800 peripheral bus, and excluded the MOVE from SR instruction from user mode programs. "Motorola streamlines 68000 family; "EC" versions of 68000, '020, '030, and '040, plus low-end 68300 chip.", Microprocessor Report, April 17, 1991; available from HighBeam Research (subscription). In 1996 Motorola updated the standalone core with fully static circuitry drawing only 0.5 µW in low-power mode, calling it the MC68SEC000. "Motorola reveals MC68SEC000 processor for low power embedded applications", Motorola press release, November 18, 1996; archived by Internet Archive on March 28, 1997. Motorola ceased production of the HMOS MC68000 and MC68008 in 1996, comp.sys.m68k Usenet posting, May 16, 1995; also see other posts in thread. The end-of-life announcement was in late 1994; according to standard Motorola end-of-life practice, final orders would have been in 1995, with final shipments in 1996. but its spin-off company, Freescale Semiconductor, is still producing the MC68HC000, MC68HC001, MC68EC000, and MC68SEC000, as well as the MC68302 and MC68306 microcontrollers and later versions of the DragonBall family. The 68000's architectural descendants, the 680x0, CPU32, and Coldfire families, are also still in production. As a microcontroller core After being succeeded by "true" 32-bit microprocessors, the 68000 was used as the core of many microcontrollers. In 1989, Motorola introduced the MC68302 communications processor, "Multiprotocol processor marries 68000 and RISC.", ESD: The Electronic System Design Magazine, November 1, 1989; available from AccessMyLibrary. . Applications Two Hitachi 68HC000 CPUs being used on an arcade game PCB The 68000 was first used during the early 1980s in high-priced systems, including multiuser microcomputers like the WICAT 150 , early Alpha Microsystems computers, Tandy TRS-80 Model 16, and Fortune 32:16; single-user workstations such as Hewlett-Packard's HP 9000 Series 200 systems, the first Apollo/Domain systems, Sun Microsystems' Sun-1, and the Corvus Concept; and graphics terminals like Digital Equipment Corporation's VAXstation 100 and Silicon Graphics' IRIS 1000 and 1200. Unix systems rapidly moved to the more capable later generations of the 68k line, which remained popular in that market throughout the 1980s. During the mid 1980s, the 68000 was first used in personal and home computers, starting with the Apple Lisa and Macintosh, and followed by the Commodore Amiga, Atari ST, and Sharp X68000. The 68008, on the other hand, was only used in one home computer system, the Sinclair QL (though the QL was a sister machine to the ICL One Per Desk, which also used a 68008). The 68000 eventually saw great success as a controller. As early as 1981, laser printers such as the Imagen Imprint-10 were driven by external controllers using the 68000 as the CPU. The first HP LaserJet, introduced in 1984, used an 8 MHz 68000 in its built-in controller. Similar 68000-based integrated controllers were subsequently used in many other laser printers, including the Apple LaserWriter, the first PostScript laser printer, introduced in 1985. The 68000 continued to be widely used in laser printers throughout the rest of the 1980s, persisting well into the 1990s in low-end printers. Outside traditional commercial or domestic computing applications, the 68000 also saw success in the field of industrial control systems. Among the systems which benefited from having a 68000 or derivative as their microprocessor were families of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) manufactured by Allen-Bradley, Texas Instruments and subsequently, following the acquisition of that division of TI, by Siemens. Users of such systems do not accept product obsolescence at the same rate as domestic users and it is entirely likely that despite having been installed over 20 years ago, many 68000-based controllers will continue in reliable service well into the 21st century. As technological advances obsoleted the 68000 from use in the standalone computing market, its use grew in consumer and embedded applications. Video game manufacturers used the 68000 as the backbone of many arcade games and home game consoles. Atari's Food Fight, from 1983, was one of the first 68000-based arcade games. The 68000 was the main CPU of many arcade systems during the late 1980s and early 1990s, such as Sega's System 16, Capcom's CPS-1 and CPS-2, and SNK's Neo Geo. A number of arcade systems used two 68000s (such as OutRun); some even used three. The 68000 was a popular processor for arcade systems well into the 90's and early 2000's in systems such as the IGS PGM. The 68000 was also the central processor in several home game consoles of the late 1980s/early 1990s, including Sega's Mega Drive console and the Mega-CD accessory, which effectively added a second 68000 to the console. The console version of the Neo Geo was also based on this processor. Some later game consoles included the 68000 for other purposes: the Sega Saturn used it as a dedicated sound controller, and in the Atari Jaguar it coordinated the activities of the other specialized graphics and sound chips. The 68000-based 683XX microcontrollers have been utilized in a wide variety of applications, including networking and telephone equipment, television set-top boxes, and laboratory and medical instruments, among others. The MC68302 and its derivatives have been used in many communication products from Cisco, 3com, Ascend, Marconi, Cyclades and others. The DragonBall family was used in Palm Computing's popular Palm PDAs and in the Handspring Visor series, until Palm gradually phased out the architecture in favor of ARM processors. AlphaSmart uses the DragonBall family in later versions of its portable word processors. Texas Instruments uses the 68000 in its high-end graphing calculators, the TI-89 and TI-92 series and Voyage 200. Early versions of these used a specialized microcontroller with a static 68EC000 core; later versions use a standard MC68SEC000 processor. Architecture Address bus The 68000 had an 23-bit external address bus and two byte-select signals "replaced" A0. These 25-lines could therefore reach 16 MB of physical memory with byte resolution. Address storage and computation used 32 bits, however, with the high-order byte ignored due to the physical lack of pins. This allowed it to run software written for a flat 32-bit address space. By modern definition this meant that the 68000 was a 32-bit microprocessor. Motorola's intent with the internal 32-bit address space was forwards compatibility, making it feasible to write 68000 software that would take full advantage of later 32-bit implementations of the 68000 instruction set. However, this did not prevent programmers from writing forward incompatible software. "24-bit" software that discarded the upper address byte, or used it for purposes other than addressing, could fail on 32-bit 68K implementations. Internal registers The CPU had eight 32-bit general-purpose data registers (D0-D7), and eight address registers (A0-A7). The last address register was also the standard stack pointer, and could be called either A7 or SP. This was a good number of registers in many ways. It was small enough to allow the 68000 to respond quickly to interrupts (because only 15 or 16 had to be saved), and yet large enough to make most calculations fast. Having two types of registers was mildly annoying at times, but not hard to use in practice. Reportedly, it allowed the CPU designers to achieve a higher degree of parallelism, by using an auxiliary execution unit for the address registers. Integer representation in the 68000 family is big-endian. Status register The 68000 comparison, arithmetic and logic operations set bit flags in a status register to record their results for use by later conditional jumps. The bit flags were "zero" (Z), "carry" (C), "overflow" (V), "extend" (X), and "negative" (N). The "extend" (X) flag deserves special mention, because it was separated from the carry flag. This permitted the extra bit from arithmetic, logic, and shift operations to be separated for the carry for flow-of-control and linkage. The instruction set The designers attempted to make the assembly language orthogonal. That is, instructions were divided into operations and address modes, and almost all address modes were available for almost all instructions. Many programmers disliked the "near" orthogonality, while others were grateful for the attempt. At the bit level, the person writing the assembler would clearly see that these "instructions" could become any of several different op-codes. It was quite a good compromise because it gave almost the same convenience as a truly orthogonal machine, and yet also gave the CPU designers freedom to fill in the op-code table. With only 56 instructions the minimal instruction size was huge for its day at 16 bits. Furthermore, many instructions and addressing modes added extra words on the back for addresses, more address-mode bits, etc. Many designers believed that the MC68000 architecture had compact code for its cost, especially when produced by compilers. This belief in more compact code led to many of its design wins, and much of its longevity as an architecture. This belief (or feature, depending on the designer) continued to make design wins for the instruction set (with updated CPUs) up until the ARM architecture introduced the Thumb instruction set that was similarly compact. Privilege levels The CPU, and later the whole family, implemented exactly two levels of privilege. User mode gave access to everything except the interrupt level control. Supervisor privilege gave access to everything. An interrupt always became supervisory. The supervisor bit was stored in the status register, and visible to user programs. A real advantage of this system was that the supervisor level had a separate stack pointer. This permitted a multitasking system to use very small stacks for tasks, because the designers did not have to allocate the memory required to hold the stack frames of a maximum stack-up of interrupts. Interrupts The CPU recognized 7 interrupt levels. Levels 1 through 7 were strictly prioritized. That is, a higher-numbered interrupt could always interrupt a lower-numbered interrupt. In the status register, a privileged instruction allowed one to set the current minimum interrupt level, blocking lower priority interrupts. Level 7 was not maskable - in other words, an NMI. Level 1 could be interrupted by any higher level. Level 0 means no interrupt. The level was stored in the status register, and was visible to user-level programs. Hardware interrupts are signalled to the CPU using three inputs that encode the highest pending interrupt priority. A separate interrupt controller is usually required to encode the interrupts, though for systems that do not require more than three hardware interrupts it is possible to connect the interrupt signals directly to the encoded inputs at the cost of additional software complexity. The interrupt controller can be as simple as a 74LS148 priority encoder, or may be part of a VLSI peripheral chip such as the MC68901 Multi-Function Peripheral, which also provided a UART, timer, and parallel I/O. The "exception table" (interrupt vector addresses) was fixed at addresses 0 through 1023, permitting 256 32-bit vectors. The first vector was the starting stack address, and the second was the starting code address. Vectors 3 through 15 were used to report various errors: bus error, address error, illegal instruction, zero division, CHK & CHK2 vector, privilege violation, and some reserved vectors that became line 1010 emulator, line 1111 emulator, and hardware breakpoint. Vector 24 started the real interrupts: spurious interrupt (no hardware acknowledgement), and level 1 through level 7 autovectors, then the 15 TRAP vectors, then some more reserved vectors, then the user defined vectors. Since at a minimum the starting code address vector must always be valid on reset, systems commonly included some nonvolatile memory (e.g. ROM) starting at address zero to contain the vectors and bootstrap code. However, for a general purpose system it is desirable for the operating system to be able to change the vectors at runtime. This was often accomplished by either pointing the vectors in ROM to a jump table in RAM, or through use of bank-switching to allow the ROM to be replaced by RAM at runtime. The 68000 did not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements for full processor virtualization because it had a single unprivileged instruction "MOVE from SR", which allowed user-mode software read-only access to a small amount of privileged state. The 68000 was also unable to easily support virtual memory, which requires the ability to trap and recover from a failed memory access. The 68000 does provide a bus error exception which can be used to trap, but it does not save enough processor state to resume the faulted instruction once the operating system has handled the exception. Several companies did succeed in making 68000 based Unix workstations with virtual memory that worked, by using two 68000 chips running in parallel on different phased clocks. When the "leading" 68000 encountered a bad memory access, extra hardware would interrupt the "main" 68000 to prevent it from also encountering the bad memory access. This interrupt routine would handle the virtual memory functions and restart the "leading" 68000 in the correct state to continue properly synchronized operation when the "main" 68000 returned from the interrupt. These problems were fixed in the next major revision of the 68K architecture, with the release of the MC68010. The Bus Error and Address Error exceptions pushed a large amount of internal state onto the supervisor stack in order to facilitate recovery, and the MOVE from SR instruction was made privileged. A new unprivileged "MOVE from CCR" instruction was provided for use in its place by user mode software; an operating system could trap and emulate user-mode MOVE from SR instructions if desired. Instruction set details The standard addressing modes are: Register direct data register, e.g. "D0" address register, e.g. "A6" Register indirect Simple address, e.g. (A0) Address with post-increment, e.g. (A0)+ Address with pre-decrement, e.g. -(A0) Address with a 16-bit signed offset, e.g. 16(A0) Indexed register indirect with 8-bit signed offset e.g. 8(A0, D0) or 8(A0, A1) Note that with (A0)+ and -(A0), the actual increment or decrement value is dependent on the operand size: a byte access increments the address register by 1, a word by 2, and a long by 4. PC (program counter) relative with displacement Relative 16-bit signed offset, e.g. 16(PC). This mode was very useful. Relative with 8-bit signed offset with index, e.g. 8(PC, D2) Absolute memory location Either a number, e.g. "$4000", or a symbolic name translated by the assembler Most 68000 assemblers used the "$" symbol for hexadecimal, instead of "0x". There were 16 and 32-bit version of this addressing mode Immediate mode Stored in the instruction, e.g. "#400". Quick Immediate mode 3 bit unsigned (or 8 bit signed with moveq) with value stored in Opcode. In addq and subq, 0 is the equivalent to 8. eg. moveq.l #0,d0 was quicker than clr.l d0 (though both made d0 equal 0) Plus: access to the status register, and, in later models, other special registers. Most instructions had dot-letter suffixes, permitting operations to occur on 8-bit bytes (".b"), 16-bit words (".w"), and 32-bit longs (".l"). Most instructions are dyadic, that is, the operation has a source, and a destination, and the destination is changed. Notable instructions were: Arithmetic: ADD, SUB, MULU (unsigned multiply), MULS (signed multiply), DIVU, DIVS, NEG (additive negation), and CMP (a sort of subtract that set the status bits, but did not store the result) Binary Coded Decimal Arithmetic: ABCD, and SBCD Logic: EOR (exclusive or), AND, NOT (logical not), OR (inclusive or) Shifting: (logical, i.e. right shifts put zero in the most significant bit) LSL, LSR, (arithmetic shifts, i.e. sign-extend the most significant bit) ASR, ASL, (Rotates through eXtend and not:) ROXL, ROXR, ROL, ROR Bit manipulation in memory: BSET (to 1), BCLR (to 0), and BTST (set the Zero bit) Multiprocessing control: TAS, test-and-set, performed an indivisible bus operation, permitting semaphores to be used to synchronize several processors sharing a single memory Flow of control: JMP (jump), JSR (jump to subroutine), BSR (relative address jump to subroutine), RTS (return from subroutine), RTE (return from exception, i.e. an interrupt), TRAP (trigger a software exception similar to software interrupt), CHK (a conditional software exception) Branch: Bcc (a branch where the "cc" specified one of 16 tests of the condition codes in the status register: equal, greater than, less-than, carry, and most combinations and logical inversions, available from the status register). Decrement-and-branch: DBcc (where "cc" was as for the branch instructions) which decremented a D-register and branched to a destination provided the condition was still true and'' the register had not been decremented to -1. This use of -1 instead of 0 as the terminating value allowed the easy coding of loops which had to do nothing if the count was 0 to begin with, without the need for an additional check before entering the loop. This also facilitated nesting of DBcc. 68EC000 Motorola 68EC000 controller The 68EC000 is a microprocessor from Motorola. It is a low-cost version of the Motorola 68000, designed for embedded controller applications. The 68EC000 can have either a 8-bit or 16-bit data bus, switchable at reset. Boys, Robert. M68k Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ), comp.sys.m68k, October 19, 1994. The processors are available in a variety of speeds including 8 and 16 MHz configurations, producing 2,100 and 4,376 Dhrystones each. These processors have no floating point unit and it is difficult to implement an FPU coprocessor (MC68881/2) with one because the EC series lacks necessary coprocessor instructions. The 68EC000 was used as a controller in many audio applications, including Ensoniq musical instruments and sound cards where it was part of the MIDI synthesizer. Soundscape Elite Specs. from Fax Sheet, Google Groups, April 25, 1995. On Ensoniq sound boards, the controller provided several advantages compared to competitors without a CPU onboard. The processor allowed the board to be configured to perform various audio tasks, such as MPU-401 MIDI synthesis or MT-32 emulation, without the use of a TSR program. This improved software compatibility, lowered CPU usage, and eliminated host system memory usage. The Motorola 68EC000 core was later used in the m68k-based DragonBall processors from Motorola/Freescale. It also was used as a sound controller in the Sega Saturn game console, and as a controller for the HP HP JetDirect Ethernet controller boards for the mid-90s LaserJet printers. Notes See also Motorola 68000 family x86 MacsBug Zilog Z80 References Motorola MC68000 Family Programmer's Reference Manual comp.sys.m68k FAQ External links Descriptions of assembler instructions 68000 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de 'Chips : Of Diagnostics & Debugging' Article A microprocessor simulation framework, useful for working with Motorola 68000 Integrated Development Environment for the 68000 microcomputer The Vintage Mac Museum: 9inch/mono Display 68000 ONLY EASy68K, an open-source 68k assembler for Windows. CAST, Inc. 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7,545 | Chianti | Chianti wine in a traditional fiasco. Chianti a red Italian wine produced in Tuscany. It was historically associated with a squat bottle enclosed in a straw basket, called a fiasco ("flask"; pl. fiaschi); however, the fiasco is only used by a few makers of the wine now; most Chianti is bottled in traditionally shaped wine bottles. Baron Bettino Ricasoli, the future Prime Minister in the Kingdom of Italy created the Chianti recipe of 70% Sangiovese, 15% Canaiolo and 15% Malvasia bianca in the middle of the 19th century. J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 162-163 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0198609906 The first definition of a wine-area called Chianti was made in 1716. It described the area near the villages of Gaiole, Castellina and Radda; the so-called Lega del Chianti and later Provincia del Chianti (Chianti province). In 1932 the Chianti area was completely re-drawn and divided in seven sub-areas: Classico, Colli Aretini, Colli Fiorentini, Colline Pisane, Colli Senesi, Montalbano and Rùfina. Most of the villages that in 1932 were suddenly included in the new Chianti Classico area added in Chianti to their name-such as Greve in Chianti which amended its name in 1972. Wines labeled Chianti Classico come from the biggest sub-area of Chianti, that sub-area that includes the old Chianti area. The other variants, with the exception of Rufina from the north-east side of Florence and Montalbano in the south of Pistoia, originate in the respective named provinces: Siena for the Colli Senesi, Florence for the Colli Fiorentini, Arezzo for the Colli Aretini and Pisa for the Colline Pisane. In 1996 part of the Colli Fiorentini sub-area was renamed Montespertoli. During the 1970s producers started to reduce the quantity of white grapes in Chianti. In 1995 it became legal to produce a Chianti with 100% Sangiovese. For a wine to retain the name of Chianti, it must be produced with at least 80% Sangiovese grapes. M. Ewing-Mulligan & E. McCarthy Italian Wines for Dummies pg 147-159 Hungry Minds 2001 ISBN 0764553550 A Chianti may have a picture of a black rooster (known in Italian as a gallo nero) on the neck of the bottle, which indicates that the producer of the wine is a member of the "Gallo Nero" Consortium; an association of producers of the Classico sub-area sharing marketing costs. Consorzio del Marchio Storico Since 2005 the black rooster has been the emblem of the Chianti Classico producers association. Consorzio del vino Chianti Classico Aged Chianti (38 months instead of 4-7), may be labeled as Riserva. Chianti that meets more stringent requirements (lower yield, higher alcohol content and dry extract) may be labeled as Chianti Superiore. Chianti from the "Classico" sub-area is not allowed in any case to be labeled as "Superiore". History The earliest documentation of a "Chianti wine" dates back to the 13th century when viticulture was known to flourish in the "Chianti Mountains" around Florence. The merchants in the nearby townships of Castellina, Gaiole and Radda formed the Lega del Chianti (League of Chianti) to produce and promote the local wine. In 1398, records note that the earliest incarnation of Chianti was as a white wine. In 1716 Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany issued an edict legislating that the three villages of the Lega del Chianti as well as the village of Greve and a 2 mile (3 km) hillside north of Greve near Spedaluzza as the only officially recognized producers of Chianti. This delineation existed until the 1930s when the Italian government expanded the zone. Subsequent expansions throughout the 20th century would eventually bring the Chianti zone to cover almost all of Tuscany. The original zone dictated by the edict of Cosimo III de' Medici would eventually be considered the heart of the Chianti Classico region. A. Domine (ed.) Wine, pp. 402-411, Ullmann Publishing, 2008 ISBN 9783833146114 By the 18th century, Chianti was widely recognized as a red wine, but the exact composition and grape varieties used to make Chianti at this point is unknown. Ampelographers find clues about which grape varieties were popular at the time in the writings of Italian writer Cosimo Villifranchi who noted that Canaiolo was widely planted variety in the area along with Sangiovese, Mammolo and Marzemino. It was not until the work of the Italian statesman Bettino Ricasoli that the modern "Chianti recipe" as a Sangiovese-based wine would take shape. H. Johnson Vintage: The Story of Wine pg 414-420 Simon and Schuster 1989 ISBN 0671687026 Prior to Ricasoli, Canaiolo was emerging as the dominant variety in the Chianti blend with Sangiovese and Malvasia playing supporting roles. In the mid-19th century, Ricasoli developed a recipe for Chianti that was based primarily on Sangiovese. His recipe called for 70% Sangiovese, 15% Canaiolo, 10% Malvasia (later amended to include Trebbiano) and 5% other local red varieties. In 1967, the Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) regulation set by the Italian government firmly established the "Ricasoli formula" of a Sangiovese-based blend with 10-30% Malvasia and Trebbiano. The late 19th century saw a period of economic and political upheaval. First came oidium and then the phylloxera epidemic would take it toll on the vineyards of Chianti just as they had ravaged vineyards across the rest of Europe. The chaos and poverty following the Risorgimento heralded the beginning of the Italian diaspora that would take Italian vineyard workers and winemakers abroad as immigrants to new lands. Those that stayed behind and replanted choose high-yielding varieties like Trebbiano and Sangiovese clones such as the Sangiovese di Romagna from the nearby Romagna region. Following World War II, the general trend in the world wine market for cheap, easy-drinking wine saw a brief boom for the region. With over-cropping and an emphasis on quantity over quality, the reputation of Chianti among consumers eventually plummeted. By the 1950s, Trebbiano (which is known for its neutral flavors) made up to 30% of many mass-market Chiantis. K. MacNeil The Wine Bible pg 376-379 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1563054345 By the late 20th century, Chianti was often associated with basic Chianti sold in a squat bottle enclosed in a straw basket, called a fiasco. However, during the same period, a group of ambitious producers began working outside the boundaries of DOC regulations to make what they believed would be a higher quality style of Chianti. These wines eventually became known as the "Super Tuscans". Many of the producers behind the Super Tuscan movement were originally Chianti producers who were rebelling against what they felt were antiquated DOC regulations. Some of these producers wanted to make Chiantis that were 100% varietal Sangiovese. Others wanted the flexibility to experiment with blending French grape varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot or to not be required to blend in any white grape varieties. The late 20th century saw a flurry of creativity and innovation in the Chianti zones as producers experimented with new grape varieties and introduced modern winemaking techniques such as the use of new oak barrels. The prices and wine ratings of some Super Tuscans would regularly eclipse those of DOC sanctioned Chiantis. The success of the Super Tuscans encouraged government officials to reconsider the DOC regulations in order to bring some of these wines back into the fold labeled as Chianti. Wine regions Chianti wine area within Tuscany The Chianti region covers a vast area of Tuscany and includes within its boundaries several overlapping Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) and Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG) regions. Other well known Sangiovese-based Tuscan wines such as Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano could be bottled and labeled under the most basic designation of "Chianti" if their producers chose to do so. T. Stevenson "The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia" pg 282-286 Dorling Kindersley 2005 ISBN 0756613248 Within the collective Chianti region more than 8 million cases of wines classified as DOCG level or above are produced each year. Today, most Chianti falls under under two major designations of Chianti DOCG, which includes basic level Chianti, as well as that from seven designated sub-zones, and Chianti Classico DOCG. Together, these two Chianti zones produce the largest volume of DOC/G wines in Italy. Chianti Classico In 1716 Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany issued an edict legislating that the three villages of the Lega del Chianti (Castellina in Chianti, Gaiole in Chianti, and Radda in Chianti) as well as the village of Greve and a 2-mile (3-km) stretch of hillside north of Greve near Spedaluzza as the only officially recognized producers of Chianti. This delineation existed until July 1932, when the Italian government expanded the Chianti zone to include the outlying areas of Barberino Val d'Elsa, Chiocchio, Robbiano, San Casciano in Val di Pesa and Strada. The 1932 expansion was canonized into DOC regulations in 1966. Since the mid 1980s, the Chianti Classico zone has had it own DOCG recognized area separate from the greater Chianti region. As of 2006, there were 17,640 acres (7,142 hectares) of vineyards in the Chianti Classico region. The Chianti Classico region covers an area of approximate 100 square miles (259 square kilometers) between the city of Florence to the north and Siena to the south. The four communes of Castellina in Chianti, Gaiole in Chianti, Greve in Chianti and Radda in Chianti are located entirely within the boundaries of the Classico region with parts of Barberino Val d'Elsa, San Casciano in Val di Pesa and Tavarnelle Val di Pesa in the province of Florence as well as Castelnuovo Berardenga and Poggibonsi in the province of Siena included within the permitted boundaries of Chianti Classico. The soil and geography of this region can be quite varied, with altitudes ranging from 820 feet (250 meters) to 2000 feet (610 meters), and rolling hills producing differing macroclimates. There are two main soil types in the region: a weathered sandstone known as albarese and a bluish-gray chalky marlstone known as galestro. The soil in the north is richer and more fertile with more galestro, with the soil gradually becoming harder and stonier with more albarese in the south. In the north, the Arno river can have an influence on the climate, keeping the temperatures slightly cooler, an influence that diminishes further south in the warmer Classico territory towards Castelnuovo Berardenga. Regional differences Vineyards in Gaiole in Chianti in the Chianti Classico region Chianti Classico wines tend to be medium-bodied with firm tannins and medium-high to high acidity. Floral, cherry and light nutty notes are characteristic aromas with the wines expressing more notes on the mid-palate and finish than at the front of the mouth. As with Bordeaux, the different regions of Chianti Classico have unique characteristics that can be exemplified and perceived in some wines from those areas. According to Master of Wine Mary Ewing-Mulligan, Chianti Classico wines from the Castellina region tend to have a very delicate aroma and flavor, Castelnuovo Berardegna region wines tend to be the most ripe and richest tasting, wines from Gaiole tend to have be characterized by their structure and firm tannins while wines from the Greve area tend to have very concentrated flavors. Chianti The Chianti DOCG covers all the Chianti wine made outside the Chianti Classico area and includes a large stretch of land encompassing the western reaches of the province of Pisa near the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Florentine hills in the province of Florence to the north, to the province of Arezzo in the east and the Siena hills to the south. Within this regions are vineyards that overlap the DOCG regions of Brunello di Montalcino, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano and Vernaccia di San Gimignano. Any Sangiovese-based wine made according to the Chianti guideline from these vineyards can be labeled and marked under the basic Chianti DOCG should the producer wish to use the designation. Within the Chianti DOCG there are seven defined sub-zones, known as the Chianti Putto, that are permitted to affix their name to the wine label. Wines that are labeled as simply Chianti are made either from a blend from these sub-zones or include grapes from peripheral areas not within the boundaries of a sub-zone. The sub-zones are (clockwise from the north): the Colli Fiorentini which is located north of the Chianti Classico region in the Florentine hills; Chianti Rufina in the northeastern part of the zone located around the commune of Rufina; Colli Aretini in the Arezzo province to the east; Colli Senesi south of Chianti Classico in the Siena hills, this is the largest of the sub-zones and includes the Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano areas; Colline Pisane the westernmost sub-zone in the province of Pisa; Montespertoli located within the Colline Pisane around the commune of Montespertoli ; Montalbano in the northwest part of the zone which includes the Carmignano DOCG. As of 2006, there were 786 acres (318 hectares) under production in Montalbano, 2,236 (905 hectares) in the Colli Fiorentini, 140 (57 hectares) in Montespertoli, 1,840 (745 hectares) in Rufina, 8,780 (3,553 hectares) in the Colli Senesi, 380 (154 hectares) in Colline Pisane, 1,603 (649 hectares) in the Colli Aretini, and an additional 25,511 (10,324 hectares) in the peripherals areas that do not fall within one of the sub-zone classifications. Wines produced from these vineyards are simply labeled as "Chianti". Sub-zone differences Outside of Chianto Classico, the wines of the Chianti sub-zone of Rufina are among the most widely recognized and exported from the Chianti region. Located in the Arno valley near the town of Pontassieve, the Rufina region includes much area in the Pomino region, an area that has a long history of wine production. The area is noted for the cool climate of its elevated vineyards located up to 2,950 feet (900 meters). The vineyard soils of the region are predominately marl and chalk. The Florentine merchant families of the Antinori and Frescobaldi own the majority of the vineyards in Rufina. Chianti from the Rufina area is characterized by its multi-layered complexity and elegance. The Colli Fiorentini has seen an influx of activity and new vineyard development in recent years as wealthy Florentine business people move to the country to plant vineyards and open wineries. Many foreign "flying winemakers" have had a hand in this development, bringing global viticulture and winemaking techniques to the Colli Fiorentini. Located in the hills between the Chianti Classico area and Arno valley, the wines of the Colli Fiorentini vary widely depending on producer, but tend to have a simple structure with strong character and fruit notes. The Montespertoli sub-zone was part of the Colli Fiorentini sub-zone until 2002 when it became its own tiny enclave. The Montalbano region is located in the shadow of the Carmignano DOCG, with much of the best Sangiovese going to that wine. A similar situation exists in the Colli Senesi which includes the well known DOCG regions of Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano. Both regions rarely appear on wine labels that are exported out of Tuscany. The Colli Pisane area produces typical Chiantis with the lightest body and color. The Colli Aretini is a relatively new and emerging area that has seen an influx of investment and new winemaking in recent years. Chianti blend and requirements Since 1996 the blend for Chianti and Chianti Classico has been 75-100% Sangiovese, up to 10% Canaiolo and up to 20% of any other approved red grape variety such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot or Syrah. Since 2006, the use of white grape varieties such as Malvasia and Trebbiano have been prohibited in Chianti Classico. Jancis Robinson "Chianti Classico - thoroughly red now" July 5th, 2008 Chianti Classico must have a minimum alcohol level of at least 12% with a minimum of 7 months aging in oak, while Chianti Classico's labeled riserva must be aged at least 27 months at the winery, with a minimum alcohol level of at least 12.5%. The harvest yields for Chianti Classico are restricted to no more than 3 tons per acre (7.5 tonnes/hectare). For basic Chianti, the minimum alcohol level is 11.5% with yields restricted to 4 tons per acre (9 tonnes/hectare). The aging for basic Chianti DOCG is much less stringent with most varieties allowed to be released to the market on March 1st following the vintage year. The sub-zones of Colli Fiorentini, Montespertoli and Rufina must be aged for a further three months and not released until June 1st. All Chianti Classico's must be held back until October 1st in the year following the vintage. Comparative table of Chianti laws of production Unione Italiana Vini normal Classico Colli Aretini Colli Fiorentini Colli Senesi Colline Pisane Montalbano Montespertoli Rùfina Superiore Max. grape prod. (t/ha) 9.0 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.5 Max. grape prod. (kg/vine) 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 2.2 Min. vines/ha 3,300 3,350 3,300 3,300 3,300 3,300 3,300 3,300 3,300 4,000 Min. age of vineyards (years) 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Min. wine dry extract (g/l) 19 23 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 22 Min. alcohol cont. (%) 11.5 12.0 11.5 12.0 11.5 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.0 Min. aging (months) 3 10 3 9 3 3 3 6 9 9 Wines Sangiovese grapes used to make Chianti wine Wine expert Jancis Robinson notes that Chianti is sometimes called the "Bordeaux of Italy". The flexibility in the blending recipe for Chianti accounts for some of the variability in styles among Chiantis. Lighter bodied styles will generally have a higher proportion of white grape varieties blended in, while Chiantis that have only red grape varieties will be fuller and richer. While only 15% of Cabernet Sauvignon is permitted in the blend, the nature of the grape variety can have a dominant personality in the Chianti blend and be a strong influence in the wine. Chianti Classico wines are characterized in their youth by their predominantly floral and cinnamon spicy bouquet. As the wine ages, aromas of tobacco and leather can emerge. Chiantis tend to have medium-highacidity and medium tannins. The acidity in the wines make them very flexible with food and wine pairings, particularly with Italian cuisines that feature red sauce, as well with as beef, lamb and wild game. Basic level Chianti is often characterized by its juicy fruit notes of cherry, plum and raspberry and can range from simple quaffing wines to those approaching the level of Chianti Classico. Wine expert Tom Stevenson notes that these basic everyday drinking Chiantis are at their peak drinking qualities often between three and five years after vintage with premium examples having the potential to age for four to eight years. Well-made examples of Chianti Classico often have the potential to age and improve in the bottle for six to twenty years. Chianti Superiore Chianti Superiore is an Italian DOCG wine produced in the provinces of Arezzo, Florence, Pisa, Pistoia, Prato and Siena, in Tuscany. Superiore is a specification for wines produced with a stricter rule of production than other Chianti wines. Chianti Superiore has been authorized since 1996. D.M. 5.08.1996 Chianti Superiore wines can be produced only from grapes cultivated in the Chianti wine areas except from those vineyards that are registered in the Chianti Classico sub-zone. Vineyards registered in Chianti sub-zones[2] other than Classico can produce Chianti Superiore wines but must omit the sub-zone name on the label. Ageing is calculated from January 1 after the picking. Chianti Superiore cannot be sold to the consumer before nine months of ageing, of which three must be in the bottle. Therefore it cannot be bottled before the June after picking or sold to consumers before the next September. Chianti Superiore wines must be produced with the following grapes: Sangiovese: min. 75% Canaiolo Nero: max. 10% Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia del Chianti: max. 10% Other authorized red grapes: max. 20% 2004 production Chianti Superiore Other Chianti % Ch. Superiore Registered vineyards (ha) 297.98 25,333.67 1.18 % Grape production (t) 1,808.51 184,023.10 0.98 % Wine production (l) 1,166,169 106,124,871 1.09 % Gallo Nero The black rooster (gallo nero in Italian) that appears on the neck labels of many Chianti Classico is the symbol of the Consorzio Chianti Classico, a foundation of producers in the Chianti Classico region. The foundation was founded with the aim of promoting the wines of the region, improving quality and preventing wine fraud. Since the 1980s, the foundation has sponsored extensive research into the viticultural and winemaking practice of the Chianti Classic area, particularly in the area of clonal research. In the last quarter of a century more than 50% of the vineyards in the Chianti Classic region have been replanted with improved Sangioves clones and to modern vineyard schematics as part of the Consorzio Chianti Classico's project "Chianti 2000". References External links Chianti travel guide from Wikitravel Chianti Classico Wine Producers Association Chianti Superiore Wine Producers Association Italian State Tourist Board website for Tuscany | Chianti |@lemmatized chianti:145 wine:70 traditional:1 fiasco:4 red:8 italian:14 produce:14 tuscany:9 historically:1 associate:2 squat:2 bottle:9 enclose:2 straw:2 basket:2 call:6 flask:1 pl:1 fiaschi:1 however:2 use:6 maker:1 traditionally:1 shaped:1 baron:1 bettino:2 ricasoli:5 future:1 prime:1 minister:1 kingdom:1 italy:3 create:1 recipe:5 sangiovese:18 canaiolo:6 malvasia:6 bianca:1 middle:1 century:9 j:1 robinson:3 ed:2 oxford:2 companion:1 third:1 edition:1 pg:5 university:1 press:1 isbn:6 first:2 definition:1 area:33 make:11 describe:1 near:5 village:6 gaiole:6 castellina:5 radda:4 lega:4 del:8 later:2 provincia:1 province:10 completely:1 drawn:1 divide:1 seven:3 sub:22 classico:43 colli:24 aretini:6 fiorentini:11 colline:6 pisane:7 senesi:6 montalbano:6 rùfina:2 suddenly:1 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7,546 | House_of_Hohenstaufen | The House of Hohenstaufen (or the Staufer(s) meaning "grail-barers" a title granted to them by Charlemagne) was a dynasty of Germanic Kings (1138-1254), many of whom were also crowned Holy Roman Emperor and Dukes of Swabia. In 1194 the Hohenstaufen also became Kings of Sicily. Staufen, the adjective and plural of Staufer, is also the name of their castle in Swabia built by the first known member of the dynasty, Frederick I, Duke of Swabia. Therefore the dynasty is sometimes also called Swabian dynasty after the family's origin. Hohenstaufen Castle is located on a mountain of the same name near Göppingen. Origins as dukes of Swabia In 1079, King Henry IV appointed Frederick of Büren as duke of Swabia. At the same time, Frederick was engaged to the king's approximately seven-year old daughter, Agnes. Nothing is known about Frederick's life before this event. He proved to be a close ally of Henry IV in his struggle against other Swabian lords, namely Rudolf of Rheinfelden (the previous duke), and the Zähringen and Welf lords. Frederick's brother Otto became bishop of Strasbourg in 1082. Frederick I was succeeded by his son Frederick II in 1105. Frederick II remained a close ally of the kings, and he and his brother Conrad were named the king's representatives in Germany when the king was in Italy. Around 1120, Frederick II married Judith of Bavaria from the rival House of Welf. Coat of arms When Frederick I became Duke of Swabia in 1079, his coat of arms showed a yellow lion on a black shield. Whilst members of the family reigned as German Kings and Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, the Hohenstaufen coat of arms was used as a breast shield on the empire’s coat of arms. It was Philip of Swabia, elected German king in 1198, who changed the coat of arms - the lion was replaced by three leopards. Ruling in Germany Family tree of the Hohenstaufen emperors including their relation to succeeding dynasties When the last male member of the Salian dynasty, Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, died without an heir in 1125 there was controversy about the succession. Frederick and Conrad, the two current male Staufens, were grandsons of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor and nephews of Henry V. Frederick ran for king, but lost the election against Lothair II. This led to a civil war between the Staufens and the king, which ended with the submission of the Staufens in 1134. However, after the death of Lothair II in 1137, Conrad became King of the Romans. After Frederick II's death in 1147, he was succeeded as duke by his son Frederick III. When Conrad died without adult heir in 1152, Frederick III succeeded him as King Frederick I. Frederick I (r. 1152-90), also known as Frederick Barbarossa because of his red beard, struggled throughout his reign to restore the power and prestige of the German monarchy, but he had little success. Because the German dukes had grown stronger both during and after the Investiture Controversy and because royal access to the resources of the church in Germany was much reduced, Frederick was forced to go to Italy to find the finances needed to restore the king's power in Germany. He was soon crowned emperor in Italy, but decades of warfare on the peninsula yielded scant results. The papacy and the prosperous city-states of northern Italy were traditional enemies, but the fear of imperial domination caused them to join ranks to fight Frederick. Under the skilled leadership of Pope Alexander III, the alliance suffered many defeats but ultimately was able to deny the emperor a complete victory in Italy. Frederick returned to Germany old and embittered. He had vanquished one notable opponent and member of the Welf family, Saxony's Henry the Lion, but his hopes of restoring the power and prestige of his family and the monarchy seemed unlikely to be met by the end of his life. During Frederick's long stays in Italy, the German princes became stronger and began a successful colonization of Slavic lands. Offers of reduced taxes and manorial duties enticed many Germans to settle in the east as the area's original inhabitants were killed or driven away. Because of this colonization, the empire increased in size and came to include Pomerania, Silesia, Bohemia, and Moravia. A quickening economic life in Germany increased the number of towns and gave them greater importance. It was also during this period that castles and courts replaced monasteries as centers of culture. Growing out of this courtly culture, German medieval literature reached its peak in lyrical love poetry, the Minnesang, and in narrative epic poems such as Tristan, Parzival, and the Nibelungenlied. Frederick died in 1190 while on a crusade and was succeeded by his son, Henry VI (r. 1190-97). Elected king even before his father's death, Henry went to Rome to be crowned emperor. A death in his wife's family gave him possession of Sicily, a source of vast wealth. Henry failed to make royal and imperial succession hereditary, but in 1196 he succeeded in gaining a pledge that his infant son Frederick would receive the German crown. Faced with difficulties in Italy and confident that he would realize his wishes in Germany at a later date, Henry returned to the south, where it appeared he might unify the peninsula under the Hohenstaufen name. After a series of military victories, however, he died of natural causes in Sicily in 1197. Because the election of the three-year-old Frederick to be German king appeared likely to make orderly rule difficult, the boy's uncle, Philip, was chosen to serve in his place. Other factions elected a Welf candidate, Otto IV, as counterking, and a long civil war began. Philip was about to win when he was murdered by a relative in 1208. Otto IV in turn was beaten by the French at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214. Frederick returned to Germany in 1212 from Sicily, where he had grown up, and became king in 1215. As Frederick II (r. 1215-50), he spent little time in Germany because his main concerns lay in Italy. Frederick made significant concessions to the German nobles, such as those put forth in an imperial statute of 1232, which made princes virtually independent rulers within their territories. The clergy also became more powerful. Although Frederick was one of the most energetic, imaginative, and capable rulers of the Middle Ages, he did nothing to draw the disparate forces in Germany together. His legacy was thus that local rulers had more authority after his reign than before it. Romanticizing postcard from 1905, depicting Mount Hohenstaufen and Hohenstaufen kings. By the time of Frederick's death in 1250, there was little centralized power in Germany. The Great Interregnum (1256-73), a period of anarchy in which there was no emperor and German princes vied for individual advantage, followed the death of Frederick's son Conrad IV in 1254. In this short period, the German nobility managed to strip many powers away from the already diminished monarchy. Rather than establish sovereign states, however, many nobles tended to look after their families. Their many heirs created more and smaller estates. A largely free class of officials also formed, many of whom eventually acquired hereditary rights to administrative and legal offices. These trends compounded political fragmentation within Germany. Despite the political chaos of the Hohenstaufen period, the population grew from an estimated 8 million in 1200 to about 14 million in 1300, and the number of towns increased tenfold. The most heavily urbanized areas of Germany were located in the south and the west. Towns often developed a degree of independence, but many were subordinate to local rulers or the emperor. Colonization of the east also continued in the thirteenth century, most notably through the efforts of the Knights of the Teutonic Order, a society of soldier-monks. German merchants also began trading extensively on the Baltic. Decline The conflict between the Hohenstaufen and the Welfs irrevocably weakened the German monarchy. It continued until the Hohenstaufen line died out. The Norman kingdom of Sicily became the base for Hohenstaufen rule. Henry VI, who followed his father Frederick Barbarossa, as emperor in 1190, married Constance, heiress of Sicily. But Henry died before realizing his plans for hereditary monarchy over Germany and Italy. His underage son Frederick succeeded him only in Sicily, while in the empire the struggle between the Hohenstaufen and the Welfs erupted once again. 1198: First signs of decline In 1198, two rival kings were chosen: the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia, who was a brother of Henry VI, and the son of Henry the Lion, Welf Otto IV. First, Pope Innocent III supported the Welfs, but when Otto, who was the sole monarch after the death of Philip in 1208, moved to appropriate Sicily, Innocent changed sides and accepted Frederick II and his ally, the French king Philip II Augustus, in 1214 at the Battle of Bouvines, which is located near Lille. When Otto died in 1218, Fredrick became the undisputed king, and in 1220 he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick II Frederick II lived in Southern Italy, founded the University of Naples in 1224 to train state officials and reigned over Germany primarily through the allocation of royal prerogatives, leaving the sovereign authority and imperial estates to the ecclesiastical and secular princes. This favored the division of the empire. In 1226, Frederick assigned German soldiers to complete the conquest and conversion of Prussia. A reconciliation with the Welfs took place in 1235. During this time, the grandson of Henry the Lion was named duke of Brunswick and Lunenburg. However, the power struggle with the popes continued and resulted in Fredrick's excommunication in 1227. In 1239, the Pope excommunicated Fredrick again, and in 1245 he was condemned as a heretic by a church council. Fredrick died in 1250, and his heir Conrad IV reigned only a short time before his own death in 1254. His son Conradin immediately had to defend Sicily against an invasion by Charles of Anjou a brother of the French king. Conradin was defeated in 1268 at the Battle of Tagliacozza and was handed over to Charles after having fled the battlefield. He was later executed in Naples. He was the last of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. End of the Hohenstaufen Conrad IV was succeeded as duke of Swabia by his only son, two-year old Conrad. By this time, the office of duke of Swabia had been fully subsumed into the office of the king, and without royal authority had become meaningless. In 1261, attempts to elect the younger Conrad king were unsuccessful. Conrad was executed in 1268 after a failed campaign to retake control of Sicily. With him, both the House of Hohenstaufen and the Duchy of Swabia ceased to exist. Members of the Hohenstaufen family Holy Roman Emperors and Kings of Germany Conrad III, king 1138-1152 Frederick I Barbarossa, king 1152-1190, Emperor after 1155 Henry VI, king 1190-1197, Emperor after 1191 Philip of Swabia, king 1198-1208 Frederick II, king 1208-1250, Emperor after 1220 Henry (VII), king 1220 - 1235 (under his father Frederick II) Conrad IV, king 1237-1254 (until 1250 under his father Frederick II) Like the first ruling Hohenstaufen, Conrad III, also the last one, Conrad IV, was never crowned emperor. After a 20 year period (Interregnum 1254-1273) the first Habsburg was elected king. Arms of the Hohenstaufen Sicily Kings of Sicily Note: Some of the following kings are already listed above as German Kings Henry VI 1194-1197 Frederick 1198-1250 Henry (VII) 1212–1217 (nominal king under his father) Conrad 1250-1254 (Conradin 1254-1258/1268) Manfred 1258-1266 Dukes of Swabia Note: Some of the following dukes are already listed above as German Kings Frederick I, Duke of Swabia (Friedrich) (r. 1079 - 1105) Frederick II, Duke of Swabia (r. 1105 - 1147) Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (Frederick III of Swabia)(r. 1147 - 1152) King in 1152 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1155 Frederick IV, Duke of Swabia (r. 1152 - 1167) Frederick V, Duke of Swabia (r. 1167 - 1170) Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia (r. 1170 - 1191) Conrad II, Duke of Swabia (r. 1191 - 1196) Philip of Swabia (r. 1196 - 1208) King in 1198 Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1212 - 1216) King in 1212 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1220 Henry (VII) of Germany (r. 1216 - 1235), King 1220 - 1235 Conrad IV (r. 1235 - 1254) King in 1237 Conrad V (Conradin) (r. 1254 - 1268) See also Kings of Germany family tree. The Hohenstaufens were the 6th dynasty to rule Germany and were related by marriage to all the others. Dukes of Swabia family tree List of monarchs of Sicily. Hohenstaufen kings ruled in Sicily from 1194 till Manfred of Sicily was killed in the Battle of Benevento in 1266. During the Third Reich, the Waffen-SS named an SS Panzer division "Hohenstaufen". External links http://www.hohenstaufen.org.uk References | House_of_Hohenstaufen |@lemmatized house:3 hohenstaufen:23 staufer:2 mean:1 grail:1 barers:1 title:1 grant:1 charlemagne:1 dynasty:8 germanic:1 king:45 many:8 also:12 crown:5 holy:10 roman:11 emperor:21 duke:20 swabia:22 become:10 sicily:15 staufen:1 adjective:1 plural:1 name:6 castle:3 build:1 first:5 known:1 member:5 frederick:50 therefore:1 sometimes:1 call:1 swabian:2 family:10 origin:2 locate:3 mountain:1 near:2 göppingen:1 henry:20 iv:13 appoint:1 büren:1 time:6 engage:1 approximately:1 seven:1 year:4 old:4 daughter:1 agnes:1 nothing:2 know:2 life:3 event:1 prove:1 close:2 ally:3 struggle:4 lord:2 namely:1 rudolf:1 rheinfelden:1 previous:1 zähringen:1 welf:5 brother:4 otto:6 bishop:1 strasbourg:1 succeed:8 son:9 ii:17 remain:1 conrad:18 representative:1 germany:19 italy:10 around:1 marry:2 judith:1 bavaria:1 rival:2 coat:5 arm:6 show:1 yellow:1 lion:5 black:1 shield:2 whilst:1 reign:5 german:17 empire:5 use:1 breast:1 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http:1 www:1 org:1 uk:1 reference:1 |@bigram duke_swabia:15 coat_arm:5 philip_swabia:4 salian_dynasty:1 frederick_barbarossa:3 investiture_controversy:1 pomerania_silesia:1 bohemia_moravia:1 battle_bouvines:2 increase_tenfold:1 pope_innocent:1 royal_prerogative:1 hohenstaufen_dynasty:1 third_reich:1 panzer_division:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
7,547 | MMIX | MMIX also refers to the year 2009, in Roman numerals. MMIX (pronounced em-mix) is a 64-bit RISC instruction set architecture (ISA) designed by Donald Knuth, with significant contributions by John L. Hennessy (who contributed to the design of the MIPS ISA) and Richard L. Sites (who was an architect of the Alpha ISA). In Knuth’s own words: Its purpose for education is quite similar to John L. Hennessy's and David A. Patterson's DLX architecture, from Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach. Architecture MMIX is a 64-bit RISC computer, with 256 64-bit general-purpose registers and 32 64-bit special-purpose registers. MMIX is a big-endian machine with 32-bit instructions and a 64-bit virtual address space. The MMIX instruction set comprises 256 opcodes, one of which is reserved for future expansion. Instructions All instructions have an associated mnemonic. For example instruction 32 is associated to ADD. Most instructions have the symbolic form "OP X,Y,Z", where OP specifies the sort of instruction, X specifies the register used to store the result of the instruction and the rest specify the operands of the instruction. Each of these fields is eight bits wide. For example, the instruction "ADD $0,$1,3", will add the contents of register 1 and the immediate value 3 and store the result in register 0. Most instructions can take either immediate values or register contents; thus a single instruction mnemonic may correspond to one of two opcodes. MMIX programs are typically constructed using the MMIXAL assembly language. The below is a simple MMIXAL program, which prints Hello, world: string BYTE "Hello, world!",#a,0 'string to be printed (#a is newline and 0 terminates the string) Main GETA $255,string 'get the address of the string in register 255 TRAP 0,Fputs,StdOut 'put the string pointed to by register 255 to file StdOut TRAP 0,Halt,0 'end process Registers There are 256 general purpose architectural registers in an MMIX chip, designated by $0 through $255 and 32 special physical architectural registers. They are implemented by global physical registers and 512 local physical registers. If X is a number from 0 to 255 inclusive, then special registers rL and rG determine whether register $X refers to a local or a global physical register. Local register stack The local register stack provides each subroutine with its own rL local registers, designated by $0 through $(rL−1). Whenever a subroutine is called, a number of local registers is pushed down the stack. The arguments of the called subroutine are left in the remaining local registers. When a subroutine finishes it pops the previously pushed registers. Because there are only 512 local physical registers, it may be necessary to store a part of the stack in memory. This is implemented with the special registers rO and rS which record which part of the local register stack is in memory and which part is still in local physical registers. The register stack provides for fast subroutine linkage. Special registers The 32 special physical architectural registers are as follows: rB, the bootstrap register (trip) When tripping, rB <- $255 and $255 <- rJ. Thus saving rJ in a general register. rD, the dividend register Unsigned integer divide uses this as the left half of the 128-bit input that is to be divided by the other operand. rE, the epsilon register Used for floating comparisons with respect to epsilon. rH, the himult register Used to store the left half of the 128-bit result of unsigned integer multiplication. rJ, the return-jump register Used to save the address of the next instruction by PUSHes and by POP to return from a PUSH. rM, the multiplex mask register Used by the multiplex instruction. rR, the remainder register Is set to the remainder of integer division. rBB, the bootstrap register (trap) When trapping, rBB <- $255 and $255 <- rJ. Thus saving rJ in a general register rC, the cycle counter Incremented every cycle. rN, the serial number A constant identifying this particular MMIX processor. rO, the register stack offset Used to implement the register stack. rS, the register stack pointer Used to implement the register stack. rI, the interval counter Decremented every cycle. Causes an interrupt when zero. rT, the trap address register Used to store the address of the trip vector. rTT, the dynamic trap address register Used to store the address of the trap vector. rK, the interrupt mask register Used to enable and disable specific interrupts. rQ, the interrupt request register Used to record interrupts as they occur. rU, the usage counter Used to keep a count of executed instructions. rV, the virtual translation register Used to translate virtual addresses to physical addresses. Contains the size and number of segments, the root location of the page table and the address space number. rG, the global threshold register All general registers references with a number greater or equal to rG refer to global registers. rL, the local threshold register All general registers references with a number smaller than rL refer to local registers. rA, the arithmetic status register Used to record, enable and disable arithmetic exception like overflow and divide by zero. rF, the failure location register Used to store the address of the instruction that caused a failure. rP, the prediction register Used by conditional swap (CSWAP). rW, the where-interrupted register (trip) Used, when tripping, to store the address of the instruction after the one that was interrupted. rX, the execution register (trip) Used, when tripping, to store the instruction that was interrupted. rY, the Y operand (trip) Used, when tripping, to store the Y operand of the interrupted instruction. rZ, the Z operand (trip) Used, when tripping, to store the Z operand of the interrupted instruction. rWW, the where-interrupted register (trap) Used, when trapping, to store the address of the instruction after the one that was interrupted. rXX, the execution register (trap) Used, when trapping, to store the instruction that was interrupted. rYY, the Y operand (trap) Used, when trapping, to store the Y operand of the interrupted instruction. rZZ, the Z operand (trap) Used, when trapping, to store the Z operand of the interrupted instruction. Hardware implementations As of 2008, the MMIX instruction set architecture has not yet been implemented in hardware. Software tools The MMIX instruction set architecture is supported by a number of software tools for computer architecture research and software development. Simulators and assembler MMIXware (version 20090205) – Donald Knuth’s MMIX-SIM simple (behavioral) simulator, MMIXAL assembler, test suite, sample programs, full documentation, and MMMIX architectural (pipeline) simulator (gzipped tar file.) MMIXX – An X11-based graphics package contributed by Andrew Pochinsky of MIT’s Center for Theoretical Physics which, when combined with the MMIXware sources above, augments the MMIX virtual machine with a VGA-resolution, true-color ‘virtual display’ (for UNIX/Linux.) Compiler The GNU Compiler Collection includes an MMIX back-end for its C/C++ compilers, contributed by Hans-Peter Nilsson and part of the main GCC distribution since late 2001. Installation instructions for GCC + MMIX tools by Hans-Peter Nilsson. References Errata to above book. Donald E. Knuth (2005). The Art of Computer Programming Volume 1 Fascicle 1: MMIX A RISC Computer for the New Millennium. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-85392-2 (errata) External links Donald Knuth's MMIX page — A brief introduction to MMIX, and Knuth's reasons for using a hypothetical assembly language in TAoCP. Donald Knuth's MMIX news page — An open-source simulator written in CWEB, a programmer's manual, and example programs. MMIXmasters web site A web site for the volunteers (MMIXmasters) who are converting all of the programs in TAOCP, Volumes 1 - 3, from the old language MIX to the new language MMIX. | MMIX |@lemmatized mmix:19 also:1 refer:3 year:1 roman:1 numeral:1 pronounced:1 em:1 mix:2 bit:9 risc:3 instruction:28 set:5 architecture:7 isa:3 design:2 donald:5 knuth:7 significant:1 contribution:1 john:2 l:3 hennessy:2 contribute:3 mips:1 richard:1 site:3 architect:1 alpha:1 word:1 purpose:4 education:1 quite:1 similar:1 david:1 patterson:1 dlx:1 computer:5 quantitative:1 approach:1 general:6 register:61 special:6 big:1 endian:1 machine:2 virtual:5 address:13 space:2 comprise:1 opcodes:2 one:4 reserve:1 future:1 expansion:1 associate:2 mnemonic:2 example:3 add:3 symbolic:1 form:1 op:2 x:4 z:5 specify:3 sort:1 use:27 store:15 result:3 rest:1 operand:10 field:1 eight:1 wide:1 content:2 immediate:2 value:2 take:1 either:1 thus:3 single:1 may:2 correspond:1 two:1 program:5 typically:1 construct:1 mmixal:3 assembly:2 language:4 simple:2 print:2 hello:2 world:2 string:6 byte:1 newline:1 terminates:1 main:2 geta:1 get:1 trap:15 fputs:1 stdout:2 put:1 point:1 file:2 halt:1 end:2 process:1 architectural:4 chip:1 designate:2 physical:8 implement:5 global:4 local:12 number:8 inclusive:1 rl:5 rg:3 determine:1 whether:1 refers:1 stack:10 provide:2 subroutine:5 whenever:1 call:2 push:4 argument:1 leave:1 remain:1 finish:1 pop:2 previously:1 necessary:1 part:4 memory:2 ro:2 rs:1 record:3 still:1 fast:1 linkage:1 follow:1 rb:2 bootstrap:2 trip:11 rj:5 save:3 rd:1 dividend:1 unsigned:2 integer:3 divide:3 left:2 half:2 input:1 epsilon:2 float:1 comparison:1 respect:1 rh:1 himult:1 multiplication:1 return:2 jump:1 next:1 rm:1 multiplex:2 mask:2 rr:1 remainder:2 division:1 rbb:2 rc:1 cycle:3 counter:3 incremented:1 every:2 rn:1 serial:1 constant:1 identifying:1 particular:1 processor:1 offset:1 r:1 pointer:1 ri:1 interval:1 decremented:1 cause:2 interrupt:11 zero:2 rt:1 vector:2 rtt:1 dynamic:1 rk:1 enable:2 disable:2 specific:1 rq:1 request:1 occur:1 ru:1 usage:1 keep:1 count:1 executed:1 rv:1 translation:1 translate:1 contain:1 size:1 segment:1 root:1 location:2 page:3 table:1 threshold:2 reference:3 great:1 equal:1 small:1 ra:1 arithmetic:2 status:1 exception:1 like:1 overflow:1 rf:1 failure:2 rp:1 prediction:1 conditional:1 swap:1 cswap:1 rw:1 rx:1 execution:2 ry:1 interrupted:4 rz:1 rww:1 rxx:1 ryy:1 rzz:1 hardware:2 implementation:1 yet:1 software:3 tool:3 support:1 research:1 development:1 simulator:4 assembler:2 mmixware:2 version:1 sim:1 behavioral:1 test:1 suite:1 sample:1 full:1 documentation:1 mmmix:1 pipeline:1 gzipped:1 tar:1 mmixx:1 base:1 graphic:1 package:1 andrew:1 pochinsky:1 mit:1 center:1 theoretical:1 physic:1 combine:1 source:2 augment:1 vga:1 resolution:1 true:1 color:1 display:1 unix:1 linux:1 compiler:3 gnu:1 collection:1 include:1 back:1 c:2 han:2 peter:2 nilsson:2 gcc:2 distribution:1 since:1 late:1 installation:1 errata:1 book:1 e:1 art:1 programming:1 volume:1 fascicle:1 new:2 millennium:1 addison:1 wesley:1 isbn:1 erratum:1 external:1 link:1 brief:1 introduction:1 reason:1 hypothetical:1 taocp:2 news:1 open:1 write:1 cweb:1 programmer:1 manual:1 mmixmasters:2 web:2 volunteer:1 convert:1 volumes:1 old:1 |@bigram donald_knuth:4 big_endian:1 unsigned_integer:2 stack_pointer:1 knuth_mmix:3 gnu_compiler:1 volume_fascicle:1 addison_wesley:1 external_link:1 |
7,548 | Lake_Superior | Lake Superior is the largest of the five Great Lakes of North America. It is bounded to the north by Ontario, Canada and Minnesota, United States, and to the south by the U.S. states of Wisconsin and Michigan. It is the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area and is the world's third-largest freshwater lake by volume. Superior Pursuit: Facts About the Greatest Great Lake - Minnesota Sea Grant University of Minnesota. Retrieved on 2007-08-09. Name In the Ojibwe language, the lake is called Gichigami, meaning "big water". It is also written "Gitche Gumee" as recorded by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in The Song of Hiawatha. The lake was named le lac supérieur, or "Upper Lake," in the seventeenth century by French explorers because it was located above Lake Huron. It was also known as Lac Tracy during the French regime.(Nute, 1946) By the time the English arrived in this region, however, it was already well-known that there were more than two lakes, an upper and a lower. Thus, when the name was anglicized, it was said "Lake Superior...is so called on account of its being superior in magnitude to any of the lakes on that vast continent." George R. Stewart, "Names on the Land, A historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States," 1945, p. 83 Hydrography Lake Superior and the other Great Lakes Lake Superior in winter, as seen from Duluth, Minnesota in December 2004 Ice on Lake Superior as seen from space (MODIS, March 3, 2009) Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area, and empties into Lake Huron via the St. Mary's River and the Soo Locks. Lake Baikal in Russia is larger by volume, as is Lake Tanganyika. The Caspian Sea, while larger than Lake Superior in both surface area and volume, is brackish; though presently isolated, historically the Caspian has been repeatedly connected to and isolated from the Mediterranean via the Black Sea. Lake Superior has a surface area of — which is larger than South Carolina. It has a maximum length of and maximum breadth of . Its average depth is with a maximum depth of . Lake Superior contains 2,900 cubic miles (12,100 km³) of water. There is enough water in Lake Superior to cover the entire land mass of North and South America with of water. The shoreline of the lake stretches (including islands). The lake's elevation is above sea level. American limnologist J. Val Klump was the first person to reach the lowest depth of Lake Superior on July 30, 1985, as part of a scientific expedition, which, at below sea level, is the lowest spot on the continental interior of the United States and the second lowest spot on the interior of the North American continent after the much deeper Great Slave Lake in Canada ( below sea level). (Though Crater Lake, not Lake Superior, is the deepest lake in the United States, Crater Lake's surface elevation is much higher and its deepest point is above sea level.) The average temperature of the lake during the summer is about 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Annual storms on Lake Superior regularly record wave heights of over . "The fall storm season." (Website.) National Weather Service, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved on 2007-09-25 Waves well over have been recorded. Chisholm, B. & Gutsche, A., Superior: Under the Shadow of the Gods, Lynx Images, 1998, p. xiii Until approximately 1887, the natural hydraulic conveyance through the St. Marys River rapids determined outflow from Lake Superior. By 1921, development in support of transportation and hydropower resulted in gates, locks, power canals, and other control structures completely spanning St. Marys rapids. The regulating structure is known as the Compensating Works and is operated according to a regulation plan known as Plan 1977-A. The current water levels, including diversions of water from the Hudson Bay watershed, are governed by the International Lake Superior Board of Control which was established in 1914 by the International Joint Commission. Tributaries and outlet The lake is fed by over 200 rivers. The largest include the Nipigon River, the St. Louis River, the Pigeon River, the Pic River, the White River, the Michipicoten River, the Bois Brule River and the Kaministiquia River. Lake Superior drains into Lake Huron by the St. Marys River. The rapids on the river necessitate the Sault Locks (pronounced "soo"), a part of the Great Lakes Waterway, to move boats over the height difference from Lake Huron. Geography The largest island in Lake Superior is Isle Royale in the state of Michigan. Isle Royale contains several lakes, some of which also contain islands. Other large famous islands include Madeline Island in the state of Wisconsin and Michipicoten in the province of Ontario. The larger cities on Lake Superior include: the twin ports of Duluth, Minnesota, and Superior, Wisconsin; Thunder Bay, Ontario; Marquette, Michigan; and the two cities of Sault Ste. Marie, in Michigan and in Ontario. Duluth, at the western tip of Lake Superior, is the most inland point on the St. Lawrence Seaway and the most inland port in the world. Among the scenic places on the lake are: the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore; Isle Royale National Park; Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park; Pukaskwa National Park; Lake Superior Provincial Park; Grand Island National Recreation Area; Sleeping Giant (Ontario);and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore. Great Lakes Circle Tour The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. Great Lakes Circle Tour. Climate Lake Superior's size creates a localized oceanic or maritime climate (more typically seen in locations like Nova Scotia). Highway 17: A Scenic Route along the northern Lake Superior shore The water surface's slow reaction to temperature changes, seasonally ranging between 32°-55°F (0°-13°C) around 1970, Derecki, J. A. (July 1980.) "NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL GLERL-29: Evaporation from Lake Superior." Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, page 37. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. helps to moderate surrounding air temperatures in the summer and winter, and creates lake effect snow in colder months. The hills and mountains that border the lake hold moisture and fog, particularly in the fall. The lake's surface temperature has risen by 4.5 Fahrenheit degrees (2.5 Celsius degrees) since 1979, which is attributed to global warming. Marshall, Jessica. (2007-05-30.) "Global warming is shrinking the Great Lakes." New Scientist, via newscientist.com. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. Geology The rocks of Lake Superior's North Shore date back to the early history of the earth. During the Precambrian (between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago), magma forcing its way to the surface created the intrusive granites of the Canadian Shield. Geology of National Parks, Second Edition, Ann G. Harris, Kendall Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, Iowa, 1977, p 200 These ancient granites can be seen on the North Shore today. It was during the Penokean orogeny, that many valuable metals were deposited. The region surrounding the lake has proved to be rich in minerals. Copper, iron, silver, gold and nickel are or were the most frequently mined. Examples include the Hemlo gold mine near Marathon, copper at Point Mamainse, silver at Silver Islet, and uranium at Theano Point. North American cratons and basement rock, showing the formation of the Midcontinent Rift containing today's Lake Superior. The mountains steadily eroded, depositing layers of sediments which compacted and became limestone, dolostone, taconite, and the shale at Kakabeka Falls. The continent was later riven, creating one of the deepest rifts in the world. The lake lies in this long-extinct Mesoproterozoic rift valley, the Midcontinent Rift. Magma was injected between layers of sedimentary rock, forming diabase sills. This hard diabase protects the layers of sedimentary rock below, forming the flat-topped mesas in the Thunder Bay area. Amethyst formed in some of the cavities created by the Midcontinent Rift, and there are several amethyst mines in the Thunder Bay area. Ontario Amethyst: Ontario's Mineral Emblem Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines. Retrieved on 2007-08-04. Lava erupted from the rift and formed the black basalt rock of Michipicoten Island, Black Bay Peninsula, and St. Ignace Island. During the Wisconsin glaciation 10,000 years ago, ice covered the region at a thickness of . The land contours familiar today were carved by the advance and retreat of the ice sheet. The retreat left gravel, sand, clay, and boulder deposits. Glacial meltwaters gathered in the Superior basin creating Lake Minong, a precursor to Lake Superior. Chisholm & Gutsche, ibid, p. xv Without the immense weight of the ice, the land rebounded, and a drainage outlet formed at Sault Ste. Marie, which would become known as St. Mary's River. History Pictographs at Lake Superior Provincial Park, Ontario The first people came to the Lake Superior region 10,000 years ago after the retreat of the glaciers in the last Ice Age. They are known as the Plano, and they used stone-tipped spears to hunt caribou on the northwestern side of Lake Minong. The next documented people were known as the Shield Archaic (c. 5000-500 BC). Evidence of this culture can be found at the eastern and western ends of the Canadian shore. They used bows and arrows, dugout canoes, fished, hunted, mined copper for tools and weapons, and established trading networks. They are believed to be the direct ancestors of the Ojibwe and Cree. Chisholm & Gutsche, ibid, p. xvi The Laurel people (c. 500 BC to AD 500) developed seine net fishing, evidence being found at rivers around Superior such as the Pic and Michipicoten. Another culture known as the Terminal Woodland Indians (c. AD 900-1650) has been found. They were Algonkian people who hunted, fished and gathered berries. They used snow shoes, birch bark canoes and conical or domed lodges. At the mouth of the Michipicoten River, nine layers of encampments have been discovered. Most of the Pukaskwa Pits were likely made during this time. Chisholm & Gutsche, ibid, p. xvi The Anishinaabe, also known as the Ojibwe or Chippewa, have inhabited the Lake Superior region for over five hundred years and were preceded by the Dakota, Fox, Menominee, Nipigon, Noquet, and Gros Ventres. They called Lake Superior Anishnaabe Chi Gaming, or "the Ojibwe's Ocean". After the arrival of Europeans, the Anishinaabe made themselves the middle-men between the French fur traders and other Native peoples. They soon became the dominant Indian nation in the region: they forced out the Sioux and Fox and won a victory against the Iroquois west of Sault Ste. Marie in 1662. By the mid-18th century, the Ojibwe occupied all of Lake Superior's shores. Chisholm & Gutsche, ibid, p. xvii In the 18th century, the fur trade in the region was booming, with the Hudson's Bay Company having a virtual monopoly. In 1783, however, the North West Company was formed to rival Hudson's Bay Company. The North West Company built forts on Lake Superior at Grand Portage, Nipigon, the Pic River, the Michipicoten River, and Sault Ste. Marie. But by 1821, with competition taking too great a toll on both, the companies merged under the Hudson's Bay Company name. Many towns around the lake are either current or former mining areas, or engaged in processing or shipping. Today, tourism is another significant industry; the sparsely populated Lake Superior country, with its rugged shorelines and wilderness, attracts tourists and adventurers. Shipping Lake Superior has been an important link in the Great Lakes Waterway, providing a route for the transportation of iron ore and other mined and manufactured materials. Large cargo vessels called lake freighters, as well as smaller ocean-going freighters, transport these commodities across Lake Superior. The SS Edmund Fitzgerald, a large lake freighter, sank in 1975 Shipwrecks According to shipwreck historian Frederick Stonehouse, the southern shore of Lake Superior between Grand Marais, Michigan and Whitefish Point is known as the "Graveyard of the Great Lakes" and more ships have been lost around the Whitefish Point area than any other part Lake Superior. Stonehouse, Frederick (1985, 1998). Lake Superior’s Shipwreck Coast, p. 267, Avery Color Studios, Gwinn, Michigan, U.S.A. ISBN 0-932232-43-3, These shipwrecks are now protected by the Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve. The SS Edmund Fitzgerald was the last major shipwreck on Lake Superior, sinking from Whitefish Point on November 10, 1975. According to legend, Lake Superior never gives up her dead. This is because of the unusually low temperature of the water, estimated at under on average around 1970. Normally bacteria feeding on a sunken decaying body will generate gas inside the body, causing it to float to the surface after a few days. The water in Lake Superior is cold enough year-round to inhibit bacterial growth, and bodies tend to sink and never surface. Chisholm & Gutsche, ibid, p. xxxiv This is alluded to in Gordon Lightfoot's ballad, "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald". The Edmund Fitzgerald's 29 crew members all perished. Edmund Fitzgerald adventurer Joe MacInnis reported that in July of 1994, explorer Frederick Shannon's Expedition 94 to the Fitzgerald discovered and filmed a man's body near the port side of her pilothouse, not far from the open door, "fully clothed, wearing an orange life jacket, and lying face down in the sediment." MacInnis, Dr. Joseph (1998). Fitzgerald's Storm:The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald, p. 101, Thunder Bay Press, Berkely, CA, U.S.A. ISBN 1-882376-53-6. No crew members were ever recovered. The Fitzgerald got swallowed up so intensely by Lake Superior, that the ship split in half. Its two pieces are sitting approximately apart in a depth of . Storms that claimed multiple ships include the Mataafa Storm on November 28, 1905, and the Great Lakes Storm of 1913. In August 2007, wreckage was found of the Cyprus, a ore carrier which sank during a Lake Superior storm in of water. All but Charles G. Pitz of the Cyprus’ 23 crew perished on October 11, 1907. The ore carrier sank in Lake Superior on its second voyage, whilst hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York. Built in Lorain, Ohio, the Cyprus was launched August 17, 1907. MSNBC, Century-old shipwreck discovered Ecology Although part of a single system, each of the Great Lakes is different. In volume, Lake Superior is the largest. It is also the deepest and coldest of the five. Superior could contain all the other Great Lakes and three more Lake Eries. Because of its size, Superior has a retention time of 191 years. Superior's water levels temporarily reached a new low in September 2007, slightly less than the previous record low in 1926. Associated Press. (2007-10-01.) "Lake Superior hits record lows." The Globe and Mail, via globeandmail.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-06. However, the water levels soon returned within a few days. Current Great Lakes Water Levels. Great Lakes Information Network. Retrieved on October 23, 2007. According to a study by professors at the University of Minnesota Duluth, Lake Superior may have warmed faster than its surrounding climate. Summer surface temperatures in the lake appeared to have increased about 4.5 Fahrenheit degrees (2.5 Celsius degrees) since 1979, compared with a approximately 2.7 Fahrenheit degree (1.5 Celsius degree) increase in the surrounding average air temperature. The increase in the lake’s surface temperature may be related to the decreasing ice cover. Less winter ice cover allows more solar radiation to penetrate the lake and warm the water. If trends continue Lake Superior, which freezes over completely once every 20 years, could routinely be ice-free by 2040. Associated Press. (2007-06-04.) "Lake Superior warming faster than surrounding climate." The Globe and Mail, via globeandmail.com (fee required). Retrieved on 2007-09-25. These warmer temperatures can actually lead to more snow in the lake effect snow belts along the shores of the lake, especially in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Over sixty species of fish have been found in Lake Superior, among them: atlantic salmon, bloater, brook trout, brown trout, burbot, carp, chinook salmon, coho salmon, freshwater drum, lake herring, lake sturgeon, lake trout, lake whitefish, longnose sucker, muskellunge, northern pike, pumpkinseed, pink salmon, rainbow smelt, rainbow trout, rock bass, round goby, round whitefish, ruffe, sea lamprey, smallmouth bass, walleye, white perch, white sucker, and yellow perch. The Fish of Lake Superior University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Institute. Retrieved on 2007-08-03. Minnesota 2009 fishing regulations page 23 Lake Superior has fewer dissolved nutrients relative to its size compared to the other Great Lakes and so is less productive in terms of fish populations. This is a result of the underdeveloped soils found in its relatively small watershed. "Lake Superior." Minnesota Sea Grant, University of Minnesota. Retrieved on 2007-08-09. However, nitrate concentrations in the lake have been continuously rising for more than a century. They are still much lower than levels considered dangerous to human health, but this steady, long-term rise is an unusual record of environmental nitrogen buildup. It may relate to anthropogenic alternations to the regional Nitrogen Cycle, but researchers are still unsure of the causes of this change to the lake's ecology. Sterner, R.W. et al. 2007. Geophysical Research Letters 34: L10406. As for other Great Lakes, fish populations have also been impacted by the accidental or intentional introduction of foreign species such as the sea lamprey and Eurasian ruffe. Accidental introductions have occurred in part by the removal of natural barriers to navigation between the Great Lakes. Overfishing has also been a factor in the decline of fish populations. See also the North Shore of Lake Superior the South Shore of Lake Superior Michigan lighthouses General Great Lakes Great Lakes Areas of Concern Great Lakes census statistical areas Great Lakes Commission Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal Great Storm of 1913 International Boundary Waters Treaty List of cities along the Great Lakes Seiche Shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm Sixty Years' War for control of the Great Lakes Third Coast Notes Further reading Burt, Williams A., and Hubbard, Bela Reports on the Mineral Region of Lake Superior (Buffalo: L. Danforth, 1846), 113 pages. Hyde, Charles K., and Ann and John Mahan. The Northern Lights: Lighthouses of the Upper Great Lakes. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1995. ISBN 0814325548 ISBN 9780814325544. Oleszewski, Wes, Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses, (Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios, Inc., 1998) ISBN 0-932212-98-0. Penrod, John, Lighthouses of Michigan, (Berrien Center, Michigan: Penrod/Hiawatha, 1998) ISBN 9780942618785 ISBN 9781893624238 Penrose, Laurie and Bill, A Traveler’s Guide to 116 Michigan Lighthouses (Petoskey, Michigan: Friede Publications, 1999). ISBN 0923756035 ISBN 9780923756031 Sims, P.K. and L.M.H. Carter, eds. Archean and Proterozoic Geology of the Lake Superior Region, U.S.A., 1993 [U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1556]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 1996. Splake, T. Kilgore. Superior Land Lights. Battle Creek, MI: Angst Productions, 1984 Stonehouse, Frederick. Marquette Shipwrecks. Marquette, MI: Harboridge Press, 1974 Wagner, John L., Michigan Lighthouses: An Aerial Photographic Perspective, (East Lansing, Michigan: John L. Wagner, 1998) ISBN 1880311011 ISBN 9781880311011 Wright, Larry and Wright, Patricia, Great Lakes Lighthouses Encyclopedia Hardback (Erin: Boston Mills Press, 2006) ISBN 1550463993 Shipwrecks "America"; Houghton, Michigan; Houghton Mining Gazette; Vol. 29; June 8, 1928 Stonehouse, Frederick; Isle Royale Shipwrecks; Marquette, Michigan; Arery Color Studios; 1977 "Cumberland" & "Wreck of Sidewheel Steamer Cumberland"; Detroit, Michigan; Detroit Free Press; January 29, 1974 "S.S.George M. Cox Wrecked"; Houghton, Michigan; Houghton Mining Gazette; May 28, 1933 Holdon, Thom "Reef of the Three C's"; Duluth, Minnesota; Lake Superior Marine Museum; Vol. 2, #4; July/August 1977 Holdon, Thom; "Above and Below: Steamer America"; Duluth, Minnesota; Lake Superior Marine Museum; Vol. 3, #3 & #4; May/June & July/August 1978 External links International Lake Superior Board of Control EPA's Great Lakes Atlas EPA's Great Lakes Atlas Factsheet #1 Great Lakes Coast Watch Parks Canada Lake Superior Minnesota Sea Grant - Lake Superior Page Lake Superior Bathymetry Lighthouses Bibliography on Michigan lighthouses Interactive map of lighthouses in eastern Lake Superior Interactive map of lighthouses in central Lake Superior Interactive map of lighthouses in western Lake Superior Terry Pepper on lighthouses of the Western Great Lakes Wagner, John L., Beacons Shining in the Night, Michigan lighthouse bibliography, chronology, history, and photographs, Clarke Historical Library, Central 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7,549 | Kenning | A kenning (Old Norse kenning [cʰɛnːiŋg], Modern Icelandic pronunciation [cʰɛnːiŋk]) is a circumlocution used instead of an ordinary noun in Old Norse and later Icelandic poetry. For example, Old Norse poets might replace sverð, the regular word for “sword”, with a compound such as ben-grefill “wound-hoe” (Egill Skallagrímsson: Höfuðlausn 8), or a genitive phrase such as randa íss “ice of shields” (Einarr Skúlason: ‘Øxarflokkr’ 9). The term kenning has been applied by modern scholars to similar figures of speech in other languages too, especially Old English. Etymology The word was adopted into English in the 19th century from medieval Icelandic treatises on poetics, in particular the Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson, and derives ultimately from the Old Norse verb kenna “know, recognise; perceive, feel; show; teach; etc.”, as used in the expression kenna við “to name after; to express [one thing] in terms of [another]”, OED Online “name after; refer to in terms of”, Faulkes, Anthony (1998 b). and kenna til “qualify by, make into a kenning by adding”. The corresponding Modern English verb to ken survives only in northern British dialects including Scots, although a noun derivative exists in the standard language in the set expression beyond one’s ken “beyond the scope of one’s knowledge”. Old Norse kenna (Modern Icelandic kenna, Swedish känna, Danish kende, Norwegian Bokmål and Nynorsk kjenne) is cognate with Old English cennan, Old Frisian kenna, kanna, Old Saxon (ant)kennian (Middle Dutch and Dutch kennen), Old High German (ir-, in-, pi-) chennan (Middle High German and German kennen), Gothic kannjan < Proto-Germanic *kannjanan, originally causative of *kunnanan “to know (how to)”, whence Modern English can “am, is, are able” (from the same Proto-Indo European root as Modern English know). Structure Old Norse kennings take the form of a genitive phrase (báru fákr "wave’s steed" = “ship” (Þorbjörn hornklofi: Glymdrápa 3)) or a compound word (gjálfr-marr "sea-steed" = “ship” (Anon.: Hervararkviða 27)). The simplest kennings consist of a base-word (Modern Icelandic stofnorð, German Grundwort) and a determinant (Modern Icelandic kenniorð, German Bestimmung) which qualifies, or modifies, the meaning of the base-word. The determinant may be a noun used uninflected as the first element in a compound word, with the base-word constituting the second element of the compound word. Alternatively the determinant may be a noun in the genitive case, placed before or after the base-word, either directly or separated from the base-word by intervening words. Verse-forms and Diction of Christian Skaldic Verse. Thus the base-words in these examples are fákr and marr “steed”, the determinants báru “wave’s” and gjálfr “sea”. The unstated noun the kenning refers to is called its referent, in this case: skip “ship”. In Old Norse poetry, either component of a kenning (base-word or determinant or both) could consist of an ordinary noun or else a heiti “poetic synonym”. In the above examples, fákr and marr are distinctively poetic lexemes; the normal word for “horse” in Old Norse prose is hestr. Complex kennings The skalds also employed complex kennings in which the determinant, or sometimes the base-word, is itself made up of a further kenning: grennir gunn-más “feeder of war-gull” = “feeder of raven” = “warrior” (Þorbjörn hornklofi: Glymdrápa 6); eyðendr arnar hungrs “destroyers of eagle’s hunger” = “feeders of eagle” = “warrior” (Þorbjörn Þakkaskáld: Erlingsdrápa 1). Where one kenning is embedded in another like this, the whole figure is said to be tvíkent “doubly determined, twice modified”. Faulkes (1999), p. 5/12. Frequently, where the determinant is itself a kenning, the base-word of the kenning that makes up the determinant is attached uninflected to the front of the base-word of the whole kenning to form a compound word: mög-fellandi mellu “son-slayer of giantess” = “slayer of sons of giantess” = “slayer of giants” = “the god Thor” (Steinunn Refsdóttir: Lausavísa 2). If the figure comprises more than three elements, it is said to be rekit “extended”. Kennings of up to seven elements are recorded in skaldic verse. Fjórkennt Snorri himself characterises five-element kennings as an acceptable license but cautions against more extreme constructions: Níunda er þat at reka til hinnar fimtu kenningar, er ór ættum er ef lengra er rekit; en þótt þat finnisk í fornskálda verka, þá látum vér þat nú ónýtt. “The ninth [license] is extending a kenning to the fifth determinant, but it is out of proportion if it is extended further. Even if it can be found in the works of ancient poets, we no longer tolerate it.” Faulkes 1991, 8:29–31; Faulkes 1987, 172. Word order and comprehension Word order in Old Norse is generally freer than in Modern English. This freedom is exploited to the full in skaldic verse and taken to extremes far beyond what would be natural in prose. Other words can intervene between a base-word and its genitive determinant, and occasionally between the elements of a compound word (tmesis). Kennings, and even whole clauses, can be interwoven. Ambiguity is usually less than it would be if an English text was subjected to the same contortions, thanks to the more elaborate morphology of Old Norse. Another factor aiding comprehension is that Old Norse kennings tend to be highly conventional. Most refer to the same small set of topics, and do so using a relatively small set of traditional metaphors. Thus a leader or important man will be characterised as generous, according to one common convention, and called an "enemy of gold", "attacker of treasure", "destroyer of arm-rings", etc. and a friend of his people. Nevertheless there are many instances of ambiguity in the corpus, some of which may be intentional, Faulkes (1997), pp. 11-17, and some evidence that, rather than merely accepting it from expediency, skalds favoured contorted word order for its own sake. Faulkes (1997), p. 15. Definitions Some scholars take the term kenning broadly to include any noun-substitute consisting of two or more elements, including merely descriptive epithets (such as Old Norse grand viðar “bane of wood” = “fire” (Snorri Sturluson: Skáldskaparmál 36)), Meissner (1921), p. 2. while others would restrict it to metaphorical instances (such as Old Norse sól húsanna “sun of the houses” = “fire” (Snorri Sturluson: Skáldskaparmál 36)), Heusler (1941), p. 137. specifically those where “[t]he base-word identifies the referent with something which it is not, except in a specially conceived relation which the poet imagines between it and the sense of the limiting element'” (Brodeur (1959) pp. 248-253). Some even exclude naturalistic metaphors such as Old English forstes bend “bond of frost” = “ice” or winter-ġewǣde “winter-raiment” = “snow”: “A metaphor is a kenning only if it contains an incongruity between the referent and the meaning of the base-word; in the kenning the limiting word is essential to the figure because without it the incongruity would make any identification impossible” (Brodeur (1959) pp. 248-253). Descriptive epithets are a common literary device in many parts of the world, whereas kennings in this restricted sense are a distinctive feature of Old Norse and, to a lesser extent, Old English poetry. Gardner (1969), p. 109-110. Snorri’s own usage, however, seems to fit the looser sense: “Snorri uses the term "kenning" to refer to a structural device, whereby a person of object is indicated by a periphrastic description containing two or more terms (which can be a noun with one or more dependent genitives or a compound noun or a combination of these two structures)” (Faulkes (1998 a), p. xxxiv). The term is certainly applied to non-metaphorical phrases in Skáldskaparmál: En sú kenning er áðr var ritat, at kalla Krist konung manna, þá kenning má eiga hverr konungr. “And that kenning which was written before, calling Christ the king of men, any king can have that kenning. Faulkes (1998 a), p. 78/17, 22. Likewise in Háttatal: Þat er kenning at kalla fleinbrak orrostu [...] “It is a kenning to call battle ‘spear-crash’ [...]”. Faulkes (1999), p. 5/12. Snorri’s expression kend heiti "qualified terms" appears to be synonymous with kenningar, Faulkes (1998 a), p. xxxiv. Faulkes (1999), p. 5/9. although Brodeur applies this more specifically to those periphrastic epithets which don’t come under his strict definition of kenning. Brodeur (1959) pp. 248-253. Sverdlov approaches the question from a morphological standpoint. Noting that the modifying component in Germanic compound words can take the form of a genitive or a bare root, he points to behavioural similarities between genitive determinants and the modifying element in regular Old Norse compound words, such as the fact that neither can be modified by a free-standing (declined) adjective. Sverdlov (2006). According to this view, all kennings are formally compounds, notwithstanding widespread tmesis. Semantics Kennings could be developed into extended, and sometimes vivid, metaphors: tröddusk törgur fyr [...] hjalta harðfótum “shields were trodden under the hard feet of the hilt (sword blades)” (Eyvindr Skáldaspillir: Hákonarmál 6); svarraði sárgymir á sverða nesi “wound-sea (=blood) sprayed on headland of swords (=shield)” (Eyvindr Skáldaspillir: Hákonarmál 7). Faulkes (1997), p. 24. Snorri calls such examples nýgervingar and exemplifies them in verse 6 of his Háttatal. The effect here seems to depend on an interplay of more or less naturalistic imagery and jarring artifice. But the skalds weren’t averse either to arbitrary, purely decorative, use of kennings: “That is, a ruler will be a distributor of gold even when he is fighting a battle and gold will be called the fire of the sea even when it is in the form of a man’s arm-ring on his arm. If the man wearing a gold ring is fighting a battle on land the mention of the sea will have no relevance to his situation at all and does not contribute to the picture of the battle being described” (Faulkes (1997), pp. 8-9). Snorri draws the line at mixed metaphor, which he terms nykrat “made monstrous” (Snorri Sturluson: Háttatal 6), and his nephew called the practice löstr “a fault” (Óláfr hvítaskáld: Third Grammatical Treatise 80). Faulkes (1997), pp. 24-25. In spite of this, it seems that “many poets did not object to and some must have preferred baroque juxtapositions of unlike kennings and neutral or incongruous verbs in their verses” (Foote & Wilson (1970), p. 332). E.g. heyr jarl Kvasis dreyra “listen, earl, to Kvasir’s blood (=poetry)” (Einarr skálaglamm: Vellekla 1). Sometimes there is a kind of redundancy whereby the referent of the whole kenning, or a kenning for it, is embedded: barmi dólg-svölu “brother of hostility-swallow” = “brother of raven” = “raven” (Oddr breiðfirðingr: Illugadrápa 1); blik-meiðendr bauga láðs “gleam-harmers of the land of rings” = “harmers of gleam of arm” = “harmers of ring” = “leaders, nobles, men of social standing (conceived of as generously destroying gold, i.e. giving it away freely)” (Anon.: Líknarbraut 42). While some Old Norse kennings are relatively transparent, many depend on a knowledge of specific myths or legends. Thus the sky might be called naturalistically él-ker “squall-vat” (Markús Skeggjason: Eiríksdrápa 3) or described in mythical terms as Ymis haus “Ymir’s skull” (Arnórr jarlaskáld: Magnúsdrápa 19), referring to the idea that the sky was made out of the skull of the primeval giant Ymir. Still others name mythical entities according to certain conventions without reference to a specific story: rimmu Yggr “Odin of battle” = “warrior” (Arnórr jarlaskáld: Magnúsdrápa 5). Poets in medieval Iceland even treated Christian themes using the traditional repertoire of kennings complete with allusions to heathen myths and aristocratic epithets for saints: Þrúðr falda “goddess of headdresses” = “Saint Catherine” (Kálfr Hallsson: Kátrínardrápa 4). Ellipsis A term may be omitted from a well-known kenning: val-teigs Hildr “hawk-ground’s valkyrie/goddess” (Haraldr Harðráði: Lausavísa 19). The full expression implied here is “goddess of gleam/fire/adornment of ground/land/seat/perch of hawk” = “goddess of gleam of arm” = “goddess of gold” = “lady” (characterised according to convention as wearing golden jewellery, the arm-kenning being a reference to falconry). The poet relies on listeners’ familiarity with such conventions to carry the meaning. Gordon (1956), p. 250. Old Norse kennings in context In the following dróttkvætt stanza, the Norwegian skald Eyvind Finnson skáldaspillir (d. ca 990) compares the greed of king Harald Gråfell to the generosity of his predecessor Haakon the Good: Bárum, Ullr, of alla, ímunlauks, á HAUKA FJÖLLUM Fýrisvalla fræ Hákonar ævi; nú hefr fólkstríðir Fróða fáglýjaðra þýja meldr í móður holdi mellu dolgs of folginn (Eyvindr skáldaspillir: Lausavísa 8). "Ullr of war-leek! We carried the seed of Fýrisvellir on the mountains of hawks during all of Hakon's life; now the enemy of the people has hidden the flour of Fróði's hapless slaves in the flesh of the mother of the enemy of the giantess." This might be paraphrased: "O warrior, we carried gold on our arms during all of Hakon's life; now the enemy of the people has hidden gold in the earth." ímun-laukr "war-leek" = "sword". Ullr is the name of a god, Ullr. Ullr [...] ímunlauks "god of sword" = "warrior", perhaps addressing King Harald. This kenning follows a convention whereby the name of any god is combined with some male attribute (e.g. war or weaponry) to produce a kenning for "man". HAUKA FJÖLL "mountains of hawks" are "arms", a reference to the sport of falconry. This follows a convention in which arms are called the land (or any sort of surface) of the hawk. Fýrisvalla fræ "seed of Fýrisvellir" = "gold". This is an allusion to a legend retold in Skáldskaparmál and Hrólf Kraki's saga in which King Hrolf and his men scattered gold on the plains (vellir) of the river Fýri south of Gamla Uppsala to delay their pusuers. Fróða fáglýjaðra þýja meldr "flour of Fróði's hapless slaves" alludes to the Grottasöng legend and is another kenning for "gold". móður hold mellu dolgs "flesh of mother of enemy of giantess" is the Earth (Jörd), personified as a goddess who was the mother of Thor, the enemy of the Jotuns. Old English and other kennings The practice of forming kennings has traditionally been seen as a common Germanic inheritance, but this has been disputed since, among the early Germanic languages, their use is largely restricted to Old Norse and Old English poetry. Gardner (1969), p. 109-117. A possible early kenning for "gold" (walha-kurna "Roman/Gallic grain") is attested in the Ancient Nordic runic inscription on the Tjurkö (I)-C bracteate. Krause (1971), p. 63. Cited by Hultin (1974), p. 864. Looijenga (1997), pp. 24, 60, 205; Looijenga (2003), p. 42, 109, 218. Kennings are virtually absent from the surviving corpus of continental West Germanic verse; the Old Saxon Heliand contains only one example: lîk-hamo “body-raiment” = “body” (Heliand 3453 b), Gardner (1969), pp. 110-111. a compound which, in any case, is normal in West Germanic and North Germanic prose (Old English līchama, Old High German lîchamo, lîchinamo, Old Icelandic líkamr, líkami, Old Swedish līkhamber, Swedish lekamen, Danish legeme). Old English kennings are all of the simple type, possessing just two elements, e.g. for “sea”: seġl-rād “sail-road” (Beowulf 1429 b), swan-rād “swan-road” (Beowulf 200 a), bæð-weġ “bath-way” (Andreas 513 a), hron-rād “whale-road” (Beowulf 10), hwæl-weġ “whale-way” (The Seafarer 63 a). Most Old English examples take the form of compound words in which the first element is uninflected: "heofon-candel" “sky-candle” = “the sun” (Exodus 115 b). Kennings consisting of a genitive phrase occur too, but rarely: heofones ġim “sky’s jewel” = “the sun” (The Phoenix 183). Old English poets often place a series of synonyms in apposition, and these may include kennings (loosely or strictly defined) as well as the literal referent: Hrōðgar maþelode, helm Scyldinga [...] “Hrothgar, helm (=protector, lord) of the Scyldings, said [...]” (Beowulf 456). Notes References Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (1952). "The Meaning of Snorri’s Categories". University of California Publications in Modern Philology 36. Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (1959). "The Art of Beowulf". University of California Press. Faulkes (1997). "Poetic Inspiration in Old Norse and Old English Poetry". Dorothea Coke Memorial Lecture in Northern Studies delivered at University College London 28 November 1997. Viking Society for Northern Research. Faulkes, Anthony (1998 a). "Edda: Skáldskaparmál: 1. Introduction, Text and Notes". Viking Society for Northern Research. Faulkes, Anthony (1998 b). "Edda: Skáldskaparmál: 2. Glossary and Index of Names". Viking Society for Northern Research. Foote, Peter & Wilson, D. M. (1970). "The Viking Achievement". Book Club Associates. London. Gardner, Thomas (1969). ‘The Old English kenning: A characteristic feature of Germanic poetical diction?’. Modern Philology 67:2, pp. 109-117. Gordon, E.V. (1956). "An Introduction to Old Norse". 2nd ed. revised by A.R. Taylor. Oxford. Heusler, Andreas (1941). "Die altgermanische Dichtung". 2nd ed. Potsdam. Hultin, Neil (1974). ‘Some homonyms in the Old Norse Atlakviða’. MLN 89:5, German Issue. Krause, Wolfgang (1971). "Die Sprache der urnordischen Runeninschriften". Carl Winter Verlag. Heidelberg. Kuhn, Hans (1993). ‘The rímur-poet and his audience’. "Saga-Book" 23:6. Looijenga, Jantina Helena (1997). "Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD150-700: Texts and Contexts". University of Groningen dissertation. Looijenga, Jantina Helena (2003). Texts and Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions. Brill. Leiden. Meissner, Rudolph (1921). "Die Kenningar der Skalden: Ein Beitrag zur skaldischen Poetik". Leipzig. Sverdlov, Ilya V. (2006). “Kenning Morphology: Towards a Formal Definition of the Skaldic Kenning, or Kennings and Adjectives”. 13th International Saga Conference: Durham and York. http://www.dur.ac.uk/medieval.www/sagaconf/sverdlov.htm See also Elegant variation Heiti List of kennings Metonymy Synecdoche External links Jörmungrund: Lexicon of Kennings — The Domain of Battle Septentrionalia: The Medieval North (Lexica poetica) | Kenning |@lemmatized kenning:58 old:41 norse:21 cʰɛnːiŋg:1 modern:11 icelandic:7 pronunciation:1 cʰɛnːiŋk:1 circumlocution:1 use:8 instead:1 ordinary:2 noun:9 later:1 poetry:6 example:6 poet:8 might:3 replace:1 sverð:1 regular:2 word:30 sword:5 compound:12 ben:1 grefill:1 wound:2 hoe:1 egill:1 skallagrímsson:1 höfuðlausn:1 genitive:8 phrase:4 randa:1 íss:1 ice:2 shield:3 einarr:2 skúlason:1 øxarflokkr:1 term:11 apply:2 scholar:2 similar:1 figure:4 speech:1 language:3 especially:1 english:18 etymology:1 adopt:1 century:1 medieval:4 treatise:2 poetics:1 particular:1 prose:4 edda:3 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7,550 | August_Wilhelm_Ambros | August Wilhelm Ambros (November 17, 1816 – June 28, 1876) Blom, Eric (2005) Everyman's Dictionary of Music, Kessinger Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 1-4179-8918-1. was an Austrian composer and music historian of Czech descent. Life He was born at Vysoké Mýto near Rokycany, Bohemia. His father was a cultured man, and his mother was the sister of Raphael Georg Kiesewetter Todd. R. Larry. (1991) Mendelssohn and His World, Princeton University Press. p. 304. ISBN 0-691-02715-3. (1773-1850), the musical archaeologist and collector. Ambros studied at the University of Prague and was well-educated in music and the arts, which were his abiding passion. He was, however, destined for the law and an official career in the Austrian civil service, and he occupied various important posts under the ministry of justice, music being an avocation. From 1850 onwards he became well-known as a critic and essay-writer, and in 1860 he began working on his magnum opus, his History of Music, which was published at intervals from 1862 Lang, Paul Henry. (1997) Music in Western Civilization, W. W. Norton & Company. p. 987. ISBN 0-393-04074-7. in five volumes, the last two (1878, 1882) being edited and completed by Otto Kade and Wilhelm Langhans. Ambros was professor of the history of music at Prague from 1869 to 1871. Meinong, Alexius & Adler, Guido (1995) Eine Freundschaft in Briefen Alexius, Rodopi. p. 8. ISBN 90-5183-867-0. Also in Prague, he seated on the board of governors in the Prague Royal Conservatory. By 1872, he was living in Vienna and was employed by the Department of Justice as an officer and by Prince Rudolf's family as his tutor. Through his work in Vienna, he was given leave of absence for half the year in order to let him travel the world to collect musical information to include in his History of Music book. He was an excellent pianist, and the author of numerous compositions somewhat reminiscent of Felix Mendelssohn. Ambros died at Vienna, Austria at the age of 59. Notes References | August_Wilhelm_Ambros |@lemmatized august:1 wilhelm:2 ambros:4 november:1 june:1 blom:1 eric:1 everyman:1 dictionary:1 music:8 kessinger:1 publishing:1 p:4 isbn:4 austrian:2 composer:1 historian:1 czech:1 descent:1 life:1 bear:1 vysoké:1 mýto:1 near:1 rokycany:1 bohemia:1 father:1 cultured:1 man:1 mother:1 sister:1 raphael:1 georg:1 kiesewetter:1 todd:1 r:1 larry:1 mendelssohn:2 world:2 princeton:1 university:2 press:1 musical:2 archaeologist:1 collector:1 study:1 prague:4 well:2 educate:1 art:1 abide:1 passion:1 however:1 destine:1 law:1 official:1 career:1 civil:1 service:1 occupy:1 various:1 important:1 post:1 ministry:1 justice:2 avocation:1 onwards:1 become:1 know:1 critic:1 essay:1 writer:1 begin:1 work:2 magnum:1 opus:1 history:3 publish:1 interval:1 lang:1 paul:1 henry:1 western:1 civilization:1 w:2 norton:1 company:1 five:1 volume:1 last:1 two:1 edit:1 complete:1 otto:1 kade:1 langhans:1 professor:1 meinong:1 alexius:2 adler:1 guido:1 eine:1 freundschaft:1 briefen:1 rodopi:1 also:1 seat:1 board:1 governor:1 royal:1 conservatory:1 live:1 vienna:3 employ:1 department:1 officer:1 prince:1 rudolf:1 family:1 tutor:1 give:1 leave:1 absence:1 half:1 year:1 order:1 let:1 travel:1 collect:1 information:1 include:1 book:1 excellent:1 pianist:1 author:1 numerous:1 composition:1 somewhat:1 reminiscent:1 felix:1 die:1 austria:1 age:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram kessinger_publishing:1 magnum_opus:1 w_norton:1 excellent_pianist:1 felix_mendelssohn:1 |
7,551 | Hawar_Islands | Hawar Islands shown in red The Hawar Islands (; transliterated: Juzur Ḩawār) are a group of islands situated off the west coast of Qatar in the Gulf of Bahrain of the Persian Gulf. Despite their proximity to Qatar (Suwād al Janūbīyah is only 1.4 km from the Qatari mainland at the peninsula of Ras Abruq, while Rubud Al Gharbiyah, the island closest to the main island of Bahrain, lies at a distance of 19.7 km to it), the islands belong to Bahrain but were the subject of a dispute between Bahrain and Qatar (see Foreign relations of Qatar). A Hawari separatist movement exists in Europe but there is little evidence of support for their movement in the Hawar Islands. The islands were formerly coincident with municipality or Minţaqat Juzur Ḩawār (مِنْطَقَة جُزُر حَوَار) and are now administered as part of the Southern Governorate of Bahrain. The area is 50.6 km². At the census of 2001, the population numbered 3,875. In 2002, Bahrain applied to have the Hawar islands recognised as a World Heritage Site, due to its unique environment and habitat for endangered species. This site is home to many wildlife species and a very interesting place for birdwatchers and divers. Hawar Islands used to be one of the settlements of the Bahraini branch of the Dawasir who settled there in the early 1800s and on the main island of Bahrain in 1845 in the areas of Zallaq and Budaiya. List of Islands By far the largest island is Hawar. Following in size are Suwād al Janūbīyah, Suwād ash Shamālīyah, Rubud Al Sharqiyah, Rubud Al Gharbiyah and Muhazwarah (Umm Hazwarah). Name ArabicArea km²Coordinates Max Height (meters) CharacteristicsHawar جَزِيرَة حَوَار 40 22.0 Continuous beach ridge complex west coast, sloping bedrock rising west to east. Complex bay and cliff formations east coast fronted in places by subqa, Jebel and terminals of east lower headlands aeolian formations calcified reef structures and algal mats.Rubud Al Gharbiyah رَبَض اَلْغَرْبِيَّة 0.7 1.0 Sand and shingle accumulations, subqa and encrusted flats, storm beach north and west, mudflats, shoals and shallow lagoons south and east. Islands off exposed beach rocks & vegetated islets.Rubud Al Sharqiyah رَبَض اَلشَّرْقِيَّة 1.7 0.8 Sand and shingle accumulations, subqa and salt encrusted flats, storm beach north and northeast, mudflats, shoals and shallow lagoons south and east large areas of beach rock and reef. Islands off exposed beach rocks & vegetated islets. Ajirah جَزِيرَة عَجِيرَة 0.02 7.0 Rock (exposed strata), undercut cliffs and areas of beach rock and reefs. Single terraced with sand spit southwest sand and shingle accumulations behind.Al Hajiyat (group) 0.13 7.5 Rock (exposed strata), undercut cliffs terraced, small sand or shingle beaches, reefs.Muhazwarah (Umm Hazwarah) 0.4 12.5 Rock (exposed strata), undercut cliffs, small sand or shingle beaches, raised terraces with sand spit southern aspect sand accumulations behind. Centre open wadi with rim rocks.Jazīrat Jinān جَزِيرَة جَنَان . . Umm Jinni . 0.5 Sand and shingle accumulations with areas of beach rock shoals and shallow lagoons surrounding.Bū Sadād (group) جُزُر بُو سَدَاد 0.16 2.0 Sand and shingle accumulations with areas of beach rock, shoals and shallow lagoons surrounding. Storm beaches northern aspects. Islands off ‑ various with mud sand and exposed rocky vegetated islets.al Wukūr (group) جُزُراَلْوُكُور 0.02 10.0 Isolated sea stacks with shingle beaches with surrounding shallow lagoon.Suwād ash Shamālīyah سُوَاد اَلشَّمَالِيَّة 3 3.0 Sand and shingle accumulations, subqa and salt encrusted flats, areas of beach rock to north, shoals and shallow to south and southeast, wind blown sand, beaches.Suwād al Janūbīyah سُوَاد اَلْجَنُوبِيَّة 5 4.0 Sand and shingle accumulations, subqa and salt encrusted flats with areas of exposed surface rock, beach rock to the north. Mud, shoals and shallow to south, blown sand beaches.Bu Tammur (group) 0.04 1.5 Isolated undercut heavily fossiled rock platforms.Umm Kharūrahأُمّ خَرُورَة . External links WHS application International Court of Justice decision on the Hawar dispute (2001) (bronken link?) Hawar-Islands.com | Hawar_Islands |@lemmatized hawar:8 island:16 show:1 red:1 transliterate:1 juzur:2 ḩawār:2 group:5 situate:1 west:4 coast:3 qatar:4 gulf:2 bahrain:7 persian:1 despite:1 proximity:1 suwād:5 al:10 janūbīyah:3 km:2 qatari:1 mainland:1 peninsula:1 ra:1 abruq:1 rubud:5 gharbiyah:3 closest:1 main:2 lie:1 distance:1 belong:1 subject:1 dispute:2 see:1 foreign:1 relation:1 hawari:1 separatist:1 movement:2 exist:1 europe:1 little:1 evidence:1 support:1 formerly:1 coincident:1 municipality:1 minţaqat:1 م:3 ن:3 ط:1 ق:2 ة:10 ج:9 ز:6 ر:7 ح:2 و:6 ار:2 administer:1 part:1 southern:2 governorate:1 area:8 census:1 population:1 number:1 apply:1 recognise:1 world:1 heritage:1 site:2 due:1 unique:1 environment:1 habitat:1 endangered:1 specie:2 home:1 many:1 wildlife:1 interesting:1 place:2 birdwatchers:1 diver:1 use:1 one:1 settlement:1 bahraini:1 branch:1 dawasir:1 settle:1 early:1 zallaq:1 budaiya:1 list:1 far:1 large:2 follow:1 size:1 ash:2 shamālīyah:2 sharqiyah:2 muhazwarah:2 umm:4 hazwarah:2 name:1 arabicarea:1 max:1 height:1 meter:1 characteristicshawar:1 ير:4 continuous:1 beach:17 ridge:1 complex:2 slop:1 bedrock:1 rise:1 east:5 bay:1 cliff:4 formation:2 front:1 subqa:5 jebel:1 terminal:1 low:1 headland:1 aeolian:1 calcify:1 reef:4 structure:1 algal:1 mat:1 ب:4 ض:2 ا:4 ل:3 غ:1 ي:4 sand:15 shingle:10 accumulation:8 encrusted:1 flat:4 storm:3 north:4 mudflats:2 shoal:6 shallow:7 lagoon:5 south:4 expose:6 rock:14 vegetate:3 islet:3 لش:2 salt:3 encrust:3 northeast:1 islands:1 ajirah:1 ع:1 stratum:3 undercut:4 single:1 terrace:3 spit:2 southwest:1 behind:2 hajiyat:1 small:2 raise:1 aspect:2 centre:1 open:1 wadi:1 rim:1 jazīrat:1 jinān:1 ان:1 jinni:1 surround:3 bū:1 sadād:1 س:3 د:1 اد:3 northern:1 various:1 mud:2 rocky:1 wukūr:1 را:1 ك:1 ور:2 isolated:2 sea:1 stack:1 ال:1 southeast:1 wind:1 blown:1 وب:1 exposed:1 surface:1 blow:1 bu:1 tammur:1 heavily:1 fossiled:1 platform:1 kharūrahأ:1 خ:1 external:1 link:2 whs:1 application:1 international:1 court:1 justice:1 decision:1 bronken:1 com:1 |@bigram hawar_island:6 persian_gulf:1 rubud_al:5 bahrain_qatar:1 ج_ز:6 endangered_specie:1 sand_shingle:9 shingle_accumulation:7 shoal_shallow:6 shallow_lagoon:5 shingle_beach:3 external_link:1 |
7,552 | Nazi_Party | The National Socialist German Workers' Party (, abbreviated NSDAP), commonly known in English as the Nazi Party (from the Ger. pronunciation of Nationalsozialist (based on earlier Ger. sozi, popular abbreviation of "sozialist") Online Etymology Dictionary , was a political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945. It was known as the German Workers' Party (DAP) before the name was changed in 1920. The party's last leader, Adolf Hitler, was appointed Chancellor of Germany by president Paul von Hindenburg in 1933. Hitler rapidly established a totalitarian regime Arendt, Hannah. The Origins of Totalitarianism. London; New York; San Diego:Harvest Book. Pp. 306 Curtis, Michael. 1979 Totalitarianism. New Brunsick (USA); London: Transactions Publishers. Pp. 36 Burch, Betty Brand. 1964 Dictatorship and Totalitarianism: Selected Readings. Pp. 58 Bruhn, Jodi; Maier, Hans Hans Maier. 2004. Totalitarianism and Political Religions: Concepts for the Comparison of Dictatorships. Routledge: Oxon (U.K.); New York. Pp. 32. known as the Third Reich. Nazi ideology stressed the failure of democracy, failure of laissez-faire capitalism, "racial purity of the German people" and persecuted those it perceived either as race enemies or Lebensunwertes Leben, that is "life unworthy of living". This included Jews, Slavs, and Roma along with homosexuals, the mentally disabled, communists and others. To carry out these beliefs, the party and the German state which it controlled organized the systematic murder of approximately six million Jews and five million other people from the aforementioned and other groups, in what has become known as the Holocaust. Hitler's desire to build a Germanic empire through expansionist policies led to the outbreak of World War II in Europe. The Nazi Party is generally described as being at the extreme or far right of the left-right political axis; Fritzsche, Peter. 1998. Germans into Nazis. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; Eatwell, Roger, Fascism, A History, Viking/Penguin, 1996, pp.xvii-xxiv, 21, 26–31, 114–140, 352. Griffin, Roger. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," chapter in David Parker (ed.) Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991, Routledge, London. however in some two dimensional models based on economic parameters, such as the political compass, the Nazi Party is categorized as centre-right. The Political Compass, Analysis Origins and early existence: 1918-1923 The party grew out of smaller political groups with a nationalist orientation that formed in the last years of World War I. In the early months of 1918, a party called the Freier Ausschuss für einen deutschen Arbeiterfrieden ("Free Committee for a German Workers' Peace") was created in Bremen, Germany. Anton Drexler, an avid German nationalist, formed a branch of this league on 7 March 1918, in Munich. Drexler was a local locksmith in Munich who had been a member of the militarist Fatherland Party during World War I, and was bitterly opposed to the armistice of November 1918 and to the revolutionary upheavals that followed in its wake. Drexler followed the typical views of militant nationalists of time, such as opposing the Treaty of Versailles, having anti-Semitic, anti-monarchist, and anti-Marxist views, and believing in the superiority of Germans who nationalists claimed to be part of the Aryan "master race" (Herrenvolk), but he also accused international capitalism of being a Jewish-dominated movement and denounced capitalists for war profiteering in World War I. Spector, Robert Melvin. World Without Civilization: Mass Murder And The Holocaust, History, And Analysis. University of America Press. Pp. 137. Drexler saw the situation of political violence and instability in Germany as the result of the new Weimar Republic being out-of-touch with the masses, especially the lower classes. Spector, Pp. 137. Drexler emphasized the need for a synthesis of völkisch nationalism, a strong central government movement, with economic socialism to create a popular, centerist nationalist-oriented workers movement that could challenge the rise of communism, as well as the internationalist left and right in general. On 5 January 1919, Drexler, together with Gottfried Feder, Dietrich Eckart and Karl Harrer, and twenty workers from Munich's railway shops and some others met to discuss the creation of a new political party based on the political principles which Drexler endorsed. Carlsten, F. L. The Rise of Fascism. University of California Press. Pp. 91 Drexler proposed that the party be named the German-Socialist Workers Party, but Harrer objected to using the term "socialist" in the name, the issue was settled by removing the term from the name, and it was agreed that the party was named the German Workers' Party (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, DAP). Carlsten, Pp. 91 To ease concerns among potential middle-class nationalist supporters, Drexler made clear that unlike Marxists, the party supported middle-class citizens, and that the party's socialist policy was meant to give social welfare to German citizens deemed part of the Aryan race. They became one of many völkisch movements that existed in Germany at the time. Like other völkisch groups, the DAP advocated the belief that Germany should become a unified "national community" (Volksgemeinschaft) rather than a society divided along class and party lines. This ideology was explicitly anti-Semitic as it declared that the "national community" must be judenfrei ("free of Jews"). From the outset, the DAP was opposed to non-nationalist political movements, especially on the left, including the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the newly-formed Communist Party of Germany (KPD). Members of the DAP saw themselves as fighting against "Bolshevism" and anyone considered to be part of or aiding so-called "international Jewry". The Party believed that Social Welfare was the business of the State. Before the Nazi movement, the churches administered charity. The government enforced a collection of a 10% tithe which was paid directly to the churches. This charitable bureaucracy was shifted to the State. The DAP was a tiny group with fewer than 60 members. Nevertheless, it attracted the attention of the German authorities, who were suspicious of any organisation that appeared to have subversive tendencies. A young corporal, Adolf Hitler, was sent by German army intelligence to investigate the DAP. While attending a party meeting, Hitler got involved in a heated political argument and made an impression on the other party members with his oratory skills. He was invited to join and, after some deliberation, chose to accept. Among the party's earlier members were Rudolf Hess, Hans Frank and Alfred Rosenberg, all later prominent in the Nazi regime. Hitler became the DAP's 55th member and received the number 555, as the DAP added '500' to every member's number to exaggerate the party's strength. He later claimed to be the 7th party member (he was in fact the seventh executive member of the party's central committee; he would later wear the Golden Party Badge number 1). Over the following months, the DAP continued to attract new members, while remaining too small to have any real significance in German politics. On 24 February 1920, the party added "National Socialist" to its official name, becoming the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), although Hitler earlier suggested the party to be renamed the "Social Revolutionary Party"; it was Rudolf Jung who persuaded Hitler to follow the NSDAP naming. Hitler discovered that he had talent as an orator, and his ability to draw new members, combined with his characteristic ruthlessness, soon made him the dominant figure. Drexler recognized this, and Hitler became party chairman on 28 July 1921. When the party had been established, it consisted of a leadership board elected by the members, which in turn elected a chairman. Hitler scrapped this arrangement. He acquired the title Führer ("leader") and, after a series of sharp internal conflicts, it was accepted that the party would be governed by the Führerprinzip ("leader principle"): Hitler was the sole leader of the party and he alone decided its policies and strategy. Hitler at this time saw the party as a revolutionary organization, whose aim was the violent overthrow of the Weimar Republic, which he saw as controlled by the socialists, Jews and the "November criminals" who had betrayed the German soldiers in 1918. The SA ("storm troopers", also known as "Brownshirts") were founded as a party militia in 1921 and began violent attacks on other parties. Unlike Drexler and other party members, Hitler was less interested in the "socialist" aspect of "national socialism" beyond moving Social Welfare administration from the Church to the State. Himself of provincial lower-middle-class origins, he disliked the mass working class of the big cities, and had no sympathy with the notions of attacking private property or the business class (which some early Nazis espoused). For Hitler the twin goals of the party were always German nationalist expansionism and Antisemitism. These two goals were fused in his mind by his belief that Germany's external enemies - Britain, France and the Soviet Union - were controlled by the Jews, and that Germany's future wars of national expansion would necessarily entail a war against the Jews. For Hitler and his principal lieutenants, national and racial issues were always dominant. This was symbolised by the adoption as the party emblem of the swastika or Hakenkreuz, at the time widely used in the western world. In German nationalist circles, the swastika was considered a symbol of an "Aryan race". The Swastika symbolized the replacement of the Christian Cross with allegiance to a National Socialist State. During 1921 and 1922 the Nazi Party grew significantly, partly through Hitler's oratorical skills, partly through the SA's appeal to unemployed young men, and partly because there was a backlash against socialist and liberal politics in Bavaria as Germany's economic problems deepened and the weakness of the Weimar regime became apparent. The party recruited former World War I soldiers, to whom Hitler as a decorated frontline veteran could particularly appeal, small businessmen and disaffected former members of rival parties. Nazi rallies were often held in beer halls where downtrodden men could get free beer. The Hitler Youth was formed for the children of party members, although it remained small until the late 1920s. The party also formed groups in other parts of Germany. Julius Streicher in Nuremberg was an early recruit. Others to join the party at this time were former army officer Ernst Röhm, who became head of the SA, World War I flying ace Hermann Göring and Heinrich Himmler. In December 1920 the party acquired a newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter. In 1922, a party with remarkably similar policies and objectives came into power in Italy, the National Fascist Party under the leadership of the charismatic Benito Mussolini. The Fascists like the Nazis, promoted a national rebirth of their country; opposed communism and liberalism; appealed to the working-class; opposed the Treaty of Versailles; and advocated the territorial expansion of their country. The Italian Fascists used a straight-armed Roman salute and wore black-shirted uniforms. Hitler was inspired by Mussolini and the Fascists and borrowed their use of the straight-armed salute as a Nazi salute. When the Fascists came to power in 1922 in Italy through their coup attempt called the "March on Rome", Hitler began planning his own coup which would materialize one year later. In January 1923 France occupied the Ruhr industrial region as a result of Germany's failure to meet its reparations payments. This led to economic chaos, the resignation of Wilhelm Cuno's government and an attempt by the Communist Party (KPD) to stage a revolution. The reaction to these events was an upsurge of nationalist sentiment. Nazi Party membership grew sharply, to about 20,000. By November, Hitler had decided that the time was right for an attempt to seize power in Munich, in the hope that the Reichswehr (the post-war German army) would mutiny against the Berlin government and join his revolt. In this he was influenced by former General Erich Ludendorff, who had become a supporter though not a member of the Nazis. On the night of 8 November, the Nazis used a patriotic rally in a Munich beer hall to launch an attempted putsch (coup d'état). The so-called Beer hall putsch attempt failed almost at once when the local Reichswehr commanders refused to support it. On the morning of 9 November the Nazis staged a march of about 2,000 supporters through Munich in an attempt to rally support. Troops opened fire and 16 Nazis were killed. Hitler, Ludendorff and a number of others were arrested, and were tried for treason in March 1924. Hitler and his associates were given very lenient prison sentences. While Hitler was in prison he wrote his semi-autobiographical political manifesto Mein Kampf ("My Struggle"). The Nazi Party was banned, though with support of the nationalist Völkisch-Social Bloc ("Völkisch-Sozialer Block"), the Nazi party continued to operate under the name of the "German Party" (Deutsche Partei or DP) from 1924 to 1925. Jablonsky, David. 1989. The Nazi Party in Dissolution: Hitler and the Verbotzeit, 1923-1925. Routledge. Pp. 57 The Nazis failed to remain unified in the German Party, as in the north, the right-wing Volkish nationalist supporters of the Nazis moved to the new German Völkisch Freedom Party, leaving the north's left-wing Nazi members, such as Joseph Goebbels retaining support for the party. Jablonsky, Pp. 57 Rise to power: 1925-1933 Hitler with Nazi Party members in 1930. Adolf Hitler was released in December 1924. In the following year he re-founded and reorganized the Nazi Party, with himself as its undisputed Leader. The new Nazi Party was no longer a paramilitary organization, and disavowed any intention of taking power by force. In any case, the economic and political situation had stabilized and the extremist upsurge of 1923 had faded, so there was no prospect of further revolutionary adventures. The Nazi Party of 1925 was divided into the "Leadership Corps" (Korps der politischen Leiter), appointed by Hitler, and the general membership (Parteimitglieder). The party and the SA were kept separate and the legal aspect of the party's work was emphasized. In a sign of this, the party began to admit women. The SA and the SS (founded in April 1925 as Hitler's bodyguard, commanded by Himmler) were described as "support groups", and all members of these groups had first to become regular party members. The party's nominal Deputy Leader was Rudolf Hess, but he had no real power in the party. By the early 1930s the senior leaders of the party after Hitler were Himmler, Goebbels and Göring. Beneath the Leadership Corps were the party's regional leaders, the Gauleiter, each of whom commanded the party in his Gau ("region"). There were 98 Gaue for Germany and an additional seven for Austria, the Sudetenland (in Czechoslovakia), Danzig and the Saarland (then under French occupation). Joseph Goebbels began his ascent through the party hierarchy as Gauleiter of Berlin-Brandenburg in 1926. Streicher was Gauleiter of Franconia, where he published his anti-Semitic newspaper Der Stürmer. Beneath the Gauleiter were lower-level officials, the Kreisleiter ("county leaders"), Zellenleiter ("cell leaders") and Blockleiter ("block leaders"). This was a strictly hierarchical structure in which orders flowed from the top and unquestioning loyalty was given to superiors. Only the SA retained some autonomy. The SA was composed largely of unemployed workers, and many SA men took the Nazis' socialist rhetoric seriously. At this time the Nazi salute (borrowed from the Italian fascists) and the greeting "Heil Hitler!" were adopted throughout the party. NSDAP election poster in Vienna in 1930. Translation: "We demand freedom and bread". The Nazis contested elections to the national parliament, the Reichstag, and to the state legislatures, the Landtags, from 1924, although at first with little success. The "National-Socialist Freedom Movement" polled 3% of the vote in the December 1924 Reichstag elections, and this fell to 2.6% in 1928. State elections produced similar results. Despite these poor results, and despite Germany's relative political stability and prosperity during the later 1920s, the Nazi Party continued to grow. This was partly because Hitler, who had no administrative ability, left the party organization to the head of the secretariat, Philipp Bouhler, the party treasurer Franz Xaver Schwarz and business manager Max Amann. The party had a capable propaganda head in Gregor Strasser, who was promoted to national organizational leader in January 1928. These men gave the party efficient recruitment and organizational structures. The party also owed its growth to the gradual fading away of competitor nationalist groups, such as the DNVP. As Hitler became the recognized head of the German nationalists, other groups declined or were absorbed. The party expanded in the 1920s beyond its Bavarian base. Catholic Bavaria maintained its right-wing ennui for a Catholic monarch, and Westphalia, along with working-class "Red Berlin", were always the Nazis' weakest areas electorally, and even during the Third Reich itself. The areas of strongest Nazi support were in rural Protestant areas, such as Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg, Pomerania and East Prussia. Depressed working-class areas such as Thuringia also gave a strong Nazi vote, while the workers of the Ruhr and Hamburg largely remained loyal to the SPD, the KPD or the Catholic Centre Party. Nuremberg remained a party stronghold, and the first Nuremberg rally was held there in 1927. These rallies soon became massive displays of Nazi paramilitary power, and attracted many recruits. The Nazis' strongest appeal was to the lower middle-class – farmers, public servants, teachers, small businessmen – who had suffered most from the inflation of the 1920s and who feared Bolshevism more than anything else. The small business class were receptive to Hitler's anti-Semitism, since they blamed Jewish big business for their economic problems. University students, disappointed at being too young to have served in World War I and attracted by the Nazis' radical rhetoric, also became a strong Nazi constituency. By 1929 the party had 130,000 members. Despite these strengths, the Nazi Party might never have come to power had it not been for the Great Depression and its effects on Germany. By 1930 the German economy was beset with mass unemployment and widespread business failures. The SPD and the KPD parties were bitterly divided and unable to formulate an effective solution; this gave the Nazis their opportunity, and Hitler's message, blaming the crisis on the Jewish financiers and the Bolsheviks resonated with wide sections of the electorate. At the September 1930 Reichstag elections the Nazis won 18.3% of the vote and became the second-largest party in the Reichstag after the SPD. Hitler proved to be a highly effective campaigner, pioneering the use of radio and aircraft for this purpose. His dismissal of Strasser and appointment of Goebbels as the party’s propaganda chief was a major factor. While Strasser had used his position to promote his own version of national socialism, Goebbels was totally loyal to Hitler and worked only to burnish Hitler's image. The 1930 elections changed the German political landscape by weakening the traditional nationalist parties, the DNVP and the DVP, leaving the Nazis as the chief alternative to the discredited SPD and the Zentrum, whose leader, Heinrich Brüning, headed a weak minority government. The inability of the democratic parties to form a united front, the self-imposed isolation of the KPD and the continued decline of the economy all played into Hitler's hands. He now came to be seen as de facto leader of the opposition, and donations poured into the Nazi Party's coffers. Some major business figures such as Fritz Thyssen were Nazi supporters and gave generously, but many other businessmen were suspicious of the extreme nationalist tendencies of the Nazis and preferred to support the traditional conservative parties instead. During 1931 and into 1932 Germany's political crisis deepened. In March 1932 Hitler ran for President against the incumbent President Paul von Hindenburg, polling 30.1% in the first round and 36.8% in the second against Hindenburg's 49 and 53%. By now the SA had 400,000 members and its running street battles with the SPD and KPD paramilitaries (who also fought each other) reduced some German cities to combat zones. Paradoxically, although the Nazis were among the main instigators of this disorder, part of Hitler's appeal to a frightened and demoralised middle class was his promise to restore law and order. Overt anti-Semitism was played down in official Nazi rhetoric, but was never far from the surface. Germans voted for Hitler primarily because of his promises to revive the economy (by unspecified means), to restore German greatness and overturn the Treaty of Versailles, and to save Germany from communism. On 20 July 1932 the Prussian government was ousted by a coup Preussenschlag and a few days later at the July 1932 Reichstag election the Nazis made another leap forward, polling 37.4% and becoming the largest party in the Reichstag by a wide margin. Furthermore, the Nazis and the KPD between them won 52% of the vote and a majority of seats. Since both parties opposed the established political system and neither would join or support any ministry, this made the formation of a majority government impossible. The result was weak ministries governing by decree. Under Comintern directives, the KPD maintained its policy of treating the SPD as the main enemy, calling them "social fascists", thereby splintering opposition to the Nazis.<ref>"Social democracy is objectively the moderate wing of fascism.. These organisations (ie Fascism and social democracy) are not antipodes, they are twins." (J.V.Stalin: Concerning the International Situation (September 1924), in Works, Volume 6, 1953; p.294.) This later led Otto Ville Kuusinen to conclude that "The aims of the fascists and the social-fascists are the same." (Report To the 10th Plenum of ECCI, in International Press Correspondence, Volume 9, no.40, (20 August, 1929), p.848.)</ref> Later, both the SPD and the KPD accused each other of having facilitated Hitler's rise to power by their unwillingness to compromise. Chancellor Franz von Papen called another Reichstag election in November, hoping to find a way out of this impasse. The result was the same, with the Nazis and the KPD winning 50% of the vote between them and more than half the seats, rendering this Reichstag no more workable than its predecessor. But support for the Nazis had fallen to 33.1%, suggesting that the Nazi surge had passed its peak – possibly because the worst of the Depression had passed, possibly because some middle-class voters had supported Hitler in July as a protest but had now drawn back from the prospect of actually putting him into power. The Nazis interpreted the result as a warning that they must seize power before their moment passed. Had the other parties united, this could have been prevented, but their shortsightedness made a united front impossible. Papen, his successor Kurt von Schleicher, and the nationalist press magnate Alfred Hugenberg spent December and January in political intrigues which eventually persuaded President Hindenburg that it was safe to appoint Hitler Reich Chancellor at the head of a cabinet which included only a minority of Nazi ministers, which he did on 30 January 1933. Upon becoming Chancellor, Hitler addressed rumours that claimed that his government wished to restore the Hohenzollern monarchy. Zalampas, Michael. 1989. Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American Magazines. Popular Press. Pp.46. Hitler responded with an aggressive rejection of the notion, even going so far as to claim that monarchists were "more dangerous than Communists!" Zalampas, Pp.46. and warned monarchists "to keep their hands off" of Germany. Zalampas, Pp.46. Federal election results Date Votes (in thousands) Percentage Seats in Reichstag Background May 1924 1,918.3 6.5 32 Hitler in prison December 1924 907.3 3.0 14 Hitler is released from prison May 1928 810.1 2.6 12 September 1930 6,409.6 18.3 107 After the financial crisis July 1932 13,745.8 37.4 230 November 1932 11,737.0 33.1 196 March 1933 17,277.0 43.9 288 After Hitler had become Chancellor In power: 1933-1945 The flag of the NSDAP "Old Guard", which was used by members of the NSDAP On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. This Reichstag fire was blamed on a communist conspiracy and the KPD's offices were closed, its press banned and leaders were arrested. Hitler convinced President von Hindenburg to sign the "Reichstag Fire Decree", suspending most of the human rights provided for by the 1919 constitution of the Weimar Republic. A further decree enabled preventive detention of all communist leaders, amongst many thousands of others. Since the new government lacked a majority in parliament, Hitler held a new election in March 1933. With the communists eliminated, the Nazis dominated the election with 43.9%, and with their Nationalist (DNVP) allies, achieved a parliamentary majority (51.8%). A further decisive step in the Nazi seizure of power (Gleichschaltung) was the "Enabling Act", which granted the cabinet (and therefore Hitler) legislative powers. The Enabling Act effectively abolished the separation of powers, a principle enshrined in the German Constitution. As such, the Act represented an amendment to the Constitution and required a two-thirds majority in parliament in order to pass. Hitler needed the votes of the Centre Party, which he obtained after promising certain guarantees to the Centre's chairman (Ludwig Kaas). The Centre Party's thirty-one votes, added to the votes of the fragmented middle-class parties, the Nationalists, and the NSDAP itself, gave Hitler the right to rule by decree and to further suspend many civil liberties. The communists were opposed to the Enabling Act; but the KPD could not vote against it, since it had been banned. This left the SPD as the sole party in the Reichstag who stood against the Act, but their votes were not sufficient to block the Act's passing. As punishment for their dissent, the Social Democrats became the second party banned by the Nazis (on 22 June), following the move of their leadership to Prague. The Enabling Act, termed for four years, gave the government the power to enact laws without parliamentary approval, to enact foreign treaties abroad and even to make changes to the Constitution. The Nazis did not keep their promises to their political allies, banning all other parties just as they had banned the communists and socialists. Following this, the Nazi government banned the formation of new parties on 14 July 1933, turning Germany into a one-party state. Hitler kept the Reichstag as a rubber stamp parliament, while the Reichsrat, though never abolished, was stripped of any effective power. The legislative bodies of the German states soon followed in the same manner, with the German federal government taking over most state and local legislative powers. Germany had a policy instituted by Bismarck called "Kulturkampf". This policy was an attempt to "modernize" the German people by moving the culture away from Catholic values to Government inspired values. Hitler used the Catholic Church to dissolve the Centre Party. On 23 March 1933 he had called Churches "most important factors" for the maintenance of German well-being. In regard to the Roman Catholic Church, he proposed a Reichskonkordat between Germany and the Holy See, that was signed in July. In regard to the Protestant Churches, he signed koncordats and used church elections to push the Nazi-inspired "German Christians" to power. This, however, provoked the internal opposition of the "Confessing Church". Membership of the Hitler Youth was made compulsory for German teenagers, and served as a conveyor belt to party membership. Meetings were held on Sunday mornings in a conscious effort to shift young people from Church to State. But the Nazi Party did not immediately purge the state administration of all opponents. The career civil service was left in place, and only gradually were its senior levels taken over by Nazis. In some places people who were opposed to the Nazi regime retained their positions for a long time. Examples included Johannes Popitz, finance minister of the largest German state, Prussia, until 1944 and an active oppositionist, and Ernst von Weizsäcker, under-secretary of state at the Foreign Ministry, who protected a resistance network in his ministry. The armed forces banned party membership and retained their independence for some years. 1933–39 saw the gradual fusion of the Nazi Party and the German state, as the party arrogated more and more power to itself at the expense of professional civil servants. This led to increasing inefficiency and confusion in administration, which was compounded by Hitler’s deliberate policy of preventing any of his underlings accumulating too much power, and of dividing responsibility among a plethora of state and party bureaucracies, many of which had overlapping functions. This administrative muddle later had severe consequences. Many party officials also lapsed rapidly into corruption, taking their lead from Göring, who looted and plundered both state property and wealth appropriated from the Jews. By the mid-1930s the party as an institution was increasingly unpopular with the German public, although this did not affect the personal standing of Hitler, who maintained a powerful hold over the great majority of the German people until at least 1943. The SA under Röhm's leadership soon became a major problem for the party. Many of the 700,000 members of this well-armed working-class militia took the "socialist" element of "national socialism" seriously, and soon began to demand that the Nazi regime broaden its attack from SPD and KPD activists and Jews to include the capitalist system. In addition, Röhm and his associates saw the SA as the army of the new revolutionary Nazi state, replacing the old aristocratic officer corps. The army was still outside party control, and Hitler feared that it might stage a putsch if its leaders felt threatened with an SA take-over. The business community was also alarmed by the SA’s socialist rhetoric, with which, as noted earlier, Hitler had no sympathy beyond transferring power from Churches to the State. In June 1934, Hitler, using the SS and Gestapo under Himmler's command, staged a coup against the SA, having Röhm and about 700 others killed. This Night of the Long Knives broke the power of the SA, while increasing the power of Himmler and the SS, who emerged as the real executive arm of the Nazi Party. The business community was reassured and largely reconciled to Nazi rule. The army leaders were so grateful that the Defence Minister, Werner von Blomberg, who was not a Nazi, on his own initiative had all army members swear a personal oath to Hitler as "führer" of the German state. These events marked a decisive turning point in the Nazi take-over of Germany. The borders between the party and the state became increasingly blurred, and Hitler's personal will increasingly had the force of law, although the independence of the state bureaucracy was never completely eclipsed. The effect of the purge of the SA was to redirect the energies of the Nazi Party away from social issues and towards racial enemies, namely the Jews, whose civil, economic and political rights were steadily restricted, culminating in the passage of the Nuremberg Laws of September 1935, which stripped them of their citizenship and banned marriage and sexual relations between Jews and "Aryans". After a lull in anti-Semitic agitation during 1936 and 1937 (partly because of the 1936 Olympic Games), the Nazis returned to the attack in November 1938, launching the pogrom known as Kristallnacht ("Night of Broken Glass"), in which at least 100 Jews were killed and 30,000 arrested and sent to concentration camps, and thousands of Jewish homes, businesses, synagogues and community facilities were attacked and burned. This satisfied the party radicals for a while, but the regional party bosses remained a persistent lobby for more radical action against the Jews, until they were finally deported to their deaths in 1942, 1943, 1944, and most poignantly in Spring of 1945—days before Liberation. Paradoxically, the more completely the Nazi regime dominated German society, the less relevant the Nazi Party became as an organization within the regime's power structure. Hitler's rule was highly personalised, and the power of his subordinates such as Himmler and Goebbels depended on Hitler's favour and their success in interpreting his desires rather than on their nominal positions within the party. The party had no governing body or formal decision-making process – no Politburo, no Central Committee, no Party Congresses. The "party chancellery" headed by Hess theoretically ran the party, but in reality it had no influence because Hess himself was a marginal figure within the regime. It was not until 1941, when Hess flew off on a quixotic "peace mission" to Britain, and was succeeded by Martin Bormann, that the party chancellery regained its power – but this was mainly because Hitler had a high opinion of Bormann and allowed him to act as his political secretary. Real power in the regime was exercised by an axis of Hitler's office, Himmler's SS and Goebbels's Propaganda Ministry. War and eclipse With the outbreak of war in 1939, the party to some extent came back into its own, particularly after 1941 as the war dragged on and the military situation began to turn against Germany. As Hitler withdrew from domestic matters to concentrate on military matters, civil administration ground to a halt and the German state became more disorganized and ineffective. The Gauleiters, who were nearly all old-guard Nazis and fanatical Hitler loyalists, took control of rationing, labour direction, the allocation of housing, air-raid protection and the issuing of the multiplicity of permits Germans needed to carry on their lives and businesses. They served to some extent as ombudsmen for the citizenry against a remote and ineffective state. They agitated for the removal of the remaining Jews from Germany, using the shortage of housing in German cities as a result of Allied bombing as a pretext. As the Allied armies closed in on Germany, the Gauleiters often took charge of last-ditch resistance: Karl Hanke's defence of Breslau was an outstanding example. In Berlin the teenagers of the Hitler Youth, under the direction of their fanatical leader Artur Axmann, fought and died in large numbers against the invading Soviet armies. The army was the last area of the German state to succumb to the Nazi Party, and it never did so entirely. The pre-1933 Reichswehr had banned its members joining political parties, and this was maintained for some time after 1933. Nazis of military age joined the Waffen SS, the military wing of the SS. In 1938 both Defence Minister Blomberg and the army chief of staff, General Werner von Fritsch, were removed from office after trumped-up scandals. Hitler made himself Defence Minister, and the new army leaders, Generals Franz Halder and Walther von Brauchitsch, were in awe of Hitler. Nevertheless Halder supported unsuccessful plans to stage a coup and remove Hitler from power during the 1938 crisis over Czechoslovakia, and again in 1939. Brauchitsch knew of these plans but would not support them. The ban on Nazis joining the German Army traditionally a stronghold of Protestant monarchist conservatism opposed to any mass political movements was lifted in 1939. A number of generals, notably Walther von Reichenau and Walter Model, became fanatical Nazis. It was not until 1944 that a group of officers opposed to the Nazi regime staged a serious attempt to overthrow Hitler in the July 20 plot, but they never had the full support of the officer corps. The German Navy was always loyal to Hitler; its commander, Karl Dönitz, was Hitler's designated successor in 1945. By 1945 the Nazi Party and the Nazi state were inseparable. When the German armies surrendered to the Allies in May 1945 and the German state ceased to exist, the Nazi Party, despite its 8.5 million nominal members and its nation-wide organisational structure, also ceased to exist. Its most fanatical members either killed themselves, fled Germany or were arrested. The rank-and-file burned their party cards and sought to blend back into German society. By the end of the war Nazism had been reduced to little more than loyalty to the person of Adolf Hitler, and his death released most Nazis from even this obligation. In his Political Testament, Hitler appointed Bormann "Party Minister", but nominated no successor as leader of the party a recognition that a Nazi Party without Hitler had no basis for existence. The Nazi Party was banned by the Allied occupation authorities and an extensive process of denazification was carried out to remove former Nazis from the administration, judiciary, universities, schools and press of occupied Germany. There was virtually no resistance or attempt to organize a Nazi underground. By the time normal political life resumed in western Germany in 1949, Nazism was effectively extinct. In eastern Germany, the new Communist authorities took their vengeance on any former high-ranking Nazis that they could find, and the survival of any kind of Nazi movement was out of the question. Since 1949 there have been attempts to organise ultra-nationalist parties in Germany, but none of these parties was overtly Nazi or tried to use the symbols and slogans of the Nazi Party. The German Reich Party (Deutsche Reichspartei, DRP), containing many former Nazis, had five members in the first Bundestag elected in 1949, but they were defeated in 1953. By the 1960s its chairman Adolf von Thadden realised it had no future and it was wound up in 1964. Thadden (whose half-sister Elisabeth von Thadden was executed by the Nazis for her role in the German Resistance) then formed a new, broader party, the National Democratic Party of Germany (Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands, NPD), which still exists, led today by Udo Voigt. The NPD has survived several attempts to have it banned by the Federal Constitutional Court as a neo-Nazi party. It has occasionally won seats in the Landtags of several German states, primarily in the territories of the former German Democratic Republic, but has never reached the 5% threshold needed to win seats in the Bundestag. The NPD had 5,300 registered party members in 2004, and its main platform is opposition to immigration. Party composition General membership The general membership of the Nazi Party, known as the Parteimitglieder, mainly consisted of the urban and rural lower middle classes. 7% belonged to the upper class, another 7% were peasants, 35% were industrial workers and 51% were what can be described as middle class. When it came to power in 1933 the Nazi Party had over 2 million members. Once in power, it attracted many more members and by the time of its dissolution it had 8.5 million members. Many of these were nominal members who joined for careerist reasons, but the party had an active membership of at least a million, including virtually all the holders of senior positions in the national government. Military membership Nazi members with military ambitions were encouraged to join the Waffen SS, but a great number enlisted in the Wehrmacht and even more were drafted for service after World War II began. Early regulations required that all Wehrmacht members be non-political, and therefore any Nazi member joining in the 1930s was required to resign from the Nazi Party. This regulation was soon waived, however, and there is ample evidence that full Nazi Party members served in the Wehrmacht in particular after the outbreak of World War II. The Wehrmacht Reserves also saw a high number of senior Nazis enlisting, with Reinhard Heydrich and Fritz Todt joining the Luftwaffe, and Major Ronald von Brysonstofen of the Waffen SS, as well as Karl Hanke who served in the Army. Student membership In 1926, the NSDAP formed a special division to engage the student population, known as the National Socialist German Students' League (NSDStB). Paramilitary groups In addition to the NSDAP proper, several paramilitary groups existed which "supported" Nazi aims. All members of these paramilitary organizations were required to become regular Nazi Party members first and could then enlist in the group of their choice. A vast system of Nazi party paramilitary ranks developed for each of the various paramilitary groups. The major Nazi Party paramilitary groups were as follows:Schutzstaffel (SS): "Protection Service"Sturmabteilung (SA): "Storm Division"Nationalsozialistisches Fliegerkorps (NSFK): "National Socialist Flyers Corps"Nationalsozialistisches Kraftfahrerkorps (NSKK): "National Socialist Motor Corps" The Hitler Youth was a paramilitary group divided into an adult leadership corps and a general membership open to boys aged fourteen to eighteen. Party symbols Nazi Flags: The Nazi party used a right-facing swastika as their symbol and the red and black colors were said to represent Blut und Boden ("blood and soil"). Another definition of the flag describes the colours as representing the ideology of National Socialism, the swastika representing the Aryan race and the Aryan nationalist agenda of the movement; white representing Aryan racial purity; and red representing the socialist agenda of the movement. Black, white and red were in fact the colors of the old North German Confederation flag (invented by Otto von Bismarck, based on the Prussian colours black and white and the red used by northern German states). In 1871, with the foundation of the German Reich, the flag of the North German Confederation became the German Reichsflagge ("Reich's flag"). Black, white and red became the colours of the nationalists through the following history (for example World War I and the Weimar Republic). German Eagle: The Nazi party used the traditional German eagle, standing atop of a swastika inside a wreath of oak leaves. When the eagle is looking to its left shoulder, it symbolises the Nazi party, and was called the Parteiadler. In contrast, when the eagle is looking to its right shoulder, it symbolises the country (Reich), and was therefore called the Reichsadler. After the Nazi party came to power in Germany, they forced the replacement of the traditional version of the German eagle with their modified party symbol throughout the country and all its institutions. </div> Slogans and songs Nazi slogan: "Sieg Heil!" Nazi slogan: "Heil Hitler" Nazi anthem: Horst-Wessel-LiedSee also Nazism Adolf Hitler Ex-Nazis Anschluss National Socialist Program NSDAP/AO Swastika List of Nazi organisations List of Gauleiters List of SS personnel {Also lists NSDAP Numbers as well} Sino-German cooperation (1911–1941) Socialist Reich Party Neo-Nazism Volkssturm Notes References . . . . External links NATIONAL SOCIALIST AMERICAN LABOR PARTY Orthodox National Socialist Party in the United States Hitler's Mein Kampf (full text) Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP) 1920–1933 at Lebendiges Museum Online. Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP) 1933–1945 at Lebendiges Museum Online''. Organisationsbuch NSDAP An encyclopedic reference guide to the Nazi party, organisations, uniforms, flags etc. published by the party itself Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP) - Russland | Nazi_Party |@lemmatized national:25 socialist:23 german:64 worker:11 party:166 abbreviate:1 nsdap:15 commonly:1 know:8 english:1 nazi:110 ger:2 pronunciation:1 nationalsozialist:1 base:5 early:7 sozi:1 popular:3 abbreviation:1 sozialist:1 online:3 etymology:1 dictionary:1 political:26 germany:33 dap:10 name:7 change:3 last:4 leader:21 adolf:7 hitler:87 appoint:4 chancellor:5 president:5 paul:2 von:14 hindenburg:5 rapidly:2 establish:3 totalitarian:1 regime:10 arendt:1 hannah:1 origin:3 totalitarianism:4 london:3 new:16 york:2 san:1 diego:1 harvest:1 book:1 pp:14 curtis:1 michael:2 brunsick:1 usa:1 transaction:1 publisher:1 burch:1 betty:1 brand:1 dictatorship:2 select:1 reading:1 bruhn:1 jodi:1 maier:2 han:3 religion:1 concept:1 comparison:1 routledge:3 oxon:1 u:1 k:1 third:4 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7,553 | Emacs_Lisp | Emacs Lisp is a dialect of the Lisp programming language used by the GNU Emacs and XEmacs text editors (which this article will refer to collectively as "Emacs"). It is used for implementing most of the editing functionality built into Emacs, the remainder being written in C (as is the Lisp interpreter itself). Users of Emacs commonly write Emacs Lisp code to customize and extend Emacs. Emacs Lisp can also function as a scripting language, much like the Unix Bourne shell, Perl, Python, scsh, or GNU Guile. Just as with those languages, it may be called from the command line or via an executable file. Its editing functions, such as buffers and movement commands, complement the features of Lisp and work in batch mode. Some people refer to Emacs Lisp as Elisp, at the risk of confusion with an older unrelated Lisp dialect with the same name. In terms of features, it is closely related to the Maclisp dialect, with some later influence from Common Lisp "GNU Emacs Lisp is largely inspired by Maclisp, and a little by Common Lisp. If you know Common Lisp, you will notice many similarities. However, many features of Common Lisp have been omitted or simplified in order to reduce the memory requirements of GNU Emacs. Sometimes the simplifications are so drastic that a Common Lisp user might be very confused. We will occasionally point out how GNU Emacs Lisp differs from Common Lisp." — from the "History" section of the "Introduction" to the Emacs Lisp Manual, as of Emacs 21 . It supports imperative and functional programming methods. Richard Stallman chose Lisp as the extension language for his rewrite of Emacs (the original used TECO as its extension language) because of its powerful features, including the ability to treat functions as data. Unlike Common Lisp, Scheme existed at the time Stallman was rewriting Gosling Emacs into GNU Emacs, but it was not used because of Scheme's then-poor performance on workstations, and he had to develop a dialect more easily optimized. "So the development of that operating system, the GNU operating system, is what led me to write the GNU Emacs. In doing this, I aimed to make the absolute minimal possible Lisp implementation. The size of the programs was a tremendous concern. There were people in those days, in 1985, who had one-megabyte machines without virtual memory. They wanted to be able to use GNU Emacs. This meant I had to keep the program as small as possible." — from "My Lisp Experiences and the Development of GNU Emacs" The Lisp dialect used in Emacs differs substantially from the more modern Common Lisp and Scheme dialects commonly used for applications programming. For example: Emacs Lisp uses dynamic rather than lexical scope by default. That is, local variables in a calling function can be referenced from a called function without passing pointers or references. Other methods exist for customizing GNU Emacs apart from writing Emacs Lisp. Since version 20, GNU Emacs has included a "Customize" facility which allows users to set common customization variables through a graphical interface. "Customize" works by writing Emacs Lisp code for the user, and is limited to relatively simple customizations. Not every user needs the full degree of extensibility offered by Emacs; those that do can write their own Emacs Lisp code. Example There follows a simple example of an Emacs extension written in Emacs Lisp. In Emacs, the editing area can be split into separate areas called windows, each displaying a different buffer. A buffer is a region of text loaded into Emacs' memory (possibly from a file) which can be saved into a text document. Users issue the "C-x 2" command to open a new window. This runs the Emacs Lisp function split-window-vertically. Normally, when the new window appears, it displays the same buffer as the previous one. Suppose we wish to make it display the next available buffer. In order to do this, the user writes the following Emacs Lisp code, in either an existing Emacs Lisp source file or an empty Emacs buffer: (defun my-split-window-func () (interactive) (split-window-vertically) (set-window-buffer (next-window) (other-buffer))) (global-set-key "\C-x2" 'my-split-window-func) The first statement, (defun ...), defines a new function, my-split-window-func, which calls split-window-vertically (the old window-splitting function), then tells the new window to display another buffer. The second statement, (global-set-key ...) re-binds the key sequence "C-x 2" to the new function. However, an easier way exists to write this. Emacs Lisp has a powerful feature called advice, which allows the user to create wrappers around existing functions instead of defining their own. Using advice, the above code can be reimplemented as follows: (defadvice split-window-vertically (after my-window-splitting-advice first () activate) (set-window-buffer (next-window) (other-buffer))) This instructs split-window-vertically to execute the user-supplied code whenever it is called, before executing the rest of the function. These changes take effect at code evaluation time, using (for instance) the command "M-x eval-buffer". It is not necessary to recompile or even restart Emacs, which makes customizing Emacs very convenient. If the code is saved into the Emacs "init file" (usually a file named ".emacs" in the user's home directory), then Emacs will load the extension the next time it starts. Otherwise, the changes will be lost when the user exits Emacs. Source code In file-systems, Emacs Lisp code exists as plain text files with the filename suffix ".el" (a common exception, the user's init file, often appears or appeared as ".emacs".) When the files are loaded, an interpreter component of the Emacs program reads and parses the functions and variables, storing them in memory. They are then available to other editing functions, and to user commands. Functions and variables can be freely modified and re-loaded. In order to save memory space, much of the functionality of Emacs loads only when required. Each set of optional features is implemented by a collection of Emacs code called a "library". For example, there is a library for highlighting keywords in program source code, and a library for playing the game of Tetris. Each library is implemented using one or more Emacs Lisp source files. Emacs developers write certain functions in C. These are "primitives", also known as "built-in functions" or "subrs". Although primitives can be called from Lisp code, they can only be modified by editing the C source files and recompiling. In GNU Emacs, primitives are not available as external libraries; they are part of the Emacs executable. In XEmacs, runtime loading of such primitives is possible, using the operating system's support for dynamic linking. Functions may be written as primitives because they need access to external data and libraries not otherwise available from Emacs Lisp, or because they are called often enough that the comparative speed of C versus Emacs Lisp makes a worthwhile difference. However, because errors in C code can easily lead to segmentation violations or to more subtle bugs, crashing the editor, and writing C code that interacts correctly with the Emacs Lisp garbage collector is error-prone, relatively few functions are implemented as primitives. Byte code "Byte-compilation" can further increase the performance of Emacs Lisp code. Emacs contains a compiler which can translate Emacs Lisp source files into a special representation known as bytecode. Emacs Lisp bytecode files have the filename suffix ".elc". Compared to source files, bytecode files load faster, occupy less space on the disk, use less memory when loaded, and run faster. Bytecode still runs more slowly than primitives, but functions loaded as bytecode can be easily modified and re-loaded. In addition, bytecode files are platform-independent. The standard Emacs Lisp code distributed with Emacs is loaded as bytecode, although the matching source files are usually provided for the user's reference as well. User-supplied extensions are typically not byte-compiled, as they are neither as large nor as computationally intensive. Language features Notably, the "cl" package implements a fairly large subset of Common Lisp. Emacs Lisp uses dynamic, not static (or lexical), scope. If a programmer declares a variable within the scope of a function, it is available to subroutines called from within that function. Originally, this was intended as an optimization; lexical scoping was still uncommon and of uncertain performance "Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations of lexical scoping are slow."; "I asked RMS when he was implementing emacs lisp why it was dynamically scoped and his exact reply was that lexical scope was too inefficient." . Dynamic scoping was also meant to provide greater flexibility for user customizations. However, dynamic scoping has several disadvantages. Firstly, it can easily lead to bugs in large programs, due to unintended interactions between variables in different functions. Secondly, accessing variables under dynamic scoping is generally slower than under lexical scoping. As a result, plans have been made to convert Emacs Lisp to lexical scoping, though this has not yet been done. The lexical-let macro in the "cl" package does provide effective lexical scope to Emacs Lisp programmers, but while `cl' is widely used, lexical-let is rarely used. Variables bound with lexical-let are never released, even if they are never used. "Emacs Lisp" Emacs Lisp (unlike many other Lisp implementations) does not do tail-call optimization. Without this, tail recursions can eventually lead to stack overflow. The apel library aids in writing portable Emacs Lisp code. Footnotes External links The Emacs page at the GNU Project R. Chassell, "Programming in Emacs Lisp, an Introduction" B. Lewis, D. LaLiberte, R. Stallman, "GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual" "EmacsLisp" at The Emacs Wiki Emergency Elisp by Steve Yegge Xah's Emacs Lisp Tutorial by Xah Lee | Emacs_Lisp |@lemmatized emacs:74 lisp:55 dialect:6 programming:3 language:6 use:17 gnu:15 xemacs:2 text:4 editor:2 article:1 refer:2 collectively:1 implement:6 edit:5 functionality:2 build:2 remainder:1 write:13 c:9 interpreter:2 user:16 commonly:2 code:19 customize:5 extend:1 also:3 function:22 scripting:1 much:2 like:1 unix:1 bourne:1 shell:1 perl:1 python:1 scsh:1 guile:1 may:2 call:12 command:5 line:1 via:1 executable:2 file:17 buffer:12 movement:1 complement:1 feature:7 work:2 batch:1 mode:1 people:2 elisp:2 risk:1 confusion:1 older:1 unrelated:1 name:2 term:1 closely:1 relate:1 maclisp:2 late:1 influence:1 common:11 largely:1 inspire:1 little:1 know:3 notice:1 many:3 similarity:1 however:4 omit:1 simplify:1 order:3 reduce:1 memory:6 requirement:1 sometimes:1 simplification:1 drastic:1 might:1 confused:1 occasionally:1 point:1 differs:2 history:1 section:1 introduction:2 manual:2 support:2 imperative:1 functional:1 method:2 richard:1 stallman:3 choose:1 extension:5 rewrite:2 original:1 teco:1 powerful:2 include:2 ability:1 treat:1 data:2 unlike:2 scheme:3 exist:6 time:3 gosling:1 poor:1 performance:3 workstation:1 develop:1 easily:4 optimize:1 development:2 operating:3 system:4 lead:4 aim:1 make:5 absolute:1 minimal:1 possible:3 implementation:3 size:1 program:6 tremendous:1 concern:1 day:1 one:3 megabyte:1 machine:1 without:3 virtual:1 want:1 able:1 meant:1 keep:1 small:1 experience:1 substantially:1 modern:1 application:1 example:4 dynamic:7 rather:1 lexical:11 scope:5 default:1 local:1 variable:8 reference:4 pass:1 pointer:1 apart:1 since:1 version:1 facility:1 allow:2 set:6 customization:1 graphical:1 interface:1 limit:1 relatively:2 simple:3 customizations:2 every:1 need:2 full:1 degree:1 extensibility:1 offer:1 follow:2 area:2 split:10 separate:1 window:18 display:4 different:2 region:1 load:10 possibly:1 save:3 document:1 issue:1 x:3 open:1 new:5 run:3 vertically:5 normally:1 appear:3 previous:1 suppose:1 wish:1 next:4 available:5 following:1 either:1 source:8 empty:1 defun:2 func:3 interactive:1 global:2 key:3 first:2 statement:2 define:2 old:1 splitting:1 tell:1 another:1 second:1 bind:1 sequence:1 easy:1 way:1 advice:3 create:1 wrapper:1 around:1 instead:1 reimplemented:1 defadvice:1 activate:1 instruct:1 execute:2 supply:2 whenever:1 rest:1 change:2 take:1 effect:1 evaluation:1 instance:1 eval:1 necessary:1 recompile:1 even:2 restart:1 convenient:1 init:2 usually:2 home:1 directory:1 start:1 otherwise:2 lose:1 exit:1 plain:1 filename:2 suffix:2 el:1 exception:1 often:2 component:1 read:1 parse:1 store:1 freely:1 modify:3 space:2 require:1 optional:1 collection:1 library:7 highlight:1 keywords:1 play:1 game:1 tetri:1 developer:1 certain:1 primitive:7 subrs:1 although:2 recompiling:1 external:3 part:1 runtime:1 loading:1 linking:1 access:2 enough:1 comparative:1 speed:1 versus:1 worthwhile:1 difference:1 error:2 segmentation:1 violation:1 subtle:1 bug:2 crash:1 interact:1 correctly:1 garbage:1 collector:1 prone:1 byte:3 compilation:1 far:1 increase:1 contain:1 compiler:1 translate:1 special:1 representation:1 bytecode:7 elc:1 compare:1 fast:2 occupy:1 less:2 disk:1 still:2 slowly:1 addition:1 platform:1 independent:1 standard:1 distribute:1 match:1 provide:3 well:1 typically:1 compile:1 neither:1 large:3 computationally:1 intensive:1 notably:1 cl:3 package:2 fairly:1 subset:1 us:1 static:1 programmer:2 declare:1 within:2 subroutine:1 originally:1 intend:1 optimization:2 scoping:8 uncommon:1 uncertain:1 slow:2 ask:1 rms:1 dynamically:1 scoped:1 exact:1 reply:1 inefficient:1 mean:1 great:1 flexibility:1 several:1 disadvantage:1 firstly:1 due:1 unintended:1 interaction:1 secondly:1 generally:1 result:1 plan:1 convert:1 though:1 yet:1 let:3 macro:1 effective:1 widely:1 rarely:1 bound:1 never:2 release:1 tail:2 recursion:1 eventually:1 stack:1 overflow:1 apel:1 aid:1 portable:1 footnote:1 link:1 page:1 project:1 r:2 chassell:1 b:1 lewis:1 laliberte:1 emacslisp:1 wiki:1 emergency:1 steve:1 yegge:1 xah:2 tutorial:1 lee:1 |@bigram emacs_lisp:37 gnu_emacs:12 bourne_shell:1 perl_python:1 closely_relate:1 richard_stallman:1 lexical_scope:4 lisp_emacs:3 garbage_collector:1 computationally_intensive:1 lexical_scoping:4 dynamic_scoping:4 dynamically_scoped:1 tail_recursion:1 external_link:1 |
7,554 | Minutemen | Lexington Militiaman representing John Parker Minutemen were members of teams of select men from the American colonial militia during the American Revolutionary War. They provided a highly mobile, rapidly deployed force that allowed the colonies to respond immediately to threats of fellow soldiers in the war (hence the name). The Minutemen were among the first people to fight in the American Revolution. These teams constituted about a quarter of the entire militia, and generally were the younger and more mobile, serving as part of a network for early response. Minuteman and Sons of Liberty member Paul Revere spread the news that "the Redcoats are coming." Paul Revere was captured before completing his mission when the British marched towards the arsenal in Lexington and Concord to collect the weapons stored there. Wills, Garry (1999). A Necessary Evil: A History of American Distrust of Government, Page 33. New York, NY; Simon & Schuster The term has also been applied to various later United States military units to recall the success and patriotism of the originals. History In the British colony of Massachusetts Bay, all able-bodied men between the ages of 16 and 30 were required to participate in their local militia. Gross, 59 As early as 1645 in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, some men were selected from the general ranks of town-based "training bands" to be ready for rapid deployment. Men so selected were designated as minutemen. They were usually drawn from settlers of each town, and so it was very common for them to be fighting alongside relatives and friends. They were trained to respond at 'a minute's warning'. Some towns in Massachusetts had a long history of designating a portion of their militia as minutemen, with "minute companies" constituting special units within the militia system whose members underwent additional training and held themselves ready to turn out quickly ("at a minute's notice") for emergencies. Other towns, such as Lexington, preferred to keep their entire militia in a single unit. The minutemen were 30 years old or younger, and were chosen for their enthusiasm, political reliability, and strength. They were the first armed militia to arrive at or await a battle. Officers, as in the rest of the militia, were elected by popular vote, and each unit drafted a formal written covenant to be signed upon enlistment. The militia typically assembled as an entire unit in each town between two and four times per year for training during peacetime, but as the inevitability of a war became apparent, the militia trained more often. The minute companies trained three to four times per week. It was common for officers to make decisions through consultation and consensus with their men as opposed to giving orders to be followed without question, sometimes even in the midst of battle. A minuteman statue depicted on the Massachusetts state quarter. Just before the American Revolutionary War, on October 26, 1774, after observing the British military buildup, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress found the colony's militia resources short, and that it, "including the sick and absent, amounted to about seventeen thousand men [...] this was far short of the number wanted, that the council recommended an immediate application to the New England governments to make up the deficiency," resolving to organize the militia better: Sparks, Jared: The Life of George Washington, page 134-135. F. Andrews, 1853. They recommended to the militia to form themselves into companies of minute-men, who should be equipped and prepared to march at the shortest notice. These minute-men were to consist of one quarter of the whole militia, to be enlisted under the direction of the field-officers, and divide into companies, consisting of at least fifty men each. The privates were to choose their captains and subalterns, and these officers were to form the companies into battalions, and chose the field-officers to command the same. Hence the minute-men became a body distinct from the rest of the militia, and, by being more devoted to military exercises, they acquired skill in the use of arms. More attention than formerly was likewise bestowed on the training and drilling of militia. Sparks, Jared: The Life of George Washington, page 134-135. F. Andrews, 1853. The need for efficient minuteman companies was illustrated by the Powder Alarm of 1774. Militia companies were called out to resist British troops, who were sent to capture ammunition stores. By the time the militia was ready, the British regulars had already captured the arms at Cambridge and Charlestown and returned to Boston. The Pequot War The first offensive military attack by militias failed when Massachusetts sent Donald Endicott with four companies on an unsuccessful campaign against the Pequot Indians. According to one man's account the expedition only killed one Indian and burned some wigwams. Weeks elapsed between the incidents that caused the march and the arrival of Endicott’s men in the area. Once they got there, they didn’t know which Indians to fight and why. This feeble response encouraged the Indians, and attacks on the settlers in the Connecticut valley increased. In the following year Massachusetts again put a force on the field in collaboration with Plymouth and Connecticut. By the time Plymouth had gotten their force packed and ready to march the campaign had ended. Massachusetts Bay sent 150 militiamen, Plymouth sent 50 and Connecticut sent 90. New England confederation In May 1643, a joint council was formed. Galvin, John R. (c1989). The minute men : the first fight : myths & realities of the American revolution. Washington : Pergamon-Brassey’s International Defense Publisher. ISBN 008036733X They published the articles of the New England confederation. The real power of the confederation was that all four of the colonies promised to contribute soldiers to an alert force that would fight anywhere in the colonies. In September 7, 1643 the towns were given more tactical control. A new rule allowed any general to call up his militia at any time. On August 12, 1645, 30% of all militia were made into short-notice groups (minutemen). Command and control decentralized to the extent that individual company commanders could put their troops into a defensive battle if necessary. A portion of the militia was well trained and well equipped, and set aside as a ready force. In May 1653, the Council of Massachusetts said that an eighth of the militia should be ready to march within one day to anywhere in the colony. Eighty militiamen marched on the Narragansett tribe in Massachusetts, though no fighting took place. Since the colonies were expanding, the Narragansetts got desperate and began raiding the colonists again. The militia chased the Indians, caught their chief, and got him to sign an agreement to end fighting. In 1672, the Massachusetts Council formed a military committee to control the militia in each town. In 1675, the military committee raised an expedition to fight the raiding Wampanoag tribe. A muster call was sent out and four days later, after harsh skirmishes with the Wampanoags, three companies arrived to help the locals. The expedition took heavy losses: two towns were raided, and one 80-man company was killed entirely, including their commander. That winter, a thousand militiamen pushed out the Wampanoags. In response to the success of the Wampanoags, in the Spring of 1676 an alarm system of riders and signals was formed in which each town was required to participate. The British and French, each with Indian allies, engaged in various fights beginning in 1689 and dragging on for almost a hundred years. In 1690, Colonel William Phips led 600 men to push back the French. Two years later he became governor of Massachusetts. When the French and Indians raided Massachusetts in 1702, Governor Phips created a bounty which paid 10 shillings each for the scalps of Indians. In 1703, snowshoes were issued to militiamen and bounty hunters to make winter raids on the Indians more effective. The minuteman concept was advanced by the snow shoe men. The Minutemen always kept in touch with the political situation in Boston and their own towns. From 1629 to 1683, the towns had controlled themselves but in 1689, the King appointed governors. By 1772, James Otis and Samuel Adams used the Town Meetings to start a Committee of Correspondence. This instigated in 1774 a boycott of British goods. The Minutemen were aware of this as well. With a rising number of Minutemen they faced another problem: they didn’t have enough gun powder to support an army for long enough to win freedom. They needed powder badly. The people of an island controlled by the Dutch, Saint Eustatius, decided they had had enough with the British being the major power and having its hand grasping over the entire world. They were quite pleased with the idea of a large rebellion rising up against the British in the New World. As a token of support, they traded gunpowder to the Colonials for other goods needed in Europe. Not only did the Minutemen have political awareness of events in New England, but also of the feelings of other countries such as the Dutch and France. The Colonials knew that other powers in the world were against the British for the amount of power they wielded. American Revolutionary War period In 1774, General Thomas Gage, the new Governor of Massachusetts, tried to enforce the Intolerable Acts, which were designed to remove power from the towns. Samuel Adams pressed for County Conventions to strengthen the revolutionary resistance. Gage tried to seat his own court in Worcester, but the townspeople blocked the court from sitting. Two thousand militiamen marched to intimidate the judges and get them to leave. This was the first time the militia was used by the people to block the king's representatives from acting on royal orders and against popular opinion. Gage responded by preparing to march to collect munitions from from the provincials. For 50 miles around Boston, militiamen were marching in response. By noon the next day, almost 4000 people were on the common in Cambridge. The provincials got the judges to resign and leave. Gage backed off from trying to seat a court in Worcester. The colonials in Worcester met and came up with a new militia mobilization plan in their County Convention. The Convention required that all militia officers resign. Officers were then elected by their regiments. In turn, the officers then appointed 1/3 of their militia regiment as Minutemen. Other counties followed Worcester’s lead, electing new militia officers and appointing Minutemen. Gage conducted several "show the flag" power demonstrations in Massachusetts which showed the local government officials that the "Minuteman" mobilization scheme worked well. When it came to practicing formations with their weapons, the British mainly only practiced on formations and marching. In addition to having no area to practice live firing because they were crowded into Boston, the British knew that in 18th century warfare the movement of the bodies of men and their formations to maximize the line of fire was the more difficult and therefore, more important part of military drill. The militia planned extensively with elaborate plans to alarm and respond to movements by the king's forces out of Boston. The frequent mustering of the minute companies also built unit cohesion and familiarity with live firing which increased the minute companies effectiveness. The royal authorities inadvertently gave the new Minuteman mobilization plans validation by several "show the flag" demonstrations by General Gage through 1774. The royal authorities in Boston had seen these increasing numbers of militia appearing and thought that if they sent a sizable force to Concord to seize munitions and stores there (which they considered the King's property since it was paid for to defend the colonies from the American Indian threat), the militia would not interfere. The events on April 19, 1775 proved them wrong when the mobilization fielded large numbers of minutemen to confront them at Concord that, with the arrival of the slower moving militia, rapidly outnumbered them and forced a strategic defeat on Colonel Smith forcing him back to Boston. The mobilization plan worked so well that only the timely arrival of a relief column under Lord Percy in Lexington prevented the annihilation or surrender of the original road column. Battles of Lexington and Concord For details about Minutemen at these battles, please see the full article Battles of Lexington and Concord. Equipment, training, and tactics Minutemen monument in Hollis, New Hampshire Most Colonial militia units were provided neither arms nor uniforms and had to equip themselves. Many simply wore their own farmers' or workmans' clothes, while others had buckskin hunting outfits. Some added Indian-style touches to intimidate the enemy, even including war-paint. Most used fowling pieces, hunting muskets, and rifles, which did not have bayonets (rifles, however, but were accurate at long range. The colonial governments did, however, try to arm the minutemen with military quality muskets that were locally manufactured (sometimes referred to as Committee of Safety muskets) that used prepared paper cartridges instead of loose balls and powder horns and also used bayonets. Many of the minutemen in the spring of 1775 were actually armed with these, but did not have the level of training with bayonets that the British regulars had. The Continental Army regulars received European-style military training later in the American Revolutionary War, but the militias did not get much of this. Rather than fight formal battles in the traditional dense lines and columns, they were better when used as irregulars, primarily as skirmishers and sharpshooters. When used in conjunction with continental regulars, the militia would frequently fire ragged irregular volleys from a forward skirmish line or the flanks of the rebel army while the regulars held the center. Their experience suited irregular warfare. Most were familiar with frontier hunting. The Indian Wars, and especially the recent French and Indian War, had taught both the men and officers the value of irregular warfare, while many British troops fresh from Europe were less familiar with this. The rifled musket was also well suited to this role. The rifling (grooves inside the barrel) gave it a much greater range than the smoothbore musket, although it took much longer to load. Because of the lower rate of fire, rifles were not used by regular infantry but were preferred for hunting. When performing as skirmishers, the minutemen could fire and fall back behind cover or other troops before the British could get into range. The wilderness terrain that lay just beyond many colonial towns, very familiar to the local minuteman, favored this style of combat. In time, however, people like Rogers, Butler, and Simcoe, who remained loyal, mustered equally capable irregular forces. In addition, many British commanders learned from experience and effectively modified their light infantry tactics and battle dress to suit conditions in North America. Through the remainder of the revolution, militias moved to adopting the minuteman model for rapid mobilization. With this rapid mustering of forces, the militia proved its value by serving as augmentees to the continental army on a temporary basis occasionally leading to instances of numerical superiority. This was seen at the Battles of Hubbardston and Bennington in the north and at Camden and Cowpens in the south. Cowpens is notable in that Dan Morgan used the militias strengths and weaknesses skillfully to attain the double-envelopment of Tarleton's forces. The historian M. L. Brown states that while a few of these men mastered the difficult handling of a rifle, few became expert. Brown quotes the Continental Army soldier Benjamin Thompson, who expressed the 'common sentiment' at the time which was that minutemen were notorious poor marksmen with rifles: Brown, Martin L. (1981). Firearms in Colonial America: The Impact on History and Technology, 1492-1792, Page 306. Washington D.C., The Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 9780874742909 "Instead of being the best marksmen in the world and picking off every Regular that was to be seen...the continual firing which they kept up by the week and the month has had no other effect than to waste their ammunition and convince the King's troops that they are really not really so formidable." Brown, Martin L. (1980). Firearms in Colonial America: The Impact on History and Technology, 1492-1792, Page 306. Washington D.C., The Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 9780874742909 Ammunition and supplies were in short supply and were constantly being seized by British patrols. As a precaution, these items were often hidden or left behind by minutemen in fields or wooded areas. Other popular concealment methods were to hide items underneath floorboards in houses and barns. Legacy The Minuteman depicting a typical minuteman In commemoration of the centenary of the first successful armed resistance to British forces, Daniel Chester French, in his first major commission, produced one of his best-known statues (along with the Lincoln Memorial), the Concord Minuteman. Inscribed on the pedestal is the opening stanza of Ralph Waldo Emerson's 1837 Concord Hymn with the immortal words, "Shot heard 'round the world." The statue's likeness is not based on Isaac Davis, the Captain of the Acton Militia and first to be killed in Concord during the Battle of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, but rather on the typical minute man of the day, according to the sculptor, Daniel Chester French. The athletic teams of the University of Massachusetts-Amherst are nicknamed the Minutemen and Minutewomen. Criticism A euphoria over the Minutemen's early victory in the Revolutionary War has bred some historically inaccurate myths. Paul Revere's Ride, a poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, is criticized by historians as being historically inaccurate. Fischer, David Hackett (1994). Paul Revere's Ride. Oxford University Press ISBN 0195098315 The success at Lexington has been seen to overshadow the long history of failures of the colonial militia. Even Samuel Adams, who was at Lexington on the day of the famous clash, later said: "Would any man in his sense, who wishes war may be carried on with vigor, prefer the temporary and expensive drafts of militia and minutemen were to a permanent and well-appointed army?" General Charles Lee, who had desired to lead militia forces, complained: "As to the minutemen, no account ought to be made of them." George Washington is also well known for a long series of scathing opinion of the failures of the militia forces. However, the minuteman model for militia mobilization married with a very professional, small standing army was the primary for the United State's land forces up until 1916 with the establishment of the National Guard. Wills, Garry (1999). A Necessary Evil: A History of American Distrust of Government, Page 34. New York, NY; Simon & Schuster References Dupuy, R.. Ernest; , Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt. The Harper encyclopedia of military history : from 3500 BC to the present. New York, NY : HarperCollins ISBN 0-06-270056-1 Gross, Robert A. The Minutemen and Their World. ©1976. Hill and Wang. LOC: 75-46595 Tuchman, Barbara W. (1990). The First Salute. Random House. ISBN 0517050684 Note External links Captain Robert K. Wright, Jr.. Massachusetts Militia Roots: A Bibliographic Study. (1986) 116th Military History Detachment Virginia Army National Guard Who Were the Minutemen? (ushistory.org) Organization of the Minute-Men. 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note:1 external:1 link:1 k:1 wright:1 jr:1 root:1 bibliographic:1 study:1 detachment:1 virginia:1 ushistory:1 org:1 organization:1 historical:1 park:1 |@bigram lexington_concord:4 simon_schuster:2 bounty_hunter:1 rifle_bayonet:1 numerical_superiority:1 strength_weakness:1 double_envelopment:1 smithsonian_institution:2 ralph_waldo:1 waldo_emerson:1 revere_ride:2 henry_wadsworth:1 wadsworth_longfellow:1 hill_wang:1 external_link:1 ushistory_org:1 |
7,555 | Hard_science_fiction | Hard science fiction is a category of science fiction characterized by an emphasis on scientific or technical detail, or on scientific accuracy, or on both. The term was first used in print in 1957 by P. Schuyler Miller in a review of John W. Campbell, Jr.'s Islands of Space in Astounding Science Fiction. The complementary term soft science fiction (formed by analogy to "hard science fiction" ) first appeared in the late 1970s as a way of describing science fiction in which science is not featured, or violates the scientific understanding at the time of writing. The term is formed by analogy to the popular distinction between the "hard" (natural) and "soft" (social) sciences. Neither term is part of a rigorous taxonomy — instead they are approximate ways of characterizing stories that reviewers and commentators have found useful. The categorization "hard SF" represents a position on a scale from "softer" to "harder", not a binary classification. Scientific rigor The heart of the "hard SF" designation is the relationship of the science content and attitude to the rest of the narrative, and (for some readers, at least) the "hardness" or rigor of the science itself. One requirement for hard SF is procedural or intentional: a story should be trying to be accurate and rigorous in its use of the scientific knowledge of its time, and later discoveries do not necessarily invalidate the label. For example, P. Schuyler Miller called Arthur C. Clarke's 1961 novel A Fall of Moondust hard SF, and the designation remains valid even though a crucial plot element, the existence of deep pockets of "moondust" in lunar craters, is now known to be incorrect. There is a degree of flexibility in how far from "real science" a story can stray before it leaves the realm of hard SF. Some authors scrupulously avoid such implausibilities as faster-than-light travel, while others accept such notions (sometimes called "enabling devices", since they allow the story to take place ) but focus on realistically depicting the worlds that such a technology might make possible. In this view, a story's scientific "hardness" is less a matter of the absolute accuracy of the science content than of the rigor and consistency with which the various ideas and possibilities are worked out. Readers of "hard SF" often try to find inaccuracies in stories, a process which Gary Westfahl says writers call "the game". For example a group at MIT concluded that the planet Mesklin in Hal Clement's 1953 novel Mission of Gravity would have had a sharp edge at the equator, and a Florida high-school class calculated that in Larry Niven's 1970 novel Ringworld the topsoil would have slid into the seas in a few thousand years. Representative works Arranged chronologically by publication year. Short stories James Blish, Surface Tension (1952), (Book 3 of The Seedling Stars [1957]) Tom Godwin, The Cold Equations (1954) Poul Anderson, Kyrie (1968) Frederik Pohl, Day Million (1971) Larry Niven, Inconstant Moon (1971) and The Hole Man (1974) Geoffrey A. Landis, A Walk in the Sun (1991) Vernor Vinge, Fast Times at Fairmont High (2001) Novels Hal Clement, Mission of Gravity (1953) Arthur C. Clarke, A Fall of Moondust (1961) James P. Hogan, The Two Faces of Tomorrow (1979) Robert L. Forward, Dragon's Egg (1980) Some editions also inclide a preface by Larry Niven, admitting that "I couldn't have written it; it required too much real physics"}} Charles Sheffield, Between the Strokes of Night (1985) Kim Stanley Robinson, The Mars trilogy (Red Mars (1992), Green Mars (1993), Blue Mars (1996)) Review by Rich Horton] Nancy Kress, Beggars in Spain (1993) See also Hard science Soft science fiction Hard fantasy References Further reading On Hard Science Fiction: A Bibliography, originally published in Science Fiction Studies #60 (July 1993). David G. Hartwell, "Hard Science Fiction,", Introduction to The Ascent of Wonder: The Evolution of Hard Science Fiction, 1994, ISBN 0-312-85509-5 Kathryn Cramer's chapter on hard science fiction in The Cambridge Companion to SF, ed. Farah Mendlesohn & Edward James. A Political History of SF by Eric Raymond The Science in Science Fiction by Brian Stableford, David Langford, & Peter Nicholls (1982) External links Kheper Realism scale The Ascent of Wonder by David G. Hartwell & Kathryn Cramer. 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7,556 | Economy_of_Angola | The Economy of Angola is one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, Birgitte Refslund Sørensen and Marc Vincent. Caught Between Borders: Response Strategies of the Internally Displaced, 2001. Page 17. but is still recovering from the Angolan Civil War that plagued Angola from independence in 1975 until 2002. Despite extensive oil and gas resources, diamonds, hydroelectric potential, and rich agricultural land, Angola remains poor, and a third of the population relies on subsistence agriculture. Since 2002, when the 27-year civil war ended, the country has worked to repair and improve ravaged infrastructure and weakened political and social institutions. High international oil prices and rising oil production have led to a very strong economic growth in recent years, but corruption and public-sector mismanagement remain, particularly in the oil sector, which accounts for over 50 percent of GDP, over 90 percent of export revenue, and over 80 percent of government revenue. History Kingdom of Portugal's explorers and settlers, founded trading posts and forts along the coast of Africa since the 15th century, and reached the Angolan coast in the 16th century. Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais founded Luanda in 1575 as "São Paulo de Loanda", and the region developed as a slave trade market with the help of local Imbangala and Mbundu peoples who were notable slave hunters. Trade was mostly with the Portuguese colony of Brazil; Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the ports of Luanda and Benguela. By this time, Angola, a Portuguese colony, was in fact like a colony of Brazil, paradoxically another Portuguese colony. A strong Brazilian influence was also exercised by the Jesuits in religion and education. War gradually gave way to the philosophy of trade. The great trade routes and the agreements that made them possible were the driving force for activities between the different areas; warlike states become states ready to produce and to sell. In the Planalto (the high plains), the most important states were those of Bié and Bailundo, the latter being noted for its production of foodstuffs and rubber. The colonial power, Portugal, becoming ever richer and more powerful, would not tolerate the growth of these neighbouring states and subjugated them one by one, so that by the beginning of this century the Portuguese had complete control over the entire area. During the period of the Iberian Union (1580-1640), Portugal lost influence and power and made new enemies. The Dutch, a major enemy of Castile, invaded many Portuguese overseas possessions, including Luanda. The Dutch ruled Luanda from 1640 to 1648 as Fort Aardenburgh. They were seeking black slaves for use in sugarcane plantations of Northeastern Brazil (Pernambuco, Olinda, Recife) which they had also seized from Portugal. John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen, conquered the Portuguese possessions of Saint George del Mina, Saint Thomas, and Luanda, Angola, on the west coast of Africa. After the dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640, Portugal would reestablish its authority over the lost territories of the Portuguese Empire. The Portuguese started to develop townships, trading posts, logging camps and small processing factories. From 1764 onwards, there was a gradual change from a slave-based society to one based on production for domestic consumption and export. Meanwhile, with the independence of Brazil in 1822, the slave trade was abolished in 1836, and in 1844 Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast Portuguese Empire outside Mainland Portugal, full of trading companies, exporting (together with Benguela) palm and peanut oil, wax, copal, timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, and cocoa, among many other products. Maize, tobacco, dried meat and cassava flour also began to be produced locally. The Angolan bourgeoisie was born. From the 1920s to the 1960s, strong economic growth, abundant natural resources and development of infrastruture, led to the arrival of even more Portuguese settlers from the metropole. The Portuguese discovered petroleum in Angola in 1955. Production began in the Cuanza basin in the 1950s, in the Congo basin in the 1960s, and in the exclave of Cabinda in 1968. The Portuguese government granted operating rights for Block Zero to the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, a subsidiary of ChevronTexaco, in 1955. Oil production surpassed the exportation of coffee as Angola's largest export in 1973. Angolan oil production ratesYearthousand barrels per daythousand cubic metres per day197419911995 Tvedten, Inge. Angola: Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction, 1997. Page 82. 20012006 OECD, International Energy Agency. Angola: towards an energy strategy, 2006. Page 19. A leftist military-led coup d'état, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, overthrew the Marcelo Caetano government in Portugal, and promised to hand over power to an independent Angolan government. Mobutu Sese Seko, the President of Zaire, met with António de Spínola, the transitional President of Portugal, on September 15, 1974 on Sal island in Cape Verde, crafting a plan to empower Holden Roberto of the National Liberation Front of Angola, Jonas Savimbi of UNITA, and Daniel Chipenda of the MPLA's eastern faction at the expense of MPLA leader Agostinho Neto while retaining the facade of national unity. Mobutu and Spínola wanted to present Chipenda as the MPLA head, Mobutu particularly preferring Chipenda over Neto because Chipenda supported autonomy for Cabinda. The Angolan exclave has immense petroleum reserves estimated at around 300 million tons (~300 kg) which Zaire, and thus the Mobutu government, depended on for economic survival. Erik P. Hoffmann and Frederic J. Fleron. The Conduct of Soviet Foreign Policy, 1980. Page 524. After independence thousands of white Portuguese left, most of them to Portugal and many travelling overland to South Africa. There was an immediate crisis because the indigenous African population lacked the skills and knowledge needed to run the country and maintain its well-developed infrastructure. The Angolan government created Sonangol, a state-run oil company, in 1976. Two years later Sonangol received the rights to oil exploration and production in all of Angola. Angola Energy Information Administration After independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola was ravaged by a horrific civil war between 1975 and 2002. 1990s United Nations Angola Verification Mission III and MONUA spent USD1.5 billion overseeing implementation of the Lusaka Protocol, a 1994 peace accord that ultimately failed to end the civil war. The protocol prohibited UNITA from buying foreign arms, a provision the United Nations largely did not enforce, so both sides continued to build up their stockpile. UNITA purchased weapons in 1996 and 1997 from private sources in Albania and Bulgaria, and from Zaire, South Africa, Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Togo, and Burkina Faso. In October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions on UNITA leaders, but the UN waited until July 1998 to limit UNITA's exportation of diamonds and freeze UNITA bank accounts. While the U.S. government gave USD250 million to UNITA between 1986 to 1991, UNITA made USD1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds, primarily through Zaire to Europe. At the same time the Angolan government received large amounts of weapons from the governments of Belarus, Brazil, Bulgaria, the People's Republic of China, and South Africa. While no arms shipment to the government violated the protocol, no country informed the U.N. Register on Conventional Weapons as required. Vines, Alex. Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process, 1999. Human Rights Watch. Despite the increase in civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note. 2000s An economic reform effort was launched in 1998. The Angolan economy ranked 160 out of 174 nations in the United Nations Human Development Index of 2000. In April 2000 Angola started an International Monetary Fund (IMF) Staff-Monitored Program (SMP). The program formally lapsed in June 2001, but the IMF remains engaged. In this context the Government of Angola has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel, electricity, and water rates. The Commercial Code, telecommunications law, and Foreign Investment Code are being modernized. A privatization effort, prepared with World Bank assistance, has begun with the BCI bank. Nevertheless, a legacy of fiscal mismanagement and corruption persists. The civil war internally displaced 3.8 million people, 32% of the population, by 2001. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production. Angola produced over 3 million carats of diamonds per year in 2003, Africa: Mining - Diamond Mining Mbendi with its production expected to grow to 10 million carats per year by 2007. In 2004 China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola to rebuild infrastructure. China grants additional USD 2 billion loan National Private Investment Agency The economy grew 18% in 2005 and growth was expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. ChevronTexaco started pumping from Block 14 in January 2000, but production has decreased to in 2007 due to the poor quality of the oil. Angola joined the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries on January 1, 2007. Cabinda Gulf Oil Company found Malange-1, an oil reservoir in Block 14, on August 9, 2007. Chevron's Block 14 Offshore Angola Finds Success Again RigZone Overview National GDP per capita ranges from wealthier states in the north and south to poorer states in the east. These figures from the 2002 World Bank are converted to US dollars. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. With revenues booming from oil exports, the government has started to implement ambitious development programs in building roads and other basic infrastructure for the nation. In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African food exporter but now imports almost all its food. Because of severe wartime conditions, including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside, agricultural activities have been brought to a near standstill. Some efforts to recover have gone forward, however, notably in fisheries. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. In sharp contrast to a bleak picture of devastation and bare subsistence is expanding oil production, now almost half of GDP and 90% of exports, at . Diamonds provided much of the revenue for Jonas Savimbi's UNITA rebellion through illicit trade. Other rich resources await development: gold, forest products, fisheries, iron ore, coffee, and fruits. This is a chart of trend of nominal gross domestic product of Angola (since unification) at market prices using International Monetary Fund data; Report for Selected Countries and Subjects, April 2006. International Monetary Fund figures are in millions of units. YearUSDAngolan kwanza19955,0661420009,13591,666200528,8602,515,452 Foreign trade Exports in 2004 reached US$10,530,764,911. The vast majority of Angola's exports, 92% in 2004, are petroleum products. US$785 million worth of diamonds, 7.5% of exports, were sold abroad that year. 99.4% of Angola's exports are oil, diamonds Afrol News Nearly all of Angola's oil goes to the United States, in 2006, making it the eighth largest supplier of oil to the United States, and to the People's Republic of China, in 2006. In the first quarter of 2008, Angola became the main exporter of oil to China. Angola Overtakes Saudi Arabia as Biggest Oil Supplier to China Bloomberg The rest of its petroleum exports go to Europe and Latin America. U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola, with Chevron-Texaco leading the way. The U.S. exports industrial goods and services, primarily oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food, to Angola, while principally importing petroleum. Trade between Angola and South Africa exceeded USD 300 million in 2007. Angola-South Africa trade worth over US$ 300 million per year MacauHub Resources Petroleum Angola produces and exports more petroleum than any other nation in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassing Nigeria in the 2000s. In January 2007 Angola became a member of OPEC. By 2010 production is expected to double the 2006 output level with development of deep-water offshore oil fields. Oil sales generated USD 1.71 billion in tax revenue in 2004 and now makes up 80% of the government's budget, a 5% increase from 2003, and 45% of GDP. OECD (2006). Page 30. Chevron Corporation produces and receives , 27% of Angolan oil. Elf Oil, Texaco, ExxonMobil, Agip, Petrobras, and British Petroleum also operate in the country. Block Zero provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production OECD (2006). Page 132. with produced annually. The largest fields in Block Zero are Takula (Area A), Numbi (Area A), and Kokongo (Area B). ChevronTexaco operates in Block Zero with a 39.2% share. SONANGOL, the state oil company, Total, and ENI-Agip own the rest of the block. ChevronTexaco also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, with . The United Nations has criticized the Angolan government for using torture, rape, summary executions, arbitrary detention, and disappearances, actions which Angolan government has justified on the need to maintain oil output. Omeje, Kenneth C. High Stakes And Stakeholders: Oil Conflict And Security in Nigeria, 2006. Page 157. Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. United States Congress. Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations for 1998: Hearings, 1997. Page 269. The U.S. imports 7% of its oil from Angola, about three times as much as it imported from Kuwait just prior to the Gulf War in 1991. The U.S. Government has invested USD $4 billion in Angola's petroleum sector. Vines, Alex. Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process, 1999. Human Rights Watch. Page 189. Diamonds Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds in Africa and has only explored 40% of the diamond-rich territory within the country, but has had difficulty in attracting foreign investment because of corruption, human rights violations, and diamond smuggling. Angola: U.S. Must Strengthen Ties to Protect Strategic Energy and Security Interests Council on Foreign Relations via AllAfrica Production rose by 30% in 2006 and Endiama, the national diamond company of Angola, expects production to increase by 8% in 2007 to 10 million carats annually. The government is trying to attract foreign companies to the provinces of Bié, Malanje and Uíge. Angola wants foreign investors for diamond sector, July 26, 2007. Reuters The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from diamond smuggling. In 2003 the government began Operation Brilliant, an anti-smuggling investigation that arrested and deported 250,000 smugglers between 2003 and 2006. Rafael Marques, a journalist and human rights activist, described the diamond industry in his 2006 Angola's Deadly Diamonds report as plagued by "murders, beatings, arbitrary detentions and other human rights violations." Marques called on foreign countries to boycott Angola's "conflict diamonds." Angola to double diamond production in 2006 Afrol News Iron Angola began mining iron in 1957, producing 1.2 million tons in 1967 and 6.2 million tons by 1971. In the 1970s 70% of Angola's iron exports went to Western Europe or Japan. Further reading McCormick, Shawn H. The Angolan Economy: Prospects for Growth in a Postwar Environment, 1994. OECD, International Energy Agency. Angola: Towards an Energy Strategy, 2006. References External links MBendi overview of Angola | Economy_of_Angola |@lemmatized economy:7 angola:52 one:5 fast:1 grow:5 world:4 birgitte:1 refslund:1 sørensen:1 marc:1 vincent:1 caught:1 border:1 response:1 strategy:3 internally:2 displace:2 page:9 still:1 recover:2 angolan:15 civil:6 war:7 plague:2 independence:4 despite:3 extensive:2 oil:32 gas:1 resource:5 diamond:17 hydroelectric:1 potential:1 rich:4 agricultural:2 land:1 remain:3 poor:2 third:3 population:4 relies:1 subsistence:3 agriculture:3 since:3 year:7 end:2 country:8 work:1 repair:1 improve:1 ravage:2 infrastructure:4 weaken:1 political:1 social:1 institution:1 high:3 international:6 price:2 rise:5 production:19 lead:5 strong:3 economic:4 growth:6 recent:1 corruption:3 public:1 sector:4 mismanagement:2 particularly:2 account:3 percent:3 gdp:5 export:20 revenue:5 government:21 history:1 kingdom:1 portugal:10 explorer:2 settler:2 found:2 trading:4 post:2 fort:2 along:1 coast:3 africa:11 century:3 reach:3 portuguese:15 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link_mbendi:1 |
7,557 | Delaunay_triangulation | A Delaunay triangulation in the plane with circumcircles shown In mathematics, and computational geometry, a Delaunay triangulation for a set P of points in the plane is a triangulation DT(P) such that no point in P is inside the circumcircle of any triangle in DT(P). Delaunay triangulations maximize the minimum angle of all the angles of the triangles in the triangulation; they tend to avoid skinny triangles. The triangulation was invented by Boris Delaunay in 1934 B. Delaunay: Sur la sphère vide, Izvestia Akademii Nauk SSSR, Otdelenie Matematicheskikh i Estestvennykh Nauk, 7:793-800, 1934 . Based on Delaunay's definition B. Delaunay: Sur la sphère vide, Izvestia Akademii Nauk SSSR, Otdelenie Matematicheskikh i Estestvennykh Nauk, 7:793-800, 1934 , the circumcircle of a triangle formed by three points from the original point set is empty if it does not contain vertices other than the three that define it (other points are permitted only on the very perimeter, not inside). The Delaunay condition states that a triangle net is a Delaunay triangulation if all the circumcircles of all the triangles in the net are empty. This is the original definition for two-dimensional spaces. It is possible to use it in three-dimensional spaces by using a circumscribed sphere in place of the circumcircle. For a set of points on the same line there is no Delaunay triangulation (in fact, the notion of triangulation is undefined for this case). For 4 points on the same circle (e.g., the vertices of a rectangle) the Delaunay triangulation is not unique: clearly, the two possible triangulations that split the quadrangle into two triangles satisfy the Delaunay condition. Generalizations are possible to metrics other than Euclidean. However in these cases a Delaunay triangulation is not guaranteed to exist or be unique. Relationship with the Voronoi diagram The Delaunay triangulation of a discrete point set P in general position corresponds to the dual graph of the Voronoi tessellation for P. Special cases include the existence of three points on a line and four points on circle. n-dimensional Delaunay For a set P of points in the (d-dimensional) Euclidean space, a Delaunay triangulation is a triangulation DT(P) such that no point in P is inside the circum-hypersphere of any simplex in DT(P). It is known that there exists a unique Delaunay triangulation for P, if P is a set of points in general position; that is, no three points are on the same line and no four are on the same circle, for a two dimensional set of points, or no n + 1 points are on the same hyperplane and no n + 2 points are on the same hypersphere, for an n-dimensional set of points. An elegant proof of this fact is outlined below. It is worth mentioning, because it reveals connections between the two constructs fundamental for computational and combinatorial geometry. The problem of finding the Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in n-dimensional Euclidean space can be converted to the problem of finding the convex hull of a set of points in (n + 1)-dimensional space, by giving each point an extra coordinate equal to , taking the bottom side of the convex hull, and mapping back to n-dimensional space by deleting the last coordinate. As the convex hull is unique, so is the triangulation, assuming all facets of the convex hull are simplices. A facet not being a simplex implies that n + 2 of the original points lay on the same d-hypersphere, and the points were not in general position. Properties Let n be the number of points and d the number of dimensions. The union of all simplices in the triangulation is the convex hull of the points. The Delaunay triangulation contains at most simplices. In the plane (d = 2), if there are b vertices on the convex hull, then any triangulation of the points has at most 2n − 2 − b triangles, plus one exterior face (see Euler characteristic). In the plane, each vertex has on average six surrounding triangles. In the plane, the Delaunay triangulation maximizes the minimum angle. Compared to any other triangulation of the points, the smallest angle in the Delaunay triangulation is at least as large as the smallest angle in any other. However, the Delaunay triangulation does not necessarily minimize the maximum angle. A circle circumscribing any Delaunay triangle does not contain any other input points in its interior. If a circle passing through two of the input points doesn't contain any other of them in its interior, then the segment connecting the two points is an edge of a Delaunay triangulation of the given points. The Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in d-dimensional spaces is the projection of the points of convex hull onto a (d+1)-dimensional paraboloid. Visual Delaunay definition: Flipping From the above properties an important feature arises: Looking at two triangles ABD and BCD with the common edge BD (see figures), if the sum of the angles α and γ is less than or equal to 180°, the triangles meet the Delaunay condition. This is an important property because it allows the use of a flipping technique. If two triangles do not meet the Delaunay condition, switching the common edge BD for the common edge AC produces two triangles that do meet the Delaunay condition : Algorithms All algorithms for computing Delaunay triangulations rely on fast operations for detecting when a point is within a triangle's circumcircle and an efficient data structure for storing triangles and edges. In two dimensions, one way to detect if point D lies in the circumcircle of A, B, C is to evaluate the determinant: Assuming A, B and C to lie counter-clockwise, this is positive if and only if D lies in the circumcircle. Flip algorithms As mentioned above, if a triangle is non-Delaunay, we can flip one of its edges. This leads to a straightforward algorithm: construct any triangulation of the points, and then flip edges until no triangle is non-Delaunay. Unfortunately, this can take O(n2) edge flips, and does not extend to three dimensions or higher . Incremental The most straightforward way of efficiently computing the Delaunay triangulation is to repeatedly add one vertex at a time, retriangulating the affected parts of the graph. When a vertex v is added, we split in three the triangle that contains v, then we apply the flip algorithm. Done naively, this will take O(n) time: we search through all the triangles to find the one that contains v, then we potentially flip away every triangle. Then the overall runtime is O(n2). If we insert vertices in random order, it turns out (by a somewhat intricate proof) that each insertion will flip, on average, only O(1) triangles -- although sometimes it will flip many more . This still leaves the point location time to improve. We can store the history of the splits and flips performed: each triangle stores a pointer to the two or three triangles that replaced it. To find the triangle that contains v, we start at a root triangle, and follow the pointer that points to a triangle that contains v, until we find a triangle that has not yet been replaced. On average, this will also take O(log n) time. Over all vertices, then, this takes O(n log n) time. While the technique extends to higher dimension (as proved by Edelsbrunner and Shah ), the runtime can be exponential in the dimension even if the final Delaunay triangulation is small. Divide and conquer A divide and conquer algorithm for triangulations in two dimensions is due to Lee and Schachter which was improved by Guibas and Stolfi Computing Constrained Delaunay Triangulations and later by Dwyer. In this algorithm, one recursively draws a line to split the vertices into two sets. The Delaunay triangulation is computed for each set, and then the two sets are merged along the splitting line. Using some clever tricks, the merge operation can be done in time O(n), so the total running time is O(n log n). G. Leach: Improving Worst-Case Optimal Delaunay Triangulation Algorithms. June 1992 For certain types of point sets, such as a uniform random distribution, by intelligently picking the splitting lines the expected time can be reduced to O(n log log n) while still maintaining worst-case performance. A divide and conquer paradigm to performing a triangulation in d-dimensions is presented in "DeWall: A fast divide and conquer Delaunay triangulation algorithm in Ed" by P. Cignoni, C. Montani, R. Scopigno. Sweepline Fortune's Algorithm uses a sweepline technique to achieve O(n log n) runtime in the planar case. In some experimental evaluations, the sweepline is the fastest in practice. Applications The Euclidean minimum spanning tree of a set of points is a subset of the Delaunay triangulation of the same points, and this can be exploited to compute it efficiently. For modeling terrain or other objects given a set of sample points, the Delaunay triangulation gives a nice set of triangles to use as polygons in the model. In particular, the Delaunay triangulation avoids narrow triangles (as they have large circumcircles compared to their area). The Delaunay triangulation of a random set of 100 points in a plane. Delaunay triangulations are often used to build meshes for the finite element method, because of the angle guarantee and because fast triangulation algorithms have been developed. Typically, the domain to be meshed is specified as a coarse simplicial complex; for the mesh to be numerically stable, it must be refined, for instance by using Ruppert's algorithm. This has been implemented by Jonathan Shewchuk in the freely available Triangle package. See also Voronoi diagram Gabriel graph Pitteway triangulation Gradient pattern analysis References External links 2D, 3D, and higher dimensional Delaunay triangulation in CGAL, the Computational Geometry Algorithms Library Mathworld on Delaunay triangulation Qhull for computing Delaunay triangulations in 2-d, 3-d, etc. | Delaunay_triangulation |@lemmatized delaunay:46 triangulation:47 plane:6 circumcircles:3 show:1 mathematics:1 computational:3 geometry:3 set:19 p:13 point:43 dt:4 inside:3 circumcircle:6 triangle:31 maximize:2 minimum:3 angle:8 tend:1 avoid:1 skinny:1 invent:1 boris:1 b:6 sur:2 la:2 sphère:2 vide:2 izvestia:2 akademii:2 nauk:4 sssr:2 otdelenie:2 matematicheskikh:2 estestvennykh:2 base:1 definition:3 form:1 three:8 original:3 empty:2 contain:7 vertex:9 define:1 permit:1 perimeter:1 condition:5 state:1 net:2 two:15 dimensional:12 space:7 possible:3 use:8 circumscribed:1 sphere:1 place:1 line:6 fact:2 notion:1 undefined:1 case:6 circle:5 e:1 g:2 rectangle:1 unique:4 clearly:1 split:4 quadrangle:1 satisfy:1 generalization:1 metric:1 euclidean:4 however:2 guarantee:2 exist:2 relationship:1 voronoi:3 diagram:2 discrete:1 general:3 position:3 corresponds:1 dual:1 graph:3 tessellation:1 special:1 include:1 existence:1 four:2 n:20 circum:1 hypersphere:3 simplex:2 know:1 hyperplane:1 elegant:1 proof:2 outline:1 worth:1 mentioning:1 reveal:1 connection:1 construct:2 fundamental:1 combinatorial:1 problem:2 find:5 convert:1 convex:7 hull:7 give:4 extra:1 coordinate:2 equal:2 take:5 bottom:1 side:1 map:1 back:1 delete:1 last:1 assume:2 facet:2 simplices:3 implies:1 lay:1 property:3 let:1 number:2 dimension:7 union:1 contains:1 plus:1 one:6 exterior:1 face:1 see:3 euler:1 characteristic:1 average:3 six:1 surround:1 compare:2 small:3 least:1 large:2 necessarily:1 minimize:1 maximum:1 circumscribe:1 input:2 interior:2 pass:1 segment:1 connect:1 edge:8 projection:1 onto:1 paraboloid:1 visual:1 flipping:2 important:2 feature:1 arises:1 look:1 abd:1 bcd:1 common:3 bd:2 figure:1 sum:1 α:1 γ:1 less:1 meet:3 allow:1 technique:3 switch:1 ac:1 produce:1 algorithm:12 compute:5 rely:1 fast:4 operation:2 detect:2 within:1 efficient:1 data:1 structure:1 store:3 way:2 lie:3 c:3 evaluate:1 determinant:1 counter:1 clockwise:1 positive:1 flip:9 mention:1 non:2 lead:1 straightforward:2 unfortunately:1 extend:2 high:3 incremental:1 efficiently:2 repeatedly:1 add:2 time:8 retriangulating:1 affected:1 part:1 v:5 apply:1 naively:1 search:1 potentially:1 away:1 every:1 overall:1 runtime:3 insert:1 random:3 order:1 turn:1 somewhat:1 intricate:1 insertion:1 although:1 sometimes:1 many:1 still:2 leave:1 location:1 improve:2 history:1 perform:2 pointer:2 replace:2 start:1 root:1 follow:1 yet:1 also:2 log:6 prove:1 edelsbrunner:1 shah:1 exponential:1 even:1 final:1 divide:4 conquer:4 due:1 lee:1 schachter:1 guibas:1 stolfi:1 computing:1 constrain:1 later:1 dwyer:1 recursively:1 draw:1 merge:2 along:1 splitting:2 clever:1 trick:1 total:1 running:1 leach:1 improving:1 worst:1 optimal:1 june:1 certain:1 type:1 uniform:1 distribution:1 intelligently:1 pick:1 expected:1 reduce:1 maintain:1 bad:1 performance:1 paradigm:1 present:1 dewall:1 ed:1 cignoni:1 montani:1 r:1 scopigno:1 sweepline:3 fortune:1 achieve:1 planar:1 experimental:1 evaluation:1 practice:1 application:1 span:1 tree:1 subset:1 exploit:1 model:2 terrain:1 object:1 sample:1 nice:1 polygon:1 particular:1 avoids:1 narrow:1 area:1 often:1 build:1 mesh:3 finite:1 element:1 method:1 develop:1 typically:1 domain:1 specify:1 coarse:1 simplicial:1 complex:1 numerically:1 stable:1 must:1 refine:1 instance:1 ruppert:1 implement:1 jonathan:1 shewchuk:1 freely:1 available:1 package:1 gabriel:1 pitteway:1 gradient:1 pattern:1 analysis:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 cgal:1 algorithms:1 library:1 mathworld:1 qhull:1 etc:1 |@bigram delaunay_triangulation:32 akademii_nauk:2 nauk_sssr:2 dimensional_euclidean:2 convex_hull:7 counter_clockwise:1 log_log:1 simplicial_complex:1 numerically_stable:1 external_link:1 |
7,558 | Nahuatl | Nahuatl (, stress being on the first syllable) is a group of related languages and dialects of the Nahuan (traditionally called "Aztecan") branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Collectively they are spoken by an estimated Nahua people, most of whom live in Central Mexico. All Nahuan languages are indigenous to Mesoamerica. The Classical Nahuatl word (noun stem nāhua, + absolutive The term absolutive in the jargon of the linguistics of Uto-Aztecan has nothing to do with the absolutive case in ergative-absolutive case alignment. -tl ) is thought to mean "a good, clear sound" Andrews 2003:578 2003:364,398. This language name has several spellings, among them Náhuatl (the standard spelling in Mexico), Naoatl, Nauatl, Nahuatl, Nawatl, and Nahua (the spelling used in Spain, as in the Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy). Nahuatl has been spoken in Central Mexico since at least the 7th century AD. Suárez 1983:149 It was the language of the Aztecs, who dominated central Mexico during the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology. During the preceding century and a half, the expansion and influence of the Aztec Empire had led to the dialect spoken by the residents of Tenochtitlan becoming a prestige language in Mesoamerica. With the introduction of the Latin alphabet, Nahuatl also became a literary language and many chronicles, grammars, works of poetry, administrative documents and codices were written in the 16th and 17th centuries. Canger 1980:13 This early literary language based on the Tenochtitlan dialect has been labeled Classical Nahuatl and is among the most studied and best documented languages of the Americas. Canger 2002:195 Today Nahuatl dialects See Mesoamerican languages#Language vs. Dialect for a discussion on the difference between "languages" and "dialects" in Mesoamerica. are spoken in scattered communities mostly in rural areas. There are considerable differences between dialects, and some are mutually unintelligible. They have all been subject to varying degrees of influence from Spanish. No modern dialects are identical to Classical Nahuatl, but those spoken in and around the Valley of Mexico are generally more closely related to it than those on the periphery. Canger 1988 Under Mexico's Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas ("General Law on the Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples") promulgated in 2003, . Nahuatl along with the other indigenous languages of Mexico are recognized as lenguas nacionales ("national languages") in the regions where they are spoken, enjoying the same status as Spanish within their region. By the provisions of Article IV: Las lenguas indígenas...y el español son lenguas nacionales...y tienen la misma validez en su territorio, localización y contexto en que se hablen. ("The indigenous languages...and Spanish are national languages...and have the same validity in their territory, location and context in which they are spoken.") Nahuatl is a language with a complex morphology characterized by polysynthesis and agglutination, allowing the construction of long words with complex meanings out of several stems and affixes. Nahuatl has been influenced by other Mesoamerican languages through centuries of coexistence, and with them forms the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area. Many words from Nahuatl have been borrowed into Spanish and thereby have diffused into hundreds of other languages. Most of these loanwords denote things indigenous to central Mexico which the Spanish heard mentioned for the first time by their Nahuatl names. English words of Nahuatl origin include "avocado", "chili", "chocolate", "coyote" and "tomato". The place of Nahuatl within Uto-Aztecan In the past the branch of Uto-Aztecan to which Nahuatl belongs was called "Aztecan". As a cautionary note, it must be understood that the names "Ute" and "Aztec" in "Uto-Aztecan" do not reflect theorizing as to larger subgroupings above the eight recognized branches nor do they reflect notions as to the relative importance of these two languages within the family. The family was named after them simply because those two languages are the best known among the family and taken together they give an idea of the family's geographic extent (Nahuatl is the southernmost while Ute, native to southern Utah, is one of the northernmost). From the 1990s on, the alternative designation "Nahuan" has been frequently used as a replacement especially in Spanish language publications. Since the monograph of Lyle Campbell and Ronald Langacker (1978), the Nahuan (Aztecan) branch of Uto-Aztecan is widely accepted as having two divisions, "General Aztec" and Pochutec. Canger 1988:42-43; Dakin 1983:202; INALI 2008:63; Suárez 1983:149. General Aztec encompasses the Nahuatl and Pipil languages. "General Aztec is a generally accepted term referring to the most shallow common stage, reconstructed for all present-day Nahuatl dialects; it does not include the Pochutec dialect (Campbell & Langacker 1978)." Canger 2000:385 (Note 4) Pochutec is a scantily attested language which went extinct in the 20th century. The notion that Pochutec should not be considered a variety of Nahuatl was already several decades old, but Campbell and Langacker adduced new arguments for it. Other researchers maintain that Pochutec should be considered a divergent dialect of the western periphery. Canger & Dakin 1985:360, Dakin 2001:21-22 "Nahuatl" denotes at least Classical Nahuatl together with related modern languages spoken in Mexico. The inclusion of Pipil (Nawat) into the group is slightly controversial. Lyle Campbell, who has worked intensively with the Pipil language, classifies Pipil as separate from the Nahuatl branch within general Aztecan, whereas dialectologists like Canger, Dakin and Lastra prefer to include Pipil in the General Aztecan branch, citing close historical ties with the so-called eastern peripheral dialects of General Aztec. Dakin 2001:21-22 History Pre-Columbian period On the issue of geographic origin, linguists during the 20th century agreed that the Uto-Aztecan language family originated in the southwestern United States. Canger 1980:12; Kaufman 2001:1. Evidence from archaeology and ethnohistory also supports the southward diffusion thesis, specifically that speakers of early Nahuan languages migrated from the northern Mexican deserts into central Mexico in several waves. But recently, the traditional assessment has been challenged by Jane H. Hill, who proposes instead that the Uto-Aztecan language family originated in central Mexico and spread northwards at a very early date. Hill 2001 The purported migration of speakers of the Proto-Nahuan language into the Mesoamerican region has been placed at sometime around AD 500, towards the end of the Early Classic period in Mesoamerican chronology. Justeson et al. 1985, passim.; Kaufman 2001:3–6,12 Before reaching the central altiplano, pre-Nahuan groups probably spent a period of time in contact with the Coracholan languages Cora and Huichol of northwestern Mexico (which are also Uto-Aztecan). Kaufman 2001:6,12 The major political and cultural center of Mesoamerica in the Early Classic period was Teotihuacan. The identity of the language(s) spoken by Teotihuacan's founders has long been debated, with the relationship of Nahuatl to Teotihuacan being prominent in that enquiry. Cowgill 1992:240–242; Pasztory 1993 While in the 19th and early 20th centuries it was presumed that Teotihuacan had been founded by speakers of Nahuatl, later linguistic and archaeological research tended to disconfirm this view. Instead, the timing of the Nahuatl influx was seen to coincide more closely with Teotihuacan's fall than its rise, and other candidates such as Totonacan identified as more likely. Campbell 1997:161; Justeson et al. 1985; Kaufman 2001:3–6,12 But recently, evidence from Mayan epigraphy of possible Nahuatl loanwords in Mayan languages has been interpreted as demonstrating that other Mesoamerican languages may have been borrowing words from Proto-Nahuan (or its early descendants) significantly earlier than previously thought, bolstering the possibility of a significant Nahuatl presence at Teotihuacan. Dakin and Wichmann 2000 Macri 2005 Macri and Looper 2003. Cowgill 2003:335 Pasztory 1993 In Mesoamerica the Mayan, Oto-Manguean and Mixe-Zoquean language families had coexisted for millennia. This had given rise to the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area (a linguistic area being one where a set of language traits have become common among the area's language by diffusion and not by evolution within a set of languages belonging to a common genetic subgrouping). After the Nahuas migrated into the Mesoamerican cultural zone, their language too adopted some of the traits defining the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area. Dakin 1994; Kaufman 2001 Examples of such adopted traits are the use of relational nouns, the appearance of calques, or loan translations, and a form of possessive construction typical of Mesoamerican languages. A language which was the ancestor of Pochutec split from Proto-Nahuan (or Proto-Aztecan) possibly as early as AD 400, arriving in Mesoamerica a few centuries earlier than the main bulk of speakers of Nahuan languages. Suárez 1983:149 Some Nahuan groups migrated south along the Central American isthmus, reaching perhaps as far as Nicaragua. The moribund Pipil language of El Salvador is the only living descendant of the variety of Nahuatl once spoken south of present day Mexico. Fowler 1985:38; Kaufman 2001 Beginning in the 7th century Nahuan speakers rose to power in central Mexico. The people of the Toltec culture of Tula, Hidalgo, which was active in central Mexico around the 10th century, are thought to have been Nahuatl speakers. By the 11th century, Nahuatl speakers were dominant in the Valley of Mexico and far beyond, with settlements including Azcapotzalco, Colhuacan and Cholula rising to prominence. Nahua migrations into the region from the north continued into the Postclassic period. One of the last of these migrations to arrive in the Valley of Mexico settled on an island in the Lake Texcoco and proceeded to subjugate the surrounding tribes. This group was the Mexica (or Mexihka), who over the course of the next three centuries founded an empire named Tenochtitlan. Their political and linguistic influence came to extend into Central America and Nahuatl became a lingua franca among merchants and elites in Mesoamerica, e.g., among the K'iche' Maya. Carmack 1981:142–143 Colonial period With the arrival of the Spanish in 1519, the tables were turned on the Nahuatl language: it was displaced as the dominant regional language. Nevertheless, due to the Spanish making alliances with first the Nahuatl speakers from Tlaxcala and later with the conquered Aztecs, the Nahuatl language continued spreading throughout Mesoamerica in the decades after the conquest, when Spanish expeditions with thousands of Nahua soldiers marched north and south to conquer new territories. Jesuit missions in northern Mexico and the southwestern US region often included a barrio of Tlaxcaltec soldiers who remained to guard the mission. Jackson 2000:page# For example, some fourteen years after the northeastern city of Saltillo, Coahuila, was founded in 1577, a Tlaxcaltec community was resettled in a separate nearby village, San Esteban de Nueva Tlaxcala to cultivate the land and aid colonization efforts that had stalled in the face of local hostility to the Spanish settlement. . The Tlaxcaltec community remained legally separate until the 19th century. As for the conquest of modern day Central America, Pedro de Alvarado conquered Guatemala with the help of tens of thousands of Tlaxcaltec allies, who then settled outside of modern day Antigua. Similar episodes occurred across El Salvador and Honduras, with Nahuatl speakers settling in communities that were often named after them. In Honduras for example, two of these barrios are called "Mexicapa"; another in El Salvador is called "Mejicanos". (The postconquest presence of Nahua peoples well inside present day US territory is well documented. For example, a map of Santa Fe, New Mexico drawn ca. 1768 by José de Urrutia shows a pueblo ("village") or barrio named Analco spread along the southern bank of the Santa Fe River, opposite to the Spanish town. This settlement of Analco, labelled "E" on the map, is accompanied by the text: "Pueblo ò Barrio de Analco que debe su origen à los Tracaltecas que à los primeros Eſpañoles que entraron à la Conquiſta de eſte Reino" ("village or quarter of Analco, which owes its origins to the Tlaxcaltecs who accompanied the first Spaniards who entered into the conquest of this region"). Wroth (n.d.). ) Page 51 of Book IX from the Florentine Codex. The text is in Nahuatl written with a Latin script. As a part of their missionary efforts, members of various religious orders (principally Fransciscan friars, Dominican friars, and Jesuits) introduced the Latin alphabet to the Nahuas, who were eager to learn to read and write both in Spanish and in their own language. Within the first twenty years after the Spanish arrival, texts were being prepared in the Nahuatl language written in Latin characters. Lockhart 1991:12; Lockhart 1992:330–331 Simultaneously, schools were founded, such as the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in 1536, which taught both indigenous and classical European languages to both Indians and priests. Missionary grammarians undertook the writing of grammars Colonial Spanish grammars of indigenous languages were often called "artes", arte being the word for "art" in the sense of "manner". of indigenous languages for use by priests. The first Nahuatl grammar, written by Andrés de Olmos, was published in 1547—three years before the first French grammar. By 1645 four more had been published, authored respectively by Alonso de Molina (1571), Antonio del Rincón (1595), Diego de Galdo Guzmán (1642), and Horacio Carochi (1645). Carochi's is today considered the most important of the colonial era grammars of Nahuatl. Canger 1980:14 In 1570 King Philip II of Spain decreed that Nahuatl should become the official language of the colonies of New Spain in order to facilitate communication between the Spanish and natives of the colonies. Suárez 1983:165 This led to the Spanish missionaries teaching Nahuatl to Indians living as far south as Honduras and El Salvador. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Classical Nahuatl was used as a literary language, and a large corpus of texts from that period is in existence today. Texts from this period include histories, chronicles, poetry, theatrical works, Christian canonical works, ethnographic descriptions, and administrative documents. The Spanish permitted a great deal of autonomy in the local administration of indigenous towns during this period, and in many Nahuatl speaking towns Nahuatl was the de facto administrative language both in writing and speech. A large body of Nahuatl literature was composed during this period, including the Florentine Codex, a twelve-volume compendium of Aztec culture compiled by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún; Crónica Mexicayotl, a chronicle of the royal lineage of Tenochtitlan by Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc; Cantares Mexicanos, a collection of songs in Nahuatl; a Nahuatl-Spanish/Spanish-Nahuatl dictionary compiled by Alonso de Molina; and the Huei tlamahuiçoltica, a description in Nahuatl of the apparition of the Virgin of Guadalupe. Grammars and dictionaries of indigenous languages were composed throughout the colonial period, but their quality was highest in the initial period. Suárez 1983:5 The friars found that learning all the indigenous languages was impossible in practice, so they concentrated on Nahuatl. For a time, the linguistic situation in Mesoamerica remained relatively stable, but in 1696 King Charles II issued a decree banning the use of any language other than Spanish throughout the Spanish Empire. In 1770 another decree, calling for the elimination of the indigenous languages, did away with Classical Nahuatl as a literary language. Suárez 1983:165 Modern period +Nahuatl Speakers over 5 years of age in the ten states with most speakers (2000 census data). Absolute and relative numbers. Percentages given are in comparison to the total population of the corresponding state. Source: INEGI (2005:4). RegionTotalsPercentagesFederal District37,4500.44%Guerrero136,6814.44%Hidalgo221,6849.92%Mexico (state)55,8020.43%Morelos18,6561.20%Oaxaca10,9790.32%Puebla416,9688.21%San Luis Potosí138,5236.02%Tlaxcala23,7372.47%Veracruz338,3244.90%Rest of Mexico50,1320.10%Total:1,448,9371.49% Throughout the modern period the situation of indigenous languages has grown increasingly precarious in Mexico, and the numbers of speakers of virtually all indigenous languages have dwindled. Although the absolute number of Nahuatl speakers has actually risen over the past century, indigenous populations have become increasingly marginalized in Mexican society. In 1895, Nahuatl was spoken by over 5% of the population. By 2000, this proportion had fallen to 1.49%. Given the process of marginalization combined with the trend of migration to urban areas and to the United States, some linguists are warning of impending language death. Rolstad 2002, passim. At present Nahuatl is mostly spoken in rural areas by an impoverished class of indigenous subsistence agriculturists. According to the Mexican national statistics institute, INEGI, 51% of Nahuatl speakers are involved in the farming sector and 6 in 10 receive no wages or less than the minimum wage. INEGI 2005:63–73 From the early 20th century to at least the mid-1980s, educational policies in Mexico focused on the "Hispanification" of indigenous communities, teaching only Spanish and discouraging the use of indigenous languages. Suárez 1983:167 As a result, today there is no group of Nahuatl speakers having attained general literacy in Nahuatl; Suárez 1983:168 while their literacy rate in Spanish also remains much lower than the national average. INEGI 2005:49 Even so, Nahuatl is still spoken by well over a million people, of whom around 10% are monolingual. The survival of Nahuatl dialects as a whole is not imminently endangered, but the survival of certain dialects is, and some dialects have already become extinct within the last few decades of the 20th century. Lastra de Suárez 1986; Rolstad 2002 The 1990s saw the onset of diametric changes in official Mexican government policies towards indigenous and linguistic rights. Developments of accords in the international rights arena Such as the 1996 adoption at a world linguistics conference in Barcelona of the Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights, a declaration which "became a general reference point for the evolution and discussion of linguistic rights in Mexico" (Pellicer et al. 2006:132). combined with domestic pressures Such as social and political agitation by the EZLN and indigenous social movements. led to legislative reforms and the creation of decentralized government agencies like CDI and INALI with responsibilities for the promotion and protection of indigenous communities and languages. Pellicer et al. 2006:132–137 In particular, the federal Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas ["General Law on the Language Rights of the Indigenous Peoples", promulgated 13 March 2003] recognizes all the country's indigenous languages, including Nahuatl, as "national languages" and gives indigenous people the right to use them in all spheres of public and private life. In February 2008 the mayor of Mexico City, Marcelo Ebrard, launched a drive to have all government employees learn Nahuatl. Ebrard stated he would continue institutionalizing Nahuatl and that it was important for Mexico to remember its history and its tradition. Geographic distribution Map showing the areas of Mesoamerica where Nahuatl is spoken today (in White) and where it is known to have been spoken historically (Grey) Based on Lastra de Suárez 1986; Fowler 1985. A spectrum of Nahuatl dialects is currently spoken in an area stretching from the northern state of Durango to Veracruz in the southeast. Pipil (also known as Nawat Campbell 1985 ), the southernmost Nahuan language, is spoken in El Salvador by a small number of speakers. According to IRIN-International, the Nawat Language Recovery Initiative project, there are no reliable figures for the contemporary numbers of speakers of Pipil / Nawat. Numbers may range anywhere from "perhaps a few hundred people, perhaps only a few dozen." IRIN 2004 Based on figures accumulated by INEGI from the national census conducted in 2000, Nahuatl is spoken by an estimated 1.45 million people, some 198,000 (14.9%) of whom are monolingual. INEGI 2005:35. In this analysis, monolinguals are counted as those who do not speak Spanish. It may be possible that some also speak other Nahuatl variants, or other indigenous languages. There is gender disparity in monolingualism, with females representing nearly two thirds of all monolinguals. The states of Guerrero and Hidalgo have the highest rates of monolingual Nahuatl speakers as a proportion of the total Nahuatl speaking population, calculated at 24.2% and 22.6%, respectively. The proportion of monolinguals for most other states is less than 5%. Put another way, more than 95% of the Nahuatl speaking population in most states speaks at least one other language, usually Spanish; nationally, the figure is about 86% of the total. The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, and Guerrero. Significant populations are also found in Mexico State, Morelos, and the Federal District, with smaller communities in Michoacán and Durango. Nahuatl became extinct during the 20th century in the states of Jalisco and Colima. As a result of internal migrations within the country, Nahuatl speaking communities exist in all of Mexico's states. The modern influx of Mexican workers and families into the United States has resulted in the establishment of a few small Nahuatl speaking communities in that country, particularly in New York and California. Flores Farfán 2002:229 Subclassification of Nahuatl dialects Terminology The terminology used to describe varieties of spoken Nahuatl is inconsistently applied. Many terms are used with multiple denotations, or a single dialect grouping goes under several names. Sometimes older terms are substituted with newer terms or the speakers' own name for their specific variety. The word Nahuatl is itself a Nahuatl word, probably derived from the word nāwatlahtolli ("clear language"). The language was formerly called "Aztec" because it was spoken by the Aztecs, who however didn't call themselves Aztecs but Mexica, and their language mexicacopa. Launey 1992:116 Nowadays the term "Aztec" is rarely used for modern Nahuan languages, but the linguists' traditional name of "Aztecan" for the branch of Uto-Aztecan that comprises Nahuatl, Pipil, and Pochutec is still in use (although some linguists prefer a new name, "Nahuan"). Since 1978, the term "General Aztec" has been adopted by linguists to refer to the languages of the Aztecan branch excluding Pochutec. Canger 2001:385 The speakers of Nahuatl themselves often refer to their language as either Mexicano Hill & Hill 1986:page# or some word derived from mācēhualli, the Nahuatl word for "commoner". One example of the latter is the case for Nahuatl spoken in Tetelcingo, Morelos, whose speakers call their language mösiehuali. Tuggy 1979:page# The Pipil of El Salvador do not call their own language "Pipil", as most linguists do, but rather nawat. Campbell 1985 The Nahuas of Durango call their language Mexicanero. Canger 2001:page# Speakers of Nahuatl of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec call their language mela'tajtol ("the straight language"). Wolgemuth 2002:page# Some speech communities use "Nahuatl" as the name for their language although this seems to be a recent innovation. Linguists commonly identify localized dialects of Nahuatl by adding as a qualifier the name of the village or area where that variety is spoken. Suárez 1983:20 Dialectology Current subclassification of Nahuatl rests on research by Canger (1980, 1988) and Lastra de Suárez (1986). Canger introduced the scheme of a Central grouping several Peripheral groupings, and Lastra confirmed this notion, differing in some details. Each of the groupings is defined by shared characteristic grammatical features which in turn suggest a shared history. Canger includes Wastek dialects in the Center Peripheral group, while Lastra de Suárez places them in their own subgroup of Peripheral. Below, Lastra de Suarez's classification is combined with Campbell 1997's classification of Uto-Aztecan. (Campbell's positing of higher level subgroupings of Uto-Aztecan, specifically "Shoshonean" and "Sonoran", above the eight uncontroversial branches is not yet generally accepted. Also, Lastra's including Pipil under Nahuatl is not accepted by Campbell, who has been the leading investigator of Pipil.) Uto-Aztecan 5000 BP* Shoshonean (a.k.a. Northern Uto-Aztecan) Sonoran** (a.k.a Southern Uto-Aztecan) Aztecan 2000 BP (a.k.a. Nahuan) Pochutec † Coast of Oaxaca General Aztec (including Nahuatl) Western Periphery Dialects of Durango (Mexicanero), Michoacán, Western Mexico state, extinct dialects of Colima and Nayarit Eastern Periphery Pipil language and dialects of Sierra de Puebla, southern Veracruz and Tabasco (Isthmus dialects) Huasteca Dialects of northern Puebla, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí and northern Veracruz Center Dialects of central Puebla, Tlaxcala, central Veracruz, Morelos, Mexico state, central and southern Guerrero *Estimated split date by glottochronology (BP = years Before Present). **Some scholars continue to classify Aztecan and Sonoran together under a separate group (called variously "Sonoran", "Mexican", or "Southern Uto-Aztecan"). There is increasing evidence that whatever degree of additional resemblance there might be between Aztecan and Sonoran when compared with Shoshonean is probably due to proximity contact, rather than genetic relationship. Phonology Nahuan is defined as a subgroup of Uto-Aztecan by having undergone a number of shared changes from the Uto-Aztecan protolanguage (PUA). The table below shows the phonemic inventory of Classical Nahuatl as an example of a typical Nahuan language. In some dialects the phoneme that is so common in classical Nahuatl has changed into either as it has happened in Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuatl, Mexicanero and Pipil or into as it has happened in Nahuatl of Pómaro, Michoacán. Sischo 1979:page# Many dialects no longer distinguish between short and long vowels. Some have introduced completely new vowel qualities to compensate for this, as is the case for Tetelcingo Nahuatl. Tuggy 1979:page# Others have developed a pitch accent, such as Nahuatl of Oapan, Guerrero. Amith 1989:page# Many modern dialects have also borrowed phonemes from Spanish, such as . Sounds +The consonants of classical Nahuatl Labial Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Labio-velar Glottal Plosive ()* Affricate Fricative Nasal Approximant +The vowels of classical Nahuatl Front Central Backlong short long short long shortClose Mid Open * The glottal phoneme (called the "saltillo") only occurs after vowels. In many modern dialects it is realized as an [h], but in classical Nahuatl and in other modern dialects it is a glottal stop . Most Nahuatl dialects have stress on the penultimate syllable of a word. In Mexicanero Nahuat from Durango, many unstressed syllables have disappeared from words, and the placement of syllable stress has become phonemic in this dialect Canger 2001:29 (compare "pervert" and "pervert" in English). Allophony Allophony, in Nahuatl, is not very rich in most varieties. In many dialects the voiced consonants are often devoiced in wordfinal position and in consonant clusters: /j/ devoices to a voiceless palatal sibilant //, Launey 1992:16 /w/ devoices to a voiceless glottal fricative [h] or to a voiceless labialized velar approximant and /l/ devoices to voiceless alveolar lateral []. In some dialects the first consonant in almost any consonant cluster becomes [h]. Some dialects have productive lenition of voiceless consonants into their voiced counterparts between vowels. The nasals are normally assimilated to the place of articulation of a following consonant. The voiceless lateral affricate is assimilated after /l/ and pronounced as [l]. Launey 1992:26 Phonotactics Classical Nahuatl and most of the modern varieties have fairly simple phonological systems. They allow only syllables with maximally one initial and one final consonant. Consonant clusters only occur wordmedially and over syllable boundaries. Some morphemes have two alternating forms, one with a vowel i to prevent consonant clusters, and one without. For example, the absolutive suffix has the variant forms – tli (used after consonants) and – tl (used after vowels). Launey 1992:19–22 Some modern varieties however have formed complex clusters due to vowel loss. Others have contracted syllable sequences, causing accents to shift or vowels to become long. Sischo 1979:312 for a brief description of these phenomena in Nahual of Michoacán Reduplication Many varieties of Nahuatl have productive reduplication. By reduplicating the first syllable of a root a new word is formed. In nouns this is often used to form plurals, e.g. /tla:katl/ "man" > /tla:tla:kah/ "men", but also in some varieties to form diminutives, honorifics, or for derivations. Launey 1992:27 In verbs reduplication is often used to form a reiterative (expressing repetition), or to intensify the meaning of the verb. E.g. /kitta/ "he sees it", /kihitta/ "he looks at it repeatedly" and /ki:itta/ "he stares at it". Grammar The Nahuatl languages are agglutinative, polysynthetic languages that make extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, they can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed – and a single word can constitute an entire sentence. The following verb shows how the verb is marked for subject, patient, object, and indirect object: ni-mit͡s-te:-t͡la-maki:-lti:-s I-you-someone-something-give-CAUSATIVE-FUTURE "I shall make somebody give something to you" All examples given in this section and subsections are from Suárez (1983:61–63) unless otherwise noted. Glosses have been standardized. (Classical Nahuatl) Nouns The Nahuatl noun has a relatively complex structure. The only obligatory inflections are for number (singular and plural) and possession (i.e., whether the noun is possessed, as is indicated by a prefix meaning 'my', 'your', etc.). Plural forms of nouns are normally formed by adding a suffix, although some words form irregular plurals by using reduplication. Nahuatl has neither case nor gender, but in Classical Nahuatl and some modern dialects distinguish between animate and inanimate nouns, the distinction manifesting with respect to pluralization. In Classical Nahuatl only animate nouns could take a plural form, whereas all inanimate nouns were uncountable (as the words "bread" and "money" are uncountable in English). Nowadays many dialects do not maintain this distinction and all nouns may take a plural inflection, although it is often the case that most inanimates, and even some animates, do not, i.e. their absolutive form can be understood as either singular or plural. In most varieties of Nahuatl, most nouns in the unpossessed singular form take a suffix traditionally called an "absolutive". The most common forms of the absolutive are -tl after vowels, -tli after consonants other than l, and -li after l. Noun compounds are commonly formed by combining two or more nominal stems, or combining a nominal stem with other an adjectival stem or a verbal stem. Singular noun: coyote-ABSOLUTIVE "coyote" (Classical Nahuatl) Plural animate noun: coyote-PLURAL "coyotes" (Classical Nahuatl) Nahuatl distinguishes between possessed and unpossessed forms of nouns. The absolutive suffix is not used on possessed nouns. In all dialects, possessed nouns take a prefix agreeing with number and person of its possessor. Absolutive noun: house-ABSOLUTIVE "house" (Classical Nahuatl) Possessed noun: my-house "my house" (Classical Nahuatl) Nahuatl does not have grammatical case but uses what is sometimes called a relational noun to describe spatial (and other) relations. These morphemes cannot appear alone but must always occur after a noun or a possessive prefix. They are also often called postpositions Hill & Hill 1986 re Malinche Nahuatl or locative suffixes. Launey 1992, Chapter 13 re classical Nahuatl In some ways these locative constructions resemble, and can be thought of as, locative case constructions. Most modern dialects have incorporated prepositions from Spanish that are competing with or that have completely replaced relational nouns. Suárez 1977:page# Uses of relational noun/postposition/locative -pan with a possessive prefix: my-in/on "in/on me" (Classical Nahuatl) its-in/on "in/on it" (Classical Nahuatl) its-in house-ABSOLUTIVE "in the house" (Classical Nahuatl) Use with a preceding noun stem: house-in "in the house" (Classical Nahuatl) Pronouns Nahuatl generally distinguishes three persons – both in the singular and plural numbers. In at least one modern dialect, the Isthmus-Mecayapan variety, there has come to be a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural: Wolgemuth 2002 First person plural pronoun in Classical Nahuatl: "we" First person plural pronouns in Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuat: nejamēn () "We but not you" tejamēn () "We including you (and others)" Wolgemuth 2002:35 Much more common is an honorific/non-honorific distinction, usually applied to second and third persons but not first. Non-honorific forms: "you sg." "you pl." "he/she/it" Honorific forms "you sg. honorific" "you pl. honorific" "he/she honorific" Verbs The Nahuatl verb is quite complex and inflects for many grammatical categories. The verb is composed of a root, prefixes, and suffixes. The prefixes indicate the person of the subject, and person and number of the object and indirect object, whereas the suffixes indicate tense, aspect, mood and subject number. Most Nahuatl dialects distinguish three tenses: present, past, and future, and two aspects: perfective and imperfective. Some varieties add progressive or habitual aspects. All dialects distinguish at least the indicative and imperative moods, while some also have optative and vetative moods. Most Nahuatl varieties have a number of ways to alter the valency of a verb. Classical Nahuatl had a passive voice, but this is not found in most modern varieties. However the applicative and causative voices are found in many modern dialects. Suárez 1983:81 Many Nahuatl varieties also allow forming verbal compounds with two or more verbal roots. The following verbal form has two verbal roots and is inflected for causative voice and both a direct and indirect object: I-them-something-eat-CAUSATIVE-FUTURE-want "I want to feed them" (Classical Nahuatl) Some Nahuatl varieties, notably Classical Nahuatl, can inflect the verb to show the direction of the verbal action going away from or towards the speaker. Some also have specific inflectional categories showing purpose and direction and such complex notions as "to go in order to" or "to come in order to", "go, do and return", "do while going", "do while coming", "do upon arrival", or "go around doing". Classical Nahuatl and many modern dialects have grammaticalised ways to express politeness towards addressees or even towards people or things that are being mentioned, by using special verb forms and special "honorific suffixes". Suárez 1977:61 Familiar verbal form: you-yourself-run-PRESENT "you run"(Classical Nahuatl) Honorific verbal form: you-yourself-run-HONORIFIC-PRESENT "You run"(said with respect) (Classical Nahuatl) Syntax Some linguists have argued that Nahuatl displays the properties of a non-configurational language, meaning that word order in Nahuatl is basically free. Baker 1998 passim. Nahuatl allows all possible orderings of the three basic sentence constituents. It is prolifically a pro-drop language: it allows sentences with omission of all noun phrases or independent pronouns, not just of noun phrases or pronouns whose function is the sentence subject. In most varieties independent pronouns are used only for emphasis. It allows certain kinds of syntactically discontinuous expressions. Michel Launey argues that Nahuatl has a verb-initial basic word order with extensive freedom for variation, which is then used to encode pragmatic functions such as focus and topicality. Launey 1992:36-37 newal no-nobia I my-fianceé "My fiancée "(and not anyone else’s) (Michoacán Nahual) Sischo 1979:314 It has been argued that classical Nahuatl syntax is best characterised by "omnipredicativity", meaning that any noun or verb in the language is in fact a full predicative sentence. Andrews 2003; Launey 1994 A radical interpretation of Nahuatl syntactic typology, this nonetheless seems to account for some of the language's peculiarities, for example, why nouns must also carry the same agreement prefixes as verbs, and why predicates do not require any noun phrases to function as their arguments. For example the verbal form tzahtzi means "he/she/it shouts", and with the second person prefix titzahtzi it means "you shout". Nouns are inflected in the same way: the noun "konētl" means not just "child", but also "it is a child", and tikonētl means "you are a child". This prompts the omnipredicative interpretation, which posits that all nouns are also predicates. A phrase such as tzahtzi in konētl should not be interpreted as meaning just "the child screams" but, more correctly, "it screams, (the one that) is a child". Contact phenomena Nearly 500 years of intense contact between speakers of Nahuatl and speakers of Spanish, combined with the minority status of Nahuatl and the higher prestige associated with Spanish has caused many changes in modern Nahuatl varieties, with large numbers of words borrowed from Spanish into Nahuatl, and the introduction of new syntactic constructions and grammatical categories. For example, a construction like the following, with several borrowed words and particles, is common in many modern varieties (Spanish loanwords in boldface): pero āmo tēchentenderoah lo que tlen tictoah en mexicano The words pero, entender, lo-que, and en are all from Spanish. The use of the suffix -oa on a Spanish infinitive like entender, enabling the use of other Nahuatl verbal affixes, is standard. The sequence lo que tlen combines Spanish lo que 'what' with Nahuatl tlen (also meaning 'what') to mean (what else) 'what'. en is a preposition and heads a prepositional phrase; traditionally Nahuatl had postpositions or relational nouns rather than prepositions. The stem mexihka, related to the name mexihko, 'Mexico', is of Nahuatl origin, but the suffix -ano is from Spanish, and it is probable that the whole word mexicano is a re-borrowing from Spanish back into Nahuatl. but not they-us-understand-PLURAL that which what we-it-say in Nahuatl "But they don't understand what we say in Nahuatl" (Malinche Nahuatl) Hill and Hill 1986:317 In some modern dialects basic word order has become a fixed Subject Verb Object, probably under influence from Spanish. Hill and Hill 1986:page# Other changes in the syntax of modern Nahuatl include the use of Spanish prepositions instead of native postpositions or relational nouns and the reinterpretation of original postpositions/relational nouns into prepositions. In the following example, from Michoacán Nahual, the postposition -ka meaning "with" appears used as a preposition, with no preceding object: ti-ya ti-k-wika ka tel you-go you-it-carry with you "are you going to carry it with you?" (Michoacán Nahual) Sischo 1979:314 And, in this example from Mexicanero Nahuat, of Durango, the original postposition/relational noun -pin "in/on" is used as a preposition. "porque", a preposition borrowed from Spanish, also occurs in the sentence. amo wel kalaki-yá pin kal porke ¢akwa-tiká im pwerta not can he-enter-PAST in house because it-closed-was the door "He couldn't enter the house because the door was closed" (Mexicanero Nahuat) Canger 2001:116 Many dialects have also undergone a degree of simplification of their morphology which has caused some scholars to consider them to have ceased to be polysynthetic. Hill and Hill 1986:249–340 Vocabulary The tomato is native to Mexico and the Aztecs called the red variety "xitōmatl" whereas the green Currant tomato was called "tōmatl" – the source for the English word "tomato". Many Nahuatl words have been borrowed into the Spanish language, most of which are terms designating things indigenous to the American continent. Some of these loans are restricted to Mexican or Central American Spanish, but others have entered all the varieties of Spanish in the world. A number of them, such as "chocolate", "tomato" and "avocado" have made their way into many other languages via Spanish. Likewise a number of English words have been borrowed from Nahuatl through Spanish. Two of the most prominent are undoubtedly chocolate While there is no real doubt that the word "chocolate" comes from Nahuatl, the commonly given Nahuatl etymology // "bitter water" no longer seems to be tenable. Dakin and Wichmann (2000) suggest the correct etymology to be /čikola:tl/ - a word found in several modern Nahuatl dialects. and tomato (from Nahuatl tomatl). Other common words such as coyote (from Nahuatl coyotl), avocado (from Nahuatl ahuacatl) and chile or chili (from Nahuatl chilli). The word chicle is also derived from Nahuatl tzictli "sticky stuff, chicle". Some other English words from Nahuatl are: Aztec, (from aztecatl); cacao (from Nahuatl cacahuatl 'shell, rind'); Dakin and Wichmann 2000:page# ocelot (from ocelotl). In Mexico many words for common everyday concepts attest to the close contact between Spanish and Nahuatl, so many in fact that entire dictionaries of "mexicanismos" (words particular to Mexican Spanish) have been published tracing Nahuatl etymologies, as well as Spanish words with origins in other indigenous languages. Many well known toponyms also come from Nahuatl, including Mexico (from the Nahuatl word for the Aztec capital mexihco) and Guatemala (from the word cuauhtēmallan). The Mexica used the word for the Kaqchikel capital Iximche in central Guatemala, but the word was extended to the entire zone in colonial times; see Carmack 1981:143. Writing and literature Writing 100p|The placenames Mapachtepec ("Raccoon Hill"), Mazatlan ("Deer Place") and Huitztlan ("Thorn Place") written in the Aztec writing system. From the Codex Mendoza. Pre-Columbian Aztec writing was not a proper writing system, since it could not represent the full vocabulary of a spoken language in the way that the writing systems of the Old World or that of the Maya civilization could. Therefore, Aztec writing was not meant to be read, but to be told. The elaborate codices were essentially pictographic aids for memorizing texts, which include genealogies, astronomical information, and tribute lists. Three kinds of signs were used in the system: pictures used as mnemonics (which do not represent particular words), logograms which represent whole words (instead of phonemes or syllables), and logograms used only for their sound values (i.e. used according to the rebus principle). Lockhart 1992:327–329 The Spanish introduced the Roman script, which was used to record a large body of Aztec prose, poetry and mundane documentation such as testaments, administrative documents, legal letters, etc. In a matter of decades pictorial writing was completely replaced with the Latin alphabet. Lockhart 1992:330–335 No standardized Latin orthography has been developed for Nahuatl, and no general consensus has arisen for the representation of many sounds in Nahuatl that are lacking in Spanish, such as long vowels and the glottal stop. Canger 2002:200–204 The orthography most accurately representing the phonemes of Nahuatl was developed in the 17th century by the Jesuit Horacio Carochi. Carochi's orthography used two different accents: a macron to represent long vowels and a grave for the saltillo, and sometimes an acute accent for short vowels. Whorf et al. 1993:page# This orthography did not achieve a wide following outside of the Jesuit community. When Nahuatl became the subject of focused linguistic studies in the 20th century, linguists acknowledged the need to represent all the phonemes of the language. Several practical orthographies were developed to transcribe the language, many using the Americanist transcription system. With the establishment of Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas in 2004, new attempts to create standardized orthographies for the different dialects were resumed; however to this day there is no single official orthography for Nahuatl. Canger 2002:200–204 Apart from dialectal differences, major issues in transcribing Nahuatl include: whether to follow Spanish orthographic practice and write /k/ with c and qu, // with cu, /s/ with c/z or s, and /w/ with hu or u. how to write the "saltillo" phoneme (in some dialects pronounced as a glottal stop and in others as an ), which has been spelled with j, h, ' (apostrophe), or a grave accent on the preceding vowel, but which traditionally has often been omitted in writing. whether and how to represent vowel length, e.g. by double vowels or by the use of macrons. Literature Among the indigenous languages of the Americas, extensive corpus of surviving literature in Nahuatl dating as far back as the 16th century may be considered unique. Canger 2002:300 Nahuatl literature encompasses a diverse array of genres and styles, the documents themselves composed under many different circumstances. It appears that the preconquest Nahua had a distinction much like the European distinction between "prose" and "poetry", the first called tlahtolli "speech" and the second cuicatl "song". León-Portilla 1985:12 Nahuatl tlahtolli prose has been preserved in different forms. Annals and chronicles recount history, normally written from the perspective of a particular altepetl (locally based polity) and often combining mythical accounts with real events. Important works in this genre include those from Chalco written by Chimalpahin, from Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo, from Mexico-Tenochtitlan by Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc and those of Texcoco by Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl. Many annals recount history year-by-year and are normally written by anonymous authors. These works are sometimes evidently based on pre-Columbian pictorial year counts that existed, such as the Cuauhtitlan annals and the Anales de Tlatelolco. Purely mythological narratives are also found, like the "Legend of the Five Suns", the Aztec creation myth recounted in Codex Chimalpopoca. One of the most important works of prose written in Nahuatl is the twelve-volume compilation generally known as the Florentine Codex, produced in the mid-16th century by the Franciscan missionary Bernardino de Sahagún with the help of a number of Nahua informants. With this work Sahagún bestowed an enormous ethnographic description of the Nahua, written in side-by-side translations of Nahuatl and Spanish and illustrated throughout by color plates drawn by indigenous painters. Its volumes cover a diverse range of topics: Aztec history, material culture, social organization, religious and ceremonial life, rhetorical style and metaphors. The twelfth volume provides an indigenous perspective on the conquest itself. Sahagún also made a point of trying to document the richness of the Nahuatl language, stating: Nahuatl poetry is preserved in principally two sources: the Cantares Mexicanos and the Romances de los señores de Nueva España, both collections of Aztec songs written down in the 16th and 17th centuries. Some songs may have been preserved through oral tradition from pre-conquest times until the time of their writing, for example the songs attributed to the poet-king of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl. Lockhart and Karttunen identify more than four distinct styles of songs, e.g. the icnocuicatl ("sad song"), the xopancuicatl ("song of spring"), melahuaccuicatl ("plain song") and yaocuicatl ("song of war"), each with distinct stylistic traits. Lockhart and Karttunen 1980:page# Aztec poetry makes rich use of metaphoric imagery and themes and are lamentation of the brevity of human existence, the celebration of valiant warriors who die in battle, and the appreciation of the beauty of life. León-Portilla 1985:12–20 Stylistics The Aztecs distinguished between the at least two social registers of language: the language of commoners (macehuallahtolli) and the language of the nobility (tecpillahtolli). The latter was marked by the use of a distinct rhetorical style. Since literacy was confined mainly to these higher social classes, most of the existing prose and poetical documents were written in this style. An important feature of this high rhetorical style of formal oratory was the use of parallelism, Bright 1990 passim. whereby the orator structured their speech in couplets consisting of two parallel phrases. For example: ye maca timiquican "May we not die" ye maca tipolihuican "May we not perish" Bright 1990:440 Another kind of parallelism used is referred to by modern linguists as difrasismo, in which two phrases are symbolically combined to give a metaphorical reading. Classical Nahuatl was rich in such diphrasal metaphors, many of which are explicated by Sahagún in the Florentine Codex and by Andrés de Olmos' in his Arte. Such difrasismos include Examples given are from Sahagún 1950–82, vol. VI, ff. 202V-211V : in xochitl, in cuicatl "The flower, the song" – meaning "poetry" in cuitlapilli, in atlapalli "the tail, the wing" – meaning "the common people" in toptli, in petlacalli "the chest, the box" meaning "something secret" in yollohtli, in eztli "the heart, the blood" – meaning "cacao" in iztlactli, in tenqualactli "the drool, the spittle" – meaning "lies" Sample text The sample text below is an excerpt from a statement issued in Nahuatl by Emiliano Zapata in 1918 in order to convince the Nahua towns in the area of Tlaxcala to join the Revolution against the regime of Venustiano Carranza. Text as reproduced in León-Portilla 1978:78–80 The orthography employed in the letter is improvised, and does not distinguish long vowels and only sporadically marks "" (with both <h> and acute accent). Message to be passed around To the towns that are located in the area that fought under General Arenas. Now, that the dwellers of this earth, of those towns, finish shaking out that black, evil life of the Carrancismo my heart is very happy and with the dignity in the name of those who fight in the ranks, and to You all I send a happy greeting. and with all of my heart I invite those towns, those who are there, to join the fight for a righteous mandate to not vainly issue statements, to not allow to be done away with your good way of life. We salute those fighters who turn towards this joyous labour and confront the greed in this great war, which can never end, nor will ever end until the end of the black tyrant of that glutton, who mocks and always cheat people and whose name is Venustiano Carranza, who takes the glory out of war and who shames our motherland, Mexico completely dishonouring it. See also List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin Mexican Spanish Notes Bibliography Further reading Dictionaries of Classical Nahuatl de Molina, Fray Alonso: Vocabulario en Lengua Castellana y Mexicana y Mexicana y Castellana. [1555] Reprint: Porrúa México 1992 Karttunen, Frances, An analytical dictionary of Náhuatl. Norman 1992 Siméon, Rémi: Diccionario de la Lengua Náhuatl o Mexicana. [Paris 1885] Reprint: México 2001 Grammars of Classical Nahuatl Carochi, Horacio. Grammar of the Mexican Language: With an Explanation of its Adverbs (1645) Translated by James Lockhart. Stanford University Press. 2001. Lockhart, James: Nahuatl as written: lessons in older written Nahuatl, with copious examples and texts, Stanford 2001 Campbell, Joe and Frances Karttunen, Foundation course in Náhuatl grammar. Austin 1989 Launey, Michel. Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura Náhuatl. México D.F.: UNAM. 1992 (Spanish) Andrews, J. Richard. Introduction to Classical Nahuatl University of Oklahoma Press: 2003 (revised edition) Modern Dialects Ronald W. Langacker (ed.): Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches, Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington, pp. 1–140. ISBN 0883120720. OCLC 6086368. 1979. (Contains studies of Nahuatl from Michoacan, Tetelcingo, Huasteca and North Puebla) Canger, Una. Mexicanero de la Sierra Madre Occidental, Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas de México, #24. México D.F.: El Colegio de México. ISBN 968-12-1041-7. OCLC 49212643. 2001 (Spanish) Campbell, Lyle. The Pipil Language of El Salvador, Mouton Grammar Library (No. 1). Berlin: Mouton Publishers. 1985. ISBN 0-89925-040-8. OCLC 13433705. Wolgemuth, Carl. Gramática Náhuatl (melaʼtájto̱l) de los municipios de Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Juárez, Veracruz, 2nd edition. 2002. Miscellaneous The Nahua Newsletter: edited by the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies of the Indiana University (Chief Editor Alan Sandstrom) Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl: special interest-yearbook of the Instituto de Investigaciones Historicas (IIH) of the Universidad Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ed.: Miguel Leon Portilla External links Ethnologue Náhuatl dialects Nahuatl (Aztec) family, SIL-Mexico, with subsites on some specific variants Náhuatl-French dictionary Includes basic grammar Books at Project Gutenberg in Nahuatl | Nahuatl |@lemmatized nahuatl:192 stress:3 first:14 syllable:8 group:9 related:2 language:103 dialect:50 nahuan:18 traditionally:4 call:21 aztecan:30 branch:9 uto:19 family:10 collectively:1 speak:28 estimate:2 nahua:10 people:12 live:1 central:19 mexico:37 indigenous:31 mesoamerica:10 classical:37 word:43 noun:36 stem:8 nāhua:1 absolutive:13 term:8 jargon:1 linguistics:5 nothing:1 case:8 ergative:1 alignment:1 tl:4 think:4 mean:12 good:2 clear:2 sound:4 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7,559 | Labarum | The Chi-Rho symbol The labarum () was a vexillum (military standard) that displayed the "Chi-Rho" symbol, formed from the first two Greek letters of the word "Christ" (, or Χριστός) — Chi (χ) and Rho (ρ). In Unicode, the Chi-Rho symbol is encoded at U+2627 (☧), and for Coptic at U+2CE9 (⳩). It was first used by the Roman emperor Constantine I. Since the vexillum consisted of a flag suspended from the crossbar of a cross, it was ideally suited to symbolize crucifixion. The Chi-Rho symbol was also used by Greek scribes to mark, in the margin, a particularly valuable or relevant passage; the combined letters Chi and Rho standing for chrēston, meaning "good." Grant, p. 142 The etymology of the word labarum is unclear; Nevertheless, see H. Grégoire, "L'étymologie de 'Labarum'" Byzantion 4 (1929:477-82). it is perhaps to be derived from Latin /labāre/ 'to totter, to waver' (in the sense of the "waving" of a flag in the breeze). Later usage has sometimes regarded the terms 'labarum' and 'Chi-Rho' as synonyms, however, Antique sources draw an unambiguous distinction between the two. Vision of Constantine A coin of Constantine (c.337) showing a depiction of his labarum spearing a serpent. It is commonly stated that on the evening of October 27, 312, with his army preparing for the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, the emperor Constantine I had a vision which led him to fight under the protection of the Christian God. The details of that vision, however, differ between the sources reporting it. Lactantius states Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors, chapter 44.5 that, in the night before the battle, Constantine was commanded in a dream to "delineate the heavenly sign on the shields of his soldiers". He obeyed and marked the shields with a sign "denoting Christ". Lactantius describes that sign as a "staurogram", or a Latin cross with its upper end rounded in a P-like fashion. There is no certain evidence that Constantine ever used that sign, rather than the better known Chi-Rho sign described by Eusebius of Caesarea. From Eusebius, two accounts of the battle survive. The first, shorter one in the Ecclesiastical History leaves no doubt that God helped Constantine but doesn't mention any vision. In his later Life of Constantine, Eusebius gives a detailed account of a vision and stresses that he had heard the story from the emperor himself. According to this version, Constantine with his army was marching somewhere (Eusebius doesn't specify the actual location of the event, but it clearly isn't in the camp at Rome) when he looked up to the sun and saw a cross of light above it, and with it the Greek words "Εν Τούτῳ Νίκα". The Latin translation is in hoc signo vinces—"In this [sign], conquer". At first he was unsure of the meaning of the apparition, but the following night he had a dream in which Christ explained to him that he should use the sign against his enemies. Eusebius then continues to describe the labarum, the military standard used by Constantine in his later wars against Licinius, showing the Chi-Rho sign. Gerberding and Moran Cruz, 55; cf. Eusebius, Life of Constantine. Those two accounts can hardly be reconciled with each other, though they have been merged in popular notion into Constantine seeing the Chi-Rho sign on the evening before the battle. Both authors agree that the sign was not readily understandable as denoting Christ, which corresponds with the fact that there is no certain evidence of the use of the letters chi and rho as a Christian sign before Constantine. Its first appearance is on a Constantinian silver coin from c. 317, which proves that Constantine did use the sign at that time, though not very prominently. Smith, 104: "What little evidence exists suggests that in fact the labarum bearing the chi-rho symbol was not used before 317, when Crispus became Caesar..." He made extensive use of the Chi-Rho and the labarum only later in the conflict with Licinius. The vision has been interpreted in a solar context (e.g. as a solar halo phenomenon), which would have been reshaped to fit with the Christian beliefs of the later Constantine. Eusebius' description of the labarum Constantine's labarum, from an antique silver medal "A Description of the Standard of the Cross, which the Romans now call the Labarum." "Now it was made in the following manner. A long spear, overlaid with gold, formed the figure of the cross by means of a transverse bar laid over it. On the top of the whole was fixed a wreath of gold and precious stones; and within this, the symbol of the Saviour’s name, two letters indicating the name of Christ by means of its initial characters, the letter P being intersected by X in its centre: and these letters the emperor was in the habit of wearing on his helmet at a later period. From the cross-bar of the spear was suspended a cloth, a royal piece, covered with a profuse embroidery of most brilliant precious stones; and which, being also richly interlaced with gold, presented an indescribable degree of beauty to the beholder. This banner was of a square form, and the upright staff, whose lower section was of great length, of the pious emperor and his children on its upper part, beneath the trophy of the cross, and immediately above the embroidered banner." "The emperor constantly made use of this sign of salvation as a safeguard against every adverse and hostile power, and commanded that others similar to it should be carried at the head of all his armies." Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine, Chapter XXXI. Iconographic career under Constantine Coin of Vetranio, a soldier is holding two labara. Interestingly they differ from the labarum of Constantine in having the Chi-Rho depicted on the cloth rather than above it, and in having their staves decorated with phalerae as were earlier Roman military unit standards. The emperor Honorius holding a variant of the labarum - the Latin phrase on the cloth means "In the name of Christ be ever victorious." Among a number of standards depicted on the Arch of Constantine, which was erected, largely with fragments from older monuments, just three years after the battle, the labarum does not appear. A grand opportunity for just the kind of political propaganda that the Arch otherwise was expressly built to present was missed, if Eusebius' oath-confirmed account can be trusted, although it can be argued that, in the early years after the battle, the emperor still had not decided to give clear public support to Christianity, whether for lack of personal faith or in fear of religious friction. The arch's inscription does say that the Emperor had saved the res publica INSTINCTV DIVINITATIS MENTIS MAGNITVDINE ("by greatness of mind and by instinct [or impulse] of divinity"). As with his predecessors, the sun symbol – interpreted as Sol Invictus (the Unconquered Sun) or also as Apollo or Mithras – is inscribed on his coinage, but in 325 and thereafter the coinage ceases to be explicitly pagan, and Sol Invictus disappears. In his Historia Ecclesiae Eusebius further reports that, after his victorious entry into Rome, Constantine had a statue of himself erected, "holding the sign of the Savior [the cross] in his right hand." There are no other reports to confirm such a monument. Whether Constantine was the first Christian emperor supporting during his rule a peaceful transition to Christianity, or an undecided pagan believer until middle age, strongly influenced in his political-religious decisions by his Christian mother St. Helena, is still in dispute among historians. As for the labarum itself, there is little evidence for its use before 317. Smith, JH, p. 104: "What little evidence exists suggests that in fact the labarum bearing the chi-rho symbol was not used before 317, when Crispus became Caesar..." In the course of Constantine's second war against Licinius in 324, the latter developed a superstitious dread of Constantine's standard. During the attack of Constantine's troops at the Battle of Adrianople the guard of the labarum standard were directed to move it to any part of the field where his soldiers seemed to be faltering. The appearance of this talismanic object appeared to embolden Constantine's troops and dismay those of Licinius. Odahl, p. 178 At the final battle of the war, the Battle of Chrysopolis, Licinius, though prominently displaying the images of Rome's pagan pantheon on his own battle line, forbade his troops from actively attacking the labarum, or even looking at it directly. Odahl, p.180 Eusebius stated that in addition to the singular labarum of Constantine, other similar standards (labara) were issued to the Roman army. This is confirmed by the two labara depicted being held by a soldier on a coin of Vetranio (illustrated) dating from 350. Later usage Modern ecclesiastical labara (Southern Germany). The emperor Constantine Monomachos (centre panel of a Byzantine enamelled crown) holding a miniature labarum A later Byzantine manuscript indicates that a jewelled labarum standard believed to have been that of Constantine was preserved for centuries, as an object of great veneration, in the imperial treasury at Constantinople. Lieu and Montserrat p. 118. From a Byzantine life of Constantine (BHG 364) written in the mid to late ninth century. The labarum, with minor variations in its form, was widely used by the Christian Roman emperors who followed Constantine I. A miniature version of the labarum became part of the imperial regalia of Byzantine rulers, who were often depicted carrying it in their right hands. The term "labarum" is used generally for any ecclesiastical banner, such as those carried in religious processions. "The Holy Lavaro" were a set of early national Greek flags, blessed by the Greek Orthodox Church. Under these banners the Greeks united throughout the Greek Revolution (1821), a war of liberation waged against the Ottoman Empire. Labarum also gives its name (Labaro) to a suburb of Rome adjacent to Prima Porta, one of the sites where the 'Vision of Constantine' is placed by tradition. See also Battle of Adrianople (324) Battle of Chrysopolis Labrys Christian symbolism Christogram Constantine I and Christianity Lábaro Ammianus Marcellinus Arch of Constantine, triumphal arch to the victory at Milvian Bridge. Christianity Constantinian shift Chi Rho The name of the Basque swastika lauburu (which can also be interpreted as "four heads") may come through a folk etymology from labarum. Notes Further reading Grabar, Christian Iconography: A Study of its Origins (Princeton University Press) 1968:165ff Grant, Michael (1993), The Emperor Constantine, London. ISBN 0-75380-5286 R. Grosse, "Labarum", Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft vol. 12, pt 1(Stuttgart) 1924:240-42. H. Grégoire, "L'étymologie de 'Labarum'" Byzantion 4 (1929:477-82). A. Lipinsky, "Labarum" Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie 3 (Rome:1970) Lieu, S.N.C and Montserrat, D. (Ed.s) (1996), From Constantine to Julian, London. ISBN 0-415-09336-8 Odahl, C.M., (2004) Constantine and the Christian Empire, Routledge 2004. 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7,560 | Music_lesson | Music lessons are a type of formal instruction in playing a musical instrument or singing. Typically, a student taking music lessons meets a music teacher for one-on-one training sessions ranging from 30 minutes to one hour in length over a period of weeks or years. For vocal lessons, teachers show students how to sit or stand and breathe, and how to position the head, chest, and mouth for good vocal tone. For instrument lessons, teachers show students how to sit or stand with the instrument, how to hold the instrument, and how to manipulate the fingers and other body parts to produce tones and sounds from the instrument. Music teachers also assign technical exercises, musical pieces, and other activities to help the students improve their musical skills. While most music lessons are one-on-one (private), some teachers also teach groups of two to four students (semi-private lessons), and, for very basic instruction, some instruments are taught in large group lessons, such as piano and acoustic guitar. Music lessons are part of both amateur music instruction and professional training. In amateur and recreational music contexts, children and adults take music lessons to improve their singing or playing skills and learn basic techniques. In professional training contexts, such as music conservatories, university music performance programs (e.g., Bachelor of music, Master of music, DMA, etc), students take an hour-long music lesson once a week with a music professor over a period of years to learn advanced playing or singing techniques. Many instrumental performers and singers, including a number of music celebrities, have learned "by ear", especially in folk music styles such as blues and popular styles such as rock music. Nevertheless, even in folk and popular styles, a number of performers have had some type of music lessons, such as meeting with a vocal coach or getting childhood instruction in an instrument such as piano. Posture For vocal lessons, teachers show students how to sit or stand and breathe, and how to position the head and mouth for good vocal tone. For instrument lessons, teachers show students how to sit or stand with the instrument, how to hold the instrument, and how to manipulate the fingers and other body parts to produce tones and sounds from the instrument. For wind and brass instruments, the teacher shows the student how to use their lips, tongue, and breath to produce tones and sounds. For some instruments, teachers also train students in the use of the feet, as in the case of piano or other keyboard instruments that have damper or sustain pedals on the piano, the pedal keyboard on a pipe organ, and some drums and cymbals in the drum kit such as the bass drum pedal and the hi-hat cymbal pedal. In addition to teaching fingering, teachers also provide other types of instruction. A guitar player learns how to strum and pluck strings; players of wind instruments learn about breath control and embouchure, and singers learn how to make the most of their vocal cords without hurting the throat or vocal cords. Teachers also show students how to achieve the correct posture for most efficient playing results. For all instruments, the best way to move the fingers and arms to achieve a desired effect is to learn to play with the least tension in your hands and body. This also prevents forming habits which may lead to injuries resulting from incorrect use of the skeletal frame and muscles. For example, when playing the piano, "fingering" — that is, which fingers to put on which keys—is a skill slowly learned as the student advances, and there are many standard techniques which a teacher can pass on. There are many myths and misconceptions among music teachers, especially in the Western classical tradition, about "good" posture and "bad" posture. Students who find that playing their instruments causes them physical pain should bring this to their teachers' attention. It is a potentially serious, if often overlooked aspect of learning to play an instrument. Learning to use one's body in a manner consistent with the way their anatomy is designed to work can mean the difference between a crippling injury and a lifetime of enjoyment. Many music teachers would caution students about taking "no pain, no gain" as an acceptable response from their music teacher regarding a complaint of physical pain. Concerns about use-related injury and the ergonomics of musicianship have gained more mainstream acceptance in recent years. Musicians have increasingly been turning to medical professionals, physical therapists, and specialized techniques seeking relief from pain and prevention of serious injury. There exist a plurality of special techniques for an even greater plurality of potential difficulties. The Alexander Technique is just one example of these specialized approaches. Theory and history In order to more fully understand the music being played, the student must learn about the underlying music theory. Along with reading musical notation, students learn rhythmic techniques like controlling tempo and recognizing time signatures, as well as the theory of harmony, including chords and key signatures. In addition to basic theory, a good teacher will stress musicality, or how to make the music sound good. This includes tone, phrasing, and proper use of dynamics. Most music lessons include some instruction in the history of the type of music that the student is learning. When a student is taking western classical music lessons, music teachers often spend some time explaining the different eras of western classical music, such as the Baroque era, the Classical era, the Romantic era, and the Modern era, because each era is associated with different styles of music and different performance practice techniques. Instrumental music from the Baroque era is often played in the 2000s as teaching pieces for piano students, string instrument players, and wind instrument players. If students just try to play these Baroque pieces by reading the notes from the score, they might not get the right type of interpretation. However, once a student learns that most Baroque instrumental music was associated with dances, such as the gavotte and the sarabande, and keyboard music from the Baroque era was played on the harpsichord or the pipe organ, a modern-day student is better able to understand how the piece should be played. If, for example, a cello player is assigned a gavotte that was originally written for harpsichord, this gives the student insight in how to play the piece. Since it is a dance, it should have a regular, clear pulse, rather than a Romantic era-style shifting tempo rubato. As well, since it was originally written for the harpsichord, a light-sounding keyboard instrument in which the strings are plucked with quills, this suggests that the notes should be played relatively lightly, and with spaces between each note, rather than in a full-bodied, sustained legato. Technical exercises Although not universally accepted, many teachers drill students with the repetitive playing of certain patterns, such as scales, arpeggios, and rhythms. Scales are often taught because they are the building blocks of melody in most Western art music. In addition, there are flexibility studies, which make it physically easier to play the instrument. There are sets of exercises for piano designed to stretch the connection between fourth and fifth fingers, making them more independent. Brass players practice lip slurs, which are unarticulated changes in embouchure between partials. Entire books of etudes have been written to this purpose. Pieces The teacher will give the student a set of pieces of slowly increasing difficulty. Besides using pieces as an aid to teaching various elements of playing style, a good teacher will also inspire more intangible qualities such as expressiveness and musicianship. Pieces are more enjoyable for most students than theory or scales, and an emphasis on pieces is usually required to maintain motivation. However, the teacher must not give in to the student's desire for "fun" pieces. Often the student's idea of such is popular vocal selections, movie soundtracks, etc. The pieces that one plays should challenge and tone a persons skills. The student should learn something from every piece he/she plays. In addition, in order for a student to be well rounded he/she must play many types of pieces by many different composers from different eras. A varied library of repertoire will increase the student's musical understanding and skill. Examinations A popular measure of progress, especially for children, is external assessment of the progress of the pupil by a regular examination. There are a number of exam boards which offer the chance for pupils to be assessed on either music theory or practice. These are available for almost every musical instrument.One common way to mark progress is to have graded examinations, for example from grade 1 (beginner) to grade 8 (ready to enter higher study at music school). Some teachers prefer other methods of target-setting for their pupils. The most common is the pupil's concert, which gives experience in playing in public and under a certain degree of pressure, without outright criticism or a more or less arbitrary marking system. Another is the graded system of books followed by teachers of the Suzuki method, in which the completion of each book is celebrated, without a system of marking or ranking of pupils. Extra-musical benefits Some studies suggests that music lessons provide children with important developmental benefits beyond simply the knowledge or skill of playing a musical instrument. Research suggests that musical lessons may enhance intelligence and academic achievement, build self-esteem and improve discipline. A recent Rockefeller Foundation Study found that music majors have the highest rate of admittance to medical schools, followed by biochemistry and the humanities. On tests, the national average scores were 427 on the verbal and 476 on math. At the same time, music students averaged 465 on the verbal and 497 on the math - 38 and 21 points higher, respectively. However, the observed correlation between musical and mathematical ability may be inherent rather than acquired. Skills learned through the discipline of music may transfer to study skills, communication skills, and cognitive skills useful in every part of a child's studies at school, though. An in-depth Harvard University study found evidence that spatial-temporal reasoning improves when children learn to make music, and this kind of reasoning improves temporarily when adults listen to certain kinds of music, including Mozart (Rauscher, Shaw & Ky, 1993). This finding which has been named "The Mozart effect" suggests that music and spatial reasoning are related psychologically (i.e., they may rely on some of the same underlying skills) and perhaps neurologically as well. However, there has been considerable controversy over this as later researchers have failed to reproduce the original findings of Rauscher (e.g. Steele, Bass & Crook, 1999), questioned both theory and methodology of the original study (Fudis & Lembesis 2004) and suggested that the enhancing effects of music in experiments have been simply due to an increased level of arousal (Thompson, Schellenberg & Husain, 2001). A relationship between music and the strengthening of math, dance, reading, creative thinking and visual arts skills has also been reported in literature. (Winner, Hetland, Sanni, as reported in The Arts and Academic Achievement - What the Evidence Shows, 2000) However recent findings by Dr. Levitin of McGill University in Montreal, Canada, undermines the suggested connection between musical ability and higher math skills. In a study conducted on patients with Williams Syndrome (a genetic disorder causing low intelligence), he found that even though their intelligence was that of young children they still possessed unusually high level of musical ability. 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7,561 | Boeing_C-17_Globemaster_III | The Boeing (formerly McDonnell Douglas) C-17 Globemaster III is a large military transport aircraft. The C-17 was developed for the United States Air Force from the 1980s to the early 1990s by McDonnell Douglas. The aircraft carries on the name of two previous United States military cargo aircraft, the C-74 Globemaster and the C-124 Globemaster II. The C-17 is used for rapid strategic airlift of troops and cargo to main operating bases or forward bases anywhere in the world. It has the ability to rapidly deploy a combat unit to a potential battle area and sustain it with on-going supplies. The C-17 is also capable of performing tactical airlift, medical evacuation and airdrop missions. C-17 fact sheet. US Air Force, October 2008. The C-17 is operated by the US Air Force, the British Royal Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force, and the Canadian Forces, "Boeing Delivers Canada's First C-17" while NATO and Qatar have placed orders for the airlifter. "Boeing wins Qatar order for C-17 military aircraft". AFP, 21 July 2008 "NATO Consortium Completes Agreement to Acquire Boeing C-17s". Boeing, 1 October 2008. Development Background In the 1970s, the US Air Force began looking for a replacement for the C-130 Hercules tactical airlifter. The Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST) competition was held, with Boeing proposing the YC-14, and McDonnell Douglas proposing the YC-15. Though both entrants exceeded specified requirements, the AMST competition was canceled before a winner had been selected. The Air Force subsequently started the C-X program to develop a larger AMST with longer range to augment its strategic airlift. Kennedy 2004, p. 3-20. The McDonnell-Douglas YC-15 design was used as the basis for the C-17. By 1980, the USAF found itself with a large fleet of aging C-141 Starlifter cargo aircraft. Compounding matters, USAF historically never possessed sufficient strategic airlift capabilities to fulfill its airlift requirements. The USAF set mission requirements and released a request for proposals (RFP) in October 1980. McDonnell Douglas elected to develop a new aircraft using the YC-15 as the basis. Boeing bid an enlarged version of its AMST YC-14. Lockheed submitted a C-5 based design and an enlarged C-141 design. McDonnell Douglas was selected to build its proposed aircraft on 28 August 1981, by then designated C-17. The new aircraft differed in having swept wings, increased size, and more powerful engines. Norton 2001, pp. 12-13. This would allow it to perform all work performed by the C-141, but to also fulfill some of the duties of the C-5 Galaxy, freeing the C-5 fleet for larger outsize cargo. Design phase Development continued until December 1985 when a full-scale production contract was signed for 210 aircraft. Development problems and limited funding caused delays in the late 1980s. Historical Realities of C-17 Program Questions were also raised about more cost-effective alternatives during this time. In April 1990, Defense Secretary Dick Cheney reduced the order from 210 to 120 aircraft. The C-17's maiden flight was on 15 September 1991 from the McDonnell Douglas west coast plant in Long Beach, California, about a year behind schedule. The first aircraft (T-1) and five more production models (P1-P5) participated in extensive flight testing and evaluation at Edwards Air Force Base. RL30685 "Military Airlift: C-17 Aircraft Program". Congressional Research Service, 5 June 2007. The C-17 received the "Globemaster III" name in early 1993. In late 1993, the DoD gave the contractor two years to solve production and cost overrun problems or face termination of the contract after the delivery of the fortieth aircraft. By accepting the 1993 terms, McDonnell Douglas incurred a loss of nearly US$1.5 billion on the development phase of the program. In April 1994, the C-17 program was still experiencing cost overruns, and did not meet weight, fuel burn, payload and range specifications. Airflow issues caused problems with parachutes and there were various other technical problems with mission software, landing gear, etc. GAO Testimony before the SubCommittee on Military Acquisition A July 1994 GAO document revealed that to justify investing in the C-17 rather than in the C-5, Air Force and DoD studies from 1986 and 1991 had claimed that the C-17 could use 6,400 more runways (outside the US) than the C-5. It was later discovered that this study had only considered the runway dimensions, but not their strength or Load Classification Numbers (LCN). The C-5 has a lower LCN than the C-17, although the US Air Force places both in the same broad Load Classification Group (LCG). When considering runway dimensions and their load ratings, the C-17's worldwide runway advantage over the C-5 shrank from 6,400 to 911 airfields. GAO Comparison of C-5 and C-17 Airfield Availability However, the C-17's ability to use lower quality, austere airfields was not considered. A January 1995 GAO report revealed that while the original C-17 budget was US$41.8 billion for 210 aircraft, the 120 aircraft already ordered at that point had already cost US$39.5 billion. C-17 Cost and Performance Issues In March 1994, the U.S. Army had decided it no longer needed the 60,000 lb (27,000 kg) Low Altitude Parachute Extraction System (LAPES) delivery that the C-17 was supposed to provide, feeling that the 42,000 lb (19,000 kg) capability of the C-130 Hercules was sufficient. It was decided not to conduct C-17 LAPES training beyond the testing of a 42,000 lb (19,000 kg) LAPES delivery. There were still airflow problems making it impossible for the C-17 to meet its original airdrop requirements. A February 1997 GAO Report revealed that a C-17 with a full payload could not land on 3,000 feet (900 m) wet runways, for simulations suggested 5,000 ft (1,500 m) was required. C-17 Globemaster Support of Operation Joint Endevour By the mid-1990s, most of the problems had been resolved. Air Force Secretary Says Modernization, C-17 on Track, Air Force magazine, 19 September 1995. The first C-17 squadron was declared operational by the U.S. Air Force in January 1995. In 1996, DoD ordered another 80 aircraft for a total of 120. In 1997 McDonnell Douglas merged with its former competitor, Boeing. In 1998, the order was increased to 134 units and in August 2002 to 180. Recent developments Three C-17s unload supplies to aid victims of Hurricane Katrina at Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi in August 2005. In July 2006, C-17 production was planned to end in 2009 unless Boeing received additional orders in time to allow the production "pipeline" to remain in operation. At the time a large follow-on order would allow Boeing to begin C-17B production in 2010. The proposed C-17B would be capable of landing on sandy beaches and other areas off-limits to the C-17A. . On 18 August 2006 Boeing announced it was telling suppliers to stop work on parts for uncommitted C-17s. This move is the first step in shutting down production if no new plane orders were received from the US Government. Boeing preparing to end C-17 production However, just one month later on 21 September, a House and Senate conference committee approved a US$447 billion defense bill for 2007, that includes US$2.1 billion for 10 additional C-17s. The additional purchase follows intense lobbying by Boeing, as well as by California state leaders (where the plane is manufactured), and Missouri leaders, where Boeing's defense business is based. "Boeing's C-17 line wins a reprieve on new funding", US Air Force However, this extends the life of the program for only one additional year, to 2010. On 2 March 2007, Boeing announced the C-17 production line may end in mid-2009 due to the lack of additional US government and international orders. Boeing Announces C-17 Line May End in mid-2009; Stops Procurement of Long-lead Parts, Boeing A total of 190 C-17s are contracted for delivery to the USAF as of October 2007. Boeing has purchased parts for 30 new C-17s at its own expense in hopes that Congress will approve the funds requested. Boeing Company Funds Extension, Boeing, web page revised 9 July 2008. Fifteen C-17s are earmarked in a FY2008 War Supplemental Analysis of Senate May 2008 Iraq-Afghanistan Supplemental War Funding for DOD, Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, 21 May 2008. that passed the House on 10 June 2008 and the Senate on 27 June 2008. President Bush signed the measure into law in 30 June 2008. "Bush Signs $162 Billion Supplemental War Funding Bill", US DoD, 30 June 2008. These funds will extend production from August 2009 to August 2010, once a contract is awarded. On 6 February 2009, Boeing was awarded a contract for 15 additional C-17s with for US$2.95 billion, thus pushing total C-17s on contract to the USAF to 205. "Boeing in $3bn air force contract". Flight International, 10 February 2009. Retrieved 10 February 2009. On April 6, 2009 US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates announced that there would be no more C-17s ordered beyond the 205 currently planned. Cole, August, and Yochi J. Dreazen, "Pentagon Pushes Weapon Cuts", Wall Street Journal, April 7, 2009, p. 1. This announcement may have been a bit early because a month later in May, a war funding bill was put forward that requested an additional US$2.2bn for up to 8 more aircraft. Design The inside of a C-17 In recent years the size and weight of U.S. mechanized firepower and equipment have grown, which has significantly increased air mobility requirements, particularly in the area of large or heavy outsize cargo. The C-17 can airlift such cargo fairly close to a potential battle area. The C-17 is powered by four fully reversible, F117-PW-100 turbofan engines (the Department of Defense designation for the commercial Pratt and Whitney PW2040, currently used on the Boeing 757). Each engine is rated at 40,400 lbf (180 kN) of thrust. Pratt & Whitney's F117 page The thrust reversers direct the flow of air upward and forward. This reduces the probability of foreign object damage and provides reverse thrust capable of backing the aircraft. Additionally, the C-17's thrust reversers can be used in flight at idle-reverse for added drag in maximum-rate descents. C-17 landing, showing its landing gear. The aircraft requires a crew of three (pilot, copilot, and loadmaster) for cargo operations. Cargo is loaded through a large aft door that accommodates both rolling stock (trucks, armored vehicles, trailers, etc.) and palletized cargo. The cargo floor has rollers (used for palletized cargo) that can be flipped to provide a flat floor suitable for rolling stock. One of the larger pieces of rolling stock that this aircraft can carry is the 70-ton M1 Abrams tank. Boeing C-17 creating a visible vortex while demonstrating the use of reverse thrust to push the aircraft backwards down the runway. Maximum payload capacity of the C-17 is 170,900 lb (77,500 kg), and its maximum gross takeoff weight is 585,000 lb (265,350 kg). With a payload of 160,000 lb (72,600 kg) and an initial cruise altitude of 28,000 ft (8,500 m), the C-17 has an unrefueled range of approximately 2,400 nautical miles (4,400 km) on the first 71 units, and 2,800 nautical miles (5,200 km) on all subsequent units -- which are extended-range models using the sealed center wing bay as a fuel tank. These units are informally referred to by Boeing as the C-17 ER. "C-17/C-17 ER Flammable Material Locations". Boeing Integrated Defense Systems. 1 May 2005. The C-17 cruise speed is approximately 450 knots (833 km/h) (0.76 Mach). The C-17 is designed to airdrop 102 paratroopers and their equipment. The C-17 is designed to operate from runways as short as 3,500 ft (1,064 m) and as narrow as 90 ft (27 m). In addition, the C-17 can operate out of unpaved, unimproved runways (although there is the increased probability of damage to the aircraft). The thrust reversers can be used to back the aircraft and reverse direction on narrow taxiways using a three-point (or in some cases, multi-point) turn maneuver. Operational history United States Air Force The first production model was delivered to Charleston Air Force Base, South Carolina on 14 July 1993. The first squadron of C-17s, the 17th Airlift Squadron, was declared operationally ready on 17 January 1995. Norton 2001, pp. 94-95. The C-17 has broken 22 records for oversized payloads. Boeing: Boeing C-17 Globemaster III Claims 13 World Records, Boeing The C-17 was awarded US aviation's most prestigious award, the Collier Trophy in 1994. Collier Trophy, 1990-1999 winners, NAA: National Aeronautic Association A USAF C-17 during takeoff The Air Force originally programmed to buy a total of 120 C-17s, with the last one being scheduled for delivery in November 2004. The fiscal 2000 budget funded another 14 aircraft, primarily for Air Mobility Command (AMC) support of the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). Basing of the original 120 C-17s was with the 437th Airlift Wing and 315th Airlift Wing at Charleston AFB, South Carolina, the 62nd Airlift Wing and 446th Airlift Wing at McChord Air Force Base, Washington (first aircraft arrived in July 1999), the Air Education and Training Command's (AETC) 97th Air Mobility Wing at Altus AFB, Oklahoma, and the Air Mobility Command-gained 172d Airlift Wing of the Mississippi Air National Guard at Jackson-Evers International Airport/ANGB, Mississippi. Although operationally-gained by the Air Mobility Command, the C-17 aircraft assigned to the 172 AW are the only C-17s strictly under direct control of the Air National Guard (ANG). Basing of the additional 13 aircraft went to the 305th Air Mobility Wing and 514th Air Mobility Wing at McGuire Air Force Base, New Jersey; the 3d Wing and 176th Wing at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska; 15th Airlift Wing and 154th Wing at Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii; and 60th Air Mobility Wing and 349th Air Mobility Wing at Travis Air Force Base, California. An additional 60 units were ordered in May 2002. A C-17 lands at Ramstein Air Base, Germany, after dropping humanitarian food rations over Afghanistan. In FY 2006, eight C-17s were delivered to March Air Reserve Base, California. Although operationally-gained by the Air Mobility Command, these C-17s are the only aircraft strictly under direct control of the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC). In 2007, Congress appropriated funds for 10 additional USAF C-17s, Search Results - THOMAS (Library of Congress) bringing the total planned fleet size (on order + delivered) to 190. Additional aircraft were subsequently assigned to Dover AFB, Delaware which had previously been strictly equipped with C-5 Galaxy aircraft. The C-17 have been and continue to deliver military goods and humanitarian aid during Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan as well as Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq. On 26 March 2003, fifteen USAF C-17s participated in the biggest combat airdrop since the United States invasion of Panama in December, 1989: the night-time airdrop of 1,000 paratroopers from the 173rd Airborne Brigade occurred over Bashur, Iraq. It opened the northern front to combat operations and constituted the largest formation airdrop carried out by the United States since World War II. A C-17 also accompanies the President of the United States on his visits to both domestic and foreign arrangements, consultations, and meetings. The C-17 is used to transport the Presidential Limousine and security detachments. USAF C-17A taxiing to the take off point at the Royal International Air Tattoo, RAF Fairford, Gloucestershire, England. USAF C-17s have also been used to assist US allies transport military equipment, including Canadian armored vehicles to Afghanistan in 2003 and the redeployment of Australian forces in Australia and the Solomon Islands during the Australian-led military deployment to East Timor in 2006. In late September and early November 2006, USAF C-17s flew 15 Canadian Forces Leopard C2 tanks from Kyrgyzstan into Kandahar in support of the Afghanistan NATO mission. There has been debate regarding follow-on orders for the C-17, with the Air Force requesting line shutdown, and members of Congress attempting to reinstate production. Furthermore, in FY2007, the Air Force requested $1.6 billion to deal with what it termed "excessive combat use" on operational airframes. Fulghum, D., Butler, A., Barrie, D.: "Australia Picks C-17." Aviation Week & Space Technology. 13 March 2006, page 43. "Boeing's C-17 wins against EADS' A400" (online version) However, in testimony before a House of Representatives subcommittee on air and land forces, General Arthur Lichte, USAF, the Commander of Air Mobility Command indicated extending production to another 15 aircraft, bringing the total to 205. Pending on the delivery of the results of two studies in 2009, Lichte opines that the Air Force may eventually have to keep the production line open for purchase of even more C-17s to satisfy airlift requirements. USAF reveals C-17 cracks and dispute on production future, Flightglobal.com, 4 April 2008. In February 2009 the USAF ordered 15 more C-17s which will bring its total to 205. Royal Air Force Boeing has actively marketed the C-17 to many European nations including Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom. Of these, the UK was always seen as the most likely customer given its increasingly expeditionary military strategy and global commitments. The Royal Air Force has established an aim of having interoperability and some weapons and capabilities commonality with the United States Air Force. The UK's 1998 Strategic Defence Review identified a requirement for a strategic airlifter. The Short-Term Strategic Airlift (STSA) competition commenced in September of that year, however tendering was cancelled in August 1999 with some bids identified by ministers as too expensive (including the Boeing/BAe C-17 bid) and others unsuitable. The project continued, with the C-17 seen as the favorite. In the light of continuing delays to the EADS A400M program, the UK Defence Secretary, Geoff Hoon, announced in May 2000 that the RAF would lease four C-17s at an annual cost of £100 million from Boeing for an initial seven years with an optional two year extension. At this point the RAF would have the option to buy the aircraft or return them to Boeing. The UK committed to upgrading the C-17s in line with the USAF so that in the event of their being returned to Boeing the USAF could adopt them. The first C-17 was delivered to the RAF at Boeing's Long Beach facility on 17 May 2001 and flown to RAF Brize Norton by a crew from No. 99 Squadron which had previously trained with USAF crews to gain competence on the type. The RAF's fourth C-17 was delivered on 24 August 2001. The RAF aircraft were some of the first to take advantage of the new center wing fuel tank. The RAF declared itself delighted with the C-17 and reports began to emerge that they wished to retain the aircraft regardless of the A400M's progress. Although the C-17 fleet was to be a fallback for the A400M, the UK announced on 21 July 2004 that they had elected to buy their four C-17s at the end of the lease, even though the A400M appeared to be moving closer to production. They also announced that there would be a follow-on order for one aircraft, with possible additional purchases later. "RAF's Globe Master." Global Defence Review. 2003. While the A400M is described as a "strategic" airlifter, the C-17 gives the RAF true strategic capabilities that it would not wish to lose, for example a maximum payload of 169,500 lb (77,000 kg) compared to the Airbus' 82,000 lb (37,000 kg). The Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced on 4 August 2006 that they had ordered an additional C-17 and that the four aircraft on lease would be purchased at the end of the current contract in 2008. A fifth aircraft was delivered on 22 February 2008 and reported for duty on 7 April 2008 at Brize Norton air base in Oxfordshire. "UK receives fifth C-17, as RAF fleet passes 40,000 flight hours". FlightGlobal.com 14 April 2008. Due to fears that the A400M may suffer further delays, the MoD announced plans to acquire three more C-17s (giving a total of eight) for delivery in 2009-2010, provided that the U.S. Air Force placed a follow-on order extending through the same time period. Robertson, D. "MoD pins hopes on Boeing C17 amid Airbus doubts". The Times. 28 December 2006. On 26 July 2007, Defence Secretary Des Browne announced that the MoD intends to order a sixth C-17 to boost operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. "Browne: Purchase of extra C-17 will 'significantly boost' UK military operations". UK Ministry of Defence news, 27 July 2007. On 3 December 2007, the MoD announced a contract with Boeing for a sixth C-17, "RAF gets sixth C-17 Globemaster", UK Ministry of Defence news, 4 December 2007. which was handed over to the RAF on 11 June 2008. "Boeing Delivers 6th C-17 to Royal Air Force", Boeing, 11 June 2008. In RAF service the C-17 has not been given an official designation (e.g., C-130J referred to as Hercules C4 or C5) due to its leased status, but is referred to simply as the C-17 or "C-17A Globemaster". C-17A Globemaster page. Royal Air Force. Royal Australian Air Force The RAAF's first C-17 in flight over Canberra Wing Commander Linda Corbould, commander of No. 36 Squadron RAAF, training in a USAF C-17 The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) began investigating options to acquire heavy lift transport aircraft for strategic transport in 2005. In late 2005 the then Minister for Defence Robert Hill stated that the Australian Defence Force was considering such aircraft due to the limited availability of strategic airlift aircraft from partner nations and air freight companies. The C-17 was considered to be favoured over the A400M as it was a "proven aircraft" and was already in production. One major requirement from the RAAF was the ability to airlift the Army's new M1 Abrams main battle tanks; another requirement was immediate delivery. Though unstated, commonality with the USAF and the United Kingdom's RAF was also considered advantageous. The aircraft for the RAAF were ordered directly from the USAF production run, and are identical to American C-17 even in paint scheme, the only difference being the national markings. This allowed delivery to commence within nine months of commitment to the program.<ref name="awst_20061211">"Stock Standard". Aviation Week & Space Technology. 11 December 2006.</ref> On 2 March 2006 the Australian Government announced the purchase of three aircraft and one option with an entry into service date of 2006. The Australian Government's 2006–07 budget included funding of A$2.2 billion to fund the purchase of three or four C-17s and related spare parts and training equipment. In July 2006 a fixed price contract was awarded to Boeing to deliver four C-17s for US$780m (AUD$1bn). "Boeing wins $780 mln deal for Australia C-17s." Reuters. 31 July 2006. Australia also signed a US$80.7m contract to join the global 'virtual fleet' C-17 sustainment program and the RAAF's C-17s will receive the same upgrades as the USAF's fleet. The Royal Australian Air Force took delivery of its first C-17 in a ceremony at Boeing's plant at Long Beach, California on 29 November 2006. Several days later the aircraft flew from Hickam Air Force Base, Honolulu, Hawaii to Defence Establishment Fairbairn, Canberra, arriving on 4 December 2006. The aircraft was formally accepted in a ceremony at Fairbairn shortly after arrival. The second aircraft was delivered to the RAAF on 11 May 2007 and the third was delivered on 18 December 2007. The fourth Australian C-17 was delivered on 19 January 2008. All the Australian C-17s are operated by No. 36 Squadron and are based at RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland. The squadron is currently working towards reaching its full operational capability in mid 2011. Australia's C-17s have supported ADF operations around the world. Tasks have included supporting Air Combat Group training deployments to the United States, transporting Royal Australian Navy Sea Hawk helicopters and making fortnightly missions to the Middle East to supply Australian forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. The C-17s have also carried humanitarian supplies to Papua New Guinea during Operation Papua New Guinea Assist in 2007 and supplies and South African Puma helicopters to Burma in 2008 following Cyclone Nargis. Canadian Forces Air Command Canadian Forces CC-177 in Louisiana Canada has had a long-standing need for strategic airlift for humanitarian and military operations around the world. The Canadian Forces (CF) had followed a pattern similar to the Luftwaffe in using rented Antonovs and Ilyushins for many of their needs, including deploying the Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART) to tsunami-stricken Sri Lanka in 2005. The CF was forced to rely entirely on leased An-124 Condors for a deployment to Haiti in 2003, as well as a combination of leased Condors, Ilyushins and USAF C-17s for moving heavy equipment into Afghanistan. The Canadian Forces Future Strategic Airlifter Project was initiated in 2002 to study various alternatives, including long-term leasing arrangements. "Strategic lift capacity for Canada", The Ploughshares Monitor, 2005. On 5 July 2006, the Canadian government issued a notice that it intended to negotiate directly with Boeing for the purchase of four airlifters. Airlift Capability Project - Strategic ACP-S - ACAN MERX Website - Government of Canada Then on 1 February 2007 Canada awarded a contract for four C-17s with delivery beginning in August 2007. "O'Connor announces military plane purchase". CTV.ca, 2 February 2007. Like Australia, Canada was granted airframes originally slated for the U.S. Air Force, to accelerate delivery. "Canada gets USAF slots for August delivery after signing for four Boeing C-17 in 20-year C$4bn deal, settles provincial workshare quabble". Wastnage, J. Flight International. 5 February 2007. On 16 June 2007, the first Canadian C-17 rolled off the assembly line at Long Beach, California and into the paint hangar for painting and addition of Canadian markings including the national logo and air force roundel. The first Canadian C-17 made its initial flight on 23 July. "Canada One C-17 makes first flight", Boeing, 25 July 2007. It was turned over to Canada on August 8, and participated at the Abbotsford Airshow on August 11 prior to arriving at its new home base at 8 Wing, CFB Trenton, Ontario on August 12. "First CC-177 Globemaster III Receives Patriotic and Enthusiastic Welcome" - Department of National Defence. Its first operational mission was delivery of disaster relief to Jamaica in the aftermath of Hurricane Dean. "New military aircraft leaves on aid mission". Cnews.com, 24 August 2007. The second C-17 arrived at 8 Wing, CFB Trenton on 18 October 2007. The last of four aircraft was delivered in April 2008. "Canada takes delivery of final CC-177", Canadian Forces, 3 April 2008. The C-17 is officially designated CC-177 Globemaster III within the Canadian Forces. Aircraft - CC-177 Globemaster III. Canada's Air Force. The aircraft are assigned to 429 Squadron based at CFB Trenton. Future and potential operators NATO The Royal Danish Air Force signed a letter of intent to purchase C-17s on 19 July 2006 at the 2006 Farnborough Airshow to participate in the joint purchase and operation of C-17s within NATO, a program called the NATO Strategic Airlift Capability. NATO Strategic Airlift Capability A further letter of intent was announced on 12 September 2006 that includes Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia and the United States to be part of a larger NATO joint purchase. NATO to place order for C-17s,Long Beach Press Telegram 13 September 2006 This purchase would probably be similar to NATO's purchase of the E-3A Sentry. Later on, NATO countries Hungary and Norway, as well as Partner country Sweden also signed the Letter of Intent. Finland has also decided to join the program. "Finland joins strategic airlifter procurement scheme", NewsRoom Finland, 25.3.2008. The purchase is to be for two C-17s, which will operate in the same fashion as the NATO AWACS aircraft. NATO AWACS Homepage of the E-3 Component The AWACS aircraft are jointly manned by crew from various NATO countries. On 9 May 2008, a Foreign Military Sale Notice was posted at the Defense Security Cooperation Agency notifying the US Congress of a possible sale of two C-17s and related equipment worth up to US$700 million. The sale is expected to be completed in June 2008. Hoyle, Craig. "NATO to finalise C-17 order in June", Flight International, 30 May 2008. To support the two NATO C-17s in the Heavy Airlift Wing to be based at Pápa Air Base in Hungary, the United States Air Force will provide an additional aircraft for use by the wing. German Luftwaffe The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and resultant tsunamis placed a strain on the global strategic airlifter pool. The performance of the C-17 in USAF and RAF service led to Germany considering 2-4 C-17s for the Luftwaffe in a Dry lease arrangement, at least until the anticipated availability of the A400M in 2009. Germany's former Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer stated in the German news magazine Der Spiegel that the government needed its own organic strategic transport capability to be able to respond to disasters in a better manner than it was able to for this incident. During the tsunami relief effort, Germany tried to acquire transport through its usual method of wet leasing Antonov airlifters via private companies, but found to its dismay that there were no available aircraft. While the stated goal of a C-17 lease would be to last until the A400M's arrival, the Luftwaffe may elect to retain them. "Berlin designates tsunami relief as aid." Expatica. 17 January 2005. The Luftwaffe acquired meanwhile airlift capacity through the NATO SALIS contract. Background — Airlifters — NATO's Strategic Airlift Interim Solution Canadian American Strategic Review (CASR) Simon Fraser University Swedish Armed Forces The Swedish Armed Forces identified a need in a Spring 2006 budget proposal for a strategic airlift capability for use with the EU Nordic Battle Group led by Sweden. Repeated reports in the Swedish media suggest that the Armed Forces are lobbying hard for the airlift requirement to be satisfied with the purchase of two C-17s. A request for information on the Swedish Defense Materiel Administration website stated that Sweden must be able to deploy the battle group up to away with 6000 tons of military equipment, one quarter of that being oversized. In late 2006, Sweden signed a Letter of Intent (LOI) to join the NATO Strategic Airlift Capability (NSAC). Others In September 2006, General Paul V. Hester, USAF, Commander of the United States Pacific Air Forces, stated that Japan was considering purchasing C-17s to equip the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. "Aussies learn C-17 ropes". Air Force Times. 25 October 2006. Qatar has signed a deal for two C-17ERs for delivery in 2009 with an option for two further examples. "Boeing, Qatar Announce C-17 Globemaster III Order". Boeing, 21 July 2008. During the summer 2008 it was reported that the Republic of Korea had allocated funds for the purchase of three or four C-17-class airplanes for use in supporting expeditionary deployments. In February 2009, the United Arab Emirates signed an agreement to purchase four C-17 airlifters. Trimble, Stephen. "UAE strengthens airlift capacity with C-130J, C-17 deals". Flight International, 25 February 2009. Commercial interest In the mid-1990s, McDonnell Douglas began to market the C-17 to commercial civilian operators, under the name MD-17. MD-17 Receives FAA Certification Due to its high projected fuel, maintenance and depreciation cost for a low-cycle military design in commercial service, as well as a limited market dominated by the An-124 and A300-600ST, very little interest was expressed. After McDonnell Douglas merged with Boeing, the commercial version was renamed BC-17. "Boeing proposes BC-17X". Boeing However, the aircraft received no orders and Boeing is no longer offering the BC-17 for sale. Variants C-17A: The initial military airlifter version. C-17A "ER": Unofficial name for C-17As with extended range due to the addition of the center wing tank. This upgrade was incorporated in production beginning in 2001. Norton 2001, p. 93. C-17B: Proposed tactical airlifter version. The design includes double-slotted flaps, an additional main landing gear on fuselage, more powerful engines and other systems for shorter landing and take-off distances. Trimble, Stephen. "Boeing offers C-17B as piecemeal upgrade". Flight International, 19 August 2008. Boeing offered the C-17B to the US military in 2007 for carrying the Army's Future Combat System (FCS) vehicles and other equipment. Trimble, Stephen. "Boeing offers C-17B to US Army". Flight International, 16 October 2007. Operators RAF, RAAF and USAF C-17s and flight crews at RAF Brize Norton in June 2007 A training mission in Jan. 2007 over the Hawaiian Islands A C-17 release a barrage of flares. The wing-tip vortices can be seen in the flare smoke behind the aircraft. A C-17 performs touch-and-go landings while another C-17 prepares for take-off Royal Australian Air Force: 4 C-17ERs. No. 36 Squadron "Master plan for C-17s." Air Force News. Volume 48, No. 4, 23 March 2006 Canadian Forces Air Command: 4 C-17ERs. 429 Transport Squadron, 8 Wing Trenton "Canada's New Government Re-Establishes Squadron to Support C-17 Aircraft", Canadian Department of National Defence, 18 July 2007. NATO Heavy Airlift Wing: 1 C-17 on loan from USAF and 2 C-17ERs on order. (2 on order) (4 on order) Royal Air Force: 6 C-17ERs. No. 99 Squadron United States Air Force: 185 total (71 C-17, 114 C-17ER) as of April 2009. Total on order is 205 (last C-17 will be delivered in FY 2010). http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=4396 3d Wing 517th Airlift Squadron 15th Airlift Wing 535th Airlift Squadron 60th Air Mobility Wing 21st Airlift Squadron 62d Airlift Wing 4th Airlift Squadron 7th Airlift Squadron 8th Airlift Squadron 10th Airlift Squadron 97th Air Mobility Wing 58th Airlift Squadron 154th Wing, ANG 204th Airlift Squadron 172d Airlift Wing, ANG 183d Airlift Squadron 176th Wing, ANG 249th Airlift Squadron 305th Air Mobility Wing 6th Airlift Squadron 315th Airlift Wing, AFRC 300th Airlift Squadron 317th Airlift Squadron 701st Airlift Squadron 349th Air Mobility Wing, AFRC 301st Airlift Squadron 412th Test Wing 418th Flight Test Squadron 436th Airlift Wing 3d Airlift Squadron 437th Airlift Wing 14th Airlift Squadron 15th Airlift Squadron 16th Airlift Squadron 17th Airlift Squadron 446th Airlift Wing, AFRC 97th Airlift Squadron 313th Airlift Squadron 728th Airlift Squadron 452d Air Mobility Wing, AFRC 729th Airlift Squadron 512th Airlift Wing, AFRC 326th Airlift Squadron 514th Air Mobility Wing, AFRC 732d Airlift Squadron Deliveries <font color=#FFFFFF> 2009 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2008 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2007 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2006 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2005 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2004 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2003 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2002 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2001 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2000 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1999 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1998 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1997 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1996 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1995 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1994 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1993 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1992 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1991 3 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 14 13 11 10 7 6 6 8 5 4 1 Sources: C-17 Globemaster III Pocket Guide, "C-17 Globemaster III Pocket Guide", The Boeing Company, Long Beach, CA, March 2006 Boeing IDS Major Deliveries IDS Major Deliveries (current year), Boeing, retrieved 13 May 2008. Notable incidents On 10 December 2003, a US Air Force C-17 (AF Serial No. 98-0057) was hit by a SAM after take-off from Baghdad, Iraq. One engine was disabled and the aircraft returned for a safe landing. SAM incidents Information on 98-0057 incident, Aviation-Safety.net The aircraft was repaired and returned to service. C-17, tail 98-0057 image from 2004, airliners.net. On 6 August 2005, a US Air Force C-17 (AF Serial No. 01-0196) ran off the runway at Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan while attempting to land, destroying the airplane's nose and main landing gear, at the time making it the most extensively damaged C-17 to date. Bagram Runway Reopens After C-17 Incident - DefendAmerica News Article A Boeing recovery team spent two months getting the aircraft ready to attempt a flight back to Boeing's Long Beach production facility. "The Big Fix", Boeing Frontiers Online, February 2006. The five day flight back to the United States had to be performed by a test pilot, because the temporary repairs done to the aircraft resulted in numerous performance limitations. Skypark Pilots Honored, skypark.org The aircraft repair was completed at Long Beach in October 2006 and the aircraft has reentered normal operations. The aircraft underwent the Block 16 upgrade in December 2007. On 30 January 2009 a US Air Force C-17 (AF Serial No. 96-0002 - "Spirit of the Air Force") landed at Bagram Air Base without its landing gear deployed. "Bagram Air Base runway recovery". US Air Force, 4 February 2009. "Bagram C-17 Accident Investigation Board complete". US Air Force, 7 May 2009. As of 29 April 2009, the aircraft had successfully flown out of Bagram AB and arrived at Nova Scotia for an overnight stay after making several stops along the way. It was limited to flying under 10,000 ft and a speed of no more than 250 knots. The aircraft has probably since been ferried back to Boeing's plant in Long Beach, California for more permanent repairs. It is expected to return to service once the repairs are completed. Specifications (C-17) See also References Notes Bibliography Kennedy, Betty R. Globemaster III: Acquiring the C-17, Air Mobility Command Office of History, 2004. Norton, Bill. Boeing C-17 Globemaster III'', Specialty Press, 2001. ISBN 1-58007-061-2. External links C-17 page on Boeing.com C-17 USAF fact sheet C-17 History page on Boeing.com C-17 page on GlobalSecurity.org C-17 detailed photographs on b-domke.de C-17 interior used for passenger transport C-17 photos on Airliners.net | Boeing_C-17_Globemaster_III |@lemmatized boeing:66 formerly:1 mcdonnell:11 douglas:11 c:213 globemaster:17 iii:11 large:10 military:18 transport:11 aircraft:66 develop:3 united:16 state:18 air:91 force:73 early:4 carry:5 name:5 two:11 previous:1 cargo:11 ii:2 use:20 rapid:1 strategic:23 airlift:65 troop:1 main:4 operating:1 base:25 forward:3 anywhere:1 world:5 ability:3 rapidly:1 deploy:4 combat:6 unit:6 potential:3 battle:5 area:4 sustain:1 go:3 supply:5 also:12 capable:3 perform:4 tactical:3 medical:1 evacuation:1 airdrop:6 mission:8 fact:2 sheet:2 u:36 october:8 operate:5 british:1 royal:14 australian:14 canadian:16 delivers:2 canada:12 first:17 nato:20 qatar:4 place:5 order:28 airlifter:9 win:4 afp:1 july:17 consortium:1 complete:5 agreement:2 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7,562 | Dance_Dance_Revolution | Current Dance Dance Revolution logo Dance Dance Revolution, stylized DanceDanceRevolution, abbreviated DDR, and previously known as Dancing Stage in PAL territories until the announcement of Dance Dance Revolution X, is a long-standing music video game series produced by Konami. Introduced in Japan in as part of the Bemani series, and released in North America and Europe in , Dance Dance Revolution is the pioneering series of the rhythm and dance genre in video games. Players stand on a "dance platform" or stage and hit colored arrows laid out in a cross with their feet to musical and visual cues. Players are judged by how well they time their dance to the patterns presented to them and are allowed to choose more music to play to if they receive a passing score. Dance Dance Revolution has been given much critical acclaim for its originality and stamina in the video game market. There have been dozens of arcade-based releases across several countries and hundreds of home video game console releases. The series has promoted a unique music library of original songs produced by Konami's in-house artists and an eclectic set of licensed music from many different genres. DDR is viewed as an exercise tool and is in use as such in many gyms and schools. The series has also inspired many clones of its gameplay and a global fan base of millions that have created simulators of the game to which they contribute original music and "simfiles", collections of dance patterns to a specific song. DDR celebrated its 10th anniversary on November 21 2008. Gameplay The dance stage, divided into 9 sections, 4 of them in the cardinal directions contain pressure sensors for the detection of steps. The core gameplay involves the player moving his or her feet to a set pattern, stepping in time to the general rhythm or beat of a song. Arrows are divided by 1/4 notes, 1/8 notes, and so on (with differing color schemes for each), up to about 1/32 notes. During normal gameplay, arrows scroll upwards from the bottom of the screen and pass over stationary, transparent arrows near the top (referred to as the "guide arrows" or "receptors", officially known as the Step Zone). When the scrolling arrows overlap the stationary ones, the player must step on the corresponding arrows on the dance platform, and the player is given a judgement for their accuracy (Marvelous, Perfect, Great, Good, Boo/Almost, Miss/Boo). Longer green and yellow arrows referred to as "freeze arrows" must be held down for their entire length, either producing a "O.K." if successful, or a "N.G." (no good) if not. Dance Dance Revolution X contains songs with Shock Arrows, walls of arrows with lightning effects which must be avoided, which are scored in the same way as Freezes (O.K./N.G.). If they are stepped on, a N.G. is awarded, the lifebar decreases, and the steps become hidden for a short period of time. Successfully hitting the arrows in time with the music fills the "Dance Gauge", or life bar, while failure to do so drains it. (If The Judgement on arrows scores less than Great, Combo will break immediately or if the dance gauge drains.) If the Dance Gauge is fully depleted during gameplay, the player fails the song, usually resulting in a game over. Otherwise, the player is taken to the Results Screen, which rates the player's performance with a letter grade and a numerical score, among other statistics. The player may then be given a chance to play again, depending on the settings of the particular machine (the limit is usually 3-5 songs per game). In most of the home versions, there is usually an option for event mode, where an unlimited number of songs can be played. On most DDR games, there is an option to use two pads at once, making it harder to play but increasing the number of moves to incorporate into songs. Difficulty Depending on the version of the game, dance steps are broken into varying levels of difficulty. The main difficulty levels are "Basic/Light/Standard", "Another/Trick/Standard/Difficult" and "Maniac/SSR/Heavy/Expert". Some versions also include "Hard", "Super Maniac", "Beginner" and "Challenge", which typically fall on the lower and higher ends of the difficulty scale, respectively. Once difficulty is switched to Heavy/Challenge, the steps begin to really resemble real dancing (albeit on 4-8 arrows). Songs are also given a "foot rating" (which is represented by a row of colored footprints (Cyan/Blue for Beginner (introduced in DDRMAX2), Yellow for Basic/Light, Fuschia for Difficult/Standard/Another/Trick and Green for Expert/SSR/Maniac/Heavy, and Purple For Challenge (introduced in DDRMAX2).), ranging from one to ten feet to indicate the overall difficulty of the step sequence. Typically, songs with 10 foot ratings are very fast, with one exception being bag on Dance Dance Revolution Extreme, which is rated a 10 due to its low speed and high density of arrows. Extreme also introduced a rating referred to as a "flashing 10" (as it is represented by all 10 feet icons glowing yellow), considered to be tougher than a standard 10. Exclusive to Dance Dance Revolution 3rdMix, all Maniac routines were split into a different mode of the game called "Step Step Revolution", or SSR, which was accessible by pressing the arrow buttons after inserting coins and before pressing start. The SSR mode was eliminated in 3rdMix Plus, and the Maniac routines were folded back into the regular game. On Dance Dance Revolution X, the foot rating system was given its first major overhaul, now ranking songs on a scale of 1-20, the first 10 represented by yellow blocks, and the second 10 represented by additional red blocks shown in place on top of yellow blocks. All songs from previous versions were re-rated on the new scale, including the flashing 10's, whose true difficulty in comparison to other flashing 10's is also now known as a result for the first time. The highest known difficulty on the new scale is 18, Challenge charts featuring this rating include Pluto Relinquish ,Dead End (Groove Radar Special) (a special edit of Dead End made to max out all categories on the Groove Radar), Fascination Maxx, Fascination -Eternal Love Mix- (Single), Healing D-Vision, NGO (Single), PARANOiA ~HADES~, PARANOiA MAX ~Dirty Mix~ (SMM Special)(for Japan Home Version only), and Trigger, the hardest being Pluto Relinquish (Expert Double and Challenge).Beginning in 6thMix, a "Groove Radar" was introduced, showing how difficult a particular sequence is in various categories, such as the maximum density of steps, how many jumps are in the steps, etc. Groove Radar The foot-rating system was completely removed for 6thMix, and replaced by the Groove Radar. The Groove Radar is a graphical representation of the difficulty of a song based in five different areas: Stream, Voltage, Air, Chaos, and Freeze. The Groove Radar was not very popular among seasoned DDR veterans. The foot-rating system would be restored to work with the Groove Radar in the North American home version of the game and in the next arcade version, DDRMAX2, and almost all future versions (except for versions based on the North American version of Extreme, which only use foot ratings). All of the 6thMix songs on 7thMix received foot-ratings, including the boss song MAX 300, which was now revealed to be the first "ten-footer". Due to the removal of "Follow Me" and "Flash in the Night" from DDRMAX2, these 2 songs have never received foot ratings. SuperNOVA 2 featured special edits of songs specifically meant to max out specific categories on the radar, culminating with Dead End (Groove Radar Special), maxing out all 5 categories. Modifiers Modifiers are changes that can be made to modify the step routine. Prior to 6thMix, codes were entered with the pad to activate modifiers. 6thMix replaced these pad codes with a new options menu accessed by holding down the start button when selecting a song. Speed mods can increase or decrease the speed the arrows travel up the screen (sometimes making the arrows easier to read). Modifiers can also make the arrows more difficult to read, by adding effects such as the arrows only appearing when they reach halfway through the screen (or only appearing until halfway), hiding the arrows or the step zone altogether, making them rapidly accelerate as they reach the arrows, or travel up the screen in a "wave". The direction of the arrows can also be changed (moving down the screen rather than up it). Some modifiers directly effect the stepchart itself. "Left" and "Right" change all the arrows to face 90 degrees left or right. "Mirror" flips the steps and patterns so all left and right arrows swap, and all of the up and down arrows swap. "Shuffle" creates a random swap of all of the arrows in a predetermined but different pattern each time. Some modifiers can remove elements from a chart to make it easier. Notes that are not on quarter beats can be removed (previously known as "Little" until Extreme and now known as "Cut" as of SuperNova), and jumps (two arrows appearing at the same time) and freeze arrows can also be removed. The color scheme of the arrows can also be changed. "Flat" makes all of the arrows have the same color, regardless of their step fraction. "Rainbow" (or "Solo" before Supernova) changes the colors of all arrows to the brighter colors used in Dance Dance Revolution Solo 2000 (such as orange for 4th notes, blue for 8th notes, and purple for 16th notes). Some versions include a color scheme called "Note", which replaces the cycling color scheme with constant colors such as red, blue, and yellow. Unlockable modifiers on Supernova 2 can also completely change the design of the arrows - to items such as kites, animals, heads of characters, the old pre-DDRMAX noteskin on DDR X, or extremely small arrows. Extra Stage The Extra Stage was first introduced in DDRMAX and appears in subsequent arcade versions, rewards a player for receiving a grade of "AA" or higher on either Expert or Challenge difficulties on the final stage. The player receives the opportunity to play a free extra song, which often defaults to a very difficult song with forced modifiers (such as 1.5x speed and Reverse) and a battery bar similar to Challenge mode with 1-4 lives depending on their score in the final stage (or a non-regaining life bar before Supernova 2). The default song for the extra stage is predetermined ("Max 300" for 6th Mix, "Maxx Unlimited" for 7th Mix - additionally forcing them to be played as the only option on the Extra Stage), although as of Extreme, any song can be played on the extra stage, although there is still a song that is designated as the Extra Stage (which usually is marked with red letters on the song wheel, and must be unlocked for regular play). A player who attains a grade of "AA" (or "A" in SuperNova) on the Extra Stage is invited to play an additional stage, "One More Extra Stage" (OMES, or Encore Extra Stage), with another special song option played in sudden death mode, any combo breaking step or missed freeze will cause an instant failure. Usually if this final boss is beaten, a special credits sequence is played. With the implementation of e-Amusement in DDR, mixes after SuperNova have contained multiple songs as extra stages, often based on specific conditions, such as playing specific difficulties or songs. Modes & other features Several other gameplay modes have appeared throughout the DDR series. Nonstop modes contain themed courses consisting of usually 4 songs sometimes with a common theme. All the songs are played in order with no breaks in between, and all share the same lifebar and final score. Challenge Mode, uses a battery or 4 parts of the dance gauge containing a limited number of lives, with lives lost if a judgment below Great is scored, often with forced modifiers to make reading the arrows harder. The battery or gauge is replenished upon successful completion of each song, although the amount given back is dependent on the unique settings of each course. Endless Mode appears on home version, which allows the player to play through numerous songs one after another. However, Endless Mode continues to queue up songs indefinitely, until the player quits or the Dance Gauge is depleted. The song order is random, but options are available to limit the songs to a certain difficulty or category. Combo Challenge is a challenge to see if how long the combo runs without breaking or score a N.G. on Freeze Arrow. Workout Mode appears primarily on home versions, allowing the player to enter their weight and track approximate calories burned while playing. e-Amusement also provides this option on the arcade versions. Event Mode is a game option whose function differs between arcade and home versions of DDR. On arcade machines, Event Mode is an operator setting that disables all menu timers, and not cause a player to fail a song immediately even when their dance gauge drops to zero. Some home versions do not contain the usual "stage" based play that arcade versions use, instead using an event mode like mode where unlimited numbers of songs can be played. Unison Mode appears in 3rdMix, in which both players must dance to a special set of steps for a song. Steps are a single color and fly out from the bottom-center of the screen to each player's guide arrows. Players are not necessarily guaranteed to have the same set of steps. Battle Mode, introduced in Dance Dance Revolution Disney Mix as Dance Magic mode but revived as Battle Mode on SuperNova, is a competitive mode between two players. Each player must play on the same difficulty and is given a shuffled version of the step chart. Creating combos can send one of many different attacks to the other player's side to make it more difficult for them to read their notes. Creating longer combos results in more damaging attacks. These attacks (especially the stronger ones) can include strange modifiers that cannot be selected under normal circumstances. The health bar is replaced by a "tug of war" style gauge to determine the winner. Step Battle Mode appeared in Dance Dance Revolution 2nd Mix, where a chart is populated by areas where a player has to "record" steps for the other player, areas where the recorded steps are played, and areas where random steps are sent to each player. Recent home versions have often contained mission modes (Dance master, Stellar mode, Hyper master etc.), requiring the player to play a song with specific conditions, modifiers, or requiring a specific condition to be met, unlocking new songs and other items if successful. These are often arranged on a grid of sectors, or with a themed series of storylines as with Dance Dance Revolution X. Shake Mode is a mode appearing in Dance Dance Revolution S that utilizes an iPhone or iPod Touch's accelerometer to register steps when a player physically shakes a device in specific directions. ReleasesDance Dance Revolution has been released in many different countries on many different platforms. Originally released in Japan as an arcade game and then a Sony PlayStation game, DDR was later released in North American, Europe, Korea, the whole of Asia, Australia, New Zealand, South America and Mexico on multiple platforms including the Sony PlayStation 2, Microsoft Xbox, Nintendo Wii, and many others. Due to demand, Japanese versions of the game, which are usually different from the games released in other countries, are often imported or bootlegged. DDR fansites make an attempt to keep track of the locations of arcade machines throughout the major regions. DDR Freak machine locations A collection of Dance Dance Revolution arcade machines in the United States. DDR:UK machine locations A collection of Dance Dance Revolution arcade machines primarily in Europe and other worldwide locations. Arcade machines An original Dance Dance Revolution machine. A standard Dance Dance Revolution arcade machine consists of two parts, the cabinet and the dance platform. The cabinet has a wide bottom section, which houses large floor speakers and glowing neon lamps. Above this sits a narrower section that contains the monitor, and on top is a lighted marquee graphic, with two small speakers and flashing lights on either side. Below the monitor are two sets of buttons (one for each player), each consisting of two triangular selection buttons and a center rectangular button, used mainly to confirm a selection or start the game. The dance stage is a raised metal platform divided into two sides. Each side houses a set of four acrylic glass pads Betson Enterprises Online Catalog - Konami arranged and pointing in the orthogonal directions (left, up, down and right), separated by metal squares. Each pad sits atop four pressure activated switches, one at each edge of each pad, and a software-controlled cold cathode lamp illuminating the translucent pad. A metal safety bar in the shape of an upside-down "U" is mounted to the dance stage behind each player. Some players make use of this safety bar to help maintain proper balance, and to relieve weight from the legs so that arrows can be pressed with greater speed and accuracy. Some DDR cabinets are equipped with Sony PlayStation memory card slots, allowing the player to insert a compatible memory card before starting a game and save their high scores to the card. Additionally, the equivalent home versions of DDR allow players to create and save custom step patterns (edits) to their memory card — the player can then play those steps on the arcade machine if the same song exists on that machine. This feature is supported in 2ndMix through Extreme. It was expected that SuperNova would include memory card support. However, the division of Konami which handled the production of the memory card slots shut down, causing Konami to pull memory card support out at the last minute. SuperNova however, introduced Konami's internet based link system e-Amusement to the series, which can save stats and unlocks for individual players (but cannot store edits) using a globalized smart card inserted into a slot unit installed atop the sides of the cabinet on top of the speakers. This functionality however, could only be used in Japan. During the North American release of Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA 2, an e-amuse capable machine was made available at a Brunswick Zone Arcade in Naperville, Illinois. It, and one other machine located in the Konami offices of El Segundo, California, are currently the only e-amuse capable machines in the United States. The Solo arcade cabinet is smaller and contains only one dance pad, modified to include six arrow panels instead of four (the additional panels are "upper-left" and "upper-right"). These pads generally don't come with a safety bar, but include the option for one to be installed at a later date. The Solo pad also lacks some of the metal plating that the standard pad has, which can make stepping difficult for players who are used to playing on standard machines. An upgrade was available for Solo machines called the "Deluxe pad", which was closer to the standard cabinet's pad. Additionally Solo machines only incorporate two sensors, located horizontally in the center of the arrow, instead of four sensors (one on each edge). Home releases The use of dedicated gamepads is only possible on home console versions. DDR games have been released on various video game consoles, including the PlayStation, Dreamcast, Nintendo 64, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Wii, Xbox and Xbox 360, and even PC's. Home versions often contain new songs, songs from the arcade version, and additional features that take advantage of the capabilities of the console. For example, Xbox 360 versions such as the Dance Dance Revolution Universe series include support for online multiplayer and downloadable songs over Xbox Live, and high definition graphics. The Nintendo Wii version, Dance Dance Revolution Hottest Party have additional game modes with support for the Wii Remote, allowing players to use the Wii Remote as an addition to regular play, and the sequel Dance Dance Revolution Hottest Party 2 allows Miis to be used as an in-game character. Home versions are commonly bundled with soft plastic dance pads that are similar in appearance and function to the Nintendo Power Pad. Some third-party manufacturers produce hard metal pads at a higher price. DDR has even reached Nintendo's Game Boy Color, with five versions of Dance Dance Revolution GB released in Japan; these included a series of three mainstream DDR games, a Disney Mix, and an Oha Star. The games come with a small thumb pad that fits over the Game Boy Color's controls to simulate the dance pad. A version of DDR was also produced for the PC in North America. It uses the interface of Dance Dance Revolution 4thMix, and contains around 40 songs from the first six mainstream arcade releases. It has not been as well received as the console versions. The most common criticism of DDR home console versions is that they tend to provide a more limited selection of songs than in the arcade, despite the increased capacity of DVD storage media in more recent releases. In addition, many fan-favorite songs don't make it to the home versions, usually due to licensing restrictions. This is especially true of North American home versions of DDR. Japanese home versions, however, are usually released for every arcade version, and contain a complete selection of the new songs from that version, along with other new songs and features. Another common criticism points to the relatively poor quality of most home dance pads, though dedicated fans of the series can find high-quality pads from third-party manufacturers. Some also modify stock pads or build their own pads from raw parts (see the dance pad article for more information). Similar games Gameplay screen in StepMania 4, an open source DDR clone. Due to the success of the Dance Dance Revolution franchise, many other games with similar or identical gameplay have been created. Commercial clones of DDR include the popular Korean series Pump It Up and the American series In the Groove by Roxor, which was met with legal action by Konami and resulted in Konami's acquisition of the game's intellectual property. As well as TechnoMotion by F2 Systems, EZ2Dancer by Amuseworld, and MC Groovz Dance Craze by Mad Catz. A Christian version of DDR, named Dance Praise, has been made by Digital Praise. Fanmade versions of DDR have also been created, many freely available to the public under the open source license. The most popular of which is StepMania (pictured), upon which the game In the Groove is based. These simulators allow for players to create and play their own songs to their own programmed steps. As a result, many DDR fans have held contests and released "mixes" of custom songs and steps for these simulators. Notably the Japanese Foonmix series and the DDR East Invasion Tournamix competitions. Other simulators include Dance With Intensity and pyDance for Windows, both of which are no longer developed, and Feet of Fury, a homebrew game for the Sega Dreamcast. Besides direct clones, many other games have been released that center around rhythm and dance due to DDR's popularity. Dance! Online released by Acclaim combines dance pad play with an MMO element. ABC's Dancing With the Stars and Codemasters' Dance Factory are more recent examples of games that pay homage to DDR and the genre it created. Konami itself also mimics DDR in many of its other music games, taking music to and from DDR and other series such as beatmania and Beatmania IIDX, Drummania and GuitarFreaks, and Pop'n Music, as well as making references to DDR in its other games and vice-versa. A result of this synergy, the 7th versions of Beatmania IIDX and DDR shared the same "one more extra stage", a remix of the Chopin's Revolutionary Étude titled Kakumei, a collaboration between dj Taka and Naoki (who have both been regular recurring on their respective games). DDR today Tournaments are held worldwide, with participants usually competing for higher scores or number of Perfects (referred to as "Perfect Attack" tournaments). Less common are "freestyle" tournaments, where players develop actual dance routines to perform while following the steps in the game. IGN Staff IGN: Dance Dance Revolution Tournament Report, Retrieved on 2008-05-23. Playing styles Many DDR players, in order to better focus on timing and pattern reading, will minimize any extraneous body movement during gameplay. These players are commonly referred to as "technical", "tech" or "perfect attack" (PA) players. These technical players usually play the most difficult songs on the highest difficulty levels in an attempt to perfect their scores. Other DDR players choose to incorporate complex or flashy techniques into their play movements, and some of these "freestyle" players develop intricate dance routines to perform during a song. Freestyle players tend to choose songs on lower difficulty levels, so that the player is not restricted in their movements by large quantities of required steps. Some players can even dance facing away from the screen. A freestyling act can also involve performing other stunts while playing. On an episode of ABC's short-lived series Master of Champions, Billy Matsumoto won the episode when he played 5th Mix's "Can't Stop Fallin' In Love (Speed Mix)" on Heavy mode while juggling three lit torches. As exercise Many news outlets have reported how playing DDR can be good aerobic exercise; some regular players have reported weight loss of 10–50 pounds (5–20 kg). In one example, a player found that including DDR in her day-to-day life resulted in a loss of 95 pounds Welcome to Get Up Move! . Some other examples would be Matthew Keene's account of losing upwards of 150 pounds and Yashar Esfandi's claim of losing 85 pounds in four months through incorporation of DDR. Although the quantity of calories burned by playing DDR have not been measured, the amount of active movement required to play implies that DDR provides at least some degree of healthy exercise. Many schools use DDR as a physical education activity in gym, and in Norway, DDR has even been registered as an official sport. Many home versions of the game have a function to estimate calories burned, given a player's weight. Additionally, players can use "workout mode" to make a diary of calories burned playing DDR and any self-reported changes in the player's weight. Use in schools At the start of 2006, Konami announced that the DDR games would be used as part of a fitness program to be phased into West Virginia's 765 state schools, starting with its 103 middle schools, over the next two years. The program was conceived by a researcher at West Virginia University's Motor Development Center. Now DDR is used in many schools all over the USA. Caltech allows its students to use DDR to fulfill part of its physical education requirement, as students may design their own fitness program. KU has a class for Dance Dance Revolution open for students to take as a 1 credit hour course. Awards The success of the Dance Dance Revolution series has resulted in Guinness World Records awarding the series with: Gamer's Edition 2008. The records include, "Longest Dance Dance Revolution Marathon", "Most Widely Used Video Game in Schools", and "First Video Game Recognized as an Official Sport", when on December 9, 2003, the country of Norway gave "Machine Dancing" official recognition. See also Dance Revolution A television series inspired by the Dance Dance Revolution''. 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7,563 | Bertrand_Russell | Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970), was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, social reformist, and pacifist. Although he spent the majority of his life in England, he was born in Wales, where he also died. Russell led the British "revolt against Idealism" in the early 1900s and is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his protégé Wittgenstein and his elder Frege. He co-authored, with A. N. Whitehead, Principia Mathematica, an attempt to ground mathematics on logic. His philosophical essay "On Denoting" has been considered a "paradigm of philosophy." Ludlow, Peter, "Descriptions", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = . Both works have had a considerable influence on logic, mathematics, set theory, linguistics and analytic philosophy. He was a prominent anti-war activist, championing free trade between nations and anti-imperialism. Russell was imprisoned for his pacifist activism during World War I, campaigned against Adolf Hitler, for nuclear disarmament, criticised Soviet totalitarianism and the United States of America's involvement in the Vietnam War. The Bertrand Russell Gallery In 1950, Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought." The Nobel Foundation (1950). Bertrand Russell: The Nobel Prize in Literature 1950. Retrieved on 11 June 2007. Biography Ancestry Bertrand Russell was born on 18 May 1872 at Ravenscroft (now Cleddon Hall), Trellech, Monmouthshire. His paternal grandfather, John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, was the third son of John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford, and had twice been asked by Queen Victoria to form a government, serving her as Prime Minister in the 1840s and 1860s. Bertrand Russell's father, John Russell, Viscount Amberley The Russells had been prominent in Britain for several centuries before this, coming to power and the peerage with the rise of the Tudor dynasty. They established themselves as one of Britain's leading Whig (Liberal) families, and participated in every great political event from the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536-40 to the Glorious Revolution in 1688-89 to the Great Reform Act in 1832. Cokayne, G.E.; Vicary Gibbs, H.A. Doubleday, Geoffrey H. White, Duncan Warrand and Lord Howard de Walden, editors. The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, Extant, Extinct or Dormant, new ed. 13 volumes in 14. 1910-1959. Reprint in 6 volumes, Gloucester, UK: Alan Sutton Publishing, 2000. Russell's mother Katherine Louisa (1844 - 1874) was the daughter of Edward Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley of Alderley, and was the sister of Rosalind Howard, Countess of Carlisle. Russell's parents were quite radical for their times—Russell's father, Viscount Amberley, was an atheist and consented to his wife's affair with their children's tutor, the biologist Douglas Spalding. Both were early advocates of birth control at a time when this was considered scandalous. John Stuart Mill, the Utilitarian philosopher, stood as Russell's godfather. Mill died the year following Russell's birth, but his writings had a great effect upon Russell's life. Childhood and adolescence Russell had two siblings: Frank (nearly seven years older than Bertrand), and Rachel (four years older). In June 1874 Russell's mother died of diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachel, and in January 1876 his father also died of bronchitis following a long period of depression. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of their staunchly Victorian grandparents, who lived at Pembroke Lodge in Richmond Park. John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, his grandfather, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a kindly old man in a wheelchair. As a result, his widow, the Countess Russell (née Lady Frances Elliot), was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russell's childhood and youth. The countess was from a Scottish Presbyterian family, and successfully petitioned a British court to set aside a provision in Amberley's will requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Despite her religious conservatism, she held progressive views in other areas (accepting Darwinism and supporting Irish Home Rule), and her influence on Bertrand Russell's outlook on social justice and standing up for principle remained with him throughout his life — her favourite Bible verse, 'Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil' (Exodus 23:2), became his mantra. The atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression and formality; Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings. Russell's adolescence was very lonely, and he often contemplated suicide. He remarked in his autobiography that his keenest interests were in sex, religion and mathematics, and that only the wish to know more mathematics kept him from suicide. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, p.38 He was educated at home by a series of tutors. His brother Frank introduced him to the work of Euclid, which transformed Russell's life. University and first marriage Russell won a scholarship to read for the Mathematics Tripos at Trinity College, Cambridge, and commenced his studies there in 1890. He became acquainted with the younger G.E. Moore and came under the influence of Alfred North Whitehead, who recommended him to the Cambridge Apostles. He quickly distinguished himself in mathematics and philosophy, graduating with a B.A. in the former subject in 1893 and adding a fellowship in the latter in 1895. Russell first met the American Quaker Alys Pearsall Smith when he was seventeen years old. He became a friend of the Pearsall Smith family—they knew him primarily as 'Lord John's grandson' and enjoyed showing him off—and travelled with them to the continent; it was in their company that Russell visited the Paris Exhibition of 1889 and was able to climb the Eiffel Tower soon after it was completed. Wallenchinsky et al. (1981), "Famous Marriages Bertrand...Part 1". He soon fell in love with the puritanical, high-minded Alys, who was a graduate of Bryn Mawr College near Philadelphia, and, contrary to his grandmother's wishes, he married her on 13 December 1894. Their marriage began to fall apart in 1901 when it occurred to Russell, while he was out on his bicycle, that he no longer loved her. She asked him if he loved her and he replied that he didn't. Russell also disliked Alys's mother, finding her controlling and cruel. It was to be a hollow shell of a marriage and they finally divorced in 1921, after a lengthy period of separation. Wallenchinsky et al. (1981), "Famous Marriages Bertrand...Part 3". During this period, Russell had passionate (and often simultaneous) affairs with a number of women, including Lady Ottoline Morrell and the actress Lady Constance Malleson. Early career Russell began his published work in 1896 with German Social Democracy, a study in politics that was an early indication of a lifelong interest in political and social theory. In 1896, he taught German social democracy at the London School of Economics, where he also lectured on the science of power in the autumn of 1937. He was also a member of the Coefficients dining club of social reformers set up in 1902 by the Fabian campaigners Sidney and Beatrice Webb. In 1905 he wrote the essay "On Denoting", which was published in the philosophical journal Mind. Russell became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1908. The first of three volumes of Principia Mathematica, written with Whitehead, was published in 1910, which, along with the earlier The Principles of Mathematics, soon made Russell world famous in his field. In 1911, he became acquainted with the Austrian engineering student Ludwig Wittgenstein, whom he viewed as a genius and a successor who would continue his work on logic. He spent hours dealing with Wittgenstein's various phobias and his frequent bouts of despair. The latter was often a drain on Russell's energy, but he continued to be fascinated by him and encouraged his academic development, including the publication of Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus in 1922. Russell on Wittgenstein First World War During the First World War, Russell engaged in pacifist activities, and, in 1916, he was dismissed from Trinity College following his conviction under the Defence of the Realm Act. A later conviction resulted in six months' imprisonment in Brixton prison (see Activism below). Russell was released from prison in September 1918. Between the wars, and second marriage In August 1920, Russell traveled to Russia as part of an official delegation sent by the British government to investigate the effects of the Russian Revolution. He met Lenin and had an hour-long conversation with him. In his autobiography, he mentions that he found Lenin rather disappointing, and that he sensed an "impish cruelty" in him. He also cruised down the Volga on a steam-ship. Russell's lover Dora Black also visited Russia independently at the same time — she was enthusiastic about the revolution, but Russell's experiences destroyed his previous tentative support for it. Russell subsequently lectured in Beijing on philosophy for one year, accompanied by Dora. While in China, Russell became gravely ill with pneumonia, and incorrect reports of his death were published in the Japanese press. When the couple visited Japan on their return journey, Dora notified the world that "Mr. Bertrand Russell, having died according to the Japanese press, is unable to give interviews to Japanese journalists." The press were not amused and did not appreciate the sarcasm. On the couple's return to England on 26 August 1921, Dora was six months pregnant, and Russell arranged a hasty divorce from Alys, marrying Dora six days after the divorce was finalised, on 27 September 1921. Their children were John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell, born on 16 November 1921 and Katharine Jane Russell (now Lady Katharine Tait) born on 29 December 1923. Russell supported himself during this time by writing popular books explaining matters of physics, ethics, and education to the layman. Some scholars have suggested that at this point he had an affair with Vivien Eliot, wife of T. S. Eliot. Together with Dora, he also founded the experimental Beacon Hill School in 1927. After he left the school in 1932, Dora continued it until 1943. Inside Beacon Hill: Bertrand Russell as Schoolmaster. Jespersen, Shirley ERIC# EJ360344, published 1987 Upon the death of his elder brother Frank, in 1931, Russell became the 3rd Earl Russell. He once said that his title was primarily useful for securing hotel rooms. Russell's marriage to Dora grew increasingly tenuous, and it reached a breaking point over her having two children with an American journalist, Griffin Barry. They separated in 1932 and finally divorced. On 18 January 1936, Russell married his third wife, an Oxford undergraduate named Patricia ("Peter") Spence, who had been his children's governess since the summer of 1930. Russell and Peter had one son, Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell, 5th Earl Russell, who became a prominent historian and one of the leading figures in the Liberal Democrat party. Second World War After the Second World War, Russell taught at the University of Chicago, later moving on to Los Angeles to lecture at the University of California, Los Angeles. He was appointed professor at the City College of New York in 1940, but after a public outcry, the appointment was annulled by a court judgement: his opinions (especially those relating to sexual morality, detailed in Marriage and Morals ten years earlier) made him "morally unfit" to teach at the college. The protest was started by the mother of a student who would not have been eligible for his graduate-level course in mathematical logic. Many intellectuals, led by John Dewey, protested his treatment. Dewey and Horace M. Kallen edited a collection of articles on the CCNY affair in The Bertrand Russell Case. He soon joined the Barnes Foundation, lecturing to a varied audience on the history of philosophy; these lectures formed the basis of History of Western Philosophy. His relationship with the eccentric Albert C. Barnes soon soured, and he returned to Britain in 1944 to rejoin the faculty of Trinity College. Later life During the 1940s and 1950s, Russell participated in many broadcasts over the BBC, particularly the Third Programme, on various topical and philosophical subjects. By this time Russell was world famous outside of academic circles, frequently the subject or author of magazine and newspaper articles, and was called upon to offer up opinions on a wide variety of subjects, even mundane ones. En route to one of his lectures in Trondheim, Russell was one of 24 survivors (among a total of 43 passengers) in a plane crash in Hommelvik in October 1948. History of Western Philosophy (1945) became a best-seller, and provided Russell with a steady income for the remainder of his life. In a speech in 1948 A philosopher’s letters | Love, Bertie | Economist.com Russell said that if the USSR's aggression continued, it would be morally worse to go to war after the USSR possessed an atomic bomb than before they possessed one, because if the USSR had no bomb the West's victory would come more swiftly and with fewer casualties than if there were atom bombs on both sides. At that time, only the USA possessed an atomic bomb, and the USSR was pursuing an extremely aggressive policy towards the countries in Eastern Europe which it was absorbing into its sphere of influence. Many understood Russell's comments to mean that Russell approved of a first strike in a war with the USSR, including Lawson, who was present when Russell spoke. Others, including Griffin who obtained a transcript of the speech, have argued that he was merely explaining the usefulness of America's atomic arsenal in deterring the USSR from continuing its domination of Eastern Europe. In the King's Birthday Honours of 9 June 1949, Russell was awarded the Order of Merit, and the following year he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. When he was given the Order of Merit, King George VI was affable but slightly embarrassed at decorating a former jailbird, saying that "You have sometimes behaved in a manner that would not do if generally adopted." Ronald W. Clark, Bertrand Russell and His World, p94. (1981) ISBN 0-500-13070-1 Russell merely smiled, but afterwards claimed that the reply "That's right, just like your brother" immediately came to mind. In 1952, Russell was divorced by Peter, with whom he had been very unhappy. Conrad, Russell's son by Peter, did not see his father between the time of the divorce and 1968 (at which time his decision to meet his father caused a permanent breach with his mother). Russell married his fourth wife, Edith Finch, soon after the divorce, on 15 December 1952. They had known each other since 1925, and Edith had taught English at Bryn Mawr College near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, sharing a house for twenty years with Russell's old friend Lucy Donnelly. Edith remained with him until his death, and, by all accounts, their marriage was a happy, close, and loving one. Russell's eldest son, John, suffered from serious mental illness, which was the source of ongoing disputes between Russell and John's mother, Russell's former wife, Dora. John's wife Susan was also mentally ill, and eventually Russell and Edith became the legal guardians of their three daughters (two of whom were later diagnosed with schizophrenia). Political causes Russell spent the 1950s and 1960s engaged in various political causes, primarily related to nuclear disarmament and opposing the Vietnam war (see also Russell Vietnam War Crimes Tribunal). The 1955 Russell-Einstein Manifesto was a document calling for nuclear disarmament and was signed by 11 of the prominent nuclear physicists and intellectuals of the time. He wrote a great many letters to world leaders during this period. He was in contact with Lionel Rogosin while the latter was filming his anti-war film Good Times, Wonderful Times in the 1960s. He also became a hero to many of the youthful members of the New Left. During the 1960s, in particular, Russell became increasingly vocal about his disapproval of what he felt to be the USA government's near-genocidal policies. In 1963 he became the inaugural recipient of the Jerusalem Prize, an award for writers concerned with the freedom of the individual in society. Jerusalem International Book Fair In October 1965 he tore up his Labour Party card because he feared the party was going to send soldiers to support the USA in the Vietnam War. Final years and death Russell published his three-volume autobiography in 1967, 1968, and 1969. Although he became frail, he remained lucid and clear-thinking up to the day of his death. On 23 November 1969 he wrote to The Times newspaper saying that the preparation for show trials in Czechoslovakia was "highly alarming". The same month he appealed to Secretary General U Thant of the United Nations to support an international war crimes commission to investigate alleged torture and genocide by the USA in South Vietnam. The following month, he protested to Alexei Kosygin over the expulsion of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn from the Writers Union. On 31 January 1970, Russell issued a statement which condemned Israeli aggression in the Middle East and called for Israeli withdrawal from territory occupied in 1967. The statement said that: This was Russell's final ever political statement or act. It was read out at the International Conference of Parliamentarians in Cairo on 3 February 1970, the day after his death. Russell's last political speech Russell died of influenza on 2 February 1970 at his home, Plas Penrhyn, in Penrhyndeudraeth, Merionethshire, Wales. He was cremated in Colwyn Bay on 5 February 1970. In accordance with his will there was no religious ceremony; his ashes were scattered over the Welsh mountains later that year. Titles and honours from birth Russell held throughout his life the following styles and honours: from birth until 1908: The Honourable Bertrand Arthur William Russell from 1908 until 1931: The Honourable Bertrand Arthur William Russell, FRS from 1931 until 1949: The Right Honourable The Earl Russell, FRS from 1949 until death: The Right Honourable The Earl Russell, OM, FRS Philosophical work Russell produced a body of work that covers logic, the philosophy of mathematics, metaphysics, ethics and epistemology. Analytic philosophy Russell is one of the founders of what later became called analytic philosophy. At the beginning of the 20th century, alongside G. E. Moore, Russell was largely responsible for the British "revolt against Idealism," a philosophy greatly influenced by G. W. F. Hegel and his British apostle, F. H. Bradley. This revolt was echoed 30 years later in Vienna by the logical positivists' "revolt against metaphysics". Russell was particularly critical of a doctrine he ascribed to idealism and coherentism, which he dubbed the doctrine of internal relations; this, Russell suggested, held that in order to know any particular thing, we must know all of its relations. Russell argued that this would make space, time, science and the concept of number not fully intelligible. Russell's logical work with Whitehead continued this project. Russell and Moore strove to eliminate what they saw as meaningless and incoherent assertions in philosophy. They sought clarity and precision in argument by the use of exact language and by breaking down philosophical propositions into their simplest grammatical components. Russell, in particular, saw formal logic and science as the principal tools of the philosopher. Indeed, unlike most philosophers who preceded him and his early contemporaries, Russell did not believe there was a separate method for philosophy. He believed that the main task of the philosopher was to illuminate the most general propositions about the world and to eliminate confusion. In particular, he wanted to end what he saw as the excesses of metaphysics. Russell adopted William of Ockham's principle against multiplying unnecessary entities, Occam's Razor, as a central part of the method of analysis. Logic and philosophy of mathematics Russell had great influence on modern mathematical logic. The American philosopher and logician Willard Quine said Russell's work represented the greatest influence on his own work. "Quine, Willard Van Orman." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Accessed 23 February 2008. Russell's first mathematical book, An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry, was published in 1897. This work was heavily influenced by Immanuel Kant. Russell later realized that the conception it laid out would make Albert Einstein's schema of space-time impossible. Thenceforth, he rejected the entire Kantian program as it related to mathematics and geometry, and rejected his own earliest work on the subject. Interested in the definition of number, Russell studied the work of George Boole, Georg Cantor, and Augustus De Morgan. Materials in the Bertrand Russell Archives at McMaster University include notes of his reading in algebraic logic by Charles Sanders Peirce and Ernst Schröder. Bertrand Russell Archives at McMaster University In 1900 he attended the first International Congress of Philosophy in Paris, where he became familiar with the work of the Italian mathematician, Giuseppe Peano. He mastered Peano's new symbolism and his set of axioms for arithmetic. Peano defined logically all of the terms of these axioms with the exception of 0, number, successor, and the singular term, the, which were the primitives of his system. Russell took it upon himself to find logical definitions for each of these. Between 1897 and 1903 he published several articles applying Peano's notation to the classical Boole-Schröder algebra of relations, among them On the Notion of Order, Sur la logique des relations avec les applications à la théorie des séries, and On Cardinal Numbers. He became convinced that the foundations of mathematics could be derived within what has since come to be called second-order logic which in turn he believed to include some form of unrestricted comprehension axiom. Russell then discovered that Gottlob Frege had independently arrived at equivalent definitions for 0, successor, and number, and the definition of number is now usually referred to as the Frege-Russell definition. Russell drew attention to Frege's priority in 1903, when he published The Principles of Mathematics (see below). Russell's The Principles of Mathematics The appendix to this work, however, described a paradox arising from Frege's application of second- and higher-order functions which took first-order functions as their arguments, and Russell offered his first effort to resolve what would henceforth come to be known as the Russell Paradox. Before writing Principles, Russell became aware of Cantor's proof that there was no greatest cardinal number, which Russell believed was mistaken. The Cantor Paradox in turn was shown (for example by Crossley) to be a special case of the Russell Paradox. This caused Russell to analyze classes, for it was known that given any number of elements, the number of classes they result in is greater than their number. This in turn led to the discovery of a very interesting class, namely, the class of all classes. It contains two kinds of classes: those classes that contain themselves, and those that do not. Consideration of this class led him to find a fatal flaw in the so-called principle of comprehension, which had been taken for granted by logicians of the time. He showed that it resulted in a contradiction, whereby Y is a member of Y, if and only if, Y is not a member of Y. This has become known as Russell's paradox, the solution to which he outlined in an appendix to Principles, and which he later developed into a complete theory, the Theory of types. Aside from exposing a major inconsistency in naive set theory, Russell's work led directly to the creation of modern axiomatic set theory. It also crippled Frege's project of reducing arithmetic to logic. The Theory of Types and much of Russell's subsequent work have also found practical applications with computer science and information technology. Russell continued to defend logicism, the view that mathematics is in some important sense reducible to logic, and along with his former teacher, Alfred North Whitehead, wrote the monumental Principia Mathematica, an axiomatic system on which all of mathematics can be built. The first volume of the Principia was published in 1910, and is largely ascribed to Russell. More than any other single work, it established the specialty of mathematical or symbolic logic. Two more volumes were published, but their original plan to incorporate geometry in a fourth volume was never realized, and Russell never felt up to improving the original works, though he referenced new developments and problems in his preface to the second edition. Upon completing the Principia, three volumes of extraordinarily abstract and complex reasoning, Russell was exhausted, and he felt his intellectual faculties never fully recovered from the effort. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, the Early Years, p. 202. Although the Principia did not fall prey to the paradoxes in Frege's approach, it was later proven by Kurt Gödel that neither Principia Mathematica, nor any other consistent system of primitive recursive arithmetic, could, within that system, determine that every proposition that could be formulated within that system was decidable, i.e. could decide whether that proposition or its negation was provable within the system (See: Gödel's incompleteness theorem). Russell's last significant work in mathematics and logic, Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, was written while he was in jail for his anti-war activities during World War I. This was largely an explication of his previous work and its philosophical significance. Philosophy of language Russell made the use language a central part of philosophy, and this influenced Ludwig Wittgenstein, Gilbert Ryle, J. L. Austin, and P. F. Strawson, among others; in their own work they used methodology and logic originally developed by Russell. Russell, and GE Moore, argued that clarity of expression is a virtue. A significant contribution to philosophy of language is Russell's theory of definite descriptions, On Denoting Mind (1905). Wittgenstein, Russell's student, achieved considerable prominence in the philosophy of language after the posthumous publication of the Philosophical Investigations. In Russell's opinion, Wittgenstein's later work was misguided, and he decried its influence and that of its followers (especially members of the so-called "Oxford school" of ordinary language philosophy, whom he believed were promoting a kind of mysticism). However, Russell still held Wittgenstein and his early work in high regard, he thought of him as, "perhaps the most perfect example I have ever known of genius as traditionally conceived, passionate, profound, intense, and dominating." The Autobio. of B. Russell, pg. 329. Russell's position that the task of philosophy is not just examining ordinary language is now widely accepted. Logical atomism Perhaps Russell's most systematic, metaphysical treatment of philosophical analysis and his empiricist-centric logicism is evident in what he called logical atomism, which is explicated in a set of lectures, "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism," which he gave in 1918. In these lectures, Russell sets forth his concept of an ideal, isomorphic language, one that would mirror the world, whereby our knowledge can be reduced to terms of atomic propositions and their truth-functional compounds. Logical atomism is a form of radical empiricism, for Russell believed the most important requirement for such an ideal language is that every meaningful proposition must consist of terms referring directly to the objects with which we are acquainted, or that they are defined by other terms referring to objects with which we are acquainted. Russell excluded certain formal, logical terms such as all, the, is, and so forth, from his isomorphic requirement, but he was never entirely satisfied with our understanding of such terms. One of the central themes of Russell's atomism is that the world consists of logically independent facts, a plurality of facts, and that our knowledge depends on the data of our direct experience of them. In his later life, Russell came to doubt aspects of logical atomism, especially his principle of isomorphism, though he continued to believe that the process of philosophy ought to consist of breaking things down into their simplest components, even though we might not ever fully arrive at an ultimate atomic fact. Epistemology Russell's epistemology went through many phases. Once he shed neo-Hegelianism in his early years, Russell remained a philosophical realist for the remainder of his life, believing that our direct experiences have primacy in the acquisition of knowledge. While some of his views have lost favour, his influence remains strong in the distinction between two ways in which we can be familiar with objects: "knowledge by acquaintance" and "knowledge by description". For a time, Russell thought that we could only be acquainted with our own sense data—momentary perceptions of colors, sounds, and the like—and that everything else, including the physical objects that these were sense data of, could only be inferred, or reasoned to—i.e. known by description—and not known directly. This distinction has gained much wider application, though Russell eventually rejected the idea of an intermediate sense datum. In his later philosophy, Russell subscribed to a kind of neutral monism, maintaining that the distinctions between the material and mental worlds, in the final analysis, were arbitrary, and that both can be reduced to a neutral property—a view similar to one held by the American philosopher/psychologist, William James, and one that was first formulated by Baruch Spinoza, whom Russell greatly admired. Instead of James' "pure experience," however, Russell characterised the stuff of our initial states of perception as "events," a stance which is curiously akin to his old teacher Whitehead's process philosophy. Philosophy of science Russell claimed that he was more convinced of his method of doing philosophy than of his philosophical conclusions. Science was one of the principal components of analysis. Russell was a believer in the scientific method, that science reaches only tentative answers, that scientific progress is piecemeal, and attempts to find organic unities were largely futile. He believed the same was true of philosophy. Russell held that the ultimate objective of both science and philosophy was to understand reality, not simply to make predictions. Russell's work contributed to philosophy of science's development into a separate branch of philosophy. Much of Russell's thinking about science is expressed in his 1914 book, Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy. which influenced the logical positivists. Russell held that of the physical world we know only its abstract structure except for the intrinsic character of our own brain with which we have direct acquaintance (Russell, 1948). Russell said in a lettera letter to Newman which has been reprinted in Russell's autobiography) that he had always assumed copunctuality between percepts and non-percepts, and percepts were also part of the physical world, a part of which we knew its intrinsic character directly, knowledge which goes beyond structure. Russell wrote several science books, including The ABC of Atoms (1923) and The ABC of Relativity (1925). Ethics While Russell wrote a great deal on ethical subject matters, he did not believe that the subject belonged to philosophy or that when he wrote on ethics that he did so in his capacity as a philosopher. In his earlier years, Russell was greatly influenced by G.E. Moore's Principia Ethica. Along with Moore, he then believed that moral facts were objective, but known only through intuition; that they were simple properties of objects, not equivalent (e.g., pleasure is good) to the natural objects to which they are often ascribed (see Naturalistic fallacy); and that these simple, undefinable moral properties cannot be analyzed using the non-moral properties with which they are associated. In time, however, he came to agree with his philosophical hero, David Hume, who believed that ethical terms dealt with subjective values that cannot be verified in the same way as matters of fact. Coupled with Russell's other doctrines, this influenced the logical positivists, who formulated the theory of emotivism or non-cognitivism, which states that ethical propositions (along with those of metaphysics) were essentially meaningless and nonsensical or, at best, little more than expressions of attitudes and preferences. Notwithstanding his influence on them, Russell himself did not construe ethical propositions as narrowly as the positivists, for he believed that ethical considerations are not only meaningful, but that they are a vital subject matter for civil discourse. Indeed, though Russell was often characterised as the patron saint of rationality, he agreed with Hume, who said that reason ought to be subordinate to ethical considerations. Religion and theology For most of his adult life Russell maintained that religion is little more than superstition and, despite any positive effects that religion might have, it is largely harmful to people. He believed religion and the religious outlook (he considered communism and other systematic ideologies to be forms of religion) serve to impede knowledge, foster fear and dependency, and are responsible for much of the war, oppression, and misery that have beset the world. In his 1949 speech, "Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?", Russell expressed his difficulty over whether to call himself an atheist or an agnostic: Though he would later question God's existence, he fully accepted the ontological argument during his undergraduate years: This quote has been used by many theologians over the years, such as by Louis Pojman in his Philosophy of Religion, who wish for readers to believe that even a well-known atheist-philosopher supported this particular argument for God's existence. However, elsewhere in his autobiography, Russell also mentions: Russell made an influential analysis of the omphalos hypothesis enunciated by Philip Henry Gosse—that any argument suggesting that the world was created as if it were already in motion could just as easily make it a few minutes old as a few thousand years: As a young man, Russell had a decidedly religious bent, himself, as is evident in his early Platonism. He longed for eternal truths, as he makes clear in his famous essay, "A Free Man's Worship", widely regarded as a masterpiece of prose, but a work that Russell came to dislike. While he rejected the supernatural, he freely admitted that he yearned for a deeper meaning to life. Russell's views on religion can be found in his book, Why I Am Not a Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects. Its title essay was a talk given on 6 March 1927 at Battersea Town Hall, under the auspices of the South London Branch of the National Secular Society, UK, and published later that year as a pamphlet. The book also contains other essays in which Russell considers a number of logical arguments for the existence of God, including the first cause argument, the natural-law argument, the argument from design, and moral arguments. He also discusses specifics about Christian theology. His conclusion: Influence on philosophy Russell had a major influence on modern philosophy, especially in the English-speaking world. While others were also influential, notably Frege, Moore, and Wittgenstein, Russell made analysis the dominant methodology of professional philosophy. The various analytic movements throughout the last century all owe something to Russell's earlier works. Russell's influence on individual philosophers is singular, perhaps most notably in the case of Ludwig Wittgenstein, who was his student between 1911 and 1914. Wittgenstein's own influence on Russell, for example, in leading him to conclude, much to his regret, that mathematical truths were purely tautological truths, is a matter of debate. What is certain is that in 1901 Russell's own reflections on the issues raised by the paradox that takes his name Russell's Paradox, formalised 30 years later by Kurt Gödel's 'Undecidability' Theorems, led him to doubt the certainty of mathematics. This doubt was perhaps Russell's most important 'influence' on mathematics, and was spread throughout the European universities, even as Russell himself laboured (with Alfred North Whitehead) in a futile attempt to solve the Paradox. Russell wrote (in Portraits from Memory, 1956) of his reaction to Gödel's 'Theorems of Undecidability': Evidence of Russell's influence on Wittgenstein can be seen throughout the Tractatus, which Russell was instrumental in having published. Russell also helped to secure Wittgenstein's doctorate The Autobio. of B. Russell, pgs. 435-440. and a faculty position at Cambridge, along with several fellowships along the way. The Autobio. of B. Russell, pgs. 351-353. However, as previously stated, he came to disagree with Wittgenstein's later linguistic and analytic approach to philosophy dismissing it as "trivial," while Wittgenstein came to think of Russell as "superficial and glib," particularly in his popular writings. Russell's influence is also evident in the work of Alfred J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap, Alonzo Church, Kurt Gödel, David Kaplan, Saul Kripke, Karl Popper, W. V. Quine, John R. Searle, and a number of other philosophers and logicians. Some see Russell's influence as mostly negative, primarily those who have criticized Russell's emphasis on science and logic. Russell often characterized his moral and political writings as lying outside the scope of philosophy, but Russell's admirers and detractors are often more acquainted with his pronouncements on social and political matters, or what some (e.g., biographer Ray Monk) have called his "journalism," than they are with his technical, philosophical work. There is a marked tendency to conflate these matters, and to judge Russell the philosopher on what he himself would certainly consider to be his non-philosophical opinions. Russell often cautioned people to make this distinction. Beginning in the 1920s, Russell wrote frequently for The Nation on changing morals, disarmament and literature. In 1965, he wrote that the magazine "...has been one of the few voices which has been heard on behalf of individual liberty and social justice consistently throughout its existence." Katrina Vanden Heuvel The Nation 1865-1990, p. 136, Thunder's Mouth Press, 1990 ISBN 1-56025-001`-1 Russell left a large assortment of writing. From his adolescent years, he wrote about 3,000 words a day, with relatively few corrections; his first draft nearly always was his last, even on the most complex, technical matters. His previously unpublished work is an immense treasure trove, and scholars continue to gain new insights into Russell's thought. Politics Political and social activism occupied much of Russell's time for most of his life. Pacifism, war and nuclear weapons Russell was never a complete pacifist. He resisted specific wars on the grounds that they were contrary to the interests of civilization, and thus immoral. On the other hand, his 1915 article on "The Ethics of War," he defended wars of colonization on the same utilitarian grounds: he felt conquest was justified if the side with the more advanced civilization could put the land to better use. Russell's activism against British participation in World War I led to fines, a loss of freedom of travel within Britain, and the non-renewal of his fellowship at Trinity College, Cambridge. and he was eventually sentenced to prison in 1918 on the tenuous grounds that he had interfered in British Foreign Policy — he had argued that British workers should be wary of the United States Army, for it had experience in strike-breaking. He was released after serving six months, but was still closely supervised until the end of the war. In 1943 Russell called his stance towards warfare "relative political pacifism"—he held that war was always a great evil, but in some particularly extreme circumstances (such as when Adolf Hitler threatened to take over Europe) it might be a lesser of multiple evils. In the years leading to World War II, he supported the policy of appeasement; but by 1940 he acknowledged that in order to preserve democracy, Hitler had to be defeated. This same reluctant value compromise was shared by his acquaintance A.A. Milne. Russell was fairly consistently opposed to the continued existence of nuclear weapons from the time of their first use. However, on 20 November 1948, in a public speech at Westminster School, addressing a gathering arranged by the New Commonwealth, Russell shocked some observers with comments that seemed to suggest a preemptive nuclear strike on the Soviet Union might be justified. Russell apparently argued that the threat of war between the United States and the Soviet Union would enable the United States to force the Soviet Union to accept the Baruch Plan for international atomic energy control. (Earlier in the year he had written in the same vein to Walter W. Marseille.) Russell felt this plan "had very great merits and showed considerable generosity, when it is remembered that America still had an unbroken nuclear monopoly." (Has Man a Future?, 1961). However Nicholas Griffin of McMaster University, in his book The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell: The Public Years, 1914-1970, has claimed (after obtaining a transcript of the speech) that Russell's wording implies he didn't advocate the actual use of the atom bomb, but merely its diplomatic use as a massive source of leverage over the actions of the Soviets. Griffin's interpretation was disputed by Nigel Lawson, the former British Chancellor, who was present at the speech, claims it was quite clear that Russell was advocating an actual First Strike. Whichever interpretation is correct, Russell later relented, instead arguing for mutual disarmament by the nuclear powers, possibly linked to some form of world government. In 1955, Russell released the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, co-signed by Albert Einstein and nine other leading scientists and intellectuals, a document which led to the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs in 1957. In 1958, Russell became the first president of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. He resigned two years later when the CND would not support civil disobedience, and formed the Committee of 100. In September 1961 he was imprisoned for a week for inciting civil disobedience, when he took part in a huge ban-the-bomb demonstration at the Ministry of Defence but the sentence was quashed on account of his age. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Russell sent telegrams to U.S. President John F. Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev, the UN Secretary-General U Thant and British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan. His telegrams were greatly critical of Kennedy, who he had already singled out earlier as "more dangerous than Hitler", and tolerant of Khrushchev. Khrushchev replied with a long letter, published by the Russian news agency ITAR-TASS, which was mainly addressed to Kennedy and the Western world. Increasingly concerned about the potential danger to humanity arising from nuclear weapons and other scientific discoveries, he also joined with Einstein, Robert Oppenheimer, Joseph Rotblat and other eminent scientists of the day to establish the World Academy of Art and Science which was formally constituted in 1960. The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation and its publishing imprint Spokesman Books http://www.spokesmanbooks.com began work in 1963 to carry forward Russell's work for peace, human rights and social justice. He began public opposition to US policy in Vietnam with a letter to The New York Times dated 28 March 1963. By the autumn of 1966, he had completed the manuscript War Crimes in Vietnam. Then, using the American justifications for the Nuremberg Trials, Russell, along with Jean-Paul Sartre, organised what he called an international War Crimes Tribunal, the Russell Tribunal. Russell criticized the official account of the assassination of John F. Kennedy in "16 Questions on the Assassination," 1964. Communism and socialism Russell initially expressed great hope in "the Communist experiment." However, when he visited the Soviet Union and met Vladimir Lenin in 1920, he was unimpressed with the system in place. On his return he wrote a critical tract, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism. He was "infinitely unhappy in this atmosphere—stifled by its utilitarianism, its indifference to love and beauty and the life of impulse." He believed Lenin to be similar to a religious zealot, cold and possessing "no love of liberty." In the 1922 and 1923 general elections Russell stood as a Labour Party candidate in the Chelsea constituency, but only on the basis that he knew he was extremely unlikely to be elected in such a safe Conservative seat, and he was not on either occasion. He was strongly critical of Stalin's regime, and referred to Marxism as a "system of dogma." Bertrand Russell, Unpopular Essays (1950), p.19, Simon and Schuster Between 1945 and 1947, together with A. J. Ayer and George Orwell, he contributed a series of articles to Polemic, a short-lived British "Magazine of Philosophy, Psychology, and Aesthetics" edited by the ex-Communist Humphrey Slater. Art-Historical Notes: "Where are the Hirsts of the 1930s now?" The Independent, Nov 13, 1998 by David Buckman Absent Minds: Intellectuals in Britain by Stefan Collini Oxford University Press, 2006 ISBN 0199291055, 9780199291052 Russell was a consistent enthusiast for democracy and world government, and he advocated the establishment of a democratic international government in some of the essays collected in In Praise of Idleness (1935), and also in Has Man a Future? (1961). Women's suffrage As a young man, Russell was a member of the Liberal Party and wrote in favor of women's suffrage. In his 1910 pamphlet, Anti-Suffragist Anxieties, Russell wrote that some men opposed suffrage because they "fear that their liberty to act in ways that are injurious to women will be curtailed." In May 1907 Russell stood for Parliament as a Woman's suffrage candidate in Wimbledon, but was not elected. Views on sexuality Russell wrote against Victorian notions of morality. Marriage and Morals (1929) expressed his opinion that sex between a man and woman who are not married to each other is not necessarily immoral if they truly love one another, and advocated "trial marriages" or "companionate marriage," formalized relationships whereby young people could legitimately have sexual intercourse without being expected to remain married in the long term or to have children (an idea first proposed by Judge Ben Lindsey). This was enough to raise vigorous protests and denunciations against him during his visit to the United States shortly after the book's publication. Russell was also one of the first intellectuals to advocate open sex education and widespread access to contraception. He also advocated easy divorce, but only if the marriage had produced no children — Russell's view was that parents should remain married but tolerant of each others' sexual infidelity, if they had children. This reflected his life at the time — his second wife Dora was openly having an affair, and would soon become pregnant by another man, but Russell was keen for their children John and Kate to have a "normal" family life. Russell was also an active supporter of the Homosexual Law Reform Society, being one of the signatories of A.E. Dyson's 1958 letter to The Times calling for a change in the law regarding male homosexual practices, which were partly legalized in 1967, when Russell was still alive. Race As with his views on religion, which developed considerably throughout his long life, Russell's views on the matter of race did not remain fixed. By 1951, Russell was a vocal advocate of racial equality and intermarriage; he penned a chapter on "Racial Antagonism" in New Hopes for a Changing World (1951), which read: Passages in some of his early writings support birth control. On 16 November 1922, for instance, he gave a lecture to the General Meeting of Dr. Marie Stopes's Society for Constructive Birth Control and Racial Progress on "Birth Control and International Relations," in which he described the importance of extending Western birth control worldwide; his remarks anticipated the population control movement of the 1960s and the role of the United Nations. Another passage from early editions of his book Marriage and Morals (1929), which Russell later claimed to be referring only to environmental conditioning, and which he significantly modified in later editions, reads: Russell later criticized eugenic programs for their vulnerability to corruption, and, in 1932, he condemned the "unwarranted assumption" that "Negroes are congenitally inferior to white men" (Education and the Social Order, Chap. 3). Responding in 1964 to a correspondent's inquiry, "Do you still consider the Negroes an inferior race, as you did when you wrote Marriage and Morals?", Russell replied: Lord Bertrand Russell also wrote in his book The Impact of Science on Society http://books.google.com/books?id=IZ3miaHwjdUC&pg=PA86&dq=%22The+Impact+of+Science+on+Society%22+War+has&ei=wj4XSta4EZ_AzATc0dD0Cg#PPA115,M1 (page 116): Further reading Selected bibliography of Russell's books This is a selected bibliography of Russell's books in English sorted by year of first publication. 1896, German Social Democracy, London: Longmans, Green. 1897, An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry, Cambridge: At the University Press. 1900, A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz, Cambridge: At the University Press. 1903, The Principles of Mathematics The Principles of Mathematics, Cambridge: At the University Press. 1905 On Denoting, Mind vol. 14, NS, ISSN: 00264425, Basil Blackwell 1910, Philosophical Essays, London: Longmans, Green. 1910–1913, Principia Mathematica (with Alfred North Whitehead), 3 vols., Cambridge: At the University Press. 1912, The Problems of Philosophy, London: Williams and Norgate. 1914, Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy, Chicago and London: Open CPublishing. 1916, Principles of Social Reconstruction, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1916, Justice in War-time, Chicago: Open Court. 1917, Political Ideals, New York: The Century Co. 1918, Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays, London: Longmans, Green. 1918, Proposed Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1919, Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, London: George Allen & Unwin, (ISBN 0-415-09604-9 for Routledge paperback) (Copy at Archive.org). 1920, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism,London: George Allen & Unwin 1921, The Analysis of Mind, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1922, The Problem of China, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1923, The Prospects of Industrial Civilization (in collaboration with Dora Russell), London: George Allen & Unwin. 1923, The ABC of Atoms, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. 1924, Icarus, or the Future of Science, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. 1925, The ABC of Relativity, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. 1925, What I Believe, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. 1926, On Education, Especially in Early Childhood, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1927, The Analysis of Matter, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. 1927, An Outline of Philosophy, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1927, Why I Am Not a Christian, London: Watts. 1927, Selected Papers of Bertrand Russell, New York: Modern Library. 1928, Sceptical Essays, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1929, Marriage and Morals, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1930, The Conquest of Happiness, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1931, The Scientific Outlook, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1932, Education and the Social Order, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1934, Freedom and Organization, 1814–1914, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1935, In Praise of Idleness, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1935, Religion and Science, London: Thornton Butterworth. 1936, Which Way to Peace?, London: Jonathan Cape. 1937, The Amberley Papers: The Letters and Diaries of Lord and Lady Amberley (with Patricia Russell), 2 vols., London: Leonard & Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press. 1938, Power: A New Social Analysis, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1940, An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth, New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 1946, History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day, New York: Simon and Schuster. 1948, Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1949, Authority and the Individual, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1950, Unpopular Essays, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1951, New Hopes for a Changing World, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1952, The Impact of Science on Society, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1953, Satan in the Suburbs and Other Stories, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1954, Human Society in Ethics and Politics, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1954, Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1956, Portraits from Memory and Other Essays, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1956, Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950 (edited by Robert C. Marsh), London: George Allen & Unwin. 1957, Why I Am Not A Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects (edited by Paul Edwards), London: George Allen & Unwin. 1958, Understanding History and Other Essays, New York: Philosophical Library. 1959, Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1959, My Philosophical Development, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1959, Wisdom of the West ("editor", Paul Foulkes), London: Macdonald. 1960, Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind, Cleveland and New York: World Publishing Company. 1961, The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell (edited by R.E. Egner and L.E. Denonn), London: George Allen & Unwin. 1961, Fact and Fiction, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1961, Has Man a Future?, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1963, Essays in Skepticism, New York: Philosophical Library. 1963, Unarmed Victory, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1965, On the Philosophy of Science (edited by Charles A. Fritz, Jr.), Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company. 1967, Russell's Peace Appeals (edited by Tsutomu Makino and Kazuteru Hitaka), Japan: Eichosha's New Current Books. 1967, War Crimes in Vietnam, London: George Allen & Unwin. 1967–1969, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, 3 vols., London: George Allen & Unwin. 1969, Dear Bertrand Russell... A Selection of his Correspondence with the General Public 1950–1968 (edited by Barry Feinberg and Ronald Kasrils), London: George Allen and Unwin. Note: This is a mere sampling, for Russell also wrote many pamphlets, introductions, articles and letters to the editor. His works also can be found in any number of anthologies and collections, perhaps most notably The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell, which McMaster University began publishing in 1983. This collection of his shorter and previously unpublished works is now up to 16 volumes, and many more are forthcoming. An additional three volumes catalogue just his bibliography. The Russell Archives at McMaster University also have more than 30,000 letters that he wrote. Additional references Russell 1900, Sur la logique des relations avec des applications à la théorie des séries, Rivista di matematica 7: 115-148. 1901, On the Notion of Order, Mind (n.s.) 10: 35-51. 1902, (with Alfred North Whitehead), On Cardinal Numbers, American Journal of Mathematics 23: 367-384. Secondary references John Newsome Crossley. A Note on Cantor's Theorem and Russell's Paradox, Australian Journal of Philosophy 51: 70-71. Ivor Grattan-Guinness, 2000. The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940. Princeton University Press. Books about Russell's philosophy Bertrand Russell: Critical Assessments, edited by A. D. Irvine, 4 volumes, London: Routledge, 1999. Consists of essays on Russell's work by many distinguished philosophers. Bertrand Russell, by John Slater, Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1994. Bertrand Russell's Ethics. by Michael K. Potter, Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2006. A clear and accessible explanation of Russell's moral philosophy. The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell, edited by P.A. Schilpp, Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University, 1944. Russell, by A. J. Ayer, London: Fontana, 1972. ISBN 0-00-632965-9. A lucid summary exposition of Russell's thought. The Lost Cause: Causation and the Mind-Body Problem, by Celia Green. Oxford: Oxford Forum, 2003. ISBN 0-9536772-1-4 Contains a sympathetic analysis of Russell's views on causality. The Ethical Philosophy of Bertrand Russell by Dr. Ramendra, New York: Vantage Press,1993. ISBN 0-533-09424-0 Some Reflections on Ethics by Dr. Ramendra Biographical books Bertrand Russell: Philosopher and Humanist, by John Lewis (1968) Bertrand Russell, by A. J. Ayer (1972), reprint ed. 1988: ISBN 0-226-03343-0 The Life of Bertrand Russell, by Ronald W. Clark (1975) ISBN 0-394-49059-2 Bertrand Russell and His World, by Ronald W. Clark (1981) ISBN 0-500-13070-1 Bertrand Russell: Mathematics: Dreams and Nightmares by Ray Monk (1997) ISBN 0-75380-190-6 Bertrand Russell: 1872–1920 The Spirit of Solitude by Ray Monk (1997) ISBN 0-09-973131-2 Bertrand Russell: 1921–1970 The Ghost of Madness by Ray Monk (2001) ISBN 0-09-927275-X Notes References Bertrand Russell. 1967–1969, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, 3 volumes, London: George Allen & Unwin. Wallechinsky, David & Irving Wallace. 1975-1981, "Famous Marriages Bertrand Russell & Alla Pearsall Smith, Part 1" & "Part 3", on "Alys" Pearsall Smith, webpage content from The People's Almanac, webpages: Part 1 & Part 3 (accessed 2008-11-08). Russell B, (1944) "My Mental Development", in Schilpp, Paul Arturn "The Philosophy of Betrand Russell", New York, Tudorm 1951, pp 3–20 External links Writings available online "Mysticism" (1961) "A Free Man's Worship" (1903) "Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?" (1947) "Has Religion Made Useful Contributions to Civilization?" 1930 "Ideas that Have Harmed Mankind" (1950) "In Praise of Idleness" (1932) "What Desires Are Politically Important?" (1950) Political Ideals (1917) The Problems of Philosophy Proposed Roads to Freedom (1918) "16 Questions on the Assassination" (of President Kennedy) The Analysis Of Mind What is an Agnostic? Why I am not a Christian The War and Non-Resistance—A Rejoinder to Professor Perry War and Non-Resistance (1915) The Ethics of War (1915) Principia Mathematica (1910) "The Elements of Ethics" (1910) The Principles of Mathematics (1903) An essay on the foundations of geometry From: www.archive.org History of Western Philosophy (1946) My Philosophical Development (1959) Portraits from Memory and Other Essays (1956) Unpopular Essays (1950) Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy (1920) The Scientific Outlook (1954) An Outline of Philosophy (1951) Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare (1959) Our Knowledge of the External World (1914) Legitimacy Versus Industrialism 1814-1848 (1935) Authority and the Individual (1949) Education and the Social Order (1932) Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories (1954) Why Men Fight: A Method of Abolishing the International Duel (1917) Justice in Wartime (1917) Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays (1917) The Autobiography Of Bertrand Russell 1872-1914 (1951) The Autobiography Of Bertrand Russell 1914-1944 (1956) Is There a God? (1952) Audio Works by Bertrand Russell in audio format from LibriVox Bertrand Russell Audio Archive In Praise of Idleness free mp3 recitation of Russell's essay of the same name, from the Audio Anarchy project Sound clips of Bertrand Russell speaking Other Pembroke Lodge — childhood home and museum The Bertrand Russell Society — a member organisation of the International Humanist and Ethical Union The Bertrand Russell Society Quarterly The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation Bertrand Russell in Japan Biography and quotes of Bertrand Russell Russell Photo Gallery Photographs at the National Portrait Gallery The Bertrand Russell Archives Resource list The First Reith Lecture given by Russell (Real Audio) Encyclopaedia Britannica Nobel Prize Russell immediate family Lecture about 1905, the philosophical landscale of Einstein in which Russell was central Bertrand Russell at 100 Welsh Heroes | Bertrand_Russell |@lemmatized bertrand:58 arthur:3 william:5 russell:302 earl:8 om:2 fr:3 may:3 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7,564 | Gesta_Danorum | Gesta Danorum (Angers Fragment), page 1, front. Gesta Danorum ("Deeds of the Danes") is a work of Danish history, by the 12th century author Saxo Grammaticus ("Saxo the Literate", literally "the Grammarian"). It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of medieval Denmark and is an essential source for the nation's early history. It is also one of the oldest known written documents about the history of Estonia and Livonia. Consisting of sixteen books written in Latin on the invitation of Archbishop Absalon, Gesta Danorum describes Danish history and to some degree Scandinavian history in general, from prehistory to the late 12th century. In addition, Gesta Danorum offers singular reflections on European affairs in the High Middle Ages from a unique Scandinavian perspective, supplementing what has been handed down by historians from Western and Southern Europe. Books The sixteen books, in prose with an occasional excursions into poetry, can be categorized into two parts, book 1-9 dealing with Norse mythology part and Book 10-16 handling medieval history. Book 9 ends with Gorm the Old, the first factual documented King of Denmark. The last three books (14-16), describe Danish conquests on the south shore of the Baltic Sea and wars against Slavic peoples (the Northern Crusades), are very valuable for the history of West Slavic tribes (Polabian Slavs, Pomeranians) and Slavic paganism. Book 14 contains a unique description of the temple at Rügen Island. Chronology When exactly Gesta Danorum was written is the subject of numerous works; however, it is generally agreed that Gesta Danorum was not finished before 1208. The last event described in the last book (Book 16) is King Canute VI of Denmark subduing Pomerania under Duke Bogislaw I, in 1186. However the preface of the work, dictated to Archbishop Anders Sunesen, mentions the Danish conquest of the areas north of the Elbe river in 1208. Book 14, comprising nearly one-quarter of the text of the entire work, ends with Absalon's appointment to Archbishop in 1178. Since this book is so large and Absalon has greater importance than King Valdemar I, this book may have been written first and comprised a work on its own. It is possible that Saxo then enlarged it with Books 15 and 16, telling the story of King Valdemar I's last years and King Canute VI's first years. It is believed that Saxo then wrote Books 11, 12, and 13. Svend Aagesen's history of Denmark, Brevis Historia Regum Dacie (circa 1186), states that Saxo had decided to write about "The king-father and his sons," which would be King Sweyn Estridson, in Books 11, 12, and 13. He would later add the first ten books. This would also explain the 22 years between the last event described in the last book (Book 16) and the 1208 event described in the preface. Manuscripts The original manuscripts of the work are lost, except for four fragments: the Angers Fragment, Lassen Fragment, Kall-Rasmussen Fragment and Plesner Fragment. The Angers Fragment is the biggest fragment, and the only one attested to be in Saxo’s own handwriting. The other ones are copies from ca. 1275. All four fragments are in the collection of the Danish Royal Library in Copenhagen, Denmark. The text has, however, survived. In 1510-1512, Christiern Pedersen, a Danish translator working in Paris, searched Denmark high and low for an existing copy of Saxo’s works, which by that time was nearly all but lost. By that time most knowledge of Saxo’s work came from a summary located in Chronica Jutensis, from around 1342, called Compendium Saxonis. It is also in this summary that the name Gesta Danorum is found. The title Saxo himself used for his work is unknown. Christiern Pedersen finally found a copy in the collection of Archbishop Birger Gunnersen of Lund, modern Sweden, which he gladly lent him. With the help of printer Jodocus Badius, Gesta Danorum was refined and printed. Printing Front page of Christiern Pedersen's Saxo version, Paris 1514. The first printed press publication and the oldest known complete text of Saxo’s works is Christiern Pedersen's Latin edition, printed and published by Jodocus Badius in Paris, France, March 15, 1514 under the title of Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae ("History of the Kings and heroes of the Danes"). The edition features the following colophon: ...impressit in inclyta Parrhisorum academia Iodocus Badius Ascensius Idibus Martiis. MDXIIII. Supputatione Romana. (the Ides of March, 1514). The full front page reads (with abbreviations expanded) in Latin: Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae stilo eleganti a Saxone Grammatico natione Zialandico necnon Roskildensis ecclesiae praeposito, abhinc supra trecentos annos conscriptae et nunc primum literaria serie illustratae tersissimeque impressae. Danish language: De danske Kongers og Heltes Historie, skrevet I pyntelig Stil for over 300 Aar siden af Saxo Grammaticus, en Sjællandsfar og Provst ved Kirken I Roskilde, og nu for første Gang oplyst ved et Register og omhyggeligt trykt. English language: Histories of the Kings and heroes of the Danes, composed in elegant style by Saxo Grammaticus, a Sjællander and also provost of the church of Roskilde, over three hundred years ago, and now for the first time illustrated and printed correctly in a learned compilation. Latin versions The source of all existing translations and new editions is Christiern Pedersen's Latin Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae. There exist a number different translations today, some complete, some partial: Christiern Pedersen, published 1514, title: Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae Johannes Oporinus, published 1534, title: Saxonis Grammatici Danorum Historiae Libri XVI Philip Lonicer, published 1576, title: Danica Historia Libris XVI Stephan Hansen Stephanius, published 1645, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historiæ Danicæ Libri XVI Christian Adolph Klotz, published 1771, title: ? Peter Erasmus Müller, published 1839, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica Alfred Holder, published 1886, title: Saxonis Grammatici Gesta Danorum Jørgen Olrik & Hans Ræder, published 1931, title: Saxonis Gesta Danorum Karsten Friis-Jensen, published 2005, title: Gesta Danorum ISBN 978-87-12-04025-5 (ISBN-13) ISBN 87-12-04025-8 Danish translations Christiern Pedersen, never published ca. 1540, Lost Jon Tursons, never published ca. 1555, Lost Anders Sørensen Vedel, published 1575, title: Den Danske Krønicke Sejer Schousbölle, published 1752, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica Nicolai Grundtvig, published 1818-1822, title: Danmarks Krønike af Saxo Grammaticus Frederik Winkel Horn, published 1898, title: Saxo Grammaticus: Danmarks Krønike Jørgen Olrik, published 1908-1912, title: Sakses Danesaga Peter Zeeberg, published 2000, title: Saxos Danmarkshistorie ISBN 87-12-03496-7 (complete) ISBN 87-12-03534-3 (vol 1) ISBN 87-12-03535-1 (vol 2) English translations Oliver Elton, published 1894, title: The First Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus Peter Fisher and Hilda Ellis Davidson, published 1979-1980, title: Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes Eric Christiansen, published 1980-1981, title: Saxo Grammaticus: Danorum regum heroumque historia, books X-XVI William F. Hansen, published 1983, title: Saxo Grammaticus and the life of Hamlet Other translations Hermann Jantzen, published 1900, title: Saxo Grammaticus. Die ersten neun Bücher der dänischen Geschichte Ludovica Koch & Maria Adele Cipolla, published 1993, title: Sassone Grammatico: Gesta dei re e degli eroi danesi Yukio Taniguchi, published 1993, title: Sakuso Guramatikusu: Denmakujin no jiseki Santiago Ibáñez Lluch, published 1999, title: Saxo Gramático: Historia Danesa Gesta Danorum is also translated partially in other English, French and German releases. Hamlet Certain aspects of Gesta Danorum formed the basis for William Shakespeare's play, Hamlet. It is thought that Shakespeare never read Gesta Danorum, and instead had access to an auxiliary version of the tale describing the downfall of the Prince of Denmark, whose real name - Amleth - was used in anagram by Shakespeare for Hamlet. Saxo’s version, told of in Book 3 and 4, is very similar to that of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. In Saxo's version, two brothers, Orvendil and Fengi are given the rule over Jutland by King Rørik Slyngebond of the Danes. Soon after, Orvendil marries King Rørik’s daughter, Geruth (Gertrude in Hamlet). Amleth is their first and only child. Fengi becomes resentful of his brother’s marriage, and also wants sole leadership of Jutland, so therefore murders Orvendil. After a very brief period of mourning, Fengi marries Geruth, and declares himself sole leader of Jutland. Eventually, Amleth avenges his father’s murder and plans the murder of his uncle, making him the new and rightful king of Jutland. However, while Hamlet dies in Shakespeare's version just after his uncle's death, in Saxo's version Amleth survives and begins ruling his kingdom, going on to other adventures. References Hilda Ellis Davidson, Peter Fisher (trans), Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX : I. English Text; II. Commentary, modern English translation, 2002, ISBN 0-85991-502-6 Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum, Books I-IX, translated to English by Oliver Elton 1905. Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum, from the Royal Library in Copenhagen, Danish and Latin. Helle Stangerup, Saxo Hans værk – Hans verden, Høst & Søn forlag 2004, ISBN 87-14-29949-6 Apoteker Sibbernsens Saxobog, C. A. Reitzels Forlag, Copenhagen, 1927 Frederik Winkel Horn, Saxo Grammaticus: Danmarks Krønike, Chr. Flors Boghandel, Copenhangen 1911. Jørgen Olrik & H Ræder, Saxonis Gesta Danorum, Levin & Munkesgaard, Copenhagen, 1931 Anders Sørensen Vedel, Den Danske Krønicke Saxo-oversættelse 1575 udgivet i facimile af Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab, G. E. C Gad, Copenhagen, 1967 Curt Weibull, Saxo. Kritiska undersökningar i Danmarks historia från Sven Estridsens död till Knut VI., Lund, Blekingska boktryckeriet, 1915 (in Historisk tidskrift för Skåneland, band 6, häfte 1-3) External links On-Line Medieval and Classical History: The Danish History books I-IX, translated by Oliver Elton (Norroena Society, New York, 1905)."His seven later books are the chief Danish authority for the times which they relate; his first nine, here translated, are a treasure of myth and folk-lore" (Elton, Introduction''). 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7,565 | Liberal_arts_education | The seven liberal arts - Picture from the Hortus deliciarum of Herrad von Landsberg (12th century) The term liberal arts refers to the education derived from the Classical education curriculum. History Definition The term liberal arts denotes a curriculum that imparts general knowledge and develops the student’s rational thought and intellectual capabilities, unlike the professional, vocational, technical curricula emphasizing specialization. The contemporary liberal arts comprise studying art, literature, languages, philosophy, politics, history, mathematics, and science. In classical antiquity, the liberal arts denoted the education proper to a free man (Latin: liber, “free”), unlike the education proper to a slave. In the 5th Century AD, Martianus Capella academically defined the seven Liberal Arts as: grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. In the medieval Western university, the seven liberal arts were: the Trivium <li>grammar <li>rhetoric <li>logic the Quadrivium <li>geometry <li>arithmetic <li>music <li>astronomy The Visual Arts The liberal arts include the visual arts. Renaissance supporters of the visual arts — architecture, painting, sculpture, classed as mechanical and manual arts — argued their inclusion to the liberal arts, among said advocates were Leon Battista Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, and Giorgio Vasari. In Italy, and among Renaissance humanists, the academic matter was decided around 1500, Blunt, Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450-1660,p. 49, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN0198810504 yet it required another century in Spain and England. Liberal arts colleges in the United States In the United States, Liberal arts colleges are schools emphasising undergraduate study in the liberal arts. A full-time, four-year course of study earns the student either a Bachelor of Arts degree or a Bachelor of Science degree; on completing undergraduate study, students might progress to either a graduate school or a professional school (public administration, business, law, medicine, theology). The teaching is Socratic, to small classes, and at a greater teacher-to-student ratio than at universities; full-time teachers give classes, rather than graduate student teaching assistants. Despite the European origin of the liberal arts college, the term liberal arts college usually denotes liberal arts colleges in the United States. References Further reading Blaich, Charles, Anne Bost, Ed Chan, and Richard Lynch. Defining Liberal Arts Education. Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts, 2004. Blanshard, Brand. The Uses of a Liberal Education: And Other Talks to Students. (Open Court, 1973. ISBN 0-8126-9429-5) Friedlander, Jack. Measuring the Benefits of Liberal Arts Education in Washington's Community Colleges. Los Angeles: Center for the Study of Community Colleges, 1982a. (ED 217 918) Joseph, Sister Miriam. The Trivium: The Liberal Arts of Logic, Grammar, and Rhetoric. Paul Dry Books Inc, 2002. Pfnister, Allen O. "The Role of the Liberal Arts College." The Journal of Higher Education. Vol. 55, No. 2 (March/April 1984): 145-170. Reeves, Floyd W. "The Liberal-Arts College." The Journal of Higher Education. Vol. 1, No. 7 (1930): 373-380. Seidel, George. "Saving the Small College." The Journal of Higher Education. Vol. 39, No. 6 (1968): 339-342. Winterer, Caroline.The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life, 1780-1910. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. Wriston, Henry M. The Nature of a Liberal College. Lawrence University Press, 1937. T. Kaori Kitao, William R. Kenan, Jr."The Usefulness Of Uselessness" Keynote Address, The 1999 Institute for the Academic Advancement of Youth's Odyssey at Swarthmore College, 27 March 1999 See also The Mechanical Arts Bachelor of Liberal Studies Bachelor of Liberal Arts Bachelor of General Studies Bachelor of Arts Great Books Program Great Books Programs in Canada External links The Annapolis Group/College News The Classical Liberal Arts Academy Philosophy of Liberal Education Liberal Arts at the Community College A Descriptive Analysis of the Community College Liberal Arts Curriculum The Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts Academic Commons CatholiCity: Catholic Encyclopedia | Liberal_arts_education |@lemmatized seven:3 liberal:30 art:33 picture:1 hortus:1 deliciarum:1 herrad:1 von:1 landsberg:1 century:3 term:3 refers:1 education:11 derive:1 classical:3 curriculum:4 history:2 definition:1 denote:3 impart:1 general:2 knowledge:1 develop:1 student:6 rational:1 thought:1 intellectual:2 capability:1 unlike:2 professional:2 vocational:1 technical:1 emphasize:1 specialization:1 contemporary:1 comprise:1 study:7 literature:1 language:1 philosophy:2 politics:1 mathematics:1 science:2 antiquity:1 proper:2 free:2 man:1 latin:1 liber:1 slave:1 ad:1 martianus:1 capella:1 academically:1 define:2 grammar:3 dialectic:1 rhetoric:3 geometry:2 arithmetic:2 astronomy:2 music:2 medieval:1 western:1 university:4 trivium:2 li:7 logic:2 quadrivium:1 visual:3 arts:1 include:1 renaissance:2 supporter:1 architecture:1 painting:1 sculpture:1 class:3 mechanical:2 manual:1 argue:1 inclusion:1 among:2 say:1 advocate:1 leon:1 battista:1 alberti:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 giorgio:1 vasari:1 italy:2 humanist:1 academic:3 matter:1 decide:1 around:1 blunt:1 anthony:1 artistic:1 theory:1 p:1 refs:1 edn:1 oup:1 yet:1 require:1 another:1 spain:1 england:1 college:15 united:3 state:3 school:3 emphasise:1 undergraduate:2 full:2 time:2 four:1 year:1 course:1 earn:1 either:2 bachelor:6 degree:2 complete:1 might:1 progress:1 graduate:2 public:1 administration:1 business:1 law:1 medicine:1 theology:1 teaching:1 socratic:1 small:2 great:3 teacher:2 ratio:1 give:1 rather:1 teach:1 assistant:1 despite:1 european:1 origin:1 usually:1 reference:1 far:1 reading:1 blaich:1 charles:1 anne:1 bost:1 ed:2 chan:1 richard:1 lynch:1 center:3 inquiry:2 blanshard:1 brand:1 us:1 talk:1 open:1 court:1 isbn:1 friedlander:1 jack:1 measure:1 benefit:1 washington:1 community:4 los:1 angeles:1 joseph:1 sister:1 miriam:1 paul:1 dry:1 book:3 inc:1 pfnister:1 allen:1 role:1 journal:3 high:3 vol:3 march:2 april:1 reef:1 floyd:1 w:1 seidel:1 george:1 save:1 winterer:1 caroline:1 culture:1 classicism:1 ancient:1 greece:1 rome:1 american:1 life:1 baltimore:1 john:1 hopkins:1 press:2 wriston:1 henry:1 nature:1 lawrence:1 kaori:1 kitao:1 william:1 r:1 kenan:1 jr:1 usefulness:1 uselessness:1 keynote:1 address:1 institute:1 advancement:1 youth:1 odyssey:1 swarthmore:1 see:1 also:1 program:2 canada:1 external:1 link:1 annapolis:1 group:1 news:1 academy:1 descriptive:1 analysis:1 common:1 catholicity:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram martianus_capella:1 leon_battista:1 battista_alberti:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 giorgio_vasari:1 los_angeles:1 sister_miriam:1 keynote_address:1 external_link:1 |
7,566 | Natural_language | In the philosophy of language, a natural language (or ordinary language) is a language that is spoken, signed, or written by humans for general-purpose communication, as distinguished from formal languages (such as computer-programming languages or the "languages" used in the study of formal logic, especially mathematical logic) and from constructed languages. Defining natural language Though the exact definition is debatable, natural language is often contrasted with artificial or constructed languages such as Esperanto, Latino sine Flexione, and Occidental. Linguists have an incomplete understanding of all aspects of the rules underlying natural languages, and these rules are therefore objects of study. The understanding of natural languages reveals much about not only how language works (in terms of syntax, semantics, phonetics, phonology, etc), but also about how the human mind and the human brain process language. In linguistic terms, natural language only applies to a language that has evolved naturally, and the study of natural language primarily involves native (first language) speakers. The theory of universal grammar proposes that all natural languages have certain underlying rules which constrain the structure of the specific grammar for any given language. While grammarians, writers of dictionaries, and language policy-makers all have a certain influence on the evolution of language, their ability to influence what people think they ought to say is distinct from what people actually say. The term natural language refers to actual linguistic behavior, and is aligned with descriptive linguistics rather than linguistic prescription. Thus non-standard language varieties (such as African American Vernacular English) are considered to be natural while standard language varieties (such as Standard American English) which are more prescribed can be considered to be at least somewhat artificial or constructed. Native language learning The learning of one's own native language, typically that of one's parents, normally occurs spontaneously in early human childhood and is biologically driven. A crucial role of this process is performed by the neural activity of a portion of the human brain known as Broca's area. There are approximately 7,000 current human languages, and many, if not most seem to share certain properties, leading to the belief in the existence of Universal Grammar, as shown by generative grammar studies pioneered by the work of Noam Chomsky. Recently, it has been demonstrated that a dedicated network in the human brain (crucially involving Broca's area, a portion of the left inferior frontal gyrus), is selectively activated by complex verbal structures (but not simple ones) of those languages that meet the Universal Grammar requirements. A. Moro, M. Tettamanti, D. Perani, C. Donati, S. F. Cappa, F. Fazio “Syntax and the brain: disentangling grammar by selective anomalies”, NeuroImage, 13, January 2001, Academic Press, Chicago, pp. 110-118 Musso, M., Moro, A. , Glauche. V., Rijntjes, M., Reichenbach, J., Büchel, C., Weiller, C. “Broca’s area and the language instinct,” Nature neuroscience, 2003, vol. 6, pp. 774-781. Origins of natural language There is disagreement among anthropologists on when language was first used by humans (or their ancestors). Estimates range from about two million (2,000,000) years ago, during the time of Homo habilis, to as recently as forty thousand (40,000) years ago, during the time of Cro-Magnon man. However recent evidence suggests modern human language was invented or evolved in Africa prior to the dispersal of humans from Africa around 50,000 years ago. Since all people including the most isolated indigenous groups such as the Andamanese or the Tasmanian aboriginals possess language, then it was presumedly present in the ancestral populations in Africa before the human population split into various groups to colonize the rest of the world. Early Voices: The Leap to Language nytimes article by Nicholas Wade Origins of language constraints on hypotheses Linguistic diversity As of early 2007, there are 6,912 known living human languages. "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition", accessed 28 June 2007, ISBN 1 55671 159 X A "living language" is simply one which is in wide use by a specific group of living people. The exact number of known living languages will vary from 5,000 to 10,000, depending generally on the precision of one's definition of "language", and in particular on how one classifies dialects. There are also many dead or extinct languages. There is no clear distinction between a language and a dialect, notwithstanding linguist Max Weinreich's famous aphorism that "a language is a dialect with an army and navy." In other words, the distinction may hinge on political considerations as much as on cultural differences, distinctive writing systems, or degree of mutual intelligibility. It is probably impossible to accurately enumerate the living languages because our worldwide knowledge is incomplete, and it is a "moving target", as explained in greater detail by the Ethnologue's Introduction, p. 7 - 8. With the 15th edition, the 103 newly added languages are not new but reclassified due to refinements in the definition of language. Although widely considered an encyclopedia, the Ethnologue actually presents itself as an incomplete catalog, including only named languages that its editors are able to document. With each edition, the number of catalogued languages has grown. Beginning with the 14th edition (2000), an attempt was made to include all known living languages. SIL used an internal 3-letter code fashioned after airport codes to identify languages. This was the precursor to the modern ISO 639-3 standard, to which SIL contributed. The standard allows for over 14,000 languages. In turn, the 15th edition was revised to conform to the pending ISO 639-3 standard. Of the catalogued languages, 497 have been flagged as "nearly extinct" due to trends in their usage. Per the 15th edition, 6,912 living languages are shared by over 5.7 billion speakers. (p. 15) Some major limitations in the accuracy of Ethnologue's speaker population data should however be noted. Paolillo, J.C. & Das, A.: "Evaluating Language Statistics: The Ethnologue and Beyond". 2006 Gerrand, P.: "Estimating Linguistic Diversity on the Internet: A Taxonomy to Avoid Pitfalls and Paradoxes" JCMC 2007 Taxonomy The classification of natural languages can be performed on the basis of different underlying principles (different closeness notions, respecting different properties and relations between languages); important directions of present classifications are: paying attention to the historical evolution of languages results in a genetic classification of languages—which is based on genetic relatedness of languages, paying attention to the internal structure of languages (grammar) results in a typological classification of languages—which is based on similarity of one or more components of the language's grammar across languages, and respecting geographical closeness and contacts between language-speaking communities results in areal groupings of languages. The different classifications do not match each other and are not expected to, but the correlation between them is an important point for many linguistic research works. (There is a parallel to the classification of species in biological phylogenetics here: consider monophyletic vs. polyphyletic groups of species.) The task of genetic classification belongs to the field of historical-comparative linguistics, of typological—to linguistic typology. See also Taxonomy, and Taxonomic classification for the general idea of classification and taxonomies. Genetic classification The world's languages have been grouped into families of languages that are believed to have common ancestors. Some of the major families are the Indo-European languages, the Afro-Asiatic languages, the Austronesian languages, and the Sino-Tibetan languages. The shared features of languages from one family can be due to shared ancestry. (Compare with homology in biology.) Typological classification An example of a typological classification is the classification of languages on the basis of the basic order of the verb, the subject and the object in a sentence into several types: SVO, SOV, VSO, and so on, languages. (English, for instance, belongs to the SVO language type.) The shared features of languages of one type (= from one typological class) may have arisen completely independently. (Compare with analogy in biology.) Their cooccurence might be due to the universal laws governing the structure of natural languages—language universals. Areal classification The following language groupings can serve as some linguistically significant examples of areal linguistic units, or sprachbunds: Balkan linguistic union, or the bigger group of European languages; Caucasian languages; East Asian languages. Although the members of each group are not closely genetically related, there is a reason for them to share similar features, namely: their speakers have been in contact for a long time within a common community and the languages converged in the course of the history. These are called "areal features". One should be careful about the underlying classification principle for groups of languages which have apparently a geographical name: besides areal linguistic units, the taxa of the genetic classification (language families) are often given names which themselves or parts of which refer to geographical areas. Controlled languages Controlled natural languages are subsets of natural languages whose grammars and dictionaries have been restricted in order to reduce or eliminate both ambiguity and complexity (for instance, by cutting down on rarely used superlative or adverbial forms or irregular verbs). The purpose behind the development and implementation of a controlled natural language typically is to aid non-native speakers of a natural language in understanding it, or to ease computer processing of a natural language. An example of a widely used controlled natural language is Simplified English, which was originally developed for aerospace industry maintenance manuals. Constructed languages and international auxiliary languages Constructed international auxiliary languages such as Esperanto and Interlingua (even those that have native speakers) are not generally considered natural languages. Gopsill, F. P., "A historical overview of international languages". In International languages: A matter for Interlingua. Sheffield, England: British Interlingua Society, 1990. The problem is that other languages have been used to communicate and evolve in a natural way, while Esperanto was selectively designed by L.L. Zamenhof from natural languages, not grown from the natural fluctuations in vocabulary and syntax. Nor has Esperanto been naturally "standardized" by children's natural tendency to correct for illogical grammar structures in their parents' language, which can be seen in the development of pidgin languages into creole languages (as explained by Steven Pinker in The Language Instinct). The possible exception to this are true native speakers of such languages. Proponents contend that there are 200-2000 native speakers of Esperanto. More substantive basis for this designation is that the vocabulary, grammar, and orthography of Interlingua are natural; they have been standardized and presented by a linguistic research body, but they predated it and are not themselves considered a product of human invention. Gode, Alexander, Interlingua-English: A dictionary of the international language. New York: Storm Publishers, 1951. (Original edition) Most experts, however, consider Interlingua to be naturalistic rather than natural. Gopsill, F. P., "A historical overview of international languages". In International languages: A matter for Interlingua. Sheffield, England: British Interlingua Society, 1990. Latino Sine Flexione, a second naturalistic auxiliary language, is also naturalistic in content but is no longer widely spoken. Gopsill, F. P., "Naturalistic international languages". In International languages: A matter for Interlingua. Sheffield, England: British Interlingua Society, 1990. Modalities Natural language manifests itself in modalities other than speech. Sign languages A sign language is a language which conveys meaning through visual rather than acoustic patterns—simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to express a speaker's thoughts. Sign languages are natural languages which have developed in Deaf communities, which can include interpreters and friends and families of deaf people as well as people who are deaf or hard of hearing themselves. In contrast, a manually coded language (or signed spoken language) is a constructed sign system combining elements of a sign language and a spoken language. For example, Signed Exact English (SEE) did not develop naturally in any population, but was "created by a committee of individuals". Emmorey, Karen. Language, cognition, and the brain: insights from sign language research (2001), p. 11. Written languages In a sense, written language should be distinguished from natural language. Until recently in the developed world, it was common for many people to be fluent in spoken or signed languages and yet remain illiterate; this is still the case in poor countries today. Furthermore, natural language acquisition during childhood is largely spontaneous, while literacy must usually be intentionally acquired. Pinker, Steven. 1994. The Language Instinct See also Language Natural language processing (NLP) Universal grammar LGML Linguistics Markup Language Controlled vocabulary Notes References ter Meulen, Alice, 2001, "Logic and Natural Language," in Goble, Lou, ed., The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic. 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7,567 | Genotype | Here the relation between genotype and phenotype is illustrated, using a Punnett square, for the character of petal colour in pea. The letters B and b represent genes for colour and the pictures show the resultant flowers. The genotype is the characteristic that cannot be observed. The genotype is the genetic constitution of a cell, an organism, or an individual (i.e. the specific allele makeup of the individual) usually with reference to a specific character under consideration. Genotype definition - Medical Dictionary definitions For instance, the human albino gene has two allele forms, dominant A and recessive a, and there are three possible genotypes- AA (homozygous dominant), Aa (heterozygous), and aa (homozygous recessive). It is a generally accepted theory that inherited genotype, transmitted epigenetic factors, and non-hereditary environmental variation contribute to the phenotype of an individual. Non-hereditary DNA mutations are not classically understood as representing the individual's genotype. Hence, scientists and physicians sometimes talk for example about the (geno)type of a particular cancer, that is the genotype of the disease as distinct from the diseased. Genotype and genomic sequence One's genotype differs subtly from one's genomic sequence. A sequence is not an absolute measure of base composition of an individual, or a representative of a species or group; a genotype typically implies a measurement of how an individual differs or is specialized within a group of individuals or a species. So typically, one refers to an individual's genotype with regard to a particular gene of interest and, in polyploid individuals, it refers to what combination of alleles the individual carries (see homozygous, heterozygous). Genotype and Mendelian inheritance The distinction between genotype and phenotype is commonly experienced when studying family patterns for certain hereditary diseases or conditions, for example, haemophilia. Due to the diploidy of humans (and most animals), there are two alleles for any given gene. These alleles can be the same (homozygous) or different (heterozygous), depending on the individual (see zygote). With a dominant allele, the offspring is guaranteed to inherit the trait in question irrespective of the second allele. With a recessive allele, the phenotype depends upon the other allele. In the case of haemophilia and similarly recessive diseases a heterozygous individual is a carrier. This person has a normal phenotype but runs a 50-50 risk of passing his or her abnormal gene on to offspring. A homozygous dominant individual has a normal phenotype and no risk of abnormal offspring. A homozygous recessive individual has an abnormal phenotype and is guaranteed to pass the abnormal gene onto offspring. Genotype and genetics The distinction between genotype and phenotype is commonly experienced when studying family patterns for certain hereditary diseases or conditions, for example, haemophilia. Due to the diploidy of humans (and most animals), there are two alleles for any given gene. These alleles can be the same (homozygous) or different (heterozygous), depending on the individual (see zygote). With a dominant allele, the offspring is guaranteed to inherit the trait in question irrespective of the second allele. With a recessive allele, the phenotype depends upon the other allele. In the case of haemophilia and similarly recessive diseases a heterozygous individual is a carrier. This person has a normal phenotype but runs a 50-50 risk of passing his or her abnormal gene on to offspring. A homozygous dominant individual has a normal phenotype and no risk of abnormal offspring. A homozygous recessive individual has an abnormal phenotype and is guaranteed to pass the abnormal gene onto offspring. Genotype and mathematics Main articles: Genetic programming and evolutionary algorithm Inspired by the biological concept and usefulness of genotypes, computer science employs simulated phenotypes in genetic programming and evolutionary algorithms. Such techniques can help evolve mathematical solutions to certain types of otherwise difficult problems. Determining Genotype Genotyping is the process of elucidating the genotype of an individual with a biological assay. Also known as a genotypic assay, techniques include PCR, DNA fragment analysis, allele specific oligonucleotide (ASO) probes, DNA sequencing, and nucleic acid hybridization to DNA microarrays or beads. Several common genotyping techniques include restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (t-RFLP), http://www.softgenetics.com/T-RFLPapplicationnote.pdf amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), http://www.keygene.com/keygene/techs-apps/index.php and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA). http://www.softgenetics.com/MethylationDetectionApplicationNote.pdf DNA fragment analysis can also be used to determine such disease causing genetics aberrations as microsatellite instability (MSI), http://www.softgenetics.com/MSIApplicationNote.pdf trisomy http://www.softgenetics.com/Trisomyapplicationnote.pdf or aneuploidy, and loss of heterozygosity (LOH). http://www.softgenetics.com/LOHapplicationnote.pdf MSI and LOH in particular have been associated with cancer cell genotypes for colon, breast and cervical cancer. The most common chromosomal aneuploidy is a trisomy of chromosome 21 which manifests itself as Down syndrome. Current technological limitations typically allow only a fraction of an individual’s genotype to be determined efficiently. References External links Genetic nomenclature | Genotype |@lemmatized relation:1 genotype:22 phenotype:13 illustrate:1 use:2 punnett:1 square:1 character:2 petal:1 colour:2 pea:1 letter:1 b:2 represent:2 gene:9 picture:1 show:1 resultant:1 flower:1 characteristic:1 cannot:1 observe:1 genetic:4 constitution:1 cell:2 organism:1 individual:20 e:1 specific:3 allele:16 makeup:1 usually:1 reference:2 consideration:1 definition:2 medical:1 dictionary:1 instance:1 human:3 albino:1 two:3 form:1 dominant:6 recessive:8 three:1 possible:1 aa:3 homozygous:9 heterozygous:6 generally:1 accept:1 theory:1 inherit:3 transmit:1 epigenetic:1 factor:1 non:2 hereditary:4 environmental:1 variation:1 contribute:1 dna:5 mutation:1 classically:1 understood:1 hence:1 scientist:1 physician:1 sometimes:1 talk:1 example:3 geno:1 type:2 particular:3 cancer:3 disease:6 distinct:1 diseased:1 genomic:2 sequence:3 one:3 differs:2 subtly:1 absolute:1 measure:1 base:1 composition:1 representative:1 specie:2 group:2 typically:3 imply:1 measurement:1 specialize:1 within:1 refers:1 regard:1 interest:1 polyploid:1 refer:1 combination:1 carry:1 see:3 mendelian:1 inheritance:1 distinction:2 commonly:2 experience:2 study:2 family:2 pattern:2 certain:3 condition:2 haemophilia:4 due:2 diploidy:2 animal:2 give:2 different:2 depend:4 zygote:2 offspring:8 guarantee:4 trait:2 question:2 irrespective:2 second:2 upon:2 case:2 similarly:2 carrier:2 person:2 normal:4 run:2 risk:4 pass:4 abnormal:8 onto:2 genetics:2 mathematics:1 main:1 article:1 programming:2 evolutionary:2 algorithm:2 inspire:1 biological:2 concept:1 usefulness:1 computer:1 science:1 employ:1 simulated:1 technique:3 help:1 evolve:1 mathematical:1 solution:1 otherwise:1 difficult:1 problem:1 determine:3 genotyping:2 process:1 elucidate:1 assay:2 also:2 know:1 genotypic:1 include:2 pcr:1 fragment:5 analysis:2 oligonucleotide:1 aso:1 probe:2 sequencing:1 nucleic:1 acid:1 hybridization:1 microarrays:1 bead:1 several:1 common:2 restriction:2 length:3 polymorphism:3 rflp:2 terminal:1 http:6 www:6 softgenetics:5 com:6 rflpapplicationnote:1 pdf:5 amplify:1 aflp:1 keygene:2 tech:1 apps:1 index:1 php:1 multiplex:1 ligation:1 dependent:1 amplification:1 mlpa:1 methylationdetectionapplicationnote:1 cause:1 aberration:1 microsatellite:1 instability:1 msi:2 msiapplicationnote:1 trisomy:2 trisomyapplicationnote:1 aneuploidy:2 loss:1 heterozygosity:1 loh:2 lohapplicationnote:1 associate:1 colon:1 breast:1 cervical:1 chromosomal:1 chromosome:1 manifest:1 syndrome:1 current:1 technological:1 limitation:1 allow:1 fraction:1 efficiently:1 external:1 link:1 nomenclature:1 |@bigram genotype_phenotype:3 dominant_recessive:1 mendelian_inheritance:1 recessive_allele:2 dna_sequencing:1 nucleic_acid:1 dna_microarrays:1 http_www:6 www_softgenetics:5 softgenetics_com:5 index_php:1 cervical_cancer:1 trisomy_chromosome:1 external_link:1 |
7,568 | Alexander_Jannaeus | Hasmonean Kingdom under Alexander Jannaeus Alexander Jannaeus (also known as Alexander Jannai/Yannai), king of Judea from (103 BCE to 76 BCE), son of John Hyrcanus, inherited the throne from his brother Aristobulus, and appears to have married his brother's widow, Shlomtzion or "Shelomit", also known as Salome Alexandra, according to the Biblical law of Yibum ("levirate marriage"), although Josephus is inexplicit on that point. His likely full Hebrew name was Jonathan; he may have been the High Priest Jonathan, rather than his great-uncle of the same name, who established the Masada fortress. Under the name King Yannai, he appears as a wicked tyrant in the Talmud, reflecting his conflict with the Pharisee party. He is among the more colorful historical figures, despite being little known outside specialized history. He and his widow (who became queen regnant after his death) had substantial impact on the subsequent development of Judaism. Jannaeus expanded the Hasmonean Kingdom and established the city of Gamla in 81 BCE as the capital for the Golan Heights. Conquests of Alexander Jannaeus During the twenty-seven year reign of Alexander Jannaeus, he was almost constantly involved in military conflict. Primarily, international factors at the time created an environment suitable for Jannaeus’ conquests. First of all, Jannaeus received support from Cleopatra III in Egypt. She was probably swayed to support Jannaeus through two Jewish commanders in her military. This support was particularly crucial during the war with Ptolemy Lathyrus (discussed later). Ultimately, conflict in the Roman Empire was the greatest outside influence on Judean military campaigns. Political instability in Rome led to a Civil War beginning in 88 BCE. With Rome chiefly concerned with a tumultuous domestic predicament, Jannaeus was free to expand the Judean state. Finally, a weak Seleucid Empire was unable to help Hellenistic cities near Judea. With a mercenary army similar to that of his father, Jannaeus led a Judean army that conquered the entire coastal plain except for Ashkelon. Jannaeus toppled Western Samaria, the Galilee and the Northern Transjordan. The coastal ports of Dor and Caesarea were also taken after Jannaeus was defeated at Acre. Elsewhere on the Mediterranean coast, the Judeans triumphed over the cities of Raffah and Antedon. Finally, Jannaeus outlasted the inhabitants of Gaza in a year long siege. This impressive victory gained Judean control over the Mediterranean outlet for the Nabatean trade routes. War with Ptolemy Lathyrus After a failed siege against Gaza, Jannaeus struck a phony league of friendship with the Egyptian co-ruler Ptolemy Lathyrus. In reality Jannaeus sought the assistance of Lathyrus’ mother, Cleopatra III, against her son. When Lathyrus learned of this treachery, her took out his fury on Judea. After defeating Jannaeus near the Jordan River, Lathyrus’ soldiers slaughtered fleeing Jewish troops. Afterwards, Lathyrus attacked a small village in Judea with utter malice. The Egyptian troops strangled women and children. Then the deceased were cut into pieces, boiled in cauldrons, and eaten as a sacrifice. This disgusting act of cannibalism was used to terrify the Judean people and their military. After this massacre, Jannaeus was in no position to stop the onslaught of Lathyrus. However, Cleopatra III stepped in to prevent Lathyrus from sacking Jerusalem. News of this slaughter certainly spread rapidly throughout Judea, exemplified by the Pesher on Isaiah 4Q161 found at Qumran: “(25) He will shake his fist at the mount of the daughters of Zion, the hill of Jerusalem…(27) when he goes up from the Valley of Acco to fight against Philistia…(29) and even up to the boundaries of Jerusalem.” High Priesthood It is clear that a strong rift existed between the Pharisees and Alexander Jannaeus. The rival Sadducees were avid supporters of Jannaeus (see 4Q448). The Pharisaic opposition to Jannaeus continued with his marriage to his brother’s widow, which was forbidden by Torah law. Furthermore, Jannaeus established himself as a ruler concerned mainly with conquests rather than his religious obligations. The division between Jannaeus and the Pharisees erupted during the Feast of Tabernacles. Jannaeus deliberately went against the festival ritual by pouring holy water on the ground instead of the altar. In response, Jews bombarded Jannaeus with citrons. As punishment, Jannaeus executed 6,000 Jews associated with his public embarrassment. Jannaeus committed this ruthless act in front of thousands of Diaspora Jews in Jerusalem for Tabernacles. This certainly would have heightened his unpopularity among Judeans and Diaspora Jews. This incident during Tabernacles was a major factor leading up to the Judean Civil War by igniting popular opponents of Jannaeus. A Qumran document sheds further light on another opponent of Jannaeus. The scroll 4Q390 was written by an adversary of Jannaeus seeking popular support to overthrown the Hasmonean King. The author called for an end to the dispute between Jannaeus and the Pharisees. According to the author, the only acceptable solution was an end to the Hasmonean Priesthood and secular control. This opposition culminated in the Judean Civil War. Judean Civil War and the Crucifixion of the 800 The Judean Civil War initially began after the conquest of Gaza by Jannaeus. Due to Jannaeus’ victory at Gaza, the Nabatean kingdom no longer controlled their trade routes to Rome and Damascus. Therefore Nabatean king Obadas I launched an attack on Judea in the Golan. Potentially, the war with the Nabateans was the last straw against a war-mongering king and an incompetent High Priest. After Jannaeus was defeated in battle against Obadas, he returned to fierce Jewish opposition in Jerusalem. A civil war broke out between Pharisaic supported Jewish rebels and Jannaeus. Overall, the war lasted six years and left 50,000 Judeans dead. After Jannaeus succeeded early in the war, the rebels unbelievably asked for Seleucid assistance. Judean insurgents joined forces with Demetrius III to fight against Jannaeus. The Seleucid forces defeated Jannaeus at Schechem and forced him into exile in the mountains. However, these Judean rebels ultimately decided that it was better to live under a terrible Jewish king than backtrack to a Seleucid ruler. After 6,000 Jews returned to Jannaeus, Demetrius was defeated. The end of the Civil War brought a sense of national solidarity against Seleucid influence. Nevertheless, Jannaeus was uninterested in reconciliation within the Judean State. The aftermath of the Judean Civil War consisted of popular unrest, poverty and grief over the fallen soldiers on both sides. The greatest impact of the war was the victor’s revenge. Josephus reports that Jannaeus brought 800 rebels to Jerusalem and had them crucified. Even worse, Jannaeus had the throats of the rebel’s wives and children cut before their eyes as Jannaeus slept with his concubines. This incredible account is supported in the Dead Sea Scrolls. In the Nahum Pesher, the Judean Civil War and Jannaeus’ brutal retribution are specifically mentioned. “(2) The interpretation of it concerns Demetrius, King of Greece, who sought to enter Jerusalem on the advice of the Seeker-After-Smooth-Things. (3) But God did not give Jerusalem into the power of the Kings of Greece from Antiochus until the rise of the rulers of the Kittim… (6b) Its interpretation concerns the Lion of Wrath (7) which will bring vengeance against the Seekers-After-Smooth-Things; he would hang men alive.” In this passage, The Seekers-After-Smooth-Things represent the Jewish Rebels, the Lion of Wrath represents Alexander Jannaeus, and the rulers of Kittim signify the Roman Empire. Given that this passage mentions the Roman takeover, it was clearly written after the fall of the Hasmonean Dynasty. Nevertheless, substantiation of Josephus’ account of the crucifixion of Jewish rebels by Jannaeus quells any doubt of historicity of this event. Coinage The coinage of Alexander Jannaeus is characteristic of the early Jewish coinage in that it avoided human or animal representations, in opposition to the surrounding Greek, and later Roman types of the period. Jewish coinage instead focused on symbols, either natural, such as the palm tree, the pomegranate or the star, or man-made, such as the Temple, the Menorah, trumpets or cornucopia. Coin of Alexander Jannaeus (103 BC to 76 BC). Obv: Seleucid anchor and Greek Legend: BASILEOS ALEXANDROU "King Alexander". Rev: Eight-spoke wheel or star within diadem. Hebrew legend inside the spokes: "Yehonatan the King". Alexander Jannaeus was the first of the Jewish kings to introduce the "eight-ray star" or "eight-spoked wheel" symbol, in his bronze "Widow's mite" coins, in combination with the widespread Seleucid numismatic symbol of the anchor. These coins are thought to be the ones referred to in the Bible in Luke 21:1-4: "and Jesus sat over against the treasury, and beheld how the people cast money into the treasury; and many that were rich cast in much. And He called unto him His disciples, and saith unto them, Verily I say unto you, that this poor widow hath cast more in, than all they which have cast into the treasury: For all they did cast in of their abundance; but she of her want did cast in all that she had" Depending on the make, the star symbol can be shown with straight spokes connected to the outside circle, in a style rather indicative of a wheel. On others, the spokes can have a more "flame-like" shape, more indicative of the representation of a star within a diadem. It is not clear what the wheel or star may exactly symbolize, and interpretations vary, from the morning star, to the sun or the heavens. The influence of some Persian symbols of a star within a diadem, or the eight-spoked Buddhist wheel (see the coins of the Indo-Greek king Menander I with this symbol) have also been suggested. The eight-spoked Macedonian star (a variation of which is the Vergina Sun), emblem of the royal Argead dynasty and the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, within a Hellenistic diadem symbolizing royalty (many of the coins depict a small knot with two ends on top of the diadem), seem to be the most probable source for this symbol. In literature Alexander Jannaeus is the main character of the novel The King of Flesh and Blood, by Israeli novelist Moshe Shamir. References Other sources "Jewish symbols on ancient Jewish coins" Paul Romanoff, New York American Israel Numismatic Association, 1971. This article incorporates some content from the public domain 1911 edition of The New Century Book of Facts published by the King-Richardson Company, Springfield, Massachusetts. (This reference gives a death date of 78 BC, but consensus seems to be 76 BC.) External links Christian Jewelry with Coins of Alexander Yannai (Alexander Jannaeus) Leptons and Prutahs of Alexander Jannaeus Coinage of King Alexander Jannaeus, "Widow's Mites". 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7,569 | Environmental_law | Environmental law is a complex and interlocking body of statutes, common law, treaties, conventions, regulations and policies which, very broadly, operate to regulate the interaction of humanity and the rest of the biophysical or natural environment, toward the purpose of reducing or minimizing the impacts of human activity, both on the natural environment for its own sake, and on humanity itself. Environmental law draws from and is influenced by principles of environmentalism, including ecology, conservation, stewardship, responsibility and sustainability. From an economic perspective it can be understood as concerned with the prevention of present and future externalities. Areas of concern in environmental law include air quality, water quality, global climate change, agriculture, biodiversity, species protection, pesticides and hazardous chemicals, waste management, remediation of contaminated land and brownfields, smart growth, sustainable development, impact review, and conservation, stewardship and management of public lands and natural resources. While many countries worldwide have accumulated impressive sets of environmental laws, their implementation has often been woeful. In recent years, environmental law has become seen as a critical means of promoting sustainable development (or "sustainability"). Policy concepts such as the precautionary principle, public participation, environmental justice, and the polluter pays principle have informed many environmental law reforms in this respect (see further Richardson and Wood, 2006). There has been considerable experimentation in the search for more effective methods of environmental control beyond traditional "command-and-control" style regulation. Eco-taxes, emission trading, voluntary standards such as ISO 14000 and negotiated agreements are some of these innovations. Environmental Law overview - Legal Information Institute http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/Environmental_law Education Environmental law is offered as an elective course in the second and third year of JD study at many American law schools. Some U.S. law schools also offer an LLM or JSD specialization in environmental law. Additionally, several law schools offer legal clinics that focus on environmental law, providing students with an opportunity to learn about environmental law in the context of real world disputes involving actual clients. See, e.g., Adam Babich, The Apolitical Law School Clinic, 11 Clinical L. Rev. 447 (2005). The IUCN Academy of Environmental Law IUCN Academy of Environmental Law is a network of some 60 law schools worldwide that specialise in the research and teaching of environmental law. U.S. News & World Report has consistently ranked University of Oregon School of Law, Vermont Law School, Lewis & Clark Law School, Pace University School of Law, Tulane University School of Law, and Georgetown University Law Center as among the best Environmental Law programs in the United States. US News & World Report However, the ranking system for environmental law programs is veiled in secrecy and apparently does not consult lawyers for their opinions. The Deans of U.S. law schools have repeatedly issued statements warning against relying on law school ratings, which are produced by a general news magazine with commercial motives. See also Canadian Environmental Law Association Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL) Citizen suit Clean tech law Conservation Law Foundation (CLF) (in New England in the US) Earth jurisprudence Ecojustice Canada Energy Lobby Environmental Bill of Rights (EBR) Environmental compensation Environmental contract Environmental crime Environmental criminology Environmental economics environmental engineering law Environmental Defender's Office NSW Environmental justice Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide (ELAW) Environmental Law and Policy Center (ELPC) Environmental Law Institute (ELI) Environmental Law Service (ELS) (a Czech non-governmental organization of lawyers) Environmental tariff Environmental vandalism International environmental law International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE) Journal of Land Use and Environmental Law List of environmental agreements List of environmental lawsuits List of ministers of the environment Timeline of major U.S. environmental and occupational health regulation Toxic tort Tulane Environmental Law Clinic (TELC) United States environmental law University of Oregon School of Law Vermont Law School War and environmental law Western Environmental Law Center Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy References and bibliography Menell, P.S. (ed), Environmental Law (Ashgate Publishing, Burlington, 2003). Clayton, Susan. 2000. Models of justice in the environmental debate. Journal of Social Issues 56 (3): 459 – 474. Croci, E. (ed), The Handbook of Environmental Voluntary Agreements (Springer, New York, 2005). Freeman, J. and Kolstad, C.D. (eds), Moving to Markets in Environmental Regulation (Oxford University Press, New York, 2006). Lans, C. 2007. Politically incorrect and bourgeois: Nariva Swamp is sufficient onto itself. Lulu.com. Richardson, B.J. and S. Wood (eds), Environmental Law for Sustainability (Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2006) Saxe, D., "Environmental Offences: Corporate Responsibility and Executive Liability" (Canada Law Book, Aurora, 1990). Stone, Christopher, D. 1974. Should trees have legal standing? Toward legal rights for natural objects. California: William Kaufman, Inc. External links http://www.ecojustice.ca Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System UNEP Environmental Law Programme Centre for International Environmental Law Environmental & Energy Law & Policy Journal Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide(E-LAW) Environmental Law Institute (ELI) International Environmental Law Research Centre (IELRC) | Environmental_law |@lemmatized environmental:59 law:60 complex:1 interlock:1 body:1 statute:1 common:1 treaty:1 convention:1 regulation:4 policy:6 broadly:1 operate:1 regulate:1 interaction:1 humanity:2 rest:1 biophysical:1 natural:4 environment:3 toward:2 purpose:1 reduce:1 minimize:1 impact:2 human:1 activity:1 sake:1 draw:1 influence:1 principle:3 environmentalism:1 include:2 ecology:1 conservation:3 stewardship:2 responsibility:2 sustainability:3 economic:1 perspective:1 understood:1 concerned:1 prevention:1 present:1 future:1 externality:1 area:1 concern:1 air:1 quality:2 water:1 global:1 climate:1 change:1 agriculture:1 biodiversity:1 specie:1 protection:1 pesticide:1 hazardous:1 chemical:1 waste:1 management:2 remediation:1 contaminated:1 land:3 brownfields:1 smart:1 growth:1 sustainable:2 development:2 review:1 public:2 resource:1 many:3 country:1 worldwide:4 accumulate:1 impressive:1 set:1 implementation:1 often:1 woeful:1 recent:1 year:2 become:1 see:4 critical:1 mean:1 promote:1 concept:1 precautionary:1 participation:1 justice:3 polluter:1 pay:1 inform:1 reform:1 respect:1 far:1 richardson:2 wood:2 considerable:1 experimentation:1 search:1 effective:1 method:1 control:2 beyond:1 traditional:1 command:1 style:1 eco:1 tax:1 emission:1 trading:1 voluntary:2 standard:1 iso:1 negotiated:1 agreement:3 innovation:1 overview:1 legal:4 information:1 institute:4 http:2 topic:1 cornell:1 edu:1 wex:1 education:1 offer:3 elective:1 course:1 second:1 third:1 jd:1 study:1 american:1 school:14 u:6 also:2 llm:1 jsd:1 specialization:1 additionally:1 several:1 clinic:3 focus:1 provide:1 student:1 opportunity:1 learn:1 context:1 real:1 world:3 dispute:1 involve:1 actual:1 client:1 e:3 g:1 adam:1 babich:1 apolitical:1 clinical:1 l:1 rev:1 iucn:2 academy:2 network:2 specialise:1 research:2 teaching:1 news:3 report:2 consistently:1 rank:1 university:6 oregon:2 vermont:2 lewis:1 clark:1 pace:1 tulane:2 georgetown:1 center:5 among:1 best:1 program:2 united:1 state:2 however:1 ranking:1 system:3 veil:1 secrecy:1 apparently:1 consult:1 lawyer:2 opinion:1 dean:1 repeatedly:1 issue:2 statement:1 warn:1 rely:1 rating:1 produce:1 general:1 magazine:1 commercial:1 motif:1 canadian:2 association:1 international:5 ciel:1 citizen:1 suit:1 clean:1 tech:1 foundation:1 clf:1 new:3 england:1 earth:1 jurisprudence:1 ecojustice:2 canada:2 energy:2 lobby:1 bill:1 right:2 ebr:1 compensation:1 contract:1 crime:1 criminology:1 economics:1 engineering:1 defender:1 office:1 nsw:1 alliance:2 elaw:1 elpc:1 eli:2 service:1 el:1 czech:1 non:1 governmental:1 organization:1 tariff:1 vandalism:1 compliance:1 enforcement:3 inece:1 journal:3 use:1 list:3 lawsuit:1 minister:1 timeline:1 major:1 occupational:1 health:1 toxic:1 tort:1 telc:1 unite:1 war:1 western:1 wildlife:2 monitoring:2 yale:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 menell:1 p:1 ed:2 ashgate:1 publishing:2 burlington:1 clayton:1 susan:1 model:1 debate:1 social:1 croci:1 handbook:1 springer:1 york:2 freeman:1 j:2 kolstad:1 c:2 eds:2 move:1 market:1 oxford:2 press:1 lan:1 politically:1 incorrect:1 bourgeois:1 nariva:1 swamp:1 sufficient:1 onto:1 lulu:1 com:1 b:1 hart:1 saxe:1 offence:1 corporate:1 executive:1 liability:1 book:1 aurora:1 stone:1 christopher:1 tree:1 standing:1 object:1 california:1 william:1 kaufman:1 inc:1 external:1 link:1 www:1 ca:1 unep:1 programme:1 centre:2 ielrc:1 |@bigram precautionary_principle:1 cornell_edu:1 lewis_clark:1 occupational_health:1 ashgate_publishing:1 politically_incorrect:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
7,570 | John_Lynch | John Lynch may refer to: John H. Lynch (born 1952), governor of U.S. state of New Hampshire, 2005– John Lynch (actor) (born 1961), actor from Northern Ireland John Lynch (clergyman), former Dean of Canterbury John Lynch (comics), Wildstorm Comics character John Lynch (historian), historian of the Spanish American revolutions John Lynch (Kerry politician) (1889–1957), Irish Fine Gael party TD for Kerry North, later Senator John Lynch (linguist), professor at the University of the South Pacific in Port Vila, Vanuatu John Lynch (congressman) (1825–1892), U.S. Congressman from Maine John Lynch (American football) (born 1971), American football player John Lynch (Pennsylvania), U.S. Congressman from Pennsylvania John Lynch (radio), founder and president of Broadcast Company of the Americas John A. Lynch, Jr., New Jersey politician, convicted of fraud John A. Lynch, Sr., New Jersey politician, namesake of John A. Lynch, Sr. Memorial Bridge John R. Lynch (1847–1939), black U.S. politician after the American Civil War John Lynch (Australian politician), member of the Australian House of Representatives, 1914–1919 Johnny Lynch, Scottish musician See also Jack Lynch (disambiguation) | John_Lynch |@lemmatized john:17 lynch:19 may:1 refer:1 h:1 born:3 governor:1 u:4 state:1 new:3 hampshire:1 actor:2 northern:1 ireland:1 clergyman:1 former:1 dean:1 canterbury:1 comic:2 wildstorm:1 character:1 historian:2 spanish:1 american:4 revolution:1 kerry:2 politician:5 irish:1 fine:1 gael:1 party:1 td:1 north:1 later:1 senator:1 linguist:1 professor:1 university:1 south:1 pacific:1 port:1 vila:1 vanuatu:1 congressman:3 maine:1 football:2 player:1 pennsylvania:2 radio:1 founder:1 president:1 broadcast:1 company:1 america:1 jr:1 jersey:2 convict:1 fraud:1 sr:2 namesake:1 memorial:1 bridge:1 r:1 black:1 civil:1 war:1 australian:2 member:1 house:1 representative:1 johnny:1 scottish:1 musician:1 see:1 also:1 jack:1 disambiguation:1 |@bigram fine_gael:1 |
7,571 | Geography_of_Kazakhstan | Map of Kazakhstan Kazakhstan is located in Central Asia, northwest of the People's Republic of China, though the area of the country west of the Ural River is geographically, if not politically, located within Europe. With an area of about 2,717,300 square kilometers, Kazakhstan is more than twice the combined size of the other four Central Asian states, or about twice the size of Alaska. The country borders Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan to the south; Russia to the north; Russia and the Caspian Sea to the west; and China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region to the east. Geographic coordinates Topography and drainage Detailed map of Kazakhstan There is considerable topographical variation within Kazakhstan. The highest point is the top of the mountain Khan Tengri, on the Kyrgyz border in the Tian Shan range, with an elevation of + 7,010 meters; the lowest point is the bottom of the Karagiye depression at -132 m, in the Mangystau province east of the Caspian Sea. Most of the country lies at between 200 and 300 meters above sea level, but Kazakhstan's Caspian shore includes some of the lowest elevations on Earth. Many of the peaks of the Altay and Tian Shan ranges are snow covered year-round, and their run-off is the source for most of Kazakhstan's rivers and streams. Except for the Tobol, Ishim, and Irtysh rivers (The Kazak names for which are, respectively, Tobyl, Esil, and Ertis), portions of which flow through Kazakhstan, all of Kazakhstan's rivers and streams are part of landlocked systems. They either flow into isolated bodies of water such as the Caspian Sea or simply disappear into the steppes and deserts of central and southern Kazakhstan. Many rivers, streams, and lakes are seasonal, evaporating in summer. The three largest bodies of water are Lake Balkhash, a partially fresh, partially saline lake in the east, near Almaty, and the Caspian and Aral seas, both of which lie partially within Kazakhstan. In the steppes of Central Kazakhstan (Aqmola Province) Some 9.4 % of Kazakhstan's land is mixed prairie and forest or treeless prairie, primarily in the north or in the basin of the Ural River in the west. More than three-quarters of the country, including the entire west and most of the south, is either semidesert (33.2 %) or desert (44 %). The terrain in these regions is bare, eroded, broken uplands, with sand dunes in the Qizilqum ('The Red Sands'; in the Russian form, Kyzylkum) and Moyunqum (in the Russian form, Muyunkum (Муюнкум)) deserts, which occupy south-central Kazakhstan. Climate The Climate in Kazakhstan is continental. In summer the temperatures can reach more than 53°C and in winter the temperature can sink as low as -58°C. Environmental problems Portions of Kazakhstan (top) and Kyrgyzstan at the bottom. The lake at the top of the image is Lake Balkash. The environment of Kazakhstan has been badly damaged by human activity. Most of the water in Kazakhstan is polluted by industrial effluents, pesticide and fertilizer residue, and, in some places, radioactivity. The most visible damage has been to the Aral Sea, which as recently as the 1970s was larger than any of the Great Lakes of North America save Lake Superior. The sea began to shrink rapidly when sharply increased irrigation and other demands on the only significant tributaries, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya (the latter reaching the Aral from neighboring Uzbekistan), all but eliminated inflow. By 1993 the Aral Sea had lost an estimated 60 % of its volume, in the process breaking into three unconnected segments. Increasing salinity and reduced habitat have killed the Aral Sea's fish, hence destroying its once-active fishing industry, and the receding shoreline has left the former port of Aral'sk more than sixty kilometers from the water's edge. The depletion of this large body of water has increased temperature variations in the region, which in turn have had an impact on agriculture. A much greater agricultural impact, however, has come from the salt- and pesticide-laden soil that the wind is known to carry as far away as the Himalaya Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Deposition of this heavily saline soil on nearby fields effectively sterilizes them. Evidence suggests that salts, pesticides, and residues of chemical fertilizers are also adversely affecting human life around the former Aral Sea; infant mortality in the region approaches 10 % compared with the 1991 national rate of 2.7 %. By contrast, the water level of the Caspian Sea has been rising steadily since 1978 for reasons that scientists have not been able to explain fully. At the northern end of the sea, more than 10,000 square kilometres of land in Atyrau Province have been flooded. Experts estimate that if current rates of increase persist, the coastal city of Atyrau, eighty-eight other population centers, and many of Kazakhstan's Caspian oil fields could be submerged by 2020. Wind erosion has also had an impact in the northern and central parts of the republic because of the introduction of wide-scale dryland wheat farming. In the 1950s and 1960s, much soil was lost when vast tracts of Kazakhstan's prairies were plowed under as part of Khrushchev's Virgin Lands agricultural project. By the mid-1990s, an estimated 60 % of the republic's pastureland was in various stages of desertification. Industrial pollution is a bigger concern in Kazakhstan's manufacturing cities, where aging factories pump huge quantities of unfiltered pollutants into the air and groundwater. The capital, Almaty, is particularly threatened, in part because of the postindependence boom in private automobile ownership. The gravest environmental threat to Kazakhstan comes from radiation, especially in the Semey (Semipalatinsk) region of the northeast, where the Soviet Union tested almost 500 nuclear weapons, 116 of them above ground. Often, such tests were conducted without evacuating or even alerting the local population. Although nuclear testing was halted in 1990, radiation poisoning, birth defects, severe anemia, and leukemia are very common in the area. With some conspicuous exceptions, lip service has been the primary official response to Kazakhstan's ecological problems. In February 1989, opposition to Soviet nuclear testing and its ill effects in Kazakhstan led to the creation of one of the republic's largest and most influential grass-roots movements, Nevada-Semipalatinsk, which was founded by Kazak poet and public figure Olzhas Suleymenov. In the first week of the movement's existence, Nevada-Semipalatinsk gathered more than 2 million signatures from Kazakstanis of all ethnic groups on a petition to Gorbachev demanding the end of nuclear testing in Kazakhstan. After a year of demonstrations and protests, the test ban took effect in 1990. It remained in force in 1996, although in 1995 at least one unexploded device reportedly was still in position near Semey. Once its major ecological objective was achieved, Nevada-Semipalatinsk made various attempts to broaden into a more general political movement; it has not pursued a broad ecological or "green" agenda. A very small green party, Tagibat, made common cause with the political opposition in the parliament of 1994. The government has established a Ministry of Ecology and Bioresources, with a separate administration for radioecology, but the ministry's programs are underfunded and given low priority. In 1994 only 23 % of budgeted funds were actually allotted to environmental programs. Many official meetings and conferences are held (more than 300 have been devoted to the problem of the Aral Sea alone), but few practical programs have gone into operation. In 1994 the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the United States Environmental Protection Agency agreed to give Kazakhstan US$62 million to help the country overcome ecological problems. Natural hazards Earthquakes in the south, mud slides around Almaty Environment--current issues Radioactive or toxic chemical sites associated with its former defense industries and test ranges are found throughout the country and pose health risks for humans and animals; industrial pollution is severe in some cities; because the two main rivers which flowed into the Aral Sea have been diverted for irrigation, it is drying up and leaving behind a harmful layer of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then picked up by the wind and blown into noxious dust storms; pollution in the Caspian Sea; soil pollution from overuse of agricultural chemicals and salination from poor infrastructure and wasteful irrigation practices Environment--international agreements Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78) Signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol Area and boundaries Area Total: 2,717,300 km² Land: 2,669,800 km² Water: 47,500 km² Land boundaries Total: 12,012 km Border countries: the People's Republic of China 1,533 km, Kyrgyzstan 1,051 km, Russia 6,846 km, Turkmenistan 379 km, Uzbekistan 2,203 km Coastline 0 km (landlocked). Kazakhstan borders the Aral Sea, now split into two bodies of water (1,070 km), and the Caspian Sea (1,894 km). Maritime claims None (landlocked) Elevation extremes Lowest point: Vpadina Kaundy -132 m Highest point: Khan Tangiri Shyngy (Pik Khan-Tengri) 7,010 m References | Geography_of_Kazakhstan |@lemmatized map:2 kazakhstan:27 locate:2 central:6 asia:1 northwest:1 people:2 republic:5 china:3 though:1 area:5 country:7 west:4 ural:2 river:7 geographically:1 politically:1 within:3 europe:1 square:2 kilometer:2 twice:2 combined:1 size:2 four:1 asian:1 state:2 alaska:1 border:4 turkmenistan:2 uzbekistan:3 kyrgyzstan:3 south:4 russia:3 north:3 caspian:9 sea:17 xinjiang:1 uygur:1 autonomous:1 region:5 east:3 geographic:1 coordinate:1 topography:1 drainage:1 detailed:1 considerable:1 topographical:1 variation:2 high:2 point:4 top:3 mountain:2 khan:3 tengri:2 kyrgyz:1 tian:2 range:3 elevation:3 meter:2 low:5 bottom:2 karagiye:1 depression:1 mangystau:1 province:3 lie:2 level:2 shore:1 include:2 earth:1 many:4 peak:1 altay:1 snow:1 cover:1 year:2 round:1 run:1 source:1 stream:3 except:1 tobol:1 ishim:1 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pastureland:1 various:2 stage:1 desertification:2 pollution:5 big:1 concern:1 manufacturing:1 age:1 factory:1 pump:1 huge:1 quantity:1 unfiltered:1 pollutant:1 air:1 groundwater:1 capital:1 particularly:1 threaten:1 postindependence:1 boom:1 private:1 automobile:1 ownership:1 grave:1 threat:1 radiation:2 especially:1 semey:2 semipalatinsk:4 northeast:1 soviet:2 union:1 test:5 almost:1 nuclear:4 weapon:1 ground:1 often:1 conduct:1 without:1 evacuate:1 even:1 alert:1 local:1 although:2 testing:2 halt:1 poisoning:1 birth:1 defect:1 severe:2 anemia:1 leukemia:1 common:2 conspicuous:1 exception:1 lip:1 service:1 primary:1 official:2 response:1 ecological:4 february:1 opposition:2 ill:1 effect:2 lead:1 creation:1 one:2 influential:1 grass:1 root:1 movement:3 nevada:3 found:1 poet:1 public:1 figure:1 olzhas:1 suleymenov:1 first:1 week:1 existence:1 gather:1 million:2 signature:1 kazakstanis:1 ethnic:1 group:1 petition:1 gorbachev:1 demonstration:1 protest:1 ban:1 take:1 remain:1 force:1 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sign:1 ratify:1 kyoto:1 protocol:1 boundary:2 total:2 km:9 coastline:1 split:1 maritime:1 claim:1 none:1 extremes:1 vpadina:1 kaundy:1 tangiri:1 shyngy:1 pik:1 reference:1 |@bigram square_kilometer:1 turkmenistan_uzbekistan:1 caspian_sea:6 geographic_coordinate:1 elevation_meter:1 aral_sea:8 sand_dune:1 badly_damage:1 industrial_effluent:1 pesticide_fertilizer:1 syr_darya:1 amu_darya:1 pacific_ocean:1 pesticide_residue:1 adversely_affect:1 infant_mortality:1 square_kilometre:1 soviet_union:1 nuclear_weapon:1 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 dust_storm:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 ozone_layer:1 pollution_marpol:1 kyoto_protocol:1 coastline_km:1 none_landlocked:1 landlocked_elevation:1 elevation_extremes:1 extremes_low:1 |
7,572 | Arabian_Sea | The Arabian Sea (; transliterated: Baḥr al-'Arab; ; transliterated: Sindhu Sagar; alternatively known as Persian Sea) is a region of the Indian Ocean bounded on the east by India, on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by Arabian Peninsula, on the south, approximately, by a line between Cape Guardafui, the north-east point of Somalia, Socotra, Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) in India, and the western coast of Sri Lanka. Description The Arabian Sea's surface area is about . Arabian Sea, Encyclopædia Britannica The maximum width of the Arabian Sea is approximately , and its maximum depth is , in the Arabian Basin approximately at the same latitude as the southernmost tip of India. The Indus River, the largest river in Pakistan, also known as the Sindhu river, is the largest river flowing directly into this sea; others include the Netravathi, Sharavathi, Narmada, Tapti, Mahi, and the numerous rivers of Kerala in India. The Arabian Sea coast of central India is known as the Konkan Coast, and that of southern India is known as the Malabar Coast. The Arabian Sea has two important branches — the Gulf of Aden in the southwest, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb; and the Gulf of Oman to the northwest, connecting with the Persian Gulf. Besides these larger ramifications, there are the gulfs of Cambay and Kutch on the Indian coast. Its islands are few, the chief being Socotra, off the African, and the Lakshadweep, off the Indian coast. The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are India, Yemen, Oman, Iran, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Somalia. Cities on the coast include Karachi and Gwadar in Pakistan, Mumbai (Bombay), Surat, Panjim, Mangalore, and Cochin (The Queen of Arabian Sea) in India, Aden in Yemen, Salalah in Oman, Chabahar in Iran, Mogadishu in Somalia and Colombo in Sri Lanka. Trade routes It is known as the Sindhu Sagar to Indians since the Vedic period of their history, and an important marine trade route in the era of the coastal sailing vessels from possibly as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, certainly the late 2nd millennium BCE through the later days known as the Age of Sail. By the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the Sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north. These routes usually began in the Far East or down river from Madhya Pradesh with transshipment via historic Bharuch (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today's Iran then split around Hadhramaut into two streams north into the Gulf of Aden and thence into the Levant, or south into Alexandria via Red Sea ports such as Axum. Each major route involved transshipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionary tolls by local potentiates. These are the reality of the conditions which gave rise to the truth behind the tales of the Arabian Nights stories, and those of Sinbad the Sailor. So important was this southern coastal route past the rough country in the southern Arabian peninsula (Yemen and Oman today), that the Egyptian Pharaohs built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today's Suez canal, and another from the Red Sea to the Nile River, both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge sand storms in antiquity. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria. Ocean trade routes have crossed the Arabian Sea since ancient times, linking the Near East with East Africa, India, Southeast Asia, and China. Historically, sailors in a type of ship called a dhow used the seasonal monsoon winds to cross the water. The sea forms part of the chief shipping route between Europe and India via the Suez Canal, which links the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea. See also Piracy in the Arabian Sea References External links Arabian Sea (World Wildlife Fund) be-x-old:Арабскае мора | Arabian_Sea |@lemmatized arabian:15 sea:21 transliterate:2 baḥr:1 al:1 arab:1 sindhu:3 sagar:2 alternatively:1 know:6 persian:2 region:1 indian:4 ocean:2 bound:1 east:5 india:10 north:4 pakistan:4 iran:4 west:1 peninsula:2 south:2 approximately:3 line:1 cape:2 guardafui:1 point:1 somalia:3 socotra:2 kanyakumari:1 comorin:1 western:1 coast:8 sri:3 lanka:3 description:1 surface:1 area:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 maximum:2 width:1 depth:1 basin:1 latitude:1 southernmost:1 tip:1 indus:1 river:7 large:3 also:2 flow:1 directly:1 others:1 include:2 netravathi:1 sharavathi:1 narmada:1 tapti:1 mahi:1 numerous:1 kerala:1 central:1 konkan:1 southern:3 malabar:1 two:2 important:3 branch:1 gulf:5 aden:3 southwest:1 connect:2 red:4 strait:1 bab:1 el:1 mandeb:1 oman:4 northwest:1 besides:1 ramification:1 cambay:1 kutch:1 island:1 chief:2 african:1 lakshadweep:1 country:3 coastline:1 yemen:3 maldives:1 city:1 karachi:1 gwadar:1 mumbai:1 bombay:1 surat:1 panjim:1 mangalore:1 cochin:1 queen:1 salalah:1 chabahar:1 mogadishu:1 colombo:1 trade:6 route:9 since:2 vedic:1 period:1 history:1 marine:1 era:1 coastal:2 sailing:1 vessel:1 possibly:1 early:1 millennium:2 bce:2 certainly:1 late:2 day:1 age:1 sail:1 time:2 julius:1 caesar:1 several:2 well:1 establish:1 combined:1 land:1 depend:1 upon:1 water:2 transport:1 around:2 rough:2 inland:1 terrain:1 feature:1 usually:1 begin:1 far:1 madhya:1 pradesh:1 transshipment:1 via:4 historic:1 bharuch:1 bharakuccha:1 traverse:1 past:2 inhospitable:1 today:3 split:1 hadhramaut:1 streams:1 thence:1 levant:1 alexandria:2 port:1 axum:2 major:1 involve:1 transship:1 pack:1 animal:1 caravan:1 travel:1 desert:1 risk:1 bandit:1 extortionary:1 toll:1 local:1 potentiates:1 reality:1 condition:1 give:1 rise:1 truth:1 behind:1 tale:1 night:1 story:1 sinbad:1 sailor:2 egyptian:1 pharaoh:1 build:1 shallow:2 canal:3 service:1 one:1 less:1 along:1 suez:2 another:1 nile:1 work:1 swallow:1 huge:1 sand:1 storm:1 antiquity:1 later:1 kingdom:1 arose:1 ethiopia:1 rule:1 mercantile:1 empire:1 root:1 europe:2 cross:2 ancient:1 link:3 near:1 africa:1 southeast:1 asia:1 china:1 historically:1 type:1 ship:2 call:1 dhow:1 use:1 seasonal:1 monsoon:1 wind:1 form:1 part:1 mediterranean:1 see:1 piracy:1 reference:1 external:1 world:1 wildlife:1 fund:1 x:1 old:1 арабскае:1 мора:1 |@bigram arabian_peninsula:2 sri_lanka:3 encyclopædia_britannica:1 southernmost_tip:1 malabar_coast:1 gulf_aden:2 bab_el:1 persian_gulf:1 yemen_oman:2 mumbai_bombay:1 colombo_sri:1 sailing_vessel:1 julius_caesar:1 madhya_pradesh:1 suez_canal:2 southeast_asia:1 external_link:1 |
7,573 | County_Fermanagh | County Fermanagh (pronounced fur-man-ah) – ) is one of the traditional counties of Ireland. It is located within the province of Ulster and is part of Northern Ireland. Fermanagh is often referred to as Ireland's Lake District, together with neighbouring County Cavan. The county is approximately from Belfast and from Dublin. The county borders County Tyrone to the north-east, County Monaghan to the south-east, County Cavan and County Leitrim to the south-west and County Donegal to the north-west. Fermanagh is the only county of Northern Ireland that does not border Lough Neagh. History Fermanagh was made into a county by statute of Elizabeth I, but it was not until the time of the Plantation of Ulster that it was finally brought under civil government. Fermanagh was a stronghold of the Maguire clan before the confiscation of lands relating to Hugh Maguire. It was divided in like manner with the other five escheated counties among Scottish and English undertakers and native Irish. The baronies of Knockinny and Maghenaboy were allotted to Scottish undertakers, those of Clankelly, Magherastephana and Lurg to English undertakers and those of Clanawley, Coole, and Tyrkennedy, to servitors and natives. The chief families to benefit under the new settlement were the families of Cole, Blennerhasset, Butler, Hume, and Dunbar. It is one of four counties of Northern Ireland presently to have a majority of the population from a Catholic background, according to the 2001 census. The Annals of Ulster were written at Belle Isle on Lough Erne. Administration Fermanagh District Council is the only one of the 26 district councils in Northern Ireland that contains all of the county it is named after. The district council also contains a small section of County Tyrone in the Dromore and Kilskeery road areas. Fermanagh is part of the Fermanagh and South Tyrone Parliamentary Constituency, renowned for high levels of voting and for electing Provisional IRA hunger-striker Bobby Sands as a Member of Parliament in the Fermanagh and South Tyrone by-election, April 1981, shortly before his death. Industry and tourism Agriculture and tourism are two of the most important industries in Fermanagh. The main types of farming in the area are beef, dairy, sheep, pigs and some poultry. Most of the agricultural land is used as grassland for grazing and silage or hay rather than for other crops. The waterways are extensively used by cabin cruisers, other small pleasure craft and anglers. The main town of Fermanagh is Enniskillen (, 'Ceithleann's island'). The island town hosts a range of attractions including the Castle Coole Estate and Enniskillen Castle, which is home to the museum of The Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers and the 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards. Attractions outside Enniskillen include: Belleek Pottery Castle Archdale Crom Estate Devenish Island Florence Court Lough Navar Forest Park Marble Arch Caves Settlements Large towns (population of 18,000 or more and under 75,000 at 2001 Census) none Medium towns (population of 10,000 or more and under 18,000 at 2001 Census) Enniskillen Small towns (population of 4,500 or more and under 10,000 at 2001 Census) none Intermediate settlements (population of 2,250 or more and under 4,500 at 2001 Census) Lisnaskea Villages (population of 1,000 or more and under 2,250 at 2001 Census) Ballinamallard Irvinestown Lisbellaw Small villages or hamlets (population of less than 1,000 at 2001 Census) Belcoo Bellanaleck Belleek Boho Brookeborough Corranny Derrygonnelly Derrylin Ederney Garrison Kesh Maguiresbridge Newtownbutler Rosslea Tempo Media Newspapers The Fermanagh Herald The Fermanagh News The Impartial Reporter Radio Q101.2 Notable people Famous people born, raised in or living in Fermanagh. John Armstrong (1717–1795), born in Fermanagh, United States Congressman Samuel Beckett (1906–1989), author and playwright (educated in Portora Royal School) Denis Parsons Burkitt (1911–1993), doctor - discoverer of Burkitt's lymphoma Roy Carroll (1977– ), association footballer Father Brian D'Arcy (1945– ), C.P. Passionist Priest and Media Personality Adrian Dunbar (1958– ), actor Neil Hannon (1970– ), musician Kyle Lafferty (1987– ), Northern Ireland International association footballer Bobby Kerr (1882–1963), athlete & Olympic Gold Medalist Sean Quinn (1947– ), entrepreneur Gordon Wilson (1927–1995), Peace campaigner and Irish senator Oscar Wilde (1854–1900), author and playwright (educated in Portora Royal School) See also Abbeys and priories in Northern Ireland (County Fermanagh) People from County Fermanagh Castles in County Fermanagh Silver bands in Fermanagh List of places in County Fermanagh List of parishes of County Fermanagh List of townlands in County Fermanagh Notes References Clogher Record "Fermanagh" A Dictionary of British Place-Names. A. D. Mills. Oxford University Press, 2003. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Northern Ireland Public Libraries. 25 July 2007 "Fermanagh" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition. 25 July 2007 <http://library.eb.co.uk/eb/article-9034047>. Fermanagh: its special landscapes: a study of the Fermanagh countryside and its heritage /Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland. – Belfast: HMSO, 1991 ISBN 0-337-08276-6 Livingstone, Peadar. – The Fermanagh story:a documented history of the County Fermanagh from the earliest times to the present day – Enniskillen: Cumann Seanchais Chlochair, 1969. Lowe, Henry N. – County Fermanagh 100 years ago: a guide and directory 1880. – Belfast: Friar's Bush Press, 1990. ISBN 0-946872-29-5 Parke, William K. - A Fermanagh Childhood. Derrygonnelly, Co Fermanagh: Friar's Bush Press, 1988. ISBN 0-946872-12-0 Impartial Reporter Fermanagh Herald External links Clogherhistory.ie Fermanagh GAA | County_Fermanagh |@lemmatized county:24 fermanagh:33 pronounced:1 fur:1 man:1 ah:1 one:3 traditional:1 ireland:10 locate:1 within:1 province:1 ulster:3 part:2 northern:8 often:1 refer:1 lake:1 district:4 together:1 neighbouring:1 cavan:2 approximately:1 belfast:3 dublin:1 border:2 tyrone:4 north:2 east:2 monaghan:1 south:4 leitrim:1 west:2 donegal:1 lough:3 neagh:1 history:2 make:1 statute:1 elizabeth:1 time:2 plantation:1 finally:1 bring:1 civil:1 government:1 stronghold:1 maguire:2 clan:1 confiscation:1 land:2 relate:1 hugh:1 divide:1 like:1 manner:1 five:1 escheated:1 among:1 scottish:2 english:2 undertaker:3 native:2 irish:2 barony:1 knockinny:1 maghenaboy:1 allot:1 clankelly:1 magherastephana:1 lurg:1 clanawley:1 coole:2 tyrkennedy:1 servitor:1 chief:1 family:2 benefit:1 new:1 settlement:3 cole:1 blennerhasset:1 butler:1 hume:1 dunbar:2 four:1 presently:1 majority:1 population:7 catholic:1 background:1 accord:1 census:7 annals:1 write:1 belle:1 isle:1 erne:1 administration:1 council:3 contain:2 name:2 also:2 small:4 section:1 dromore:1 kilskeery:1 road:1 area:2 parliamentary:1 constituency:1 renowned:1 high:1 level:1 voting:1 elect:1 provisional:1 ira:1 hunger:1 striker:1 bobby:2 sand:1 member:1 parliament:1 election:1 april:1 shortly:1 death:1 industry:2 tourism:2 agriculture:1 two:1 important:1 main:2 type:1 farming:1 beef:1 dairy:1 sheep:1 pig:1 poultry:1 agricultural:1 use:2 grassland:1 grazing:1 silage:1 hay:1 rather:1 crop:1 waterway:1 extensively:1 cabin:1 cruiser:1 pleasure:1 craft:1 angler:1 town:5 enniskillen:5 ceithleann:1 island:3 host:1 range:1 attraction:2 include:2 castle:4 estate:2 home:1 museum:1 royal:4 inniskilling:2 fusilier:1 dragoon:1 guard:1 outside:1 belleek:2 pottery:1 archdale:1 crom:1 devenish:1 florence:1 court:1 navar:1 forest:1 park:1 marble:1 arch:1 cave:1 large:1 none:2 medium:3 intermediate:1 lisnaskea:1 village:2 ballinamallard:1 irvinestown:1 lisbellaw:1 hamlet:1 less:1 belcoo:1 bellanaleck:1 boho:1 brookeborough:1 corranny:1 derrygonnelly:2 derrylin:1 ederney:1 garrison:1 kesh:1 maguiresbridge:1 newtownbutler:1 rosslea:1 tempo:1 newspaper:1 herald:2 news:1 impartial:2 reporter:2 radio:1 notable:1 people:3 famous:1 bear:2 raise:1 live:1 john:1 armstrong:1 united:1 state:1 congressman:1 samuel:1 beckett:1 author:2 playwright:2 educate:2 portora:2 school:2 denis:1 parson:1 burkitt:2 doctor:1 discoverer:1 lymphoma:1 roy:1 carroll:1 association:2 footballer:2 father:1 brian:1 arcy:1 c:1 p:1 passionist:1 priest:1 personality:1 adrian:1 actor:1 neil:1 hannon:1 musician:1 kyle:1 lafferty:1 international:1 kerr:1 athlete:1 olympic:1 gold:1 medalist:1 sean:1 quinn:1 entrepreneur:1 gordon:1 wilson:1 peace:1 campaigner:1 senator:1 oscar:1 wilde:1 see:1 abbeys:1 priory:1 silver:1 band:1 list:3 place:2 parish:1 townlands:1 note:1 reference:2 clogher:1 record:1 dictionary:1 british:1 mill:1 oxford:3 university:2 press:4 online:2 public:1 library:3 july:2 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 edition:1 http:1 eb:2 co:2 uk:1 article:1 special:1 landscape:1 study:1 countryside:1 heritage:1 department:1 environment:1 hmso:1 isbn:3 livingstone:1 peadar:1 story:1 documented:1 early:1 present:1 day:1 cumann:1 seanchais:1 chlochair:1 lowe:1 henry:1 n:1 year:1 ago:1 guide:1 directory:1 friar:2 bush:2 parke:1 william:1 k:1 childhood:1 external:1 link:1 clogherhistory:1 ie:1 gaa:1 |@bigram county_fermanagh:9 county_cavan:2 county_tyrone:2 county_leitrim:1 county_donegal:1 lough_neagh:1 plantation_ulster:1 annals_ulster:1 belle_isle:1 lough_erne:1 parliamentary_constituency:1 provisional_ira:1 beef_dairy:1 sheep_pig:1 pig_poultry:1 royal_inniskilling:2 inniskilling_fusilier:1 dragoon_guard:1 samuel_beckett:1 educate_portora:2 portora_royal:2 neil_hannon:1 gold_medalist:1 oscar_wilde:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_encyclopædia:1 britannica_online:1 external_link:1 |
7,574 | Agriculture | Agriculture refers to the production of food and goods through farming and forestry. Agriculture was the key development that led to the rise of civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants (i.e. crops) creating food surpluses that enabled the development of more densely populated and stratified societies. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science (the related practice of gardening is studied in horticulture). Agriculture encompasses a wide variety of specialties and techniques, including ways to expand the lands suitable for plant raising, by digging water-channels and other forms of irrigation. Cultivation of crops on arable land and the pastoral herding of livestock on rangeland remain at the foundation of agriculture. In the past century there has been increasing concern to identify and quantify various forms of agriculture. In the developed world the range usually extends between sustainable agriculture (e.g. permaculture or organic agriculture) and intensive farming (e.g. industrial agriculture). Modern agronomy, plant breeding, pesticides and fertilizers, and technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation, and at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry such as intensive pig farming (and similar practices applied to the chicken) have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal cruelty and the health effects of the antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemicals commonly used in industrial meat production. The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, raw materials, pharmaceuticals and stimulants, and an assortment of ornamental or exotic products. In the 2000s, plants have been used to grow biofuels, biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics, Marketwatch (2007) Plastics are Green in More Ways Than One. and pharmaceuticals. BIO (n.d.) Growing Plants for Pharmaceutical Production vs. for Food and Feed Crops. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, and meat. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo. Stimulants include tobacco, alcohol, opium, cocaine,and digitalis. Other useful materials are produced by plants, such as resins. Biofuels include methane from biomass, ethanol, and biodiesel. Cut flowers, nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade are some of the ornamental products. In 2007, about one third of the world's workers were employed in agriculture. However, the relative significance of farming has dropped steadily since the beginning of industrialization, and in 2003 – for the first time in history – the services sector overtook agriculture as the economic sector employing the most people worldwide. International Labour Organization Key Indicators of the Labour Market 2008, p.11-12 Despite the fact that agriculture employs over one-third of the world's population, agricultural production accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product (an aggregate of all gross domestic products). Etymology The word agriculture is the English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, "a field", Latin Word Lookup and cultūra, "cultivation" in the strict sense of "tillage of the soil". Latin Word Lookup Thus, a literal reading of the word yields "tillage of a field / of fields". Overview Agriculture has played a key role in the development of human civilization. Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the human population labored in agriculture. Development of agricultural techniques has steadily increased agricultural productivity, and the widespread diffusion of these techniques during a time period is often called an agricultural revolution. A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has occurred over the past century in response to new technologies. In particular, the Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate made the traditional practice of recycling nutrients with crop rotation and animal manure less necessary. The percent of the human population working in agriculture has decreased over time. Synthetic nitrogen, along with mined rock phosphate, pesticides and mechanization, have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and corn (maize) were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world out to the developing world. Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population, but technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food. New York Times (2005) Sometimes a Bumper Crop is Too Much Of a Good Thing Agricultural output in 2005. Many governments have subsidized agriculture to ensure an adequate food supply. These agricultural subsidies are often linked to the production of certain commodities such as wheat, corn (maize), rice, soybeans, and milk. These subsidies, especially when done by developed countries have been noted as protectionist, inefficient, and environmentally damaging. New York Times (1986) Science Academy Recommends Resumption of Natural Farming In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, mechanization, water contamination, and farm subsidies. Proponents of organic farming such as Sir Albert Howard argued in the early 1900s that the overuse of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers damages the long-term fertility of the soil. While this feeling lay dormant for decades, as environmental awareness has increased in the 2000s there has been a movement towards sustainable agriculture by some farmers, consumers, and policymakers. In recent years there has been a backlash against perceived external environmental effects of mainstream agriculture, particularly regarding water pollution, The World Bank (1995) Overcoming Agricultural Water Pollution in the European Union resulting in the organic movement. One of the major forces behind this movement has been the European Union, which first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies, European Commission (2003) CAP Reform also known as decoupling. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated pest management and selective breeding. Recent mainstream technological developments include genetically modified food. As of late 2007, several factors have pushed up the price of grain used to feed poultry and dairy cows and other cattle, causing higher prices of wheat (up 58%), soybean (up 32%), and maize (up 11%) over the year. New York Times (2007 September) At Tyson and Kraft, Grain Costs Limit Profit Forget oil, the new global crisis is food Food riots have recently taken place in many countries across the world. Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come? Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race Ug99 is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and is causing major concern. Millions face famine as crop disease rages Leonard, K.J. Black stem rust biology and threat to wheat growers, USDA ARS Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa. Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025 History A Sumerian harvester's sickle made from baked clay (ca. 3000 BC). Since its development roughly 10,000 years ago, agriculture has expanded vastly in geographical coverage and yields. Throughout this expansion, new technologies and new crops were integrated. Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and pesticides were developed long ago, but have made great strides in the past century. The history of agriculture has played a major role in human history, as agricultural progress has been a crucial factor in worldwide socio-economic change. Wealth-concentration and militaristic specializations rarely seen in hunter-gatherer cultures are commonplace in societies which practice agriculture. So, too, are arts such as epic literature and monumental architecture, as well as codified legal systems. When farmers became capable of producing food beyond the needs of their own families, others in their society were freed to devote themselves to projects other than food acquisition. Historians and anthropologists have long argued that the development of agriculture made civilization possible. Ancient origins An ancient Egyptian farmerSource: http://www.kingtutone.com The Fertile Crescent of the Middle East, Egypt, and India were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea and several regions of the Americas. The eight so-called Neolithic founder crops of agriculture appear: first emmer wheat and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. By 7000 BC, small-scale agriculture reached Egypt. From at least 7000 BC the Indian subcontinent saw farming of wheat and barley, as attested by archaeological excavation at Mehrgarh in Balochistan. By 6000 BC, mid-scale farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, with rice, rather than wheat, as the primary crop. Chinese and Indonesian farmers went on to domesticate taro and beans including mung, soy and azuki. To complement these new sources of carbohydrates, highly organized net fishing of rivers, lakes and ocean shores in these areas brought in great volumes of essential protein. Collectively, these new methods of farming and fishing inaugurated a human population boom dwarfing all previous expansions, and is one that continues today. By 5000 BC, the Sumerians had developed core agricultural techniques including large scale intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organized irrigation, and use of a specialized labour force, particularly along the waterway now known as the Shatt al-Arab, from its Persian Gulf delta to the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates. Domestication of wild aurochs and mouflon into cattle and sheep, respectively, ushered in the large-scale use of animals for food/fiber and as beasts of burden. The shepherd joined the farmer as an essential provider for sedentary and semi-nomadic societies. Maize, manioc, and arrowroot were first domesticated in the Americas as far back as 5200 BC. Farming older than thought | University of Calgary The potato, tomato, pepper, squash, several varieties of bean, tobacco, and several other plants were also developed in the New World, as was extensive terracing of steep hillsides in much of Andean South America. The Greeks and Romans built on techniques pioneered by the Sumerians but made few fundamentally new advances. Southern Greeks struggled with very poor soils, yet managed to become a dominant society for years. The Romans were noted for an emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade. The Harvesters. Pieter Bruegel. 1565. Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, Muslim farmers in North Africa and the Near East developed and disseminated agricultural technologies including irrigation systems based on hydraulic and hydrostatic principles, the use of machines such as norias, and the use of water raising machines, dams, and reservoirs. They also wrote location-specific farming manuals, and were instrumental in the wider adoption of crops including sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron. Muslims also brought lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas to Spain. The invention of a three field system of crop rotation during the Middle Ages, and the importation of the Chinese-invented moldboard plow, vastly improved agricultural efficiency. Modern era This photo from a 1921 encyclopedia shows a tractor ploughing an alfalfa field. After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included the tomato, maize, potato, manioc, cocoa and tobacco going from the New World to the Old, and several varieties of wheat, spices, coffee, and sugar cane going from the Old World to the New. The most important animal exportation from the Old World to the New were those of the horse and dog (dogs were already present in the pre-Columbian Americas but not in the numbers and breeds suited to farm work). Although not usually food animals, the horse (including donkeys and ponies) and dog quickly filled essential production roles on western hemisphere farms. The potato became an important staple crop in northern Europe. The Impact of the Potato. History Magazine Since being introduced by Portuguese in the 16th century, Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa. The Ohio State University maize and manioc have replaced traditional African crops as the continent’s most important staple food crops. Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem. Scitizen. August 7, 2007 By the early 1800s, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks and cultivated plants selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages. With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late 19th and 20th centuries, particularly in the form of the tractor, farming tasks could be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible. These advances have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel, Germany, and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit. The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the substitution of labor for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, mechanization, water pollution, and farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic movement. Agricultural exploration expeditions, since the late nineteenth century, have been mounted to find new species and new agricultural practices in different areas of the world. Two early examples of expeditions include Frank N. Meyer's fruit and nut collecting trip to China and Japan from 1916-1918 USDA NAL Special Collections. South China explorations: typescript, July 25, 1916-September 21, 1918 and the Dorsett-Morse Oriental Agricultural Exploration Expedition to China, Japan, and Korea from 1929-1931 to collect soybean germplasm to support the rise in soybean agriculture in the United States. USDA NAL Special Collections. Dorsett-Morse Oriental Agricultural Exploration Expedition Collection In 2005, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, accounting for almost one-sixth world share followed by the EU, India and the USA, according to the International Monetary Fund. Economists measure the total factor productivity of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 2.6 times more productive than it was in 1948. USDA ERS. Agricultural Productivity in the United States Six countries - the US, Canada, France Australia, Argentina and Thailand - supply 90% of grain exports. The Food Bubble Economy. The Institute of Science in Society. Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous middle-sized countries, including Algeria, Iran, Egypt, and Mexico, "Global Water Shortages May Lead to Food Shortages-Aquifer Depletion", Lester R. Brown may soon do the same in larger countries, such as China or India. India grows a grain crisis Asia Times. July 21, 2006. Crop production systems Farmers work inside a rice field in Andhra Pradesh, India. Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer. U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome, Italy. "Analysis of farming systems." Accessed on December 7, 2008. Acquaah, G. 2002. Agricultural Production Systems. pp. 283-317 in "Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology". Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Shifting cultivation (or slash and burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years. Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10-20). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs. Further industrialization lead to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar is planted on a large acreage. Due to the low biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform, and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers. Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same time are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures. Chrispeels, M.J. and D.E. Sadava. 1994. Farming Systems: Development, Productivity, and Sustainability. pp. 25-57 in "Plants, Genes, and Agriculture". Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, MA. In tropical environments, all of these cropping systems are practiced. In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where ecosystems were predominantly grassland or prairie, highly productive annual cropping is the dominant farming system. The last century has seen the intensification, concentration and specialization of agriculture, relying upon new technologies of agricultural chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides), mechanization, and plant breeding (hybrids and GMO's). In the past few decades, a move towards sustainability in agriculture has also developed, integrating ideas of socio-economic justice and conservation of resources and the environment within a farming system. Gold, M.V. 1999. USDA National Agriculture Library. Beltsville, MD. "Sustainable Agriculture: Definitions and Terms" Accessed on December 7, 2008 Earles, R. and P. Williams. 2005. ATTRA National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. Fayetville, AR. "Sustainable Agriculture:An Introduction" Accessed on December 7, 2008. This has led to the development of many responses to the conventional agriculture approach, including organic agriculture, urban agriculture, community supported agriculture, ecological or biological agriculture, integrated farming, and holistic management. Crop statistics Important categories of crops include grains and pseudograins, pulses (legumes), forage, and fruits and vegetables. Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions throughout the world. In millions of metric tons, based on FAO estimates. Top agricultural products, by crop types (million metric tons) 2004 data Cereals 2,263 Vegetables and melons 866 Roots and Tubers 715 Milk 619 Fruit 503 Meat 259 Oilcrops 133 Fish (2001 estimate) 130 Eggs 63 Pulses 60 Vegetable Fiber 30Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Top agricultural products, by individual crops (million metric tons) 2004 data Sugar Cane 1,324 Maize 721 Wheat 627 Rice 605 Potatoes 328 Sugar Beet 249 Soybean 204 Oil Palm Fruit 162 Barley 154 Tomato 120 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Livestock production systems Ploughing rice paddies with water buffalo, in Indonesia. Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and dogs, are often used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers. Animal husbandry not only refers to the breeding and raising of animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis, but also to the breeding and care of species for work and companionship. Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland - based, mixed, and landless. Sere, C., H. Steinfeld and J. Groeneweld. 1995. U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome, Italy. "Description of Systems in World Livestock Systems - Current status issues and trends" Accessed on December 7, 2008. Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for feeding ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible due to climate or soil, representing 30-40 million pastoralists. Mixed production systems use grassland, fodder crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastic (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops. Approximately 68% of all agricultural land is permanent pastures used in the production of livestock. FAO Database, 2003 Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently OECD member countries. In the U.S., 70% of the grain grown is fed to animals on feedlots. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure utilization becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution. Production practices Tillage is the practice of plowing soil to prepare for planting or for nutrient incorporation or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO2, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms. Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2002. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Acquaah, G. 2002. Land Preparation and Farm Energy pp.318-338 in "Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology". Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects/mites, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting, avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort. Acquaah, G. 2002. Pesticide Use in U.S. Crop Production pp.240-282 in "Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology". Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of utilization of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, green manure, compost and mined minerals. Acquaah, G. 2002. Soil and Land pp.165-210 in "Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology". Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a fallow period. Chrispeels, M.J. and D.E. Sadava. 1994. Nutrition from the Soil pp.187-218 in "Plants, Genes, and Agriculture". Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, MA. Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2002. Practical Nutrient Management pp.472-515 in Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Manure is utilized either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing such as in Managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures. Water management is where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S., farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year. Acquaah, G. 2002. Plants and Soil Water pp211-239 in "Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology". Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide. Pimentel, D., B. Berger, D. Filberto, M. Newton, B. Wolfe, E. Karabinakis, S. Clark, E. Poon, E. Abbett, and S. Nandagopal. 2004. Water Resources: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Bioscience 54:909-918. Processing, distribution, and marketing In the United States, food costs attributed to processing, distribution, and marketing have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. From 1960 to 1980 the farm share was around 40%, but by 1990 it had declined to 30% and by 1998, 22.2%. Market concentration has increased in the sector as well, with the top 20 food manufacturers accounting for half the food-processing value in 1995, over double that produced in 1954. As of 2000 the top 6 supermarkets had 50% of sales compared to 32% in 1992. Although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute economic surplus from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities. Crop alteration and biotechnology Tractor and chaser bin. Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist Gregor Mendel. His work on dominant and recessive alleles gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and brought great insights to the techniques utilized by plant breeders. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, self-pollination and cross-pollination, and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism. of Plant Breeding, Accessed on December 8, 2008 Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray an ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley. The green revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield many folds by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the USA have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging)). . Conversion note: 1 bushel of wheat = 60 pounds (lb) ≈ 27.215 kg. 1 bushel of maize = 56 pounds ≈ 25.401 kg Genetic Engineering Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) are organisms whose genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to utilize in creating desired germlines for new crops. After mechanical tomato-harvesters were developed in the early 1960s, agricultural scientists genetically modified tomatoes to be more resistant to mechanical handling. More recently, genetic engineering is being employed in various parts of the world, to create crops with other beneficial traits. Herbicide-tolerant GMO Crops Roundup-Ready seed has a herbicide resistant gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to glyphosate. Roundup is a trade name for a glyphosate based product, which is a systemic, non-selective herbicide used to kill weeds. Roundup-Ready seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with glyphosate to controle weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide. Today, 92% of soybean acreage in the US is planted with genetically-modified herbicide-tolerant plants. Adoption of Genetically Engineered Crops in the US: Extent of Adoption Accessed on December 08, 2008 With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides. Farmers Guide to GMOsAccessed December 8, 2008 Report Raises Alarm over 'Super-weeds' Accessed on December 9, 2008 Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications. Ozturk, et al., Glyphosate inhibition of ferric reductase activity in iron deficient sunflower roots, New Phtologist 177:899-906, 2008. Insect-Resistant GMO Crops Other GMO crops utilized by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which produces a toxin specific to insects; insect-resistant crops protect plants from damage by insects, one such crop is Starlink. Another is Bt cotton, which accounts for 63% of US cotton acreage |Genetically Engineered Crops in the US: Extent of Adoption] Accessed on December 8, 2008 Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some Tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least nineteen diseases, did so, through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes. Kimbrell, A. Faltal Harvest: The Tragedy of Industrial Agriculture, Island Press, Washington, 2002. Costs and Benefits of GMOs Genetic engineers may someday develop transgenic plants which would allow for irrigation, drainage, conservation, sanitary engineering, and maintaining or increasing yields while requiring fewer fossil fuel derived inputs than conventional crops.[22] Such developments would be particularly important in areas which are normally arid and rely upon constant irrigation, and on large scale farms. However, genetic engineering of plants has proven to be controversial. Many issues surrounding food security and environmental impacts have risen regarding GMO practices. For example, GMOs are questioned by some ecologists and economists concerned with GMO practices such as terminator seeds, which is a genetic modification that creates sterile seeds. Terminator seeds are currently under strong international opposition and face continual efforts of global bans. UN biodiversity meet fails to address key outstanding issues, Third World Network, Accessed on December 9, 2008 Another controversial issue is the patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using genetic engineering. Since companies have intellectual ownership of their seeds, they have the power to dictate terms and conditions of their patented product. Currently, ten seed companies control over two-thirds of the global seed sales. Who Owns Nature?Accessed on December 9, 2008 Vandana Shiva argues that these companies are guilty of biopiracy by patenting life and exploiting organisms for profit Shiva, Vandana, Biopiracy, South End Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997. Farmers using patented seed are restricted from saving seed for subsequent plantings, which forces farmers to buy new seed every year. Since seed saving is a traditional practice for many farmers in both developing and developed countries, GMO seeds legally bind farmers to change their seed saving practices to buying new seed every year. Shiva, Vandana, Biopiracy, South End Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997. Farmers Guide to GMOsAccessed December 8, 2008 Locally adapted seeds are an essential hertitage that has the potential to be lost with current hybridized crops and GMOs. Locally adapted seeds, also called land races or crop eco-types, are important because they have adapted over time to the specific microclimates, soils, other environmental conditions, field designs, and ethnic preference indigenous to the exact area of cultivation Nabhan, Gary Paul, Enduring Seeds, The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1989. Introducing GMOs and hybridized commercial seed to an area brings the risk of cross-pollination with local land races Therefore, GMOs pose a threat to the sustainability of land races and the ethnic heritage of cultures. Once seed contains transgenic material, it becomes subject to the conditions of the seed company that owns the patent of the transgenic material Shiva, Vanadana,Stolen Harvest: The Hijacking of the Global Food Supply South End Press, Cambrdge, MA, 2000, pg. 90-93. There is also concern that GMOs will cross-pollinate with wild species and permanently alter native populations’ genetic integrity; there are already identified populations of wild plants with transgenic genes. GMO gene flow to related weed species is a concern, as well as cross-pollination with non-transgenic crops. Since many GMO crops are harvested for their seed, such as rapeseed, seed spillage in is problematic for volunteer plants in rotated fields, as well as seed-spillage during transportation. Chandler, S., Dunwell, JM, Gene flow, risk assessment and the environmental release of transgenic plants, Critical Reviews in Plant Science, Vol. 27, pg25-49, 2008. Food safety and labeling Food security issues also coincide with food safety and food labeling concerns. Currently a global treaty, the BioSafety Protocol, regulates the trade of GMOs. The EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, whereas the US does not require transparent labeling of GMO foods. Since there are still questions regarding the safety and risks associated with GMO foods, some believe the public should have the freedom to choose and know what they are eating and require all GMO products to be labeled. Shiva, Vandana, Earth Democracy: Justice, Sustainability, and Peace, Sourth End Press, Cambridge, MA, 2005. Environmental impact Agriculture imposes external costs upon society through pesticides, nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and assorted other problems. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of 2343 million British pounds or 208 pounds per hectare. A 2005 analysis of these costs in the USA concluded that cropland imposes approximately 5 to 16 billion dollars ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes 714 million dollars. Both studies concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs, and neither included subsidies in their analysis, but noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society. Both focused on purely fiscal impacts. The 2000 review included reported pesticide poisonings but did not include speculative chronic effects of pesticides, and the 2004 review relied on a 1992 estimate of the total impact of pesticides. Livestock issues A senior UN official and co-author of a UN report detailing this problem, Henning Steinfeld, said "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems." http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. Steinfeld, H., P. Gerber, T. Wassenaar, V. Castel, M. Rosales, and C. de Haan. 2006. U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome, Italy "Livestock's Long Shadow - Environmental issues and options." Retrieved December 5, 2008 It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2,) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2). It also generates 64% of the ammonia, which contributes to acid rain and acidification of ecosystems. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving deforestation, in the Amazon basin 70% of previously forested area is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feedcrops. Through deforestation and land degradation, livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. Land transformation and degradation Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is considered the driving force in the loss of biodiversity. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39–50%. Vitousek, P.M., H.A. Mooney, J. Lubchenco and J.M. Melillo. 1997. Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems. Science 277:494-499. Land degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented. Bai, Z.G., D.L. Dent, L. Olsson, and M.E. Schaepman. 2008. Global assessment of land degradation and improvement 1:identification by remote sensing. Report 2008/01, FAO/ISRIC - Rome/Wageningen. Retrieved on December 5, 2008 from "Land degradation on the rise" The UN-FAO report cites land management as the driving factor behind degradation and reports that 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, mineral depletion, or chemical degradation (acidification and salinization). Eutrophication Eutrophication, excessive nutrients in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal blooms and anoxia, leads to fish kills, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff and leaching from agricultural land. These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems. Carpenter, S.R., N.F. Caraco, D.L. Correll, R.W. Howarth, A.N. Sharpley, and V.H. Smith. 1998. Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen. Ecological Applications 8:559-568. Pesticides Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss due to pests has remained relatively constant. Pimentel, D. T.W. Culliney, and T. Bashore. 1996. "Public health risks associated with pesticides and natural toxins in foods in Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook" Accessed on December 7, 2008 The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that 3 million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths. WHO. 1992. Our planet, our health: Report of the WHU commission on health and environment. Geneva: World Health Organization. Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the 'pesticide treadmill' in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide. Chrispeels, M.J. and D.E. Sadava. 1994. Strategies for Pest Control pp.355-383 in "Plants, Genes, and Agriculture". Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, MA. An alternative argument is that the way to 'save the environment' and prevent famine is by using pesticdes and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'. Avery, D.T. 2000. Saving the Planet with Pesticides and Plastic: The Environmental Triumph of High-Yield Farming. Hudson Institute, Indianapolis, IN. Center for Global Food Issues. Churchville, VA. "Center for Global Food Issues." Accessed on December 7, 2008. However critics argue that a tradeoff between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable, Lappe, F.M., J. Collins, and P. Rosset. 1998. Myth 4: Food vs. Our Environment pp. 42-57 in "World Hunger, Twelve Myths", Grove Press, New York, NY. and that pesticides simply replace good agronomic practices such as crop rotation. Climate Change Climate change has the potential to affect agriculture through changes in temperature and moisture regimes. Agriculture can both mitigate or worsen global warming. Some of the increase in CO2 in the atmosphere comes from the decomposition of organic matter in the soil, and much of the methane emitted into the atmosphere is due to the decomposition of organic matter in wet soils such as rice paddies. Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2002. Soil Organic Matter pp.353-385 in Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Further, wet or anaerobic soils also lose nitrogen through denitrification, releasing the greenhouse gas nitric oxide. Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2002. Nitrogen and Sulfur Economy of Soils pp.386-421 in Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Changes in management can reduce the release of these greenhouse gases, and soil can further be used to sequester some of the CO2 in the atmosphere. Distortions in modern global agriculture Differences in economic development, population density and culture mean that the farmers of the world operate under very different conditions. A US cotton farmer may receive US$230 government subsidies per acre planted (as in 2003), farmers in Mali and other third world countries do without. When prices decline, the heavily subsidised US farmer is not forced to reduce his output, hence making it difficult for cotton prices to rebound, his Mali counterpart may go broke in the meantime. A livestock farmer in South Korea can calculate with a (highly subsidized) salesprice of US$1300 for a calf produced. With the former, scarcety and high cost of land is compensated with public subsidies, the latter compensates absence of subsedies with economics of scale and low cost of land. In the Peoples Republic of China, a rural household`s productive asset may be one hectare of farmland. In Brazil, Paraguay and other countries where local legislature allows such purchases, international investors buy thousands of hectares of farmland or raw land at prices of a few hundred US$ per hectare . Agriculture and petroleum Since the 1940s, agriculture has dramatically increased its productivity, due largely to the use of petrochemical derived pesticides, fertilizers, and increased mechanization (the so-called Green Revolution). Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The limits of a Green Revolution? The Real Green Revolution This has allowed world population to grow more than double over the last 50 years. However, every energy unit delivered in food grown using modern techniques requires over ten energy units to produce and deliver, although this statistic is contested by proponents of petroleum-based agriculture. The vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil fuel sources. Because of modern agriculture's current heavy reliance on petrochemicals and mechanization, there are warnings that the ever decreasing supply of oil (the dramatic nature of which is known as peak oil ) will inflict major damage on the modern industrial agriculture system, and could cause large food shortages. (a list of over 20 published articles and books supporting this thesis can be found here in the section: "Food, Land, Water, and Population") Modern or industrialized agriculture is dependent on petroleum in two fundamental ways: 1) cultivation—to get the crop from seed to harvest and 2) transport—to get the harvest from the farm to the consumer's refrigerator. It takes approximately 400 gallons of oil a year per citizen to fuel the tractors, combines and other equipment used on farms for cultivation or 17 percent of the nation's total energy use. David Pimentel, Marcia Pimentel, and Marianne Karpenstein-Machan, "Energy use in Agriculture: An Overview," dspace.library.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/118/3/Energy.PDF. Oil and natural gas are also the building blocks of the fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides used on farms. Petroleum is also providing the energy required to process food before it reaches the market. It takes the energy equivalent of a half-gallon of gasoline to produce a two-pound bag of breakfast cereal. Richard Manning, "The Oil We Eat: Following the Food Chain Back to Iraq," Harper's Magazine, February 2004. And that still does not count the energy needed to transport that cereal to market; it is the transport of processed foods and crops that consumes the most oil. The kiwi from New Zealand, the asparagus from Argentina, the melons and broccoli from Guatemala, the organic lettuce from California-most food items on the consumer's plate travel average of 1,500 miles just to get there. Barbara Kingsolver, "Animal, Vegetable, Miracle: A Year of Food Life," New York: HarperCollins, 2007. and Michael Pollan, "The Omnivore's Dilemma," New York: Penguin Books, 2007, and Rich Pirog, Timothy Van Pelt, Kamyar Enshayan, and Ellen Cook, "Food, Fuel, and Freeways: An Iowa perspective on how far food travels, fuel usage, and greenhouse gas emissions," Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, Iowa State University, June 2001. Oil shortages could interrupt this food supply. The consumer's growing awareness of this vulnerability is one of several factors fueling current interest in organic agriculture and other sustainable farming methods. Some farmers using modern organic-farming methods have reported yields as high as those available from conventional farming (but without the use of fossil-fuel-intensive artificial fertilizers or pesticides. However, the reconditioning of soil to restore nutrients lost during the use of monoculture agriculture techniques made possible by petroleum-based technology will take time. Realities of organic farming http://extension.agron.iastate.edu/organicag/researchreports/nk01ltar.pdf Organic Farming can Feed The World! Organic Farms Use Less Energy And Water The dependence on oil and vulnerability of the U.S. food supply has also led to the creation of a conscious consumption movement in which consumers count the "food miles" a food product has traveled. The Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture defines a food mile as: "...the distance food travels from where it is grown or raised to where it is ultimately purchased by the consumer or end-user." In a comparison of locally-grown food and long-distance food, researchers at the Leopold Center found that local food traveled an average of 44.6 miles to reach its destination compared with 1,546 miles for conventionally-grown and shipped food. Rich Pirog, Timothy Van Pelt, Kamyar Enshayan, and Ellen Cook, "Food, Fuel, and Freeways: An Iowa perspective on how far food travels, fuel usage, and greenhouse gas emissions," Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, Iowa State University, June 2001. Consumers in the new local food movement who count food miles call themselves "locavores" LINK; they advocate a return to a locally-based food system where food comes from as close as possible, whether or not it is organic. Locavores argue that an organically-grown lettuce from California that is shipped to New York is still an unsustainable food source because of dependence on fossil fuels to ship it. In addition to the "locavore" movement, concern over dependence on oil-based agriculture has also dramatically increased interest in home and community gardening.LINK Farmers have also begun raising crops such as corn (maize) for non-food use in an effort to help mitigate peak oil. This has contributed to a 60% rise in wheat prices recently, and has been indicated as a possible precursor to "serious social unrest in developing countries." Such situations would be exacerbated in the event of future rises in food and fuel costs, factors which have already impacted the ability of charitable donors to send food aid to starving populations. One example of the chain reactions which could be caused by peak oil issues involves the problems caused by farmers raising crops such as corn (maize) for non-food use in an effort to help mitigate peak oil. This has already lowered food production. Record rise in wheat price prompts UN official to warn that surge in food prices may trigger social unrest in developing countries This food vs fuel issue will be exacerbated as demand for ethanol fuel rises. Rising food and fuel costs has already limited the abilities of some charitable donors to send food aid to starving populations. In the UN, some warn that the recent 60% rise in wheat prices could cause "serious social unrest in developing countries." In 2007, higher incentives for farmers to grow non-food biofuel crops 2008: The year of global food crisis combined with other factors (such as over-development of former farm lands, rising transportation costs, climate change, growing consumer demand in China and India, and population growth) The global grain bubble to cause food shortages in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Mexico, as well as rising food prices around the globe. The cost of food: Facts and figures The World's Growing Food-Price Crisis As of December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. Some of these shortages resulted in food riots and even deadly stampedes. Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits Another major petroleum issue in agriculture is the effect of petroleum supplies will have on fertilizer production. By far the biggest fossil fuel input to agriculture is the use of natural gas as a hydrogen source for the Haber-Bosch fertilizer-creation process. Raw Material Reserves - International Fertilizer Industry Association Natural gas is used because it is the cheapest currently available source of hydrogen. Integrated Crop Management-Iowa State University January 29, 2001 The Hydrogen Economy-Physics Today Magazine, December 2004 When oil production becomes so scarce that natural gas is used as a partial stopgap replacement, and hydrogen use in transportation increases, natural gas will become much more expensive. If the Haber Process is unable to be commercialized using renewable energy (such as by electrolysis) or if other sources of hydrogen are not available to replace the Haber Process, in amounts sufficient to supply transportation and agricultural needs, this major source of fertilizer would either become extremely expensive or unavailable. This would either cause food shortages or dramatic rises in food prices. Mitigation of effects of petroleum shortages One effect oil shortages could have on agriculture is a full return to organic agriculture. In light of peak oil concerns, organic methods are much more sustainable than contemporary practices because they use no petroleum-based pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers. Some farmers using modern organic-farming methods have reported yields as high as those available from conventional farming. Realities of organic farming http://extension.agron.iastate.edu/organicag/researchreports/nk01ltar.pdf Organic Farming can Feed The World! Organic Farms Use Less Energy And Water Organic farming may however be more labor-intensive and would require a shift of work force from urban to rural areas. Strochlic, R.; Sierra, L. (2007). Conventional, Mixed, and “Deregistered” Organic Farmers: Entry Barriers and Reasons for Exiting Organic Production in California. California Institute for Rural Studies. It has been suggested that rural communities might obtain fuel from the biochar and synfuel process, which uses agricultural waste to provide charcoal fertilizer, some fuel and food, instead of the normal food vs fuel debate. As the synfuel would be used on site, the process would be more efficient and may just provide enough fuel for a new organic-agriculture fusion. "Carbon cycle management with increased photo-synthesis and long-term sinks" (2007) Royal Society of New Zealand Greene, Nathanael How biofuels can help end America's energy dependenc e December 2004. It has been suggested that some transgenic plants may some day be developed which would allow for maintaining or increasing yields while requiring fewer fossil fuel derived inputs than conventional crops. The possibility of success of these programs is questioned by ecologists and economists concerned with unsustainable GMO practices such as terminator seeds, and a January 2008 report shows that GMO practices "fail to deliver environmental, social and economic benefits." While there has been some research on sustainability using GMO crops, at least one hyped and prominent multi-year attempt by Monsanto has been unsuccessful, though during the same period traditional breeding techniques yielded a more sustainable variety of the same crop. Additionally, a survey by the bio-tech industry of subsistence farmers in Africa to discover what GMO research would most benefit sustainable agriculture only identified non-transgenic issues as areas needing to be addressed. Nonetheless, some governments in Africa continue to view investments in new transgenic technologies as an essential component of efforts to improve sustainability. Policy Agricultural policy focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production. At the policy level, common goals of agriculture include: Conservation Economic stability Environmental impact Food quality: Ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality. Food safety: Ensuring that the food supply is free of contamination. Food security: Ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs. Record rise in wheat price prompts UN official to warn that surge in food prices may trigger social unrest in developing countries Rising food prices curb aid to global poor Poverty Reduction Agriculture safety and health Satellite image of circular crop fields characteristic of center pivot irrigation in Kansas. Healthy, growing crops are green; wheat fields are gold-coloured; and fallow fields are brown. United States Agriculture ranks among the most hazardous industries. Farmers are at high risk for fatal and nonfatal injuries, work-related lung diseases, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, and certain cancers associated with chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. Farming is one of the few industries in which the families (who often share the work and live on the premises) are also at risk for injuries, illness, and death. In an average year, 516 workers die doing farm work in the U.S. (1992-2005). Of these deaths, 101 are caused by tractor overturns. Every day, about 243 agricultural workers suffer lost-work-time injuries, and about 5% of these result in permanent impairment. Agriculture is the most dangerous industry for young workers, accounting for 42% of all work-related fatalities of young workers in the U.S. between 1992 and 2000. Unlike other industries, half the young victims in agriculture were under age 15. NIOSH [2003]. Unpublished analyses of the 1992–2000 Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries Special Research Files provided to NIOSH by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (includes more detailed data than the research file, but excludes data from New York City). Morgantown, WV: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Safety Research, Surveillance and Field Investigations Branch, Special Studies Section. Unpublished database. For young agricultural workers aged 15–17, the risk of fatal injury is four times the risk for young workers in other workplaces BLS [2000]. Report on the youth labor force. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, pp. 58–67. Agricultural work exposes young workers to safety hazards such as machinery, confined spaces, work at elevations, and work around livestock. An estimated 1.26 million children and adolescents under 20 years of age resided on farms in 2004, with about 699,000 of these youth performing work on the farms. In addition to the youth who live on farms, an additional 337,000 children and adolescents were hired to work on U.S. farms in 2004. On average, 103 children are killed annually on farms (1990-1996). Approximately 40 percent of these deaths were work-related. In 2004, an estimated 27,600 children and adolescents were injured on farms; 8,100 of these injuries were due to farm work. Centers Some US research centers are focused on the topic of health and safety in agricultural practices. Most of these groups are funded by the National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety, the US Department of Agriculture or other state agencies. Centers include: Great Lakes Center for Agricultural Safety and Health (Ohio State University, ,OH) Great Plains Center for Agricultural Health and Safety (Iowa State University, Iowa City, IA) The High Plains Center for Agricultural Health and Safety (Colorado State University, Collins, CO) Southeast Center for Agricultural Health and Injury Prevention (Kentucky University, Lexington, KY) Southwest Center for Agricultural Health, Injury Prevention and Education (University of Texas, Tyler, TX) Western Center for Agricultural Health and Safety (University of California, Davis, CA) See also Main lists: List of basic agriculture topics and List of agriculture topics Artificial plant hormones Agricultural effects of peak oil Aeroponics (Indoor growing of food and plants) Agricultural economics Agricultural marketing Agroecology Biopesticides Chitosan (Natural Biocontrol for Agricultural & Horticultural use) Climate change and agriculture Contract farming Consumption-labour-balance principle Crofting Doha Development Round Farming First Feed additive Fort Hays State University Food Studies Good agricultural practice Green Revolution Industrial agriculture Organic farming Permaculture Permaforestry Rural economics Smallholder agriculture Timeline of agriculture and food technology Wildculture Lists Agriculture in present-day nations and states List of basic agriculture topics List of countries by GDP sector composition - a breakdown that includes Agricultural sector information List of domesticated animals List of subsistence techniques List of sustainable agriculture topics No-till farming References Notes Bibliography Coffee Plantation up São João do Manhuaçu City mouth - Minas Gerais State - Brazil. Alvarez, Robert A. (2007), The March of Empire: Mangos, Avocados, and the Politics of Transfer. Gastronomica, Vol. 7, No. 3, 28-33. Retrieved on 2008-11-12. Bolens, L. (1997), 'Agriculture' in Encyclopedia of the history of Science, technology, and Medicine in Non Western Cultures, Editor: Helaine Selin; Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht/Boston/London, pp 20–2 Collinson, M. (editor): A History of Farming Systems Research. CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-85199-405-9 Crosby, Alfred W.: The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Praeger Publishers, 2003 (30th Anniversary Edition). ISBN 0-275-98073-1 Davis, Donald R., and Hugh D. Riordan (2004) Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 23, No. 6, 669-682. Friedland, William H. and Amy Barton (1975) Destalking the Wily Tomato: A Case Study of Social Consequences in California Agricultural Research. Univ. California at Sta. Cruz, Research Monograph 15. Mazoyer, Marcel; Roudart, Laurence (2006): A history of world agriculture : from the Neolithic Age to the current crisis, New York, NY : Monthly Review Press, ISBN 1-583-67121-8 Saltini A.Storia delle scienze agrarie, 4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, ISBN 88-206-2412-5, ISBN 88-206-2413-3, ISBN 88-206-2414-1, ISBN 88-206-2414-X Watson, A.M. (1974), 'The Arab agricultural revolution and its diffusion', in The Journal of Economic History, 34, Watson, A.M. (1983), ' Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World', Cambridge University Press Wells, Spencer: The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-691-11532-X Wickens, G.M.(1976), 'What the West borrowed from the Middle East', in Introduction to Islamic Civilization, edited by R.M. Savory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge External links Agriculture from UCB Libraries GovPubs Agriculture and Rural development from the World Bank Index to the Manuscript Collections Special Collections, National Agricultural Library International Federation of Agricultural Producers (IFAP) NIOSH Agriculture Page - safety laws, tips, and guidelines U.S. House Committee on Agriculture - Glossary of agricultural terms, programs and laws UK Agriculture Agricultural Products - portal about agro products and agriculture industry. Guide to collections containing information on agriculture at the Eisenhower Presidential Library Collection of Agriculture Dictionaries be-x-old:Сельская гаспадарка | Agriculture |@lemmatized agriculture:107 refers:1 production:33 food:104 good:7 farming:23 forestry:1 key:6 development:16 lead:9 rise:17 civilization:5 husbandry:3 domesticated:2 animal:16 plant:42 e:12 crop:97 create:5 surplus:3 enable:2 densely:1 populated:1 stratified:1 society:9 study:8 know:7 agricultural:59 science:6 relate:4 practice:26 gardening:2 horticulture:1 encompass:1 wide:1 variety:7 specialty:1 technique:21 include:30 way:5 expand:3 land:33 suitable:1 raising:2 dig:1 water:18 channel:1 form:3 irrigation:10 cultivation:11 arable:1 pastoral:1 herding:1 livestock:23 rangeland:2 remain:2 foundation:1 past:6 century:12 increase:23 concern:11 identify:3 quantify:1 various:3 developed:4 world:39 range:1 usually:2 extend:1 sustainable:13 g:9 permaculture:2 organic:29 intensive:8 industrial:7 modern:12 agronomy:1 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7,575 | Electric_Light_Orchestra | Electric Light Orchestra, commonly abbreviated ELO, were a symphonic rock group from Birmingham, England, who released eleven studio albums between 1971 and 1986 and another album in 2001. ELO were formed to accommodate Roy Wood and Jeff Lynne's desire to create modern pop songs with heavily classical overtones, but falling under a light rock category. However, the band's direction for most of their existence was set by Lynne who, after the band's debut record, wrote and arranged all of the group's original compositions and produced every album. The band was first successful in the United States, billed as 'The English guys with the big fiddles'. They soon gained a cult following despite lukewarm reviews back in their native United Kingdom. They were managed by agent Don Arden, father of Sharon Osbourne. By the mid-1970s, they had become one of the biggest selling bands in music. From 1972 to 1986, ELO accumulated twenty-seven Top 40 hit single appearances in both the UK and the US. The group also scored twenty Top 20 U.K. hit singles, as well as nineteen Top 20 hit singles in the U.S. Billboard charts, with fifteen in the Hot 100. The band also holds the record for having the most Billboard Hot 100 Top 40 hits of any band in U.S. chart history without ever having a #1 single. Despite the fact that the majority of the group's material was never researched, audited and certified, ELO collected 21 RIAA awards, 38 BPI awards, RIAA The Bpi and sold well over 100 million records worldwide, not including singles; 50 million of those being sold in a period of only eleven years, from 1971 to 1982. The Citizen History Birth of the band In the late 1960s, Roy Wood, guitarist, vocalist songwriter of The Move, had an idea to form a new band that would use cellos, violins, horns and woodwinds to give their music a classical sound, taking rock music in a new direction and "picking up where The Beatles left off" with such hits as "Strawberry Fields Forever", and "I Am The Walrus." Jeff Lynne, frontman with fellow Birmingham band The Idle Race, was excited by the concept. In January 1970, when Carl Wayne left The Move, Lynne accepted Wood's second invitation to join the band on the condition that they focus their energy on the new project. On 12 July 1970, when Wood added multiple cellos to a Lynne-penned song intended to be a Move B-side, the new concept became a reality and "10538 Overture" became the first Electric Light Orchestra song. To help finance the fledgling band, two more Move albums were released during the lengthy ELO recordings. The resulting debut album The Electric Light Orchestra was released in 1971 (1972 in the United States as No Answer) and "10538 Overture" became a U.K. top ten hit. However, tensions soon surfaced between Wood and Lynne due to problems with management. A Recent interview with Roy Wood in Mojo magazine Amid the recordings for the band's second LP, Wood left the band, taking cellist Hugh McDowell and horn player Bill Hunt with him to form Wizzard. Despite predictions from the music press that the band would fold without Wood, who had been the driving-force behind the creation of ELO, Lynne stepped up to lead the band, with Bev Bevan remaining on drums, joined by Richard Tandy on the Moog synthesizer, Mike de Albuquerque on bass, Mike Edwards and Colin Walker adding cello and Wilfred Gibson replacing Steve Woolam on violin. The new lineup performed at the 1972 Reading Festival. Barcus Berry pickups, now sported by the band's string trio, allowed them to dance on stage with their instruments. The band released their second album, ELO 2 in 1973, which produced their first U.S. chart hit, a hugely elaborate version of the Chuck Berry classic "Roll Over Beethoven". ELO also made their first appearance on American Bandstand. During the recording of the third album, Gibson and Walker left the band. Mik Kaminski joined as violinist, while remaining cellist Edwards finished the cello parts before McDowell returned to ELO from Wizzard. The resulting album, On the Third Day was released in late 1973, with the American version featuring the hit "Showdown." Global success For the band's fourth album, Eldorado, A Symphony, a concept album about dreams, Lynne was finally able to stop overdubbing strings, and hire an orchestra and choir. Louis Clark joined the band as string arranger. Eaton Music - Louis Clark The first single off the album, "Can't Get It Out of My Head", became their first U.S. Billboard charts Top 10 hit, and Eldorado, A Symphony became ELO's first gold album. Classic Lineup making a first album appearance on Face the Music After the release of Eldorado, A Symphony, bassist and vocalist Kelly Groucutt and cellist Melvyn Gale joined, replacing de Albuquerque and Edwards respectively. The lineup stabilised as the band took to a decidedly more accessible sound. Face the Music was released in 1975, producing the hit singles "Evil Woman" and "Strange Magic". The opening instrumental "Fire On High", with its mix of strings and blazing acoustic guitars, saw heavy exposure as background music on CBS Sports Spectacular montages, though most viewers had no idea of the song's origins. ELO had become successful in the United States at this point and they were a star attraction on the stadium and arena circuit, as well as regularly appearing on The Midnight Special. They were still largely ignored in the United Kingdom until their sixth album, A New World Record, hit the top ten there in 1976. It contained the hit singles "Livin' Thing", "Telephone Line", "Rockaria!" and "Do Ya", a rerecording of a Move song. A New World Record was followed by another multi platinum selling album, the double-LP Out of the Blue, in 1977. Out of the Blue featured the singles "Turn to Stone", "Sweet Talkin' Woman", "Mr. Blue Sky", and "Wild West Hero", each becoming a hit in the United Kingdom. The band then set out on a nine-month, 92-date world tour, with an enormous set and a hugely expensive space ship stage with fog machines and a laser display. In the United States the concerts were billed as The Big Night and were their largest to date, with 80,000 people seeing them at Cleveland Stadium. The Big Night went on to become the highest-grossing live concert tour in music history up to that point (1978). The band also played at the Wembley Arena for eight straight sold-out nights during the tour as well, another record at that time. The first of these shows was recorded and televised, and later released as a CD and DVD. Melvyn Gale, Hugh McDowell, Mik Kaminski (1979)| In 1979, the multi-platinum album Discovery (or "Disco? Very!", as fans refer to it), was released. Although the biggest hit on the album (and ELO's biggest hit overall) was the hard-rock song "Don't Bring Me Down", the album was noted for its heavy disco influence. Discovery also produced the hits "Shine a Little Love", "Last Train to London", "Confusion" and "The Diary of Horace Wimp". Although there would be no live tour associated with Discovery, the band recorded the entire album in video form. The Discovery music videos would be the last time the "classic" late 1970s lineup would be seen together, as the violinist, Mik Kaminski, and the two cellists, Hugh McDowell and Melvyn Gale, were shortly dismissed. The Electric Light Orchestra finished 1979 as the biggest selling act in the United Kingdom. ELO had reached the peak of their stardom, selling millions of albums and singles and even inspiring a parody/tribute song on the Randy Newman album Born Again. In 1980, Jeff Lynne was asked to write for the soundtrack of the musical film Xanadu, with the other half written by John Farrar and performed by the film's star Olivia Newton-John. The movie performed poorly at the box office, but the soundtrack did exceptionally well, eventually going double platinum. The album spawned hit singles from both Newton-John ("Magic," #1 in the United States, and "Suddenly" with Cliff Richard) and ELO ("I'm Alive", which went gold, "All Over the World" and "Don't Walk Away"). The title track, performed by both Newton-John and ELO, is ELO's only song to top the singles chart in the United Kingdom. Guinness World Records: "British Hit Singles 14th Edition", page 195. 0-85112-156-X Xanadu was turned into a surprising hit Broadway Musical that opened on 10 July 2007 at the Helen Hayes Theatre to uniformly good reviews and received 2 Tony Award nominations. The Electric Light Orchestra Story, Bev Bevan's memoirs from his early days and throughout his career with The Move and ELO, was also published in 1980. In 1981, ELO's sound changed again with the science fiction concept album Time, a throwback to earlier, more progressive rock albums like Eldorado. With the string section laid off, synthesisers took a dominating role, as was a trend in the larger music scene. Time topped the U.K. charts for two weeks and was the last ELO studio album to date to be certified platinum in the United Kingdom. Singles from the album included "Hold on Tight", "Twilight", "The Way Life's Meant to Be", "Here Is the News" and "Ticket to the Moon." The band embarked on their last world tour to date to promote the LP. It was the first ELO tour without cellists, although Mik Kaminski returned to play his famous "blue violin." The live line-up was completed with Louis Clark and newcomer Dave Morgan playing the string parts on synthesisers, and "Fred the Robot" voicing the "Prologue" and "Epilogue". Decline Jeff Lynne wanted to follow Time with a double album, but CBS blocked his plan, claiming it would be too expensive. The new album was edited down from double album to a single disc and released as Secret Messages in 1983 (many of the outtakes were later released on "Afterglow" or as b-sides of singles). The album was an instant hit in the UK reaching the top 5. The album's release was dampened by a string of bad news—that there would be no tour to promote the LP, that drummer Bevan was to play drums for Black Sabbath, and that bassist Kelly Groucutt had left the band (Groucutt later sued Lynne, Bevan, and ELO's management for alleged lost royalty fees, and the matter was settled out of court). Rumours from fans about the group disbanding were publicly denied by Bevan. Although Secret Messages debuted at number four in the United Kingdom, it fell off the charts, failing to catch fire with a lack of hit singles and a lukewarm media response. By 1983, Bevan was expressing a desire to join Black Sabbath permanently, Lynne and Tandy were recording tracks for the Electric Dreams soundtrack under Jeff Lynne's name, and, with Groucutt's departure, ELO was assumed to be finished. However, Lynne was contractually obligated to make one more ELO album. Balance of Power (1986) Lynne, Bevan and Tandy returned to the studio in 1985 as a three-piece (with Christian Schneider playing saxophone on some tracks) to record ELO's final album of the 20th century, Balance of Power, released early in 1986. Though the single "Calling America" placed in the Top 30 in the United Kingdom (#28), subsequent singles failed to chart. The album was absent of actual strings, replaced once again by synthesisers, this time played by Tandy. The album also shed the customary ELO logo that had appeared on every album since 1976. Lynne, with the 7-piece lineup that supported Time (with Martin Smith replacing Groucutt on bass), played a small number of live ELO performances in 1986, including shows in England and Germany. Heartbeat 86 was a charity concert organized by Bevan in ELO's hometown of Birmingham on 15 March 1986. A hint of Lynne's future was seen when George Harrison appeared onstage during the encore at Heartbeat, joining in the all-star jam of "Johnny B. Goode". ELO's last performance of the century occurred on 13 July 1986 in Stuttgart, Germany. ELO essentially disbanded after that final show in Stuttgart in 1986, but there was no announcement made of it for the next two years, during which George Harrison's Lynne-produced album Cloud Nine and the pair's follow-up (with Roy Orbison, Bob Dylan and Tom Petty) Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1 were released. Bevan approached Lynne to make another ELO album in 1988. Lynne was not interested and went on to announce that ELO was no more. ELO Part II Bevan (under an agreement with Lynne who co-owned the ELO name with him) continued on in 1989 as ELO Part II, initially with no other former ELO members except Clark. ELO Part II released their debut album Electric Light Orchestra Part Two in 1991. Mik Kaminski, Kelly Groucutt and Hugh McDowell joined the band for the first tour in 1991. McDowell left after that tour. Bevan, Groucutt, Kaminski and Clark recorded a second album, Moment Of Truth, in 1994 and toured extensively until 1999. Bevan retired from the lineup in 1999 and sold his share of the ELO name to Jeff Lynne in 2000. The remaining members continue to tour and record, renamed as The Orchestra. Reformation in 2000 Jeff Lynne's comeback with ELO began in 2000 with the release of a retrospective box set, Flashback, containing three CDs of remastered tracks and a handful of outtakes and unfinished works, most notably a new version of ELO's only UK number one hit "Xanadu". In 2001, Zoom, ELO's first album since 1986, was released. Though billed and marketed as an ELO album, the only returning member other than Jeff Lynne was Richard Tandy, who performed on one track. Zoom took on a more organic sound, with less emphasis on strings and electronic effects. Guest musicians included former Beatles Ringo Starr and George Harrison. Upon completion of the album Lynne reformed the band with completely new members including his then-girlfriend Rosie Vela (who had released her own album "Zazu", in 1986) and announced that ELO would tour again. Former ELO member Richard Tandy rejoined the band a short time afterwards for two television live performances: VH1 Storytellers and a PBS concert shot at CBS Television City, later titled Zoom Tour Live, that was released on DVD. The planned tour was cancelled. "The off-switch has been flipped on the Electric Light Orchestra. Or at least its tour, which was wired to illuminate the First Union Center on Sept. 15." Lynne, a close friend of George Harrison, was also terribly affected by Harrison's illness and later death in November 2001. The ELO tour was not rescheduled. Harvest Records and Epic/Legacy released ELO's back catalogue from 2001–07. Included amongst the remastered album tracks were unreleased songs and outtakes, including a new single "Surrender" which registered on the lower end of the UK Singles Chart at #81, some 30 years after it was written in 1976. Current releases Although there has been no news on any forthcoming new ELO projects, ELO's core studio albums have now all been remastered and expanded with bonus tracks, leaving only The Night the Light Went On (in Long Beach), ELO's Greatest Hits, Xanadu, Zoom and ELO's Greatest Hits Live AKA Zoom Tour Live to be done. Latest in the Epic/Legacy series were Out of the Blue and Balance of Power which were released in February, 2007. A lost demo from 1977 was finished and released in the United Kingdom as a download single on 6 February 2007, titled "Latitude 88 North". All the original ELO albums were released in mini replica sleeves in Japan. Among the many features was the original Jet Records label on the disc and original inner sleeves and lyrics. To further cash in on the success of the remasters, another ELO compilation hit the German, then UK shops in October 2007, and was also released in the US 5 February 2008. It's the follow-up to All Over the World: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra and is called Ticket to the Moon: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra Volume 2. An eco-friendly repackage of The Essential Electric Light Orchestra called Playlist: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra was released on 2 September 2008. Band name and logo The group's name is an intended pun based not only on electric light (as in a light bulb as seen on early album covers) but also using "electric" rock instruments combined with a "light orchestra" (orchestras with only a few cellos and violins that were popular in Britain during the 1960s). The official band logo (left), designed in 1976 by artist Kosh, was first seen on their 1976 album A New World Record and is based on a 1946 Wurlitzer jukebox speaker, model 4008. The 4008 speaker was, itself, based upon the upper cabinet of the most popular jukebox of all time, the Wurlitzer model 1015. The band's previous logo (right) was similar to the General Electric logo. The new logo has appeared on most of the band's albums in various forms. For instance, on 1977's Out of the Blue, the logo was turned in to a huge flying saucer space station, an enduring image that is now synonymous with the band. Again, on the follow up Discovery, the logo became a small glowing artifact on top of a treasure chest. Bev Bevan usually displayed the logo on his drum kit. Tributes Randy Newman recorded a parody/tribute to the band titled "The Story of a Rock and Roll Band" for his 1979 album Born Again. A tribute album was released by Not Lame Records on 31 August 2004. Titled Lynne Me Your Ears, this cover anthology featured ELO standards performed by former Lynne band mate Carl Wayne, Todd Rundgren, Sixpence None the Richer, Neilson Hubbard and Venus Hum, Shazam and a host of others. Parthenon Huxley, former lead guitar and vocalist for ELO Part 2 and The Orchestra under Bev Bevan, released a CD entitled Homemade Spaceship: The Music of ELO Performed by P. Hux., also covering a dozen ELO tunes, and enlisting the aid of former member Mik Kaminski. A tribute to ELO, L.E.O., features original material written by devotees of Lynne's unique orchestrated sound. American musician Bleu brought together various musicians to record this "tribute" in 2007. Andy Sturmer, of seminal ELO/Queen/Beatles influenced band Jellyfish, co-wrote and provided some vocals for the project. The songs are written entirely in Lynne's style and mimic ELO's orchestration and production. Lead singer of the band Brave Saint Saturn credits the E.L.O album Time as the start of the astro-rock music genre which brave saint saturn currently plays. Personnel Members on studio albums Jeff Lynne – vocals, guitars, bass guitar, keyboards, drums, cello, producer, songwriter, composer, arranger (1970–1986, 2000–01) Roy Wood – vocals, guitar, bass guitar, cello, clarinet, bassoon, oboe, drums, recorder, producer, songwriter, arranger (1970–1972) Bev Bevan – drums, percussion, vocals (1970–1986) Richard Tandy – keyboards, vocals, bass guitar, guitar, arranger (1972–1986, 2000–2001) Kelly Groucutt – bass guitar, vocals (1975–1983) Mik Kaminski – violin (1973–1979, 1983) Hugh McDowell – cello (1973–1979) Melvyn Gale – cello (1975–1979) Mike Edwards – cello (1972–1974) Mike de Albuquerque – bass guitar, vocals (1972–1974) Wilfred Gibson – violin (1972–1973) Colin Walker – cello (1972–1973) Bill Hunt – keyboards, French horn, hunting horn (1970–1972) Steve Woolam – violin (1970–1971) Louis Clark – orchestra arranger, conductor (1974–1979, 1983) Marc Mann – guitar, keyboards, vocals, arranger (2000–2001) Guest musicians on studio albums Rick Price – bass guitar (1970) The Electric Light Orchestra involved initially with some early tracks Carl Wayne – vocals (1973) ELO 2 The Lost Planet Marc Bolan – guitar (1973) On the Third Day Ellie Greenwich – uncredited vocals (1975) Face the Music Susan Collins – uncredited vocals (1975) Face the Music Nancy O'Neill – uncredited vocals (1975) Face the Music Margaret Raymond – uncredited vocals (1975) Face the Music Mary Thomas – operatic vocals (1976) A New World Record Patti Quatro – uncredited vocals (1976) A New World Record Thomas Donnelly - uncredited vocals (1976) "Telephone Line" Olivia Newton-John – vocals (1980) "Xanadu" Rainer Pietsch – arranger, conductor (1981) Time Dave Morgan – backing vocals (1983) Secret Messages Christian Schneider – saxophone (1986) Balance of Power George Harrison – slide guitar, vocals (2001) Zoom Ringo Starr – drums (2001) Zoom Suzie Katayama – cello (2001) Zoom Roger Lebow – cello (2001) Zoom Dave Boruff – saxophone (2001) Zoom Laura Lynne – backing vocals (2001) Zoom Rosie Vela – backing vocals (2001) Zoom Kris Wilkinson – arranger (2001) Zoom Live lineups 1972 Debut Tour Roy Wood's only live ELO tour.After the tour, Wood, Hunt andMcDowell leave ELO and form Wizzard. Roy Wood – vocals, cello, bass guitar, guitar, woodwind Jeff Lynne – vocals, lead guitar, piano, bass guitar Bev Bevan – drums, percussion Wilfred Gibson – violin Richard Tandy – guitar, bass guitar, keyboards Mike Edwards – cello Bill Hunt – keyboards, French horn Hugh McDowell – cello Andy Craig – cello Trevor Smith – (occasional cello) 1972–1973 ELO 2 Tour Bassist Mike de Albuquerque and cellist Colin Walker join ELO after the departure of Wood, Hunt, McDowell, Craig and Smith. Lynne, Bevan, Tandy, Edwards plus Mike de Albuquerque – bass guitar, backing vocals Wilfred Gibson – violin Colin Walker – cello 1973–1974 Do It With The Light On Tour Mik Kaminski replaces Gibson on violin,and McDowell returns from Wizzard to replace Walker. Lynne, Bevan, Tandy, Edwards, de Albuquerque plus Mik Kaminski – violin Hugh McDowell – cello 1974–1975 Eldorado Tour Kelly Groucutt replaces de Albuquerque. Lynne, Bevan, Tandy, Kaminski, Edwards, Hugh McDowell plus Kelly Groucutt – bass guitar, backing vocals 1975–1978 Classic Lineup, touring in support of the albumsFace The Music, A New World Record and Out Of The Blue Edwards is replaced by cellist Melvyn Gale.The band's most successful period. Lynne, Bevan, Tandy, Groucutt, Kaminski, McDowell plus Melvyn Gale – cello Jake Commander – additional backing vocals (offstage) on Out Of The Blue Tour 1981–1982 Time Tour Cellists McDowell and Gale are replaced with "Technology",Dave Morgan, longtime orchestral arranger Louis Clarkand "Fred"Lynne, Bevan, Tandy, Groucutt, Kaminski plus Louis Clark – synthesiser Dave Morgan – guitar, vocoder Fred the Robot – Spoken Prologue and Epilogue 1986 Balance Of Power Tour Martin Smith replaces Groucutt, and no "Fred" Lynne, Bevan, Tandy, Kaminski, Clark, Morgan plus Martin Smith – bass guitar 2001 Zoom Tour Featuring a whole new band save for Lynne and Tandy. The only time the band has not featured a violinist although the cellos return.Lynne, Tandy plus Marc Mann – lead guitar, rhythm guitar, keyboards Matt Bissonette – bass guitar, backing vocals Gregg Bissonette – drums, backing vocals Peggy Baldwin – electric cello Sarah O'Brien – electric cello Rosie Vela – backing vocals Discography This is a simple text-only list; For a full discography with chart placings and alternative titles please see Electric Light Orchestra discography. The Electric Light Orchestra (UK, 1971) / No Answer (US, 1972) ELO 2 (UK) / Electric Light Orchestra II / ELO II (US) (1973) On the Third Day (1973) Eldorado, A Symphony (1974) Face the Music (1975) A New World Record (1976) Out of the Blue (1977) Discovery (1979) Xanadu (1980) Time (1981) Secret Messages (1983) Balance of Power (1986) Zoom (2001) References External links Electric Light Orchestra Home - The Official Electric Light Orchestra Site. Face the Music – Official ELO and related artists information site. Jeff Lynne Song Database Discovery - welcome to the show ELO information website | Electric_Light_Orchestra |@lemmatized electric:23 light:23 orchestra:23 commonly:1 abbreviate:1 elo:67 symphonic:1 rock:8 group:6 birmingham:3 england:2 release:28 eleven:2 studio:6 album:55 another:5 form:6 accommodate:1 roy:7 wood:13 jeff:11 lynne:42 desire:2 create:1 modern:1 pop:1 song:11 heavily:1 classical:2 overtone:1 fall:1 category:1 however:3 band:42 direction:2 existence:1 set:4 debut:5 record:23 write:7 arrange:1 original:5 composition:1 produce:5 every:2 first:14 successful:3 united:14 state:5 bill:5 english:1 guy:1 big:7 fiddle:1 soon:2 gain:1 cult:1 follow:6 despite:3 lukewarm:2 review:2 back:6 native:1 kingdom:9 manage:1 agent:1 arden:1 father:1 sharon:1 osbourne:1 mid:1 become:10 one:4 selling:3 music:20 accumulate:1 twenty:2 seven:1 top:12 hit:25 single:22 appearance:3 uk:7 u:11 also:11 score:1 k:3 well:5 nineteen:1 billboard:3 chart:10 fifteen:1 hot:2 hold:2 history:3 without:3 ever:1 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7,576 | Majority_function | In Boolean logic, the majority function (also called the median operator) is a function from n inputs to one output. The value of the operation is false when n/2 or fewer arguments are false, and true otherwise. Alternatively, representing true values as 1 and false values as 0, we may use the formula The "−1/2" in the formula serves to break ties in favor of zeros when n is even; a similar formula can be used for a function that breaks ties in favor of ones. A major result in circuit complexity asserts that this function cannot be computed by AC0 circuits of subexponential size. A majority gate is a logical gate used in circuit complexity and other applications of Boolean circuits. A majority gate returns true if and only if at least 50% +1 of its inputs are true. Monotone formulae for majority For n = 1 the median operator is just the unary identity operation x. For n = 3 the ternary median operator can be expressed using conjunction and disjunction as xy + yz + zx. Remarkably this expression denotes the same operation independently of whether the symbol + is interpreted as inclusive-or ∨ or exclusive-or ⊕. Properties Among the properties of the ternary median operator < x,y,z > are: < x,y,y > = y < x,y,z > = < z,x,y > < x,y,z > = < x,z,y > < < x,w,y > ,w,z > = < x,w, < y,w,z > > An abstract system satisfying these as axioms is a median algebra. References . See also Boolean algebra (structure) Boolean algebras canonically defined Majority problem (cellular automaton) | Majority_function |@lemmatized boolean:4 logic:1 majority:5 function:4 also:2 call:1 median:5 operator:4 n:5 input:2 one:2 output:1 value:3 operation:3 false:3 argument:1 true:4 otherwise:1 alternatively:1 represent:1 may:1 use:4 formula:4 serve:1 break:2 tie:2 favor:2 zero:1 even:1 similar:1 major:1 result:1 circuit:4 complexity:2 assert:1 cannot:1 compute:1 subexponential:1 size:1 gate:3 logical:1 application:1 return:1 least:1 monotone:1 unary:1 identity:1 x:9 ternary:2 express:1 conjunction:1 disjunction:1 xy:1 yz:1 zx:1 remarkably:1 expression:1 denote:1 independently:1 whether:1 symbol:1 interpret:1 inclusive:1 exclusive:1 property:2 among:1 z:7 w:4 abstract:1 system:1 satisfy:1 axiom:1 algebra:3 reference:1 see:1 structure:1 canonically:1 define:1 problem:1 cellular:1 automaton:1 |@bigram boolean_logic:1 conjunction_disjunction:1 inclusive_exclusive:1 boolean_algebra:2 cellular_automaton:1 |
7,577 | Cyprinodontiformes | The Cyprinodontiformes is an order of ray-finned fish, and comprising mostly small, fresh-water fish. They are closely related to the Atheriniformes and are occasionally included with them. Many popular aquarium fish, such as killifish and live-bearers, belong here. A colloquial term for the order as a whole is toothcarps, though they are not actually close relatives of the true carps – the latter belong to the superorder Ostariophysi, while the toothcarps are Acanthopterygii. The families of Cyprinodontiformes can be divided into three groups: viviparous and ovoviviparous (all species give live birth), and oviparous (all species egg-laying). The live-bearing groups differ in whether the young are carried to term within (ovoviviparous) or without (viviparous) an enclosing eggshell. Phylogenetically however, one of the two suborders – the Aplocheiloidei – contains oviparous species exclusively, as do two of the four superfamilies of the other suborder (the Cyprinodontoidea and Valencioidea of the Cyprinodontoidei). Vivipary and ovovivipary have evolved independently from oviparous ancestors, the latter possibly twice. Description Fundulopanchax scheeli, a killifish of the Aplocheilidae. Members of this order are notable for inhabiting harsh environments, such as saline or very warm waters, water of poor quality, or isolated situations where no other types of fish occur. They are typically omnivores, and often live near the surface, where the oxygen-rich water compensates for environmental disadvantages. They are small to medium fish, with small mouths, large eyes, a single dorsal fin, and a rounded caudal fin. The largest species is the custro ojos (Anableps dowi), which measures in length, while the smallest, the least killifish (Hetrandia formosa), is just long as an adult. Systematics Guppy, a live-bearer of the Poeciliidae. ORDER CYPRINODONTIFORMES Suborder Aplocheiloidei (all oviparous) Family Aplocheilidae – South Asian killifishes Family Nothobranchiidae – African killifishes, formerly in Aplocheilidae Family Rivulidae – rivulids or South American killifishes Suborder Cyprinodontoidei Superfamily Funduloidea (oviparous) Family Profundulidae – Central American killifishes (oviparous) Family Goodeidae – splitfins (viviparous) Family Fundulidae – topminnows and North American killifishes (oviparous) Superfamily Valencioidea (oviparous) Family Valenciidae – Mediterranean killifishes Superfamily Cyprinodontoidea (oviparous) Family Cyprinodontidae – pupfishes Superfamily Poecilioidea Family Anablepidae – four-eyed fishes and relatives (ovoviviparous) Family Poeciliidae – livebearers and relatives (some oviparous, some ovoviviparous) References | Cyprinodontiformes |@lemmatized cyprinodontiformes:3 order:4 ray:1 finned:1 fish:6 comprise:1 mostly:1 small:4 fresh:1 water:4 closely:1 relate:1 atheriniformes:1 occasionally:1 include:1 many:1 popular:1 aquarium:1 killifish:9 live:5 bearer:2 belong:2 colloquial:1 term:2 whole:1 toothcarps:2 though:1 actually:1 close:1 relative:3 true:1 carp:1 latter:2 superorder:1 ostariophysi:1 acanthopterygii:1 family:11 divide:1 three:1 group:2 viviparous:3 ovoviviparous:4 specie:4 give:1 birth:1 oviparous:10 egg:1 laying:1 bearing:1 differ:1 whether:1 young:1 carry:1 within:1 without:1 enclose:1 eggshell:1 phylogenetically:1 however:1 one:1 two:2 suborder:4 aplocheiloidei:2 contain:1 exclusively:1 four:2 superfamily:5 cyprinodontoidea:2 valencioidea:2 cyprinodontoidei:2 vivipary:1 ovovivipary:1 evolve:1 independently:1 ancestor:1 possibly:1 twice:1 description:1 fundulopanchax:1 scheeli:1 aplocheilidae:3 member:1 notable:1 inhabit:1 harsh:1 environment:1 saline:1 warm:1 poor:1 quality:1 isolated:1 situation:1 type:1 occur:1 typically:1 omnivore:1 often:1 near:1 surface:1 oxygen:1 rich:1 compensates:1 environmental:1 disadvantage:1 medium:1 mouth:1 large:2 eye:1 single:1 dorsal:1 fin:2 rounded:1 caudal:1 custro:1 ojos:1 anableps:1 dowi:1 measure:1 length:1 least:1 hetrandia:1 formosa:1 long:1 adult:1 systematics:1 guppy:1 poeciliidae:2 south:2 asian:1 nothobranchiidae:1 african:1 formerly:1 rivulidae:1 rivulids:1 american:3 funduloidea:1 profundulidae:1 central:1 goodeidae:1 splitfins:1 fundulidae:1 topminnow:1 north:1 valenciidae:1 mediterranean:1 cyprinodontidae:1 pupfishes:1 poecilioidea:1 anablepidae:1 eyed:1 livebearers:1 reference:1 |@bigram ray_finned:1 finned_fish:1 closely_relate:1 aquarium_fish:1 egg_laying:1 dorsal_fin:1 caudal_fin:1 |
7,578 | Combustion | The flames caused as a result of a fuel undergoing combustion (burning) Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel (usually a hydrocarbon) and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames, appearance of light flickering. Direct combustion by atmospheric oxygen is a reaction mediated by radical intermediates. The conditions for radical production are naturally produced by thermal runaway, where the heat generated by combustion is necessary to maintain the high temperature necessary for radical production. In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an oxidizing element, such as oxygen or fluorine, and the products are compounds of each element in the fuel with the oxidizing element. For example: + 2 → + 2 + 6 → + 2 + A simpler example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen, which is a commonly used reaction in rocket engines: 2 + → 2(g) + heat The result is water vapor. In the large majority of real-world uses of combustion, air is the source of oxygen (O2). In air, each kg (lbm) of oxygen is mixed with approximately 3.76 kg (lbm) of nitrogen. The resultant flue gas from the combustion will contain nitrogen: + 2 + 7.52 → + 2 + 7.52 + heat When air is the source of the oxygen, nitrogen is by far the largest part of the resultant flue gas. In reality, combustion processes are never perfect or complete. In flue gases from combustion of carbon (as in coal combustion) or carbon compounds (as in combustion of hydrocarbons, wood etc.) both unburned carbon (as soot) and carbon compounds (CO and others) will be present. Also, when air is the oxidant, some nitrogen can be oxidized to various nitrogen oxides (NOx). Types Rapid Rapid combustion is a form of combustion in which large amounts of heat and light energy are released, which often results in a fire. This is used in a form of machinery such as internal combustion engines and in thermobaric weapons. Sometimes, a large volume of gas is liberated in combustion besides the production of heat and light. The sudden evolution of large quantities of gas creates excessive pressure that produces a loud noise. Such a combustion is known as an explosion. Combustion need not involve oxygen; e.g., hydrogen burns in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride with the liberation of heat and light characteristic of combustion. Slow Slow combustion is a form of combustion which takes place at low temperatures. Cellular respiration is an example of slow combustion. Complete In complete combustion, the reactant will burn in oxygen, producing a limited number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will only yield carbon dioxide and water. When a hydrocarbon or any fuel burns in air, the combustion products will also include nitrogen. When elements such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and iron are burned, they will yield the most common oxides. Carbon will yield carbon dioxide. Nitrogen will yield nitrogen dioxide. Sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide. Iron will yield iron(III) oxide. It should be noted that complete combustion is almost impossible to achieve. In reality, as actual combustion reactions come to equilibrium, a wide variety of major and minor species will be present. For example, the combustion of methane in air will yield, in addition to the major products of carbon dioxide and water, the minor side reaction products carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. Turbulent Turbulent combustion is a combustion characterized by turbulent flows. It is the most used for industrial application (e.g. gas turbines, gasoline engines, etc.) because the turbulence helps the mixing process between the fuel and oxidizer. Microgravity Nearly every flame behaves differently in a microgravity environment; for example, a candle's flame takes the shape of a sphere http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/shuttle-mir/science/mg/nm21460011.htm . Microgravity combustion research contributes to understanding of spacecraft fire safety and diverse aspects of combustion physics. Incomplete Incomplete combustion occurs when there isn't enough oxygen to allow the fuel (usually a hydrocarbon) to react completely with the oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, also when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink such as a solid surface or flame trap. When a hydrocarbon burns in air, the reaction will yield carbon dioxide, water, carbon monoxide, pure carbon (soot or ash) and various other compounds such as nitrogen oxides. The quality of combustion can be improved by design of combustion devices, such as burners and internal combustion engines. Further improvements are achievable by catalytic after-burning devices (such as catalytic converters) or by the simple partial return of the exhaust gases into the combustion process. Such devices are required by environmental legislation for cars in most countries, and may be necessary in large combustion devices, such as thermal power plants, to reach legal emission standards. The degree of combustion can be measured and analyzed, with test equipment. HVAC contractors, firemen and engineers use combustion analyzers to test the efficiency of a burner during the combustion process. In addition, the efficiency of an internal combustion engine can be measured in this way, and some states and local municipalities are using combustion analysis to define and rate the efficiency of vehicles on the road today. Chemical Equation Generally, the chemical equation for stoichiometric burning of hydrocarbon in oxygen is as follows: For example, the burning of propane is: Generally, the chemical equation for stoichiometric incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon in oxygen is as follows: For example, the incomplete combustion of propane is: The simple word equation for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is: If the combustion takes place using air as the oxygen source, the nitrogen can be added to the equation, although it does not react, to show the composition of the flue gas: For example, the burning of propane is: The simple word equation for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in air is: Nitrogen may also oxidize when there is an excess of oxygen. The reaction is thermodynamically favored only at high temperatures. Diesel engines are run with an excess of oxygen to combust small particles that tend to form with only a stoichiometric amount of oxygen, necessarily producing nitrogen oxide emissions. Both the United States and European Union are planning to impose limits to nitrogen oxide emissions, which necessitate the use of a special catalytic converter or treatment of the exhaust with urea. Fuels Liquid fuels Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapour that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its flash point. The flash point of a liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is also the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion. Solid fuels The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases: Preheating phase, when the unburned fuel is heated up to its flash point and then fire point. Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to dry distillation. Distillation phase or gaseous phase, when the mix of evolved flammable gases with oxygen is ignited. Energy is produced in the form of heat and light. Flames are often visible. Heat transfer from the combustion to the solid maintains the evolution of flammable vapours. Charcoal phase or solid phase, when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low for persistent presence of flame and the charred fuel does not burn rapidly anymore but just glows and later only smoulders. Reaction mechanism Combustion in oxygen is a radical chain reaction where many distinct radical intermediates participate. The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the dioxygen molecule. The lowest-energy configuration of the dioxygen molecule is a stable, relatively unreactive diradical in a triplet spin state. Bonding can be described with three bonding electron pairs and two antibonding electrons, whose spins are aligned, such that the molecule has nonzero total angular momentum. Most fuels, on the other hand, are in a singlet state, with paired spins and zero total angular momentum. Interaction between the two is quantum mechanically a "forbidden transition", i.e. possible with a very low probability. To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or singlet oxygen. This intermediate is extremely reactive. The energy is supplied as heat. The reaction produces heat, which keeps it going. Combustion of hydrocarbons is thought to be initiated by the abstraction of a hydride radical (H) from the fuel to oxygen, to give a hydroperoxide radical (HOO). This reacts further to give hydroperoxides, which break up to give hydroxyl radicals. There are a great variety of these processes that produce fuel radicals and oxidizing radicals. Oxidizing species include singlet oxygen, hydroperoxide, hydroxyl, monatomic oxygen, and hydroperoxyl (OH2). Such intermediates are short-lived and cannot be isolated. However, non-radical intermediates are stable and are produced in incomplete combustion. An example is acetaldehyde produced in the combustion of ethanol. An intermediate in the combustion of carbon and hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, is of special importance because it is a poisonous gas. Solid fuels also undergo a great number of pyrolysis reactions that give more easily oxidized, gaseous fuels. These reactions are endothermic and require constant energy input from the combustion reactions. A lack of oxygen or other poorly designed conditions result in these noxious and carcinogenic pyrolysis products being emitted as thick, black smoke. Temperature Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete combustion under adiabatic conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the first law of thermodynamics and takes note of the fact that the heat of combustion is used entirely for heating the fuel, the combustion air or oxygen, and the combustion product gases (commonly referred to as the flue gas). In the case of fossil fuels burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on all of the following: the heating value; the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio ; the specific heat capacity of fuel and air; the air and fuel inlet temperatures. The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the adiabatic flame temperature) increases for higher heating values and inlet air and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios approaching one. Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around 2200 °C (for inlet air and fuel at ambient temperatures and for ), around 2150 °C for oil and 2000 °C for natural gas. In industrial fired heaters, power plant steam generators, and large gas-fired turbines, the more common way of expressing the usage of more than the stoichiometric combustion air is percent excess combustion air. For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used. Instabilities Combustion instabilities are typically violent pressure oscillations in a combustion chamber. These pressure oscillations can be as high as 180dB, and long term exposure to these cyclic pressure and thermal loads reduces the life of engine components. In rockets, such as the F1 used in the Saturn V program, instabilities led to massive damage of the combustion chamber and surrounding components. This problem was solved by re-designing the fuel injector. In liquid jet engines the droplet size and distribution can be used to attenuate the instabilities. Combustion instabilities are a major concern in ground-based gas turbine engines because of NOx emissions. The tendency is to run lean, an equivalence ratio less than 1, to reduce the combustion temperature and thus reduce the NOx emissions; however, running the combustion lean makes it very susceptible to combustion instabilities. The Rayleigh Criterion is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic combustion instabilities and is evaluated using the Rayleigh Index over one cycle of instability: where q' is the heat release rate and p' is the pressure fluctuation. A. A. Putnam and W. C. Dennis (1953) "Organ-pipe oscillations in a flame-filled tube," Fourth Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, pages 566-574. E. C. Fernandes and M. V. Heitor, “Unsteady flames and the Rayleigh criterion” in F. Culick, M. V. Heitor, and J. H. Whitelaw, ed.s, Unsteady Combustion (Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996), page 4. Available on-line at: http://books.google.com/books?id=Je_hG6UfnogC&printsec=copyright&dq=rayleigh+thermoacoustic+&ie=ISO-8859-1&source=gbs_toc_s&cad=1#PPA4,M1 When the heat release oscillations are in phase with the pressure oscillations, the Rayleigh Index is positive and the magnitude of the thermo acoustic instability increases. On the other hand, if the Rayleigh Index is negative, then thermoacoustic damping occurs. The Rayleigh Criterion implies that a thermoacoustic instability can be optimally controlled by having heat release oscillations 180 degrees out of phase with pressure oscillations at the same frequency. This minimizes the Rayleigh Index. See also Related concepts Dust explosion Air-fuel ratio Deflagration Detonation Fire Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion Flue gas stacks Gas stoichiometry Heat of combustion Phlogiston theory (historical) Pyrolysis Pyrophoric Smouldering Soot Spontaneous combustion Stoichiometry Chemical looping combustion Machines and equipment Boiler Water heater Cyclone furnace External combustion engine Industrial furnaces Gas turbine Internal combustion engine Jet engine Rocket engine Rotary combustion engine Staged combustion cycle (rocket) Measurement techniques Calorimeter Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) Laser Doppler velocimetry Laser-induced fluorescence Particle image velocimetry Thin filament pyrometry Social applications and issues Cooking Cooking oil Global warming Immolation References External links Hydrocarbon combustion Simple applet that illustrates the Chemical equation. Simulation of gas combustion | Combustion |@lemmatized flame:10 cause:1 result:4 fuel:29 undergo:2 combustion:92 burn:10 burning:5 complex:1 sequence:1 exothermic:1 chemical:6 reaction:15 usually:2 hydrocarbon:13 oxidant:2 accompany:1 production:4 heat:23 light:6 form:8 either:1 glow:2 appearance:1 flicker:1 direct:1 atmospheric:1 oxygen:26 mediate:1 radical:11 intermediate:6 condition:4 naturally:1 produce:10 thermal:3 runaway:1 generate:1 necessary:3 maintain:2 high:5 temperature:17 complete:6 compound:5 react:4 oxidize:7 element:4 fluorine:1 product:7 example:10 simple:5 see:2 hydrogen:3 commonly:3 use:12 rocket:4 engine:13 g:3 water:6 vapor:1 large:7 majority:1 real:1 world:1 air:24 source:4 kg:2 lbm:2 mixed:1 approximately:1 nitrogen:15 resultant:2 flue:7 gas:23 contain:1 far:1 part:1 reality:2 process:6 never:1 perfect:2 carbon:16 coal:2 wood:1 etc:2 unburned:2 soot:3 co:1 others:1 present:2 also:8 various:2 oxide:7 nox:3 type:1 rapid:2 amount:2 energy:7 release:4 often:2 fire:5 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carbon_dioxide:5 nitrogen_sulfur:1 nitrogen_dioxide:1 sulfur_dioxide:1 carbon_monoxide:3 gas_turbine:3 gasoline_engine:1 fuel_oxidizer:1 behave_differently:1 microgravity_environment:1 nasa_gov:1 incomplete_combustion:4 catalytic_converter:2 diesel_engine:1 angular_momentum:2 quantum_mechanically:1 singlet_oxygen:2 hydroxyl_radical:1 fossil_fuel:2 ambient_temperature:1 combustion_chamber:2 fuel_injector:1 rayleigh_criterion:3 kluwer_academic:1 id_printsec:1 phlogiston_theory:1 raman_spectroscopy:1 global_warming:1 external_link:1 |
7,579 | Foreign_relations_of_the_Czech_Republic | Until the Velvet Revolution of 1989, the foreign policy of Czechoslovakia had followed that of the Soviet Union. Since the revolution and the subsequent mutually-agreed peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia the Czechs have made integration with Western institutions their chief foreign policy objective. This goal was rapidly met with great success, the nation joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, and as of January 2009 holds the Presidency of the European Union. Participation in international organizations The Czech Republic participates in the United Nations (UN); World Trade Organization (WTO); International Monetary Fund (IMF); Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD); International Energy Agency (IEA); North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the International Whaling Commission. Fundamental to this objective is Czech membership in the European Union. The Czech Republic became a member of the EU in May 2004. This followed signature of the Treaty of Accession with nine other candidate nations in 1993. Although there have been disagreements with established EU member nations over some economic issues, such as agricultural quotas and a recent amendment to the gaming law, relations are good. The Czech Republic is a member of the United Nations and participates in its specialized agencies. It is a member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. It maintains diplomatic relations with more than 85 countries, of which 63 have permanent representation in Prague. The Czech Republic became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, along with Poland and Hungary, on 12 March 1999. This membership represents a milestone in the country's foreign policy and security orientation. Disputes – international Liechtenstein Liechtenstein claims restitution for 1,600 km² (which is ten times the size of Liechtenstein) of land in the Czech Republic confiscated from its princely family in 1918; the Czech Republic insists that the power to claim restitution does not go back before February 1948, when the Communists seized power; Liechtenstein does not diplomatically recognize the Czech Republic, and the Czech Republic in turn does not diplomatically recognize Liechtenstein. Individual Sudeten German claims for restitution of property confiscated in connection with their expulsion after World War II; agreement with Slovakia signed 24 November 1998 resolves issues of redistribution of former Czechoslovak federal land. Placement of US National Missile Defense base In February 2007, the US started formal negotiations with Czech Republic and Poland concerning construction of missile shield installations in those countries for a Ground-Based Midcourse Defense System. Europe diary: Missile defence, BBC News Government of the Czech Republic agrees (while 67% Czechs disagree and only about 22% support it Citizens on U.S. Anti-Missile Radar Base in Czech Republic ) to host a missile defense radar on its territory while a base of missile interceptors is supposed to be built in Poland. The objective is reportedly to protect another parts of US National Missile Defense from long-range missile strikes from Iran and Northern Korea, but Czech PM Mirek Topolánek said the main reason is to avoid Russian influence and strengthen ties to US . The main government supporter Alexandr Vondra, Deputy Prime Minister for European affairs, used to be an ambassador to the USA. More problematic is that between 2004–2006 he was an executive director of a lobbying company Dutko Worldwide Prague. Dutko's and its strategic partner AMI Communications (PR company owned by ODS members) customers are Boeing, Lockheed Martin, Nortrop Grumman, which are largest contractors for NMD development. AMI Communications also received (without a formal selection procedure) an government contract to persuade Czechs to support US radar base. Other events On September 20, 2008, the Czech Republic's ambassador to Pakistan, Ivo Žďárek, was killed in a deadly blast at the Marriott Hotel in Islamabad. Czech ambassador confirmed dead in blast Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Armenia – Czech Republic relationsSee Australia – Czech Republic relationsSee Austria – Czech Republic relationsSee Azerbaijan – Czech Republic relationsSee Belarus – Czech Republic relationsSee Belgium – Czech Republic relationsSee Bosnia and Herzegovina – Czech Republic relationsSee Brazilian-Czech relationsSee Bulgaria – Czech Republic relationsSee Canada – Czech Republic relationsSee Colombia – Czech Republic relationsSee Croatia – Czech Republic relationsSee Cyprus – Czech Republic relationsSee Czech Republic – Denmark relationsSee Czech Republic – Estonia relationsSee Czech Republic – Finland relationsSee Czech Republic – France relationsSee Czech Republic – Georgia relationsSee Czech Republic – Hungary relationsSee Czech Republic – Iceland relationsSee Czech Republic – Iran relationsSee Czech Republic – Iraq relationsSee Czech Republic – Ireland relationsSee Czech Republic – Israel relationsSee Czech Republic – Italy relationsSee Czech Republic – Japan relationsSee Czech Republic – Kazakhstan relations2008See Czech Republic – Kosovo relationsSee Czech Republic – Latvia relationsSee Czech Republic – Libya relationsSee Czech Republic – Lithuania relationsSee Czech Republic – Luxembourg relationsSee Czech Republic – Malta relationsSee Czech Republic – Mexico relations 1992See Czech Republic – Mongolia relations After the 1992 dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Mongolia reaffirmed its relations with the newly formed Czech Republic in 1993. The Embassy of the Czech Republic in Ulaanbaatar was formally reopened in 1999. See Czech Republic – Netherlands relationsSee Czech Republic – Pakistan relationsSee Poland – Czech Republic relationsSee Czech Republic – Romania relationsSee Czech Republic – Russia relationsSee Czech Republic – Serbia relationsSee Czech Republic – Slovakia relationsSee Czech Republic – South Korea relationsSee Czech Republic – Ukraine relationsSee Czech Republic – United Kingdom relationsSee Czech Republic – United States relationsSee Czech Republic–United States relationsSee Czech Republic – Uruguay relations Footnotes See also Czech Republic Czech diplomatic missions External links Legal Conditions - Acquisition of real estates in the Czech Republic Concept of foreign policy of the Czech Republic Current Tax System in the Czech Republic Czech Tax system | Foreign_relations_of_the_Czech_Republic |@lemmatized velvet:1 revolution:2 foreign:4 policy:4 czechoslovakia:3 follow:1 soviet:1 union:4 since:1 subsequent:1 mutually:1 agree:1 peaceful:1 dissolution:2 czech:73 make:1 integration:1 western:1 institution:1 chief:1 objective:3 goal:1 rapidly:1 meet:1 great:1 success:1 nation:5 join:1 nato:2 european:4 january:1 hold:1 presidency:1 participation:1 international:5 organization:3 republic:65 participates:2 united:5 un:1 world:2 trade:2 wto:1 monetary:1 fund:1 imf:1 organisation:2 economic:2 co:1 operation:1 development:2 oecd:1 energy:1 agency:2 iea:1 north:2 atlantic:2 treaty:3 whaling:1 commission:1 fundamental:1 membership:2 become:2 member:6 eu:2 may:1 followed:1 signature:1 accession:1 nine:1 candidate:1 although:1 disagreement:1 establish:1 issue:2 agricultural:1 quota:1 recent:1 amendment:1 gaming:1 law:1 relation:8 good:1 specialized:1 general:1 agreement:2 tariff:1 maintain:1 diplomatic:2 country:5 permanent:1 representation:1 prague:2 along:1 poland:4 hungary:2 march:1 represent:1 milestone:1 security:1 orientation:1 dispute:1 liechtenstein:5 claim:3 restitution:3 ten:1 time:1 size:1 land:2 confiscate:2 princely:1 family:1 insist:1 power:2 go:1 back:1 february:2 communist:1 seize:1 diplomatically:2 recognize:2 turn:1 individual:1 sudeten:1 german:1 property:1 connection:1 expulsion:1 war:1 ii:1 slovakia:2 sign:1 november:1 resolve:1 redistribution:1 former:1 czechoslovak:1 federal:1 placement:1 u:6 national:2 missile:8 defense:4 base:5 start:1 formal:3 negotiation:1 concern:1 construction:1 shield:1 installation:1 ground:1 midcourse:1 system:3 europe:1 diary:1 defence:1 bbc:1 news:1 government:3 agrees:1 czechs:1 disagree:1 support:2 citizens:1 anti:1 radar:3 host:1 territory:1 interceptor:1 suppose:1 build:1 reportedly:1 protect:1 another:1 part:1 long:1 range:1 strike:1 iran:2 northern:1 korea:2 pm:1 mirek:1 topolánek:1 say:1 main:2 reason:1 avoid:1 russian:1 influence:1 strengthen:1 tie:1 supporter:1 alexandr:1 vondra:1 deputy:1 prime:1 minister:1 affair:1 use:1 ambassador:3 usa:1 problematic:1 executive:1 director:1 lobbying:1 company:2 dutko:2 worldwide:1 strategic:1 partner:1 ami:2 communication:2 pr:1 od:1 customer:1 boeing:1 lockheed:1 martin:1 nortrop:1 grumman:1 large:1 contractor:1 nmd:1 also:2 receive:1 without:1 selection:1 procedure:1 contract:1 persuade:1 event:1 september:1 pakistan:2 ivo:1 žďárek:1 kill:1 deadly:1 blast:2 marriott:1 hotel:1 islamabad:1 confirm:1 dead:1 begannotessee:1 armenia:1 relationssee:44 australia:1 austria:1 azerbaijan:1 belarus:1 belgium:1 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 brazilian:1 bulgaria:1 canada:1 colombia:1 croatia:1 cyprus:1 denmark:1 estonia:1 finland:1 france:1 georgia:1 iceland:1 iraq:1 ireland:1 israel:1 italy:1 japan:1 kazakhstan:1 kosovo:1 latvia:1 libya:1 lithuania:1 luxembourg:1 malta:1 mexico:1 mongolia:2 reaffirm:1 newly:1 form:1 embassy:1 ulaanbaatar:1 formally:1 reopen:1 see:2 netherlands:1 romania:1 russia:1 serbia:1 south:1 ukraine:1 kingdom:1 state:2 uruguay:1 footnote:1 mission:1 external:1 link:1 legal:1 condition:1 acquisition:1 real:1 estate:1 concept:1 current:1 tax:2 |@bigram soviet_union:1 dissolution_czechoslovakia:2 czech_republic:65 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 diplomatic_relation:1 prague_czech:1 sudeten_german:1 bbc_news:1 prime_minister:1 lockheed_martin:1 marriott_hotel:1 bosnia_herzegovina:1 relationssee_colombia:1 relationssee_cyprus:1 relationssee_czech:31 estonia_relationssee:1 latvia_relationssee:1 lithuania_relationssee:1 luxembourg_relationssee:1 romania_relationssee:1 slovakia_relationssee:1 ukraine_relationssee:1 diplomatic_mission:1 external_link:1 real_estate:1 |
7,580 | James_Tobin | James Tobin (March 5, 1918 March 11, 2002) was an American economist who in his lifetime, had served on the Council of Economic Advisors, the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, and had taught at Harvard and Yale Universities. He developed the ideas of Keynesian economics, and advocated government intervention to stabilize output and avoid recessions. His academic work included pioneering contributions to the study of investment, monetary and fiscal policy and financial markets. He also proposed an econometric model for censored endogenous variables, the well known "Tobit model". Tobin received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1981. Outside of academia, Tobin was widely known for his suggestion of a tax on foreign exchange transactions, now known as the "Tobin tax". This was designed to reduce speculation in the international currency markets, which he saw as dangerous and unproductive. He suggested that the proceeds of the tax could be used to fund projects for the benefit of Third World countries, or to support the United Nations. Biography Early life James Tobin Tobin, James. "Autobiography", published in Nobel Lectures. Economics 1981-1990, Editor Karl-Göran Mäler, World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, 1992 was born on March 5, 1918 in Champaign, Illinois. His parents were Louis Michael Tobin, (b.1899) a journalist working at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign who fought in World War I, and Margaret Edgerton Tobin, (b.1893) a social worker. Tobin followed primary school at the University Laboratory High School of Urbana, Illinois, a laboratory school in the university's campus. In 1935, on his father's advice, Tobin took the entrance exams for Harvard University. Despite no special preparation for the exams, he passed and was admitted with a national scholarship from the university. During his studies he first read Keynes' General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936. Tobin graduated summa cum laude in 1939 with a thesis centered on a critical analysis of Keynes' mechanism for introducing equilibrium "involuntary" unemployment. His first published article, in 1941, was based on this senior's thesis. Solow, Robert. (2004). "James Tobin", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society vol. 148, no. 3 Tobin immediately started graduate studies, also at Harvard, earning his M.A. degree in 1940. Here he had among his professors Joseph Schumpeter, Alvin Hansen, Gottfried Haberler, Sumner Slichter, Seymour Harris, Edward Mason, Edward Chamberlin, and Wassily Leontief, while the graduate students included Paul Samuelson, Lloyd Metzler, John Kenneth Galbraith, Abram Bergson, Richard Musgrave and Richard M. Goodwin. In 1941, he interrupted graduate studies to work for the Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply and the War Production Board in Washington, D.C.. The next year, after the United States entered World War II, he enrolled in the US Navy, spending the war as an officer on a destroyer. At the end of the war he returned to Harvard and resumed studies, receiving his Ph.D. in 1947 with a thesis on the consumption function written under the supervision of Joseph Schumpeter. James Tobin, "James Tobin" in Lives of the Laureates, Seven Nobel Economists, Edited by William Breit and Roger W. Spencer, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, 1986 In 1947 Tobin was elected a Junior Fellow of Harvard's Society of Fellows, which allowed him the freedom and funding to spend the next three years studying and doing research. Academic activity and consultancy In 1950 Tobin moved to Yale University, where he remained for the rest of his career. He joined the Cowles Foundation, which moved to Yale in 1955, also serving as its president between 1955-1961 and 1964-1965. His main research interest was to provide microfoundations to Keynesian economics, with a special focus on monetary economics. In 1957 he was appointed Sterling Professor at Yale. Besides teaching and research, Tobin was also strongly involved in the public life, writing on current economic issues and serving as an economic expert and policy consultant. During 1961-62, he served as a member of John F. Kennedy's Council of Economic Advisors, under the chairman Walter Heller, then acted as a consultant between 1962-68. Here, in close collaboration with Arthur Okun, Robert Solow and Kenneth Arrow, he helped design the Keynesian economic policy implemented by the Kennedy administration. Tobin also served for several terms as a member of the Board of Governors of Federal Reserve System Academic Consultants and as a consultant of the US Treasury Department. James Tobin's CV at the Cowles Foundation's website Tobin was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal in 1955 and, in 1981, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics. He was a fellow of several professional associations, holding the position of president of the American Economic Association in 1971. In 1972 Tobin, along with fellow Yale economics professor William Nordhaus, published Is Growth Obsolete? Nordhaus, W. and J. Tobin, 1972. Is growth obsolete?. Columbia University Press, New York. , an article that introduced the Measure of Economic Welfare as the first model for economic sustainability assessment. In 1988 Tobin formally retired from Yale, but continued to deliver some lectures as Professor Emeritus and continued to write. He died on March 11, 2002, in New Haven, Connecticut. Tobin was a trustee of the Economists for Peace and Security. Economists for Peace and Security History: James Tobin among founding Nobel laureates Personal life James Tobin married Elizabeth Fay Ringo, a former M.I.T. student of Paul Samuelson, on September 14, 1946. They had four children: Margaret Ringo (born in 1948), Louis Michael (born in 1951), Hugh Ringo (born in 1953) and Roger Gill (born in 1956). Publications Tobin, James and William C. Brainard (1977). "Asset Markets and the Cost of Capital". In Richard Nelson and Bela Balassa, eds., Economic Progress: Private Values and Public Policy (Essays in Honor of William Fellner), Amsterdam: North-Holland, 235-62. See also Guaranteed minimum income Q Ratio (Tobin's Q ratio) Tobit model (Tobin's model for censored endogenous variables) Basic income References External links James Tobin at the Nobel Foundation e-Museum James Tobin at the Cowles Foundation site James Tobin at the HET site Short biography at nobel-winners.com IDEAS/RePEc | James_Tobin |@lemmatized james:11 tobin:33 march:4 american:3 economist:4 lifetime:1 serve:5 council:2 economic:10 advisor:2 board:3 governor:2 federal:2 reserve:2 system:2 teach:2 harvard:5 yale:6 university:8 develop:1 idea:2 keynesian:3 economics:6 advocated:1 government:1 intervention:1 stabilize:1 output:1 avoid:1 recession:1 academic:3 work:3 include:2 pioneering:1 contribution:1 study:6 investment:1 monetary:2 fiscal:1 policy:4 financial:1 market:3 also:6 propose:1 econometric:1 model:5 censor:2 endogenous:2 variable:2 well:1 know:3 tobit:2 receive:2 nobel:7 memorial:2 prize:2 science:1 outside:1 academia:1 widely:1 suggestion:1 tax:3 foreign:1 exchange:1 transaction:1 design:2 reduce:1 speculation:1 international:1 currency:1 saw:1 dangerous:1 unproductive:1 suggest:1 proceeds:1 could:1 use:1 fund:1 project:1 benefit:1 third:1 world:4 country:1 support:1 united:2 nation:1 biography:2 early:1 life:4 autobiography:1 publish:4 lecture:2 editor:1 karl:1 göran:1 mäler:1 scientific:1 publishing:1 co:1 singapore:1 bear:5 champaign:2 illinois:3 parent:1 louis:2 michael:2 b:2 journalist:1 urbana:2 fight:1 war:5 margaret:2 edgerton:1 social:1 worker:1 follow:1 primary:1 school:3 laboratory:2 high:1 campus:1 father:1 advice:1 take:1 entrance:1 exam:2 despite:1 special:2 preparation:1 pass:1 admit:1 national:1 scholarship:1 first:3 read:1 keynes:2 general:1 theory:1 employment:1 interest:2 money:1 graduate:4 summa:1 cum:1 laude:1 thesis:3 center:1 critical:1 analysis:1 mechanism:1 introduce:2 equilibrium:1 involuntary:1 unemployment:1 article:2 base:1 senior:1 solow:2 robert:2 jam:2 proceeding:1 philosophical:1 society:2 vol:1 immediately:1 start:1 earn:1 degree:1 among:2 professor:4 joseph:2 schumpeter:2 alvin:1 hansen:1 gottfried:1 haberler:1 sumner:1 slichter:1 seymour:1 harris:1 edward:2 mason:1 chamberlin:1 wassily:1 leontief:1 student:2 paul:2 samuelson:2 lloyd:1 metzler:1 john:3 kenneth:2 galbraith:1 abram:1 bergson:1 richard:3 musgrave:1 goodwin:1 interrupt:1 office:1 price:1 administration:2 civilian:1 supply:1 production:1 washington:1 c:2 next:2 year:2 state:1 enter:1 ii:1 enrol:1 u:2 navy:1 spend:2 officer:1 destroyer:1 end:1 return:1 resume:1 ph:1 consumption:1 function:1 write:3 supervision:1 laureate:1 seven:1 edit:1 william:4 breit:1 roger:2 w:2 spencer:1 mit:1 press:2 cambridge:1 massachusetts:1 london:1 england:1 elect:1 junior:1 fellow:4 allow:1 freedom:1 funding:1 three:1 research:3 activity:1 consultancy:1 move:2 remain:1 rest:1 career:1 join:1 cowles:3 foundation:4 president:2 main:1 provide:1 microfoundations:1 focus:1 appoint:1 sterling:1 besides:1 strongly:1 involve:1 public:2 current:1 issue:1 expert:1 consultant:4 member:2 f:1 kennedy:2 chairman:1 walter:1 heller:1 act:1 close:1 collaboration:1 arthur:1 okun:1 arrow:1 help:1 implement:1 several:2 term:1 treasury:1 department:1 cv:1 website:1 award:1 bat:1 clark:1 medal:1 professional:1 association:2 hold:1 position:1 along:1 nordhaus:2 growth:2 obsolete:2 j:1 columbia:1 new:2 york:1 measure:1 welfare:1 sustainability:1 assessment:1 formally:1 retire:1 continue:2 deliver:1 emeritus:1 die:1 connecticut:1 trustee:1 peace:2 security:2 history:1 found:1 laureates:1 personal:1 married:1 elizabeth:1 fay:1 ringo:3 former:1 september:1 four:1 child:1 hugh:1 gill:1 publication:1 brainard:1 asset:1 cost:1 capital:1 nelson:1 bela:1 balassa:1 eds:1 progress:1 private:1 value:1 essay:1 honor:1 fellner:1 amsterdam:1 north:1 holland:1 see:1 guarantee:1 minimum:1 income:2 q:2 ratio:2 basic:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 e:1 museum:1 site:2 het:1 short:1 winner:1 com:1 repec:1 |@bigram keynesian_economics:2 monetary_fiscal:1 illinois_urbana:1 urbana_champaign:1 entrance_exam:1 summa_cum:1 cum_laude:1 joseph_schumpeter:2 paul_samuelson:2 kenneth_galbraith:1 ph_thesis:1 william_nordhaus:1 professor_emeritus:1 nobel_laureates:1 external_link:1 idea_repec:1 |
7,581 | Kid_Icarus | For the title character, see Pit. For the series as a whole, see Kid Icarus (series). For the band, see Kid Icarus (band). is a platforming video game developed by Nintendo R&D1 and published by Nintendo for the Famicom Disk System in 1986 and the Nintendo Entertainment System in 1987. It is the first game in the Kid Icarus series, the second being Kid Icarus: Of Myths and Monsters. Another sequel for the SNES, Kid Icarus 2, was never released. The game world is loosely based on Greek mythology, with Icarus and Medusa being drawn from myth. Kid Icarus has been re-released twice: on August 10, 2004, for the Game Boy Advance as part of the Famicom Mini Series in Japan only, and on February 12, 2007, on the Wii's Virtual Console in North America. It was released on the European and Australian Virtual Consoles on February 23, 2007. Gameplay Kid Icarus uses the same game engine as Metroid (which was released the same year). It even includes a Metroid enemy, though it is called "Komayto" in Kid Icarus. The game manual theorizes that Komayto may have come from another planet. p. 19; "One theory has it that it came from a planet other than the Earth." In volume 204 of Nintendo Power, an article was written about the game describing it as blending together elements from The Legend of Zelda, Super Mario Bros., and Metroid, stating that Pit can "jump like Mario, collect items like Link, and shoot enemies like Samus." Plot In a time where humans and gods coexisted in harmony, the kingdom of Angel Land was ruled by two goddesses, Palutena the Goddess of Light and Medusa the Goddess of Darkness. While Palutena administered the light and helped the mortals cultivate their crops, Medusa despised the mortals and used the darkness to destroy their crops and turn the mortals into stone. Enraged, Palutena transformed Medusa into a hideous monster and banished her into the dark Underworld. But Medusa would not go quietly. She assembled an army of monsters and evil spirits of the underworld to conquer Palutena's palace, The Palace in the Sky. War erupted and Medusa's minions overwhelmed Palutena's army, eventually imprisoning the Goddess of Light. Medusa then seized the Three Sacred Treasures—the Mirror Shield, the Arrow of Light, and the Wings of Pegasus—and gave them to her most powerful minions. Defeated and imprisoned, Palutena's only hope was to seek the help of Pit, a young angel trapped in the Underworld. Using the last of her strength, she sent Pit a magical bow. Thus, Pit set out on a quest to escape the Underworld, retrieve the Sacred Treasures that would help him defeat Medusa, and rescue Palutena and restore peace to Angel Land. In the end Pit retrieved these three treasures and battled Medusa. Having won, Pit traveled back to Angel Land to find the newly restored Palutena bestow on him armor (perhaps raising his rank). However, if the secret ending is reached, Pit will be turned older (teenage years) and afterwards receive a kiss of gratitude from Palutena. Development The original Famicom Disk System versions feature save slots, unlike the North American version which uses a password system (known in-game as "Sacred Words"). As with Metroid, the FDS version of Kid Icarus also features higher quality music and sound effects that take advantage of the system's additional sound channels. See below. Kid Icarus was produced by Gunpei Yokoi and the music was composed by Hirokazu Tanaka. "Transcription of game's credits". The Kid Icarus Coliseum. Retrieved 27 January 2005. Reception Despite being overshadowed by Metroid, Kid Icarus is regularly recognized as a high quality game. It was awarded the 84th slot in IGN's 2003 list of the Top 100 Games of All Time "IGN's Top 100 Games of All Time (81–90)". IGN. 29 April 2003. Retrieved 24 May 2006. and was also inducted into the GameSpy Hall of Fame. Cassidy, William. "Like its mythological namesake, Kid Icarus's time in the sun was entirely too brief". GameSpy. 14 September 2003. Retrieved 24 May 2006. In Volume 199 of Nintendo Power, it was voted number 54 in a list of the top 200 Nintendo games of all time. . The protagonist of the game, Pit, was included in Super Smash Bros. Brawl on the Wii. The game was also mentioned in the 2008 Jason Mraz song entitled "The Dynamo of Volition". References External links | Kid_Icarus |@lemmatized title:1 character:1 see:4 pit:9 series:4 whole:1 kid:13 icarus:14 band:2 platforming:1 video:1 game:15 develop:1 nintendo:6 r:1 publish:1 famicom:3 disk:2 system:5 entertainment:1 first:1 second:1 myth:2 monster:3 another:2 sequel:1 snes:1 never:1 release:4 world:1 loosely:1 base:1 greek:1 mythology:1 medusa:9 draw:1 twice:1 august:1 boy:1 advance:1 part:1 mini:1 japan:1 february:2 wii:2 virtual:2 console:2 north:2 america:1 european:1 australian:1 gameplay:1 use:4 engine:1 metroid:5 year:2 even:1 include:2 enemy:2 though:1 call:1 komayto:2 manual:1 theorize:1 may:3 come:2 planet:2 p:1 one:1 theory:1 earth:1 volume:2 power:2 article:1 write:1 describe:1 blend:1 together:1 element:1 legend:1 zelda:1 super:2 mario:2 bros:2 state:1 jump:1 like:4 collect:1 item:1 link:2 shoot:1 samus:1 plot:1 time:5 human:1 god:1 coexist:1 harmony:1 kingdom:1 angel:4 land:3 rule:1 two:1 goddess:4 palutena:9 light:4 darkness:2 administer:1 help:3 mortal:3 cultivate:1 crop:2 despise:1 destroy:1 turn:2 stone:1 enrage:1 transform:1 hideous:1 banish:1 dark:1 underworld:4 would:2 go:1 quietly:1 assemble:1 army:2 evil:1 spirit:1 conquer:1 palace:2 sky:1 war:1 erupt:1 minion:2 overwhelm:1 eventually:1 imprison:2 seize:1 three:2 sacred:3 treasure:3 mirror:1 shield:1 arrow:1 wing:1 pegasus:1 give:1 powerful:1 defeat:2 hope:1 seek:1 young:1 trap:1 last:1 strength:1 send:1 magical:1 bow:1 thus:1 set:1 quest:1 escape:1 retrieve:5 rescue:1 restore:2 peace:1 end:2 battle:1 win:1 travel:1 back:1 find:1 newly:1 bestow:1 armor:1 perhaps:1 raise:1 rank:1 however:1 secret:1 reach:1 old:1 teenage:1 afterwards:1 receive:1 kiss:1 gratitude:1 development:1 original:1 version:3 feature:2 save:1 slot:2 unlike:1 american:1 password:1 know:1 word:1 fds:1 also:3 high:2 quality:2 music:2 sound:2 effect:1 take:1 advantage:1 additional:1 channel:1 produce:1 gunpei:1 yokoi:1 compose:1 hirokazu:1 tanaka:1 transcription:1 credit:1 coliseum:1 january:1 reception:1 despite:1 overshadow:1 regularly:1 recognize:1 award:1 ign:3 list:2 top:3 april:1 induct:1 gamespy:2 hall:1 fame:1 cassidy:1 william:1 mythological:1 namesake:1 sun:1 entirely:1 brief:1 september:1 vote:1 number:1 protagonist:1 smash:1 brawl:1 mention:1 jason:1 mraz:1 song:1 entitle:1 dynamo:1 volition:1 reference:1 external:1 |@bigram kid_icarus:13 nintendo_famicom:1 famicom_disk:2 nintendo_entertainment:1 legend_zelda:1 super_mario:1 mario_bros:1 gunpei_yokoi:1 hall_fame:1 smash_bros:1 external_link:1 |
7,582 | Goths | The Mausoleum of Theodoric in Ravenna. The Goths (Gothic: gutans, Gutans) were a heterogeneous East Germanic tribe. Originating in semi-legendary Scandza, believed to be somewhere in modern Götaland, Sweden, a Gothic population had crossed the Baltic Sea before the 2nd century, lending their name to the region of Gothiscandza, believed to be the lower Vistula region in modern Pomerelia, Poland. The archaeological Wielbark (Willenberg) culture is associated with the arrival of the Goths and their subsequent agglomeration with the indigeneous population. From the mid-2nd century onward, groups of these Goths started migrating to the Southeast along the Vistula river, reaching Scythia at the coast of the Black Sea in modern Ukraine where they left their archaeological traces in the Chernyakhov culture. Throughout the 3rd and 4th centuries, the Scythian Goths were divided into at least two distinct entities, the Thervingi and the Greuthungi, divided by the Dnestr river. They repeatedly harried the Roman Empire during the Gothic Wars and later adopted Arian Christianity. In the late 4th century, the Huns invaded the Gothic reign from the east. While many Goths were subdued and integrated into the Hunnic Empire, others were pushed toward the Roman one. In the 5th and 6th centuries, divided as the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, they established powerful successor-states of the Roman Empire in the Iberian peninsula and Italy. The Goths were converted to Christianity by the Arian (half-)Gothic missionary, Wulfila, who then found it necessary to leave Gothic country for Moesia, (later the vicinity of Bulgaria) with his congregation, where he translated the Bible into Gothic, devising a script for this purpose. Although for a time masters of Italy and Iberia, the Goths were defeated by the forces of Justinian I in a final effort to restore the Roman Empire. Subsequently they were struck by the Vandals and the Lombards. Prolonged contact with the Roman population of the former Empire ultimately led to conversion to Catholicism; Reccared, late 6th century king of Gothic Iberia, became Catholic with the remainder of the yet unconverted Goths. Assimilation of the Goths accelerated when the last of them were defeated by the Moors in the early 8th century. The language and culture disappeared except for fragments in other cultures. In the 16th century a small remnant of Ostrogoths may have turned up in the Crimea, Bradley (1899) page 364. but this identification is not certain. Etymology Götaland, south Sweden, a possible original homeland of the Goths. The Goths have had many names and have acquired population from many ethnic sources. People under similar names were key elements of the Germanic migrations. Nevertheless they believed, and this belief is supported by the mainstream of scholarship, Wolfram (1988) pages 19-35. that the names derived from a single prehistoric ethnonym owned by a uniform culture of south Scandinavia in the mid-first millennium BC, the original "Goths". People of a modern form of that name still live there. Etymologically the oldest (300 BC) ethnonym for the Goths, "Guton-", Guton- is apparent in Gutones, which appears "in Pytheas cited by Pliny." derives from the same root as that of the Gotlanders ("Gutar"): the Proto-Germanic *Gutaniz. Related, but not the same, is the Scandinavian tribal name Geat, from the Proto-Germanic *Gautoz (plural *Gautaz). Both *Gautoz and *Gutaniz are derived (specifically they are two ablaut grades) from the Proto-Germanic word *geutan, meaning "to pour". Compare the modern Swedish gjuta, modern Dutch gieten, modern German gießen, Gothic giutan, old Scandinavian giota, old English geotan all cognate with Latin fondere "to pour" and old Greek cheo "I pour". The Indo-European root of the pour derivation would be *gheu-d- as it is listed in the American Heritage Dictionary (AHD). *gheu-d- is a centum form. The AHD relies on Julius Pokorny for the same root. Page 447. Thus, the Gothic tribes may be designated as "pourers of semen", i.e. "men, people". Andersson (1996). Another theory connects the people with the name of a river flowing through Västergötland in Sweden, the Göta älv, which drains Lake Vänern into the Kattegat. Wolfram (1988) page 21. Old Norse records do not separate the Goths from the Gutar (Gotlanders) and both are called Gotar in Old West Norse. The Old East Norse term for both Goths and Gotlanders seems to have been Gutar (for instance in the Gutasaga and in the runic inscription of the Rökstone). However the Geats are clearly distinguished from the Goths/Gutar in both Old Norse and Old English literature. At some time in European prehistory, consonant changes according to Grimm's Law created a *g from the *gh and a *t from the *d. This same law more or less rules out *ghedh-, The *dh in that case would become a *d instead of a *t. According to the rules of Indo-European ablaut, the full grade (containing an *e), *gheud-, might be replaced with the zero-grade (the *e disappears), *ghud-, or the o-grade (the *e changes to an *o), *ghoud-, accounting for the various forms of the name. The zero-grade is preserved in modern times in the Lithuanian ethnonym for Belarusians, Gudai (earlier Baltic Prussian territory before Slavic conquests by about 1200 AD), and in certain Prussian towns in the territory around the Vistula River in Gothiscandza, (today Poland (Gdynia, Gdansk). The use of all three grades suggests that the name derives from an Indo-European stage; otherwise, it would be from a line descending from one grade. However, when and where the ancestors of the Goths assigned this name to themselves and whether they used it in Indo-European or proto-Germanic times remain unsolved questions of historical linguistics and prehistoric archaeology. A compound name, Gut-þiuda, at root the "Gothic people", appears in the Gothic Calendar (aikklesjons fullaizos ana gutþiudai gabrannidai). Parallel occurrences indicate that it may mean "country of the Goths": Old Icelandic Sui-þjòd, "Sweden"; Old English Angel-þēod, "Anglia"; Old Irish Cruithen-tuath, "country of the Picts.. Evidently this way of forming a country- or people-name is not unique to Germanic. Gapt, an early Gothic hero, recorded by Jordanes, is generally regarded as a corruption of Gaut. Early records at the Baltic Sea Written sources - Tacitus, Jordanes and Pliny The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117-38), showing the location of the Gothones East Germanic group, then inhabiting the east bank of the Visula (Vistula) river, Poland Tacitus characterized the Goths as well as the neighboring Rugii and Lemovii saying they carried round shields and short swords, and obeyed their regular authority. The Works of Tacitus: The Oxford Translation, Revised, With Notes, BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2008, p.836, ISBN 0559473354 J. B. Rives on Tacitus, Germania, Oxford University Press, 1999, p.311, ISBN 0198150504 According to Jordanes' Getica, written in retrospect in the mid-6th century, the earliest migrating Goths sailed from Scandza under King Berig Jordanes 25. in three ships Jordanes 94. and named the place at which they landed after themselves. Today, says Jordanes, it is called Gothiscandza ("Scandza of the Goths"). Jordanes 26. From there they entered the land of the "Ulmerugi" (Rugii), who were spread along southern coast of Baltic Sea, expelled them, Johannes Hoops, Herbert Jankuhn, Heinrich Beck, Dieter Geuenich, Heiko Steuer, Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde, 2nd edition, Walter de Gruyter, 2004, pp.452ff, ISBN 3110177331 , and also subdued the Vandals, their neighbours. As for the location of Gothiscandza, Jordanes says Jordanes 96. that one shipload "dwelled in the province of Spesis on an island surrounded by the shallow waters of the Vistula." Today's Gdansk, a large city, is at the mouth of the Vistula, but the terrain has changed due to the deposition of mud. The origin of the city remains undetermined. The name is generally conceded to be from "Goth" but not necessarily from Gothiscandza. That this is a legend of the origin of Gdansk cannot be ruled out. Independent confirmation of Jordanes' account in some cases itself needs confirmation: specifically the passage attributed by Pliny Book 37, Chapter 11. to the voyager Pytheas, in which the latter states that the "Gutones, a people of Germany," inhabit the shores of an estuary of at least 6,000 stadia (the Baltic Sea) called Mentonomon, where amber is cast up by the waves. Lehmann (mentioned above under Etymology) accepted this view but a manuscript variant states Guiones rather than Gutones. As Pytheas did mention the Teutones in the same passage it securely dates them to 300 BC. No other trace of Guiones has even been found. In Pliny's only other mention of the Gutones Book 4, Chapter 13. he says that the Vandals are one of the five races of Germany, and that the Vandals include the Burgodiones, the Varinnae, the Charini and the Gutones. The location of those Vandals is not stated, but there is a match with his contemporary Ptolemy's east German tribes. Book II, Chapter 10. As those Gutones are put forward as Pliny's interpretation, not Pytheas', the early date is unconfirmed, but not necessarily invalid. Archaeological records - Wielbark Culture The dark pink area is the island of Gotland. The green area is the traditional extent of Götaland. The red area is the extent of the Wielbark culture in the early 3rd century, and the orange area is the Chernyakhov culture, in the early 4th century. The purple area is the Roman Empire Germaniae veteris typus (Old Germany.), Aestui, Venedi, Gythones and Ingaevones on the right upper corner of the map Edited by Willem and Joan Blaeu), 1645. The earliest material culture identified with the Goths at the southern coast of the Baltic Sea is the Wielbark, also Willenberg culture, The Goths in Greater Poland centered around the modern region of Pomerelia in northern Poland. This culture replaced the local Oksywie, also Oxhöft culture in the 1st century. The replacement happened when a Scandinavian settlement was established in a buffer zone between the Oksywie culture and the Przeworsk culture. Andrzej Kokowski 1999 (ISBN 83-907341-8-4) However, as early as the late Nordic Bronze Age and early Pre-Roman Iron Age (ca 1300 BC–ca 300 BC), this area had influences from southern Scandinavia. Gothic Connections In fact, the Scandinavian influence on Pomerania and today's northern Poland from ca 1300 BC (period III) and onwards was so considerable that this region is sometimes included in the Nordic Bronze Age culture. Dabrowski 1989:73 During the period ca 600 BC–ca 300 BC the warm and dry climate of southern Scandinavia deteriorated considerably, which not only dramatically changed the flora, but forced people to change their way of living and to leave settlements. The Goths are believed to have crossed the Baltic Sea sometime between the end of this period, ca 300 BC, and 100. According to earlier research, in the traditional Swedish province of Östergötland, archaeological evidence shows that there was a general depopulation during this period. Oxenstierna 1945 However, this is not confirmed in the more recent publications. Kaliff 2001 The settlement in today's Poland probably corresponds to the introduction of Scandinavian burial traditions, such as the stone circles and the stelae, especially common on the island of Gotland and other parts of southern Sweden, which indicates that the early Goths preferred to bury their dead according to Scandinavian traditions. The Polish archaeologist Tomasz Skorupka states that a migration from Scandinavia is regarded as a matter of certainty: "Despite many controversial hypotheses regarding the location of Scandia (for example, in the island of Gotland and the provinces of Västergötland and Östergötland), the fact that the Goths arrived on today's Polish land from the North after crossing the Baltic Sea by boats is certain." However, the Gothic culture also appears to have had continuity from earlier cultures in the area, suggesting that the immigrants mixed with earlier populations, perhaps providing their separate aristocracy. The Oxford scholar Heather suggests that it was a relatively small migration from Scandinavia. Heather 1996:25. This scenario would make their migration across the Baltic similar to many other population movements in history, such as the Anglo-Saxon Invasion, where, according to some theories, migrants have imposed their own culture and language on an indigenous one. Migration to the Black Sea Written sources - Jordanes According to Jordanes' Getica, written in retrospect in the mid-6th century, under their 5th king, Filimer, son of Gadaric, the Goths entered Oium, a land of bogs, part of Scythia, Jordanes 27. defeated the Spali and moved to the vicinity of the Black Sea. Jordanes 28. There they became divided into the Visigoths ruled by the Balthi family and the Ostrogoths ruled by the Amali family. Jordanes 42. Ostrogoths means "eastern Goths" and Visigoths means "Goths of the western country." Jordanes 82. Archaeological records - Chernyakhov culture The Willenberg/Wielbark culture shifted south-eastwards towards the Black Sea area from the mid-2nd century. It was the oldest part of the Wielbark culture, located west of the Vistula and which had Scandinavian burial traditions, that pulled up its stakes and moved. Jewellery of the Goths In Ukraine, they imposed themselves as the rulers of the local Zarubintsy culture forming the new Chernyakhov Culture (ca 200–ca 400). They were ultimately assimilated into the local population. There is archaeological and historic evidence of continued contacts between the Goths and southern Sweden during their migrations, into the 6th century. Arhenius, B. Connections between Scandinavia and the East Roman Empire in the Migration Period, in From the Baltic to the Black Sea: Studies in Medieval Archaeology, ed. by David Austin and Leslie Alcock (London: Unwin Hyman, 1990), 118-37 (pp. 119, 134). Heather, Peter: The Goths (Blackwell, 1996), p. 27. Chernyakhov settlements cluster in open ground in river valleys. The houses include sunken-floored dwellings, surface dwellings, and stall-houses. The largest known settlement (Budesty) is 35 hectares. Heather, Peter & Matthews, John, 1991, The Goths in the Fourth Century, Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, pp. 52-54. Most settlements are open and unfortified; some forts are also known. Chernyakhov cemeteries include both cremation and inhumation burials; among the latter the head is to the north. Some graves were left empty. Grave goods often include pottery, bone combs, and iron tools, but almost never any weapons. Heather, Peter & Matthews, John, 1991, Goths in the Fourth Century, Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, pp. 54-56.G Within the Roman Empire A 19th century artist's rendition of campaigning Goths as described by their 3rd - 4th century Roman adversaries. Major sources for Gothic history include Ammianus Marcellinus' Res gestae, mentioning Gothic involvement in the civil war between emperors Procopius and Valens of 365 and recounting the Gothic refugee crisis and revolt of 376-382 and Procopius' de bello gothico, describing the Gothic War of 535-552. In the 3rd century, there were at least two groups of Goths, the Thervingi, and the Greuthungi. The Thervingi launched one of the first major "barbarian" invasions of the Roman Empire from 262, sailing up to the Aegean and laying waste to the islands and the countryside in 267, although they were unable to take any fortified cities. Hermannus Contractus, quoting Eusebius, has "263: Macedonia, Graecia, Pontus, Asia et aliae provinciae depopulantur per Gothos". A year later, they suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Naissus. By 271 the force was destroyed, and some of the survivors were resettled within the empire, while another part was incorporated in the Roman army. Later an independent kingdom centred on the abandoned Roman province of Dacia was established. In 332 Constantine, in order to enforce the Roman Empire border, helped the Sarmatians to settle on the north banks of the Danube to defend against the Goths' attacks. 100,000 Goths were killed in battle, and Ariaricus, the son of the King of the Goths, was captured. In 334 Constantine evacuated 300,000 Sarmatians from the north bank of the Danube (after a local revolt of the Sarmatians' slaves). In 335-336 Constantine, continuing his Danube campaign, defeated many Gothic tribes. Origo Constantini 6.32 mention the actions Eusebius Vita Constantini IV.6 Charles Manson Odahl Constantine and the Christian Empire chapter X Both the Greuthungi and Thervingi became heavily Romanized during the 4th century by the influence of trade with the Byzantines, and by their membership of a military covenant centred in Byzantium to assist each other militarily. They converted to Arianism during this time. Hunnic domination of the Gothic kingdom in Scythia began in the 370s, and under pressure of the Huns, the king of the Thervingi, Fritigern in 376 asked the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens to be allowed to settle with his people on the south bank of the Danube. Valens permitted this, and even helped the Goths cross the river, probably at the fortress of Durostorum, but following a famine the Gothic War (376-382) took place, and Goths and local Thracians rebelled. The Roman Emperor Valens was killed at the Battle of Adrianople. The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths, (the Ostrogoths being the other) during the fifth century. Together these tribes were among the Germanic peoples who disturbed the late Roman Empire during the Migration Period. A Visigothic force led by Alaric I sacked Rome in 410. Honorius granted the Visigoths Aquitania, where they defeated the Vandals and by 475 ruled most of the Iberian Peninsula. The Ostrogoths in the meantime freed themselves of government of the Huns following the Battle of Nedao in 454. At the behest of emperor Zeno, Theodoric the Great from 488 conquered all of Italy. The Goths were briefly reunited under one crown in the early sixth century under Theodoric the Great, who became regent of the Visigothic kingdom following the death of Alaric II at the Battle of Vouillé in 507. Procopius, writing at this time, interpreted the name Visigoth to mean "western Goths", and the name Ostrogoth as "eastern Goth" which corresponded to the current distribution of the Gothic realms. The Ostrogothic kingdom persisted until 553 under Teia, when Italy briefly fell back under Byzantine control, until the conquest of the Langobards in 568. The Visigothic kingdom lasted longer, until 711 under Roderic, when it had to yield to the Muslim Umayyad invasion of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andaluz). In the late 6th century, Goths were settled as foederati in parts of Asia Minor. Their descendants, forming the elite Optimatoi regiment, still lived there in the early 8th century, and albeit largely assimilated, their Gothic origin was still well-known: the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor calls them Gothograeci. Languages Gothic is an archaic Germanic language with definite ties to the languages of North-Central Europe. It is the only well-recorded East Germanic language. According to at least one theory, there are closer linguistic connections between Gothic and Old Norse (especially the Old Gutnish dialect) than between Gothic and the West Germanic languages (see East Germanic languages and Gothic). Moreover, there were two tribes that probably are closely related to the Goths Stål, Harry. (1976). Ortnamn och ortnamnsforskning. Almquist & Wiksell, Uppsala. p.131. and remained in Scandinavia, the Gutar (Gotlanders), whose name is identical to Goths, and the Geats. These tribes were considered to be Goths by Jordanes (see Scandza). The fact is that virtually all of those phonetic and grammatical features that characterize the North Germanic languages as a separate branch of the Germanic language family (not to mention the features that distinguish various Norse dialects) seem to have evolved at a later stage than the one preserved in Gothic. Gothic in turn, while being an extremely archaic form of Germanic in most respects, has nevertheless developed a certain number of unique features that it shares with no other Germanic language. However, this does not exclude the possibility of the Goths, the Gutar and the Geats being related as tribes. Similarly, the Saxon dialects of Germany are hardly closer to Anglo-Saxon than any other West Germanic language that hasn't undergone the High German consonant shift (see Grimm's law), but the tribes themselves are definitely identical. The Jutes (Dan. jyder) of Jutland (Dan. Jylland, in Western Danmark) are at least etymologically identical to the Jutes that came from that region and invaded Britain together with the Angles and the Saxons in the 5th century AD. Nevertheless, there are no remaining written sources to associate the Jutes of Jutlandia with anything but North Germanic dialects, or the Jutes of Britain with anything but West Germanic dialects. Thus, language is not always the best criterion for tribal or ethnic tradition and continuity. Symbolic legacy The Gutar (Gotlanders) themselves had oral traditions of a mass migration towards southern Europe, written down in the Gutasaga. If the facts are related, that would be a unique case of a tradition that survived in more than a thousand years and that actually pre-dates most of the major splits in the Germanic language family. The Goths' relationship with Sweden became an important part of Swedish nationalism, and until the 19th century the view that the Swedes were the direct descendants of the Goths was common. Today Swedish scholars identify this as a cultural movement called Gothicismus, which included an enthusiasm for things Old Norse. Since 1278, when Magnus III of Sweden mounted the throne, it has been included in the title of the King of Sweden. "We N.N. by Gods Grace of the Swedes, the Goths and the Vends King". In 1973, with the death of King Gustaf VI Adolf, the title was changed to solely "King of Sweden" In Medieval and Modern Spain, the Visigoths were thought to be the origin of the Spanish nobility (compare Gobineau for a similar French idea). Somebody acting with arrogance would be said to be "haciéndose los godos" ("making himself to act like the Goths"). Because of this, in Chile, Argentina and the Canary Islands, godo was an ethnic slur used against European Spaniards, who in the early colony period would feel superior to the people born locally (criollos). This claim of Gothic origins led to a clash with the Swedish delegation at the Council of Basel, 1434. Before the assembled cardinals and delegations could undertake the theological discussions, they had to decide how to sit during the proceedings. The delegations from the more prominent nations were to sit closest to the Pope, and there were also disputes about who was to have the finest chairs and who was to have their chairs on mats. In some cases they compromised so that some would have half a chair leg on the rim of a mat. In this conflict, the bishop of Växjö, Nicolaus Ragvaldi claimed that the Swedes were the descendants of the great Goths, and that the people of Västergötland (Westrogothia in Latin) were the Visigoths and the people of Östergötland (Ostrogothia in Latin) were the Ostrogoths. The Spanish delegation then retorted that it was only the lazy and unenterprising Goths who had remained in Sweden, whereas the heroic Goths, on the other hand, had left Sweden, invaded the Roman empire and settled in Spain. Ergo 12-1996. Söderberg, Werner. (1896). "Nicolaus Ragvaldis tal i Basel 1434", in Samlaren. p. 187-195. See also Descendants and related peoples: Crimean Goths Gepids Greuthungi Ostrogoths Thervingi Vandals Visigoths Other: Agotes Arheimar The Battle of the Goths and Huns Codex Argenteus Götaland Gothic alphabet Gothiscandza Gutar Hervarar saga Jordanes King of the Geats Reidgotaland Sabbas the Goth Scandza Ulfilas Västergötland Footnotes References Downloadable Google Books. Dabrowski, J. (1989) Nordische Kreis un Kulturen Polnischer Gebiete. Die Bronzezeit im Ostseegebiet. Ein Rapport der Kgl. Schwedischen Akademie der Literatur Geschichte und Alter unt Altertumsforschung über das Julita-Symposium 1986. Ed Ambrosiani, B. Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien. Konferenser 22. Stockholm. Findeisen, Joerg-Peter: Schweden - Von den Anfaengen bis zur Gegenwart, Regensburg: Verlag Friedrich Pustet, 1998. Oxenstierna, Graf E.C. : Die Urheimat der Goten. Leipzig, Mannus-Buecherei 73, 1945 (later printed in 1948). Heather, Peter: The Goths (Blackwell, 1996) Hermodsson, Lars: Goterna - ett krigafolk och dess bibel, Stockholm, Atlantis, 1993. Kaliff, Anders: Gothic Connections. Contacts between eastern Scandinavia and the southern Baltic coast 1000 BC – 500 AD. Occasional Papers in Archaeology (OPIA) 26. Uppsala 2001. Mastrelli, Carlo Alberto in Volker Bierbauer et al., I Goti, Milan: Electa Lombardia, Elemond Editori Associati, 1994. Nordgren, I.: Goterkällan - om goterna i Norden och på kontinenten, Skara: Vaestergoetlands museums skriftserie nr 30, 2000. Nordgren, I.: The Well Spring of the Goths : About the Gothic peoples in the Nordic Countries and on the Continent (2004) Rodin, L. - Lindblom, V. - Klang, K.: Gudaträd och västgötska skottkungar - Sveriges bysantiska arv, Göteborg: Tre böcker, 1994. Schaetze der Ostgoten, Stuttgart: Theiss, 1995. Studia Gotica - Die eisenzeitlichen Verbindungen zwischen Schweden und Suedosteuropa - Vortraege beim Gotensymposion im Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm 1970. Tacitus: Germania, (with introduction and commentary by J.B. Rives), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999. Wenskus, Reinhard: Stammesbildung und Verfassung. Das Werden der Frühmittelalterlichen Gentes (Köln 1961). 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7,583 | Joseph_Schumpeter | Joseph Alois Schumpeter (February 8, 1883 – January 8, 1950) Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Biography was an economist and political scientist born in Moravia, then Austria-Hungary, now Czech Republic. He popularized the term "creative destruction" in economics. Life Born in Triesch, Moravia , Schumpeter was a brilliant student praised by his teachers. He began his career studying law at the University of Vienna under the Austrian capital theorist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, taking his PhD in 1906. In 1909, after some study trips, he became a professor of economics and government at the University of Czernowitz. In 1911 he joined the University of Graz, where he remained until World War I. In 1919-1920, he served as the Austrian Minister of Finance, with some success, and in 1920-1924, as President of the private Biedermann Bank. That bank, as great part of that regional economy, collapsed in 1924 leaving Schumpeter bankrupt. From 1925-1932, he held a chair at the University of Bonn, Germany. With the rise of Nazism in central Europe, he moved to the United States and lectured at Harvard in 1927-1928 and 1930. He would teach there from 1932 until his death in 1950. During his Harvard years he was not generally considered a good classroom teacher, but he acquired a school of loyal followers. His prestige among colleagues was likewise not very high because his views seemed outdated and not in synch with the then-fashionable Keynesianism. This period of his life was characterized by hard work but little recognition of his core ideas. Although Schumpeter encouraged some young mathematical economists and was even the president of the Econometric Society (1940-41), Schumpeter was not a mathematician but rather an economist and tried instead to integrate sociological understanding into his economic theories. From current thought it has been argued that Schumpeter's ideas on business cycles and economic development could not be captured in the mathematics of his day - they need the language of non-linear dynamical systems to be partially formalized. Most important work History of economic analysis Schumpeter's scholarship is apparent in his posthumous History of Economic Analysis, although some of his judgments seem idiosyncratic and sometimes cavalier. For instance, Schumpeter thought that the greatest 18th century economist was Turgot, not Adam Smith, as many consider, and he considered Léon Walras to be the "greatest of all economists", beside whom other economists' theories were "like inadequate attempts to catch some particular aspects of Walrasian truth". http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/margrev/phases.htm#aftermath Schumpeter criticized John Maynard Keynes and David Ricardo for the "Ricardian vice." According to Schumpeter, Ricardo and Keynes reasoned in terms of abstract models, where they would freeze all but a few variables. Then they could argue that one caused the other in a simple monotonic fashion. This led to the belief that one could easily deduce policy conclusions directly from a highly abstract theoretical model. Business cycles Schumpeter's relationships with the ideas of other economists were quite complex in his most important contributions to economic analysis - the theory of business cycles and development. Following neither Walras nor Keynes, Schumpeter starts in The Theory of Economic Development Schumpeter, J.A. The theory of economic development : an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle / translated from the German by Redvers Opie (1961) New York: OUP with a treatise of circular flow which, excluding any innovations and innovative activities, leads to a stationary state. The stationary state is, according to Schumpeter, described by Walrasian equilibrium. The hero of his story, though, is, in fine Austrian fashion, the entrepreneur. The entrepreneur disturbs this equilibrium and is the prime cause of economic development, which proceeds in cyclic fashion along several time scales. In fashioning this theory connecting innovations, cycles, and development, Schumpeter kept alive the Russian Nikolai Kondratiev's ideas on 50-year cycles, Kondratiev waves. Schumpeter suggested a model in which the four main cycles, Kondratiev (54 years), Kuznets (18 years), Juglar (9 years) and Kitchin (about 4 years) can be added together to form a composite waveform. (Actually there was considerable professional rivalry between Schumpeter and Kuznets. The wave form suggested here did not include the Kuznets Cycle simply because Schumpeter did not recognize it as a valid cycle. See "Business Cycle" for further information.) A Kondratiev wave could consist of three lower degree Kuznets waves. Each Kuznets wave could, itself, be made up of two Juglar waves. Similarly two (or three) Kitchin waves could form a higher degree Juglar wave. If each of these were in phase, more importantly if the downward arc of each was simultaneous so that the nadir of each was coincident it would explain disastrous slumps and consequent depressions. (As far as the segmentation of the Kondratyev Wave, Schumpeter never proposed such a fixed model. He saw these cycles varying in time - although in a tight time frame by coincidence - and for each to serve a specific purpose) Schumpeter and Keynesianism Unlike Keynes, in Schumpeter's theory, Walrasian equilibrium is not adequate to capture the key mechanisms of economic development. Schumpeter also thought that the institution enabling the entrepreneur to purchase the resources needed to realize his or her vision was a well-developed capitalist financial system, including a whole range of institutions for granting credit. One could divide economists among (1) those who emphasized "real" analysis and regarded money as merely a "veil" and (2) those who thought monetary institutions are important and money could be a separate driving force. Both Schumpeter and Keynes were among the latter. Nevertheless, Schumpeter, who was a classical liberal, rejected Keynesianism. Schumpeter and capitalism's demise Schumpeter's most popular book in English is probably Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. This book opens with a treatment of Karl Marx. While he is sympathetic to Marx's theory that capitalism will collapse and will be replaced by socialism, Schumpeter concludes that this will not come about in the way Marx predicted. To describe it he borrowed the phrase "creative destruction," and made it famous by using it to describe a process in which the old ways of doing things are endogenously destroyed and replaced by new ways. Schumpeter's theory is that the success of capitalism will lead to a form of corporatism and a fostering of values hostile to capitalism, especially among intellectuals. The intellectual and social climate needed to allow entrepreneurship to thrive will not exist in advanced capitalism; it will be replaced by socialism in some form. There will not be a revolution, but merely a trend in parliaments to elect social democratic parties of one stripe or another. He argued that capitalism's collapse from within will come about as democratic majorities vote for the creation of a welfare state and place restrictions upon entrepreneurship that will burden and destroy the capitalist structure. Schumpeter emphasizes throughout this book that he is analyzing trends, not engaging in political advocacy. In his vision, the intellectual class will play an important role in capitalism's demise. The term "intellectuals" denotes a class of persons in a position to develop critiques of societal matters for which they are not directly responsible and able to stand up for the interests of strata to which they themselves do not belong. One of the great advantages of capitalism, he argues, is that as compared with pre-capitalist periods, when education was a privilege of the few, more and more people acquire (higher) education. The availability of fulfilling work is however limited and this, coupled with the experience of unemployment, produces discontent. The intellectual class is then able to organise protest and develop critical ideas. In Schumpeter's view, socialism will ensure that the production of goods and services is directed towards meeting the authentic needs of people and will overcome some innate tendencies of capitalism such as conjecture fluctuation, unemployment and waning acceptance of the system. It is interesting to note, that Schumpeter's theories of the transition of capitalism into socialism has – according to some analysts – been ‘nearly right’ in some cases: Where Schumpeter was Nearly Right - The Swedish Model and Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy by Magnus Henrekson, Ulf Jakobsson. Available at http://swopec.hhs.se/iuiwop/papers/iuiwop0533.pdf Schumpeter and democratic theory In the same book, Schumpeter expounded a theory of democracy which sought to challenge what he called the 'classical doctrine'. He disputed the idea that democracy was a process by which the electorate identified the common good, and politicians carried this out for them. He argued this was unrealistic, and that people's ignorance and superficiality meant that in fact they were largely manipulated by politicians, who set the agenda. This made a 'rule by the people' concept both unlikely and undesirable. Instead he advocated a minimalist model, much influenced by Max Weber, whereby democracy is the mechanism for competition between leaders, much like a market structure. Although periodical votes from the general public legitimize governments and keep them accountable, the policy program is very much seen as their own and not that of the people, and the participatory role for individuals is usually severely limited. Schumpeter and entrepreneurship The research of entrepreneurship owes a lot to his contributions. He was probably the first scholar to develop its theories. He gave two theories, sometimes called Mark I and Mark II. In the first one, the early one, Schumpeter argued that the innovation and technological change of a nation comes from the entrepreneurs, or wild spirits. He coined the word Unternehmergeist, German for entrepreneur-spirit. He believed that these individuals are the ones who make things work in the economy of the country. In Mark II, developed later as professor at Harvard, he asserted that the actors that drive innovation and the economy are big companies which have the resources and capital to invest in research and development. Both arguments might be complementary today. The English literature uses the term entrepreneurship, from the French "entreprise". When studying entrepreneurship and Schumpeter, it is helpful to keep in mind he used the German term (Unternehmergeist), acknowledging this "fiery souls" or "spirits". Schumpeter and the Gold Standard Joseph Schumpeter recognized the implication of a gold monetary standard compared to a fiat monetary standard. In History of Economic Analysis he stated the following: His legacy For some time after his death, Schumpeter's views were most influential among various heterodox economists, especially European, who were interested in industrial organization, evolutionary theory, and economic development, and who tended to be on the other end of the political spectrum from Schumpeter and were also often influenced by Keynes, Karl Marx, and Thorstein Veblen. Robert Heilbroner was one of Schumpeter's most renowned pupils, who wrote extensively about him in The Worldly Philosophers. Other outstanding students of Schumpeter's include the economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen and former chairman of the Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan "I've watched the process [creative destruction] at work through my entire career," p. 48, Greenspan, Alan The Age of Turbulance : Adventures in a New World (2007) New York: Penguin Press . Robert Solow, Nobel Prize in Economics, was his student at Harvard, and he expanded on Schumpeter's theory . Today, Schumpeter has a following outside of standard textbook economics, in areas such as in economic policy, management studies, industrial policy, and the study of innovation. Schumpeter was probably the first scholar to develop theories about entrepreneurship. For instance, the European Union's innovation program, and its main development plan, the Lisbon Strategy, are influenced by Schumpeter. Major Works "Über die mathematische Methode der theoretischen Ökonomie", 1906, ZfVSV. "Das Rentenprinzip in der Verteilungslehre", 1907, Schmollers Jahrbuch Wesen und Hauptinhalt der theoretischen Nationalökonomie (transl. The Nature and Essence of Theoretical Economics), 1908. "On the Concept of Social Value", 1909, QJE Wie studiert man Sozialwissenschaft, 1910 (transl. by J.Z. Muller, "How to Study Social Science", Society, 2003) "Marie Esprit Leon Walras", 1910, ZfVSV. "Über das Wesen der Wirtschaftskrisen", 1910, ZfVSV Theorie der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung (transl. 1934, The Theory of Economic Development: An inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle) 1911. Economic Doctrine and Method: An historical sketch, 1914. "Das wissenschaftliche Lebenswerk Eugen von Böhm-Bawerks", 1914, ZfVSV. Vergangenkeit und Zukunft der Sozialwissenschaft, 1915. The Crisis of the Tax State, 1918. "The Sociology of Imperialism", 1919, Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik "Max Weber's Work", 1920, Der österreichische Volkswirt "Carl Menger", 1921, ZfVS. "The Explanation of the Business Cycle", 1927, Economica "Social Classes in an Ethnically Homogeneous Environment", 1927, Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik. "The Instability of Capitalism", 1928, EJ Das deutsche Finanzproblem, 1928. "Mitchell's Business Cycles", 1930, QJE "The Present World Depression: A tentative diagnosis", 1931, AER. "The Common Sense of Econometrics", 1933, Econometrica "Depressions: Can we learn from past experience?", 1934, in Economics of the Recovery Program "The Nature and Necessity of a Price System", 1934, Economic Reconstruction. "Review of Robinson's Economics of Imperfect Competition", 1934, JPE "The Analysis of Economic Change", 1935, REStat. "Professor Taussig on Wages and Capital", 1936, Explorations in Economics. "Review of Keynes's General Theory", 1936, JASA Business Cycles: A theoretical, historical and statistical analysis of the Capitalist process, 1939. "The Influence of Protective Tariffs on the Industrial Development of the United States", 1940, Proceedings of AAPS "Alfred Marshall's Principles: A semi-centennial appraisal", 1941, AER. "Frank William Taussig", 1941, QJE. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, 1942. "Capitalism in the Postwar World", 1943, Postwar Economic Problems. "John Maynard Keynes", 1946, AER. "The Future of Private Enterprise in the Face of Modern Socialistic Tendencies", 1946, Comment sauvegarder l'entreprise privée Rudimentary Mathematics for Economists and Statisticians, with W.L.Crum, 1946. "Capitalism", 1946, Encyclopaedia Britannica. "The Decade of the Twenties", 1946, AER "The Creative Response in Economic History", 1947, JEH "Theoretical Problems of Economic Growth", 1947, JEH "Irving Fisher's Econometrics", 1948, Econometrica. "There is Still Time to Stop Inflation", 1948, Nation's Business. "Science and Ideology", 1949, AER. "Vilfredo Pareto", 1949, QJE. "Economic Theory and Entrepreneurial History", 1949, Change and the Entrepreneur "The Communist Manifesto in Sociology and Economics", 1949, JPE "English Economists and the State-Managed Economy", 1949, JPE "The Historical Approach to the Analysis of Business Cycles", 1949, NBER Conference on Business Cycle Research. "Wesley Clair Mitchell", 1950, QJE. "March into Socialism", 1950, AER. Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes, 1951. Imperialism and Social Classes, 1951 (reprints of 1919, 1927) Essays on Economic Topics, 1951. "Review of the Troops", 1951, QJE. History of Economic Analysis, (published posthumously, ed. Elisabeth Boody Schumpeter), 1954. "American Institutions and Economic Progress", 1983, Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Staatswissenschaft "The Meaning of Rationality in the Social Sciences", 1984, Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Staatswissenschaft "Money and Currency", 1991, Social Research. Economics and Sociology of Capitalism, 1991. See also List of Austrians Austrian School of economics (Schumpeter was associated with the movement) List of Austrian scientists Social innovation Creative destruction Capitalism Socialism Innovation References Further reading "The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry into Profits, Capital , Credit, Interest, and the Business Cycle". Was firstly published in German in 1911. See major works above Cheung, Edward "Baby Boomers, Generation X and Social Cycles" "The latest findings on Schumpeter's Creative Destruction." Harris, S. E. (ed.), 1951. Schumpeter: Social Scientist. Harvard University Press. Robbins, L. C., 1955, "Schumpeter's History of Economic Analysis," Quarterly Journal of Economics 69: 1-22. Muller, Jerry Z., 2002. The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Western Thought. Anchor Books. Groenewegen, Peter, 2003. Classics and Moderns in Economics: Essays on Nineteenth And Twentieth Century Economic Thought: Vol. 2. Routledge. Chpt. 22, pp 203+. McCraw, Thomas K., 2007. Prophet of Innovation: Joseph Schumpeter and Creative Destruction. Belknap Press. Carayannis, E. G. and Ziemnowicz, C., 2007. Rediscovering Schumpeter. Palgrave Mcmillan. ISBN 978-1403942418. Harry Dahms 1995. "From Creative Action to the Social Rationalization of the Economy: Joseph A. Schumpeter's Social Theory." Sociological Theory 13 (1): 1-13. Richard Swedberg, Schumpeter: A Biography.'' Princeton: Princeton Uni Press, 1991. Michaelides, P. and Milios, J. (2005), Did Hilferding Influence Schumpeter?, History of Economics Review, Vol. 41, Winter, pp. 98-125. Michaelides, P. and Milios, J. (2004), Hilferding’s Influence on Schumpeter: A First Discussion, European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy Proceedings of the 16th Annual International Conference, Crete, Greece, 28-31 October (CD-ROM). Michaelides, P., Milios, J. and Vouldis, A. (2007), Schumpeter and Lederer on Economic Growth, Technology and Credit, European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy, Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference, Porto, 2007, 1-3 November (CD-ROM)... External links Retrieved on December 4 2007. Retrieved on December 4 2007. Retrieved on December 4 2007. Retrieved on December 4 2007. 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7,584 | Transport_in_Denmark | Transport in Denmark is developed and modern. The motorway network now covers 1,111 km Road network by type of road and time (2008). Statistics Denmark. Retrieved 24 March 2009. while the railway network totals 2,667 km of operational track. Railway network 1st January by unit, railway system and time (2008). Statistics Denmark. Retrieved 24 March 2008. Bridges across the Great Belt and the Øresund have done much to improve traffic flow across the country and between Denmark and Sweden. The airports of Copenhagen and Billund provide a variety of domestic and international connections while ferries provide services to Germany, Sweden, Norway and the as well as routes to the Danish islands. Railways The largest railway operator in Denmark is Danske Statsbaner (DSB) — Danish State Railways. Arriva operates some routes in Jutland, and several other smaller operators provide local services, mainly outside the Aalborg area. The total length of operational track is 2,667 km, 640 km electrified at 25 kV AC, 946 km double track (2008). Railway network 1st January by railway system and unit (2008). Statistics Denmark. Retrieved 24 March 2008. 508 km is privately owned and operated. Track is standard gauge. Railway links with adjacent countries Sweden — yes — same gauge — voltage change 25 kV AC/15 kV AC. Germany — yes —same gauge — voltage change 25 kV AC/15 kV AC. The Oresund Bridge provides a rail connection with Malmö, Sweden. These trains have 20-minute schedule, and continue further in the Skåne County. There is a railway connection from Hamburg to Copenhagen through: the old Little Belt Bridge — 1935 the Great Belt rail link with the Western Bridge and the Eastern Tunnel — 1997. A train ferry opened in 1963 as part of the Vogelfluglinie from Rødby, Denmark to Puttgarden, Germany, providing a direct link from Copenhagen to Lübeck and Hamburg in Germany. Several daytime trains Hamburg–Copenhagen still use this ferry. Night trains and freight trains to and from Germany, however, use the Great Belt connection. When the Fehmarn Belt bridge is constructed (expected completion in 2018), it will greatly shorten the journey time between Copenhagen and Hamburg. Local city networks S-train: A traditional suburban train network in the greater Copenhagen area. S-trains (in Danish: S-tog) are electric trains connecting the city center with the suburbs of Copenhagen. The numerous trains leave at 10 or 20 minute intervals. S-trains run from 05:00 hours (weekdays) (06:00 Sundays) until about 0:30 hours. Metro Copenhagen Metro: An automated driverless rail rapid transit system serving Copenhagen and Frederiksberg, Denmark. The system opened in 2002 and currently has two lines with 22 stations and 21.3 km of track, following the 2007 opening of an extension to Copenhagen Airport. Roads The road network in 2008 totalled 73,197 km of paved road, including 1,111 km of motorway. Road network 1st January by part of the country and type of road (2008). Statistics Denmark. Retrieved 24 March 2009. Motorways are toll-free except for the Great Belt Bridge joining Sealand and Funen and the Øresund Bridge linking Copenhagen to Malmö in Sweden. Bicycle lanes and tracks Three free city bikes in CopenhagenDanish cities and towns, especially Odense and Copenhagen, are known for catering for bicycle transportation. Nearly one-fifth of all trips in Copenhagen are by bicycle, and for home-to-work commutes, 36 % of all trips are by bicycle. Odense has been named the "bicycle city of the year" because of the great number of bicycle lanes in the city. A complete network of 350 km all-weather serviced lanes exists in the town — this is as much as some states in Germany. Bicycle lanes in Danish cities and towns typically consist of an asphalted lane exclusively for bicycles between the lane(s) for motor vehicles and the sidewalk/pavement for pedestrians. There is normally a bicycle lane on each side of the street, and each is strictly one-way only. Where there is parallel parking, the bicycle lane is generally placed between the parked cars and the sidewalk/pavement. Bicycle lanes are usually wide enough for two bicycles to ride side-by-side (2.2 m), particularly in urban areas. This allows for passing on the left hand side and a greater space buffer between cyclists and motor vehicles. In Copenhagen's 2002–2012 Cycle Policy, the city announced plans to widen some of the lanes to allow three bikes across (3.5 m) in particularly congested areas. On the largest streets at the intersections there are separate traffic lights and directional arrows for motor vehicles and for bicycles, and separate lanes for those turning and those going straight through, with the traffic signals coordinated to avoid conflicts. As an experiment started at the end of 2006, Nørrebrogade, the main street in the Nørrebro area in Copenhagen, has had its traffic lights set for a "green wave" at 20 km/h to let the bikes get through without stopping, while cars typically have to stop at every light. This is done deliberately to make it more advantageous to ride a bike than to drive a car in the area. Outside of the towns and cities there are often bicycle tracks parallel to, but separated from, the roads between towns. It is also common to have bicycle tracks going through forest and park areas where cars are not allowed. During the summer months, there are free "city bikes" stationed at various spots in the downtown area of Copenhagen. The idea is that anyone can take a bike from one of the spots and ride it to one of the other spots and leave it there for the next person. There are national and regional bicycle routes throughout Denmark. They are all marked and include rest areas with benches and other necessities. Air In 2008, a total of 13,051,000 passengers departed from Danish airports compared to 13,036,000 in 2007. Departing passengers from major manned, public airports by airport, type of transport and flight. Statistics Denmark. Retrieved 25 March 2009. Copenhagen Airport is the largest airport in Scandinavia, handling 9,691,000 departing passengers per year (2008). It is located at Kastrup, 8 km south-east of central Copenhagen. It is connected by train to Copenhagen Central Station and beyond as well as to Malmö and other towns in Sweden. For the west of the country, the major airport is Billund (1,261,000 departing passengers in 2008) although both Aalborg (519,000 departing passengers in 2008) and Aarhus (287,000 departing passengers in 2008) have smaller airports with regular connections to Copenhagen. List of airports Denmark's main airports are: Copenhagen Airport (CPH), Scandivia's busiest passenger airport located at Kastrup to the south-east of Copenhagen city and handling over 21 million passengers a year. Billund Airport (BLL), in central Jutland, one of Denmark's busiest cargo centres as well as a popular charter airline destination and an airport for regular flights serving 2.5 million passengers a year, mainly from the western part of the country. Aalborg Airport (AAL), located 6 km northwest of Aalborg, is Denmark's third busiest airport serving over one million passengers a year, mainly in connections with Copenhagen. Aarhus Airport (AAH), located 36 km northeast of Aarhus, serves some 570,000 passengers a year. Other airports include: Karup Airport (KRP) near Viborg in the west of Jutland, mainly serving Copenhagen with some 200,000 passengers a year. Bornholm Airport (RNN) 5 km from the centre of Rønne in the southwest of the island of Bornholm, with several regular flights to Copenhagen a day. Esbjerg Airport (EBJ), a small airport in the west of Jutland with regular flights to Aberdeen and Stavanger. Sønderborg Airport ([SGD), in the very south of Jutland with connections to Copenhagen. Roskilde Airport (RKE), 7 km southeast of Roskilde and some 38 km southwest of Copenhagen, serves mainly airtaxi and private business traffic. Countrywise Airport Codes Sea Denmark's ports handle some 48 million passengers and 109 million tonnes of cargo per year. Call of vessels, passengers and throughput of goods in traffic ports by seaport and unit. Statistics Denmark. Retrieved 26 March 2009. Passenger traffic Passenger traffic is made up partly of ferry crossings within Denmark, partly of international ferry crossings and partly of cruise ship passengers. Among the most important ports for passenger traffic (thousands of passengers per year in 2007) are: Helsingør 10,966 Rødbyhavn 7,058 Frederikshavn 2,894 Sjællands Odde 2,233 Esbjerg 1,827 Gedser 1,612 Aarhus 1,583 Rønne 1,522 Ebeltoft 962 Copenhagen 872 Map of Denmark major cities/ports: Aalborg (top), Esbjerg, Struer (left), Aarhus, Fredericia, Kalundborg, Odense (map center), Grenå (upper center), Køge (right center). In 2007, 288 cruise ships visited Copenhagen. Cargo traffic Among the most important ports for cargo traffic (millions of tonnes per year in 2007) are: Fredericia 15,326 Aarhus 12,189 Copenhagen 7,379 Helsingør 4,480 Esbjerg 4,476 Kalundborg 3,714 Frederikshavn 3,200 Aalborg Portland 2,999 Aalborg 2,749 Odense 2,616 Waterways There are no manmade waterways in Denmark. There is however a 160 km route through the Limfjorden in northern Jutland linking the North Sea to the Kattegat. World Canals - Denmark. Retrieved 26 March 2009. Pipelines Figures for 2007: Crude oil 110 km Petroleum products 578 km Natural gas 800 km Merchant marine Total 336 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling / Ships by type Bulk carrier 12 Cargo ship 132 Chemical tanker 22 Container ship 70 Liquified gas 26 Livestock carrier 6 Petroleum tanker 24 Rail car carrier 1 Refrigerated cargo 13 Roll-on/Roll-off 19 Short-sea passenger 8 Specialized tanker 3 (1999 est.) Denmark has created its own internal register, called the Danish International Ship register (DIS); DIS ships do not have to meet Danish manning regulations, and they amount to a flag of convenience within the Danish register (1998 est.) See also Denmark Road traffic in Denmark Hydrogen link network Transport in the Faroe Islands References External links Public transportation Route Planner Online Map, Address lookup Copenhagen Airports S-train and Danish train schedules Copenhagenize - Copenhagen Bike Culture Blog Metro information All railway tracks City of Copenhagen: City of Cyclists Truck transport Denmark | Transport_in_Denmark |@lemmatized transport:4 denmark:24 develop:1 modern:1 motorway:3 network:11 cover:1 km:21 road:8 type:4 time:3 statistic:6 retrieve:7 march:7 railway:10 total:6 operational:2 track:9 january:3 unit:3 system:4 bridge:7 across:3 great:7 belt:6 øresund:2 much:2 improve:1 traffic:12 flow:1 country:5 sweden:6 airport:27 copenhagen:33 billund:3 provide:5 variety:1 domestic:1 international:3 connection:7 ferry:5 service:3 germany:6 norway:1 well:3 route:5 danish:9 island:2 railways:1 large:3 operator:2 danske:1 statsbaner:1 dsb:1 state:2 arriva:1 operate:2 jutland:6 several:3 small:3 local:2 mainly:5 outside:2 aalborg:7 area:9 length:1 electrify:1 kv:5 ac:5 double:1 privately:1 standard:1 gauge:3 link:7 adjacent:1 yes:2 voltage:2 change:2 oresund:1 rail:4 malmö:3 train:14 minute:2 schedule:2 continue:1 far:1 skåne:1 county:1 hamburg:4 old:1 little:1 western:2 eastern:1 tunnel:1 open:2 part:3 vogelfluglinie:1 rødby:1 puttgarden:1 direct:1 lübeck:1 daytime:1 still:1 use:2 night:1 freight:1 however:2 fehmarn:1 construct:1 expect:1 completion:1 greatly:1 shorten:1 journey:1 city:14 traditional:1 suburban:1 tog:1 electric:1 connect:2 center:4 suburb:1 numerous:1 leave:2 interval:1 run:1 hour:2 weekday:1 sunday:1 metro:3 automated:1 driverless:1 rapid:1 transit:1 serve:6 frederiksberg:1 currently:1 two:2 line:1 station:3 follow:1 opening:1 extension:1 roads:1 paved:1 include:3 toll:1 free:3 except:1 join:1 sealand:1 funen:1 bicycle:16 lane:11 three:2 bike:7 copenhagendanish:1 town:6 especially:1 odense:4 know:1 cater:1 transportation:2 nearly:1 one:6 fifth:1 trip:2 home:1 work:1 commute:1 name:1 year:10 number:1 complete:1 weather:1 exists:1 typically:2 consist:1 asphalted:1 exclusively:1 motor:3 vehicle:3 sidewalk:2 pavement:2 pedestrian:1 normally:1 side:4 street:3 strictly:1 way:1 parallel:2 parking:1 generally:1 place:1 parked:1 car:5 usually:1 wide:1 enough:1 ride:3 particularly:2 urban:1 allow:3 pass:1 left:2 hand:1 space:1 buffer:1 cyclist:2 cycle:1 policy:1 announce:1 plan:1 widen:1 congest:1 intersection:1 separate:3 light:3 directional:1 arrow:1 turning:1 go:2 straight:1 signal:1 coordinate:1 avoid:1 conflict:1 experiment:1 start:1 end:1 nørrebrogade:1 main:2 nørrebro:1 set:1 green:1 wave:1 h:1 let:1 get:1 without:1 stopping:1 stop:1 every:1 deliberately:1 make:2 advantageous:1 drive:1 often:1 also:2 common:1 forest:1 park:1 summer:1 month:1 various:1 spot:3 downtown:1 idea:1 anyone:1 take:1 next:1 person:1 national:1 regional:1 throughout:1 marked:1 rest:1 bench:1 necessity:1 air:1 passenger:20 depart:6 compare:1 major:3 man:1 public:2 flight:4 scandinavia:1 handle:2 per:4 locate:4 kastrup:2 south:3 east:2 central:3 beyond:1 west:3 although:1 aarhus:6 regular:4 list:1 cph:1 scandivia:1 busy:3 handling:1 million:6 bll:1 cargo:6 centre:2 popular:1 charter:1 airline:1 destination:1 aal:1 northwest:1 third:1 aah:1 northeast:1 karup:1 krp:1 near:1 viborg:1 bornholm:2 rnn:1 rønne:2 southwest:2 day:1 esbjerg:4 ebj:1 aberdeen:1 stavanger:1 sønderborg:1 sgd:1 roskilde:2 rke:1 southeast:1 airtaxi:1 private:1 business:1 countrywise:1 code:1 sea:3 port:5 tonne:2 call:2 vessel:1 throughput:1 good:1 seaport:1 partly:3 crossing:2 within:2 cruise:2 ship:8 among:2 important:2 thousand:1 helsingør:2 rødbyhavn:1 frederikshavn:2 sjællands:1 odde:1 gedser:1 ebeltoft:1 map:3 top:1 struer:1 fredericia:2 kalundborg:2 grenå:1 upper:1 køge:1 right:1 visit:1 portland:1 waterway:1 manmade:1 waterways:1 limfjorden:1 northern:1 north:1 kattegat:1 world:1 canal:1 pipeline:1 figure:1 crude:1 oil:1 petroleum:2 product:1 natural:1 gas:2 merchant:1 marine:1 volume:1 bulk:1 carrier:3 chemical:1 tanker:3 container:1 liquify:1 livestock:1 refrigerate:1 roll:2 short:1 specialized:1 est:2 create:1 internal:1 register:3 dis:2 meet:1 manning:1 regulation:1 amount:1 flag:1 convenience:1 see:1 hydrogen:1 faroe:1 islands:1 reference:1 external:1 planner:1 online:1 address:1 lookup:1 copenhagenize:1 culture:1 blog:1 information:1 truck:1 |@bigram km_electrify:1 kv_ac:5 gauge_railway:1 oresund_bridge:1 malmö_sweden:2 lübeck_hamburg:1 rapid_transit:1 paved_road:1 ride_bike:1 busy_airport:1 tonne_cargo:1 crude_oil:1 merchant_marine:1 liquify_gas:1 petroleum_tanker:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 faroe_islands:1 external_link:1 |
7,585 | Desmothoracid | The desmothoracids are a group of heliozoan protists, usually sessile and found in freshwater environments. Each adult is a spherical cell around 10-20 μm in diameter surrounded by a perforated organic lorica or shell, with many radial pseudopods projecting through the holes to capture food. These are supported by small bundles of microtubules that arise near a point on the nuclear membrane. Unlike other heliozoans, the microtubules are not in any regular geometric array, there does not appear to be a microtubule organizing center, and there is no distinction between the outer and inner cytoplasm. Reproduction takes place by the budding off of small motile cells, usually with two flagella. Later these are lost, and pseudopods and a lorica are formed. Typically a single lengthened pseudopod will secrete a hollow stalk that attached the adult to the substrate. The form of the flagella, the tubular cristae within the mitochondria, and other characters led to the suggestion that the desmothoracids belong among what is now the Cercozoa, which has now been confirmed by genetic studies. References | Desmothoracid |@lemmatized desmothoracids:2 group:1 heliozoan:2 protist:1 usually:2 sessile:1 find:1 freshwater:1 environment:1 adult:2 spherical:1 cell:2 around:1 μm:1 diameter:1 surround:1 perforated:1 organic:1 lorica:2 shell:1 many:1 radial:1 pseudopod:3 project:1 hole:1 capture:1 food:1 support:1 small:2 bundle:1 microtubule:3 arise:1 near:1 point:1 nuclear:1 membrane:1 unlike:1 regular:1 geometric:1 array:1 appear:1 organize:1 center:1 distinction:1 outer:1 inner:1 cytoplasm:1 reproduction:1 take:1 place:1 bud:1 motile:1 two:1 flagellum:2 later:1 lose:1 form:2 typically:1 single:1 lengthen:1 secrete:1 hollow:1 stalk:1 attach:1 substrate:1 tubular:1 cristae:1 within:1 mitochondrion:1 character:1 lead:1 suggestion:1 belong:1 among:1 cercozoa:1 confirm:1 genetic:1 study:1 reference:1 |@bigram μm_diameter:1 motile_cell:1 |
7,586 | Politics_of_Mexico | The politics of Mexico take place in a framework of a federal presidential representative democratic republic whose government is based on a congressional system, whereby the president of Mexico is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party electoral system. The federal government represents the United Mexican States and is divided into three branches: executive, legislative and judicial, as established by the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, published in 1917. The constituent states of the federation must also have a republican form of government based on a congressional system as established by their respective constitutions. The executive power is exercised by the executive branch, which is headed by the President, advised by a cabinet of secretaries and independent of the legislature. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, comprising of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary and the collegiate, unitary and district tribunals. The politics of Mexico are dominated by three political parties: National Action Party (PAN), the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) and Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). The Powers of the Union The federal government, known as the Supreme Power of the Federation, is constituted by the Powers of the Union: the executive, the legislative and the judicial. Mexico City, as the capital of the federation is the Federal District, the seat of the powers of the Union. All branches of government are independent; no two separate branches must be vested upon a single person or institution, and the legislative power must not be vested upon single individual. Legislative branch The legislative power The composition, responsibilities and requirements of the legislative power are outlined in articles 50 to 79 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a bicameral congress comprising the Senate (Spanish: Cámara de Senadores or Senado) and the Chamber of Deputies (). The powers of the Congress include the right to pass laws, impose taxes, declare war, approve the national budget, approve or reject treaties and conventions made with foreign countries, and ratify diplomatic appointments. The Senate addresses all matters concerning foreign policy, approves international agreements, and confirms presidential appointments. The Chamber of Deputies addresses all matters pertaining to the government's budget and public expenditures. The Chamber of Deputies is formed by 500 representatives of the nation. All deputies are elected in free universal elections every three years, in parallel voting: 300 deputies are elected in single-seat constituencies by first-past-the-post plurality (called uninominal deputies), and the remaining 200 are elected by the principle of proportional representation (called plurinominal deputies) with open-party lists for which the country is divided into 5 constituencies or plurinominal circumscriptions. Deputies cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. Being a supplementary system (PM) of parallel voting, proportionality is only confined to the plurinominal seats. However, to prevent a party to be overrepresented, several restrictions to the assignation of plurinominal seats are applied: A party must obtain at least 2% of votes to be assigned a plurinominal seat; No party can have more than 300 seats (uninominal and plurinominal together), even if the party gets more than 52% of the votes; No party can have more deputies (uninominal and plurinominal) whose proportion in the Chamber is 8 percentual points greater than the percentage of votes obtained in the elections; The Senate is integrated by 128 representatives of the constituent states of the federation. All senators are elected in free universal elections every six years through a parallel voting system as well: 64 senators are elected by first-past-the-post plurality, two per state and two for the Federal District elected jointly; 32 senators are assigned through the principle of "first minority", that is, they are awarded to the first runner-up party for each constituent state and the Federal District; and 32 are elected by proportional representation with open-party lists, for which the country forms a single constituency. Senators cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. Executive branch The executive power The composition, responsibilities and requirements of the executive power are outlined in articles 80 to 93 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States is vested upon a single individual, the president of the United Mexican States, elected by first-past-the-post plurality for a 6 year term (called sexenio), without the possibility of reelection. There is no office for a vice-president; in case of "absolute absence" or incapacity of the President, the Congress of the Union (with a quorum of at least two-third of all representatives) will be constituted as an Electoral College which will elect by absolute majority an interim president. If the absolute absence occurred during the first two years of the sexenio, the Congress will also call elections in no less than 14 and no more than 18 months after the inauguration of the interim president. If the absolute absence of the presidents occurred during the last four years of the sexenio, then the interim president will serve for the remaining years of the absent president's term. The President also appoints, with Senate approval, the Cabinet members and other officers. The President is responsible of executing and enforcing the law, and has the authority of vetoing bills. Judicial branch The judiciary The composition, responsibilities and requirements of the judicial power are outlined in articles 94 to 107of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States consists of The Supreme Court of Justice, composed of eleven judges or ministers appointed by the President with Congress approval, who interpret laws and judge cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are the Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary. The ministers of the Supreme Court will serve for 15 years and cannot be appointed to serve more than once. State and local governments State governments Mexico is a federation of thirty-one free and sovereign states. All constituent states of the federation must have a republican form of government based on a congressional system. The form of government of the constituent states is briefly outlined in the 116th article of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, and further expanded in the constitutions of each state. The executive power is vested upon a governor elected by first-past-the-post plurality without the possibility of reelection. The legislative power is vested upon a unicameral Congress whose composition is determined by the constitutions of each state, but must include first-past-the-post and proportional representation deputies and they must not be reelected for the next immediate term. The judiciary is vested upon the tribunals that each state establishes in its constitution. The re-election of the ministers of justice is a prerogative established by each constituent state. All states are independent and autonomous in their internal administration. The federal government cannot intervene in any particular state's affairs unless there is a full cessation of government powers and through previous study, recommendation and/or approval of the Congress of the Union. The states cannot make an alliance with any foreign power or with any other state. They cannot unilaterally declare war against a foreign nation unless their territory is invaded and cannot wait for the Congress of the Union to issue a declaration of war. The Federal District Mexico City does not belong to any state in particular, but to the federation, being the capital of the country and seat of the powers of the Union. As such, it is constituted as a Federal District, ultimately administered by the Powers of the Union. The form of government of the Federal District is outlined in the 112nd article of the Political Constitution of the Untied Mexican States. Nonetheless, since the late 1990s certain autonomy and powers have been gradually devolved. The executive power is vested upon a head of government now elected by first-past-the-post plurality. The legislative power is vested upon a unicameral Legislative Assembly. The judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice and the Judiciary Council. The Federal District is divided into delegaciones or boroughs. Though not fully equivalent to a municipality in that they do not have regulatory powers, they have gained limited autonomy in recent years, and the representatives to the head of government are now elected by the citizens as well. Municipal governments All states are divided into municipalities, the smallest autonomous political entity in Mexico. The form of government of the municipalities is briefly outlined in the 115th article of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, and further expanded in the constitutions of each state they are part of. Municipalities are governed through a municipal council (ayuntamiento) headed by a mayor or municipal president (presidente municipal) whose work is supported by a predetermined number of regents (regidores) and trustees (síndicos), according to the constitutions of the states they are part of. Since 1917 there are no intermediate entities or authorities between municipalities and the state governments. Members of the municipal councils cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. Autonomous municipalities are constitutionally known as "free municipalities" (municipios libres). Municipalities are responsible for public services (such as water and sewage), street lighting, public safety, traffic, supervision of slaughterhouses and the cleaning and maintenance of public parks, gardens and cemeteries, as well as in zoning and urban planning. They may also assist the state and federal governments in education, emergency fire and medical services, environmental protection and maintenance of monuments and historical landmarks. As of 1983, they can collect property taxes and user fees although more funds are obtained from the state and federal governments than from their own collection efforts. Political parties Constitutionally, political parties in Mexico must promote the participation of the people in the democratic life of the country, contribute in the representation of the nation and citizens, and be the access through which citizens can participate in public office, through whatever programs, principles and ideals they postulate. Article 41, Political Constitution of the United Mexican States All political parties must be registered before the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE), the institution in charge of organizing and overseeing the federal electoral processes, but must obtain at least 2% of votes in the federal elections to keep their registry. Registered political parties receive public funding for their operation and can also obtain private funding within the limits prescribed by the law. As of 2006 the following political parties are registered before the IFE and all have representatives at the Congress of the Union: Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional, PRI), founded in 1929; National Action Party (Partido Acción Nacional, PAN), founded in 1939; Party of the Democratic Revolution (Partido de la Revolución Democrática, PRD), founded in 1989; Labor Party (Partido del Trabajo, PT), founded in 1990; Green Ecological Party (Partido Verde Ecologista de México, PVEM), founded in 1986, but lost its registry on two consecutive elections; it has retained its registry since 1993; Convergence Party (Convergencia), founded in 1997; New Alliance (Nueva Alianza, PNA or PANAL), founded in 2005; Social Democratic Party (Partido Socialdemócrata), formerly Social Democratic and Peasant Alternative Party (Partido Alternativa Socialdemócrata y Campesina, PASC), founded in 2005. Political parties are allowed to form alliances or coalitions to nominate candidates for any particular election. The coalition must present itself with a particular name and logo. Proportional representation (plurinominal) seats are assigned to the coalition based on the percentage of votes obtained in the elections, and then the coalition re-assigns them to the constituent political parties. Once each party in the coalition has been assigned plurinominal seats, they do not necessarily continue to work as a coalition in government. Throughout the 20th century, PRI had an almost hegemonic power at the state and federal level, which slowly began to recede in the late 1980s. Even though since the 1940s, PAN had won a couple of seats in the Congress, and in 1947 the first presidential municipality (in Quiroga, Michoacán), Efemérides del PAN it wasn't until 1989, that the first non-PRI governor of a state was elected (at Baja California). It was in 1997, that PRI lost its absolute majority at the Congress of the Union, and in 2000 the first non-PRI president was elected since 1929. Political pressure groups and leaders Guerrilla groups include the Popular Revolutionary Army and the Zapatista Army of National Liberation. Elections and political composition of the institutions Suffrage is universal, free, secret and direct for all Mexican citizens 18 and older, and is compulsory (but not enforced). The identity document in Mexico serves also as the voting card, so all citizens are automatically registered for all elections; that is, no pre-registration is necessary for every election. All elections are direct; that is, no electoral college is constituted for any of the elections at the federal, state or municipal level. Only when an incumbent president is absolutely absent (either through resignation, impeachment or death), the Congress of the Union constitutes itself as an electoral college to elect an interim president by absolute majority. Presidential elections are scheduled every six years, except in the exceptional case of absolute absence of the president. Legislative elections are scheduled every six years for the Senate, to be fully renewed in elections held concurrently with the presidential elections; and every three years for the Chamber of Deputies. Elections are usually held on the first Sunday of July. State governors are also elected every six years, whereas the legislatures are renewed every three years. State elections need not be concurrent with federal elections. Federal elections are organized and supervised by the autonomous public Federal Electoral Institute, whereas state and municipal elections are organized and supervised by electoral institutes constituted by each state of the federation. Elections within the Federal District are also organized by a local electoral institute. Federal elections The most recent federal presidential elections were held on July 2, 2006 concurrent with the full renovation of both chambers of the Congress of the Union. In these elections the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), the Labour Party (PT) and Convergence (CV) formed a coalition called Coalition for the Good of All. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and the Ecologist Green Party (PVEM) formed a coalition called Alliance for Mexico. Presidential elections The presidential elections were the most competitive in the history of the country in which the difference in the ballot count between the winner and the first runner up was less than one percent point, and in which neither candidate got absolute majority in a system in which a second round of voting has not been instituted. Felipe Calderón got the greatest number of votes according to the preliminary computation (PREP) and the ballot recount. Andrés Manuel López Obrador contested the results and demanded a vote-per-vote recount, which was denied by the Federal Electoral Tribunal, based on the argument that inconsistencies could not be proved for all electoral circumscriptions, but order a partial recount of votes of those that did show inconsistencies which represented 9.2% of the total, after which the results were not significantly altered. The Federal Electoral Tribunal declared Felipe Calderón the winner of the elections on September 5, and president elect. He took office on December 1, and his term will end on November 30, 2012. Congressional elections The concurrent congressional elections were not contested by any party. Both chambers were completely renewed and no party obtained absolute majority. All deputies and senators took office on September 1. First-past-the-post plurality candidates (FPP) of coalitions represent the parties of which they are members. Proportional representation (PR) seats assigned to coalitions were further reassigned to their constituent parties in whatever manner and number they agreed upon. Parties that formed a coalition for the general elections may continue to work together but they do not form a unified political bloc at the Congress; parliamentary groups are identified by parties and not by coalitions. Composición de Grupos Parlamentarios The 64 Senate first-past-the-post (FPP) seats are assigned to the pair of senators of the same party (who run together) that obtain the majority of votes per state and the Federal District. The 32 first minority (FM) seats are assigned to the first runner-up per party and the Federal District. Finally, 32 proportional representation (PR) seats are assigned according to national votes to the party or coalition in relation to the total number of votes obtained nationally. PR seats are assigned to the coalition who then reassigns them to its constituent parties in whatever manner and number they had originally agreed upon, and may or may not work as a bloc in the Senate. State elections The elections in each state are done at different times, depending on the state, and are not necessarily held at the same time with the federal elections. Currently, even though the PRI is the third political force in the Congress of the Union, in terms of number of seats, it is still the first political force in terms of the number of states governed by it. As of 2007: PRI governs seventeen states: Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, Sinaloa, Durango, Nayarit, Colima, Puebla, Mexico, Veracruz, Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatán. PAN governs eight states: Baja California, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Guanajuato, Tlaxcala, Jalisco, Aguascalientes and Morelos. PRD governs five states: Baja California Sur, Zacatecas, Michoacán, Guerrero and Chiapas; and the Federal District. Historical political development In 1929, all factions and generals of the Mexican Revolution were united into a single party, the National Revolutionary Party (NRP), with the aim of stabilizing the country and end internal conflicts. During the following administrations, since 1928, many of the revolutionary ideals were put into effect, among them the free distribution of land to peasants and farmers, the nationalization of the oil companies, the birth and rapid growth of the Social Security Institute as well as that of Labor Unions, and the protection of national industries. The party was later renamed the Mexican Revolution Party and finally the Institutional Revolutionary Party. The social institutions created by the party itself provided it with the necessary strength to stay in power. In time, the system gradually became, as some political scientists have labeled it, an "electoral authoritarianism",<ref>Using the phrase of Schedler A (2004) From Electoral Authoritarianism to Democratic Consolidation" in Mexico's Democracy at Work, Crandall R, Paz G, Roett R (editors), Lyenne Reinner Publisher, Colorado USA</ref> in that the party resorted to any means necessary, except that of the dissolution of the constitutional and electoral system itself, to remain in power. In fact, Mexico was considered a bastion of continued constitutional government in times where coup d'états and military dictatorships were the norm in Latin America, in that the institutions were renovated electorally, even if only in appearance and with little participation of the opposition parties at the local level. The first cracks in the system, even though they were merely symbolic, were the 1970s reforms to the electoral system and the composition of the Congress of the Union which for the first time incorporated proportional representation seats allowing opposition parties to obtain seats, though limited in number, in the Chamber of Deputies. As minority parties became involved in the system, they gradually demanded more changes, and a full democratic representation. Even though in the 1960s, a couple (of more than two thousand) municipalities were governed by opposition parties, the first state government to be won by an opposition party was Baja California, in 1989. The presidential elections held in 1988 marked a watershed in Mexican politics, as they were the first serious threat to the party in power by an opposition candidate, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, a defector from the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and son of former President Lazaro Cardenas, who was nominated by a broad coalition of leftist parties. He officially received 31.1 percent of the vote, against 50.4 percent for Carlos Salinas de Gortari, the PRI candidate, and 17 percent for Manuel Clouthier of the National Action Party (PAN). It was widely said that Cardenas had won the election, but that the then government-controlled electoral commission had altered the results after the infamous "glitch in the system" (se cayó el sistema'', as it was reported). In the concurrent elections, the PRI came within 11 seats of losing the majority of Chamber of Deputies, and opposition parties captured 4 of the 64 Senate seats - the first time that the PRI had failed to hold every seat in the Senate. Capitalizing on the popularity of President Salinas, however, the PRI rebounded in the mid-term congressional elections of 1991, winning 320 seats. Subsequent changes included the creation of the Federal Electoral Institute in the 1990s and the inclusion of proportional representation and first minority seats in the Senate. The presidential election of 1994 was judged to be the first relatively free election in modern Mexican history. Ernesto Zedillo of the PRI won with 50.2 percent of the vote, against 26.7 percent for Diego Fernández de Cevallos of PAN and 17.1 percent for Cardenas, who this time represented the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). Although the opposition campaign was hurt by the desire of the Mexican electorate for stability, following the assassination of Luis Donaldo Colosio, the intended PRI candidate, and the recent outbreak of hostilities in the state of Chiapas, Zedillo's share of the vote was the lowest official percentage for any PRI presidential candidate up to that time. In the 1997 mid-term elections, no party held majority in the Chamber of Deputies, and in 2000 the first opposition party president was sworn in office since 1929. Vicente Fox won the election with 43% of the vote, followed by PRI candidate Francisco Labastida with 36%, and Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) with 17%. Numerous electoral reforms implemented after 1989 aided in the opening of the Mexican political system, and opposition parties made historic gains in elections at all levels. Many of the current electoral concerns have shifted from outright fraud to campaign fairness issues. During 1995-96 the political parties negotiated constitutional amendments to address these issues. Implementing legislation included major points of consensus that had been worked out with the opposition parties. The thrust of the new laws has public financing predominate over private contributions to political parties, tightens procedures for auditing the political parties, and strengthens the authority and independence of electoral institutions. The court system also was given greatly expanded authority to hear civil rights cases on electoral matters brought by individuals or groups. In short, the extensive reform efforts have "leveled the playing field" for the parties. The 2006 elections saw the PRI fall to third place behind both the PAN and the PRD. Roberto Madrazo, the presidential candidate, polled only 22.3 percent of the vote, and the party ended up with only 121 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, a loss of more than half of what the party had obtained in 2003, and 38 Senate seats, a loss of 22. Nevertheless, at the state level, more states are still governed by PRI than by the rest of the parties. References and notes External links Presidency of the United Mexican States Congress of the Union Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation Mexican Council for Economic and Social Development Mexico Development Gateway | Politics_of_Mexico |@lemmatized politics:3 mexico:14 take:3 place:2 framework:1 federal:34 presidential:12 representative:6 democratic:11 republic:1 whose:4 government:25 base:5 congressional:6 system:15 whereby:1 president:22 head:6 state:55 multi:1 party:73 electoral:23 represent:4 united:10 mexican:19 divide:4 three:5 branch:7 executive:9 legislative:11 judicial:6 establish:3 political:28 constitution:14 publish:1 constituent:9 federation:8 must:11 also:9 republican:2 form:12 respective:1 power:29 exercise:3 advise:1 cabinet:2 secretary:1 independent:3 legislature:3 vest:8 upon:12 congress:19 union:18 two:8 chamber:13 comprise:2 senate:12 deputy:17 judiciary:7 comprising:1 supreme:6 court:5 justice:5 nation:5 council:6 collegiate:2 unitary:2 district:13 tribunal:7 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behind:1 roberto:1 madrazo:1 poll:1 loss:2 half:1 nevertheless:1 rest:1 reference:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 presidency:1 economic:1 gateway:1 |@bigram chamber_deputy:9 supreme_court:4 revolution_prd:4 legislative_branch:1 cámara_de:1 seat_constituency:1 proportional_representation:8 plurinominal_seat:5 vice_president:1 judicial_branch:1 unilaterally_declare:1 unicameral_legislative:1 legislative_assembly:1 municipality_municipios:1 partido_revolucionario:1 del_trabajo:1 de_méxico:1 baja_california:4 zapatista_army:1 presidential_election:7 felipe_calderón:2 lópez_obrador:1 nuevo_león:1 león_tamaulipas:1 quintana_roo:1 luis_potosí:1 coup_états:1 cuauhtémoc_cárdenas:2 carlos_salina:1 de_gortari:1 pri_candidate:3 ernesto_zedillo:1 outbreak_hostility:1 presidential_candidate:2 vicente_fox:1 constitutional_amendment:1 greatly_expanded:1 external_link:1 |
7,587 | Motion_Picture_Patents_Company | The Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC, also known as the Edison Trust), founded in December 1908, was a trust of all the major American film companies (Edison, Biograph, Vitagraph, Essanay, Selig, Lubin, Kalem, American Star, American Pathé), the leading distributor (George Kleine) and the biggest supplier of raw film, Eastman Kodak. The MPPC ended the domination of foreign films on American screens, standardized the manner in which films were distributed and exhibited in America, and improved the quality of American motion pictures by internal competition. But it also discouraged its members' entry into feature film production, and the use of outside financing, both to its members' eventual detriment. The MPPC was preceded by the Edison licensing system, in effect in 1907–1908, on which the MPPC was modeled. Since the 1890s, Thomas Edison owned most of the major American patents relating to motion picture cameras. The Edison Manufacturing Company's patent lawsuits against each of its domestic competitors crippled the American film industry, reducing American production mainly to two companies: Edison and Biograph, which used a different camera design. This left Edison's other rivals with little recourse but to import foreign-made films, mainly French and British. Since 1902, Edison had also been notifying distributors and exhibitors that if they did not use Edison machines and films exclusively, they would be subject to litigation for supporting filmmaking that infringed Edison's patents. Exhausted by the lawsuits, Edison's competitors — Essanay, Kalem, Pathé Frères, Selig, and Vitagraph — approached him in 1907 to negotiate a licensing agreement, which Lubin was also invited to join. The one notable filmmaker excluded from the licensing agreement was Biograph, which Edison hoped to squeeze out of the market. No further applicants could become licensees. The purpose of the licensing agreement, according to an Edison lawyer, was to "preserve the business of present manufacturers and not to throw the field open to all competitors." Biograph retaliated by purchasing the patent to the Latham film loop, a key feature of virtually all motion picture cameras then in use. After a federal court upheld the validity of the patent in 1907, Edison v. American Mutoscope & Biograph Co., 151 F. 767, 81 C.C.A. 391 (March 5, 1907). Edison began negotiation with Biograph in May 1908 to reorganize the Edison licensing system. The resulting trust pooled 16 motion picture patents. Ten were considered of minor importance; the remaining key six pertained one each to films, cameras, and the Latham loop, and three to projectors. U.S. v. Motion Picture Patents Co., 225 F. 800 (D.C. Pa. 1915). The MPPC eliminated the outright sale of films to distributors and exhibitors, replacing it with rentals, which allowed quality control over prints that had formerly been exhibited long past their prime. The Patents Company also established a uniform rental rate for all licensed films, thereby removing price as a factor for the exhibitor in film selection, in favor of selection made on quality, which in turn encouraged the upgrading of production values. Many independent filmmakers, who controlled from one-quarter to one-third of the domestic marketplace, responded to the creation of the MPPC by moving their operations to Hollywood, whose distance from Edison's home base of New Jersey made it more difficult for the MPPC to enforce its patents. Peter Edidin, "La-La Land: The Origins", The New York Times, August 21, 2005, p. 4.2. "Los Angeles's distance from New York was also comforting to independent film producers, making it easier for them to avoid being harassed or sued by the Motion Picture Patents Company, a k a the Trust, which Thomas Edison helped create in 1909." The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, which is headquartered in San Francisco, California, and covers the area, was averse to enforcing patent claims. Southern California was also chosen because of its beautiful year-round weather and varied countryside, which could stand in for deserts, jungles and great mountains. The reasons for The MPPC's decline are manifold. The first blow came in 1911, when Eastman Kodak modified its exclusive contract with the MPPC, to allow Kodak to sell its raw film stock, which led the industry in quality and price, to unlicensed independents. The number of theaters exhibiting independent films grew by 33 percent within twelve months, to half of all houses. Another reason was the MPPC's overestimation of the efficiency of controlling the motion picture industry through patent litigation and the exclusion of independents from licensing. The slow process of using detectives to investigate patent infringements, and of obtaining injunctions against the infringers, was outpaced by the dynamic rise of new companies in diverse locations. Despite the rise in popularity of the feature-length film in 1912–1913 from independent producers and foreign imports, the MPPC was very reluctant to distribute such long productions. Edison, Biograph, Essanay, and Vitagraph did not release their first features until 1914, after dozens if not hundreds of features had been released by independents. Per the American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures, 8 American features were released in 1912, 61 in 1913, and 354 in 1914. Patent royalties to the MPPC ended in September 1913 with the expiration of the last of the patents filed in the mid-1890s at the dawn of commercial film production and exhibition. Thus the MPPC lost the ability to control the American film industry through patent licensing, and had to rely instead on its subsidiary, the General Film Company, formed in 1910, which monopolized film distribution in America. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 cut off most of the European market, which played a much more significant part of the revenue and profit for MPPC members than for the independents, who concentrated on the American market. The end came with a federal court decision in October 1915, which ruled that the MPPC's acts went "far beyond what was necessary to protect the use of patents or the monopoly which went with them" and was therefore an illegal restraint of trade under the Sherman Antitrust Act. U.S. v. Motion Picture Patents Co., 225 F. 800 (D.C. Pa. 1915). An appellate court dismissed the Patent Company's appeal, and officially terminated the MPPC in 1918. See also History of cinema References External links Before the Nickelodeon: Motion Picture Patents Company Agreements ORDERS MOVIE TRUST TO BE BROKEN UP; It Violates the Sherman Law, Federal Court in Philadelphia Holds. EXCEEDED PATENT RIGHTS Government Confers No License, Court Says, to Do What Anti-Trust Law Condemns. 'New York Times'' October 2, 1915 History of Edison Motion Pictures: Litigation and Licensees Independence In Early And Silent American Cinema | Motion_Picture_Patents_Company |@lemmatized motion:12 picture:12 patent:22 company:10 mppc:16 also:8 know:1 edison:20 trust:6 found:1 december:1 major:2 american:14 film:22 biograph:7 vitagraph:3 essanay:3 selig:2 lubin:2 kalem:2 star:1 pathé:2 lead:2 distributor:3 george:1 kleine:1 big:1 supplier:1 raw:2 eastman:2 kodak:3 end:3 domination:1 foreign:3 screen:1 standardize:1 manner:1 distribute:2 exhibit:3 america:2 improve:1 quality:4 internal:1 competition:1 discourage:1 member:3 entry:1 feature:6 production:5 use:6 outside:1 financing:1 eventual:1 detriment:1 precede:1 licensing:6 system:2 effect:1 model:1 since:2 thomas:2 relate:1 camera:4 manufacture:1 lawsuit:2 domestic:2 competitor:3 cripple:1 industry:4 reduce:1 mainly:2 two:1 different:1 design:1 leave:1 rival:1 little:1 recourse:1 import:2 make:4 french:1 british:1 notify:1 exhibitor:3 machine:1 exclusively:1 would:1 subject:1 litigation:3 support:1 filmmaking:1 infringe:1 exhaust:1 frères:1 approach:1 negotiate:1 agreement:4 invite:1 join:1 one:4 notable:1 filmmaker:2 exclude:1 hop:1 squeeze:1 market:3 applicant:1 could:2 become:1 licensee:2 purpose:1 accord:1 lawyer:1 preserve:1 business:1 present:1 manufacturer:1 throw:1 field:1 open:1 retaliate:1 purchase:1 latham:2 loop:2 key:2 virtually:1 federal:3 court:6 uphold:1 validity:1 v:3 mutoscope:1 co:3 f:3 c:4 march:1 begin:1 negotiation:1 may:1 reorganize:1 result:1 pool:1 ten:1 consider:1 minor:1 importance:1 remain:1 six:1 pertain:1 three:1 projector:1 u:2 pa:2 eliminate:1 outright:1 sale:1 replace:1 rental:2 allow:2 control:4 print:1 formerly:1 long:2 past:1 prime:1 establish:1 uniform:1 rate:1 licensed:1 thereby:1 remove:1 price:2 factor:1 selection:2 favor:1 turn:1 encourage:1 upgrading:1 value:1 many:1 independent:8 quarter:1 third:1 marketplace:1 respond:1 creation:1 move:1 operation:1 hollywood:1 whose:1 distance:2 home:1 base:1 new:5 jersey:1 difficult:1 enforce:2 peter:1 edidin:1 la:2 land:1 origin:1 york:3 time:2 august:1 p:1 los:1 angeles:1 comfort:1 producer:2 easy:1 avoid:1 harass:1 sue:1 k:1 help:1 create:1 ninth:1 circuit:1 appeal:2 headquarter:1 san:1 francisco:1 california:2 cover:1 area:1 averse:1 claim:1 southern:1 choose:1 beautiful:1 year:1 round:1 weather:1 varied:1 countryside:1 stand:1 desert:1 jungle:1 great:1 mountain:1 reason:2 decline:1 manifold:1 first:2 blow:1 come:2 modify:1 exclusive:1 contract:1 sell:1 stock:1 unlicensed:1 number:1 theater:1 grow:1 percent:1 within:1 twelve:1 month:1 half:1 house:1 another:1 overestimation:1 efficiency:1 exclusion:1 license:2 slow:1 process:1 detective:1 investigate:1 infringement:1 obtain:1 injunction:1 infringers:1 outpace:1 dynamic:1 rise:2 diverse:1 location:1 despite:1 popularity:1 length:1 reluctant:1 release:3 dozen:1 hundred:1 per:1 institute:1 catalog:1 royalty:1 september:1 expiration:1 last:1 file:1 mid:1 dawn:1 commercial:1 exhibition:1 thus:1 lose:1 ability:1 rely:1 instead:1 subsidiary:1 general:1 form:1 monopolize:1 distribution:1 outbreak:1 world:1 war:1 cut:1 european:1 play:1 much:1 significant:1 part:1 revenue:1 profit:1 concentrate:1 decision:1 october:2 rule:1 act:2 go:2 far:1 beyond:1 necessary:1 protect:1 monopoly:1 therefore:1 illegal:1 restraint:1 trade:1 sherman:2 antitrust:1 appellate:1 dismiss:1 officially:1 terminate:1 see:1 history:2 cinema:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 nickelodeon:1 order:1 movie:1 break:1 violate:1 law:2 philadelphia:1 hold:1 exceed:1 right:1 government:1 confer:1 say:1 anti:1 condemns:1 independence:1 early:1 silent:1 |@bigram motion_picture:12 eastman_kodak:2 thomas_edison:2 los_angeles:1 san_francisco:1 patent_infringement:1 appellate_court:1 external_link:1 |
7,588 | Discrete_mathematics | Graphs like this are among the objects studied by discrete mathematics, both for their interesting properties and because of their manipulation by computer algorithms. For the mathematics journal, see Discrete Mathematics (journal). Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that are fundamentally discrete rather than continuous. Real numbers and rational numbers have the property that between any two numbers a third can be found, and consequently these numbers vary "smoothly". The objects generally studied in discrete mathematics – such as integers, graphs, and statements in logic Richard Johnsonbaugh, Discrete Matheamtics, Prentice Hall, 2008. – do not vary smoothly in this way, but have distinct, separated values. Discrete mathematics therefore excludes topics in "continuous mathematics" such as calculus and analysis. Alternatively, discrete mathematics can be characterised as the branch of mathematics dealing with countable sets Norman Biggs, Discrete mathematics, Oxford University Press, 2002. (including rational numbers but not real numbers), but there is no exact, universally agreed, definition of the term. Brian Hopkins, Resources for Teaching Discrete Mathematics, Mathematical Association of America, 2008. It is more what is excluded (the notions of a continuously varying quantity and related notions) than what is included that describes discrete mathematics. The term finite mathematics is sometimes applied to parts of the field of discrete mathematics, particularly areas relevant to business. Discrete mathematics has become popular in recent decades because of its applications to computer science. Concepts and notations from discrete mathematics are useful in studying and describing objects and problems in computer algorithms and programming languages, and have applications in cryptography, automated theorem proving, and software development. Computer implementation is an important aspect of discrete mathematics. Here a computer is being used to verify statements in logic, which is helpful in developing software for safety-critical systems. The distinction between discrete mathematics and other mathematics is somewhat artificial as analytic methods are often used to study discrete problems and vice versa. Number theory in particular sits on the boundary between discrete and continuous mathematics. Grand challenges, past and present Much research in graph theory was motivated by attempts to prove that all maps, like this one, could be colored with only four colors. Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken finally proved this in 1976. The history of discrete mathematics has involved a number of challenging problems which have focussed attention within areas of the field. In graph theory, much research was motivated by attempts to prove the four color theorem, first stated in 1852, but not proved till 1976 (by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken, using substantial computer assistance). In logic, the second problem on David Hilbert's list of open problems presented in 1900 was to prove that the axioms of arithmetic are consistent. Kurt Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, proved in 1931, showed that this was not possible – at least not within arithmetic itself. Hilbert's tenth problem was to determine whether a given polynomial Diophantine equation with integer coefficients has an integer solution. In 1970, Yuri Matiyasevich proved that this could not be done. The need to break German codes in World War II led to advances in cryptography and theoretical computer science, with the first programmable digital electronic computer being developed at England's Bletchley Park. At the same time, military requirements motivated advances in operations research. The Cold War meant that cryptography remained important, with fundamental advances such as public-key cryptography being developed in the following decades. Operations research remained important as a tool in business and project management, with the critical path method being developed in the 1950s. The telecommunication industry has also motivated advances in discrete mathematics, particularly in graph theory and information theory. Currently, one of the most famous open problems in theoretical computer science is the P = NP problem, which involves the relationship between the complexity classes P and NP. The Clay Mathematics Institute has offered a $1 million US prize for the first correct proof, along with prizes for six other mathematical problems. Topics in discrete mathematics The ASCII codes for the word "Wikipedia", given here in binary, provide a way of representing the word in information theory, as well as for information-processing algorithms. Discrete mathematics includes several different topics, listed below Logic Logic is the study of the principles of valid reasoning and inference, as well as of consistency, soundness, and completeness. The study of mathematical proofs is particularly important, and has applications to automated theorem proving and software development. Set theory Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections of objects. Partially ordered sets and sets with other relations have applications in several areas. Information theory Computational geometry applies computer algorithms to representations of geometrical objects. Information theory involves the quantification of information. Closely related is coding theory which is used to design efficient and reliable data transmission and storage methods. Number theory Number theory is concerned with the properties of numbers in general, particularly integers. It has applications to cryptography, cryptanalysis, and cryptology, particularly with regard to prime numbers and primality testing. In analytic number theory, techniques from continuous mathematics are also used. Combinatorics Combinatorics covers topics such as design theory, enumerative combinatorics, counting, combinatorial geometry, combinatorial topology, and graph theory. In analytic combinatorics and algebraic graph theory, techniques from continuous mathematics are also used. Theoretical computer science Complexity studies the time taken by algorithms, such as this sorting routine. Theoretical computer science includes areas of discrete mathematics relevant to computing. It draws heavily on graph theory and logic. Included within theoretical computer science is the study of algorithms for computing mathematical results. Computability studies what can be computed in principle, and has close ties to logic, while complexity studies the time taken by computations. Automata theory and formal language theory are closely related to computability. Computational geometry applies algorithms to geometrical problems, while computer image analysis applies them to representations of images. Operations research PERT charts like this provide a business management technique based on graph theory.Operations research provides techniques for solving practical problems in fields such as business. It includes linear programming, queuing theory, and a continuously growing list of other techniques. Game theory deals with situations where success depends on the choices of others. Discretization Discretization concerns the process of transferring continuous models and equations into discrete counterparts, often for the purposes of making calculations easier by using approximations. Numerical analysis provides an important example. Discrete analogues of continuous mathematics There are many concepts in continuous mathematics which have discrete versions, such as discrete calculus, discrete probability distributions, discrete Fourier transforms, discrete geometry, discrete logarithms, discrete differential geometry, discrete exterior calculus, discrete Morse theory, difference equations, and discrete dynamical systems. In applied mathematics, discrete modelling is the discrete analogue of continuous modelling. In discrete modelling, discrete formulae are fit to data. A common method in this form of modelling is to use recurrence relations. See also Topic outline of discrete mathematics Footnotes Further reading Norman L. Biggs, Discrete Mathematics 2nd ed. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850717-8. Companion Web site: includes questions together with solutions. Ronald Graham, Donald E. Knuth, Oren Patashnik, Concrete Mathematics Richard Johnsonbaugh, Discrete Mathematics 6th ed. Macmillan. ISBN 0-13-045803-1. Companion Web site: Also on (digital) topology, graph theory, combinatorics, axiomatic systems. Donald E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming Kenneth H. Rosen, Handbook of Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0149-1. Kenneth H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications 6th ed. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-288008-2. Companion Web site: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072880082/information_center_view0/ Ralph P. Grimaldi, Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics: An Applied Introduction 5th ed. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-20-172634-3 C.L. Liu, Elements of Discrete Math Neville Dean, Essence of Discrete Mathematics Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-345943-8. Not as in depth as above texts, but a gentle intro. Mathematics Archives, Discrete Mathematics links to syllabi, tutorials, programs, etc. http://archives.math.utk.edu/topics/discreteMath.html Jiří Matoušek & Jaroslav Nešetřil, Introduction aux mathematiques discretes | Discrete_mathematics |@lemmatized graph:10 like:3 among:1 object:5 study:12 discrete:48 mathematics:42 interesting:1 property:3 manipulation:1 computer:15 algorithm:5 journal:2 see:2 mathematical:5 structure:1 fundamentally:1 rather:1 continuous:9 real:2 number:13 rational:2 two:1 third:1 find:1 consequently:1 vary:3 smoothly:2 generally:1 integer:4 statement:2 logic:7 richard:2 johnsonbaugh:2 matheamtics:1 prentice:2 hall:2 way:2 distinct:1 separated:1 value:1 therefore:1 excludes:1 topic:6 calculus:3 analysis:3 alternatively:1 characterise:1 branch:2 deal:2 countable:1 set:6 norman:2 biggs:2 oxford:2 university:2 press:3 include:7 exact:1 universally:1 agree:1 definition:1 term:2 brian:1 hopkins:1 resource:1 teach:1 association:1 america:1 exclude:1 notion:2 continuously:2 quantity:1 related:2 describe:2 finite:1 sometimes:1 apply:2 part:1 field:3 particularly:5 area:4 relevant:2 business:4 become:1 popular:1 recent:1 decade:2 application:6 science:6 concept:2 notation:1 useful:1 problem:11 programming:2 language:2 cryptography:5 automate:2 theorem:4 proving:2 software:3 development:2 implementation:1 important:5 aspect:1 use:8 verify:1 helpful:1 develop:4 safety:1 critical:2 system:3 distinction:1 somewhat:1 artificial:1 analytic:3 method:4 often:2 vice:1 versa:1 theory:25 particular:1 sits:1 boundary:1 grand:1 challenge:2 past:1 present:2 much:2 research:6 motivate:4 attempt:2 prove:7 map:1 one:2 could:2 color:3 four:2 kenneth:4 appel:2 wolfgang:2 haken:2 finally:1 history:1 involve:3 focus:1 attention:1 within:3 first:3 state:1 till:1 substantial:1 assistance:1 second:2 david:1 hilbert:2 list:3 open:2 axiom:1 arithmetic:2 consistent:1 kurt:1 gödel:1 incompleteness:1 show:1 possible:1 least:1 tenth:1 determine:1 whether:1 give:2 polynomial:1 diophantine:1 equation:3 coefficient:1 solution:2 yuri:1 matiyasevich:1 need:1 break:1 german:1 code:2 world:1 war:2 ii:1 lead:1 advance:4 theoretical:5 programmable:1 digital:2 electronic:1 england:1 bletchley:1 park:1 time:3 military:1 requirement:1 operation:4 cold:1 mean:1 remain:2 fundamental:1 public:1 key:1 following:1 tool:1 project:1 management:2 path:1 telecommunication:1 industry:1 also:5 information:6 currently:1 famous:1 p:3 np:2 relationship:1 complexity:3 class:1 clay:1 institute:1 offer:1 million:1 u:1 prize:2 correct:1 proof:2 along:1 six:1 ascii:1 word:2 wikipedia:1 binary:1 provide:4 represent:1 well:2 processing:1 several:2 different:1 principle:2 valid:1 reasoning:1 inference:1 consistency:1 soundness:1 completeness:1 collection:1 partially:1 ordered:1 relation:2 computational:2 geometry:5 applies:2 algorithms:2 representation:2 geometrical:2 quantification:1 closely:2 cod:1 design:2 efficient:1 reliable:1 data:2 transmission:1 storage:1 concern:2 general:1 cryptanalysis:1 cryptology:1 regard:1 prime:1 primality:1 testing:1 technique:5 combinatorics:5 cover:1 enumerative:1 counting:1 combinatorial:4 topology:2 algebraic:1 take:2 sort:1 routine:1 compute:3 draw:1 heavily:1 result:1 computability:2 close:1 tie:1 computation:1 automaton:1 formal:1 relate:1 image:2 pert:1 chart:1 base:1 solve:1 practical:1 linear:1 queue:1 grow:1 game:1 situation:1 success:1 depend:1 choice:1 others:1 discretization:2 process:1 transfer:1 model:2 counterpart:1 purpose:1 make:1 calculation:1 easy:1 approximation:1 numerical:1 example:1 analogue:2 many:1 version:1 probability:1 distribution:1 fourier:1 transforms:1 logarithm:1 differential:1 exterior:1 morse:1 difference:1 dynamical:1 applied:2 modelling:3 formula:1 fit:1 common:1 form:1 recurrence:1 outline:1 footnote:1 read:1 l:2 ed:4 isbn:6 companion:3 web:3 site:3 question:1 together:1 ronald:1 graham:1 donald:2 e:2 knuth:2 oren:1 patashnik:1 concrete:1 macmillan:1 axiomatic:1 art:1 program:2 h:2 rosen:2 handbook:1 crc:1 mcgraw:2 hill:2 http:2 highered:1 com:1 sit:1 ralph:1 grimaldi:1 introduction:2 addison:1 wesley:1 c:1 liu:1 element:1 math:2 neville:1 dean:1 essence:1 depth:1 text:1 gentle:1 intro:1 archive:2 link:1 syllabi:1 tutorial:1 etc:1 utk:1 edu:1 discretemath:1 html:1 jiří:1 matoušek:1 jaroslav:1 nešetřil:1 aux:1 mathematiques:1 discretes:1 |@bigram prentice_hall:2 theorem_proving:2 vice_versa:1 kenneth_appel:2 appel_wolfgang:2 wolfgang_haken:2 kurt_gödel:1 incompleteness_theorem:1 diophantine_equation:1 yuri_matiyasevich:1 bletchley_park:1 closely_related:1 cryptography_cryptanalysis:1 enumerative_combinatorics:1 closely_relate:1 probability_distribution:1 discrete_fourier:1 fourier_transforms:1 discrete_logarithm:1 differential_geometry:1 applied_mathematics:1 crc_press:1 mcgraw_hill:2 addison_wesley:1 |
7,589 | Navy | A navy is the branch of a nation's military forces principally designated for naval warfare and amphibious warfare; namely, lake- or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It includes anything conducted by surface ships, amphibious ships, submarines, and seaborne aviation, as well as ancillary support, communications, training, and other fields; recent developments have included space related operations. The strategic offensive role of a navy is projection of force into areas beyond a country's shores (for example, to protect sea-lanes, ferry troops, or attack other navies, ports, or shore installations). The strategic defensive purpose of a navy is to frustrate seaborne projection-of-force by enemies. The strategic task of the navy also may incorporate nuclear deterrence by use of nuclear missiles. Etymology A Royal Thai Navy (RTN) Sikorsky S-76B helicopter, during CARAT Exercise 2001. "Navy" came via Old French from Latin navigium = "fleet of ships" from navis = "ship" and agere = "to drive" (as in driving a herd of animals) or "to get something done". "Naval" came from Latin navalis = "pertaining to ship" (which it means in the biological name Teredo navalis), but due to resemblance became changed to "pertaining to navy". History Naval warfare developed when humans first fought from water-borne vessels. Prior to the introduction of the cannon and ships with sufficient capacity to carry the large guns, navy warfare primarily involved ramming and boarding actions. In the time of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, naval warfare centered on long, narrow vessels powered by banks of oarsmen (such as triremes and quinqueremes) designed to ram and sink enemy vessels or come alongside the enemy vessel so its occupants could be attacked hand-to-hand. Naval warfare continued in this vein through the Middle Ages until cannon became commonplace and capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The Chola Dynasty of medieval India was known as a one of the greatest naval powers of its time in the Indian Ocean. In ancient China, large naval battles were known since the Qin Dynasty (also see Battle of Red Cliffs, 208), employing the war junk during the Han Dynasty. However, China's first official standing navy was not established until the Southern Song Dynasty in the 12th century, a time when gunpowder was a revolutionary new application to warfare The mass and deck space required to carry a large number of cannon made oar-based propulsion impossible and ships came to rely primarily on sails. Warships were designed to carry increasing numbers of cannon and naval tactics evolved to bring a ship's firepower to bear in a broadside, with ships-of-the-line arranged in a line of battle. The development of large capacity, sail-powered ships carrying cannon led to a rapid expansion of European navies, especially the Spanish and Portuguese navies which dominated in the 16th and early 17th centuries, and ultimately helped propel the age of exploration and colonialism.The repulsion of the Spanish Armada (1588) by the English fleet revolutionized naval warfare by the success of a guns-only strategy and caused a major overhaul of the Spanish navy, partly along English lines, which resulted in even greater dominance by the Spanish. From the beginning of the 17th century the Dutch cannibalized the Portuguese Empire in the East and, with the immense wealth gained, challenged Spanish hegemony at sea. From the 1620s, Dutch raiders seriously troubled Spanish shipping and, after a number of battles which went both ways, the Dutch Navy finally broke the long dominance of the Spanish Navy in the Battle of the Downs (1639). England emerged as a major naval power in the mid-17th century in the first Anglo-Dutch war with a technical victory but successive decisive Dutch victories in the second and third Anglo-Dutch Wars confirmed the Dutch mastery of the seas during the Dutch Golden Age, financed by the expansion of the Dutch Empire. The French Navy won some important victories near the end of the 17th century but a focus upon land forces led to the French Navy's relative neglect, which allowed the Royal Navy to emerge with an ever-growing advantage in size and quality, especially in tactics and experience, from 1695. Throughout the 18th century the Royal Navy gradually gained ascendancy over the French Navy, with victories in the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714), inconclusive battles in the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748), victories in the Seven Years' War (1754-1763), a partial reversal during the American War of Independence (1775-1783), and consolidation into uncontested supremacy during the 19th century from the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. These conflicts saw the development and refinement of tactics which came to be called the line of battle. The next stage in the evolution of naval warfare was the introduction of metal plating along the hull sides. The increased mass required steam-powered engines, resulting in an arms race between armor and weapon thickness and firepower. The first armored vessels, the French FS Gloire and British HMS Warrior, made wooden vessels obsolete. Another significant improvement came with the invention of the rotating turrets, which allowed the guns to be aimed independently of ship movement. The battle between the CSS Virginia and the USS Monitor during the American Civil War is often cited as the beginning of this age of maritime conflict. A further step change in naval firepower occurred when the United Kingdom launched HMS Dreadnought, but naval tactics still emphasized the line of battle. The first practical military submarines were developed in the late 19th century and by the end of World War I had proven to be a powerful arm of naval warfare. During World War II the German Navy's submarine fleet of U-boats almost starved the United Kingdom into submission and inflicted tremendous losses on US coastal shipping. The German battleship Tirpitz, a sister ship of the Bismarck, was almost put out of action by miniature submarines known as X-Craft. The X-Craft severely damaged her and kept her in port for some months. A major paradigm shift in naval warfare occurred with the introduction of the aircraft carrier. First at Taranto in 1940 and then in Pearl Harbor in 1941, the carrier demonstrated its ability to strike decisively at enemy ships out of sight and range of surface vessels. The Battle of Leyte Gulf (1944) was arguably the largest naval battle in history; it was also the last battle in which battleships played a significant role. By the end of World War II, the carrier had become the dominant force of naval warfare. World War II also saw the United States become by far the largest Naval power in the world with over 70% of the world's total numbers and total tonnage of naval vessels of 1,000 tons or greater. Weighing the US Navy Defense & Security Analysis, Volume 17, Issue December 3, 2001 , pages 259 - 265 Throughout the rest of the 20th century The United States Navy would maintain a tonnage greater than that of the next 17 largest navies combined. Work, Robert O. "Winning the Race:A Naval Fleet Platform Architecture for Enduring Maritime Supremacy". Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments Online. Accessed April 8, 2006. Operations Historically a national navy operates from one or more bases that are maintained by the country or an ally. The base is a port that is specialized in naval operations, and often includes housing for off-shore crew, an arsenal depot for munitions, docks for the vessels, and various repair facilities. During times of war temporary bases may be constructed in closer proximity to strategic locations, as it is advantageous in terms of patrols and station-keeping. Nations with historically strong naval forces have found it advantageous to obtain basing rights in areas of strategic interest. Navy ships can operate independently or with a group, which may be a small squadron of comparable ships, or a larger naval fleet of various specialized ships. The commander of a fleet travels in the flag ship, which is usually the most powerful vessel in the group. Prior to the invention of radio, commands from the flag ship were communicated by means of flags. At night signal lamps could be used for a similar purpose. Later these were replaced by the radio transmitter, or the flashing light when radio silence was needed. A "blue water navy" is designed to operate far from the coastal waters of its home nation. These are ships capable of maintaining station for long periods of time in deep ocean, and will have a long logistical tail for their support. Many are also nuclear powered to save having to refuel. By contrast a "brown water navy" operates in the coastal periphery and along inland waterways, where larger ocean-going naval vessels can not readily enter. Regional powers may maintain a "green water navy" as a means of localized force projection. Blue water fleets may require specialized vessels, such as mine sweepers, when operating in the littoral regions along the coast. Traditions A basic tradition is that all ships commissioned in a navy are referred to as ships rather than vessels, with the exception of submarines, which are known as boats. The prefix on a ship's name indicates that it is a commissioned ship. For example, USS is an acronym which expands to United States Ship; in the Royal Navy, HMS expands to Her Majesty's Ship (or when a King reigns, His Majesty's Ship), and so forth. An important tradition on board British naval vessels (and later those of the U.S. and other nations) has been the ship's bell. This was historically used to mark the passage of time on board a vessel, including the duration of four-hour watches. They were also employed as warning devices in heavy fog, and for alarms and ceremonies. The bell was originally kept polished first by the ship's cook, then later by a person belonging to that division of the ship's personnel. Another important tradition is that of Piping someone aboard the ship. This was originally used to give orders on warships when shouted orders could not have been heard. The piping was done by the ship's boatswain and therefore the instrument is known as the boatswain's Pipe. The two tones it gives and the number of blasts given off, signify the order given. It is also used in a ceremonial way, i.e., to "pipe" someone aboard the ship — usually captains, including the ship's captain, and more senior officers. In the United States, in a tradition that dates back to the Revolutionary War, the First Navy Jack is a flag that has the words, "Don't Tread on Me" on the flag. By English tradition, ships have been referred to as a "she". However, it was long considered bad luck to permit women to sail on board naval vessels. To do so would invite a terrible storm that would wreck the ship. The only women that were welcomed on board were figureheads mounted on the prow of the ship. In spite of these views, some women did serve on board naval vessels, usually as wives of crewmembers. Even today, despite their acceptance in many areas of naval service, women are still not permitted to serve on board U.S. submarines. The major reasons cited by the U.S. Navy are the extended duty tours and close conditions which afford almost no privacy. http://www.csmonitor.com/atcsmonitor/specials/women/work/work012800.html The UK Royal Navy has similar restrictions. Australia, Canada, Spain and Norway have opened submarine service to women sailors, however. http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2001/0102-09.htm By ancient tradition, corpses on board naval vessels were buried at sea. In the past this involved sewing the body up in a shroud that had a weight at one end, often a cannonball. (During the age of sail, the final stitch was placed through the nose of the victim, just to make sure they were really dead.) The body was then placed on a pivoting table attached to the outer hull, and shrouded by a national ensign. After a solemn ceremony, the board was tilted and the body dropped into the deep. Later ceremonies employed the casket or crematory urn. The custom of firing cannon salutes originated in the British Royal Navy. When a cannon is fired, it partially disarms the ship, so firing a cannon for no combat reason showed respect and trust. The British, as the dominant naval power, compelled the ships of weaker nations to make the first salute. As the tradition evolved, the number of cannon fired became an indication of the rank of the official being saluted. Naval organization Ships Historically, navy ships were primarily intended for warfare. They were designed to withstand damage and to inflict the same, but only carried munitions and supplies for the voyage (rather than merchant cargo). Often, other ships which were not built specifically for warfare, such as the galleon or the armed merchant ships in World War II, did carry armaments. In more recent times, navy ships have become more specialized and have included supply ships, troop transports, repair ships, oil tankers and other logistics support ships as well as combat ships. So long as they are commissioned, however, they are all "ships"... Modern navy combat ships are generally divided into seven main categories: aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, submarines, and amphibious assault ships. There are also support and auxiliary ships, including the oiler, minesweeper, patrol boat, hydrographic and oceanographic survey ship and tender. During the age of sail, the ship categories were divided into the ship of the line, frigate, and sloop-of-war. Naval ship names are typically prefixed by an abbreviation indicating the national navy in which they serve. For a list of the prefixes used with ship names (HMS, USS, etc.) see ship prefix. Today ships are significantly faster than in former times, thanks to much improved propulsion systems. Also, the efficiency of the engines has improved a lot, in terms of fuel, and of how many sailors it takes to operate them. In World War II, ships needed to refuel very often. However, today ships can go on very long journeys without refueling. Also, in World War II, the engine room needed about a dozen sailors to work the many engines, however, today, only about 4–5 are needed (depending on the class of the ship). Today, naval strike groups on longer missions are always followed by a range of support and replenishment ships supplying them with anything from fuel and munitions, to medical treatment and postal services. This allows strike groups and combat ships to remain at sea for several months at a time. Boats Many people make the mistake of calling a ship a "boat". The term "boat" refers to small craft limited in their use by size and usually not capable of making independent voyages of any length on the high seas. The old navy adage to differentiate between ships and boats is that boats are capable of being carried by ships. (Submarines by this rule are ships rather than boats, but are customarily referred to as boats reflecting their previous smaller size.) Navies use many types of boat, ranging from dinghies to landing craft. They are powered by either diesels, out-board gasoline motors, or waterjets. Most boats are built of aluminum, fiberglass, or steel. Standard Boats A standard boat is a small craft carried aboard a ship to perform various tasks and evolutions. Landing Craft These boats, carried by various amphibious ships, are designed to carry troops, vehicles, or cargo from ship to shore under combat conditions, to unload, to retract from beach, and to return to the ship. They are especially rugged, with powerful engines, and they are armed. They are usually referred to by their designations such as LCPL (landing craft, personnel) LCM (landing craft mechanized) or LCU (landing craft, utility) rather than by full name. The most common in today's Navy are the LCMs. there are two types of LCMs. Both types have a power operated bow ramp, a cargo well, twin engines, and after structures that house enginerooms, pilot houses, and stowage compartments. The larger version, designated LCM-8 and often called "mike 8", is long, has a beam, and is capable of carrying a heavy tank or 60 tons of cargo. The LCM-6 ("mike 6") is long, has a beam and a cargo capacity of 34 tons. Landing Craft, Air Cushioned Known as LCAC also most commonly called a hover craft. Floats on a cushion of air that allows travel over water and land. It can deliver troops, equipment, and supplies. They are long and carry a load more than 70 tons. Powered by four gas turbine engines, they are capable of speeds as high as . Work Boats (WB) There are two types of WBs, the and the 15 meter (or 50-foot). The WB is a twin screw craft with a forward cargo well and a bow ramp. The WB is normally carried on board salvage ships and is used to assist ships in salvage operations, underwater exploration,coastal survey, repair of other craft, and cargo transport between ship to shore. A portable "A frame" is used to assist with cargo handling. The 15-meter (50 ft) WB is a twin screw craft with steel hull construction and is a shallow draft craft cargo carrier. The 15-meter (50 ft) WB is intended for general purpose missions and transportation of cargo. the craft has a pilot house aft and forward cargo well deck. Rigid hull Inflatable Boats Known as the RHIB they are versatile boats designed for service as a standard ship's boat. The seven meter (24 ft) RHIB is a turbocharged, diesel powered craft with a glass reinforced plastic (GRP) hull. The hull form is a combination of a rigid planing hull with an inflatable tube. The craft are manned by three man crew and are provided with a canvas canopy forward. Personnel Boats (PE) These are fast, V bottomed, diesel powered boats with enclosed spaces specifically designed to transport officers, although smaller types are used for shore party boats, lifeboats, and mail boats. They come in 8,10, and 12 meter (26,33, and 40-foot) lengths. The 8 meter (26 ft) boats have one enclosed cabin. The 10 and 12 meter (33 and 40-foot) boats have enclosed cabins forward and aft, and open cockpits amidships where coxswains steer by wheel. Those designed for officers are painted haze gray with white cabins. Those used by the commanding officers of major warships, chiefs of staff (to admirals), and squadron, patrol, group, wing or division commanders (also known as commodores) are called gigs and have a red stripe added just above the waterline. Personnel boats assigned to flag officers (admirals) are called barges. They have black hulls and a white stripes just above the waterline. Utility Boats These boats, varying in length from to 15 meters (50 ft) are mainly cargo and personnel carrier or heavy duty work boats. Many have been modified for survey work, tending divers, and minesweeping operations. In ideal weather, a 15-meter (50 ft) UB will carry 146 people, plus crew. Utility boats are open boats, though many of the larger ones are provided with canvas canopies. The smaller utility boats are powered by outboard engines. The larger boats have diesel engines. Punts These are open square enders, long. They are either rowed or sculled, and are generally used in port by side cleaners. Special Boats These boats, used by shore stations and for special missions, are not normally carried aboard ships as are the standard boats discussed above. They include line handling boats, buoy boats, aircraft rescue boats, torpedo retrievers, explosive ordnance disposal craft, utility boats, dive boats, targets, and various patrol boats. Many standard boats have been modified for special service. Mark V Special operations craft (SOC) This craft is also used for insertion and extraction of special warfare personnel. The craft is long, and has twain diesel engines driving waterjets. The craft is capable of speeds in excess of and is air deployable. Patrol Boats, River (PBR) This is a , , twin diesel boats with a fiberglass hull and waterjet pump propulsion that permits it to operate in of water. The PBR is highly maneuverable and can reverse course in its own length. It carries radar, communications equipment, and machine guns Units Naval forces are typically arranged into units based on the number of ships included, a single ship being the smallest operational unit. Ships may be combined into squadrons or flotillas, which may be formed into fleets. The largest unit size may be the whole Navy or Admiralty. Ranks A navy will typically have two sets of ranks, one for enlisted personnel and one for officers. Typical ranks for commissioned officers include the following, in ascending order (Commonwealth ranks are listed first on each line; USA ranks are listed second in those instances where they differ from Commonwealth ranks): Acting Sub-Lieutenant / Ensign / Corvette Lieutenant Sub Lieutenant / Lieutenant Junior Grade / Frigate Lieutenant Lieutenant (Commonwealth & USA)/ Ship-of-the-Line Lieutenant / Captain Lieutenant Lieutenant Commander (Commonwealth & USA)/ Corvette Captain Commander (Commonwealth & USA)/ Frigate Captain Captain (Commonwealth & USA)/ Ship-of-the-Line Captain Commodore / Flotilla Admiral (in USA only: Rear Admiral (lower half)) Rear Admiral (in USA only: Rear Admiral (upper half)) Vice Admiral (Commonwealth & USA) Admiral (Commonwealth & USA) Fleet Admiral (Commonwealth & USA) or Admiral of the Fleet or Grand Admiral "Flag officers" include any rank that includes the word "admiral" (or commodore in services other than the US Navy), and are generally in command of a battle group, strike group or similar flotilla of ships, rather than a single ship or aspect of a ship. However, commodores can also be temporary or honrary positions. For example, during World War II, a Navy captain was assigned duty as a convoy commodore, which meant that he was still a captain, but in charge of all the merchant vessels in the convoy. Today, the U.S. Navy uses the term "commodore" for captains in command of multiple vessels (destroyer squadrons, submarine squadrons, riverine squadron), multiple aviation squadrons (air wing or air group) or other units (i.e., special warfare group, etc.). The exception to this rule is carrier air wing commanders who are known as "CAG" from their former title as Commander, Carrier Air Group. The most senior rank employed by a navy will tend to vary depending on the size of the navy and whether it is wartime or peacetime, for example, few people have ever held the rank of Fleet Admiral in the U.S. Navy, the chief of the Royal Australian Navy holds the rank of Vice Admiral, and the chief of the Irish Naval Service holds the rank of Commodore. Coast Guards will typicall employ naval ranks. For example, the U.S. Coast Guard uses the same officer rank titles as the U.S. Navy with the exception of Fleet Admiral. Marine troops During the era of the Roman empire, the naval forces included legionaries for boarding actions. These were troops primarily trained in land warfare, and did not need to be skilled at handling a ship. Much later during the age of sail, a component of marines served a similar role, being ship-borne soldiers who were used either during boarding actions, as sharp-shooters, or in raids along the shore. The Spanish Infantería de Marina was formed in 1537, making it the oldest current marine corps in the world. The British Royal Marines combine both being a ship-based force and also being specially-trained in commando-style operations and tactics, operating in some cases completely separate from the rest of the Royal Navy. The Royal Marines also have their own special forces, the SBS (Special Boat Service); similar to the US Navy SEALs and the Boat Troops of the SAS. The United States Marine Corps has taken this concept of independence further and the USMC has become a separate arm in the United States military, with their own equipment. Additional reading Non-fiction: Combat Fleets of the World: Their Ships, Aircraft and Systems - Naval Institute Press. Published annually. Comprehensive. Braudel, Fernand, The Mediterranean in the Ancient World Corbett, Sir Julian, Some Principles of Maritime Strategy, 1911. Hughes, Jr., Wayne P., Fleet Tactics and Coastal Combat, 1999, Naval Institute Press, ISBN 1-55750-392-3 Mahan, Alfred Thayer, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783, 1918, Little Brown, Boston. Starr, Chester G., The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History, 1989, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-505666-3 . Tangredi, Sam, "Globalization and Maritime Power", 2002 - National Defense University, ISBN 1-57906-060-9 Trafalgar 200 Through the Lens, ISBN 0-9553004-0-1 Fiction: Alan Lewrie series by Dewey Lambdin Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian Horatio Hornblower series by C. S. Forester Richard Bolitho series by Alexander Kent (Pseudonym of Douglas Reeman) Tom Clancy, The Hunt for Red October, Red Storm Rising See also Blue-water navy List of naval battles List of navies Modern naval tactics Naval fleet Naval history Naval warfare Navies of landlocked countries References External links General Info on becoming a Navy Officer A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower NavyCS.com Navy benefits — clip art Israeli Navy Special Forces Units at isayeret.com Military.com Military Search Naval & Maritime page of the World Wide Web Virtual Library NOSI (Naval Open Source Intelligence) - a digital library of world naval operational news, curated from open source intelligence, and intended to serve as a source of continuing education on naval and military affairs Sea and Navy Daily News about sea and Navy U.S. Navy online Haze Gray & Underway Historical Handbook of World Navies (under construction) UK Royal Navy Naval ranks 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7,590 | Grace_Hopper | Rear Admiral Grace Murray Hopper (December 9 1906 – January 1 1992) was an American computer scientist and United States Naval officer. A pioneer in the field, she was one of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I computer, and she developed the first compiler for a computer programming language. Because of the breadth of her accomplishments and her naval rank, she is sometimes referred to as "Amazing Grace". The U.S. Navy destroyer USS Hopper (DDG-70) (see below) was named for her. Early life and education Hopper was born Grace Brewster Murray in New York City. For her preparatory school education, she attended the Hartridge School in Plainfield, NJ. She graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Vassar College with a bachelor's degree in mathematics and physics in 1928 and pursued her graduate education at Yale University, where she received a Master's degree in those subjects in 1930. She married Vincent Hopper (a Ph.D. in English who for many years was chairman of the NYU English department) in 1930. In 1934, she earned a Ph.D. in mathematics from Yale. Her dissertation was titled New Types of Irreducibility Criteria. G.M. Hopper and O. Ore, New types of irreducibility criteria, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 40 (1934) 216 Hopper began teaching mathematics at Vassar in 1931, and by 1941 she was an associate professor. She and Dr. Vincent Hopper divorced in 1945. World War II Naval Service In 1943, Hopper obtained a leave of absence from Vassar and was sworn in to the United States Navy Reserve, one of many women to volunteer to serve in the WAVES. She reported in December and trained at the Naval Reserve Midshipmen's School at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts. Hopper graduated first in her class in 1944, and was assigned to the Bureau of Ships Computation Project at Harvard University as a Lieutenant, junior grade. She served on the Mark I computer programming staff headed by Howard H. Aiken. Hopper and Aiken coauthored three papers on the Mark I,II,II also known as the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. Hopper's request to transfer to the regular Navy at the end of the war was declined due to her age (38). She continued to serve in the United States Navy Reserve. Hopper remained at the Harvard Computation Lab until 1949, turning down a full professorship at Vassar in favor of working as a research fellow under a Navy contract at Harvard. UNIVAC In 1949, Hopper became an employee of the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation as a senior mathematician and joined the team developing the UNIVAC I. In the early 1950s the company was taken over by the Remington Rand corporation and it was while she was working for them that her original compiler work was done. The compiler was known as the A compiler and its first version was A-0. Later versions were released commercially as the ARITH-MATIC, MATH-MATIC and FLOW-MATIC compilers. COBOL COBOL was defined by the CODASYL committee which extended Hopper's FLOW-MATIC language with some ideas from the IBM equivalent, the COMTRAN. However, it was her idea that programs could be written in a language that was close to English rather than in machine code or languages close to machine code (such as assembly language), which is how it was normally done at that time. It is fair to say that COBOL was based very much on her philosophy. From 1967 to 1977, Hopper served as the director of the Navy Programming Languages Group in the Navy's Office of Information Systems Planning and was promoted to the rank of Captain in 1973. She developed validation software for the programming language COBOL and its compiler as part of a COBOL standardization program for the entire Navy. Standards In the 1970s, she pioneered the implementation of standards for testing computer systems and components, most significantly for early programming languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL. The Navy tests for conformance to these standards led to significant convergence among the programming language dialects of the major computer vendors. In the 1980s, these tests (and their official administration) were assumed by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), known today as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Retirement Grace Hopper (January 1984) Hopper retired from the Naval Reserve with the rank of Commander at the end of 1966. She was recalled to active duty in August 1967 for a six-month period that turned into an indefinite assignment. She again retired in 1971 but was asked to return to active duty again in 1972. She was promoted to Captain in 1973 by Admiral Elmo R. Zumwalt, Jr. After Rep. Philip Crane saw her on a March 1983 segment of 60 Minutes, he championed H.J.RES.341 a joint resolution in the House of Representatives which led to her promotion to Commodore by special Presidential appointment. In 1985, the rank of Commodore was renamed Rear Admiral, Lower Half. She retired (involuntarily) from the Navy on August 14, 1986. At a celebration held in Boston on the USS Constitution to celebrate her retirement, Hopper was awarded the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, the highest non-combat award possible by the Department of Defense. At the moment of her retirement, she was the oldest officer in the United States Navy, and aboard the oldest ship in the United States Navy. She was then hired as a senior consultant to Digital Equipment Corporation, a position she retained until her death in 1992, aged 85. Her primary activity in this capacity was as a Goodwill Ambassador, lecturing widely on the early days of computers, her career, and on efforts that computer vendors could take to make life easier for their users. She visited a large fraction of Digital's engineering facilities where she generally received a standing ovation at the conclusion of her remarks. Although she was an interesting and competent speaker, the most memorable part of these talks was her illustration of a nanosecond. She salvaged obsolete Bell System 25 pair telephone cable, cut it to 11 inch (30 cm) lengths, and handed out the individual wires to her listeners. She always wore her Navy full dress uniform to these lectures. She was laid to rest with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery; Section 59, grave 973. Honors 1969 – She won the first "man of the year" award from the Data Processing Management Association. 1971 – The annual "Grace Murray Hopper Award for Outstanding Young Computer Professionals" was established in 1971 by the Association for Computing Machinery. 1973 – She became the first person from the United States and the first woman of any nationality to be made a Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society. 1986 – Upon her retirement she received the Defense Distinguished Service Medal. 1987 – She became a Computer History Museum Fellow Award Recipient. 1988 – She received the Golden Gavel Award at the Toastmasters International convention in Washington, DC. 1991 – She received the National Medal of Technology. 1996 – USS Hopper (DDG-70) was launched. Nicknamed Amazing Grace, it is on a very short list of U.S. military vessels named after women. 2001 - Eavan Boland wrote a poem dedicated to Grace Hopper titled "Code" in her 2001 release "Against Love Poetry" The Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center is located at 7 Grace Hopper Avenue in Monterey, California. Grace Murray Hopper Park, located on South Joyce Street in Arlington, Virginia, is a small memorial park in front of her former residence (River House Apartments) and is now owned by Arlington County, Virginia. Women at the world's largest software company, Microsoft Corporation, formed an employee group called "Hoppers" and established a scholarship in her honor. Hoppers has over 3000 members worldwide. Brewster Academy, a school located in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire, United States, dedicated their computer lab to her in 1985, calling it the Grace Murray Hopper Center for Computer Learning. Hopper had spent her childhood summers at a family home in Wolfeboro. An administration building on Naval Support Activity Annapolis (Previously known as Naval Station Annapolis) in Annapolis, Maryland is named "The Grace Hopper Building" in her honor. Anecdotes Photo of first computer bug Throughout much of her later career, Grace Hopper was much in demand as a speaker at various computer-related events. She was well-known for her lively and irreverent speaking style, as well as a rich treasury of early "war stories". She also received the nickname "Grandma COBOL". While she was working on a Mark II Computer at Harvard University, her associates discovered a moth stuck in a relay and thereby impeding operation, whereupon she remarked that they were "debugging" the system. Though the term computer bug cannot be definitively attributed to Admiral Hopper, she did bring the term into popularity. The remains of the moth can be found in the group's log book at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C. Grace Hopper is famous for her nanoseconds visual aid. People (such as generals and admirals) used to ask her why satellite communication took so long. She started handing out pieces of wire which were just under one foot long, which is the distance that light travels in one nanosecond. She gave these pieces of wire the metonym "nanoseconds." Later she used the same pieces of wire to illustrate why computers had to be small to be fast. At many of her talks and visits, she handed out "nanoseconds" to everyone in the audience, contrasting them with a coil of wire nearly a thousand feet long, representing a microsecond. Later, while giving these lectures while working for DEC, she passed out packets of pepper which she called picoseconds. Notable Quotations The famous quotation "It's easier to ask forgiveness than it is to get permission" is often attributed to Grace Hopper. Also attributed to her is the quote, "A ship in a harbor is safe, but that is not what a ship is built for." During the same interview, she was asked if she has an open mind. She replied, "I believe in having an open mind, but not so open that your brains fall out." "Humans are allergic to change. 'We've always done it that way' is not a good reason to continue to do so. That's why I have a clock on my office wall that runs backwards. It forces visitors to think. They hate me for that." On standards: "The wonderful thing about standards is that there are so many of them from which to choose." Obituary Notices Betts, Mitch (Computerworld 26: 14, 1992) Bromberg, Howard (IEEE Software 9: 103–104, 1992) Danca, Richard A. (Federal Computing Week 6: 26–27, 1992) Hancock, Bill (Digital Review 9: 40, 1992) Power, Kevin (Government Computer News 11: 70, 1992) Sammet, J.E. (Communications of the ACM 35: 128–132, 1992) Weiss, Eric A. (IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 14: 56–58, 1992) See also Women in computing Systems engineering Women in the United States Navy References Further reading Williams' book focuses on the lives and contributions of four notable women scientists: Mary Sears (1905-1997); Florence van Straten (1913-1992); Grace Murray Hopper (1906-1992); Mina Spiegel Rees (1902-1997). External links Extensive Grace Hopper Biography and Images from the United States Navy Naval Historical Center Grace Hopper links from Chips, the United States Navy information technology magazine "Grace Murray Hopper", Biographies of Women Mathematicians, Agnes Scott College A shorter Hopper biography, which unfortunately perpetuates the myth that she coined the term "computer bug". Biography and Wit and Wisdom from a Yale website www.GraceHopper.org site for the annual Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing www.hopper.navy.mil Official United States Navy website for the USS Hopper, which includes a biography of Hopper Rear Admiral Grace Hopper with pages about the lady and the ship named after her Grace Murray Hopper Award The Government Technology Leadership Awards: The Gracies Biography from the San Diego Supercomputer Center More details and photos from the moth/bug in the Mark II Retrieved on 2008-07-26 | Grace_Hopper |@lemmatized rear:3 admiral:6 grace:21 murray:8 hopper:43 december:2 january:2 american:2 computer:21 scientist:2 united:11 state:11 naval:8 officer:2 pioneer:2 field:1 one:4 first:8 programmer:1 harvard:5 mark:5 develop:3 compiler:6 program:4 language:9 breadth:1 accomplishment:1 rank:4 sometimes:1 refer:1 amaze:1 u:2 navy:18 destroyer:1 uss:4 ddg:2 see:2 name:4 early:5 life:3 education:3 bear:1 brewster:2 new:4 york:1 city:1 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7,591 | Biological_membrane | Cross section view of the structures that can be formed by phospholipids in aqueous solutions A biological membrane or biomembrane is an enclosing or separating amphipathic layer that acts as a barrier within or around a cell. It is, almost invariably, a lipid bilayer, composed of a double layer of lipid (usually phospholipid) molecules and proteins that may constitute close to 50% of membrane content. Function Such membranes typically define enclosed spaces or compartments in which cells may maintain a chemical or biochemical environment that differs from the outside. For example, the membrane around peroxisomes shields the rest of the cell from peroxides, and the plasma membrane separates a cell from its surrounding medium. Most organelles are defined by such membranes, and are called membrane-bound organelles. Probably the most important feature of a biomembrane is that it is a selectively-permeable structure. This means that the size, charge, and other chemical properties of the atoms and molecules attempting to cross it will determine whether they succeed to do so. Selective permeability is essential for effective separation of a cell or organelle from its surroundings. Biological membranes also have certain mechanical or elastic properties. If a particle is too large or otherwise unable to cross the membrane by itself, but is still needed by a cell, it could either go through one of the protein channels or be taken in by means of endocytosis. Types of biological membranes Cell membrane Mucous membrane S-layer See also Membrane lipids Endomembrane system that divides the cell into organelles Outer membrane or inner membrane of an organelle Biofilm Membrane protein Osmosis References External links UC Berkeley video lecture on biological membranes | Biological_membrane |@lemmatized cross:3 section:1 view:1 structure:2 form:1 phospholipid:2 aqueous:1 solution:1 biological:4 membrane:17 biomembrane:2 enclosing:1 separate:2 amphipathic:1 layer:3 act:1 barrier:1 within:1 around:2 cell:8 almost:1 invariably:1 lipid:3 bilayer:1 compose:1 double:1 usually:1 molecule:2 protein:3 may:2 constitute:1 close:1 content:1 function:1 typically:1 define:2 enclose:1 space:1 compartment:1 maintain:1 chemical:2 biochemical:1 environment:1 differ:1 outside:1 example:1 peroxisomes:1 shield:1 rest:1 peroxide:1 plasma:1 surround:1 medium:1 organelle:5 call:1 bound:1 probably:1 important:1 feature:1 selectively:1 permeable:1 mean:2 size:1 charge:1 property:2 atom:1 attempt:1 determine:1 whether:1 succeed:1 selective:1 permeability:1 essential:1 effective:1 separation:1 surroundings:1 also:2 certain:1 mechanical:1 elastic:1 particle:1 large:1 otherwise:1 unable:1 still:1 need:1 could:1 either:1 go:1 one:1 channel:1 take:1 endocytosis:1 type:1 mucous:1 see:1 endomembrane:1 system:1 divide:1 outer:1 inner:1 biofilm:1 osmosis:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 uc:1 berkeley:1 video:1 lecture:1 |@bigram aqueous_solution:1 almost_invariably:1 lipid_bilayer:1 plasma_membrane:1 mucous_membrane:1 outer_membrane:1 external_link:1 uc_berkeley:1 |
7,592 | Geography_of_Bulgaria | +Bulgaria Map of Bulgaria. Continent Europe Subregion Balkan Peninsula Geographic coordinates Area - Total - Water Ranked 104110,910 km² 360 km² Coastline 354 km Land boundaries 1,808 km Countries bordered Romania 608 km, Serbia 318 km, Republic of Macedonia 148 km, Greece 494 km, Turkey 240 km Maritime claims 200 nm Highest point Musala, 2,925 m Lowest point Black Sea, 0 m Longest river Iskar River, 368 km Largest lake Lake Burgas 27 km² Land Use - Arable land - Permanent crops - Forests and woodlands - Other 29,9 %1,9 %34 %34,2 % (2005 est.) Climate: Temperate to subtropical Terrain: plains, mountains, hills Natural resources iron ore, manganese, zinc, copper, gold, lead, potash, silver, timber, wildlife, coal, hydropower Natural hazards earthquakes (in certain areas) Environmental issues air and water pollution Bulgaria is a country situated in south-eastern Europe, bordering Romania, Serbia, the Republic of Macedonia, Greece, Turkey and the Black Sea. Its northern border with Romania follows the Danube river until Silistra. The land area of Bulgaria is 110,550 square kilometers, slightly larger than that of Iceland or the U.S. state of Tennessee. The country is situated on the west coast of the Black Sea, with Romania to the north, Greece and Turkey to the south, and Serbia and Macedonia to the west. Considering its small size, Bulgaria has a great variety of topographical features. Even within small parts of the country, the land may be divided into plains, plateaus, hills, mountains, basins, gorges, and deep river valleys. The geographic center of Bulgaria is located in Uzana. Geographic coordinates: Boundaries Although external historical events often changed Bulgaria's national boundaries in its first century of existence, natural terrain features defined most boundaries after 1944, and no significant group of people suffered serious economic hardship because of border delineation. Postwar Bulgaria contained a large percentage of the ethnic Bulgarian people, although numerous migrations into and out of Bulgaria occurred at various times. None of the country's borders was officially disputed in 1991, although nationalist Bulgarians continue to claim that Bulgaria's share of Macedonia—which it shares with both Republic of Macedonia and Greece—is less than just because of the ethnic connection between Macedonians and Bulgarians. Bulgaria has a total border of about 2,264 km. Rivers account for about 680 km and the Black Sea coast for 400 km; the southern and western borders are mainly defined by ridges in high terrain. The western and northern boundaries are shared with Serbia and Romania, respectively, and the Black Sea coastline constitutes the entire eastern border. The Romanian border follows the Danube for 464 km from the northwestern corner of the country to the city of Silistra and then cuts to the east-southeast for 136 km. The Danube, with steep bluffs on the Bulgarian side and a wide area of swamps and marshes on the Romanian side, is one of the most effective river boundaries in Europe. The line through Dobruja is arbitrary and was redrawn several times according to international treaties. In that process, most inhabitants with strong national preferences resettled in the country of their choice. Borders to the south are with Greece and Turkey, the border with Greece being 491 kilometres long, and the Turkish border having a length of 240 kilometres. Topography View from Ray Resthouse towards the Central Balkan Mountains. The Raysko Praskalo waterfall is in the middle. Lake Burgas The relief of Bulgaria is varied. In the relatively small territory of the country there are extensive lowlands, plains, hills, low and high mountains, many valleys and deep gorges. The main characteristic of Bulgaria's topography is alternating bands of high and low terrain that extend east to west across the country. From north to south, those bands (called geomorphological regions) are the Danubian Plain, Stara Planina, the Transitional region and the Rilo-Rhodope Massif. The easternmost sections near the Black Sea are hilly, but they gradually gain height to the west until the westernmost part of the country is entirely high ground. Table showing the distribution of the height zones in Bulgaria География на България, 2002, с.30 : Height zones Height (m) Area (km²) Area (%) Lowlands 0-200 34,858 31,42 Hills 200-600 45,516 41,00 Low mountains 600-1000 16,918 15,24 Medium-high mountains 1000-1600 10,904 9,82 High mountains 1600-2925 2,798 2,52 More than two-thirds of the country is plains, plateaus, or hilly land at an altitude less than 600 m. Plains (below 200 m) make up 31 % of the land, plateaus and hills (200 to 600 m) 41 %, low mountains (600 to 1,000 m) 10 %, medium-sized mountains (1,000 to 1,500 m) 10 %, and high mountains (over 1,500 m) 3 %. The average altitude in Bulgaria is 470 m. The contemporary relief of the country is a result of continuous geological evolution. Due to that evolution there are magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of different origin, age and composition. Their formation began more than 500 million years ago during the Precambrian and continues till now. The Bulgarian lands were often submerged by ancient seas and lakes, some land layers rose others sank. Volcanic eruptions were common both on land and in the water basins. Danubian plain View across the Danubian Plain towards the central Balkan Mountains 90 km away The Danubian Plain extends from the western borders to the Black Sea. It encompasses the area between the Danube River, which forms most of the country's northern border, and Stara Planina to the south. It covers the Moesian plate. As a result of the rock weathering processes the relief is uneaven with flat rising grounds along the valleys and plateaus to the east. The plateau slopes gently from cliffs along the river, then it abuts into the low northern mountains of the Balkan range. The highest point is Tarnov Dyal (502 m) in the Shumen Plateau. The valleys of Vit and Yantra divide the Danubian plain into three parts - western, central and eastern. The altitude rises from west to east. To the north the plain has steep shores along the Danube or forms fertile alluvial plains (Vidinska, Chernopolska, Belenska, Pobrezhie, Aidemirska). Hilly heights and plateaus are typical for the topography of plain. Most of the heights and all plateaus are situated into the eastern parts. There are 14 basalt mounds between Svishtov and the village of Dragomirovo. Stara Planina The Belogradchik Rocks in western Stara Planina The southern edge of the Danubian Plain blends into the foothills of Stara Planina, sometimes thought of as the Bulgarian part of the Carpathian Mountains. The Carpathians resemble a reversed S as they run eastward from the Czech Republic and Slovakia across the northern portion of Romania, swinging southward to the middle of Romania and then running westward, where they are known as the Transylvanian Alps. The mountains turn eastward again at the Iron Gate, a gorge of the Danube River at the Romanian-Serbian border. At that point, they become Stara Planina of Bulgaria. Stara Planina originates at the Timok Valley in Serbia and run southward towards the Sofia Basin in west central Bulgaria. From there they run east to the Black Sea. The Balkans are about 600 km long and 30 to 50 km wide. They retain their height well into central Bulgaria, where Botev Peak, the highest point in the Balkan Mountains, rises to about 2,376 m. The range then continues at lower altitude to the cliffs of the Black Sea. Through most of Bulgaria, the Balkans form the watershed from which rivers drain north to the Danube River or south to the Aegean Sea. Some smaller rivers in the east drain directly to the Black Sea. The Sredna Gora is a narrow ridge about 160 km long and 1,600 m high, running east to west parallel to the Balkans. Nested between both ranges is the Rose Valley, famous for rose oil used in perfume and liqueurs. Subbalkan Valleys and Thracian Plain The Thracian Plain The southern slopes of the Balkan Mountains and the Sredna Gora give way to the Thracian Plain and the Sofia Basin. Roughly triangular in shape, the Thracian Plain originates at a point east of the mountains near Sofia and broadens eastward to the Black Sea. It includes the Maritsa valley and the lowlands that extend from the river to the Black Sea. Like the Danubian Plateau, much of the Thracian Plain is somewhat hilly and not a true plain. Most of its terrain is moderate enough to cultivate. The largest basin in Bulgaria is the Sofia Basin. About 24 km wide and 96 km long, the basin contains the capital city and the area immediately surrounding it. The route through basins and valleys from Belgrade to Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) via Sofia has been historically important since Roman times, determining the strategic significance of the Balkan Peninsula. Bulgaria's largest cities were founded on this route. Paradoxically, although the mountains made many Bulgarian villages and towns relatively inaccessible, Bulgaria has always been susceptible to invasion because no natural obstacle blocked the route through Sofia. Rilo-Rhodope massif Winter landscape in the Vitosha Mountains, with the Rila Mountains in the backgroundRelatively high mountains occupy the area between the Thracian Plain and Sofia Basin and the Greek border to the south. The western parts consist of three ranges: the Vitosha Mountain south of Sofia, the Rila Mountains further south, and the Pirin Mountains in the southwestern corner of the country. They are the most outstanding topographic feature of Bulgaria and of the entire Balkan Peninsula. The Rila range includes Mount Musala, whose 2,925-metre peak is the highest in any Balkan country. About a dozen other peaks in Rila are over 2,600 meters. The highest peaks are characterized by sparse bare rocks and remote lakes above the tree line. The lower peaks, however, are covered with alpine meadows that give the range an overall impression of green beauty. The Pirin range is characterized by rocky peaks and stony slopes. Its highest peak is Mount Vihren, at 2,915 meters the second-highest peak in Bulgaria. Further east are the extensive Rhodope Mountains. Panorama of Pirin Maljovitsa summit in Rila View from the Rhodoppi mountains A significant part of Bulgaria's land is prone to earthquakes. Two especially sensitive areas are the borders of the North Bulgarian Swell (rounded elevation), the center of which is in the Gorna Oryahovitsa area in north-central Bulgaria, and the West Rhodopes Vault, a wide area extending through the Rila and northern Pirin regions to Plovdiv in south-central Bulgaria. Especially strong tremors also occur along diagonal lines running between Skopje in the Republic of Macedonia and Razgrad in northeast Bulgaria, and from Albania eastward across the southern third of Bulgaria through Plovdiv. Sixteen major earthquakes struck Bulgaria between 1900 and 1986, the last two in Strazhitsa on the Skopje-Razgrad fault line. Together the two quakes damaged over 16,000 buildings, half of them severely. One village was almost completely leveled, others badly damaged. Many inhabitants were still living in temporary housing four years later. Drainage Tevno Vasilashko Lake in Pirin mountain in Bulgaria The gorge of river Iskar The Balkan Mountains divide Bulgaria into two nearly equal drainage systems. The larger system drains northward to the Black Sea, mainly by way of the Danube River. This system includes the entire Danubian Plateau and a stretch of land running forty-eight to eighty kilometers inland from the coastline. The second system drains the Thracian Plain and most of the higher lands of the south and southwest to the Aegean Sea. Although only the Danube is navigable, many of the other rivers and streams in Bulgaria have a high potential for the production of hydroelectric power and are sources of irrigation water. Of the Danube's Bulgarian tributaries, all but the Iskar River rise in the Balkan Mountains. The Iskur flows northward to the Danube from its origin in the Rila Mountains, passing through Sofia's eastern suburbs and through a Balkan Mountain valley. The Danube gets slightly more than 4 % of its total volume from its Bulgarian tributaries. As it flows along the northern border, the Danube averages 1.6 to 2.4 kilometers in width. The river's highest water levels usually occur during June floods; it is frozen over an average of forty days per year. Several major rivers flow directly to the Aegean Sea. Most of these streams fall swiftly from the mountains and have cut deep, scenic gorges. Maritsa with its tributaries is by far the largest draining all of the western Thracian Plain, all of the Sredna Gora, the southern slopes of the Balkan Mountains, and the northern slopes of the eastern Rhodopes. After it leaves Bulgaria, the Maritsa forms most of the Greek-Turkish border. Struma and the Mesta (which separate the Pirin Mountains from the main Rhodopes ranges) are the next largest Bulgarian rivers flowing to the Aegean. Struma and Mesta reach the sea through Greece. Climate Vacha Dam in Rhodope mountains Rhodope mountains close to the town of Madzharovo Considering its small area, Bulgaria has an unusually variable and complex climate. The country lies between the strongly contrasting continental and Mediterranean climatic zones. Bulgarian mountains and valleys act as barriers or channels for air masses, causing sharp contrasts in weather over relatively short distances. The continental zone is predominant, because continental air masses flow easily into the unobstructed Danubian Plain. The continental influence, stronger during the winter, produces abundant snowfalls; the Mediterranean influence increases during the second half of summer and produces hot and dry weather. The barrier effect of the Balkan Mountains is felt throughout the country: on the average, northern Bulgaria is about one degree cooler and receives about 192 more millimetres of rain than southern Bulgaria. Because the Black Sea is too small to be a primary influence over much of the country's weather, it only affects the immediate area along its coastline. The Balkan Mountains are the northern boundary of the area in which continental air masses circulate freely. The Rhodope Mountains mark the northern limits of domination by Mediterranean weather systems. The area between, which includes the Northern Thracian Plain, is influenced by a combination of the two systems, with the continental predominating. This combination produces a plains climate resembling that of the Corn Belt in the United States, with long summers and high humidity. The climate in this region is generally more severe than that of other parts of Europe in the same latitude. Because it is a transitional area, average temperatures and precipitation are erratic and may vary widely from year to year. Average precipitation in Bulgaria is about 630 millimetres per year. Dobrudja in the northeast, the Black Sea coastal area, and small part of the Northern Thracian Plain usually receive less than 500 millimetres. The remainder of the Northern Thracian Plain and the Danubian Plateau get less than the country average; the Northern Thracian Plain is often subject to summer droughts. Higher elevations, which receive the most rainfall in the country, may average over 2,540 millimeters per year. The many valley basins scattered through the uplands have temperature inversions resulting in stagnant air. Sofiya is located in such a basin, but its elevation (about 530 meters) tends to moderate summer temperature and relieve oppressive high humidity. Sofiya also is sheltered from the northern European winds by the mountains that surround its troughlike basin. Temperatures in Sofiya average -3°C in January and about 28°C in August. The city's rainfall is near the country average, and the overall climate is pleasant. The coastal climate is moderated by the Black Sea, but strong winds and violent local storms are frequent during the winter. Winters along the Danube River are bitterly cold, while sheltered low valleys opening to the south along the Greek and Turkish borders may be as mild as areas along the Mediterranean or Aegean coasts. Environment The Yantra River running through the city of Veliko Tarnovo Like other former European members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, Bulgaria saw unimpeded industrial growth as a vital sign of social welfare and progress toward the socialist ideal. Because this approach made environmental issues a taboo subject in socialist Bulgaria, the degree of damage by postwar industrial policy went unassessed until the government of Todor Zhivkov (1962-1989) was overthrown in late 1989. The Zhivkov government's commitment to heavy industry and lack of money to spend on protective measures forced it to conceal major environmental hazards, especially when relations with other countries were at stake. Factories that did not meet environmental standards paid symbolic fines and had no incentive to institute real environmental protection measures. Even as late as 1990, socialist officials downplayed the effects on Bulgaria of radiation from the 1986 nuclear power plant accident at Chernobyl'. Citizens were informed that they need not take iodine tablets or use any other protective measures. In 1991 Bulgarian environmentalists estimated that 60 % of the country's agricultural land was damaged by excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers and by industrial fallout. In 1991 two thirds of Bulgarian rivers were polluted, and the Yantra River was classified as the dirtiest river in Europe. By that time, about two-thirds of the primary forests had been cut. However, despite its recognition of the need for greater environmental protection, Bulgaria budgeted only 10.4 billion leva. Perhaps the most serious environmental problem in Bulgaria was in the Danube port city of Rousse. From 1981 to 1989, the chemical pollution that spread from a chlorine and sodium plant across the Danube in Giurgiu, Romania, was a forbidden subject in Bulgaria because it posed a threat to good relations between two Warsaw Pact countries. Chemical plants in Rousse also contributed to the pollution. Citizen environmentalists opposing the situation in Rousse organized the first demonstrations and the first independent political group to oppose the Zhivkov regime. During the Giurgiu plant's first year of operation, chlorine levels in Rousse almost doubled, reaching two times the permissible maximum in the summer of 1990. Over 3,000 families left the city in the 1980s despite government restrictions aimed at covering up the problem. Besides chlorine and its byproducts, the plant produced chemical agents for the rubber industry, and in 1991 some sources reported that the plant was processing industrial waste from Western countries—both activities likely to further damage Rousse's environment. International experts claimed that half of Rousse's pollutants came from Giurgiu, and the others came from Bulgarian industries. In response to the formidable Bulgarian environmental movement, some Bulgarian plants have been closed or have added protective measures; the Giurgiu plant, however, was planning to expand in 1991. Pollution of agricultural land from a copper plant near the town of Srednogorie provoked harsh public criticism. The plant emitted toxic clouds containing copper, lead, and arsenic. In 1988 it released toxic wastewater into nearby rivers used to irrigate land in the Plovdiv-Pazardzhik Plain, which includes some of Bulgaria's best agricultural land. The groundwater beneath the plain also was poisoned. Work has begun on a plan to drain toxic wastewater from the plant's reservoir into the Maritsa River. Environmental improvements for the copper plant and three other factories in the Plovdiv area (a lead and zinc factory, a chemical factory, and a uranium factory) also were planned, but they would take years to implement. None of Bulgaria's large cities escaped serious environmental pollution. Statistics showed that 70 to 80 % of Sofia's air pollution is caused by emissions from cars, trucks, and buses. Temperature inversions over the city aggravated the problem. Two other major polluters, the Kremikovtzi AD Metallurgy Works and the Buhovo uranium mine (both in southwestern Bulgaria), contaminated the region with lead, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ethanol, and mercury. The city of Kardzhali became heavily polluted with lead from its lead and zinc complex. In 1973 the petroleum and chemical plant near the Black Sea port of Burgas released large amounts of chlorine in an incident similar to the one in Srednogorie. Environmentalists estimated that the area within a thirty-kilometer radius of the plant was rendered uninhabitable by that release. The air in Burgas was also heavily polluted with carbon and sulfur dioxide in 1990. In 1990 environmental scientists claimed that two-thirds of Bulgaria's population suffered from the polluted environment to some degree. In 1991 Bulgaria began seeking international assistance in solving environmental problems. Besides joining Romania, Turkey, and Russia in joint scientific studies of the critically polluted Black Sea, Bulgaria actively sought environmental technology and expertise from Western Europe and the United States. Political geography Bulgaria's political geography has changed greatly since the restoration of statehood in 1878. Russia, whose military victories had led to its creation, pushed for a "big Bulgaria" that would include much of Macedonia. At the Congress of Berlin, however, the powers insisted upon a much reduced area, divided until 1885 between the principalities of Bulgaria proper and Eastern Rumelia. An independent kingdom from 1908 to 1946 and thereafter a republic, Bulgaria sought to expand its territory in the two Balkan Wars of 1912-13 and in World Wars I and II. Defeat in the last three conflicts led to a large loss of territory in 1913 and 1919, though the 1940 recovery of the Southern Dobruja was confirmed by the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947. Natural hazards: earthquakes, landslides Environment - current issues: air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; deforestation; forest damage from air pollution and resulting acid rain; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94 Area and boundaries Area: total: 110,910 km² land: 110,550 km² water: 360 km² Area - comparative: slightly larger than Tennessee Land boundaries: total: 1,808 km border countries: Greece 494 km, The Republic of Macedonia 148 km, Romania 608 km, Serbia 318 km, Turkey 240 km Coastline: 354 km Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm Elevation extremes: lowest point: Black Sea 0 m highest point: Musala 2,925 m Resources and land use Natural resources: bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal, timber, arable land Land use: arable land: 43% permanent crops: 2% permanent pastures: 14% forests and woodland: 38% other: 3% (1999 est.) Irrigated land: 12,370 km² (1993 est.) Geography - note: strategic location near Turkish Straits; controls key land routes from Europe to Asia Bulgaria has only one marsh, the Swamp of Durankulak. See also Bulgaria Extreme points of Bulgaria Reservoirs and dams in Bulgaria Rivers of Bulgaria List of cities in Bulgaria List of islands of Bulgaria Geography of Europe References Footnotes | Geography_of_Bulgaria |@lemmatized bulgaria:61 map:1 continent:1 europe:8 subregion:1 balkan:19 peninsula:3 geographic:3 coordinate:2 area:25 total:5 water:6 rank:1 coastline:5 km:26 land:25 boundary:9 country:26 border:21 romania:10 serbia:6 republic:7 macedonia:8 greece:8 turkey:6 maritime:2 claim:5 nm:4 high:23 point:9 musala:3 low:10 black:19 sea:26 long:6 river:29 iskar:3 large:12 lake:6 burgas:4 use:7 arable:3 permanent:3 crop:2 forest:4 woodland:2 est:3 climate:9 temperate:1 subtropical:1 terrain:5 plain:31 mountain:32 hill:5 natural:6 resource:3 iron:2 ore:1 manganese:1 zinc:4 copper:5 gold:1 lead:9 potash:1 silver:1 timber:2 wildlife:1 coal:2 hydropower:1 hazard:3 earthquake:4 certain:1 environmental:15 issue:3 air:15 pollution:15 situate:3 south:12 eastern:7 northern:16 follow:2 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7,593 | History_of_Algeria | The fertile coastal plain of North Africa, especially west of Tunisia, is often called the Maghreb (or Maghrib). North Africa served as a transit region for people moving towards Europe or the Middle East. Thus, the region's inhabitants have been influenced by populations from other areas. Out of this mix developed the Berber people, whose language and culture, although pushed from coastal areas by conquering and colonizing Carthaginians, Romans, and Byzantines, dominated most of the land until the spread of Islam and the coming of the Arabs. The most significant forces in the country's history have been the spread of Islam, Arabization, Ottoman and French colonization, and the struggle for independence. Modern Algeria is mainly Arabic-speaking, but a large portion of the population still speaks Berber, surviving from Neolithic times. Prehistory Early inhabitants of the central Maghreb left behind significant remains including remnants of hominid occupation from ca. 200,000 B.C. found near Saïda. Neolithic civilization (marked by animal domestication and subsistence agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghrib between 6000 and 2000 B.C. This type of economy, so richly depicted in the Tassili-n-Ajjer cave paintings in southeastern Algeria, predominated in the Maghrib until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population, the Berbers lacked a written language and hence tended to be overlooked or marginalized in historical accounts. 1200 BC Madhgacen near Batna city Madghis (Madghacen) was a king The past of Africa's dark centuries Nordles Emile De Felix Gautier http://books.google.fr/books?id=q44cAAAAMAAJ&q=madghis&dq=madghis&pgis=1 of independent kingdoms of the Numide, between -12 at -3 B.C. Since the 5th century BC, the indigenous peoples of northern Africa (identified by the Romans as Berbers) were pushed back from the coast by successive waves of Phoenician, Roman, Vandal, Byzantine, Arab, Turkish, and, finally, French invaders. During the pre-Roman era, several successive Independent States (Masaesyli, Massylii, Moors ... etc). Classical Antiquity Carthage Phoenician traders arrived on the North African coast around 900 BC and established Carthage (in present-day Tunisia) around 800 BC. During the classical period, Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organization supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars, and in 146 BC the city of Carthage was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. Massinissa By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. After that king Massinissa managed to unify Numidia under his rule Histoire de l'émigration kabyle en France au XXe siècleréalités culturelles ... De Karina Slimani-Direche http://books.google.fr/books?id=7oIJeNasSw8C&pg=PA109&dq=massinissa+unificateur&sig=vhUBHBFLF9YIlNHxXjn779NbaPk Les cultures du Maghreb De Maria Angels Roque, Paul Balta, Mohammed Arkoun Histoire de l'émigration kabyle en France au XXe siècleréalités culturelles ... De Karina Slimani-Direche Dialogues d'histoire ancienne De Université de Besançon, Centre de recherches d'histoire ancienne Les cultures du Maghreb De Maria Angels Roque, Paul Balta, Mohammed Arkoun . Rome Berber territory was annexed by the Roman Empire in AD 24. Increases in urbanization and in the area under cultivation during Roman rule caused wholesale dislocations of Berber society, and Berber opposition to the Roman presence was nearly constant. The prosperity of most towns depended on agriculture, and the region was known as the breadbasket of the empire. Christianity arrived in the second century AD. By the end of the fourth century, the settled areas had become Christianized, and some Berber tribes had converted en masse. Middle Ages According to historians of the Middle Ages, the Berbers are divided into two branches, two are from their ancestor Mazigh. In sum, the two branches Botr and Barnès are also divided into tribes. each Maghreb region is made up of several tribes. The large Berber tribes or peoples are Sanhadja, Houaras, Zenata, Masmouda, Kutama, Awarba, Berghwata ... etc. Each tribe is divided into sub tribes. All these tribes have independence and territorial decisions. Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale De Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin http://books.google.fr/books?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR2&dq=in+khaldoun#PPR15,M1 Several Berber dynasties have emerged during the Middle Ages to the Maghreb, Sudan, in Andalusia, Italy, in Mali, Niger, Senegal, Egypt ... etc.. Ibn Khaldoun made a table of Berber Dynasties: Zirid, Banu Ifran, Maghrawa, Almoravid, Hammadid, Almohad, Merinid, Abdalwadid, Wattasid , Meknassa, Hafsid dynasty. http://books.google.fr/books?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR115&dq=ibn+khaldoun#PPR10,M1 Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale De Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin The Almohads were able to unify the Maghreb. And the Berbers of the Middle Ages have contributed to the Arabization of the Maghreb, which is a historical fact Les langues de la Méditerranée De Robert Bistolfi Islamization The 8th and 11th centuries AD, brought Islam and the Arabic language.The introduction of Islam and Arabic had a profound impact on North Africa (or the Maghreb) beginning in the seventh century. The new religion and language introduced changes in social and economic relations, established links with a rich culture, and provided a powerful idiom of political discourse and organization. From the great Berber dynasties of the Almoravids and Almohads to the militants seeking an Islamic state in the 1990s, the call to return to true Islamic values and practices has had social resonance and political power. The first Arab military expeditions into the Maghrib, between 642 and 669, resulted in the spread of Islam. The Umayyads (a Muslim dynasty based in Damascus from 661 to 750) recognized that the strategic necessity of dominating the Mediterranean dictated a concerted military effort on the North African front. By 711 Umayyad forces helped by Berber converts to Islam had conquered all of North Africa. In 750 the Abbasids succeeded the Umayyads as Muslim rulers and moved the caliphate to Baghdad. Under the Abbasids, Berber Kharijites Sufri Banu Ifran were opposed to Umayyad and Abbasids. After, the Rustumids (761–909) actually ruled most of the central Maghrib from Tahirt, southwest of Algiers. The imams gained a reputation for honesty, piety, and justice, and the court of Tahirt was noted for its support of scholarship. The Rustumid imams failed, however, to organize a reliable standing army, which opened the way for Tahirt’s demise under the assault of the Fatimid dynasty. With their interest focused primarily on Egypt and Muslim lands beyond, the Fatimids left the rule of most of Algeria to the Zirids and Hammadid (972–1148), a Berber dynasty that centered significant local power in Algeria for the first time but they still in war with Banu Ifran (kingdom of Tlemcen) and Maghraoua (942-1068) Ibn Khaldun, History of Berber, party Zenata and Sanhadja . This period was marked by constant conflict, political instability, and economic decline. Following a large incursion of Arab bedouin from Egypt beginning in the first half of the eleventh century, the use of Arabic spread to the countryside, and sedentary Berbers were gradually Arabized. The Almoravid (“those who have made a religious retreat”) movement developed early in the eleventh century among the Sanhaja Berbers of the western Sahara. The movement’s initial impetus was religious, an attempt by a tribal leader to impose moral discipline and strict adherence to Islamic principles on followers. But the Almoravid movement shifted to engaging in military conquest after 1054. By 1106 the Almoravids had conquered Morocco, the Maghrib as far east as Algiers, and Spain up to the Ebro River. Like the Almoravids, the Almohads (“unitarians”) found their inspiration in Islamic reform. The Almohads took control of Morocco by 1146, captured Algiers around 1151, and by 1160 had completed the conquest of the central Maghrib. The zenith of Almohad power occurred between 1163 and 1199. For the first time, the Maghrib was united under a local regime, but the continuing wars in Spain overtaxed the resources of the Almohads, and in the Maghrib their position was compromised by factional strife and a renewal of tribal warfare. In the central Maghrib, the Abdalwadid founded a dynasty at Tlemcen in Algeria. For more than 300 years, until the region came under Ottoman suzerainty in the sixteenth century, the Zayanids kept a tenuous hold in the central Maghrib. Many coastal cities asserted their autonomy as municipal republics governed by merchant oligarchies, tribal chieftains from the surrounding countryside, or the privateers who operated out of their ports. Nonetheless, Tlemcen, the “pearl of the Maghrib,” prospered as a commercial center. The final triumph of the 700-year Christian reconquest of Spain was marked by the fall of Granada in 1492. Christian Spain imposed its influence on the Maghrib coast by constructing fortified outposts and collecting tribute. But Spain never sought to extend its North African conquests much beyond a few modest enclaves. Privateering was an age-old practice in the Mediterranean, and North African rulers engaged in it increasingly in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries because it was so lucrative. Algeria became the privateering city-state par excellence, and two privateer brothers were instrumental in extending Ottoman influence in Algeria. At about the time Spain was establishing its presidios in the Maghrib, the Muslim privateer brothers Aruj and Khair ad Din—the latter known to Europeans as Barbarossa, or Red Beard—were operating successfully off Tunisia. In 1516 Aruj moved his base of operations to Algiers but was killed in 1518. Khair ad Din succeeded him as military commander of Algiers, and the Ottoman sultan gave him the title of beylerbey (provincial governor). Ottoman rule Under Khair ad Din’s regency, Algiers became the center of Ottoman authority in the Maghrib. For 300 years, Algeria was a province of the Ottoman Empire under a regency that had Algiers as its capital (see Dey). Subsequently, with the institution of a regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled. Turkish was the official language, and Arabs and Berbers were excluded from government posts. In 1671 a new leader took power, adopting the title of dey. In 1710 the dey persuaded the sultan to recognize him and his successors as regent, replacing the pasha in that role. Although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman government ceased to have effective influence there. European maritime powers paid the tribute demanded by the rulers of the privateering states of North Africa (Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco) to prevent attacks on their shipping. The Napoleonic wars of the early nineteenth century diverted the attention of the maritime powers from suppressing what they derogatorily called piracy. But when peace was restored to Europe in 1815, Algiers found itself at war with Spain, the Netherlands, Prussia, Denmark, Russia, and Naples. Algeria and surrounding areas, collectively known as the Barbary States, were responsible for piracy in the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the enslaving of Christians, actions which brought them into the First and Second Barbary War with the United States of America. French period North African boundaries have shifted during various stages of the conquests. The borders of modern Algeria were created by the French, whose colonization began in 1830 (French invasion began on July 5). To benefit French colonists (many of whom were not in fact of French origin but Italian, Maltese, and Spanish) and nearly the entirety of whom lived in urban areas, northern Algeria was eventually organized into overseas departments of France, with representatives in the French National Assembly. France controlled the entire country, but the traditional Muslim population in the rural areas remained separated from the modern economic infrastructure of the European community. As a result of what the French considered an insult to the French consul in Algiers by the dey (dey hit him with a fly swatter) in 1827, France blockaded Algiers for three years. In 1830, France invaded and occupied the coastal areas of Algeria, citing a diplomatic incident as casus belli. Hussein Dey went into exile. French colonization then gradually penetrated southwards, and came to have a profound impact on the area and its populations. The European conquest, initially accepted in the Algiers region, was soon met by a rebellion, led by Abdel Kadir, which took roughly a decade for the French troops to put down. By 1848 nearly all of northern Algeria was under French control, and the new government of the Second Republic declared the occupied lands an integral part of France. Three "civil territories"—Algiers, Oran, and Constantine—were organized as French départements (local administrative units) under a civilian government. In addition to enduring the affront of being ruled by a foreign, non-Muslim power, many Algerians lost their lands to the new government or to colonists. Traditional leaders were eliminated, coopted, or made irrelevant, and the traditional educational system was largely dismantled; social structures were stressed to the breaking point. Viewed by the Europeans with condescension at best and contempt at worst, the Algerians endured 132 years of colonial subjugation. From 1856, native Muslims and Jews were viewed as French subjects, but not French citizens. However, in 1865, Napoleon III allowed them to apply for full French citizenship, a measure that few took, since it involved renouncing the right to be governed by sharia law in personal matters, and was considered a kind of apostasy; in 1870, French citizenship was made automatic for Jewish natives, a move which largely angered the Muslims, who began to consider the Jews as the accomplices of the colonial power. Nonetheless, this period saw progress in health, some infrastructures, and the overall expansion of the economy of Algeria, as well as the formation of new social classes, which, after exposure to ideas of equality and political liberty, would help propel the country to independence. During the years of French domination, the struggles to survive, to co-exist, to gain equality, and to achieve independence shaped a large part of the Algerian national identity. Nationalism and resistance A new generation of Muslim leadership emerged in Algeria at the time of World War I and grew to maturity during the 1920s and 1930s. Various groups were formed in opposition to French rule, most notable the National Liberation Front (FLN) and the National Algerian Movement. Colons (colonists), or, more popularly, pieds noirs (literally, black feet) dominated the government and controlled the bulk of Algeria’s wealth. Throughout the colonial era, they continued to block or delay all attempts to implement even the most modest reforms. But from 1933 to 1936, mounting social, political, and economic crises in Algeria induced the indigenous population to engage in numerous acts of political protest. The government responded with more restrictive laws governing public order and security. Algerian Muslims rallied to the French side at the start of World War II as they had done in World War I. But the colons were generally sympathetic to the collaborationist Vichy regime established following France’s defeat by Nazi Germany. After the fall of the Vichy regime in Algeria (November 11 1942), the Free French commander in chief in North Africa slowly rescinded repressive Vichy laws, despite opposition by colon extremists. In March 1943, Muslim leader Ferhat Abbas presented the French administration with the Manifesto of the Algerian People, signed by 56 Algerian nationalist and international leaders. The manifesto demanded an Algerian constitution that would guarantee immediate and effective political participation and legal equality for Muslims. Instead, the French administration in 1944 instituted a reform package, based on the 1936 Viollette Plan, that granted full French citizenship only to certain categories of "meritorious" Algerian Muslims, who numbered about 60,000. The tensions between the Muslim and colon communities exploded on May 8, 1945, V-E Day. When a Muslim march in was met with violence, marchers rampaged. The army and police responded by conducting a prolonged and systematic ratissage (literally, raking over) of suspected centers of dissidence. According to official French figures, 1,500 Muslims died as a result of these countermeasures. Other estimates vary from 6,000 to as high as 45,000 killed. In April 1945 the French had arrested the Algerian nationalist leader Messali Hadj. On May 1 the followers of his Parti du Peuple Algérien (PPA) participated in demonstrations which where violently put down by the police. Several Algerians were killed. But it was on May 8, when France celebrated Germany's unconditional surrender, that more deaths provoked a violent uprising by the Algerian population in and around Sétif. The army set villages on fire, and between 6,000 and 8,000 people were killed, according to Yves Bénot; other sources, including the present Algerian government, put the death toll as high as 50,000. Many nationalists drew the conclusion that independence could not be won by peaceful means, and so started organizing for violent rebellion including use of terrorism. In August 1947, the French National Assembly approved the government-proposed Organic Statute of Algeria. This law called for the creation of an Algerian Assembly with one house representing Europeans and "meritorious" Muslims and the other representing the remaining 8 million or more Muslims. Muslim and colon deputies alike abstained or voted against the statute but for diametrically opposed reasons: the Muslims because it fell short of their expectations and the colons because it went too far. War of Independence The Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962), brutal and long, was the most recent major turning point in the country's history. Although often fratricidal, it ultimately united Algerians and seared the value of independence and the philosophy of anticolonialism into the national consciousness. Abusive tactics of the French Army remains a controversial subject in France to this day. In the early morning hours of November 1, 1954, the National Liberation Front (Front de Libération Nationale—FLN) launched attacks throughout Algeria in the opening salvo of a war of independence. An important watershed in this war was the massacre of civilians by the FLN near the town of Philippeville in August 1955. The government claimed it killed 1,273 guerrillas in retaliation; according to the FLN, 12,000 Muslims perished in an orgy of bloodletting by the armed forces and police, as well as colon gangs. After Philippeville, all-out war began in Algeria. Eventually, protracted negotiations led to a cease-fire signed by France and the FLN on March 18, 1962, at Evian, France. The Evian accords also provided for continuing economic, financial, technical, and cultural relations, along with interim administrative arrangements until a referendum on self-determination could be held. The Evian accords guaranteed the religious and property rights of French settlers, but the perception that they would not be respected led to the exodus of one million pieds-noirs and harkis. Between 1 and 2 million Algerians are estimated to have died during the war, and an additional 2 or 3 million, out of a total Muslim population of 9 or 10 million, were made into refugees or forcibly relocated into government-controlled camps. Much of the countryside and agriculture was devastated, along with the modern economy, which had been dominated by urban European settlers (the pied-noirs). These nearly one million people of mostly French descent were forced to flee the country at independence due to the unbridgeable rifts opened by the civil war and threats from units of the victorious FLN; along with them fled Algerians of Jewish descent and those Muslim Algerians who had supported a French Algeria (harkis). Post-war infighting, armed chaos and lynch trials of supposed traitors contributed to tens of thousands of deaths after the pullback of French troops, until the new Algerian government, led by Ben Bella, was able to secure control. 1960s The referendum was held in Algeria on July 1, 1962, and France declared Algeria independent on July 3. On September 8, 1963, a constitution was adopted by referendum, and later that month, Ahmed Ben Bella was formally elected the first president. The war of national liberation and its aftermath had severely disrupted Algeria's society and economy. In addition to the physical destruction, the exodus of the colons deprived the country of most of its managers, civil servants, engineers, teachers, physicians, and skilled workers. The homeless and displaced numbered in the hundreds of thousands, many suffering from illness, and some 70 percent of the work force was unemployed. The months immediately following independence witnessed the pell-mell rush of Algerians, their government, and its officials to claim the property and jobs left behind by the Europeans. In the 1963 March Decrees, Ben Bella declared that all agricultural, industrial, and commercial properties previously owned and operated by Europeans were vacant, thereby legalizing confiscation by the state. A new constitution drawn up under close FLN supervision was approved by nationwide referendum in September 1963, and Ben Bella was confirmed as the party's choice to lead the country for a five-year term. Under the new constitution, Ben Bella as president combined the functions of chief of state and head of government with those of supreme commander of the armed forces. He formed his government without needing legislative approval and was responsible for the definition and direction of its policies. There was no effective institutional check on its powers. Opposition leader Hocine Aït-Ahmed quit the National Assembly in 1963 to protest the increasingly dictatorial tendencies of the regime and formed a clandestine resistance movement, the Front of Socialist Forces (Front des Forces Socialistes—FFS) dedicated to overthrowing the Ben Bella regime by force. Late summer 1963 saw sporadic incidents attributed to the FFS. More serious fighting broke out a year later. The army moved quickly and in force to crush the rebellion. As minister of defense, Houari Boumédienne had no qualms about sending the army to put down regional uprisings because he felt they posed a threat to the state. However, when Ben Bella attempted to co-opt allies from among some of those regionalists, tensions increased between Houari Boumédienne and Ahmed Ben Bella. In 1965 the military toppled Ahmed Ben Bella, and Houari Boumedienne became head of state. The military has dominated Algerian politics until today. On June 19, 1965, Houari Boumédienne deposed Ahmed Ben Bella in a military coup d'état that was both swift and bloodless. Ben Bella "disappeared", and would not be seen again until he was released from house arrest in 1980 by Boumédienne's successor, Colonel Chadli Bendjedid. Boumédienne immediately dissolved the National Assembly and suspended the 1963 constitution. Political power resided in the Council of the Revolution, a predominantly military body intended to foster cooperation among various factions in the army and the party. Houari Boumédienne’s position as head of government and of state was initially not secure partly because of his lack of a significant power base outside the armed forces; he relied strongly on a network of former associates known as the Oujda group (after his posting as ALN leader in the Moroccan border town of Oujda during the war years), but he could not fully dominate the fractious regime. This situation may have accounted for his deference to collegial rule. Following attempted coups—most notably that of chief-of-staff Col. Tahar Zbiri in December 1967—and a failed assassination attempt in (April 25, 1968), Boumédienne consolidated power and forced military and political factions to submit to what was essentially his personal rule. He took a systematic, authoritarian approach to state building, arguing that Algeria needed stability and an economic base before any political institutions. 1970s to 1980s Eleven years after Houari Boumédienne took power, after much public debate, a long-promised new constitution was promulgated in November 1976, and Boumédienne was elected president with 95 percent of the cast votes. Boumédienne’s death on December 27, 1978 set off a struggle within the FLN to choose a successor. To break a deadlock between two candidates, Colonel Chadli Bendjedid, a moderate who had collaborated with Boumédienne in deposing Ahmed Ben Bella, was sworn in on February 9, 1979. He was re-elected in 1984 and 1988. After violent riots, a new constitution was adopted in 1989 that allowed the formation of political associations other than the FLN. It also removed the armed forces, which had run the government since the days of Boumédienne, from a role in the operation of the government. 1990s Among the scores of parties that sprang up under the new constitution, the militant Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) was the most successful, winning more than 50% of all votes cast in municipal elections in June 1990 as well as in first stage of national legislative elections held in December 1991. The surprising first round of success for the fundamentalist FIS party in the December 1991 balloting caused the army to intervene, crack down on the FIS, and postpone subsequent elections. The fundamentalist response has resulted in a continuous low-grade civil conflict with the secular state apparatus, which nonetheless has allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties. In 1996 a referendum introduced changes to the constitution, enhancing presidential powers and banning Islamist parties. Presidential elections were held in April 1999. Although seven candidates qualified for election, all but Abdelaziz Bouteflika, who appeared to have the support of the military as well as the FLN, withdrew on the eve of the election amid charges of electoral fraud. Bouteflika went on to win with 70 percent of the cast votes. Following his election to a five-year term, Bouteflika concentrated on restoring security and stability to the strife-ridden country. As part of his endeavor, he successfully campaigned to provide amnesty to thousands of members of the banned FIS. The so-called Civil Concord was approved in a nationwide referendum in September 2000. The reconciliation by no means ended all violence, but it reduced violence to manageable levels. An estimated 80% of those fighting the regime accepted the amnesty offer. The president also formed national commissions to study reforms of the education system, judiciary, and state bureaucracy. President Bouteflika was rewarded for his efforts at stabilizing the country when he was elected to another five-year term in April 2004, in an election contested by six candidates without military interference. In September 2005, another referendum -—this one to consider a proposed Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation—- passed by an overwhelming margin. The charter coupled another amnesty offer to all but the most violent participants in the Islamist uprising with an implicit pardon for security forces accused of abuses in fighting the rebels. See also History of Africa History of present-day nations and states References Library of Congress Country Study on Algeria U.S. Department of State Background Note on Algeria Algeria watch Blue Spader Journals Rulers.org — Algeria List of rulers for Algeria | History_of_Algeria |@lemmatized fertile:1 coastal:4 plain:1 north:12 africa:10 especially:1 west:1 tunisia:3 often:2 call:5 maghreb:9 maghrib:15 serve:1 transit:1 region:6 people:8 move:5 towards:1 europe:2 middle:5 east:2 thus:1 inhabitant:2 influence:5 population:8 area:9 mix:1 develop:3 berber:26 whose:2 language:5 culture:4 although:4 push:2 conquer:3 colonize:1 carthaginian:3 roman:8 byzantine:2 dominate:6 land:4 spread:4 islam:6 come:3 arab:5 significant:4 force:14 country:10 history:5 arabization:2 ottoman:10 french:33 colonization:3 struggle:3 independence:11 modern:4 algeria:31 mainly:1 arabic:4 speaking:1 large:5 portion:1 still:2 speak:1 survive:2 neolithic:2 time:5 prehistory:1 early:5 central:5 leave:3 behind:2 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mazigh:1 sum:1 botr:1 barnès:1 make:6 sanhadja:2 houaras:1 zenata:2 masmouda:1 kutama:1 awarba:1 berghwata:1 sub:1 decision:1 des:2 berbères:2 et:2 dynasty:10 musulmanes:2 afrique:2 septentrionale:2 ibn:5 khaldūn:2 william:2 macguckin:2 khaldoun:3 sudan:1 andalusia:1 italy:1 mali:1 niger:1 senegal:1 egypt:3 table:1 zirid:1 banu:3 ifran:3 maghrawa:1 almoravid:6 hammadid:2 almohad:2 merinid:1 abdalwadid:2 wattasid:1 meknassa:1 hafsid:1 almohads:5 able:2 contribute:2 fact:2 langues:1 la:1 méditerranée:1 robert:1 bistolfi:1 islamization:1 bring:2 introduction:1 profound:2 impact:2 beginning:1 seventh:1 new:12 religion:1 introduce:2 change:2 social:5 economic:6 relation:2 rich:1 provide:3 powerful:1 idiom:1 discourse:1 great:1 militant:2 seek:2 islamic:5 return:1 true:1 value:2 practice:2 resonance:1 first:8 expedition:1 umayyad:4 muslim:23 base:6 damascus:1 recognize:2 strategic:1 necessity:1 dictate:1 concerted:1 effort:2 front:7 help:2 abbasids:3 succeed:2 ruler:5 caliphate:1 baghdad:1 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attack:2 shipping:1 napoleonic:1 nineteenth:1 divert:1 attention:1 suppress:1 derogatorily:1 piracy:2 peace:2 restore:2 netherlands:1 prussia:1 denmark:1 russia:1 naples:1 collectively:1 barbary:2 responsible:2 sea:1 well:5 enslaving:1 action:1 united:2 america:1 boundary:1 various:3 border:2 create:1 invasion:1 july:3 benefit:1 colonist:3 origin:1 italian:1 maltese:1 spanish:1 entirety:1 live:1 urban:2 overseas:1 department:2 representative:1 national:13 assembly:5 entire:1 traditional:3 rural:1 separate:1 infrastructure:2 community:2 consider:4 insult:1 consul:1 hit:1 fly:1 swatter:1 blockade:1 three:2 invade:1 occupy:1 cite:1 diplomatic:1 incident:2 casus:1 belli:1 hussein:1 go:3 exile:1 penetrate:1 southward:1 initially:2 accept:2 soon:1 meet:2 rebellion:3 lead:5 abdel:1 kadir:1 roughly:1 decade:1 troop:2 put:4 declare:3 occupied:1 integral:1 civil:5 oran:1 constantine:1 départements:1 administrative:2 unit:2 civilian:2 addition:2 endure:2 affront:1 foreign:1 non:1 algerian:22 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7,594 | Asymptote | An asymptote of a real-valued function is a curve which describes the behavior of as either or tends to infinity. In other words, as one moves along the graph of in some direction, the distance between it and the asymptote eventually becomes smaller than any distance that one may specify. If a curve A has the curve B as an asymptote, one says that A is asymptotic to B. Similarly B is asymptotic to A, so A and B are called asymptotic. A linear asymptote is essentially a straight line to which a graphed curve becomes closer and closer but does not become identical.Asymptotes, graphs and definitions Definition graphed on Cartesian coordinates. The x and y axes are the asymptotes. A locally connected curve A is said to be an asymptote of the locally connected curve B when the following is true: For any positive , there exist unbounded connected subsets (pieces of the respective curves) and , such that for every point in its distance to the nearest point in is lower than . There are many different cases that can be treated separately, such as linear asymptotes (below), although intuitively the two functions become arbitrarily close. A specific example of linear asymptotes can be found in the graph of the function f(x) = 1/x, in which two asymptotes are seen: the horizontal line y = 0 and the vertical line x = 0. There are multiple ways of interpreting asymptotic behavior. In particular the statement "A function f(x) is said to be asymptotic to a function g(x) as x → ∞" has any of at least three distinct meanings: f(x) − g(x) → 0. f(x) / g(x) → 1. f(x) / g(x) has a nonzero limit. More formally, curves and are asymptotic if and only if there exist continuous functions , such that all of the following conditions are all true: Multiple asymptotes, intersection The graph of a function can have vertical, horizontal and slant asymptotes, e.g. A curve can intersect its asymptote, even infinitely many times. A function may have multiple asymptotes, of different or the same kind. One such function with a horizontal, vertical, and oblique asymptote is graphed to the right. In particular a function y = ƒ(x) can have at most 2 horizontal or 2 oblique asymptotes (or one of each). There may be any number of vertical asymptotes, such as y=tan(x) A curve may cross its asymptote repeatedly or may never actually coincide with it. A curve may have multiple asymptotes. Further, it may even intersect an asymptote infinitely many times, as graphed to the left. Linear asymptotes Horizontal asymptotes The graph of a function can have two horizontal asymptotes. An example of such a function would be Suppose f is a function. Then the line y = a is a horizontal asymptote for f if Intuitively, this means that f(x) can be made as close as desired to a by making x big enough. How big is big enough depends on how close one wishes to make f(x) to a. This means that far out on the curve, the curve will be close to the line. Note that if then the graph of f has two horizontal asymptotes: y = a and y = b. An example of such a function is the arctangent function. Another example would be ƒ(x)=1/(x2+1), which has a horizontal asymptote at y=0, as can be seen by the limit Vertical asymptotes The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of a curve y=f(x) if at least one of the following statements is true: Intuitively, if x = a is an asymptote of f, then, if we imagine x approaching a from one side, the value of f(x) grows without bound; i.e., f(x) becomes large (positively or negatively), and, in fact, becomes larger than any finite value. Note that f(x) may or may not be defined at a: what the function is doing precisely at x = a does not affect the asymptote. For example, consider the function As , f(x) has a vertical asymptote at 0, even though . Another example is ƒ(x) = 1/(x-1) which has a vertical asymptote of x=1 as shown by the limit Oblique asymptotes In the graph of , the y-axis (x = 0) and the line y = x are both asymptotes. When a linear asymptote is not parallel to the x- or y-axis, it is called either an oblique asymptote or equivalently a slant asymptote. The function f(x) is asymptotic to y = mx + b if Note that y = mx + b is never a vertical asymptote, but can be a horizontal asymptote if m=0 (in which case it is not an oblique asymptote). An example is ƒ(x)=(x2-1)/x which has an oblique asymptote of y=x (m=1, b=0) as seen in the limit Computationally identifying an oblique asymptote can be more difficult than a horizontal or vertical asymptote, in particular because the m and b might not be known. It is typical to evaluate the appropriate limit and choose m, b so that it exists and equals zero. For example, to find the oblique asymptote of y=25(x3+2x2+3x+4)/(5x2+6x+7), one can evaluate the limit So the oblique asymptote is y=5x+4. Nonlinear asymptotes (x3+2x2+3x+4)/x asymptotic to x2+2x+3Curves may be asymptotic to each other without either being linear. In this case the general characterizations are typically necessary. For example, (x3+2x2+3x+4)/x is asymptotic to x2+2x+3 because of the limit (ex)/(2x+1) asymptotic to (ex)/xAlso, (ex)/(2x+1) is asymptotic to (ex)/x because of the limit However, ex is not asymptotic to (ex)/x because of the limit Elementary methods for identifying linear asymptotes Asymptotes of many elementary functions can be found without the explicit use of limits (although the derivations of such methods typically use limits). Rational functions A rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote or oblique (slant) asymptote, and possibly many vertical asymptotes. The degree of the numerator and degree of the denominator determine whether or not there are any horizontal or oblique asymptotes. The cases are tabulated below, where deg(numerator) is the degree of the numerator, and deg(denominator) is the degree of the denominator. + Table listing the cases of horizontal and oblique asymptotes for rational functions deg(numerator) - deg(denominator) Horizontal/oblique asymptotes Example, asymptote <0 y=0 0 y="ratio of leading coefficients" 1 1 oblique >1 None The vertical asymptotes occur only when the denominator is zero (If both the numerator and denominator are zero, the multiplicities of the zero are compared). For example, the following function has vertical asymptotes at x=0, and x=1, but not at x=2 Oblique asymptotes Black: the graph of . Red: the asymptote . Green: difference between the graph and its asymptote for When the numerator of a rational function has degree exactly one greater than the denominator, the function has an oblique (slant) asymptote. The asymptote is the polynomial term after dividing the numerator and denominator. This phenomenon occurs because when dividing the fraction, there will be a linear term, and a remainder. For example, consider the function shown to the right. As the value of x increases, f approaches the asymptote y=x. This is because the other term, y=1/(x+1) becomes smaller. If the degree of the numerator is more than 1 larger than the degree of the denominator, and the denominator does not divide the numerator, there will be a nonzero remainder that goes to zero as x increases, but the quotient will not be linear, and the function does not have an oblique asymptote. Translations of known functions If a known function has an asymptote (such as y=0 for f(x)=ex), then the translations of it also have an asymptote. If x=a is a vertical asymptote of f(x), then x=a+h is a vertical asymptote of f(x-h)+k If y=b is a horizontal asymptote of f(x), then y=b+k is a horizontal asymptote of f(x-h)+k For example, f(x)=ex-1+2 has horizontal asymptote y''=0+2=2, and no vertical or oblique asymptotes. See also Asymptotic analysis Asymptotic curve Big O notation | Asymptote |@lemmatized asymptote:67 real:1 value:4 function:29 curve:15 describe:1 behavior:2 either:3 tend:1 infinity:1 word:1 one:11 move:1 along:1 graph:13 direction:1 distance:3 eventually:1 become:6 small:2 may:10 specify:1 b:13 say:3 asymptotic:15 similarly:1 call:2 linear:9 essentially:1 straight:1 line:7 becomes:1 closer:2 identical:1 definition:2 cartesian:1 coordinate:1 x:57 ax:1 locally:2 connect:3 following:4 true:3 positive:1 exist:3 unbounded:1 subset:1 piece:1 respective:1 every:1 point:2 near:1 low:1 many:5 different:2 case:5 treat:1 separately:1 although:2 intuitively:3 two:4 arbitrarily:1 close:4 specific:1 example:13 find:3 f:24 see:4 horizontal:18 vertical:16 multiple:4 way:1 interpret:1 particular:3 statement:2 g:5 least:2 three:1 distinct:1 meaning:1 nonzero:2 limit:11 formally:1 continuous:1 condition:1 intersection:1 slant:4 e:2 intersect:2 even:3 infinitely:2 time:2 kind:1 oblique:18 right:2 ƒ:4 number:1 tan:1 cross:1 repeatedly:1 never:2 actually:1 coincide:1 far:2 left:1 asymptotes:5 would:2 suppose:1 mean:2 make:3 desire:1 big:4 enough:2 depend:1 wish:1 note:3 arctangent:1 another:2 imagine:1 approach:2 side:1 grow:1 without:3 bound:1 large:3 positively:1 negatively:1 fact:1 finite:1 define:1 precisely:1 affect:1 consider:2 though:1 show:2 axis:2 parallel:1 equivalently:1 mx:2 computationally:1 identify:2 difficult:1 might:1 know:3 typical:1 evaluate:2 appropriate:1 choose:1 equal:1 zero:5 nonlinear:1 general:1 characterization:1 typically:2 necessary:1 ex:8 xalso:1 however:1 elementary:2 method:2 explicit:1 use:2 derivation:1 rational:4 possibly:1 degree:7 numerator:9 denominator:10 determine:1 whether:1 tabulate:1 deg:4 table:1 list:1 ratio:1 lead:1 coefficient:1 none:1 occur:2 multiplicity:1 compare:1 black:1 red:1 green:1 difference:1 exactly:1 great:1 polynomial:1 term:3 divide:3 phenomenon:1 fraction:1 remainder:2 increase:2 go:1 quotient:1 translation:2 also:2 h:3 k:3 analysis:1 notation:1 |@bigram linear_asymptote:5 cartesian_coordinate:1 vertical_horizontal:1 horizontal_vertical:2 oblique_asymptote:13 vertical_asymptote:11 horizontal_asymptote:9 positively_negatively:1 numerator_denominator:2 nonzero_remainder:1 |
7,595 | Klaus_Maria_Brandauer | Klaus Maria Brandauer (born 22 June 1944) is an Austrian actor, film director, and pedagogue. Personal life Brandauer was born as Klaus Georg Steng in Bad Aussee, Austria. http://www.whoswho.de/templ/te_bio.php?PID=98&RID=1 He was the son of Maria Brandauer and Georg Stenj, a civil servant. Klaus Maria Brandauer Biography (1944-) He subsequently took his mother's maiden name as part of his stage name, Klaus Maria Brandauer. He was married to Karin Brandauer from 1963 until her death in 1992; they had one son. Career Brandauer began acting onstage in 1962. After working in national theatre and television, he made his film debut in 1972. His starring and award-winning role in István Szabó's Mephisto (1981) as a self-absorbed actor playing an actor, launched his international career. He followed this with parts in Never Say Never Again (1983), Out of Africa (1985, for which he was nominated for an Oscar and won a Golden Globe), and Szabó's Oberst Redl (1985) and Hanussen (1988). Brandauer was originally cast as Marko Ramius in The Hunt for Red October. That role eventually went to Oscar winner Sean Connery, who played James Bond to Brandauer's Largo in Never Say Never Again (1983). He co-starred with Connery again in The Russia House (1990). Brandauer directed his first film in 1989, Georg Elser - Einer aus Deutschland, with himself in the title role. His other film roles have been in The Lightship (1986), Streets of Gold (1986), Burning Secret (1988), The Russia House (1990), White Fang (1991), Becoming Colette (1992), Introducing Dorothy Dandridge (1999), and Everyman's Feast (2002). In 1989 he participated in the great production film for the bicentennial of the French Revolution by the french television channel TF1. He played the role of Georges Danton speaking in fluent French. In August 2006, Brandauer's much-awaited production of The Threepenny Opera gained a mixed reception. Brandauer had resisted questions about how his production of Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill's classic musical comedy about the criminal MacHeath would differ from earlier versions, and his production featured Mack the Knife in a three-piece suit and white gloves, stuck to Brecht's text, and avoided any references to contemporary politics or issues. Brandauer is fluent in four languages: German, Hungarian, English and French and has acted in each, and is a professor at the Max Reinhardt Seminar in Vienna. Awards 1982 Nominated - BAFTA Award for Best Newcomer / Mephisto 1988 Won - Bavarian Film Awards, Best Actor http://www.bayern.de/Anlage19170/PreistraegerdesBayerischenFilmpreises-Pierrot.pdf / Burning Secret 1986 Won - Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture / Out of Africa 1986 Won - KCFCC Award for Best Supporting Actor / Out of Africa 1986 Won - National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor / Out of Africa 1986 Won - NYFCC Award for Best Supporting Actor / Out of Africa 1986 Nominated - Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor / Out of Africa 1986 Nominated - BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role / Out of Africa 1988 Nominated - European Film Award for Best Actor / Hanussen 2000 Nominated - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor - Miniseries or a Movie / Introducing Dorothy Dandridge 2000 Nominated - Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Series, Miniseries or Television Film / Introducing Dorothy Dandridge Selected filmography Year Film Role Notes 1972 The Salzburg Connection Johann Kronsteiner 1979 A Sunday in October Hoffmann 1981 Mephisto Hendrik Höfgen Won Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film 1983 Never Say Never Again Maximilian Largo 1985 Oberst Redl Alfred Redl 1985 Out of Africa Baron Bror Blixen Nominated for Academy Award and won a Golden Globe. 1988 Hanussen Klaus Schneider 1990 The Russia House Dante 1991 White Fang Alex Larson 2009 Tetro Carlo Tetrocini References External links | Klaus_Maria_Brandauer |@lemmatized klaus:5 maria:4 brandauer:13 born:1 june:1 austrian:1 actor:13 film:10 director:1 pedagogue:1 personal:1 life:1 bear:1 georg:3 steng:1 bad:1 aussee:1 austria:1 http:2 www:2 whoswho:1 de:2 templ:1 php:1 pid:1 rid:1 son:2 stenj:1 civil:1 servant:1 biography:1 subsequently:1 take:1 mother:1 maiden:1 name:2 part:2 stage:1 marry:1 karin:1 death:1 one:1 career:2 begin:1 act:2 onstage:1 work:1 national:2 theatre:1 television:3 make:1 debut:1 starring:1 award:15 win:9 role:7 istván:1 szabó:2 mephisto:3 self:1 absorbed:1 play:3 launch:1 international:1 follow:1 never:6 say:3 africa:8 nominate:8 oscar:2 golden:4 globe:4 oberst:2 redl:3 hanussen:3 originally:1 cast:1 marko:1 ramius:1 hunt:1 red:1 october:2 eventually:1 go:1 winner:1 sean:1 connery:2 james:1 bond:1 largo:2 co:1 star:1 russia:3 house:3 direct:1 first:1 elser:1 einer:1 aus:1 deutschland:1 title:1 lightship:1 street:1 gold:1 burn:2 secret:2 white:3 fang:2 become:1 colette:1 introduce:3 dorothy:3 dandridge:3 everyman:1 feast:1 participate:1 great:1 production:4 bicentennial:1 french:4 revolution:1 channel:1 george:1 danton:1 speak:1 fluent:2 august:1 much:1 awaited:1 threepenny:1 opera:1 gain:1 mixed:1 reception:1 resist:1 question:1 bertolt:1 brecht:2 kurt:1 weill:1 classic:1 musical:1 comedy:1 criminal:1 macheath:1 would:1 differ:1 early:1 version:1 feature:1 mack:1 knife:1 three:1 piece:1 suit:1 glove:1 stick:1 text:1 avoid:1 reference:2 contemporary:1 politics:1 issue:1 four:1 language:2 german:1 hungarian:1 english:1 professor:1 max:1 reinhardt:1 seminar:1 vienna:1 bafta:2 best:11 newcomer:1 bavarian:1 bayern:1 preistraegerdesbayerischenfilmpreises:1 pierrot:1 pdf:1 support:7 motion:1 picture:1 kcfcc:1 board:1 review:1 nyfcc:1 academy:3 supporting:1 european:1 primetime:1 emmy:1 outstanding:1 miniseries:2 movie:1 series:1 select:1 filmography:1 year:1 note:1 salzburg:1 connection:1 johann:1 kronsteiner:1 sunday:1 hoffmann:1 hendrik:1 höfgen:1 foreign:1 maximilian:1 alfred:1 baron:1 bror:1 blixen:1 schneider:1 dante:1 alex:1 larson:1 tetro:1 carlo:1 tetrocini:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram http_www:2 self_absorbed:1 golden_globe:4 sean_connery:1 dorothy_dandridge:3 threepenny_opera:1 bertolt_brecht:1 kurt_weill:1 nominate_bafta:2 bafta_award:2 motion_picture:1 actor_supporting:1 supporting_role:1 nominate_primetime:1 primetime_emmy:1 emmy_award:1 actor_miniseries:1 external_link:1 |
7,596 | Chloroplast | The inside of a chloroplast Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of processes called photosynthesis. The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek words chloros which means green and plast which means form or entity. Chloroplasts are members of a class of organelles known as plastids. Evolutionary origin Plant cells with visible chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are one of the many different types of organelles in the cell. They are generally considered to have originated as endosymbiotic cyanobacteria (previously known as blue-green algae). This was first suggested by Mereschkowsky in 1905 after an observation by Schimper in 1883 that chloroplasts closely resemble cyanobacteria. All chloroplasts are thought to derive directly or indirectly from a single endosymbiotic event (in the Archaeplastida), except for Paulinella chromatophora, which has recently acquired a photosynthetic cyanobacterial endosymbiont which is not closely related to chloroplasts of other eukaryotes. In that they derive from an endosymbiotic event, chloroplasts are similar to mitochondria but chloroplasts are found only in plants and protista. The chloroplast is surrounded by a double-layered composite membrane with an intermembrane space; further, it has reticulations, or many infoldings, filling the inner spaces. The chloroplast has its own DNA which codes for redox proteins involved in electron transport in photosynthesis, this is termed the plastome. In green plants, chloroplasts are surrounded by two lipid-bilayer membranes. The inner membrane is now believed to correspond to the outer membrane of the ancestral cyanobacterium. Chloroplasts have their own genome, which is considerably reduced compared to that of free-living cyanobacteria, but the parts that are still present show clear similarities with the cyanobacterial genome. Plastids may contain 60-100 genes whereas cyanobacteria often contain more than 1500 genes. Many of the missing genes are encoded in the nuclear genome of the host. The transfer of nuclear information has been estimated in tobacco plants at one gene for every 16000 pollen grains. In some algae (such as the heterokonts and other protists such as Euglenozoa and Cercozoa), chloroplasts seem to have evolved through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts, forming chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. In some cases, such secondary endosymbionts may have themselves been engulfed by still other eukaryotes, thus forming tertiary endosymbionts. In the alga Chlorella, there is only one chloroplast, which is bell shaped. In some groups of mixotrophic protists such as the dinoflagellates, chloroplasts are separated from a captured alga or diatom and used temporarily. These klepto chloroplasts may only have a lifetime of a few days and are then replaced. Structure Chloroplasts are observable morphologically as flat discs usually 2 to 10 micrometer in diameter and 1 micrometer thick. In land plants they are generally 5 μm in diameter and 2.3 μm thick. The chloroplast is contained by an envelope that consists of an inner and an outer phospholipid membrane. Between these two layers is the intermembrane space. A typical parenchyma cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The material within the chloroplast is called the stroma, corresponding to the cytosol of the original bacterium, and contains one or more molecules of small circular DNA. It also contains ribosomes, although most of its proteins are encoded by genes contained in the host cell nucleus, with the protein products transported to the chloroplast. Chloroplast ultrastructure: 1. outer membrane 2. intermembrane space 3. inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope) 4. stroma (aqueous fluid) 5. thylakoid lumen (inside of thylakoid) 6. thylakoid membrane 7. granum (stack of thylakoids) 8. thylakoid (lamella) 9. starch 10. ribosome 11. plastidial DNA 12. plastoglobule (drop of lipids) Within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids, the sub-organelles which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana (singular: granum). A thylakoid has a flattened disk shape. Inside it is an empty area called the thylakoid space or lumen. Photosynthesis takes place on the thylakoid membrane; as in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, it involves the coupling of cross-membrane fluxes with biosynthesis via the dissipation of a proton electrochemical gradient. In the electron microscope, thylakoid membranes appear as alternating light-and-dark bands, each 0.01 μm thick. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane is the antenna complex, which consists of the light-absorbing pigments, including chlorophyll and carotenoids, and proteins (which bind the chlorophyll). This complex both increases the surface area for light capture, and allows capture of photons with a wider range of wavelengths. The energy of the incident photons is absorbed by the pigments and funneled to the reaction centre of this complex through resonance energy transfer. Two chlorophyll molecules are then ionised, producing an excited electron which then passes onto the photochemical reaction centre. Recent studies have shown that chloroplasts can be interconnected by tubular bridges called stromules, formed as extensions of their outer membranes. Chloroplasts appear to be able to exchange proteins via stromules, and thus function as a network. Transplastomic plants Recently, chloroplasts have caught attention by developers of genetically modified plants. In most flowering plants, chloroplasts are not inherited from the male parent, although in plants such as pines, chloroplasts are inherited from males. Where chloroplasts are inherited only from the female, transgenes in these plastids cannot be disseminated by pollen. This makes plastid transformation a valuable tool for the creation and cultivation of genetically modified plants that are biologically contained, thus posing significantly lower environmental risks. This biological containment strategy is therefore suitable for establishing the coexistence of conventional and organic agriculture. While the reliability of this mechanism has not yet been studied for all relevant crop species, recent results in tobacco plants are promising, showing a failed containment rate of transplastomic plants at 3 in 1,000,000. See also Chloroplast membrane Inner membrane Outer membrane Calvin cycle Light-dependent reaction Mitochondria Hydrogenosome CoRR Hypothesis Notes References External links Chloroplast - Cell Centered Database Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis: The Role of Light from Kimball's Biology Pages Chloroplast, Botany 3D structures of proteins associated with thylakoid membrane Co-Extra research on chloroplast transformation | Chloroplast |@lemmatized inside:3 chloroplast:38 organelle:4 find:2 plant:13 cell:8 eukaryotic:3 organism:1 conduct:1 photosynthesis:6 capture:3 light:6 energy:4 conserve:1 free:2 form:5 atp:1 reduce:2 nadp:1 nadph:1 complex:4 set:1 process:1 call:5 word:2 derive:3 greek:1 chloros:1 mean:2 green:3 plast:1 entity:1 member:1 class:1 know:2 plastid:4 evolutionary:1 origin:1 visible:1 one:4 many:3 different:1 type:1 generally:2 consider:1 originate:1 endosymbiotic:3 cyanobacteria:4 previously:1 blue:1 algae:2 first:1 suggest:1 mereschkowsky:1 observation:1 schimper:1 chloroplasts:1 closely:2 resemble:1 think:1 directly:1 indirectly:1 single:1 event:3 archaeplastida:1 except:1 paulinella:1 chromatophora:1 recently:2 acquire:1 photosynthetic:1 cyanobacterial:2 endosymbiont:1 relate:1 eukaryote:2 similar:1 mitochondria:1 protista:1 surround:2 double:1 layer:3 composite:1 membrane:18 intermembrane:3 space:5 far:1 reticulation:1 infolding:1 fill:1 inner:5 dna:3 cod:1 redox:1 protein:6 involve:2 electron:3 transport:2 term:1 plastome:1 two:3 lipid:2 bilayer:1 believe:1 correspond:2 outer:5 ancestral:1 cyanobacterium:1 genome:3 considerably:1 compare:1 living:1 part:1 still:2 present:1 show:3 clear:1 similarity:1 may:3 contain:9 gene:5 whereas:1 often:1 miss:1 encode:2 nuclear:2 host:2 transfer:2 information:1 estimate:1 tobacco:2 every:1 pollen:2 grain:1 heterokonts:1 protist:2 euglenozoa:1 cercozoa:1 seem:1 evolve:1 secondary:2 endosymbiosis:1 engulf:2 second:1 three:1 four:1 case:1 endosymbionts:2 thus:3 tertiary:1 alga:2 chlorella:1 bell:1 shape:2 group:1 mixotrophic:1 dinoflagellate:1 separate:1 captured:1 diatom:1 use:1 temporarily:1 klepto:1 lifetime:1 day:1 replace:1 structure:2 observable:1 morphologically:1 flat:1 disc:1 usually:1 micrometer:2 diameter:2 thick:3 land:1 μm:3 envelope:2 consist:2 phospholipid:1 typical:1 parenchyma:1 material:1 within:2 stroma:3 cytosol:1 original:1 bacterium:1 molecule:2 small:1 circular:1 also:2 ribosome:2 although:2 nucleus:1 product:1 ultrastructure:1 aqueous:1 fluid:1 thylakoid:10 lumen:2 granum:2 stack:3 thylakoids:3 lamella:1 starch:1 plastidial:1 plastoglobule:1 drop:1 sub:1 site:1 arrange:1 grana:1 singular:1 flatten:1 disk:1 empty:1 area:2 take:1 place:1 mitochondrial:1 oxidative:1 phosphorylation:1 coupling:1 cross:1 flux:1 biosynthesis:1 via:2 dissipation:1 proton:1 electrochemical:1 gradient:1 microscope:1 appear:2 alternate:1 dark:1 band:1 embed:1 antenna:1 absorb:2 pigment:2 include:1 chlorophyll:3 carotenoid:1 bind:1 increase:1 surface:1 allow:1 photon:2 wider:1 range:1 wavelength:1 incident:1 funnel:1 reaction:3 centre:2 resonance:1 ionise:1 produce:1 excited:1 pass:1 onto:1 photochemical:1 recent:2 study:2 interconnect:1 tubular:1 bridge:1 stromules:2 extension:1 able:1 exchange:1 function:1 network:1 transplastomic:2 catch:1 attention:1 developer:1 genetically:2 modify:2 flowering:1 inherit:3 male:2 parent:1 pine:1 female:1 transgene:1 cannot:1 disseminate:1 make:1 transformation:2 valuable:1 tool:1 creation:1 cultivation:1 biologically:1 pose:1 significantly:1 low:1 environmental:1 risk:1 biological:1 containment:2 strategy:1 therefore:1 suitable:1 establish:1 coexistence:1 conventional:1 organic:1 agriculture:1 reliability:1 mechanism:1 yet:1 relevant:1 crop:1 specie:1 result:1 promise:1 failed:1 rate:1 see:1 calvin:1 cycle:1 dependent:1 mitochondrion:1 hydrogenosome:1 corr:1 hypothesis:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 center:1 database:1 role:1 kimball:1 biology:1 page:1 botany:1 associate:1 co:1 extra:1 research:1 |@bigram eukaryotic_organism:1 green_algae:1 closely_resemble:1 directly_indirectly:1 closely_relate:1 membrane_intermembrane:2 intermembrane_space:3 lipid_bilayer:1 outer_membrane:4 pollen_grain:1 eukaryotic_cell:2 secondary_endosymbionts:1 micrometer_diameter:1 μm_diameter:1 thylakoid_membrane:5 oxidative_phosphorylation:1 electrochemical_gradient:1 electron_microscope:1 membrane_chloroplast:1 genetically_modify:2 flowering_plant:1 containment_strategy:1 external_link:1 kimball_biology:1 |
7,597 | Outline_of_critical_theory | In the humanities and social sciences, critical theory has two quite different meanings with different origins and histories, one originating in social theory and the other in literary criticism. The former is theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or explaining it. The latter is theory used in the critical analysis and understanding of literature and is discussed in greater detail under literary theory. The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to critical theory: Essence of critical theory Critical theory Cultural studies Major critical theorists Notable works in critical theory Truth theory Branches of critical theory Social theory - Literary theory - Thing theory History of critical theory Main article: History of critical theory Gender studies Lauren Berlant Judith Butler Susan McClary Susan McClary's constructions of subjectivity in Franz Schubert's music Laura Mulvey Marxist theory Frankfurt School Theodor Adorno Herbert Marcuse Walter Benjamin Jürgen Habermas Max Horkheimer Friedrich Pollock Louis Althusser Mikhail Bakhtin Étienne Balibar Antonio Gramsci Michael Hardt Fredric Jameson Ernesto Laclau Georg Lukács Chantal Mouffe Antonio Negri Valentin Voloshinov Hegemony Posthegemony Postcolonialism Chinhua Achebe An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" Homi Bhabha Frantz Fanon Dual consciousness Edward Said Orientalism Structuralism Roland Barthes Ferdinand de Saussure Claude Lévi-Strauss Louis Althusser Post-structuralism Roland Barthes Michel Foucault Julia Kristeva Bruno Latour Deconstruction Geoffrey Bennington Hélène Cixous Jonathan Culler Jacques Derrida Werner Hamacher Geoffrey Hartman Martin Heidegger Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe Jean-François Lyotard Paul de Man J. Hillis Miller Jean-Luc Nancy Christopher Norris Avital Ronell Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak Postmodernism Gilles Deleuze Félix Guattari Ernesto Laclau Claude Lefort Cyborg theory Reconstructivism Paulo Freire John Dewey Psychoanalytic theory Félix Guattari Schizoanalysis Ecosophy Luce Irigaray Teresa de Lauretis Jacques Lacan Julia Kristeva Slavoj Zizek Sigmund Freud The Interpretation of Dreams On Narcissism Totem and Taboo Beyond the Pleasure Principle The Ego and the Id The Future of an Illusion Civilization and Its Discontents Moses and Monotheism Queer theory Judith Butler Heteronormativity Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick Gloria E. Anzaldúa New Queer Cinema Queer Pedagogy Semiotics Roland Barthes Julia Kristeva Charles Sanders Peirce Ferdinand de Saussure Cultural anthropology René Girard Theories of identity Private sphere Public sphere Lingustical theories of literature Mary Louise Pratt Major works One-Dimensional Man - Escape from Freedom - Theory of Communicative Action - Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, - Negative Dialectic - Dialectic of Enlightenment - Writing and Difference - Of Grammatology - Mythologies - Practice of Hope - Reinventing Social Work Major theorists Theodor Adorno - Louis Althusser - Roland Barthes - Jean Baudrillard - Jacques Lacan - Gilles Deleuze - Jacques Derrida - Michel Foucault - Jürgen Habermas - Herbert Marcuse - Edward Said Critical theory lists Main article: List of critical theory topics See also the Frankfurt School External links | Outline_of_critical_theory |@lemmatized humanity:1 social:4 science:1 critical:12 theory:26 two:1 quite:1 different:2 meaning:1 origin:1 history:3 one:2 originating:1 literary:3 criticism:1 former:1 orient:2 toward:1 critique:1 change:1 society:1 whole:1 contrast:1 traditional:1 understand:1 explain:1 latter:1 use:1 analysis:1 understanding:1 literature:2 discuss:1 great:1 detail:1 following:1 outline:1 provide:1 overview:1 topical:1 guide:1 essence:1 cultural:2 study:2 major:3 theorist:2 notable:1 work:3 truth:1 branch:1 thing:1 main:2 article:2 gender:1 lauren:1 berlant:1 judith:2 butler:2 susan:2 mcclary:2 construction:1 subjectivity:1 franz:1 schubert:1 music:1 laura:1 mulvey:1 marxist:1 frankfurt:2 school:2 theodor:2 adorno:2 herbert:2 marcuse:2 walter:1 benjamin:1 jürgen:2 habermas:2 max:1 horkheimer:1 friedrich:1 pollock:1 louis:3 althusser:3 mikhail:1 bakhtin:1 étienne:1 balibar:1 antonio:2 gramsci:1 michael:1 hardt:1 fredric:1 jameson:1 ernesto:2 laclau:2 georg:1 lukács:1 chantal:1 mouffe:1 negri:1 valentin:1 voloshinov:1 hegemony:1 posthegemony:1 postcolonialism:1 chinhua:1 achebe:1 image:1 africa:1 racism:1 conrad:1 heart:1 darkness:1 homi:1 bhabha:1 frantz:1 fanon:1 dual:1 consciousness:1 edward:2 say:2 orientalism:1 structuralism:2 roland:4 barthes:4 ferdinand:2 de:4 saussure:2 claude:2 lévi:1 strauss:1 post:1 michel:2 foucault:2 julia:3 kristeva:3 bruno:1 latour:1 deconstruction:1 geoffrey:2 bennington:1 hélène:1 cixous:1 jonathan:1 culler:1 jacques:4 derrida:2 werner:1 hamacher:1 hartman:1 martin:1 heidegger:1 philippe:1 lacoue:1 labarthe:1 jean:3 françois:1 lyotard:1 paul:1 man:2 j:1 hillis:1 miller:1 luc:1 nancy:1 christopher:1 norris:1 avital:1 ronell:1 gayatri:1 chakravorty:1 spivak:1 postmodernism:1 gilles:2 deleuze:2 félix:2 guattari:2 lefort:1 cyborg:1 reconstructivism:1 paulo:1 freire:1 john:1 dewey:1 psychoanalytic:1 schizoanalysis:1 ecosophy:1 luce:1 irigaray:1 teresa:1 lauretis:1 lacan:2 slavoj:1 zizek:1 sigmund:1 freud:1 interpretation:1 dream:1 narcissism:1 totem:1 taboo:1 beyond:1 pleasure:1 principle:1 ego:1 id:1 future:1 illusion:1 civilization:1 discontent:1 moses:1 monotheism:1 queer:3 heteronormativity:1 eve:1 kosofsky:1 sedgwick:1 gloria:1 e:1 anzaldúa:1 new:1 cinema:1 pedagogy:1 semiotics:1 charles:1 sander:1 peirce:1 anthropology:1 rené:1 girard:1 identity:1 private:1 sphere:3 public:2 lingustical:1 mary:1 louise:1 pratt:1 dimensional:1 escape:1 freedom:1 communicative:1 action:1 structural:1 transformation:1 negative:1 dialectic:2 enlightenment:1 writing:1 difference:1 grammatology:1 mythology:1 practice:1 hope:1 reinvent:1 baudrillard:1 list:2 topic:1 see:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram overview_topical:1 judith_butler:2 franz_schubert:1 theodor_adorno:2 herbert_marcuse:2 jürgen_habermas:2 max_horkheimer:1 louis_althusser:3 mikhail_bakhtin:1 antonio_gramsci:1 georg_lukács:1 racism_conrad:1 heart_darkness:1 frantz_fanon:1 roland_barthes:4 claude_lévi:1 lévi_strauss:1 post_structuralism:1 michel_foucault:2 julia_kristeva:3 jacques_derrida:2 martin_heidegger:1 jean_françois:1 jean_luc:1 gilles_deleuze:2 félix_guattari:2 paulo_freire:1 luce_irigaray:1 jacques_lacan:2 sigmund_freud:1 moses_monotheism:1 sander_peirce:1 dialectic_enlightenment:1 jean_baudrillard:1 external_link:1 |
7,598 | Amphetamine | Amphetamine is a psychostimulant drug that is known to produce increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite. Amphetamine is related to drugs such as methamphetamine and dextroamphetamine, which are a group of potent drugs that act by increasing levels of norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine in the brain, inducing euphoria. Rang and Dale, Pharmacology The group includes prescription CNS drugs commonly used to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults and children. It is also used to treat symptoms of traumatic brain injury and the daytime drowsiness symptoms of narcolepsy, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome and chronic fatigue syndrome. Initially, amphetamine was more popularly used to diminish the appetite and to control weight. Brand names of the drugs that contain amphetamine include Adderall, Vyvanse, and Dexedrine. The drug is also used illegally as a recreational drug and as a performance enhancer. The name amphetamine is derived from its chemical name: alpha-methylphenethylamine. The name is also used to refer to the class of compounds derived from amphetamine, often referred to as the substituted amphetamines. Recreational users of amphetamine have coined numerous nicknames for amphetamine, some of the more common street names for amphetamine include speed, crank, and whizz. The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports the typical retail price of amphetamine in Europe varied between 10€ and 15€ a gram in half of the reporting countries. History Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 by the Romanian Lazăr Edeleanu in Berlin, Germany. Edeleanu L. "Uber einige Derivate der Phenylmethacrylsaure und der Phenylisobuttersaure". Ber Deutsch Chem Ges. 1887;Vol 20:616. He named the compound phenylisopropylamine. It was one of a series of compounds related to the plant derivative ephedrine, which had been isolated from Ma-Huang that same year by Nagayoshi Nagai. No pharmacological use was found for amphetamine until 1927, when pioneer psychopharmacologist Gordon Alles resynthesized and tested it on himself, in search of an artificial replacement for ephedrine. From 1933 or 1934 Smith, Kline and French began selling the volatile base form of the drug as an inhaler under the trade name Benzedrine, useful as a decongestant but readily usable for non-medical purposes. One of the first attempts at using amphetamines as a scientific study was done by M. H. Nathanson, a Los Angeles physician, in 1935. He studied the subjective effects of amphetamine in 55 hospital workers who were each given 20 mg of Benzedrine. The two most commonly reported drug effects were "a sense of well being and a feeling of exhilaration" and "lessened fatigue in reaction to work". Iverson, Leslie. Speed, Ecstacy, Ritalin: the science of amphetamines. Oxford, New York. Oxford University Press, 2006. During World War II amphetamine was extensively used to combat fatigue and increase alertness in soldiers. After decades of reported abuse, the FDA banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamines to prescription use in 1965, but non-medical use remained common. Amphetamine became a schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act in 1971. The related compound methamphetamine was first synthesized from ephedrine in Japan in 1918 by chemist Akira Ogata, via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. The German military was notorious for their use of methamphetamine in World War II. Adolf Hitler received daily shots of a medicine his doctor called "vitamultine", which contained various essential vitamins in addition to methamphetamine. The pharmaceutical Pervitin was a tablet of methamphetamine which was available in Germany from 1938 and widely used in the Wehrmacht, but by mid-1941 it became a controlled substance, partly because of the amount of time needed for a soldier to rest and recover after use and partly because of abuse. For the rest of the war, military doctors continued to issue the drug, but less frequently and with increasing discrimination as the war progressed onwards towards Nazi Germany's and the Axis' eventual defeat in 1945. In 1997 and 1998, Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1998). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia rigidula. Phytochemistry 49(5), pp 1377-1380 Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Erik Allen Burt, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1997). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia berlandieri. Phytochemistry 46(2), pp 249-254 researchers at Texas A&M University claimed to have found amphetamine and methamphetamine in the foliage of two Acacia species native to Texas, A. berlandieri and A. rigidula. Previously, both of these compounds had been thought to be human inventions. These findings have never been duplicated, and the analyses are believed by many biochemists to be the result of experimental error, and as such the validity of the report has come into question. Alexander Shulgin, one of the most experienced biochemical investigators and the discoverer of many new psychotropic substances, has tried to contact the Texas A&M researchers and verify their findings. The authors of the paper have not responded; natural amphetamine remains most likely a false discovery. Ask Dr. Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine Amphetamines were still in use in the US Air Force as of 2003. They are believed to have played a role in the deaths of four Canadian soldiers in Afghanistan involved in a friendly fire incident. Indications Indicated for: Diet suppressant ADD ADHD Narcolepsy Treatment-resistant depressionContraindications: CNS Stimulants Agitated states Patients with a history of drug abuse Glaucoma MAOI useAdverse effects: Cardiovascular: Vasoconstriction Tachycardia Palpitation Ear, nose, and throat: Decongestant Xerostomia Eye: Mydriasis Relaxation of ciliary muscle Gastrointestinal: Decreased secretions Decreased peristalsis Musculoskeletal: Involuntary movements Respiratory: Bronchodilation Genitourinary: Urinary retention Erectile dysfunction Others: Dizziness Decrease in appetite/weight loss Euphoria Insomnia Visual disturbance Aggressiveness Nausea/vomitingOther information: Neuropharmacology: Indirect dopamine agonist Indirect norepinephrine agonist Indirect serotonin agonist (lesser) MAOI Along with methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, etc.), amphetamine is one of the standard treatments for ADHD. Beneficial effects for ADHD can include improved impulse control, improved concentration, decreased sensory overstimulation, decreased irritability and decreased anxiety. These effects on productivity can be dramatic in both young children and adults. The ADHD medication Adderall is composed of four different amphetamine salts, and Adderall XR is a timed-release formulation of these same salt forms. When used within the recommended doses, side-effects like loss of appetite tend to decrease over time. However, amphetamines last longer in the body than methylphenidate and tend to have stronger side-effects on appetite and sleep. Amphetamines are also a standard treatment for narcolepsy, as well as other sleeping disorders. If used within therapeutic limits, amphetamines are generally effective over long periods of time without producing addiction or physical dependence. Amphetamines are sometimes used to augment anti-depressant therapy in treatment-resistant depression. Medical use for weight loss is still approved in some countries, but is regarded as obsolete and dangerous in others. Contraindications Amphetamine elevates cardiac output and blood pressure making it dangerous for use by patients with a history of heart disease or hypertension. Amphetamine can cause a life-threatening complication in patients taking MAOI antidepressants. Amphetamine is not suitable for patients with a history of glaucoma. Amphetamine has been shown to pass through into breast milk. Because of this, mothers taking amphetamine are advised to avoid breastfeeding during their course of treatment. FDA PDF 2004 Many women who use amphetamine find that their periods become irregular or even stop. Both amphetamine and the pill increase blood pressure which in the long term can affect the heart, blood vessels and liver. Further, amphetamine can inhibit the effects of the contraceptive pill which may cause it to work less effectively. The weight loss sometimes associated with amphetamine use may also cause the contraceptive cap or diaphragm to be less effective as it will not fit as well. http://www.wecarethechildren.org.uk/amphet.html Major neurobiological mechanisms Primary sites of action Amphetamine exerts its behavioral effects by modulating the behavior of several key neurotransmitters in the brain, including dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. However, the activity of amphetamine throughout the brain appears to be specific; certain receptors that respond to amphetamine in some regions of the brain tend not to do so in other regions. For instance, dopamine D2 receptors in the hippocampus, a region of the brain associated with forming new memories, appear to be unaffected by the presence of amphetamine. The major neural systems affected by amphetamine are largely implicated in the brain’s reward circuitry. Moreover, neurotransmitters involved in various reward pathways of the brain appear to be the primary targets of amphetamine. One such neurotransmitter is dopamine, a chemical messenger heavily active in the mesolimbic and mesocortical reward pathways. Not surprisingly, the anatomical components of these pathways—including the striatum, the nucleus accumbens, and the ventral striatum—have been found to be primary sites of amphetamine action. The fact that amphetamines influence neurotransmitter activity specifically in regions implicated in reward provides insight into the behavioral consequences of the drug, such as the stereotyped onset of euphoria. A better understanding of the specific mechanisms by which amphetamines operate may increase our ability to treat amphetamine addiction, as the brain’s reward circuitry has been widely implicated in addictions of many types. Wise, RA. “Brain reward circuitry and addiction.” Program and abstracts of the American Society of Addiction Medicine 2003 The State of the Art in Addiction Medicine; October 30-November 1, 2003; Washington, DC. Session Endogenous amphetamines Amphetamine has been found to have several endogenous analogues; that is, molecules of a similar structure found naturally in the brain. l-Phenylalanine and β-Phenethylamine are two examples, which are formed in the peripheral nervous system as well as in the brain itself. These molecules are thought to modulate levels of excitement and alertness, among other related affective states. Dopamine Perhaps the most widely studied neurotransmitter with regard to amphetamine action is dopamine, the “reward neurotransmitter” that is highly active in numerous reward pathways of the brain. Various studies have shown that in select regions, amphetamine increases the concentrations of dopamine in the synaptic cleft, thereby heightening the response of the post-synaptic neuron. This specific action hints at the hedonic response to the drug as well as to the drug’s addictive quality. The specific mechanisms by which amphetamines affect dopamine concentrations have been studied extensively. Currently, two major hypotheses have been proposed, which are not mutually exclusive. One theory emphasizes amphetamine’s actions on the vesicular level, increasing concentrations of dopamine in the cytosol of the pre-synaptic neuron. The other focuses on the role of the dopamine transporter DAT, and proposes that amphetamine may interact with DAT to induce reverse transport of dopamine from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft. Public Library of Science. “A mechanism for amphetamine-induced dopamine overload.” PLoS Biol. 3 (2004). The former hypothesis is backed by data demonstrating that injections of amphetamines result in rapid increases of cytosolic dopamine concentrations. Amphetamine is believed to interact with dopamine-containing vesicles in the axon terminal, called VMATs, in a way that releases dopamine molecules into the cytosol. The redistributed dopamine is then believed to interact with DAT to promote reverse transport. Calcium may be a key molecule involved in the interactions between amphetamine and VMATs. The latter hypothesis postulates a direct interaction between amphetamine and the DAT transporter. The activity of DAT is believed to depend on specific phosphorylating kinases, such as PKC-β. Upon phosphorylation, DAT undergoes a conformational change that results in the transportation of DAT-bound dopamine from the extracellular to the intracellular environment. In the presence of amphetamine, however, DAT has been observed to function in reverse, spitting dopamine out of the presynaptic neuron and into the synaptic cleft. Thus, beyond inhibiting reuptake of dopamine, amphetamine also stimulates the release of dopamine molecules into the synapse. In support of the above hypothesis, it has been found that PKC-β inhibitors eliminate the effects of amphetamine on extracellular dopamine concentrations in the striatum of rats. This data suggests that the PKC-β kinase may represent a key point of interaction between amphetamine and the DAT transporter. Serotonin Amphetamine has been found to exert similar effects on serotonin as on dopamine. Like DAT, the serotonin transporter SERT can be induced to operate in reverse upon stimulation by amphetamine. This mechanism is thought to rely on the actions of calcium molecules, as well as on the proximity of certain transporter proteins. The interaction between amphetamine and serotonin is only apparent in particular regions of the brain, such as the mesocorticolimbic projection. Recent studies additionally postulate that amphetamine may indirectly alter the behavior of glutamatergic pathways extending from the ventral tegmental area to the prefrontal cortex. Glutamatergic pathways are strongly correlated with increased excitability at the level of the synapse. Increased extracellular concentrations of serotonin may thus modulate the excitatory activity of glutamatergic neurons. The proposed ability of amphetamine to increase excitability of glutamatergic pathways may be of significance when considering serotonin-mediated addiction. An additional behavioral consequence may be the stereotyped locomotor stimulation that occurs in response to amphetamine exposure. Other relevant neurotransmitters Several other neurotransmitters have been linked to amphetamine activity. For instance, extracellular levels of glutamate, the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, have been shown to increase upon exposure to amphetamine. Consistent with other findings, this effect was found in the areas of the brain implicated in reward; namely, the nucleus accumbens, striatum, and prefrontal cortex. Additionally, several studies demonstrate increased levels of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter related to adrenaline, in response to amphetamine. This is believed to occur via reuptake blockage as well as via interactions with the norepinephrine neuronal transport carrier. Pharmacology Chemical properties Amphetamine is a chiral compound. The racemic mixture can be divided into its optical isomers: levo- and dextro-amphetamine. Amphetamine is the parent compound of its own structural class, comprising a broad range of psychoactive derivatives, from empathogens, MDA (3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine) and MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine) known as ecstasy, to the N-methylated form, methamphetamine known as 'meth', and to decongestants such as ephedrine (EPH) . Amphetamine is a homologue of phenethylamine. At first, the medical drug came as the salt racemic-amphetamine sulfate (racemic-amphetamine contains both isomers in equal amounts). Attention disorders are often treated using Adderall or a generic equivalent, a formulation of mixed amphetamine and dextroamphetamine salts that contain 1/4 dextroamphetamine saccharate 1/4 dextroamphetamine sulfate 1/4 (racemic dextro/laevo-amphetamine) aspartate monohydrate 1/4 (racemic dextro/laevo-amphetamine) sulfate Pharmacodynamics Amphetamine has been shown to both diffuse through the cell membrane and travel via the dopamine transporter (DAT) to increase concentrations of dopamine in the neuronal terminal. Amphetamine, both as d-amphetamine (dextroamphetamine) and l-amphetamine (or a racemic mixture of the two isomers), is believed to exert its effects by binding to the monoamine transporters and increasing extracellular levels of the biogenic amines dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and serotonin. It is hypothesized that d-amphetamine acts primarily on the dopaminergic systems, while l-amphetamine is comparatively norepinephrinergic (noradrenergic). The primary reinforcing and behavioral-stimulant effects of amphetamine, however, are linked to enhanced dopaminergic activity, primarily in the mesolimbic dopamine system. Amphetamine and other amphetamine-type stimulants principally act to release dopamine into the synaptic cleft. Amphetamine, unlike similar dopamine acting stimulant cocaine, does not act as a ligand but does slow reuptake by a secondary acting mechanism through the phosphorylation of dopamine transporters. WikiAnswers google cached page: 'Does Namenda memantine work in preventing tolerance to adderall ADD amphetamine type drugs?' The primary action is through the increased amphetamine concentration which releases endogenous stores of dopamine from vesicular monoamine transporters (VMATs), thereby increasing intra-neuronal concentrations of transmitter. This increase in concentration effectively reverses transport of dopamine via the dopamine transporter (DAT) into the synapse. In addition, amphetamine binds reversibly to the DATs and blocks the transporter's ability to clear DA from the synaptic space. Amphetamine also acts in this way with norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and to a lesser extent serotonin. In addition, amphetamine binds to a group of receptors called TrAce Amine Receptors (TAAR). TAAR are a newly discovered receptor system which seems to be affected by a range of amphetamine-like substances called trace amines. Effects Physical effects Physical effects of amphetamine can include reduced appetite, increased/distorted sensations, hyperactivity, dilated pupils, flushing, restlessness, dry mouth, erectile dysfunction, headache, tachycardia, increased breathing rate, increased blood pressure, fever, sweating, diarrhea, constipation, blurred vision, impaired speech, dizziness, uncontrollable movements or shaking, insomnia, numbness, palpitations, and arrhythmia. In high doses or chronic use convulsions, dry or itchy skin, acne, pallor can occur. Erowid Amphetamines Vault: Effects Amphetamine; Facts Amphetamines - Better Health Channel adderall xr, adderall medication, adderall side effects, adderall abuse Occasionally amphetamine use in males can cause an odd and sometimes startling effect to occur in which the penis when flaccid appears to have shrunk. The reason this occurs is because amphetamine is a potent vasoconstrictor or an agent that constricts blood vessels. The rigidness of the erection and the size of the penis are in part by affected by the amount of blood flow to the penis. When amphetamine constricts the blood vessels enough it reduces blood flow to the penis and then can produce a penis that is slightly smaller and this effect is often coupled along with impotence and erectile dysfunction. Upon erection the penis returns to normal size. Whenever I take speed my penis appears to shrink. Is there a link? What's going on? Young adults who abuse amphetamines may be at greater risk of suffering a heart attack. In a study published in the journal Drug and Alcohol Dependence, researchers examined data from more than 3 million people between 18 and 44 years old hospitalized from 2000 through 2003 in Texas. After controlling for cocaine abuse, alcohol abuse, tobacco use, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, lipid disorders, obesity, congenital defects, and coagulation defects, they found a relationship between a diagnosis of amphetamine abuse and heart attack. Newswise: Study Finds Link Between Amphetamine Abuse and Heart Attacks in Young Adults Retrieved on June 3, 2008. Psychological effects Psychological effects of amphetamine can include anxiety and/or general nervousness (by increased norepinephrine), Amphetamine Side Effects drugs.com euphoria, metacognition, creative or philosophical thinking, increased confidence, perception of increased energy, increased sense of well being, increase of goal-orientated thoughts or organized behavior, repetitive behavior, increased concentration/mental sharpness, increased alertness, feeling of power or superiority, Increased aggression, emotional lability, excitability, talkativeness and occasionally amphetamine psychosis, typically in a high and/or chronic doses. Effects are similar to other phenylethylamine stimulants and cocaine. Withdrawal effects Withdrawal from chronic recreational use of amphetamines can include anxiety, depression, agitation, fatigue, excessive sleeping, increased appetite, psychosis and suicidal thoughts. Symptoms of Amphetamine withdrawal - WrongDiagnosis.com Overdose An amphetamine overdose can lead to a number of different symptoms. Some include psychosis, chest pain, and hypertension. Psychosis Amphetamine psychosis usually occurs at large doses only, but it has been known to occur in children taking therapeutic doses for the treatment of ADHD. Dependence and addiction Tolerance is developed rapidly in amphetamine abuse, therefore increasing the amount of the drug that is needed to satisfy the addiction. Repeated amphetamine use can produce "reverse tolerance", or sensitization to some psychological effects. Amphetamine does not have the potential to cause physical dependence, though withdrawal can still be hard for a user. Reference on lack of physical dependence. Chronic Amphetamine Use and Abuse Many users will repeat the amphetamine cycle by taking more of the drug during the withdrawal. This leads to a very dangerous cycle and may involve the use of other drugs to get over the withdrawal process. Users will commonly stay up for 2 or 3 days to avoid the withdrawals then dose themselves with benzodiazepines, barbiturate, and in some cases heroin, to help them stay calm while they recuperate or simply to extend the positive effects of the drug. Chronic users of amphetamines sometimes snort or use drug injection to experience the full effects of the drug in a faster and more intense way, with the added risks of infection, vein damage, and higher risk of overdose with drug injection. Performance-enhancing use Amphetamine is used by some college and high-school students as a study and test-taking aid. Amphetamine works by increasing energy levels, concentration, and motivation, thus allowing students to study for an extended period of time. This drug is often acquired through ADHD prescriptions to students and peers, rather than illicitly produced drugs. Amphetamine has been, and is still, used by militaries around the world. British troops used 72 million amphetamine tablets in the second world war De Mondenard, Dr Jean-Pierre: Dopage, l'imposture des performances, Chiron, France, 2000 </ref> and the RAF used so many that "Methedrine won the Battle of Britain" according to one report.<ref>Grant, D.N.W.; Air Force, UK, 1944 American bomber pilots use amphetamine ("go pills") to stay awake during long missions. The Tarnak Farm incident, in which an American F-16 pilot killed several friendly Canadian soldiers on the ground, was blamed by the pilot on his use of amphetamine. A nonjudicial hearing rejected the pilot's claim. Amphetamine is also used by some professional, collegiate and high school athletes for its strong stimulant effect. Energy levels are perceived to be dramatically increased and sustained, which is believed to allow for more vigorous and longer play. However, at least one study has found that this effect is not measurable. The use of amphetamine during strenuous physical activity can be extremely dangerous, especially when combined with alcohol, and athletes have died as a result, for example, British cyclist Tom Simpson. Amphetamine use has historically been especially common among Major League Baseball players and is usually known by the slang term "greenies". In 2006, the MLB banned the use of amphetamine. The ban is enforced through periodic drug-testing. If a player tests positive for amphetamine, the consequences are significant. However, the MLB has received some criticism because the consequences for amphetamine use are dramatically less severe than for anabolic steroid use, with the first offense bringing only a warning and further testing. Amphetamine was formerly in widespread use by truck drivers to combat symptoms of somnolence and to increase their concentration during driving, especially in the decades prior to the signing by former president Ronald Reagan of Executive Order 12564, which initiated mandatory random drug testing of all truck drivers and employees of other DOT-regulated industries. Although implementation of the order on the trucking industry was kept to a gradual rate in consideration of its projected effects on the national economy, in the decades following the order, amphetamine and other drug abuse by truck drivers has since dropped drastically. (See also Truck driver—Implementation of drug detection). Cultural impact of amphetamine The social and cultural impact of amphetamine has been, and continues to be, quite extensive. From the 1960s onward, amphetamine has been popular with many youth subcultures in Britain (and other parts of the world) as a recreational drug. It has been commonly used by mods, skinheads, punks, goths, gangstas, and casuals in all night soul and ska dances, punk concerts, basement shows and fighting on the terraces by casuals. The hippie counterculture was very critical of amphetamines due to the behaviors they cause; beat writer Allen Ginsberg wrote that users ran the risk of becoming a "Frankenstein speed freak" . The mods, being working class, were often opposed to the slower, more contemplative, meditative ideals and lifestyle of the hippies. Amphetamines therefore suited their high energy and aggressive aesthetics and lifestyle, whether it was dancing to soul music at all night parties, or fighting rockers. In literature The writers of the Beat Generation used amphetamine extensively, mainly under the Benzedrine brand name. Jack Kerouac was a particularly avid user of amphetamine, which was said to provide him with the stamina needed to work on his novels for extended periods of time. Scottish author Irvine Welsh often portrays drug use in his novels, though in one of his journalism works he comments on how drugs (including amphetamine) have become part of consumerism and how his novels Trainspotting and Porno reflect the changes in drug use and culture during the years that elapse between the two texts. Amphetamines are frequently mentioned in the work of American journalist Hunter S. Thompson. Speed appears not only amongst the astoundingly diverse and voluminous inventory of drugs Thompson consumed for what could broadly be defined as recreational purposes, but also receives frequent, explicit mention as an essential component of his writing toolkit , such as in his "Author's Note" in Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72 : "One afternoon about three days ago [the publishers] showed up at my door with no warning, and loaded about forty pounds of supplies into the room: two cases of Mexican beer, four quarts of gin, a dozen grapefruits, and enough speed to alter the outcome of six Super Bowls. ... Meanwhile, my room at the Seal Rock Inn is [now] filling up with people who seem on the verge of hysteria at the sight of me still sitting here wasting time on a rambling introduction, with the final chapter still unwritten and the presses scheduled to start rolling in twenty-four hours . . . . but unless somebody shows up pretty soon with extremely powerful speed, there might not be a final chapter. About four fingers of king-hell Crank would do the trick, but I am not optimistic." In science Famous mathematician Paul Erdős took amphetamines, and once won a bet from his friend Ron Graham, who bet him $500 that he could not stop taking the drug for a month. Hill, J. Paul Erdos, Mathematical Genius, Human (In That Order) Erdos won the bet, but complained during his abstinence that mathematics had been set back by a month: "Before, when I looked at a piece of blank paper my mind was filled with ideas. Now all I see is a blank piece of paper." After he won the bet, he promptly resumed his amphetamine habit. In music Many songs have been written about amphetamine, most notably in the track entitled "St. Ides Heaven" from singer/songwriter, Elliott Smith's self-titled album. It has also influenced the aesthetics of many rock'n'roll bands (especially in the garage rock, mod R&B, death rock, punk/hardcore, gothic rock and extreme heavy metal genres). The Jesus And Mary Chain's use of distortion and feedback was heavily influenced by their use of amphetamine, along with their highly confrontational stage shows early in their existence. This lead them to be banned from venues, even starting riots. Like JAMC, The Who were keen amphetamine users early in their existence, especially Keith Moon, whose drumming style was possibly influenced by it. The Who's 1965 iconic Mod/youth anthem My Generation, famously re-creates in Roger Daltrey's vocals, the effect of amphetamine on the ability to speak. The pills accelerate the brain's processes to the degree that ideas flow faster than the ability to communicate them by speech, resulting in the characteristic stuttering of words. At various times, in the period 1965-66, either to avoid controversy or to keep the true drug-related reason a secret among "those in the know", Pete Townshend stated the stuttering was a protest at the government's poor record of national education opportunities. However, several years later he later spilled the beans that it mimicked someone under the effect of amphetamine. Many rock'n'roll bands have named themselves after amphetamine and drug slang surrounding it. For example Mod revivalists, The Purple Hearts named themselves after the amphetamine tablets popular with mods during the 1960s, as did the Australian band of the same name during the mid 1960's. The Amphetameanies, a ska-punk band, are also named after amphetamine, but also intimate it's effects. Motorhead named themselves after the slang for an amphetamine addict. Interestingly, Lemmy Kilmister, said amphetamine was the only drug that he found any benefit in using, saying: " first got into speed because it was a utilitarian drug and kept you awake when you needed to be awake, when otherwise you'd just be flat out on your back. If you drive to Glasgow for nine hours in the back of a sweaty truck you don't really feel like going onstage feeling all bright and breezy... It's the only drug I've found that I can get on with, and I've tried them all — except smack and morphine: I've never fixed anything." The amphetamine use and experience or perception of high energy and electronic dance music, particularly the more rapid-tempo genres like gabber and drum and bass, has long been associated with consumption of amphetamine. In film Many films have been created that are either visually or aesthetically influenced by the perceived effects of amphetamine, or that portray amphetamine use in their plotlines. A Scanner Darkly (as well as the novel of the same name) contains a scene where the character Charles Freck suffers from formication. In television Advertising has also alluded to and portrayed the effects of amphetamine in both serious and humorous ways, especially in anti-drug campaigns. On the other hand, advertisements for Red bull energy drinks often allude to effects similar to amphetamine in a tongue-in-cheek manner, with the slogan "Red bull gives you wings". One American anti-drug public information film uses humor, parodying a Folgers coffee jingle to raise awareness of the effects of amphetamine abuse. , YouTube video of the commercial. The BBC drama Ashes to Ashes featured a group of Gypsies who were using amphetamine. Legal issues In the United Kingdom, amphetamines are regarded as Class B drugs. The maximum penalty for unauthorized possession is five years in prison and an unlimited fine. The maximum penalty for illegal supply is fourteen years in prison and an unlimited fine. Methamphetamine has recently been reclassified to Class A, penalties for possession of which are more severe (7 years in prison and an unlimited fine). In the Netherlands, amphetamine and methamphetamine are List I drugs of the Opium Law, but the dextro isomer of amphetamine is indicated for ADD/ADHD and narcolepsy and available for prescription as 5 and generic tablets, and 5 and gel capsules. In the United States, amphetamine and methamphetamine are Schedule II drugs, classified as CNS (central nervous system) stimulants. A Schedule II drug is classified as one that has a high potential for abuse, has a currently-accepted medical use and is used under severe restrictions, and has a high possibility of severe psychological and physiological dependence. Internationally, amphetamine is a Schedule II drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. A chart comparing the chemical structures of different amphetamine derivatives See also Adderall Amphetamine psychosis Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder Benzylpiperazine Clandestine chemistry Ethylamphetamine Dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine) Lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse) Methamphetamine (Desoxyn) Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta) Phenethylamines Propylamphetamine Psychostimulants Releasing Agents References and notes External links (D-form—dextroamphetamine) (L-form and D, L-forms) (L-form—Levamphetamine or L-amphetamine) List of 504 Compounds Similar to Amphetamine (PubChem) EMCDDA drugs profile: Amphetamine (2007) Drugs.com - Amphetamine Asia & Pacific Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Information Centre | Amphetamine |@lemmatized amphetamine:174 psychostimulant:1 drug:54 know:6 produce:5 increased:5 wakefulness:1 focus:2 association:1 decreased:3 fatigue:5 appetite:7 relate:3 methamphetamine:12 dextroamphetamine:7 group:4 potent:2 act:7 increase:30 level:9 norepinephrine:8 serotonin:11 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7,599 | Amaranth | Amaranthus, collectively known as amaranth or pigweed, is a cosmopolitan genus of herbs. Approximately 60 species are presently recognized, with inflorescences and foliage ranging from purple and red to gold. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus Celosia. Although several species are often considered weeds, people around the world value amaranths as leaf vegetables, cereals, and ornamentals. The word comes from the Greek amarantos (Αμάρανθος or Αμάραντος) the "one that does not wither," or the never-fading (flower). Systematics Amaranthus shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. Although the family (Amaranthaceae) is distinctive, the genus has few distinguishing characters among the 70 species included. Juan et al. (2007). Electrophoretic characterization of Amaranthus L. seed proteins and its systematic implication. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 155: 57-63. This complicates taxonomy and Amaranthus has generally been considered among systematists as a “difficult” genus. Costea, M & D. DeMason (2001). Stem morphology and anatomy in Amaranthus L. (Amaranthaceae)- Taxonomic significance. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 128(3): 254-281. Formerly, Sauer (1955) classified the genus into 2 sub-genera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species: Acnida (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and Amaranthus. Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group. Currently, Amaranthus includes 3 recognized sub-genera and 70 species, although species numbers are questionable due to hybridization and species concepts. Judd et al. (2008). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, Third Edition. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Sunderland, MA Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification. A modified infrageneric classification of Amaranthus was published by Mosyakin & Robertson (1996) and includes 3 subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus and Albersia. The taxonomy is further differentiated by sections within each of the sub-genera. Mosyakin & Robertson (1996). New infrageneric taxa and combinations in Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae). Ann. Bot. Fennici 33: 275-281. Uses Grain amaranth A traditional food plant in Africa, this vegetable has potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare. Several species are raised for amaranth grain in Asia and the Americas. Ancient amaranth grains still used to this day include the three species, Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus cruentus, and Amaranthus hypochondriacus. Costea et al. (2006). Delimitation of Amaranthus cruentus L. and Amaranthus caudatus L. using micromorphology and AFLP analysis: an application in germplasm identification. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 53: 1625-1633. Although amaranth was (and still is) cultivated on a small scale in parts of Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, India, and Nepal, there is potential for further cultivation in the U.S and tropical countries and it is often referred to as "the crop of the future." Marx (1977). Speaking of Science: Amaranth: A Comeback for the Food of the Aztecs? Science 198(4312): 40. It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons: 1) easily harvested, 2) produces a lot of fruits (and thus seeds) which are used as grain, 3) highly tolerant of arid environments which are typical of most subtropical and some tropical regions, and 4) large amounts of protein and essential amino acids, such as lysine. De Macvean & Pöll (1997). Chapter 8: Ethnobotany. Tropical Tree Seed Manual, USDA Forest Service, edt. J.A Vozzo. Due to its weedy life history, amaranth grains grow very rapidly and their large seedheads can weigh up to 1 kilogram and contain a half-million seeds. Tucker, J. (1986). Amaranth: the once and future crop. Bioscience 36(1): 9-13. Amaranthus species are reported to have a 30% higher protein value than other cereals, such as rice, wheat flour, oats, and rye. De Macvean& Pöll. (1997). Chapter 8: Ethnobotany. Tropical Tree Seed Manual, USDA Forest Service, edt. J.A Vozzo. Amaranth grain is a crop of moderate importance in the Himalaya. It was one of the staple foodstuffs of the Incas, and it is known as kiwicha in the Andes today. It was also used by the ancient Aztecs, who called it huautli, and other Native America peoples in Mexico to prepare ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like popcorn and mixed with honey, molasses or chocolate to make a treat called alegría ("joy" in Spanish). Amaranth was used in several Aztec ceremonies, where images of their gods (notably Huitzilopochtli) were made with amaranth mixed with honey. The images were cut to be eaten by the people. This looked like the Christian communion to the Roman Catholic priests, so the cultivation of the grain was forbidden for centuries. Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, and because it is very palatable, easy to cook, and its protein particularly well suited to human nutritional needs, interest in grain amaranth (especially A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus) was revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack sold in Mexico City and other parts of Mexico, sometimes mixed with chocolate or puffed rice, and its use has spread to Europe and parts of North America. Amaranth and quinoa are called pseudograins because of their flavor and cooking similarities to grains. These are dicot plant seeds, and both contain exceptionally complete protein for plant sources. Besides protein, amaranth grain provides a good source of dietary fiber and dietary minerals such as iron, magnesium, phosphorus, copper, and especially manganese. Vegetables Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable in many parts of the world. There are 4 species of Amaranthus documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern Asia: Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus blitum, Amaranthus dubius, and Amaranthus tricolor. Costea (2003). Notes on Economic Plants. Economic Botany 57(4): 646-649 In Indonesia and Malaysia, leaf amaranth is called bayam, while the Tagalogs in the Philippines call the plant kulitis. In Andhra Pradesh, India, this leaf is added in preparation of a popular dal called thotakura pappu. In China, the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable and called yin choi (苋菜; pinyin: xiàncài; and variations on this transliteration in various dialects). In Vietnam, it is called rau dền and is used to make soup. There are two species popular as edible vegetable in Vietnam: dền đỏ- amaranthus tricolor and dền cơm or dền trắng- amaranthus viridis. In East Africa, Amaranth leaf is known in Swahili as mchicha. It is sometimes recommended by some doctors for people having low red blood cell count. Also known among the Kalenjin as a drought crop (chepkerta). In West Africa such as in Nigeria, it is a common vegetable, and goes with all Nigerian carbohydrate dishes. It is known in Yoruba as efo tete or arowo jeja ("we have money left over for fish"). In Congo it is known as lenga lenga or biteku teku. In the Caribbean, the leaves are called callaloo and are sometimes used in a soup called pepperpot soup. In Greece, Green Amaranth (Amaranthus viridis) is a popular dish and is called vleeta. It's boiled, then served with olive oil and lemon like a salad, usually alongside fried fish. Greeks stop harvesting the (usually wild-grown) plant when it starts to bloom at the end of August. Dyes The flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by the Hopi Amerindians as the source of a deep red dye. There is also a synthetic dye that has been named "amaranth" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranth pigments known as betalains. This synthetic dye is also known as Red No. 2 in North America and E123 in the European Union. "The following color additives are not authorized for use in food products in the United States: (1) Amaranth (C.I. 16185, EEC No. E123, formerly certifiable as FD&C red No. 2);" FDA/CFSAN Food Compliance Program: Domestic Food Safety Program Ornamentals The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as A. caudatus (love-lies-bleeding), a native of India and a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish flowers crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, A. hypochondriacus (prince's feather), has deeply-veined lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes. Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the Nutmeg and various case-bearers of the genus Coleophora: C. amaranthella, C. enchorda (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C. immortalis (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C. lineapulvella and C. versurella (recorded on A. spinosus). Nutritional value Amaranth greens, also called Chinese spinach, hinn choy or yin tsoi (), callaloo, thotakura (telugu) ,नाचणी (Marathi),cheera ചീര (Malayalam), bayam (Indonesian), Phak khom ผักโขม (Thai) tampala, or quelite, are a common leaf vegetable throughout the tropics and in many warm temperate regions. It is very popular in India. They are a very good source of vitamins including vitamin A, vitamin K, vitamin B6, vitamin C, riboflavin, and folate, and dietary minerals including calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, copper, and manganese. Because of its valuable nutrition, some farmers grow amaranth today. However their moderately high content of oxalic acid inhibits the absorption of calcium and zinc, and also means that they should be avoided or eaten in moderation by people with kidney disorders, gout, or rheumatoid arthritis. Reheating cooked amaranth greens is often discouraged, particularly for consumption by small children, as the nitrates in the leaves can be converted to nitrites, similarly to spinach. Amaranth seeds, like buckwheat and quinoa, contain protein that is unusually complete for plant sources. | Reference Library | WholeHealthMD Most fruits and vegetables do not contain a complete set of amino acids, and thus different sources of protein must be used. Several studies have shown that like oats, amaranth seed or oil may be of benefit for those with hypertension and cardiovascular disease; regular consumption reduces blood pressure and cholesterol levels, while improving antioxidant status and some immune parameters. While the active ingredient in oats appears to be water-soluble fiber, amaranth appears to lower cholesterol via its content of plant stanols and squalene. As a weed Not all amaranth plants are cultivated. Most of the species from Amaranthus are summer annual weeds and are commonly referred to as pigweeds. Bensch et al. (2003). Interference of redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), Palmer amaranth (A. palmeri), and common waterhemp (A. rudis) in soybean. Weed Science 51: 37-43. These species have an extended period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production and have been causing problems for farmers since the mid-1990s. This is partially due to the reduction in tillage, reduction in herbicidal use and the evolution of herbicidal resistance in several species where herbicides have been applied more often. Wetzel et al. (1999). Use of PCR-based molecular markers to identify weedy Amaranthus species. Weed Science 47: 518-523. The following 9 species of Amaranthus are considered invasive and noxious weeds in the U.S and Canada: A. albus, A. blitoides, A. hybridus, A. palmeri, A. powellii, A. retroflexus, A. spinosus, A. tuberculatus, and A. viridis. USDA Plant Database. Plants Profile- Amaranthus L. A new strain of the Palmer amaranth has appeared which is Glyphosate-resistant and so cannot be killed by the widely used Roundup herbicide. Also, this plant can survive in tough conditions. This could be of particular concern to cotton farmers using Roundup Ready cotton. Herbicide Resistant Weeds Causing Problems for US Cotton Growers The species Amaranthus palmeri (Palmer amaranth) causes the greatest reduction in soybean yields and has the potential to reduce yields by 17-68% in field experiments. Palmer amaranth is among the “top five most troublesome weeds” in the southeast and has already evolved resistances to dinitroanilines and acetolactate synthase inhibitors. Culpepper et al. (2006). Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) confirmed in Georgia. Weed Science 54: 620-626. This makes the proper identification of Amaranthus species at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper herbicide treatment needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes significant yield reductions. Anecdotal reports indicate that some people are allergic to amaranth. Myth, legend and poetry Amaranth, or Amarant (from the Greek amarantos, unwithering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and applied to Amaranth and other plants which, from not soon fading, typified immortality. Aesop's Fables (6th century BC) compares the Rose to the Amaranth to illustrate the difference in fleeting and everlasting beauty. A Rose and an Amaranth blossomed side by side in a garden, and the Amaranth said to her neighbour, "How I envy you your beauty and your sweet scent! No wonder you are such a universal favourite." But the Rose replied with a shade of sadness in her voice, "Ah, my dear friend, I bloom but for a time: my petals soon wither and fall, and then I die. But your flowers never fade, even if they are cut; for they are everlasting." Or in story mode: An amaranth planted in a garden near a Rose-Tree, thus addressed it: "What a lovely flower is the Rose, a favorite alike with Gods and with men. I envy you your beauty and your perfume." The Rose replied, "I indeed, dear Amaranth, flourish but for a brief season! If no cruel hand pluck me from my stem, yet I must perish by an early doom. But thou art immortal and dost never fade, but bloomest for ever in renewed youth." Thus, in John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost (1667), iii. 353: "Immortal amarant, a flower which once In paradise, fast by the tree of life, Began to bloom; but soon for man's offence To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows, And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life, And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven Rolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream: With these that never fade the spirits elect Bind their resplendent locks." Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in Work without Hope (1825), also refers to the herb, likely referencing Milton's earlier work. (ll 7-10 excerpted): Yet well I ken the banks where Amaranths blow, Have traced the fount whence streams of nectar flow. Bloom, O ye Amaranths! bloom for whom ye may, For me ye bloom not! Glide, rich streams, away! Joachim du Bellay mentioned the herb in his "A Vow To Heavenly Venus," ca. 1500. We that with like hearts love, we lovers twain, New wedded in the village by thy fane, Lady of all chaste love, to thee it is We bring these amaranths, these white lilies, A sign, and sacrifice; may Love, we pray, Like amaranthine flowers, feel no decay; Like these cool lilies may our loves remain, Perfect and pure, and know not any stain; And be our hearts, from this thy holy hour, Bound each to each, like flower to wedded flower. The original spelling is amarant; the more common spelling amaranth seems to have come from a folk etymology assuming that the final syllable derives from the Greek word anthos ("flower"), common in botanical names. In ancient Greece, the amaranth (also called chrysanthemum and helichrysum) was sacred to Ephesian Artemis. It was supposed to have special healing properties, and as a symbol of immortality was used to decorate images of the gods and tombs. In legend, Amarynthus (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter of Artemis and king of Euboea; in a village of Amarynthus, of which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous temple of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo x. 448; Pausan. i. 31, p. 5). It was also widely used by the Chinese for its healing chemicals, curing illnesses such as infections, rashes, and migraines. The "Amarantos" is the name of a several-century-old popular Greek folk song: Look at the amaranth: on tall mountains it grows, on the very stones and rocks and places inaccessible. Orson Scott Card's novel Speaker for the Dead features a plant called amaranth, native to the planet Lusitania, where the majority of the story takes place. In Vampire: The Masquerade lore, an amaranth placed on the bed of a vampire was the warning of Diablerie soon to come. The act of Diablerie was also referred to as "Amaranth". Music Enya refers to the everlasting amaranth in her song "Amarantine". Finnish metal band Nightwish features a song called "Amaranth" on their 2007 album Dark Passion Play, referring to the hidden amaranth. American metal band Virgin Steele has an instrumental song "Amaranth" on their 1998 album Invictus, referencing Greek mythology. AFI's song "The Great Disappointment" from their 2003 album Sing The Sorrow references the mythical Amaranth. Doom metal band Draconian also refers to the amaranth in their song "The Amaranth" The Issacs have a song titled Is not this the Land of Beulah which says, They are blooming by the fountain, ’Neath the amaranthine bow’rs. School of Seven Bells has a song entitled "Sempiternal/Amaranth" on their 2008 album Alpinisms. Opeth mentions the Amaranth Symbol in the song Black Rose Immortal "I have kept it the Amaranth Symbol Hidden inside the golden shrine" Lutan Fyah sings about different vegetables and herbs and mentions "Callalloo for the blood" in the song "Natural Herbs" from the album "Healthy Lifestyle". See also Amaranth (color) Amaranth (song) Images Notes Sources Lenz, Botanik der alt. Greich. und Rom. Botany of old. (1859) J. Murr, Die Pflanzenwelt in der griech. Mythol. Plants in Greek Mythology. (1890) External links Information Images Amaranthus hybridus, spinosus, and viridis Recipes Amaranth Recipes, | Amaranth |@lemmatized amaranthus:35 collectively:1 know:10 amaranth:67 pigweed:3 cosmopolitan:1 genus:11 herb:5 approximately:1 specie:23 presently:1 recognize:2 inflorescence:2 foliage:1 range:1 purple:2 red:6 gold:1 member:2 share:1 many:3 characteristic:1 use:20 closely:1 related:1 celosia:1 although:5 several:8 often:4 consider:3 weed:9 people:7 around:1 world:2 value:3 leaf:10 vegetable:11 cereal:2 ornamental:2 word:2 come:3 greek:7 amarantos:3 αμάρανθος:1 αμάραντος:1 one:2 wither:2 never:4 fading:1 flower:14 systematics:2 show:2 wide:1 variety:2 morphological:1 diversity:1 among:5 even:2 within:2 certain:1 family:1 amaranthaceae:3 distinctive:1 distinguish:1 character:2 include:7 juan:1 et:6 al:6 electrophoretic:1 characterization:1 l:6 seed:9 protein:8 systematic:1 implication:1 botanical:3 journal:2 linnean:1 society:2 complicate:1 taxonomy:2 generally:1 systematist:1 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